LANGUAGE EDUCATION I (Units 1 to 3) UNIT 1 “Teaching by Princi!es" #ro$n% &' Dog!as (**1) C&APTE+ ,
COGNITIVE PRINCIPLES The first set of principles is called “cognitive” eca!se the" relate #ainl" to #ental and intellect!al f!nctions$ Principle %& '!to#aticit" Thro!gh an ind!ctive process of e(pos!re to lang!age inp!t and opport!nit" to e(peri#ent )ith o!tp!t* children appear to learn lang!ages )itho!t “thin+ing” ao!t the#$ The Principle of '!to#aticit" incl!des the i#portance of& S!conscio!s asorption of lang!age thro!gh #eaningf!l !se* Efficient and rapid #ove#ent a)a" fro# a foc!s on the for#s of lang!age to a foc!s on the p!rposes to )hich lang!age is p!t* Efficient and rapid #ove#ent a)a" fro# capacit",li#ited control of a fe) its its and and piece piecess to a relat relative ivel" l" !nli#i !nli#ited ted a!to# a!to#ati aticc #ode #ode of proces processin singg lang!age for#s* and Resistance to the te#ptation to anal"-e lang!age for#s$
The Principle of '!to#aticit" #a" e stated as follo)s& Efficient second lang!age learning involves a ti#el" #ove#ent of the control of a fe) fe) lang lang!a !age ge for# for#ss into into the the a!to a!to#a #ati ticc proc proces essi sing ng of a rela relati tive vel" l" !nli#ited n!#er of lang!age for#s$ Overanal"sing lang!age* thin+ing too #!ch ao!t its for#s* and conscio!sl" lingering on r!les of lang!age all tend to i#pede this grad!ation grad!ation to a!to#aticit"$ The principle sa"s that ad!lts can ta+e a lesson fro# children " speedil" overco#ing o!r propensit" to pa" too #!ch focal attention to the its and pieces of lang!age and to #ove lang!age for#s .!ic+l" to the peripher" " !sing lang!age in a!thentic conte(ts for #eaningf!l p!rposes$ In classroo#& 1' /eing too heavil" centered on the for#al aspects of lang!age can loc+ path)a"s to fl!enc"$
' ' larg largee prop propor orti tion on of "o!r "o!r less lesson onss sho! sho!ld ld e foc! foc!se sed d on the the “!se “!se”” of lang!age for p!rposes that are gen!ine$ 3' /e patient )ith st!dents to help the# achieve fl!enc"$
Principle 0& 1eaningf!l Learning 1eaningf!l learning “s!s!#es” ne) infor#ation into e(isting str!ct!res and #e#or" s"ste#s and the res!lting associative lin+s create stronger retention$ Rote learning 2 isolated pieces of infor#ation that aren3t connected to the e(isting cognitive str!ct!re 2 has little chance of creating long,ter# retention$
The Principle of 1eaningf!l Learning is stated& 1eaningf!l learning )ill lead to)ard etter long,ter# retention than rote learning$ In classroo#& 1' 'ppeal to st!dents3 interests* acade#ic goals and career goals$ ' 4hen introd!cing a ne) topic* atte#pt to anchor it in st!dents3 e(isting +no)ledge and ac+gro!nd$ 3' 'void the pitfalls of rote learning& a' too #!ch gra##ar e(planations b' too #!ch astract principles and theories c' too #!ch drilling and5or #e#ori-ation -' !nclear activities e' activi activitie tiess that that don3t don3t contri contri!t !tee to acco#p acco#plis lishin hingg the goals goals of the lesson* !nit or co!rse .' techni.!es too #echanic and tric+" Principle 6& The 'nticipation of Re)ard 7S+inner8 The antici anticipat pation ion of re)ard re)ard is the #ost #ost po)erf po)erf!l !l factor factor in direct directing ing one3s ehavio!r$ The Re)ard Principle is stated& 9!#an eing are !niversall" driven to act* or “ehave”* " the anticipation of so#e sort of re)ard 2 tangile or intangile* short ter# or long ter# 2 that )ill ens!e as a res!lt of the ehavio!r$
Conditioning " re)ards can 7a8 lead learners to eco#e dependent on short, ter# re)ards* 78 coa( the# into a hait of loo+ing to teachers and others for their onl" re)ards* and therefore 7c8 forestall the develop#ent of their o)n internall" ad#inistered* intrinsic s"ste# of re)ards$ In classroo#&
' ' larg largee prop propor orti tion on of "o!r "o!r less lesson onss sho! sho!ld ld e foc! foc!se sed d on the the “!se “!se”” of lang!age for p!rposes that are gen!ine$ 3' /e patient )ith st!dents to help the# achieve fl!enc"$
Principle 0& 1eaningf!l Learning 1eaningf!l learning “s!s!#es” ne) infor#ation into e(isting str!ct!res and #e#or" s"ste#s and the res!lting associative lin+s create stronger retention$ Rote learning 2 isolated pieces of infor#ation that aren3t connected to the e(isting cognitive str!ct!re 2 has little chance of creating long,ter# retention$
The Principle of 1eaningf!l Learning is stated& 1eaningf!l learning )ill lead to)ard etter long,ter# retention than rote learning$ In classroo#& 1' 'ppeal to st!dents3 interests* acade#ic goals and career goals$ ' 4hen introd!cing a ne) topic* atte#pt to anchor it in st!dents3 e(isting +no)ledge and ac+gro!nd$ 3' 'void the pitfalls of rote learning& a' too #!ch gra##ar e(planations b' too #!ch astract principles and theories c' too #!ch drilling and5or #e#ori-ation -' !nclear activities e' activi activitie tiess that that don3t don3t contri contri!t !tee to acco#p acco#plis lishin hingg the goals goals of the lesson* !nit or co!rse .' techni.!es too #echanic and tric+" Principle 6& The 'nticipation of Re)ard 7S+inner8 The antici anticipat pation ion of re)ard re)ard is the #ost #ost po)erf po)erf!l !l factor factor in direct directing ing one3s ehavio!r$ The Re)ard Principle is stated& 9!#an eing are !niversall" driven to act* or “ehave”* " the anticipation of so#e sort of re)ard 2 tangile or intangile* short ter# or long ter# 2 that )ill ens!e as a res!lt of the ehavio!r$
Conditioning " re)ards can 7a8 lead learners to eco#e dependent on short, ter# re)ards* 78 coa( the# into a hait of loo+ing to teachers and others for their onl" re)ards* and therefore 7c8 forestall the develop#ent of their o)n internall" ad#inistered* intrinsic s"ste# of re)ards$ In classroo#&
1' Provide an opti#al degree of i##ediate veral praise and enco!rage#ent to the# as a for# of short,ter# re)ard$ ' Enco!rage st!dents to re)ard each other )ith co#pli#ents and s!pportive action$ 3' In classes )ith ver" lo) #otivation* short,ter# re#inders of progress #a" help st!dents$ 7Gold stars and stic+ers* privileges for good )or+* progress charts and graphs* etc$8$ ,' :ispla" enth!sias# and e(cite#ent "o!rself$ /' Tr" to get learners to see the long,ter# re)ards in learning English$
Principle ;& Intrinsic 1otivation The Intrinsic 1otivation Principle is& The #ost po)erf!l re)ards are those that are intrinsicall" #otivated )ithin the learner$ /eca!se the ehavio!r ste#s fro# needs* )ants* or desires )ith )ithin in ones onesel elf* f* the the e eha havi vio! o!rr itse itself lf is self, self,re re)a )ard rdin ingg ther theref efor ore* e* no e(ternall" ad#inistered re)ard is necessar"$ In classroo#& 1' Consider caref!ll" the intrinsic #otives of "o!r st!dents$ ' :esign classroo# tas+s that feed into those intrinsic drives$ 7self,re)arding classes8 Principle <& Strategic Invest#ent The Principle of Strategic Invest#ent is stated& S!ccessf!l #aster" of the second lang!age )ill e d!e as a large e(tent to a learner3s o)n personal “invest#ent” of ti#e* effort* and attention to the second lang!age in the for# of an individ!ali-ed atter" of strategies for co#prehending and prod!cing the lang!age$
The princi principle ple has 0 #a=or #a=or pedago pedagogic gical al i#plic i#plicati ations ons&& 7a8 the i#port i#portanc ancee of recogni-ing and dealing )ith the st"les and strategies that learners ring to the learning process* and therefore 78 the need for attention to each individ!al in the classroo#$ In classroo#& 1' ' variet" of techni.!es in "o!r lessons )ill ens!re that "o!3ll rich a #a(i#!# n!#er of st!dents$ Choose a #i(t!re of gro!p )or+ and individ!al )or+* of vis!al and a!ditor" techni.!es* of eas" and diffic!lt e(ercises$ ' Pa" as #!ch attention as "o! can to each individ!al$ individ!al$
'>>ECTIVE PRINCIPLES
Principle ?& Lang!age Ego The Lang!age Ego Principle can e s!##ari-ed in this clai#& 's h!#an eings learn to !se a second lang!age* the" also develop a ne) #ode of thin+ing* feeling* and acting 2 a second identit"$ The ne) “lang!age ego”* intert)ined )ith the second lang!age* can easil" create )ithin the learner a sense of fragilit"* a defensiveness* and a raising of inhiitions
The Lang!age Ego Principle also called “)ar# and f!--"” principles& all second lang!age learners need to e treated )ith affective tender living care$ In classroo# & 1' Overtl" displa" a s!pportive attit!de to "o!r st!dents$ ' @o!r @o!r choi choice ce of tech techni ni.! .!es es and and se.! se.!en ence cess of tech techni ni.! .!es es need needss to e cognitivel" challenging !t not over)hel#ing at an affective level$ 3' If "o!r st!dents are learning English as a second lang!age* the" are li+el" to e(perience a #oderate identit" crisis as the" develop a “second self”$ 9elp the# see that this is a nor#al and nat!ral process$ Principle A& Self,Confidence Self,Confidence This This Princ Principl iplee e#phas e#phasi-e i-ess the i#port i#portanc ancee of the the learne learner3s r3s self,a self,asse ssess# ss#ent ent** regardless of the degree of lang!age,ego involve#ent$ It states& Learners3 elief that the" indeed are f!ll" capale of acco#plishing a tas+ is at least partiall" a factor in their event!al s!ccess in attaining the tas+$ In classroo#& 1' Give a#ple veral and nonveral ass!rances to st!dents$ It helps st!dents to hear a teacher affir# a elief in the st!dent3s ailit"$ ' Se.!ence techni.!es fro# easier to #ore diffic!lt$
Principle B& Ris+,Ta+ing Ris+,Ta+ing The previo!s 0 principles* if satisfied* " the gro!nd)or+ for ris+,ta+ing$ Lear Le arne ners rs are are read read"" to tr" tr" o!t o!t thei theirr ne)l ne)l"" ac.! ac.!ir ired ed lang lang!a !age ge** to !sei !seitt for for #eaningf!l p!rposes* to as+ .!estions* and to assert the#selves$ It states& S!ccessf!l lang!age learners* in their realistic appraisal of the#selves as v!lnerale eings "et capale of acco#plishing tas+s* #!st e )illing to eco#e “ga#lers” in the ga#e of lang!age* to atte#pt to prod!ce and interpret lang!age that is a it e"ond their asol!te certaint"$
In classroo#& 1' Create an at#osphere in the classroo# hat enco!rages st!dents to tr" o!t lang!age to vent!re a response* and not to )ait for so#eone else to vol!nteer lang!age$ ' Provide reasonale challenges in "o!r techni.!es$ 3' Respond to st!dents3 ris+" atte#pts )ith positive affir#ations$ Principle & The Lang!age,C!lt!re Connection This principle foc!ses on the co#ple( interconnection of lang!age and c!lt!re& 4henever "o! tech a lang!age* "o! also teach a co#ple( s"ste# of c!lt!ral c!sto#s* val!es* and )a"s of thin+ing* feeling* and acting$ In classroo# & 1' :isc!ss cross,c!lt!ral differences )ith "o!r st!dents* e#phasi-ing that no c!lt!re is “etter” than another$ ' Incl!de certain activities and #aterials that ill!strate the connection et)een lang!age and c!lt!re$ 3' Teach the# the c!lt!ral connotations of lang!age$ ,' :on3t !se #aterial that is c!lt!rall" offensive$
' second aspect of the Lang!age,C!lt!re Connections is the e(tent to )hich "o!r st!dents )ill e affected " the process of acc!lt!ration$ Especiall" in “second” lang!age learning conte(ts* the s!ccess )ith )hich learners adapt to a ne) c!lt!ral #ilie! )ill affect their lang!age ac.!isition s!ccess* and vice versa* in so#e possil" significant )a"s$ In classroo# & 1' 9elp st!dents to e a)are of acc!lt!ration and its stages$ ' Stress the i#portance of the second lang!age as a po)erf!l tool for ad=!st#ent in the ne) c!lt!re$ 3' /e sensitive to an" st!dents )ho appear to e disco!raged$
LINGDISTIC PRINCIPLES Principle %& The Native Lang!age Effect The Principle of the Native Lang!age Effect stresses the i#portance of that native s"ste# in the ling!istic atte#pts of the second lang!age learner& The native lang!age of learners e(erts a strong infl!ence on the ac.!isition of the target lang!age s"ste#$ 4hile that native s"ste# )ill e(ercise oth facilitating and interfering effects on the prod!ction and co#prehension of the ne) lang!age* the interfering effects are li+el" to e the #ost salient$
Errors are )indo)s to a learner3s internali-ed !nderstanding of the second lang!age* and therefore the" give teachers so#ething oservale to reach to$ In classroo#& 1' Regard learners3 errors as i#portant )indo)s to their !nderl"ing s"ste# and provide appropriate feedac+ on the#$ ' To !nderstand that not ever"thing ao!t their native lang!age s!ste# )ill ca!se error$ 3' Tr" to coa( st!dents into thin+ing in the second lang!age instead of resorting to translation as the" co#prehend and prod!ce lang!age$ Principle %%& Interlang!age It states& Second lang!age learners tend to go to a s"ste#atic or .!asi,s"ste#atic develop#ental process as the" progress to f!ll co#petence in the target lang!age$ S!ccessf!l Interlang!age develop#ent is partiall" a res!lt of !tili-ing feedac+ fro# others$
There is a distinction et)een affective and cognitive feedac+$ The for#er* is the e(tent to )hich )e val!e or enco!rage a st!dent3s atte#pt to co##!nicateF the latter* is the e(tent to )hich )e indicate and !nderstanding of the “#essage” itself$ In classroo#& 1' :isting!ish et)een a st!dent3s s"ste#atic Interlang!age errors and other errors$ ' E(ercise so#e tolerance for certain Interlang!age for#s #a" arise o!t of st!dents3 logical develop#ent process$ 3' :on3t #a+e st!dent feel st!pid eca!se of an Interlang!age error$ ,' Classroo# feedac+ #essage that #ista+es are not “ad”$ 1ista+es are often indicators of aspects of the ne) lang!age that are still developing$ /' Tr" to get st!dent to self,correct selected errors$ 0' '#ple affective feedac+ 7veral or nonveral8$ ' indness and e#path"$ Principle %0& Co##!nicative Co#petence This principle consists of so#e co#inations of the follo)ing co#ponents& Organi-ational co#petence 7gra##atical and disco!rse8 Prag#atic co#petence 7f!nctional and socioling!istic8 Strategic co#petence
