12 Myths
of Hydroponics
The truth about soilless food production By Dr. Lynette Morgan
High density cropping is possible with hydroponics, giving higher yields per unit o land used.
Can Can you you reco recogn gniz ize e the the myths yths abou about t hydroponics?Allkindsoprejudicesabout theprocessesinvolvedinsoillessculture have been circulated circulated by misinorm misinormatio ation n orinsomecases,peoplewithanagenda topromoteothersystemsocropproduction. Tese Te se myth mythsaream sareamili iliar ar but but most most o thetime,inaccurate.Someothesemyths includetheideathathydroponicproduce tasteswateryorlikechemicals.Othermyths arethathydroponicgrowingistootechnical,unnatural,ordoneinanenvironmentallydamagingorgenetically-engineered way.It’stimetosortactromction. Teseideas—ofen ideas—ofenoutdated outdatedand andinaccuinaccurate—keeppoppingup. rate—keeppoppingup. otheuninitiated, otheuninitiated, itmayseemasthoughtheyhadsomebasis inact.It’snotuntilcoming inact.It’snotuntilcomingacrossgood acrossgood inormationandexperiencinghydroponic growingrsthandthatmanyotheseallaciesarerevealed.
In both both soil soil and and nutri nutrien ent t solu solutio tions ns the the plantood,whichiscomposedomineral elements,isavailabletotheplantinthesame way.Nutrien way.Nutrientsdissolveintowater tsdissolveintowater –either thesoilwaterorthenutrient thesoilwaterorthenutrientsolution–and solution–and dissociateintoionswhichcanthenbetaken upbytheplantwhenrequired. Howe Howeve verr, in soil soil, , the the proce process ss by which which nutrie nutrients nts become become availa available ble or plants plants is morecomplex–organicmatterneedstobe brokendownandmineralizedbymicrobial actionbeorethenutrientionscanbetaken upbytheroots.Dependingonsoilmoisture, temperaturelevels,microbepopulationsand otheractors,thiscantakesomeconsiderabletime,sonutrientssuppliedasorganic matterarenotreadilyavailabletotheplant asoods. Whensoil Whensoilertilizersare ertilizersareappliedby appliedbyarmers, armers, someothesecandissolveintothesoilwater andbereadyorquicku andbereadyorquickuptakeby ptakebytheplants. theplants. Incommercialprodu Incommercialproduction,many ction,manyormso ormso nitrogenareappliedtoeldgrowncropsin thisway.OtherertilizersmightbeslowerHydroponics is not natural. releaseormsonutrients,soconsiderable planningisneededtoensurethatnutrient sourcesareappliedtosoilattherighttime, Teprocesso Teprocessomineral mineraluptake uptakeina inaplant plantis is oenbeoreplantingout,withallowances exactlythesamewhetheraplantisgrowing madeortheactthattheywon’toenbe inasoillesssystemandgetsitssustenance readilyavailableorcropuptake. romacompletenutrientsolutionorrom Inhydroponicswe Inhydroponicswelargelysupply largelysupplythen thenutriutrithesoiloutintheeld. entsrequiredinareadily-availableplantorm
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34 THE GROWING EDGE September/O ctober 2008
orimmediateuptake.Tereisnowaiting timeormineralization.Plantscanbeed ondemandwithlesswasteanddecisionsto changeorupdat changeorupdatetheeedingsched etheeedingschedulecan ulecan bemadeonaday-by-daybasistone-tune nutrition. Whateve Whateverthe rtheme method thodo osupp supplying lyingnutr nutriients ents and and erti ertiliz lizer ers s to a plan plant, t, the the actua actual l processbywhichtheplanttakesupanduses thoseelementsinbothhydroponicsandsoil growncropsisexactlythesame:anatural process.
#2
In hydroponics, plants are “orced.”
