APPLIED LINGUISTICS 1. Introduction to Applied Linguistics Applied Linguistics is concerned with the systematic study of language structure, the acquisition of rst and subsequent languages, the role of language in communication, and the status of language as the product of particular cultures and other social groups. A background in linguistics is essential for language teachers, translators, speech-language pathologists, audiologists, and many other language professionals. Applied Linguistics: Examines the structure of language and its role in communication Explores how children acquire language tudies how the skills of second-language speakers de!elop "n!estigates how the social or cultural en!ironment interacts with language
2. Scopes of Applied Linguistics a.
Language and Teacing
#his scope co!ers methods of language teaching. teaching. "n doing teaching learning learning acti!ity, linguistic is applied on those methods.
!.
Language and Societ"
#he branch in this scope is called sociolinguistics. sociolinguistics. ociolinguistic studies studies about the relationship between the society and language, and explore$sol!e the problem related related to society that a%ects the language, !arieties of language in society, terms of taboos and a nd euphemism, etc.
c.
Language Education#Learning Education#Learning
#his scope tries to explain explain about the rst language education, additional language education such as second language education and foreign language education. "t also help us to know about a bout clinical linguistic and language testing. &linical linguistic is the study about language disability. disability.
d.
Language$ %or& and La'
#he scope of Language, 'ork 'ork and Law explain about communication communication in the workplace, language planning, and forensic linguistic.
e.
Language$ Infor(ation and E)ect
"t studies the literary stylistics, critical discourse analysis, translation and interpretation, information design, and lexicography.
*. +istor" of Applied Linguistics #he tradition of applied linguistics established itself in part as a response to the narrowing of focus in linguistics with the ad!ent in the late ()*+s of generati!e linguistics, and has always maintained a socially-accountable role, demonstrated by its central interest in language problems. Although the eld of applied linguistics started from Europe and the nited tates, the eld rapidly ourished in the international context. Applied linguistics rst concerned itself with principles and practices on the basis of linguistics. "n the early days, applied linguistics was thought as linguistics-applied/ at least from the outside of the eld. "n the ()0+s, howe!er, applied linguistics was expanded to include language assessment, language policy, and second language acquisition. As early as the ()1+s, applied linguistics became a problem-dri!en eld rather than theoretical linguistics, including the solution of language-related problems in the real world. 2y the ())+s, applied linguistics had broadened including critical studies and multilingualism. 3esearch in applied linguistics was shifted to 4the theoretical and empirical in!estigation of real world problems in which language is a central issue.4 "n the nited tates, applied linguistics also began narrowly as the application of insights from structural linguistics5rst to the teaching of English in schools and subsequently to second and foreign language teaching. Te linguistics applied approac to language teacing was promulgated most strenuously by Leonard ,loo(-eld, who de!eloped the foundation for the Ar(" Specialied Training Progra( , and by Carles C. /ries, who established the English Language "nstitute 6EL"7 at the ni!ersity of 8ichigan in ()9(. "n ()9:, the 3esearch &lub at 8ichigan established Language Learning; A
0. Language Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, and a language is any specic example of such a system. Te scienti-c stud" of language is called linguistics . >uestions concerning the philosophy of language, such as whether words can represent experience, ha!e been debated since ?orgias and @lato in Ancient ?reece. #hinkers such as 3ousseau ha!e argued
that language originated from emotions while others like ant ha!e held that it originated from rational and logical thought. B+th-century philosophers such as 'ittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language. 8a=or gures in linguistics include /erdinand de Saussure and Noa( Co(s&".
. Language Acuisition Language acuisition is te process !" 'ic u(ans acuire te capacit" to percei3e and co(preend language$ as 'ell as to produce and use 'ords and sentences to co((unicate. Language acquisition is one of the quintessential human traits, because non-humans do not communicate by using language. Language acquisition usually refers to -rst4language acuisition, which studies infantsC acquisition of their nati!e language. #his is distinguished from second4language acuisition, which deals with the acquisition 6in both children and adults7 of additional languages. #he capacity to successfully use language requires one to acquire a range of tools including ponolog", (orpolog" , s"nta5, se(antics, and an extensi!e 3oca!ular". Language can be !ocaliDed as in speech or manual as in sign. #he human language capacity is represented in the brain. E!en though the human language capacity is nite, one can say and understand an innite number of sentences, which is based on a syntactic principle called recursion. E!idence suggests that e!ery indi!idual has three recursi!e mechanisms that allow sentences to go indeterminately. #hese three mechanisms are; relati3iation, co(ple(entation and coordination. urthermore, there are actually two main guiding principles in rst-language acquisition, that is, speech perception always precedes speech production and the gradually e!ol!ing system by which a child learns a language is built up one step at a time, beginning with the distinction between indi!idual phonemes.
6. Language acuisition 3s. language learning #here is an important distinction made by linguists between language acquisition and language learning. &hildren acquire language through a subconscious process during which they are unaware of grammatical rules. #his is similar to the way they acquire their rst language. #hey get a feel for what is and what isnFt correct. "n order to acquire language, the learner needs a source of natural communication. #he emphasis is on the text of the communication and not on the form. Goung students who are in the process of acquiring English get plenty of on the =ob/ practice. #hey readily acquire the language to communicate with classmates.