Ps"cho#otor s+ills This is proal" the #ost i#portant ling!istic principle of learning ad teaching& Given that co##!nicative co#petence is the goal of a lang!age classroo#* instr!ction needs to point to)ard all its co#ponents& organi-ational* prag#atic* strategic* and ps"cho#otor$ Co##!nicative goals are est achieved " giving d!e attention to lang!age !se and not =!st !sage* to fl!enc" and not =!st acc!rac"* to a!thentic lang!age and conte(ts* and to st!dents3 event!al need to appl" classroo# learning to previo!sl" !nrehearsed conte(ts in the real )orld$
In classroo#& 1' Give gra##ar so#e attention* !t don3t neglect the other i#portant co#ponents$ ' So#e of the prag#atic aspects of lang!age are ver" s!tle and therefore ver" diffic!lt$ 1a+e s!re "o!r lessons ai# to teach s!ch s!tlet"$ 3' 4hen teaching f!nctional and socioling!istic aspects of lang!age* don3t forget that the ps"cho#otor s+ills are an i#portant co#ponents of oth$ ,' Give the# opport!nities to gain so#e fl!enc" in English )itho!t having ti e constantl" )ar" of little #ista+es$ /' Tr" to +eep ever" techni.!e that "o! !se as a!thentic is possile& !se lang!age fro# the real )orld$
C&APTE+ / “Intrinsic 2otiation in the C!assroo4"
One of the #ore co#plicated prole#s of second lang!age learning and teaching has een to define and appl" the constr!ct of #otivation in the classroo#$ :E>INING 1OTIV'TION 1otivation is the e(tent to )hich "o! #a+e choice ao!t 7a8 goals to p!rs!e and 78 the effort "o! )ill devote to that p!rs!it$ 4e can loo+ at theories of #otivation in ter#s of t)o opposing ca#ps& one of the# is a traditional vie) of #otivation that acco!nts for h!#an ehavio!r thro!gh a ehavio!ristic paradig# that stresses the i#portance of re)ards and reinforce#ents$ In the other ca#p are cognitive ps"chological vie)points that e(plain #otivation thro!gh deeper* less oservale pheno#ena$ %$ ' /ehavio!ristic :efinition
' ehavio!ristic ps"chologist li+e S+inner or 4atson )o!ld stress the role of re)ards 7and p!nish#ents8 in #otivating ehavio!r$ In S+inner3s operant conditioning #odel* h!#an eings )ill p!rs!e a goal eca!se the" perceive a re)ard for doing so$ This re)ard serves to reinforce ehavio!r 71H1 theor" of ehavio!r8$ ' ehavio!rist )o!ld define #otivation as “the anticipation of reinforce#ent”$ Reinforce#ent theor" is a po)erf!l concept for the classroo#$ Learners p!rs!e goals in order to receive e(ternall" ad#inistered re)ards& praise* gold stars* etc$ 0$ Cognitive :efinitions There 6 different theories& A' :rive theor"& those )ho see h!#an drives as f!nda#ental to h!#an ehavio!r clai# that #otivation ste#s fro# asic innate drives$ '!s!el created ? different drives& E(ploration • • 1anip!lation 'ctivit" • • Sti#!lation no)ledge • • Ego enhance#ent 'll of these drives act not #!ch as reinforces !t as innate predispositions* co#pelling !s to proe the !n+no)n* to control o!r environ#ent* to e ph"sicall" active* to e receptive to #ental* e#otional* or ph"sical sti#!lation* to "earn for ans)ers to .!estions* and to !ild o! o)n self,estee#$ #' 9ierarch" of needs theor"& 1aslo) descries a s"ste# of needs )ithin each h!#an eing that propel !s to higher attain#ent$ 1aslo)3s hierarch" is est vie)ed #etaphoricall" as a p"ra#id of needs* progressing fro# the satisfaction of p!rel" ph"sical needs !p thro!gh safet" and co##!nal needs* to needs of estee#* and finall" to “self,act!ali-ation”$ ' +e" i#portance here is that a person is not ade.!atel" energi-ed to p!rs!e so#e of the higher needs !ntil the lo)er fo!ndations of the p"ra#id have een satisfied$ >or an activit" in the classroo# to e #otivating* it does not need to o!tstandingl" stri+ing* innovative* or inspirational$ C' Self,control theor"& the i#portance of people deciding for the#selves )hat to thin+ or feel or do$ 1otivation is highest )hen one can #a+e one3s o)n choices* )heter the" are in short,ter# or long ter#,conte(ts$
INTRINSIC 'N: ETRINSIC 1OTIV'TION T)o i#portant points& 1' Orientation #eans a conte(t or p!rpose for learningF #otivation refers to the intensit" one3s i#pet!s to learn$ 'n integrative orientation #eans that the learner is p!rs!ing a second lang!age for social and5or c!lt!ral p!rposes )here the learner co!ld e driven " a high level of #otivation or a lo) level$ In an instr!#ental orientation* learners are st!d"ing a lang!age in order to f!rther a career or acade#ic goal$ ' Integrative and instr!#ental orientations are not to e conf!sed )ith intrinsic and e(trinsic #otivation$ Integrative5Instr!#ental orientation is a tr!e dichoto#" and refers onl" to the conte(t of learning$ Intrinsic5e(trinsic #otivation designates a contin!!# of possiilities of intensit" of feeling or drive* fro# deepl" internal* self,generated re)ards to strong* e(ternall" ad#inistered re)ards Ed)ard :eci defined intrinsic #otivation this )a"& Intrinsicall" #otivated activities are ones for )hich there is no re)ard e(cept the activit" itself$ Intrinsicall" #otivated ehavio!rs are ai#ed at ringing ao!t certain internall" re)arding conse.!ences* na#el"* feelings of co#petence and self,deter#ination$ E(trinsicall" #otivated ehavio!rs are carried o!t in anticipation of a re)ard o!tside and e"ond the self$ 7E(trinsic re)ards& #one"* pri-es* grades* etc8$ /ehavio!rs initiated solel" to avoid p!nish#ent are also e(trinsicall" #otivated$ ' research sho)s that one t"pe of e(trinsic re)ard can indeed have an effect on intrinsic #otivation& the positive feedac+ that learners perceive as a oost to their feelings of co#petence and self,deter#ination$ INTRINSIC 1OTIV'TION IN E:DC'TION 'n intrinsicall" oriented school can egin to transfor# itself into a #ore positive* affir#ing environ#ent* not so #!ch " revol!tioni-ing societ" !t " shifting its vie) of the st!dent$
>ro# e(trinsic to intrinsic #otivation in ed!cational instit!tions& E5T+IN6IC P+E66U+E6 School c!rric!l!#
INT+IN6IC INNO7ATION6 Learner,centered Personal goal,setting
2OTI7ATIONAL +E6ULT6 Self,estee# Self,act!ali-ation :ecide for self
Parental e(pectations
>a#il" val!es
Societ"3s e(pectations 7confor#ist8
Sec!rit" of co#fortale ro!tines Tas+,ased teaching
Tests H e(a#s
Peer eval!ation* Self,diagnosis Level,chec+ e(ercises Long,ter# goals The ig pict!re “things ta+e ti#e” Content,ased teaching* ESP Vocational ed!cation 4or+place ESL Cooperative learning Gro!p )or+ The class is a tea# Ris+,ta+ing* innovation Creativit"
I##ediate gratification 7“1H1s”8 1a+e #one"
Co#petition
Never fall
Love* inti#ac"* acceptance* respect for )isdo# Co##!nit"* elonging* identit"* har#on"* sec!rit" E(perience Self,+no)ledge Self,act!ali-ation
Cooperation 9ar#on"
1anip!lations* strength* stat!s* sec!rit" Learn fro# #ista+es Nood"3s perfect
INTRINSIC 1OTIV'TION IN T9 SECON: L'NGD'GE CL'SSROO1 There are activities that capitali-e on the intrinsic " appealing to learners3 self, deter#ination and a!tono#"& • Teaching )riting as a thin+ing process to develop o)n ideas$ Strategies of reading that enale the# to ring their infor#ation to the • )ritten )ord$ Lang!age e(perience approaches to create o)n reading #aterials for others • in class$ Oral fl!enc" e(ercises to tal+ ao!t their interests$ • Listening to an acade#ic lect!re in one3s o)n field of st!d"$ • Co##!nicative lang!age teaching to enale the# to acco#plish specific • f!nctions$ • Gra##atical e(planations$ T9EORETIC'L 'PPRO'C9ES TO EPL'INING SECON: L'NGD'GE LE'RNING
So#e theories give pri#ar" i#portance to learnersJ innate characteristicsF so#e e#phasi-e the essential role of the environ#ent in shaping lang!age learningF still others see+ to integrate learner characteristics and environ#ental factors in an e(planation for ho) second lang!age ac.!isition ta+es place$ Learner characteristics 'll second lang!age learners have at least one lang!age$ The learner has an idea of ho) lang!ages )or+$ no)ledge of other lang!ages can also #a+e learners to #a+e incorrect g!esses ao!t ho) the second lang!age )or+s and this #a" ca!se errors$ The first lang!age learner does not have the sa#e cognitive #at!rit"* #etaling!istic* a)areness* or )orld +no)ledge as older second lang!age learners$ Second lang!age learners* the" )ill still have far to go in these areas* )orld +no)ledge$ 1ost child learners do not feel ao!t atte#pting to !se the lang!age* !t ad!lts and adolescents often find it ver" stressf!l )hen the" are !nale to e(press the#selves clearl" and correctl"$ Learning conditions @o!nger learners* infor#al second lang!age learning* !s!all" allo)ed to e silent !ntil the" are read" to spea+$ Older learners are often forced to spea+$ @o!ng children in infor#al setting are e(posed to the second lang!age for #an" ho!rs ever" da"$ Older learners* especiall" st!dents in lang!age classroo#* are #ore li+el" to receive onl" li#ited e(pos!re to the second lang!age$ One condition )hich appears to e co##on to learners of all ages is access to #odified inp!t* so#eti#es called foreigner tal+ or teacher tal+ for second lang!ages$ People )ho interact )ith lang!age learners have sense of )hat ad=!st#ents are needed to help learners !nderstand$ Error correction in first lang!age ac.!isition tends to e li#ited to corrections of #eaning* incl!ding errors in voca!lar" choice$ In infor#al second lang!age ac.!isition* errors #eaning are !s!all" overloo+ed$ Errors of gra##ar and pron!nciation are rarel" re#ar+ed on* !t the )rong )ord choice #a" receive co##ent fro# a p!--led interloc!tor$ The onl" place )here feedac+ on error is t"picall" present )ith high fre.!enc" is the lang!age classroo#$ /ehavio!ris#
The i#pact of ehavio!ris# on o!r !nderstanding of the second lang!age learning$ /ehavio!rists acco!nt for learning in ter#s of i#itation* practice* reinforce#ent and hait for#ation all learning ta+es place thro!gh the sa#e !nderl"ing processes$ Learners receive et)een inp!t fro# spea+ers in their environ#ent and the" for# associations et)een )ords and o=ects or events$ These associations eco#e stronger as i#itations* and corrective feedac+ on their errors$ Lang!age develop#ent is vie)ed as the for#ation of haits$ /ehavio!ris# )as often lin+ed to the Contrastive 'nal"sis 9"pothesis 7C'98$ The C'9 predicts that )here there are si#ilarities et)een the first lang!age and the target lang!age* the learner )ill ac.!ire target,lang!age str!ct!res )ith easeF )here there are differences* the learner )ill have diffic!lt"$ Learners are rel!ctant to transfer certain feat!res of their first lang!age to the second lang!age$ 'll this s!ggests that the infl!ence of the learner3s first lang!age #a" not si#pl" e a #atter of the transfer of haits* !t a #ore s!tle and co#ple( process of identif"ing points of si#ilarit"* )eighing the evidence and even reflecting ao!t )hether a certain feat!res see#s to elong in the str!ct!re of the target lang!age$ The ehavio!rist acco!nt has proven to e at est an inco#plete e(planation for lang!age learning$ Innatis# Dniversal Gra##ar Cho#s+"3s theor" of lang!age ac.!isition is ased on the h"pothesis that innate +no)ledge of the principles of Dniversal Gra##ar 7DG8 per#its all children to ac.!ire the lang!age of their environ#ent* d!ring a critical period in their develop#ent$ I#plications of this theor" for second lang!age learning* so#e ling!ists )or+ing )ithin this theor" have arg!ed that DG offers the est perceptive fro# )hich to !nderstand second lang!age ac.!isition 7SL'8$ DG is no longer availale to g!ide the ac.!isition of a second lang!age in learners )ho have passed the critical period for lang!age ac.!isition$ :o not all agree on ho) DG )or+s in second lang!age develop#ent$ Even if second lang!age learners egin learning the second lang!age after the end of the critical period and even if #an" fail to achieve co#plete #aster" ac.!isition& learners