Iwepr Iweprovi ovidecr decrop opswit swiththe htheopt optimu imum m levelsonutrients,warmth,CO2,moisture, light light and oxyge oxygen, n, they will grow grow to their their maximumpoten maximumpotentialwhether tialwhethergrowninsoil growninsoil or in hydro hydropon ponics. ics. Hydro Hydropon ponics ics is just just a methodwhereit’smucheasiertosupplyall thecropneedsatoptimumlevelswithout the complica complicationso tionso soil andthe outdoor outdoor environment. It’ It’snotpossibleto“ snotpossibleto“orce orceeed” eed”aplant.I aplant.I higher highe rlevelso levelsonutrients nutrients areappliedthan areappliedthanthe the plantneeds(e.g.ahigh plantneeds(e.g.ahighECinhyd ECinhydroponics), roponics), thentheplantwillbegintosufer,growthwill berestrictedandyieldswilldrop.It’ berestrictedandyieldswilldrop. It’snothing snothing
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A high quality, tasty product – returns should be well worth the higher capital investment in greenhouse and hydroponic systems.
like the method o over-eeding livestock tomakethematter.Tesamerulesdon’t apply. Over-ertilizationhasanegativeefecton cropsin hydroponicsjust asit can insoil systems.It’sthesamewithboostingCO2, lightortemperature,onceamaximumhas beenreached,supplyingmoreotheseinputs doesn’tgiveanyurtherincreaseingrowth or“orcing.”Inact,plantswillstarttobe damagedandyieldsreduced. Knowingwhatconditionscreateoptimal growthisthecornerstoneohydroponicsjust asitiswithsoil-growncrops.
onwhatcountryyouliveinandwhocerties yoursystem. In the U.S., ully-certied hydroponicorganicgrowersareinproductionwithcrops includingherbsandallkindsovegetables, mostingreenhousesandmanyhaveexcellent yields. Organically-certiedhydroponicsneedsto bealittlediferentromtraditionalhydroponicsinitsuseogrowingmediaandnutrients, butthesystemispossibleandcommercially viable. Modiied hydroponic systems can be
ullyorganicandtherearecertiedgrowers toprovethis-atleastinsomeareasothe world. Teproblemisthattheterm“organic”oen hasbeenusedalittletooliberally–many commonly-usedhydroponicnutrientcomponentssuchascalciumnitrateandothers arestrictlynotorganic,sosomedistinction stillneedstobemadeastowhetherasoilless systemorhydroponicnutrientcanbecalled organicornot. We no longer see a separate division between organics and hydroponics which givesrisetoawholehostohybridsystems incorporatingthebestobothmethodologies. Manynewtechnologieshaveevolvedrom this.Nutrientsolutions,whichinthepast werethoughtonlytobeefectiveitheywere made purelyromchemicalertilizers,can inactbeblendedromarangeomaterials. Growingmediaorhydroponics thatarerecommendedasinertsotheydon’tnegatively inuencethecareullyblendednutrient,can bemaderomarangeomaterials,someo whichareorganicandsomecontainnutrients otheirown. he presence or addition o microbe mixturestohydroponics,oncethoughttobe unnecessaryandevenharmul,isactuallythe basisomanyorganichydroponicsystems carryingoutvitalmineralizationoorganic nutrients. Tismeshing o twosystemsonceseen asincompatibleisopeningupwholenew
#3
Hydroponics is ar rom organic.
Hydroponiccropscanmostcertainlybe grown without “chemical” pesticides and many currentlyare.Hydroponiccropsare alsoconsideredlargelysae,particularlythose grownwithstricthygienerequirementsin greenhouseswheretheriskocontaminationromorganicertilizers,uncleanwater sources,manures,birds,rodents,andother actorsislessoanissue. Tegreyareacomeswhenwetalkabout soil,orthelackoitinhydroponicsystems. Soil,inmanycountries,isstillconsideredthe cornerstoneoorganicproduction.Tat’snot tosaythatullyorganically-certiedsoilless orhydroponicgrowersdon’texist,because in some countries, such as the U.S., they certainlydoandmanyarehighlysuccessul withthissystem.However,inmanyother countries,asoillesssystemcannotbecertied asorganic,soitseemswhethersoillesssystemsareconsideredorganicornotdepends
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Well-grown hydroponic tomato ruit should be well-favored – no mutants here!
September/ October 2008 THE GROWING EDGE 35
Hydroponic systems, despite their potential, can’t compensate or a lack o “green thumb” skills that growers must possess.
avenuesocropproductionorhydroponic producersandallowingaccesstotheimportant organic niche market, one which is growingatarapidrate.Aconsumerbuying organically-certiedtomatoessoldintheU.S. maynotrealizetheruitmayhavebeengrown inthesoilasaeldcropinMexicooran organicallycertiedhydroponicgreenhouse inCaliornia. Tey maynotrealize thatthequalityo thatruit-althoughorganic-maynotbeconsistent.Sourthermarketingpotentialwith highqualityhydro-organicruitisanother possibilityorgrowers.