Language learning, on the other hand, is not communicati!e. "t is the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. And it certainly is not an ageappropriate acti!ity for your young learners. "n language learning, students ha!e conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that knowledge. #hey can ll in the blanks on a grammar page. 3esearch has shown, howe!er, that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or writing.r A student who has memoriDed the rules of the language may be able to succeed on a standardiDed test of English language but may not be able to speak or write correctly.
7. Stages of /irst Language Acuisition "n nearly all cases, childrenCs language de!elopment follows a predictable sequence. Howe!er, there is a great deal of !ariation in the age at which children reach a gi!en milestone. urthermore, each childCs de!elopment is usually characteriDed by gradual acquisition of particular abilities; thus 4correct4 use of English !erbal inection will emerge o!er a period of a year or more, starting from a stage where !ebal inections are always left out, and ending in a stage where they are nearly always used correctly. #here are also many di%erent ways to characteriDe the de!elopmental sequence. In the production side, one way to name the stages is as follows, focusing primarily on the unfolding of lexical and syntactic knowledge;
Stage
T"pical age
Description
2abbling
0-: months
3epetiti!e &J patterns
Ine-word stage 6better onemorpheme or oneunit7 or holophrastic stage
)-(: months
ingle open-class words or word stems
(:-B9 months
4mini-sentences4 with simple semantic relations
B9-K+ months
4#elegraphic4 sentence structures of lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemes
#wo-word stage #elegraphic stage or early multiword stage 6better multi-
morpheme7 Later multiword stage
K+ months
?rammatical or functional structures emerge
8. De3elop(ental Patterns of Learning a Second Language Stages of Second Language Acuisition Stage I9 Pre4production #his is the silent period. English language learners may ha!e up to *++ words in their recepti!e !ocabulary but they are not yet speaking. ome students will, howe!er, repeat e!ery thing you say. #hey are not really producing language but are parroting. #hese new learners of English will listen attenti!ely and they may e!en be able to copy words from the board. #hey will be able to respond to pictures and other !isuals. #hey can understand and duplicate gestures and mo!ements to show comprehension. #otal @hysical 3esponse methods will work well with them. #eachers should focus attention on listening comprehension acti!ities and on building a recepti!e !ocabulary. English language learners at this stage will need much repetition of English. #hey will benet from a buddy/ who speaks their language. 3emember that the school day is exhausting for these newcomers as they are o!erwhelmed with listening to English language all day long.
Stage II9 Earl" production #his stage may last up to six months and students will de!elop a recepti!e and acti!e !ocabulary of about (+++ words. Muring this stage, students can usually speak in one- or two-word phrases. #hey can use short language chunks that ha!e been memoriDed although these chunks may not always be used correctly. Here are some suggestions for working with students in this stage of English language learning; Ask yes$no and either$or questions. Accept one or two word responses. ?i!e students the opportunity to participate in some of the whole class acti!ities. se pictures and realia to support questions.
8odify content information to the language le!el of ELLs. 2uild !ocabulary using pictures. @ro!ide listening acti!ities. implify the content materials to be used. ocus on key !ocabulary and concepts. 'hen teaching elementary age ELLs, use simple books with predictable text. upport learning with graphic organiDers, charts and graphs. 2egin to foster writing in English through labeling and short sentences. se a frame to sca%old writing.
Stage III9 Speec e(ergence tudents ha!e de!eloped a !ocabulary of about K,+++ words and can communicate with simple phrases and sentences. #hey will ask simple questions, that may or may not be grammatically correct, such as 8ay " go to bathroomN / ELLs will also initiate short con!ersations with classmates. #hey will understand easy stories read in class with the support of pictures. #hey will also be able to do some content work with teacher support. Here are some simple tasks they can complete; ound out stories phonetically. 3ead short, modied texts in content area sub=ects. &omplete graphic organiDers with word banks. nderstand and answer questions about charts and graphs. 8atch !ocabulary words to denitions. tudy ashcards with content area !ocabulary. @articipate in duet, pair and choral reading acti!ities. 'rite and illustrate riddles. nderstand teacher explanations and two-step directions. &ompose brief stories based on personal experience. 'rite in dialogue =ournals. Mialogue =ournals are a con!ersation between the teacher and the student. #hey are especially helpful with English language learners. tudents can
write about topics that interest them and proceed at their own le!el and pace. #hey ha!e a place to express their thoughts and ideas.
Stage I:9 Inter(ediate ;uenc" English language learners at the intermediate uency stage ha!e a !ocabulary of 0+++ acti!e words. #hey are beginning to use more complex sentences when speaking and writing and are willing to express opinions and share their thoughts. #hey will ask questions to clarify what they are learning in class. #hese English language learners will be able to work in grade le!el math and science classes with some teacher support. &omprehension of English literature and social studies content is increasing. At this stage, students will use strategies from their nati!e language to learn content in English. tudent writing at this stage will ha!e many errors as ELLs try to master the complexity of English grammar and sentence structure. 8any students may be translating written assignments from nati!e language. #hey should be expected to synthesiDe what they ha!e learned and to make inferences from that learning. #his is the time for teachers to focus on learning strategies. tudents in this stage will also be able to understand more complex concepts.
Stage :9 Ad3anced /luenc" "t takes students from 9-(+ years to achie!e cogniti!e academic language prociency in a second language. tudent at this stage will be near-nati!e in their ability to perform in content area learning. 8ost ELLs at this stage ha!e been exited from EL and other support programs. At the beginning of this stage, howe!er, they will need continued support from classroom teachers especially in content areas such as history$social studies and in writing.