event!all" +no) #ore ao!t the lang!age than the" co!ld reasonal" have learned if the" had to depend entirel" on the inp!t the" are e(posed to$ The" infer fro# this that DG #!st e availale to second lang!age learners as )ell as to firs lang!age learners$ Researchers )or+ing )ithin the DG differ in their h"potheseses ao!t ho) for#al instr!ction or error correction )ill affect the learner3s +no)ledge of the second lang!age$ 'd!lt second lang!age learners neither need nor enefit fro# error correction and #etaling!istic infor#ation$ These change onl" the s!perficial appearance of lang!age perfor#ance and do not affect the +no)ledge of the ne) lang!age$ Other DG ling!ists* s!ggest that second lang!age learners #a" need to e given so#e e(plicit infor#ation ao!t )hat is not gra##atical in the second lang!age$ Researchers )ho st!d" SL' fro# the DG perspective are interested in the lang!age co#petence 7+no)ledge8 of advanced learners rather than in the si#ple lang!age of earl" stages learners$ Th!s their investigations involve the =!dge#ents of gra##aticalit"* rather than oservations of act!al spea+ing$ The" hope to gain insight into )hat learners act!all" +no) ao!t the lang!age* !sing a tas+ )hich avoids at least so#e of the #an" things )hich affect the )a" )e ordinaril" !se lang!age$ Recent ps"chological theories Infor#ation processing Cognitive ps"chologists )or+ing in an infor#ation processing #odel of h!#an learning and perfor#ance tend to see second lang!age ac.!isition as the !ilding !p of +no)ledge s"ste#s that can event!all" i called on a!to#aticall" for spea+ing and !nderstanding$ 't first* learners pa" attention to an" aspect of the lang!age )hich the" are tr"ing to !nderstand or prod!ce$ There is a li#it to the a#o!nt of infor#ation a h!#an can pa" attention to at one ti#e$ The perfor#ance )hich event!all" eco#e a!to#atic #a" originate fro# intentional learning$ 'n"thing )hich !ses !p o!r #ental processing space is a possile so!rce for infor#ation )hich can event!all" e availale a!to#aticall"$ Ever"thing )e co#e to +no) ao!t the lang!age )as first noticed conscio!sl" 7Sch#idt8$ There are changes in s+ill and +no)ledge )hich are d!e to restr!ct!ring$ So#eti#e things )hich )e +no) and !se a!to#aticall" #a" not e e(plainale in ter#s of a
grad!al !ild,!p of a!to#aticall" thro!gh practice$ The" see# to e ased on the interaction of +no)ledge )eal read" have or on the ac.!isition of ne) +no)ledge )hich so#eho) fits into an e(isting s"ste# and ca!ses it to e transfor#ed or restr!ct!red$ Connectionis# Connectionists !nli+e innatists* see no need to h"pothesi-e the e(istence of a ne!rological #od!le connectionists attri!te greater i#portance to the role of the environ#ent than to an" innate +no)ledge* arg!ing that )hat in innate is si#pl" the ailit" to learn* not an" specificall" ling!istic str!ct!re$ Connectionists arg!e that learners grad!all" !ild !p their +no)ledge of lang!age thro!gh e(pos!re to tho!sands of instances of the ling!istic feat!res the" learn$ 4hile innatists see the lang!age inp!t in the environ#ent #ainl" as a trigger to activate innate +no)ledge* connectionists see the inp!t as the principal so!rce of ling!istic +no)ledge$ 'fter hearing lang!age feat!res over and over again* learners develop stronger and stronger #ental or ne!rological connections et)een these ele#ents$ The presence of one sit!ational or ling!istic ele#ent )ill the other in the learner3s #ind$ The interactionist position So#e interactionist theorists have arg!ed that #!ch second lang!age ac.!isition ta+es places thro!gh conversational interaction$ Co#prehensile inp!t is necessar" for lang!age ac.!isition$ 1ichael Long is #ore concerned )ith the .!estion of ho) inp!t is #ade co#prehensile$ 4hat learners need is not necessaril" si#plification of the ling!istic for#s !t rather an opport!nit" to interact )ith other spea+ers* in )a"s )hich lead the# to adapt )hat the" are sa"ing !ntil the learner sho)s sings of !nderstanding$ Research sho) that native spea+ers consistentl" #odif" their speech in s!stained conversation )ith non,native spea+ers$ 1odified interaction necessar" for lang!age ac.!isition& %, Interactional #odification #a+es inp!t co#prehensileF 0, Co#prehensile inp!t pro#otes ac.!isition$ Therefore 6, Interactional #odification pro#otes ac.!isition$ 1odified interaction #a" incl!de elaoration* slo)er speech rate gest!re* or the provision of additional conte(t!al c!es$
%, Co#prehension chec+s 2 to ens!re that the learners has !nderstood 0, Clarification re.!ests 6, Self,repetition or paraphrase Conversational ad=!st#ents can aid co#prehension$ 1odification )hich ta+es place d!ring interaction leads to etter !nderstanding than ling!istic si#plification$ 'nother perspective on the role of interaction in second lang!age ac.!isition is V"gots+"3s socioc!lt!ral theor" of h!#an #ental processing$ V"gots+"3s theor" ass!#es that all cognitive develop#ent arises as a res!lt of social interactions et)een individ!als$ E(tending V"gots+"3s theor" others clai# that second lang!age learners to higher levels of ling!istic +no)ledge )hen the" collaorate and interact )ith spea+ers of the second lang!age )ho are #ore +no)ledge that the" are for e(a#ple* a teacher or a #ore advanced learner$ S!##ar" In the end* )hat all theories of lang!age ac.!isition are #eant acco!nt for is the )or+ing of the h!#an #ind$ 1an" clai#s fro# ehavio!rist theor" )ere ased on e(peri#ents )ith ani#als learning a variet" of responses to laorator" sti#!li$ Their applicailit" to the nat!ral learning of lang!age )as strongl" challenged eca!se of the inade.!ac" ehavio!rist #odels$ Infor#ation processing and connectionist research often involves co#p!ter si#!lations or ver" controlled laorator" e(peri#ents$ 1an" ling!ists arg!e that this does not entitle connectionists to generali-e to the co#ple(ities of a nor#al h!#an lang!age learning$ The innatists dra) #!ch of their evidence fro# st!dies of the co#ple(ities of the proficient spea+er3s lang!age +no)ledge and perfor#ance and fro# anal"sis of their o)n int!itions ao!t lang!age$ Critics arg!e that it is not eno!gh to +no) )hat the final state of +no)ledge$ Interactionists e#phasi-e the role of the #odification of interaction in conversations$ Critics agree that there is #!ch )hich learners need to +no) )hich is not availale in the inp!t$
;, >'CTORS '>>ECTING SECON: L'NG'DGE LE'RNING
'll nor#al children* given a nor#al !pringing* are s!ccessf!l in the ac.!isition of their first lang!age$ This contrasts )ith o!r e(perience of second lang!age learners* )hose s!ccess varies greatl"$ 1an" of !s elieve that learners have certain characteristics )hich lead to #ore or less s!ccessf!l lang!age learning$ S!ch eliefs are !s!all" ased on anecdotal evidence* of o!r o)n or of people )e +no)$ In addition to personalit" characteristics* other factors generall" considered to e relevant to lang!age learning are intelligence* aptit!de* #otivation and attit!des$ 'lso* the age at )hich learning egins$ Characteristics of the “good lang!age learner” So#e people have a #!ch easier ti#e of learning than others$ Rate of develop#ent varies )idel" a#ong first lang!age learners$ In second lang!age learning* so#e st!dents progress rapidl" thro!gh the initial stages of learning a ne) lang!age )hile others str!ggle along #a+ing ver" slo) progress$ So#e learners never achieve native,li+e co##and of a second lang!age$ RESE'RC9 ON LE'RNER C9'R'CTERISTICS 4hen researchers are interested in finding o!t )hether #otivation affects second lang!age learning* the" select a gro!p of learners and give the# a .!estionnaire to #eas!re the t"pe and degree of their #otivation$ The learners are then given a test to #eas!re their second lang!age proficienc"$ The test and the .!estionnaire are scored and the researcher perfor#s a correlation on the t)o #eas!res* to see )hether learners )ith high scores on the proficienc" test are also #ore li+el" to have high scores on the #otivation .!estionnaire$ If this is the case* the researcher concl!des that high levels of #otivation are correlated )ith s!ccess in lang!age learning$ The first prole# is that is not possile to directl" oserve and #eas!re .!alities s!ch as #otivation* e(troversion* or even intelligence$ These are =!st laels of ehavio!rs and characteristics$ :ifferent researchers have often !sed the sa#e laels to descrie different sets of ehavio!ral traits$ 'nother factor )hich #a+es it diffic!lt to reach concl!sions ao!t relationships et)een individ!al learner characteristics and second lang!age learning is ho) lang!age proficienc" is defined and #eas!red$ >inall"* there is the prole# of interpreting the correlation of t)o factors as eing d!e to ca!sal relationship et)een the#$ The fact that t)o things tend to
occ!r together does not necessaril" #ean that one ca!sed the other$ Learners )ho are s!ccessf!l #a" indeed e highl" #otivated$ Intelligence This ter# has traditionall" een !sed to refer to perfor#ance on certain +inds of tests$ These tests are often associated )ith s!ccess in school* and a lin+ et)een intelligence and second lang!age learning has so#eti#es een reported$ Over the "ears* #an" st!dies have fo!nd that IK scores )ere a good #eans of predicting ho) s!ccessf!l a learner )o!ld e$ Recent st!dies have sho)n that these #eas!res #a" e #ore strongl" related to certain +inds of second lang!age ailities than to others$ Intelligence #a" e a strong factor )hen it co#es to learning$ It #a" pla" a less i#portant role in classroo#s )here the instr!ction foc!ses #ore on co##!nication and interaction$ It is co#ple($ Individ!als have #an" +inds of ailities and strengths* not all of )hich are #eas!red " traditional IK tests$ 1an" st!dents )hose acade#ic perfor#ance has een e(perienced consideral" s!ccess in second lang!age learning$ 'ptit!de So#e individ!als have an e(ceptional “aptit!de” for lang!age learning$ Learning .!ic+l" is the disting!ishing feat!re of aptit!de$ The #ost )idel" !sed aptit!de tests are the 1odern Lang!age 'ptit!de Test 71L'T8 and the Pi#sle!r Lang!age 'ptit!de /atter" 7PL'/8$ /oth ased on the vie) that aptit!de is co#posed of different t"pes of ailities& %, the ailit" to identif" and #e#ori-e ne) so!ndsF 0, the ailit" to !nderstand the f!nction of partic!lar )ords in sentencesF 6, the ailit" to fig!re o!t gra##atical r!les fro# lang!age sa#plesF ;, #e#or" for ne) )ords$ S!ccessf!l lang!age learners #a" not e strong in all of the co#ponents of aptit!de$ Teachers #a" find that +no)ing the aptit!de profile of their st!dents )ill help the# in selecting appropriate classroo# activities for partic!lar gro!ps of st!dents$ Personalit" ' n!#er of personalit" characteristics have een proposed as li+el" to affect second lang!age learning* !t it has not een eas" to de#onstrate their effects in e#pirical st!dies$ 's )ith other research investigating the effects of individ!al characteristics on second lang!age learning* different st!dies #eas!ring a si#ilar personalit" trait prod!ce different res!lts$ 'n e(troverted person is )ell s!ited to lang!age learning$ S!ccess is correlated )ith learners3 scores on characteristics often associated )ith e(troversion s!ch as assertiveness and advent!ro!snessF
others have fo!nd #an" s!ccessf!l lang!age learners do not get high scores on #eas!res of e(troversion$ 'nother aspect st!died is inhiition )hich disco!rages ris+, ta+ing$ It3s a prole# of adolescents* )ho are #ore self,conscio!s than "o!nger learners$ Inhiition is a negative force for second lang!age pron!nciation perfor#ance$ Several other personalit" characteristics s!ch as self,estee#* e#path"* do#inance* tal+ativeness* and responsiveness have also een st!died$ The #a=or diffic!lt" in investigating personalit" characteristics is that of identification and #eas!re#ent$ 1an" researchers elieve that personalit" )ill e sho)n to have an i#portant infl!ence on s!ccess in lang!age learning$ Proal" not personalit" alone* !t the )a" it co#ines )ith other factors* that contri!tes to second lang!age learning$ 1OTIV'TION 'N: 'TTITD:ES There has een a great deal of research on the role of attit!des and #otivation in second lang!age learning$ Positive attit!des and #otivation are related to s!ccess in second lang!age learning$ The .!estion is* are learners #ore highl" #otivated eca!se the are s!ccessf!l* or the" are s!ccessf!l eca!se the" are highl" #otivated 1otivation can e defined in ter#s of t)o factors& learners3 co##!nicative needs and their attit!des to)ards the second lang!age co##!nit"$ If learners need to spea+ the second lang!age in a )ide range of social sit!ations the" )ill perceive the co##!nicative val!e of the second lang!age and therefore e #otivated to ac.!ire proficienc" in it$ The ter#s integrative #otivation refer to lang!age learning for personal gro)th and c!lt!ral enrich#ent* and instr!#ental #otivation for lang!age learning for #ore i##ediate or practical goals$ :epending on the learner3s attit!des* learning a second lang!age can e a so!rce of enrich#ent or a so!rce of resent#ent$ If the reason for learning the second lang!age is e(ternal press!re* internal #otivation #a" e #ini#al and general attit!des to)ards learning #a" e negative$ One factor )hich affects #otivation is the social d"na#ic or po)er relationship et)een the lang!ages$ That is* #e#ers of a #inorit" gro!p learning the lang!age of a #a=orit" gro!p have different attit!des and #otivation fro# #a=orit" gro!p #e#ers learning a #inorit" lang!age$ 1otivation in the classroo# setting In a teacher3s #ind* #otivated st!dents are those )ho participate activel" in class* e(press interest and st!d" a great deal$ If )e can #a+e o!r classroo# places )here st!dents en=o" co#ing eca!se the content is interesting* )here the learning goals are challenging "et #anageale* )here the at#osphere is s!pportive