#4
Hydroponics is too technical and complicated to learn and practice.
Simplehydroponicsystemsarenomore complexthengrowingapottedplantwith someliquidertilizer.Inactwiththespectacular rasnge o hydroponic equipment, materials,ready-madenutrientsandkit-set systemsonthemarket,hydroponicshasnever beeneasier. Manywhohavedabbledinhobbyhydroponicscantestiytotheactthathydroponicscanbeassimpleorascomplicatedand technicalasyouwant. Allthehardwork,experimentationand speculation about hydroponics easibility wascarriedoutdecadesagobytheoundingathersosoillessproduction.Backthen, hydroponicswasdicultbecauseoalacko resources:plasticsweren’tavailable,neither wereready-made,easy-to-use,guaranteed-
iswherehydroponicsisnodiferenttosoil oreldcropping–knowinghowtogrow plantsandhavinghorticulturalskillsisvital. Ahydroponicsystemalonedoesnotguaranteesuccess,anditdoesnotcompensate oralackoa“greenthumb”.Mostpeople whohavesomeexperiencewithplantsand cropproductioncaneasilypickupthebasics ohydroponics,butthoseessentialgeneral horticulturalskillsarethebasisosuccessul operations. Onceagrowerhasmasteredsomebasics ohydroponicproduction– making upa hydroponicnutrientsolutionromtheertilizercomponentsisnomoredicultthan ollowingacakerecipe–thentherestis90 percentplanthusbandryskills.Hereagain, similarskillsarerequiredbybothsoilgrowers andhydroponicproducersalike:learningto identiypestsanddiseasesandimplement controls;selectionocultivars,croptraining, pruning,harvestingandhygieneallplaya majorroleinbothsystems. Aerall,therearewell-established,simpliedhydroponicsystems setupinTirdWorld countriesrunandmaintained bypeoplewith littleormaleducationwhowouldnotagree that hydroponics is “too dicult.” Check outthe“HydroorHunger”and“Institute o Simplied Hydroponics” Web sites to
to-worknutrients.Terewasalackoinormationaboutthesubject:nolibraryobooks ormagazines,nocoursestoreerto,norwas theInternetavailableorsharingideaswith growersandexperts. odaycommercialgrowerscanpurchase turn-keyhydroponicsystemsromexperiencedandknowledgeablecompanies.Consultantsspecializing inhydroponicscanhelpwith setupandproblemsolvingand universitiesareoferingcourses. Forthosenewtohobbyhydroponics,asimplesystemcanbe setuponthebenchtopwitha ewitemsoplasticwareound inthekitchencupboard.Many examples o this can be seen inbackissuesoTeGrowing Edge. Teonlyessentialingredient isagood,complete,hydroponic nutrientproduct,whichiseasily purchasedromoneothemany helpulhydroponicretailersset upbothonlineandaroundthe country. Mostcommercialgrowersin thehydroponicindustrydon’t have university qualications in soilless production and manydon’thaveaparticularly detailed understanding o chemistry either. What they dotendtopossessisanability to access and learn rom the correctinormationandoverall goodhorticulturalskills.Tis Whether grown in soil or hydroponically, crops take up
3 THE GROWING EDGE September/ October 2008
nutrients in exactly the same way.
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icsandcultivarselectiongoalongwayin improvingtomatoruitavor,thereismuch ahydroponicgrowercandotomanipulate theseactors.Light, moisture control, EC, potassium, density, even growing media inuencetomatoavorqualityandthisis oneplantthatcanreallybepushedasaras stressmanipulationgoestoimprovetaste. Tissameprocessismuchmoredicult insoil,becausethegrowerhasconsiderably lesscontroloveractorssuchassoilmoisture andnutrientlevels.
#7
Hydroponic ruit and vegetables are grown in chemicals and have a chemical taste.