and non, threatening* )e can #a+e a positive contri!tion to st!dents3 #otivation to learn$ 'lso& ,#otivating st!dents into the lesson ,var"ing the activities* tas+s and #aterials , !sing co,operative rather than co#petitive goals Learner preferences Learners have clear preferences for ho) the" go ao!t learning ne) #aterial 7learning st"le8$ People cannot learn so#ething !ntil the" have seen it$ S!ch learners )o!ld fall into the gro!p called vis!al learners$ Other people* #a" e called a!ral learners* need onl" to hear so#ething once or t)ice efore the" +no) it$ Others are +inaesthetic learners* need to add a ph"sical action to the learning process$ In contrast consideral" research has foc!sed on a cognitive learning st"le distinction et)een field independent and field dependent learners$ 'n individ!al tends to separate details fro# the general ac+gro!nd or to see thing holisticall"$ 'nother categor" is ased on the individ!al3s te#pera#ent or personalit"$ 4hen learners e(press a preference for seeing so#ething )ritten or for #e#ori-ing #aterial* )e sho!ld not ass!#e that the )a"s of )or+ing are )rong$ 4e sho!ld enco!rage the# to !se all #eans availale$ Learners eliefs 'll the learners* have strong eliefs and opinions ao!t ho) their instr!ction sho!ld e delivered$ Ds!all" ased on previo!s learning e(periences and the ass!#ption that a partic!lar t"pe o instr!ction is the est )a" for the# to learn$ Learners eliefs can e strong #ediating factors in the e(perience in the classroo#$ Learners3 preferences for learning* )ill infl!ence the +ind of strategies the" !se in order to learn ne) #aterial$ 'ge of ac.!isition ' learner characteristic& age$ It3s easier to define and #eas!re than personalit"* aptit!de and #otivation$ Children fro# i##igrant fa#ilies event!all" spea+ the lang!age of their ne) co##!nit" )ith native,li+e fl!enc"$ 1an" ad!lts second lang!age learners eco#e capale of co##!nicating ver" s!ccessf!ll" in the lang!age !t* difference of accent* )ord choice or gra##atical feat!res disting!ish the# fro# native spea+ers and second lang!age spea+ers$ In first lang!age ac.!isition* there is a critical period for second lang!age ac.!isition$ There is a ti#e in h!#an develop#ent )hen the rain is predisposed to s!cceed in lang!age learning$ Changes in the rain affect the nat!re of lang!age
ac.!isition$ 'ccording to this vie)* lang!age learning )hich occ!rs after the end of a critical period #a" not e ased on the innate iological str!ct!res to contri!te to first lang!age ac.!isition or second lang ac.!isition in earl" childhood$ The critical period ends so#e)here aro!nd p!ert"* so#e even earlier$ @o!nger learners 7Critical period 9"pothesis8 have #ore ti#e to devote to learning a lang!age$ The" have #ore opport!nities to hear and !se the lang!age in environ#ents )here the" do not e(perience press!re to spea+ fl!entl"$ Older learners are in sit!ations )hich de#and #ore co#ple( lang!age$ 'd!lts are often e#arrassed )ith their lac+ of #aster" of the lang!age and #!st develop a sense of inade.!ac" after e(periences of fr!stration in tr"ing to sa" e(actl" )hat the" #ean$ So#e st!dies of older and "o!nger learners have sho)n that older learners are #ore efficient than "o!nger st!dents$ In ed!cational research* learners )ho egan learning a second lang!age at the pri#ar" school level did not fare etter in the long r!n than those )ho egan in earl" adolescence$ Critical Period 9"pothesis& 1ore than =!st accent 1ost st!dies have foc!sed on learnersJ phonological 7pron!nciation8 achieve#ent$ Older learners have a noticeale foreign accent$ Is s"nta( dependent on age of ac.!isition as phonological develop#ent 4hat ao!t #orpholog" One st!d" that atte#pted to ans)er these .!estions )as done " 1ar+ Pat+o)s+i$ 1aster" of the spo+en lang!age 1ar+ Pat+o)s+i st!died the effect of the age on the ac.!isition of feat!res of a second lang!age other than accent$ 9e h"pothesi-ed that* even if accent )ere ignored* onl" those )ho had eg!n learning their second lang!age efore the age of %< co!ld ever achieve f!ll* native,li+e #aster" of that lang!age$ Pat+o)s+iJs first .!estion$ 4ill there e a difference et)een learners )ho egan to learn English efore p!ert" and those )ho egan learning English later It 4as ans)ered )ith a "es$ 'ge )as closel" related to the other factors that it )as not reall" possile to separate the# co#pletel"$ Person )ho had lived in the co!ntr" for %< "ears #ight spea+ etter than one )ho had een there for onl" % "ears$ 9o)ever* a person )ho had arrived in the Dnited States at the age of %B and had lived there for 0 "ears did not score significantl" etter than so#eone had arrived at the age of %B !t onl" lived there for % "ears$ Th!s Pat+o)s+i fo!nd that age of ac.!isition in a ver" i#portant factor in setting li#its on the develop#ent of native,li+e #aster" of second lang!age and that this li#itation does not appl" onl" to accent$
Native,li+e #aster" of the spo+en lang!age is diffic!lt to attain " older learners$ Even the ailit" appears to e affected " the age factor$ Int!ition of gra##aticalit" Ma.!eline Mohnson and Elissa Ne)port cond!cted a st!d" of ;? Chinese and orean spea+ers )ho had eg!n to learn English at different ages$ The" fo!nd that there )as a strong relationship et)een an earl" start to lang!age learning and etter perfor#ance in the second lang!age$ Those )ho egan efore the age of %<* especiall" efore the age of %* there )ere fe) individ!al differences in second lang!age ailit"$ Those )ho egan later did not have native, li+e lang!age ailities and )ere #ore li+el" to differ fro# one another in !lti#ate attain#ent$ This st!d"* s!pports the h"pothesis that there is a critical period for attaining f!ll native,li+e #aster" of a second lang!age$ Is "o!nger reall" etter Catherine Sno) and 1arian 9oefnagel, 9ohle p!lished an article ased on a research pro=ect the" had carried o!t in 9olland$ The" st!died the progress of a gro!p of English spea+ers )ho )ere learning :!tch as a second lang!age$ 7incl!ding children fro# three "ears old to older children* adolescents and ad!lts$ ' large n!#er of tas+s )as !sed to #eas!re different t"pes of lang!age !se and lang!age +no)ledge$ ,pron!nciation '!ditor" discri#ination 1orpholog" Sentence repetition Sentence translation Sentence =!dge#ent tas+ Peaod" Pict!re voca!lar" 7 learners sa) ; pict!res and heard % isolate )ord$ The" sho!ld indicate )hich pict!re #atched the )ord8 Stor" co#prehension tas+ Stor"telling tas+ Learners )ere divided into children 76 to %8* adolescents 7%0 to %<8 and ad!lts 7%B to ?8 't )hat age sho!ld second lang!age instr!ction egins @o!nger is etter$ Older learners #a" )ell spea+ )ith an accent eca!se the" )ant to contin!e eing identified )ith their first lang!age$ It is etter to egin second lang!age instr!ction as earl" as possile$ It is ver" i#portant to ear in #ind the conte(t of these levels$ 9o)ever* earl" intensive e(pos!re to the second lang!age #a" entail the loss or in inco#plete develop#ent of the child3s first lang!age$
It is ass!#ed that the child3s native lang!age )ill re#ain the pri#ar" lang!age* it #a" e #ore efficient to egin second or foreign lang!age teaching later$ 'fter "ears of classes* learners feel fr!strated " the lac+ of progress* and their #otivation to contin!e #a" e di#inished$ School progra#s sho!ld e ased on realistic esti#ates of ho) long it ta+es to learn a second lang!age$ One or t)o ho!rs a )ee+ )ill not prod!ce ver" advanced second lang!age spea+ers* no #atter ho) "o!ng the" )ere )hen the" egan$ 2OTI7ATION
?$% Introd!ction& It is one of the #ost po)erf!l infl!ences on learning and is so#eti#es !sed as a lan+et ter# to signif" that so#eone has a general disposition to learn$ The ter# “#otivation” is co#posed of #an" different and overlapping factors s!ch as interest* c!riosit" or a desire to achieve$ It is also s!=ect to vario!s e(ternal infl!ences s!ch as parents* teachers and e(a#s$ 4e3ll foc!s on a cognitive approach )here the e#phasis is placed !pon )a"s in )hich individ!als #a+e sense of their learning e(periences and are seen as eing #otivated " their conscio!s tho!ghts and feelings$ ?$0 Earl" ps"chological vie)s on #otivation Earl" )or+ )as ased !pon the ehavio!r of ani#als in laoratories$ In this )a"* h!#an #otivation to learn an" partic!lar thing )as acco!nted for in ter#s of )hat iological needs )ere eing #et d!ring the earl" learning "ears and )hat +ind of re)ard or reinforce#ent )as provided for earl" atte#pts to learn$ This +ind of approach gave rise to #odern ehavio!ris# )ith its e#phasis !pon the nat!re and sched!ling of re)ard s"ste# as the #ost effective )a" of #otivation largel" in ter#s of e(ternal forces$ /ehavio!ris# )o!ld consider #otivation in ter#s of e(ternal forces$ 4hat specific condition give rise to )hat +ind of ehavio!r and ho) the conse.!ences of that ehavio!r affect )hether it is #ore or less li+el" to happen again$ 1!rra" identified a large n!#er of h!#an needs as ca!sing inner tensions )hich had to e released$ 1otivation )as defined in ter#s of the “press” the !rge to release the tension and satisf"$ >or #an" "ears s!ch drive red!ction theories do#inated theor" and research on #otivation$ ?$0$% 'chieve#ent #otivation
a refor#!lation of the drive red!ction approach )as the notion of need to achieve or achieve#ent #otivation$ It states that people differ #ar+edl" in their need to achieve or to e s!ccessf!l$ >or so#e people* the drive to s!cceed do#inates their lives and p!shes the# to e high achievers )hereas for others* it reall" doesn3t see# to #atter if the" do )ell or not$ 't the sa#e ti#e* a person #ight e inclined to avoid engaging in an activit" eca!se of fear of fail!re$ 'chieve#ent #otivation can e deter#ined as the relative strength of the tendenc" to approach a tas+ co#pared )ith the strength of the tendenc" to avoid the tas+$ 9o)ever* in its earl" for#* achieve#ent theor" placed little e#phasis !pon ho) people #ade sense of the tas+s )ith )hich the" )ere presented$ The drive to achieve )as vie)ed as !nconscio!s and as a si#ple cancelling o!t of conflicting forces 2 a +ind of approach5avoidance ratio$
?$0$0 Opti#al aro!sal The drive red!ction and achieve#ent theories had several prole#s* one of the# is that the" )ere ased on the f!nda#ental principle of ho#eostasis$ The" ass!#e that ani#als and h!#ans prefer not to e in a state of aro!sal and are constantl" see+ing to e in a #ore settled state$ ' co#ple#entar" vie) e#erged s!ggesting that oth h!#ans and ani#als see+ a level of “opti#al aro!sal” at )hich the" f!nction est )itho!t having to #eet an" other asic needs$ Earl" approaches )ere not satisfactor" eca!se the" )ere too si#plistic and ased on the principle of ho#eostasis* )hich does not al)a"s appl" even to ani#al ehavio!r and the" presented a vie) of individ!als at the" #erc" of forces e"ond their control$ ?$6 1otivation in foreign and second lang!age learning The learning of a foreign lang!age involves far #ore than si#pl" learning s+ills* or a s"ste# of r!les or a gra##arF it involves an alteration in self,i#age* the adoption of a ne) social and c!lt!ral ehavio!rs and )a"s of eing and therefore has a significant i#pact on the social nat!re of the learner$ 7Learning a second lang!age is learning to e another social person , Croo+all8 S!ccess in learning a foreign lang!age )ill e infl!enced partic!larl" " attit!des to)ards the co##!nit" of spea+ers of that lang!age$ Lang!age learning )ill also e affected " the )hole social sit!ation* conte(t and c!lt!re in )hich the learning ta+es place$
The socio,ed!cational #odel incorporates the learner3s c!lt!ral eliefs* their attit!des to)ards this learning sit!ation* their integrativeness and their #otivation$ 7Garner8 9e defines #otivation as the co#ination of effort pl!s desire to achieve the goal of learning the lang!age pl!s favo!rale attit!des to)ards learning the lang!age$ Garner also #a+es a distinction et)een integrative and instr!#ental orientations$ Orientation is not the sa#e as #otivation !t represents reasons for st!d"ing lang!age$ Integrative orientation& occ!rs )hen the learner is st!d"ing a lang!age eca!se of a )ish to identif" )ith the c!lt!re of spea+ers of that lang!age$ Instr!#ental orientation& descries a gro!p of factors concerned )ith #otivation arising for# e(ternal goals s!ch as passing e(a#s* financial re)ards* f!rthering careers or gaining pro#otions$ Integrative orientation is one of the factors that contri!tes to)ards integrative #otivations$ Ellis identifies ? variales$ 'ttit!de to)ards the c!lt!re Interest in foreign lang!ages Integrative orientation 'ttit!de to)ards the learning sit!ation :esire to learn 'ttit!de to)ards learning a lang!age Integrative #otivation correlates )ith higher achieve#ent in the lang!age$ Integrative 4hile this is #ore i#portant in a second lang!age conte(t* an instr!#ental orientation #a" e i#portant in other sit!ations s!ch as learning English in a place )here it f!nctions #ore as a foreign lang!age 7China* Philippines8$ 9o)ever* #an" st!dies have fo!nd that a n!#er of other factors s!ch as confidence or friendship #a" e #ore i#portant than #otivating factors$ In one recent atte#pt to #a+e sense of the different co#ponents involved in a second lang!age #otivation* :orn"ei proposes a three level categorisation$ The lang!age level enco#passes vario!s orientations and #otives related to aspects of the second lang!age s!ch as the c!lt!re and the co##!nit" and the !sef!lness of the lang!age$ This )ill infl!ence the goals learners set and the choices the" #a+e$ The sit!ation level incl!des co#ponents related to the co!rse* the teacher and the gro!p d"na#ics$
1otivation is a #!ltifaceted constr!ct )hich )ill e affected " sit!ational factors$ It also stresses the i#portance of )hat learners ring to the tas+ of learning$ Lang!age level Learner level Learning sit!ational level Co!rse,specific #otivational co#ponents Teacher, specific #otivational co#ponents Gro!p,specific #otivational co#ponents ?$; ' cognitive vie) on #otivation The central factor fro# the cognitive perspective is choice$ People have choice over the )a" in )hich the" ehave and have control over their actions$ This is in #ar+ed contrast to a ehavio!rist vie) )hich sees o!r actions as at the #erc" of e(ternal forces s!ch as re)ards$ 1otivation is concerned )ith iss!es as )h" people decide to act in certain )a"s and )hat factors infl!ence the choices the" #a+e* it also involves decisions as to the a#o!nt of effort people are prepared to e(pend$ The role of the teacher eco#es one of helping and enaling learners to #a+e s!itale choices$ ?$< a social constr!ctivist perspective ' constr!ctivist vie) centres aro!nd the pre#ise that each individ!al is #otivated differentl"$ People )ill #a+e their o)n sense of the vario!s e(ternal infl!ences that s!rro!nd the# in )a"s that are personal to the# therefore* )hat #otivates one person to learn a foreign lang!age and +eeps that person going !ntil he or she has achieved a level of proficienc" )ith )hich he or she is satisfied )ill differ fro# individ!al to individ!al$ ?$? a proposed definition of #otivation Cognitive definition that fits a social constr!ctivist fra#e)or+$ 1otivation ' state of cognitive and e#otional aro!sal 4hich leads to a conscio!s decision to act* and 4hich gives rise to a period of s!stained intellect!al and5or ph"sical effort In order to attain a previo!sl" set goal 7or goals8
The initial aro!sal #a" e triggered " internal ca!ses 7interest* c!riosit"8 or e(ternal 7another person or event8$ Enth!sias# is activated leading to #a+e a conscio!s decision o act in certain )a"s in order to achieve a partic!lar goal$ Once the activit" has eg!n* the individ!al needs to s!stain the effort needed to achieve the goal* to persist$ 'll this is infl!enced " the conte(t and sit!ation* and )ill e personal to the individ!al$ ?$A a #odel of #otivation It has three stages$ %$ Reasons for !nderta+ing a partic!lar activit"$ 0$ :eciding to do so#ething 6$ S!staining the effort* or persisting This )ill ta+e place )ithin a social conte(t and c!lt!re )hich )ill infl!ence choices #ade at each stage$ The fist t)o stages #a" e concerned )ith initiating #otivation )hile the last one involves s!staining #otivation$ ?$B Intrinsic and e(trinsic #otivation E(trinsic& )hen the reason for perfor#ing an act is to gain so#ething o!tside the activit" itself* s!ch as passing an e(a# or otaining financial re)ard$ Intrinsic& )hen the e(perience of doing so#ething generates interest and en=o"#ent* and the reason for perfor#ing the activit" lies )ithin the activit" itself$ In realit" this distinction is not )atertight and #an" of o!r actions are pro#pted " a #i(t!re of oth reasons$ S!san 9arter vie)s the# as the opposite ends of a contin!!#$ She disting!ishes < separate di#ensions that are considered to co#prise #otivation$ Intrinsic Preference for challenge C!riosit"5interest Independent #aster"
Vs Vs Vs
Independent =!dge#ent
Vs
Internal criteria for s!ccess
Vs
E(trinsic Preference for eas" )or+ Pleasing teacher5getting grades :ependence of teacher in fig!ring o!t prole#s Reliance on teacher3s =!dge#ent ao!t )hat to do E(ternal criteria for s!ccess
It is #ore realistic to s!ggest that one for# of #otivation infl!ences another or to see all the factors interacting to affect each other$ Te first t)o di#ensions are concerned )ith reasons for acting )hile the last t)o are #ore concerned )ith acting in a #otivated )a" or s!staining the effort$ ?$ Perceived val!es of the activit" The greater the val!e that individ!als attach to the acco#plish#ent of or involve#ent in an activit"* the #ore highl" #otivated the" )ill e oth to engage in it initiall"* and later to p!t s!stained effort into s!cceeding in the activit"$ ?$% 'ro!sal ' state of aro!sal needs to e #aintained to enale so#eone to p!t in the necessar" effort to co#plete an activit" satisfactoril"$ One #a=or co#ponent is c!riosit" and it )as the identification of it as a #otivating variale that provided a significant land#ar+ in cognitive theor"$ It appears to e i#portant to ens!re an opti#!# level of aro!sal and co#ple(it"$ If a tas+ is too co#ple( it is li+el" to ind!ce conf!sion and an avoidance to response rather than prove appealing$ 4hen people are involved in activities considered highl" #otivating* the follo)ing conditions are li+el" to appl"& 1ind and od" are involved :eep concentration The" +no) )hat the" )ant to do The" +no) ho) )ell the" are doing The" are not )orried ao!t failing Ti#e passes .!ic+l" Lose of ordinar" sense of self,conscio!s gna)ing )orr" that characterises #!ch of dail" life$ The ter# coined to descrie the total involve#ent is called “flo) e(perience”$ ?$%% Learner3s eliefs ao!t the#selves ?$%%$% ' sense of agenc" The sense people have of )hether the" ca!se and are in control of their actions* or )hether the" perceive that )hat happens to the# in controlled " other people is an i#portant deter#inant in #otivation$ These factors are part of a 7sense of agenc"8
Loc!s of ca!salit" 4hether people see the#selves 7origins8 or others 7pa)ns8 as the ca!se of their action$ The conse.!ences of feeling that the loc!s of ca!salit" lies asicall" )ithin oneself are that choices* freedo# and o)nership of ehavio!r eco#e iss!es of personal responsiilit"$ >eeling oneself to e a pa)n in the hands of others arogates choices and disco!rages an" sense of personal responsiilit" for one3s actions$ The discover" that so#eone else )ants #e to act in a )a" so #!ch tat the" are prepared to re)ard #e for #" actions* the" #" feelings of personal responsiilit" and freedo# of choice #a" e di#inished$ Loc!s of control It involves their perception of )hether the" are s!se.!entl" in control of their actions$ The e(tent to )hich learners are in control of their learning )ill have an effect !pon their #otivation to e contin!all" involved in learning the lang!age$ In contrast* learned helplessness* refers to learners that feel the" lac+ control over )hat happens$ Effectiveness #otivation Individ!als possess an inner drive to)ards #aster" )hich differs fro# the need to achieve$ 1aster" involves s!cceeding in a tas+ for its o)n sa+e )hile achieving entails s!cceeding in order to e etter than other people$ Self,efficac" for learning refers to st!dents eliefs ao!t their capailities to appl" effectivel" the +no)ledge and s+ills the" alread" possess and there" learn ne) cognitive s+ills$ This is one )a" of e(plaining the co##on distinction et)een capailit" and perfor#ance$ I #a" have the s+ills !t !nless I elieve that I a# capale of doing so* I a# !nli+el" to de#onstrate those s+ills in that conte(t$
?$%%$0 1otivational st"le In see+ing to #a+e sense of different patterns of responses to perceived s!ccess and fail!re so#e theorist developed the notion of #otivational st"le$ The concept of Learned helplessness is !sef!l to descrie people )ho see fail!re as essentiall" d!e to a lac+ of ailit" and )ho feel the" have no control over their actions$ The concept of #aster" oriented e(plains fail!re in ter#s of lac+ of effort and see+ cl!es in their #ista+es for )a"s of i#proving their s!se.!ent perfor#ance$
Self,)orth concern& people )ith high self,)orth concern )ill see+ sit!ations )ehre the" enhance their feelings and avoid sit!ations in )hich the" #a" fail or )here a great deal of effort is involved$ The i#plication for teachers is that their learners3 interpretations of ho) their parents* peers and teachers perceive the# e(erts a critical infl!ence on their #otivational st"le this their #otivation to learn a lang!age$ ?$%0 Setting and achieving goals Perfor#ance Vs #aster" goals Perfor#ance& individ!al ai# to loo+ s#art 1aster"& ai# to eco#e s#arter People3s choices for goals reflect oth their eliefs ao!t intelligence and ailit" and their t"pical ehavio!r patterns in achieve#ent sit!ations$ The ones )ho choose perfor#ance vie) intelligence as so#ething fi(ed and !nchangeale$ If their confidence is lo) the" )on3t i#prove their perfor#ance* if it is high the" )ill acco!nt for s!ccess in ter#s of fi(ed intelligence$ Those )ho p!rs!e learning goals 7#aster"8 )ill elieve that intelligence or ailit" is #alleale and that effort is )orth)hile$ If the goal is set " so#eone else* teachers )ill need to ens!re that learners are read"* )illing and ale to achieve these goals in a foc!sed and self,directed )a"$ The ter# “effort,avoidance #otivation” descries the ehavio!r of people )ho )ere #otivated not to )or+ to achieve goals set " others$ The teacher sho!ld foc!s on redirecting the energ" p!t into effort,avoidance in creative rather than controlling )a"s$ The att!ne#ent strateg" involves the teacher negotiating )ith the learner all aspects of the )or+$ The teacher is a #ediator$ ?$%6 The involve#ent of significant others T)o #ain factors can e seen as contri!ting to learners3 #otivation to participate in activities introd!ced " other people 7teachers8& %$ Personalit" or nat!re of the person introd!cing the activit"$ 0$ the )a" in )hich the person presents the activit" and )or+s )ith the learner d!ring the co#pletion of that activit"$
Teachers #!st& #a+e their intentions clear* invest tas+s )ith personal significance and e(plain clearl" ho) to perfor# the activit"$ ?$%6$% >eedac+ /ehavio!rists see it as a #otivating infl!ence$ It can e given " #eans of a praise* co##ent or silence$ Reinforce#ent& so#ething that contri!tes to the rec!rrence of ehavio!r$ It can e either positive or negative$ >eedac+ is li+el" to increase #otivation to)ards certain tas+s$ It provides infor#ation that enales learners to identif" specific aspects of their perfor#ance* it sho!ld e helpf!l and #otivating$ Tho!gh if it fails* it can have the opposite effects$ ' constr!ctivist e(planation in ter#s of #eaning that re)ards conve" to learners$ Praise or re)ard )ill conve" #essages ao!t the +inds of ehavio!rs e(pected$ The f!t!re ehavio!r of learners )ill depend !pon ho) the" perceive the o!tco#es to e val!ed " significant others$ “Psycho!ogy .or Langage Teachers"' 8i!!ia4s% 2arion 9 #r-en% +obert (1::); An Intro-ction to E-cationa! Psycho!ogy; #ehaioris4 an- Cognitie Psycho!ogy
EDUCATIONAL P6
Cognitive Info,processing approach 'ttention
#e#or"
Vie)s on intelligence& >i(ed&
:"na#ic& all learners are capale of learning a lang!age
Constr!ctivis# Learners #a+e their o)n personal sense of the process of learning
:E>INITION O> E:DC'TION'L PS@C9OLOG@& The application of ps"cholog" to ed!cation " foc!sing on the develop#ent* eval!ation and application of theories and principles of learning and instr!ction that can enhance lifelong learning$7aplan* %8 9o)ever* it lac+s a recognition that there is a difference et)een learning and ed!cation Conse.!ence& #an" learning activities are not necessaril" ed!cative$ 1an" lang!age tas+s have little personal interest to the learners and have li#ited ed!cational significance e"ond the tas+ itself$ 'PPRO'C9ES TO E:$ PS@C9OLOG@& Late %th c$ the discipline of ps"cholog" )as deen to estalish itself as a science on a par )ith the nat!ral sciences$ “scientific #ethod”& a #eans of gathering data ao!t h!#an ehavio!r$ conflict et)een those )ho sa) the area of st!d" as )hat )ent on in the h!#an ps"che and those )ho sa) it as a concentration !pon oservale ehavio!r$ %$ Positivist school& ps"chologists so!ght to find the principles of h!#an learning " investigating the ehavio!r of ani#als lo)er do)n the iological hierarch" of the ani#al +ingdo#* !nder rigoro!sl" defined conditions$ “logical positivis#”& +no)ledge and facts e(ist )ithin the real )orld and can e discovered " setting !p e(peri#ents in )hich conditions are caref!ll" controlled and )here h"potheses are set !p and tested$ this vie) co!ld accept onl" e#pirical data as evidence that a pheno#enon )as occ!rring* and re=ected an"thing )hich co!ld not e seen or #eas!red as !nscientific$ Eg$ ho) rats learned their )a" thro!gh #a-es to otain food$ /!t since the tho!ghts and feelings of h!#ans )ere considered to e inaccessile to proper scientific investigation )ithin this paradig#* the" )ere not investigated$ /ehavio!ris#& has its roots )ithin positivis# and has infl!ence on lang!age teaching$ It arose o!t of the ideas of earl" learning theorists )ho atte#pted to e(plain all learning in ter#s of so#e for# of conditioning eg$ Pavlov de#onstrated )ith dogs and other ani#als that a response 7salivation8 generated " one sti#!l!s7food8 co!ld e prod!ced " introd!cing a second sti#!l!s7a ell8 at the sa#e ti#e$ S,R 7Sti#!l!s,Response8 theor" or classical conditioning$ 9o)ever* this proved to e of li#ited val!e in acco!nting for the enor#o!s range of h!#an actions$ 1ean)hile* in the DS' a different ro!t )as ta+en " ehavio!rists* )ho egan to foc!s on the nat!re and shaping of responses in the S,R chain* and the conditions !nder )hich s,r relationships )ere for#ed$