Organically certied hydroponic growers do exist, blurring the lines between `organic’ and `hydroponic’ systems, as these hydro-organic beans demonstrate.
seewhatisbeingdonewithhydroponicsin onlywaytoproducetheseyearroundand thesesituations.http://www.hydroorhunger. maintaincontinualsupplycontractsanda org/program.htm regularincome. http://www.carbon.org/ Anddon’torgettoactorintheexpense omaintainingandbuyingneweldtractors andequipmentaswellasthecostoanacre Hydroponics is too expensive ogoodarmland. and not worth the initial capital Aswithanybusiness,highcapital-investinvestment. mentisarisk.Butpeoplealwaysneedtoeat andtherewillalwaysbeademandorgood Controlled environment hydroponic quality produce supplied by hydroponic productionisinitiallymorecapitalintensive businesses. thanoutdoorsoilcropping.However,capital investment into hydroponics shouldn’t be Hydroponic ruit and veggies lookedatasaburdensomecost. are grown in water and taste Well-designed and maintained greenhouses and systems should last or many watery. years,decadesinmostcases.Well-designed greenhouseandhydroponicsystemshould People assume that because plants are giveyieldsandqualityincreasesthatwould growninwater,theywilltastewatery.Poorsimplynotbepossibleinaeldsituation. avoredruitcanmostcertainlybeproduced Growersshould alsokeepin mind that insoil/eldsituationsaswell,buttheydon’t hydroponicoperationsyieldmoreperunit seemtogetthebadrapthathydroponicscan olandthaneldcostsopurchasingsuitable pickupromalackoquality. arablelandorcropproduction.High-value Inexperiencedorbadgrowerscanproduce cropsproducedyear-roundbringinmore poorqualityruitirrespectiveothekindo turnoverperunitolanddespitetheinitial production system used.However, hydrocapitalcostothesystem. ponicsisonesystemwherewecancounton Inact,insomeareas,hydroponicopera- control over plant nutrition, environment tionshavebeenset-uponlandunsuitableor and overall crop production, the actors soil-growncrops,includingvacantcitylots, thatinuencequality,avor,andbioactive urbanwarehouses,rootops,andeveninside compounds. caves.Arablelandpricesarelessoaconcern Tekeytothisisunderstandingplantphysbecauseahydroponicgreenhousecanbeset iologyandwhatactorsafectcompositional upanywhereapracticalandsuitablesiteis qualityandavor.omatoes,orexample,are ound,regardlessothesoiltype,condition aruitwhereitsimportanttoconcentrate orertility. thesugarsviaahigher-percentageodry Formanycommonlygrownhydroponic matterwithlesswateraccumulationinthe cropssuchastomatoes,peppers,cucumbers, ruit.Aswithmanyruits,abalancedsugar herbsandothers,agreenhouseacilityisthe toacidratioisalsoimportant.Whilegenet-
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Ina largenumberotrainedtastepanel evaluations which have been carried out ona wide range ohydroponicruits and vegetables, “chemical avors” don’t seem toeature.Tismakessensebecauseplants growninhydroponicsandinthesoiltakeup mineralionsinexactlythesameway. Anydiferencesinavorareduetoactors otherthantheuseo“chemicalertilizers.” Somemaymistakecertainnaturallyoccurring bitter avors or other compounds in certain ruit and vegetables or somesort ochemicaltaste,butthesearejustaslikely inoutdooreld-growncrops,orevenmore likelyduetocertainstressactorsthatthe hydroponicgrowerisn’tafectedby.
#8
Hydroponics pollute the environment with chemical nutrient
runo.
Tese days,hydroponic production has becomealotmoreocusedonwasteminimization,bothtoprotectthesurrounding environmentandtominimizecoststothe grower. Drain-to-wastehydroponicsystemsdostill exist,althoughskilledgrowerswillminimize theamountoleachate.Itispossibletorun systems at zero runof orcloseto it. Tis mythcanactuallybetrueithehydroponic systemisinthehandsoacarelessoperator withnoconcernortheimpactothegrowing systemontheenvironment.Andadmittedly, inthepasttherehavebeeninstanceswhen thisoccurred. Butahydroponicgrowerwhointentionallydumpshisrunofispouringawayalot opotentialnutrientsandwater,ataserious costtohimsel. Tere is also a worldwide efort by the industrytocollectandre-usenutrientleach-
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Hydroponics combined with environmentally controlled greenhouses can be used or out o season production o a huge range o crops, such as these raspberries.
ate,ortobuildtotallyclosedsystemsinwhich norunofisproduced.Somecountries,such asTeNetherlands,haveregulationsinplace topreventanyleachatereachingthesoilor contaminatingthegroundwater. Growersinmanyotherareaswillalsosoon beacing theserestrictions.Well-designed hydroponicsystemscaneasilyalloworthe collection and channeling o any nutrient leachaterunof.Tewastenutrientitselcan beauseulbyproductasitstillcontainsplant usablenutrientswhichcanbeappliedtoother soilgrowncrops,pasture,tur,ornamental Many o the initial predicted disease problems with NFT and other recirculating problems ailed to eventuate.
plantsandorchardsasauseulsourceo ertilizer.Growerscanalsoinstallefective systemsordealingwithwastewaterand nutrient runof such as sand lters and `scrubberplant’wetlandswhichdenutriy thesolutionandpreventanyenvironmental hazards. Perhaps some o the most interesting advances in hydroponics or greenhouse production in general have beena move towardsclosedsystemswithnonutrientrun of.Tesesystemsuseadvancedmethodso nutrientanalysisandadjustmentsothereis virtuallynoneedornutrientdumpingand replacement.Teserequireahigherdegree oskilltorunandmaintain,buttheyalso representalargesavinginertilizercosts. Tisis something which wouldbevery diculttocarryoutinaeldsituation–rain and irrigationtend to leach minerals and ertilizersdeepintothesoilandwatertable, andresultingrunofandcontaminationo naturalwatersourcesisachronicproblem inagriculture.Evenveryskilledapplication oertilizertosoilswillnotguaranteethat ertilizerleachingandrunofwillnotoccur, sothisisoneareawherehydroponics,inthe uture,willhaveamajoradvantage. Soil-growncropsalsoneedextensiveuse o herbicide chemicals or weed control, which poses another cost to growers and risksmisusethatcouldleadtosoilandwater contamination, spray dri and damage to nontargetplants.
#9
Hydroponics is prone to disasters caused by power ailures, leaks and irrigation blockages.
Temajorityohydroponiccropsarestill producedinsomeormogrowingmedia, mostowhichretainssucientmoistureto supporttheplantbetweenirrigationsoria shortpowerailureoccurs.Growersinareas thatexperienceunpredictablepowersupplies areabletodesignsystemswhicharenotreliantonelectricity. Tough some hydroponic systems are certainly more susceptible to these than others.NFandsomeothersolutionculture systems-whichdon’thaveamoistureretentivemedia-willsuferiapowercut,leakor blockagepreventstheowonutrient. Capillary,gravityeed,alternativepower and manual systems can all be used or hydroponicproductionwherenecessary,and insomeareasotheworldthesearetheonly typesosystemsinuse. Othergrowerscertainlymakeuseobackup generators, alarm systems and regular maintenancetopreventproblemswithleaks
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September/ October 2008 THE GROWING EDGE 39
usedtosterilizethesoilbeore planting and thus prevent manyothedestructiveroot pathogensromsignicantly lowering crop yield. Methyl bromide however has been banned and can no longer be used in most strawberry producing regions, so many growers are considering the useohydroponicsasaviable alternativetotheproblemo Many hydroponic systems these days aim to have very little soiltreatment.Startingwitha nutrient runo or wastage which could pollute ground water sterile,goodqualitygrowing and the environment. mediaunderhydroponicproandblockages.Ontheotherhand,eldcrops ductionisonewayoavoidingtheproblem arenotimmunetothesesortsoproblems osoilsterilizationandthechemicalsused either. Power cuts can afect pumps and tocarrythisout. irrigation,andirrigationleaksandblockages alsooccurintheeld.Worsestill,oods, droughts,hailanderosioncanwreakhavoc Hydroponics doesn’t produce onasoil-growncrop. high qualities o ruits and veg-
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Hydroponics creates a special risk o widespread root disease outbreaks.