S+inner& fo!nder of #odern ehavio!ris#$ Constr!cted a s"ste# of principles to acco!nt for h!#an ehavio!r in strictl" oservale ter#s$ Learning )as the res!lt of environ#ental rather than genetic factors$ Introd!ced the notions of operants 7the range of ehavio!rs that organis#s perfor#ed or )ere capale of perfor#ing8 and reinforce#ent$ /ehavio!rist theor" th!s ca#e to e(plain learning in ter#s of operant conditioning& an individ!al responds to a sti#!l!s " ehaving in a partic!lar )a"$ In this )a" an" range of ehavio!rs co!ld e grad!all" increased " reinforcing the ehavio!r re.!ired$ In t!rning his attention to ed!cation* S+inner arg!ed that this co!ld e i#proved " the adoption of fo!r proced!res& teachers sho!ld #a+e clear )hat is to e ta!ghtF tas+s sho!ld e ro+en do)n into se.!ential stepsF sts sho!ld e enco!raged to )or+ at their o)n pace " #eans of individ!alised learning progra##esF learning sho!ld e “progra##ed” " incorporating the aove proced!res and providing i##ediate positive reinforce#ent$ /ehavio!rist vie)s )ere a po)erf!l infl!ence on the develop#ent of the a!dioling!al approach to lang!age teaching$ 4hen it is applied to lang learning* lang is seen as a ehavio!r to e ta!ght$ Sts are given lang tas+s in se.!ential steps$ ' s#all part of the foreign lang is presented as sti#!l!s * to )hich the learner responds * " repetition or s!stit!tion$ This is follo)ed " reinforce#ent " the teacher$ Learning a lang is seen as ac.!iring a set of appropiate #echanical haits 7pattern drills* #e#orisation of dialog!es8* and errors are fro)ned !pon as reinforcing “ad haits”F e(planation of r!les is generall" given )hen the lang ite# has een )ell practised$ '!dioling!alis# does have li#itations& passive role of learnersF there is little concern for )hat goes on inside the learners3 headsF a!dioling!al drills can e carried o!t )ith little attention to the #eaning that the lang conve"sF there is no negotiation of #eaningsF it does not allo) for learning fro# #ista+es$ Nevertheless* str!ct!ral or a!dioling!al approach has do#inated lang teaching aro!nd the )orld$ reasons& since in #an" co!ntries teachers are not provided )ith a professional training* it3s easier for the# to !se the steps of presentation* practice* repetition and drills and to follo) their co!rseoo+F teach )ho lac+ confidence tend to e less frightenedF !t the #a"or reason is that it is !nderpinned " a coherent ps"chological perspective 7ehavio!ris#8* )hereas #ore co##!nicative approaches have lac+ed a coherent theor" of learning$ 'nother positive point is the part pla"ed " parents5teach in setting appropriate learning conditions and ens!ring partic!lar +inds of ehavio!ral conse.!ences$
/ehavio!ris#3s negative point is that it is onl" concerned )ith oservale ehavio!r$ 0$ Cognitive ps"cholog"& it is foc!sed in the #ental processes that are involved in learning$ The learner is an active participant and !ses #ental strategies$ 9o)ever* the )a"s in )hich h!#an tho!ght has een investigated have the#selves varied consideral"$ 't one e(tre#e are infor#ation theorists )ho have dra)n the analog" of the rain as a highl" co#ple( co#p!ter and )ho see+ to e(plain its )or+ing in ter#s of r!les and #odels of ho) different aspects of learning ta+e place$ 't the other e(tre#e is the constr!ctivist #ove#ent 7Mean Piaget* George ell"8* concerned )ith )a"s in )hich individ!als co#e to #a+e their o)n sense of the )orld$ @et another aspect of cognitive ps"cholog" is the rich and varied literat!re on h!#an intelligence$ So#e theories see+ to e(plain )hat is intelligence and others to #eas!re it " #ethods as IK testing$ These different approaches to cognition are infor#ation processing and constr!ctivis#$ Infor#ation processing& it is an approach to learning concerned )ith the )a" in )hich people ta+e in infor#ation* process it and act !pon it$ 'ttention* perception and #e#or" eco#e the foc!s of the )or+$ These theorists constr!ct #odels to tr" to acco!nt for the )a" in )hich the h!#an #ind )or+s$ The" clai# to e ale to predict the +ind of #ental processes that )ill e necessar" for effective learning to ta+e place and to identif" precisel" ho) and )here an" #alf!nctioning is occ!rring )hen a person is displa"ing learning diffic!lties$ 'ttention& so#e learners have consideral" diffic!lt" in pa"ing attention to their )or+ and that invarial" this )ill have a negative effect on their learning$ 4h" do ppl differ so #!ch in this respect and )hat can the teach do One vie) s!ggests that attention sho!ld e seen as a process of filtering o!t an over)hel#ing range of inco#ing sti#!li and selecting o!t onl" those sti#!li )hich are i#portant for f!rther processing$ 'nother vie) concept!alises att$ as a cognitive reso!rce )hich can e dra)n !pon as a #eans of concentrating o!t #ental efforts$ /!t as one eco#es #ore s+ilf!l as in the case of reading* there is less need to call !pon one3s f!ll att$ 1e#or" & 't+inson and Shiffrin3s #odel descries #e#or" in ter#s of a sensor" register )here sti#!li are initiall" recorded for a rief a#o!nt of ti#e efore eing passed into short,ter# #e#or"* lasting no longer than 6 seconds$ /eca!se of its s#all capacit" 7ao!t A ite#s at an" one ti#e8* it is necessar" to find )a"s of rea+ing do)n co#ple( #aterial into related ch!n+s efore consigning these to the long,ter# #e#or"
store$ One )a" to do this is " rehearsal* in the for# of repetition or association of #eaning to )hat is to e re#e#ered$ Practical i#plications& #e#or" is ver" i#portant in learning a lang!age$ There is nothing to e gained fro# overloading learners3 short,ter# #e#or" )itho!t so#e for# of rehearsal 7#ne#onic strategies and involving #ore than one of the sensesF lin+)ord #ethod& lin+ing )ords in oth the first and second lang!age to constr!ct a pict!re in the #indF advanced organisers& topical introd!ction to a lesson that orientates learners to the s!=ect #atter and relates ne) learning to )hat the learners alread" +no)8$ Intelligence and intelligence testing& earl" vie)s arose o!t of the )or+ of pioneers of the e!genics #ove#ent )ho )ere co##itted to the i#prove#ent of the h!#an race " genetic engineeringF ta+en !p " ps"cho#etricians )ho so!ght )a"s to #eas!re the so,called “g” 7general intelligence8 factor and gave rise to #isg!ided notions that so#e races )ere intellect!all" s!perior to others 7IK tests* Carroll and Sapon3s 1odern Lang 'ptit!de Test 71L'T8 8$ These tests )ere ased on the pre#ise that ppl possess a fi(ed a#o!nt of ailit" at lang learning* and that this ailit" can e #eas!red$ ' recent develop#ent of this traditional vie) ste#s fro# the )or+ of the 9arvard ps"chologist Gardner$ 9e arg!es that instead of vie)ing intelligence as a !nitar" fac!lt"* )e sho!ld consider the possiilit" of different +inds of intelligences 7A* one of )hich is ling!istic intelligence8$ Vernon provided a helpf!l !t !n=!stl" neglected* perspective on the iss!e of )hether and ho) intel$ co!ld e #eas!red$ Intel '& intel )ith )hich )e are orn$ 9o)ever* c )e are all affected " o!r environ#ents* this genetic endo)#ent can never e #eas!red$ Intel /& intel )e displa" in all aspects of o!r ever"da" lives )hich is contin!all" changing and ver" #!ch conte(t, o!nd$ Intel C& represents )hat is #eas!red " IK tests$ 9o)ever* the +ind of intelligence that these tests represent has not een as good as a central factor in learning and can even act as a arrier to teachers3 !nderstanding of the learning process$ Stengerg proposed a triarchic theor" of intel )hich contains three #a=or sets of co#ponents$ 1etaco#ponents& cognitive s+ills e#plo"ed in planning and decision #a+ingrecognition that a prole# e(ists* a)areness of vario!s possile strategies to solve it$ Perfor#ance& asic operations involved in act!all" solving an" given tas+inferential thin+ing* dra)ing co#parisons$ no)ledge ac.!isition& processes !sed in ac.!iring ne) +no)ledge selecting relevant info* integrating it to )hat is alread" +no)n$ Since the
#ain e#phasis in this approach is placed !pon the conception of intel ehavio!r as the appropriate !se of cognitive s+ills and strategies )ithin specific conte(ts* it frees !s fro# conceiving it as so#ething that is static$ It also enales !s to see that ppl can eco#e #ore intelligent$ Constr!ctivis#& altho!gh info processing approaches can e helpf!l* the" place little or not e#phasis !pon the )a"s in )hich individ!als see+ to ring a sense of personal #eaning to their )orlds$ To !nderstand this +ind of cognitive approach )e need to loo+ to)ards the constr!ctivist #ove#ent$ Piaget& the #ain !nderl"ing ass!#ption of constr!ctivis# is that individ!als are activel" involved right fro# irth in constr!cting personal #eaning fro# their e(periences$ The learner is ro!ght into central foc!s in learning theor"$
UNIT 3 “Teaching Eng!ish in the Pri4ary C!assroo4" 6san &a!!i$e!! 1) 8or=ing $ith yong !angage !earners
Children co#e to lang!age classroo# )ith a )ell,estalished set of instincts* s+ills and characteristics )hich )ill help the# to learn another lang!age$ >or e(a#ple* children& 're alread" ver" good at interpreting #eaning )itho!t necessaril" !nderstanding ♣ the individ!al )ords* ♣ 'lread" have great s+ill in !sing li#ited lang!age creativel"* ♣ >re.!entl" learn indirectl" rather than directl"* Ta+e great pleas!re in finding and creating f!n* ♣ 9ave a read" i#agination* ♣ ♣ Ta+e great delight in tal+ing$ %$% Children3s ailit" to grasp #eaning Children are ale to !nderstand )hat is eing said to the# efore the" !nderstand the individ!al )ords$ Intonation* gest!re* facial e(pressions* actions and circ!#stances all help to !nderstand the lang!age$ In later life* )e all #aintain this first so!rce of !nderstanding and it is a f!nda#ental part of h!#an co##!nication$ 4hen children enco!nter a ne) lang!age at school* the" can call on the sa#e s+ill to help the# interpret the ne) so!nds* ne) )ords and ne) str!ct!res$ 4e #!st s!pport and develop this s+ill and at the sa#e ti#e* )e #!st not tr" to !nder#ine the children3s )illingness to !se the s+ill$ %$0 Children3s creative !se of li#ited lang!age reso!rces
In the earl" ages of their #other tong!e develop#ent* children are creative )ith gra##atical for#s and )ith concepts$ Children also create )ords " analog"* or the" even invent co#pletel" ne) )ords )hich then co#e into the fa#il" voca!lar"$ This pheno#enon is f!nda#ental to lang!age develop#ent$ 4e sit it in all children ac.!iring their #other tong!e$ 4e also +no) it in o!rselves as ad!lts )hen )e are !sing another lang!age$ In the process* )e #a" prod!ce te#poraril" ine(act and so#eti#es inept lang!age* !t )e !s!all" #anage to co##!nicate$ In doing so )e are act!all" !ilding !p o!r grasp of the lang!age eca!se )e are activel" reco#ining and constr!cting it for o!rselves$ In order to #a+e the #ost of the creative lang!age s+ill the children ring )ith the#* so )e have to provide the# )ith occasions )hen& o The !rge to co##!nicate #a+es the# find so#e )a" of e(pressing the#selves* o The lang!age de#anded " the activit" is !npredictale and isn3t =!st as+ing the children to repeat set phrases* !t is arranging the# to constr!ct lang!age activel" for the#selves$ That is )h" ga#es are so i#portant$ The f!n ele#ent creates a desire to co##!nicate and create !npredictailit"$ In fact* if children are i#patient to co##!nicate the" proal" )ill #a+e #ore not fe)er #ista+es$
%$6 Childrens capacit" for indirect learning Lang!age activities )hich involve children in g!essing )hat phrase or )ord so#eone has tho!ght of are good e(a#ples of indirect learning$ Children are not tr"ing to learn phrases& the" are concentrating on tr"ing to g!ess right$ G!essing is act!all" a ver" po)erf!l )a" of learning phrases and str!ct!res* !t it is indirect eca!se the #ind is engaged )ith the tas+ and is not foc!sing on the lang!age$ The process relates to the )a" )e develop o!r #other tong!e$ So )e ac.!ire the lang!age thro!gh conscio!s e(pos!re and !se$ Conscio!s direct learning see#s to enco!rage )or+ed,o!t acc!rac"$ Dnconscio!s indirect learning* or ac.!isition* enco!rages spontaneo!s and therefore #ore fl!ent !se$ 's )e )ant oth acc!rac" and fl!enc" to develop* )e have to provide scope to oth s"ste#s to operate in classroo#$ The children )ho li+e to get on )ith so#ething no #atter ho) it co#es o!t )ill need enco!rage#ent to )or+ at conscio!s acc!rac"* and others )ho are +een to e precise )ill need enco!rage#ent to ris+ getting things )rong so#eti#es in order to co##!nicate$ It is a good idea to set !p real tas+s in the lang!age classroo#s$ >or e(a#ple* ga#es provide an opport!nit" for the real !sing and processing of lang!age )hile the #ind is foc!sed on the tas+3 of pla"ing the ga#e$ %$; Children3s instinct for pla" and f!n No #atter ho) )ell )e e(plain an activit" there is often so#eone in the class )ho prod!ces a version of their o)n$ So#eti#es it is etter than the teacher3s original idea$ 9ere* as in the g!essing activities* their personalities e#erge )oven into the lang!age !se and the" start to thin+ for the#selves
Thro!gh their sense of f!n and pla"* children are living the lang!age for real$ 4e can see again )h" ga#es have s!ch a central role to pla"$ %$< The role of i#agination Children test o!t their versions of the )orld thro!gh fantas" and confir# ho) the )orld act!all" is thro!gh i#agination$ In the lang!age classroo# this capacit" for fantas" and i#agination has a ver" constr!ctive part to pla"$ If )e accept the role of the i#agination in children3s lives )e can see that it provides another ver" po)erf!l sti#!l!s for real lang!age !se$ 4e )ant to sti#!late the children3s creative i#agination so that the" )ant to !se the lang!age to share their ideas$ %$? The instinct for interaction and tal+ Of all the instincts and attri!tes that children ring to the classroo# this is proal" the #ost i#portant for the lang!age teacher$ It is one of the #ost po)erf!l #otivators for !sing the lang!age$ Children can learn ao!t the lang!age* !t the onl" )a" to learn to !se it is to !se it$ So o!r =o is to #a+e s!re that the desire to tal+ is )or+ing for learning not against learning$ 3) #eing rea!istic Lang!age classroo#s are potentiall" nois" and de#anding places$ 4e need to e realistic in o!r e(pectations of o!rselves and the learners$ On the contrar"* eing realistic sho!ld #ean ta+ing realities into acco!nt in s!ch a )a" that good things can still happen$
6$% Gno)ing )hich activities stir3 a class and )hich settle3 the# In a positive sense* stir3 #eans that the activities )a+e the# !p* sti#!late the#$ In a negative sense* it #a" e that the activities over,e(cite the# or allo) the# to eco#e !nconstr!ctivel" restless$ 1ean)hile* there are other activities that see# to settle children$ To p!t it positivel"* that #eans the" )ill cal# a class do)n$ The negative side of this is to sa" that so#e activities )ill ore the class into inertia$ It is !sef!l to #a+e "o!r o)n list fro# e(perience of "o!r partic!lar class& Usa!!y stirs Oral )or+ Co#petitions Lotto
Usa!!y sett!e
Cop"ing Colo!ring Listening 7if the" have so#ething to do8 :oing pla"s teacher and one tests st!dent at a ti#e 6$0 Gno)ing )hich activities engage children3s #inds and )hich +eep the# ph"sicall" occ!pied 't the ris+ again of oversi#plif"ing for the sa+e of clarit"* )e can identif" 0 #ain t"pes of involve#ent )hich co!ld e descried as& ♣ 1ental engage#ent*
'ct!al occ!pation$ If the teacher has five pro#pt cards sho)ing )ell,+no)n places 7Eg& par+s* s!per#ar+et* etc$8* children are alread" fa#iliar )ith the )ords and the" are no) ale to prod!ce the )ords " the#selves$ This activit" #a+es the# thin+* it engages their e#otions* it is f!n and the" are eager to choose right$ In this for# then* the activit" is #entall" engaging in several )a"s$ That is )h" children respond to it so )ell and )h" si#ilar activities are ver" effective and pop!lar$ This +ind of #ental and e#otional engage#ent contrasts )ith act!al occ!pation 'gain it helps to #a+e a list& ♣
2enta!!y engaging Ga#es P!--les Co#petitions I#agining Tal+ing ao!t the#selves
Acta!!y occying Reading alo!d 4riting :ra)ing Repetition
The teacher can do 0 things& Choose a st"le of )or+ that in ter#s of its stir5settle potential s!its a partic!lar class or occasion* Increase children3s involve#ent " adapting activities so that the" offer oth #ental engage#ent and act!al occ!pation$ 6$6 Choosing the st"le to s!it the #ood There are occasions )hen children start the English class !nsettled$ It is instinctive to cal# children do)n in so#e )a"$ 9o)ever* recent lang!age teaching has tended to follo) patterns of )or+ )hich do not help to cal# children !t instead stir the#$ /!t if the class is getting sill" )e need to #a+e s!re )e change to so#ething settling$ There )ill e other occasions )hen "o! )ill )ant to achieve the reverse and )a+e the class !p a little at the eginning of the lesson or part )a" thro!gh )hen interest is flagging$ 'gain "o! can choose an activit" )hich enco!rages that$ ' teacher also can i#prove the .!alit" of classroo# interaction on the asis of the insights afforded " the stir5settle factor and the involve#ent factor$ @o! can loo+ for )a"s to co#ine #ental engage#ent and #ental occ!pation$ This is helpf!l )ith large classes$ There are 6 things to re#e#er& eep the lesson si#ple Re!se #aterials Re!se ideas 6$; Geeping the lesson si#ple There are 6 things to note&
%$ 4e )on3t help children to develop their capacit" to concentrate if )e =!#p fro# one topic to the ne(t* 0$ There are )a"s to var"ing the oral )or+ so that it is #a+ing different de#ands on the children and therefore feels different even )hen the topic re#ains the sa#e* 6$ Even if a gro!p of children cannot )rite English or if "o!r s"lla!s s!ggests the" sho!ld not )rite English in the earl" stages* there are +inds of pencil and paper )or+ the" can do$$ So* variation does not #ean )e have to +eep changing the topic$ Instead* )e can +eep to the sa#e topic and #aterials and change the )or+ )e do$ 'nd )e can also +eep an e"e on the stir5settle and involve#ent factors$ The pace of the lesson is also #anaged so as to provide a shift fro# settling activit" to stirring and ac+ to settling$ In this )a"* the teacher can .!ietl" +eep ever"thing !nder control )itho!t that control having to e e(plicit$ 6$< Re!sing #aterials 4e have to loo+ for different )a"s in )hich )e can !se one set of #aterials and th!s red!ce o!r preparation load$ /!t )e can also red!ce o!r thin+ing preparation$ It is possile to do this " identif"ing a core of activit" t"pes )hich )e can !se and re!se in order to teach different lang!age contents$ 6$? Re!sing a core of ideas These activities are si#ple in principle and so the" )ill transfer to all +inds of topics and sit!ations$ Thro!gh !sing these activities* "o! )ill get to +no) )hich of the# are good as stirrers and )hich act as settlers$ @o! )ill develop )a"s of adapting the# to act!al as )ell as #ental involve#ent$
UNIT 3 “Teaching Eng!ish to Chi!-ren" 6cott 9 ive and ten to eleven "ears old are the #ost vital "ears in a child3s develop#ent$ Certain characteristics ta+e into acco!nt in "o!r teaching$
4e are going to consider the ages of five to seven and the eight to ten "ears old$ >ive to seven "ears old 4hat five to seven "ear olds can do at their o)n level& • • • • • • • •
The" can tal+ ao!t )hat the" are doing 'o!t )hat the" have done or heard Plan activities 'rg!e Dse logical reasoning Dse i#aginations Dse a )ide range of intonation patterns Dnderstand direct h!#an interaction
Other characteristics of the "o!ng lang!age learner
The" +no) that the )orld is governed " r!les The" !nderstand sit!ations #ore .!ic+l" than lang!age Dse lang!age s+ills long efore the" are a)are of the# The ph"sical )orld is do#inant at all ti#es The" are ver" logical* )hat "o! sa" first happens first Short attention and concentration span :iffic!lt" in +no)ing fact and fiction Rel!ctant to share$ Self,centered !p to the age of si(* so#eti#es p!pils don3t )ant to )or+ together eca!se the" don3t see the point 'd!lt )orld and child )orld are not the sa#e$ 'd!lts !s!all" find o!t " as+ing .!estions* !t children don3t al)a"s as+ The )ill seldo# ad#it that the" don3t +no) so#ething @o!ng children cannot decide for the#selves )hat to learn Love to pla"* learn est )hen the" are en=o"ing the#selves$ /!t the" also ta+e the#selves serio!sl" and li+e to thin+ that )hat the" are doing is “real” )or+ Enth!siastic and positive ao!t learning
Eight to ten "ears old General characteristics
Relativel" #at!re /asic concepts are for#ed* decided vie)s of the )orld Tell the difference et)een fact and fiction 's+ .!estions all the ti#e Rel" on the spo+en )orld as the ph"sical 'le to #a+e decisions :efinite vie)s ao!t the" li+e and don3t li+e :eveloped sense of fairness 4or+ )ith others
Lang!age develop#ent
/asic ele#ents in place$ Co#petent !sers of the #other tong!e Dnderstand astracts o o Dnderstand s"#ols o Generalise and s"ste#ati-e Si#ilarities et)een learning one3s #other tong!e and learning a foreign lang!age$ :epend on )hich #other tong!e and on social and e#otional factors$ Eight to ten have lang!age a)areness and readiness >ro# five to ten are dra#atic changes$ The #agic age is aro!nd seven or eight Seven or eight egin to #a+e sense of ad!lt )orld
4hat this #eans for o!r teaching
4ords are not eno!gh
'ctivities sho!ld incl!de #ove#ents and involve the sense* o=ects and pict!res and "o! sho!ld de#onstrate )hat the" have to do$ Pla" )ith the lang!age Let the# e(peri#ent )ith ver" nat!ral stage* in the first stages of foreign lang!age learning too$ Lang!age as lang!age /eco#ing a)are of lang!age as so#ething separate fro# the events ta+ing place ta+es ti#e$ Spo+en )orld is often acco#panied " the other cl!es to #eaning,facial e(pression* #ove#ent* etc$ Reading and )riting are i#portant for the child3s gro)ing a)areness of lang!age and for their o)n gro)th in the lang!age$ Variet" in the classroo# Variet" is a #!st activit"* pace* organi-ation* voice$ Ro!tines Children enefit fro# +no)ing the r!les and eing fa#iliar )ith the sit!ation$ The" have s"ste#s and ro!tines$ The" !se fa#iliar sit!ations* fa#iliar activities$ The" repeat stories* rh"#es* etc$ Cooperation not co#petition 'void re)ards and pri-es$ Other for#s are #ore effective* li+e shared e(periences are so!rce of lang!age )or+ and at#osphere of involve#ent$ Gro!p the children$ Gra##ar 9o) good the" are in a foreign lang!age is not dependent on )hether the" have learnt the gra##ar r!les or not$ >e) are ale to cope )ith gra##arF the" are not !s!all" #at!re eno!gh to tal+ ao!t it$ Incl!de the arest #ini#!# of gra##ar* the est ti#e to introd!ce si#ple gra##ar is )hen a p!pil as+s for an e(planation or )hen "o! thin+ a p!pil )ill enefit fro# learning so#e gra##ar$ Correcting )ritten )or+ #ight or not e appropriate to co#pare )hat happens in the #other tong!e in the sa#e sit!ation$ E(planations sho!ld e given on a individ!al,gro!p asis )hen the p!pils the#selves are as+ing the .!estions$ 'ssess#ent It is !sef!l for the teacher to #a+e reg!lar notes ao!t each child3s progress* tal+ing to children reg!larl" ao!t their )or+ and enco!raging* stressing the positive side of things and pla"ing$
) C!ass 4anage4ent an- at4oshere 4hat is an ideal teacher
's a teacher of "o!ng children it helps a lot if "o! have a sense of h!#o!r* "o!3re open,#inded* adaptale* patient* etc$ !t if "o! are silent* reserved t"pe* "o! can )or+ "o!r attit!de and ailities$ 'ilities Learn to sing or even pla" a #!sical instr!#ent* #i#e* act and dra)$ 'ttit!des Respect "o!r p!pils and e realistic$ 's a teacher "o! have to appear to li+e all "o!r p!pils e.!all"$ Children need to +no) that the teacher li+es the#* feel sec!re in )hat "o!3re doing$ 9elping the children to feel sec!re Once children feel sec!re the" can e enco!rage to eco#e independent$ P!pils need to +no) )hat is happening$ Respect "o!r p!pils$ 4henever a p!pil is tr"ing to tell "o! so#ething* accept )hatever he or she sa"s$ Constant* direct correction is not effective$ Ideal p!pils sho!ldn3t la!gh at others3 #ista+es 7r!les of the class8$ Children of all ages are so#eti#es !n+ind to each other )itho!t #eaning to e$ Estalish ro!tines& tal+ ao!t ne)s* have a oo+ of the #onth* irthda" calendar* )eather chart$ These ro!tines !ild !p fa#iliarit" and sec!rit" for oth age gro!ps$ Give the children the responsiilit" for doing practical =os$ 'void organi-ed co#petitions$ Lang!age learning is a sit!ation )here ever"one can )in$ 'void giving ph"sical re)ard or pri-es$ Incl!de* don3t e(cl!de$ :on3t give children English na#es$ The ph"sical s!rro!nding Children respond )ell to s!rro!nding )hich are pleasant and fa#iliar$ P!t at the )alls calendars* posters* postcards* p!pils3 dra)ings* )riting* etc* !t still leaves "o! space to )or+$ Enco!rage the children to ring in o=ects* tell the rest of the class a little it ao!t the# in English$ 1ar+ files and o(es$ Gro!ping the children Not all children )ill ta+e to pair and gro!p)or+ at once$ >ive and si( "ears are often happiest )or+ing alone* cooperation is so#ething )hich has to e n!rt!red and learnt$ The" often develop a gro!p identit"$ This t"pe of arrange#ent #a+es it easier to see )hen p!pils are read" cooperate )ith other p!pils$ Pair )or+ Pair )or+ is !sef!l and efficient$ Let p!pils )ho are sitting near each other )or+ together* don3t #ove des+s
Estalish a ro!tine for pair )or+
Not all pairs )ill finish at the sa#e ti#e$ :on3t e te#pted to let the pair )or+ contin!e !ntil ever"one has finished
/e on the loo+ o!t for p!pils )ho si#pl" do not li+e each other
Go thro!gh )hat "o! )ant p!pils to do efore "o! p!t the# into their pairs
Gro!p )or+ Introd!cing gro!p )or+ If "o!r p!pils are not !sed to )or+ in gro!ps* "o! can introd!ce the# grad!all" to gro!p )or+$ %$ 9aving teaching gro!ps 2 gro!ps )hich "o! teach separatel" fro# the rest of the class 0$ Introd!cing self,reliant gro!ps 2 )hich are given so#ething to do on their o)n 6$ Start )ith =!st one gro!p$ Tell the# clearl" )hat the p!rpose is ;$ Go thro!gh this process )ith all the gro!ps efore "o! let the )hole class )or+ in gro!ps at the sa#e ti#e N!#ers Li#it n!#ers in the gro!p to et)een three and five$ 4ho )or+s )ith )ho# Children sho!ld not e allo)ed to choose their gro!ps eca!se this ta+es a lot of ti#e and !s!all" so#eone is left o!t$ So#eti#es gro!p the# according to ailit"$ Classroo# lang!age If cooperation and co##!nication are to e part of the process of learning a lang!age as )ell as part of the process of gro)ing !p* then the sooner the p!pils learn si#ple* #eaningf!l e(pressions in English* the easier it )ill e$ 9ere are so#e faces )hich all "o!r p!pils sho!ld learn as soon as possile$ Note that the" sho!ld e ta!ght as phrases not as )ords or str!ct!res$ :o re#e#er “please” and “than+ "o!”$ So do the )ords for all the things in the classroo#$ Tr" to spea+ English as #!ch of the ti#e as "o! can* !sing #i#e* acting* p!ppets and an" other #eans "o! can thin+ of$ @o!r p!pils are !nli+el" to have the opport!nit" to hear English all da"* +eep "o!r lang!age si#ple !t nat!ral* and +eep it at their level$ @o! )ill have to decide for "o!rself ho) #!ch #other tong!e "o! !se 2 it depends ver" largel" on "o!r o)n individ!al class$ @o! can al)a"s conve" the #eaning of )hat "o! are sa"ing " the tone of voice and od" lang!age 2 "o! don3t al)a"s have to s)itch lang!ages$