Teproblemodiseasespreadisnotlimited tohydroponics:anuncontrolledandaggressivepathogencanbringdownwidespread plantlossesinsoilcrops,whichspreadrapidly romplanttoplantacrossaeld. Whiletherehavebeensomecasesoroot diseaseoutbreakinalltypesohydroponic systems, widespread and continual crop losseshavenotcometopass.Lossesdueto plantdiseaseareaproblemohorticultural productioningeneralandgrowers,which eversystemtheyuse,need tobeawareo goodsanitation,hygieneandplantprotection practices. Tis mythhas been in circulation ever since NF became a commercial reality, with concerns that any disease pathogen would quickly circulate around the whole systeminectingeveryplantandresulting inwidespreadcroplosses. Manyhydroponicsystemsthesedayshave goodmeasuresinplacetopreventdisease, including solution and water treatment, stricthygiene,earlydiseaserecognitionand preventionocontaminationrompotential pathogensources,somethingwhichisimpossibletoachievewithmostsoilgrowncrops. Furthermore,hydroponicshasproventobe animportanttoolintheproductionosome cropswhicharehighlysusceptibletorootrot diseases. Strawberry cropsproduced insoil have inthepastheavilyreliedontheuseosoil umigantssuchasmethylbromide,widely
etables with the essential and benefcial nutrients o soil-grown crops.
Teproblemisthatanaccuratecomparison isverydiculttoobtainbecausethenutrient contentoanyparticularsampleoruitor vegetabledependsnotonlyonthetypeo growingmedia–soilorvarioushydroponic substrates-butalsoonanumberoother importantactors.Forexample,ertilization practices,cultivar,lightlevels,temperature, density,cropstress,andpestanddiseasecontrol.Nowadayspeoplearguethat`organic’or `biodynamic’cropsarenutritionallybetter than those grown in conventional horticultureandhydroponics,althoughthereis evidencebothorandagainstthisdepending onwhichstudyyouarereerringto. Whenmeasuringthenutrientcontento soilverses hydroponic grown produce,it’s importanttogetproduceromexperienced growersbecausethequalitywillvarydepending on the grower’s expertise. Some will produceoodohighcompositionalquality, andotherswillnot. It’saactthattherearecertainmineralsthat arebenecialtohumanhealth–selenium beingoneomanyoundintheplantsand otheroodweeat.Inthepasthydroponic production has been accused o growing crops decient in thesesorts o benecial nutrients.Butmostothesetraceminerals while present in soils, are also present in thewatersuppliesandotherinputsusedin hydroponicsystemsandendupinthetissue osoillesscropsjustastheydoinsoilgrown plants. Inactcertainsoilscanbecomesodecient inthesetypesoelementsthattheyresultin crops which don’tcontaineven a trace o
40 THE GROWING EDGE September/ October 2008
them,whilehydroponicnutrientsolutions can easilybeboostedwithuse omineral additivesandbenecialtraceelementsinecessary.Terearecertainlyanumberogood hydroponic nutrientproducts andsupplementsonthemarketthatcansupplement inawiderangeothe`benecial’elements.
#12
Hydroponics produces mutant plants, “Frankenstein ood” and genetically-engineered crops.
Hydroponicsisjustasystemoproduction, albeitamorehighlycontrolledonethaneld cropping.Anysortocroporcultivarcanbe grown usingsoilless methods. Tese days many commercial hydroponicgreenhouse growerschosetogrowhybridcultivars,just asmanysoilgrowersdo.Andsomechose to grow older, open pollinated, heirloom varietiesinhydroponics,justasorganicand conventionalsoilgrowersdoaswell. Adecadeorsoback,whengeneticengineeringwasinitsheydayandthe`longshel lie’tomatostartedtohitthemarkets,there wassome misperceptionthat hydroponics wasalltiedupinproducing`mutantruits’, GE `Frankenstein oods’ and all things `unnatural’.Luckilythisopinion,orthemost part,hasnotpersistedthesedays,exceptor theoccasionalcommentheardromconsumersthathydroponicshassomethingtodo with`mutanttomatoes’ Giventhecurrentdemandor organics, naturalproductionmethodsandregulations toensureproducersaren’tendangeringthe publicwith`mutants’(andalsothegrowing demand or heirlooms and yesteryear varieties)theseearso`unnatural’cropsare diminishing. Wealsoneedtokeepinmindthatthese days,hydroponicshascometomeanawhole rangeodiferentproductionsystemsincludingorganic,traditionalsoillesscultureand everything in between. Growers can take romthebestcropproductiontechniques andblendthemintothehydroponicsystem thatworksorthemandtheircustomers. Reerencesandsourcesoinormation:
GMFs(geneticallymodiedoods)–Angel FoodsorFrankensteinucker?Commercial GrowerVolume54,No3,April1999,Vegetable ProducersPublishingCo. HydroorHungerhttp://www.hydroorhunger. org/program.htm InstituteoSimpliedHydroponicshttp://www. carbon.org/
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