The Natra! Aroach
#ac=gron-
In %AA Trac" Terrell 7teacher of Spanish in California8 o!tlined “a proposal for a ne)3 philosoph" of lang!age teaching called Nat!ral 'pproach”$ This )as an atte#pt to develop a lang!age teaching proposal that incorporated the “nat!ralistic” principles researchers had identified in st!dies of second lang!age ac.!isition$ The Nat!ral 'pproach gre) o!t of Terrell3s e(periences teaching Spanish classes* in ele#entar" 2 to advanced, level classes and )ith other lang!ages$ Terrell =oined forces )ith Stephen rashen 7applied ling!ist at the Dniversit" of So!thern California8 in elaorating a theoretical rationale for the Nat!ral 'pproach$ rashen and Terrell identified the Nat!ral 'pproach )ith )hat the" call “traditional” approaches 7defined as “ased on the !se of lang!age in co##!nicative sit!ations )itho!t reco!rse to the native lang!age” and gra##atical drilling* or a partic!lar theor" of gra##ar8 to lang!age teaching$ The" noted that s!ch “approaches have een called nat!ral* ps"chological* phonetic* ne)* refor#* direct* anal"tic* i#itative and so forth”$ There are i#portant differences et)een the Nat!ral 'pproach and the older Nat!ral 1ethod$ The Nat!ral 1ethod is another ter# for )hat " % )as the :irect 1ethod& the #ethod consisted of a series of #onolog!es " the teacher )ith e(changes of .!estion and ans)er )ith the p!pil in the foreign lang!age$ 4ith gestic!lation* attentive listening and repetition the learner ca#e to associate certain acts and o=ects )ith certain co#inations of the so!nds and finall" he reprod!ced the foreign )ords or phrases$ The ter# nat!ral e#phasi-ed that the principles !nderl"ing the #ethod )ere elieved to confor# to the principles of nat!ralistic lang!age learning in "o!ng children$ Si#ilarl"* the Nat!ral 'pproach is elieved to confor# to the nat!ralistic principles fo!nd in s!ccessf!l second lang!age ac.!isition$ Dnli+e the :irect 1ethod it places less e#phasis on teacher #onolog!es* direct repetition and for#al .!estions and ans)ers* and less foc!s on acc!rate prod!ction of target,lang!age sentences$ In the Nat!ral 'pproach there is an e#phasis on e(pos!re* or inp!t* rather than practice$ Aroach Theory o. !ang(age
rashen and Terrell see co##!nication as the pri#ar" f!nction of lang!age and the" refer to the Nat!ral 'pproach as an e(a#ple of a co##!nicative approach$ The Nat!ral 'pproach “is si#ilar to other co##!nicative approaches eing developed toda"”$ The" re=ect earlier #ethods of lang!age teaching* s!ch as the '!dioling!al 1ethod* )hich vie)ed gra##ar as the central co#ponent of lang!age$ The #a=or prole# )ith these #ethods )as that the" )ere !ilt not aro!nd “act!al theories of lang!age ac.!isition* !t theories of so#ething else 7e($& the str!ct!re of lang!age8”$ 4hat rashen and Terrell do descrie ao!t the nat!re of lang!age e#phasi-es the pri#ac" of #eaning$ The i#portance of the voca!lar" is stressed 7e($ & a lang!age is essentiall" its le(icon and onl" inconse.!entl" the gra##ar that deter#ines ho) the le(icon is e(ploited to prod!ce #essages8$
Lang!age is vie)ed as a vehicle for co##!nicating #eanings and #essages$ rashen and Terrell stated that “ac.!isition can ta+e place onl" )hen people !nderstand #essages in the target lang!age”$ The" vie) lang!age learning* as do a!dioling!ists* as #aster" of str!ct!res " stages$ “The inp!t h"pothesis states that in order for ac.!ires to progress to the ne(t stage in the ac.!isition of the target lang!age* the" need to !nderstand inp!t lang!age that incl!des a str!ct!re that is part of the ne(t stage 7rashen3s for#!la I ┼ %38”$ The Nat!ral 'pproach th!s ass!#es a ling!istic hierarch" of str!ct!ral co#ple(it" that one #asters thro!gh enco!nters )ith “inp!t” containing str!ct!res at the I ┼ %3 level$ Theory o. !earning
rashen and Terrell #a+e contin!ing reference to the theoretical and reearch ase clai#ed to !nderlie the Nat!ral 'pproach and that the #ethod is !ni.!e in having s!ch a ase$ “it is ased on an e#piricall" gro!nded theor" of second lang!age ac.!isition s!pported " scientific st!dies ina variet" of lang!age ac.!isition and learning conte(ts”$ The principal tenets on )hich the Nat!ral 'pproach theor" is ased are& The 'c.!isition5Learning 9"pothesis & it clai#s that there are 0 distinctive )a"s of ♣ developing co#petence in a second or foreign lang!age$ Ac>isition refers to an !nconscio!s process that involves the nat!ralistic develop#ent of lang!age proficienc" thro!gh !nderstanding lang!age and thro!gh !sing lang!age for #eaningf!l co##!nication$ Learning% " contrast* refers to a process in )hich conscio!s r!les ao!t a lang!age are developed$ It res!lts in e(plicit +no)ledge ao!t the for#s of a lang!age and the ailit" to verali-e this +no)ledge$ >or#al teaching is necessar" for “learning” to occ!r* and correction of errors helps )ith the develop#ent of learned r!les$ Learning cannot lead to ac.!isition$ The 1onitor 9"pothesis & it clai#s that )e #a" call !pon learned +no)ledge to ♣ correct o!rselves )hen )e co##!nicate* !t that conscio!s learning has onl" this f!nction$ 6 conditions li#it the !se of the #onitor& %$ Ti4e& s!fficient ti#e to choose and appl" a learned r!le$ 0$ ?ocs on .or4& foc!s on correctness or on the for# of the o!tp!t 6$ @no$!e-ge o. r!es& the" #!st e si#ple to descrie and not re.!ire co#ple( #ove#ents and rearrange#ents$ ♣
♣
The Nat!ral Order 9"pothesis& it clai#s that the ac.!isition of gra##atical str!ct!res proceeds in a predictale order$ Certain gra##atical str!ct!res or #orphe#es are ac.!ired efore others in first lang!age ac.!isition of English and in second lang!age ac.!isition$ Errors are signs of nat!ralistic develop#ental processes and d!ring ac.!isition 7not in learning8 si#ilar develop#ental errors occ!r$ The Inp!t 9"pothesis& it clai#s to e(plain the relationship et)een )hat the learner is e(posed to of a lang!age 7the inp!t8 and lang!age ac.!isition$ It involves ; #ain iss!es& %$ The h"pothesis relates to ac.!isition* not to learning$ 0$ People ac.!ire lang!age est " !nderstanding inp!t slightl" e"ond their c!rrent level of co#petence$
6$ The ailit" to spea+ fl!entl" cannot e ta!ght directl" 7it “e#erges” in ti#e8$ ;$ If there is s!fficient .!antit" of co#prehensile inp!t 7!tterances that the learner !nderstand ased on the conte(t in )hich the" are !sed as )ell as the lang!age in )hich the" are phrased8* I ┼ % )ill !s!all" e provided a!to#aticall"$ ♣
The 'ffective >ilter 9"pothesis& rashen sees the learner3s e#otional state or attit!des as an ad=!stale filter that freel" passes* i#pedes* or loc+s inp!t necessar" to ac.!isition$ ' lo) affective filter is desirale 7it i#pedes or loc+s less the inp!t8$ The h"pothesis is !ilt on research in second lang!age ac.!isition* )hich has identified 6 +inds of affective or attit!dinal variales& 1' 2otiation ' 6e!.con.i-ence 3' AnBiety
This h"pothesis states that ac.!irers )ith lo) affective filter see+ and receive #ore inp!t* interact* and are #ore receptive to the inp!t the" receive$ 'n(io!s ac.!irers have a high affective filter* )hich prevents ac.!isition$ To s4;
's #!ch co#prehensile inp!t as possile$ 4hatever helps co#prehension is i#portant 7e($& vis!al aids help to the voca!lar"8$ The foc!s in classroo#& listening and reading$ Spea+ing “e#erges”$ To lo) the affective filter& st!dent )or+ sho!ld center on #eaningf!l co##!nication rather than on for# and there sho!ld e interesting inp!t$
Design Obecti3es
The Nat!ral 'pproach “is for eginners and is designed to help the# eco#e inter#ediates”$ St!dents )ill e ale to f!nction ade.!atel" in the target sit!ation$ The" )ill !nderstand the spea+er of the target lang!age* and )ill e ale to conve" their re.!ests and ideas$ The" need not +no) ever" )ord nor need the s"nta( and voca!lar" to e fla)less$ The" sho!ld e ale to #a+e #eaning clear !t not necessaril" e acc!rate$ 9o)ever* specific o=ectives depend on learner needs and the s+ill 7reading* )riting* listening* or spea+ing8 and level eing ta!ght$ rashen and Terrell elieve that it is i#portant to co##!nicate to learners )hat the" can e(pect of a co!rse as )ell as )hat the" sho!ld not e(pect$ The sy!!ab(s
rashen and Terrell approach co!rse organi-ation fro# 0 points of vie)$ >irst* the" list so#e t"pical goals for lang!age co!rses and s!ggest )hich of the# are the ones at )hich the Nat!ral 'pproach ai#s$ The goals are in ; areas& %$ /asic personal co##!nication s+ills& oral$ 0$ /asic personal co##!nication s+ills& )ritten$ 6$ 'cade#ic learning s+ills& oral$ ;$ 'cade#ic learning s+ills& )ritten$ The Nat!ral 'pproach is pri#aril" “designed to develop asic co##!nication s+ills,oth oral and )ritten”$ Co##!nication goals “#a" e e(pressed in ter#s of sit!ations* f!nctions and topics”$ This approach to s"lla!s design )o!ld appear to derive to so#e e(tent fro# threshold level specifications$ Content selection sho!ld ai# to create a lo) affective filter " eing interesting and fostering a friendl"* rela(ed at#osphere* a )ide e(pos!re to voca!lar" and resist an" foc!s on gra##atical str!ct!res$ Tyes o. !earning an- teaching acti3ities
' class ta!ght according to the Nat!ral 'pproach* e#phasis is on presenting co#prehensile inp!t in the target lang!age$ Teacher tal+ foc!ses on o=ects in the classroo# and on he content of pict!res$ Learners are not re.!ired to sa" an"thing !ntil the" feel read"* !t the" are e(pected to respond to teacher co##ands and .!estions$ The teacher tal+s slo)l" and distinctl"* as+ing .!estions and eliciting one,)ord ans)ers$ 'c.!isition activities are e#phasi-ed$ Pair or gro!p )or+ #a" e e#plo"ed* follo)ed " )hole,class disc!ssion led " the teacher$ 4hat characteri-es the Nat!ral 'pproach is the !se of fa#iliar techni.!es )ithin the fra#e)or+ of a #ethod that foc!ses on providing co#prehensile inp!t and a classroo# environ#ent that c!es co#prehension of inp!t* #ini#i-es learner an(iet"* and #a(i#i-es learner self,confidence$ Learner ro!es
Learners3 roles are seen to change according to their stage of ling!istic develop#ents$ In the pre,prod!ction stage* st!dents “participate in the lang!age activit" )itho!t having to respond in the target lang!age”$ In the earl",prod!ction stage* st!dents respond to either,or .!estions* !se single )ords and short phrases* fill in charts* and !se fi(ed conversational patterns$ In the speech,e#ergent phase* st!dents involve the#selves in role pla" and ga#es* contri!te personal infor#ations and opinions* and participate in gro!p prole# solving$ ; +inds of responsiilities for learners& %$ Provide infor#ation ao!t t=eir specific goals 0$ Ta+e an active role in ens!ring co#prehensile inp!t$
6$ :ecide )hen to start prod!cing speech and )hen to !pgrade it$ ;$ 4here learning e(ercises are to e part* decide )ith the teacher the a#o!nt of ti#e devoted to the# and co#plete and correct the#$ Teacher ro!es
The Nat!ral 'pproach teacher has 6 roles$ >irst* the teacher is the pri#ar" so!rce of co#prehensile inp!t in the target lang!age$ The teacher is re.!ired to generate a constant flo) of lang!age inp!t )hile providing a #!ltiplicit" of non,ling!istic cl!es to assist st!dents in interpreting the inp!t$ There is a center,stage role for the teacher$ Second* the teacher creates a classroo# at#osphere that is interesting* friendl" and in )hich there is lo) affective filter$ This is achieved in part thro!gh s!ch Nat!ral 'pproach techni.!es as not de#anding speech fro# the st!dents efore the" are read"* not correcting their errors and providing s!=ect of high interest to st!dents$ >inall"* the teacher #!st choose and orchestrate a rich #i( of classroo# activities* involving a variet" of gro!p si-es* content and conte(ts$ The teacher is seen as responsile for collecting #aterials and !sing the#$ The Nat!ral 'pproach teacher has to co##!nicate clearl" and co#pellingl" to st!dents the ass!#ptions* organi-ation* and e(pectations of the #ethod$ The ro!e o. instr(ctiona! 4ateria!s
The pri#ar" goal of #aterials in the Nat!ral 'pproach is to #a+e classroo# activities as #eaningf!l as possile " s!ppl"ing “the e(traling!istic conte(t that helps the ac.!irer to !nderstand and there" to ac.!ire” " relating classroo# activities to the real )orld* and " fostering real co##!nication a#ong the learners$ There pri#ar" ai# is to pro#ote co#prehension and co##!nication$ 7e(& pict!res* vis!al aids* sched!les* roch!res* advertise#ents* #aps and oo+s$8$ Proce-re
To ill!strate proced!ral aspects of the Nat!ral 'pproach* there are so#e classroo# activities that provide co#prehensile inp!t* )itho!t re.!iring prod!ction of responses or #ini#al responses in the target lang!age& %$ Start )ith TPR 7Total Ph"sical Response8 co##ands$ 't first the co##ands are si#ple$ 0$ Dse TPR to teach na#es of od" parts and to introd!ce n!#ers and se.!ence$ 6$ Introd!ce classroo# ter#s and props into co##ands$ 'n" ite# )hich can e ro!ght to the class can e incorporated$ ;$ Dse na#es of ph"sical characteristics and clothing to identif" #e#ers of the class " na#e$ Dsing #i#e* pointing and conte(t to ens!re co#prehension$ <$ Dse vis!als* t"picall" #aga-ine pict!res* to introd!ce ne) voca!lar" and to contin!e )ith activities re.!iring onl" st!dent na#es as response$