Audio Fundamentals by Mark Yulo Audio Trainings

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a wave motion in air or other elastic media (stimulus) or as that excitation of the hearing mechanism that result in the perception of sound (sensation). vibration transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas; particularly vibrations composed of frequencies capable of being detected by ears and arrives at the ear in the form of periodic variations in atmospheric pressure called sound-pressure waves.

'()*+,-./ - Determines how loud a signal is. The bigger  the amplitude, the louder the sound.” Expressed in terms of voltage/current and sound pressure level, (eg. dBu, dBSPL)

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Frequency - it specifies the number of waveform repetitions per unit of time (usually one second) - the number of cycles that pass a set point in a second or the rate of air pressure fluctuation - measured in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second (cps). Human Frequency (AUDIO) Range:

- Normal range for human ears, although not everyone (especially the elderly) will hear to the extremes of this range. 20 25 31.5 40 50 63 80 100 125

160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000

1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000 6300 8000

10K 12.5K 16K 20K

:;<=>;E< - The charted output of an audio device. This curve is used to graphically represent how a device will respond to the audio spectrum and, thus, how it will affect a signal’s overall sound. - The measure of any system's spectrum response at the output to a signal of varying frequency (but constant amplitude) at its input.

Velocity  Refers to the speed of travel of the sound wave. This varies between mediums and is also dependent on temperature. In other materials, the speed of sound can vary quite substantially. The following table shows the speed of sound in a number of different materials.

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;<:O<@KPD? Much like light waves, sound reflects of a surface boundary at an angle that is equal to (and in an opposite direction of) its initial angle of incidence.

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!"# 0()2*;"*.# Microphone converts acoustic energy Into mechanical energy into electrical energy

There are two critically important factor involved in capturing sound using a microphone.

• Where we place the mic in relation to the sound source •

The acoustical environment in which we choose to record the sound source

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Dynamic Microphone:

Involves a coil of wire attached to a diaphragm and suspended between the poles of two magnets. As the coil cuts through the magnetic field tiny electric currents are generated within it which relate directly to the sound waves.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Live situations. Very useful in the studio. Durable of all the mic types.  Also withstand the most volume before they distort within thei own circuitry.

J<6./67/: @+E:<)8<6/7 Relies on capacitance – the ability to store or pass an electric charge. On top is a very thin metal or a conductive plastic diaphragm which moves at a distance from a fixed metal back plate. These two form the plates of a condenser.

1. Most accurate. 2. Respond to fast attacks. 3.  Add the least amount of tonal coloration. Preferred when recording acoustic guitar , acoustic piano, vocals, real brass, real strings , woodwinds, percussion, and acoustic room ambience.

TYPES OF PICK-UP PATTERN

131° Cardioid

105° Hyper Cardioid

360° Omni - directional

115° Super Cardioid

90° x 90° Bidirectional

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XY Configuration

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Snare, Kick, X-Y 1. Two cardioid condenser microphones in a traditional X-Y configuration above kit. 2. One cardioid moving-coil mic inside the kick. 3. One cardioid moving coil mic from about 2” above the top head. Close-mike Technique: Snare, Kick, Toms 1. Two cardioid condenser microphones in a traditional X-Y configuration above the kit. 2. One cardioid moving-coil mic inside the kick. 3. One cardioid moving coil mic about 2” above the head. 4. One cardioid moving-coil mic pointed at the floor tom. 5. One cardioid moving-coil mic aimed between the upper two toms and positioned so that the two drums are balanced and blended.

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Mini Plug (1/8-inch)

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"'5%& 6%#$.&%3 Insert Point

Many mixer and console designs provide a break in the signal chain that follows after the equalizer. At this point, a direct send/return or insert point (often referred to simply as direct or insert) can be used to send the strip’s line level audio signal out to an external processing.

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NML Lm#'3IrL? EQUALIZERS are used for cutting or boosting certain

frequencies.

Parametric Equalizer which adjust three parameters: frequency, boost/cut and Q (bandwidth). These equalizers are often found built into each channel in mixing consoles, but are also available as separate units.

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Low Shelving

Peaking Filter (low-mids & mid-highs)

High Shelving

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 Active Cross-over (Electronic Cross-over) !

They are designed to be inserted before the amplifier in the signal chain.

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two way speaker system is more efficient than a passive two way speaker system because there is no insertion loss.

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Headroom is increased since power is supplied by dedicated amplifiers between components.

Bi-Amp

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Tri-Amp

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Recognizing the Frequency of Sounds  A sound operator should learn to recognize the frequency of  sounds so you are able to quickly and correctly adjust equalization when there is a problem (i.e. feedback, hollowness, nasal sound, boomy, etc.)

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Compressor

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Used to maintain an average signal level by automatically reducing the level of louder sound. Signal compression is necessary because the dynamic range of equipment may be smaller than that of the signal and cause distortion, clipping, or even equipment damage. When the signal is compressed, there is a smaller difference between the volume of the loudest and softest sounds. The content can still sound like it's louder or quieter but actually have pretty much the same volume.

Threshold

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determines at what minimum sound pressure level the compressor should start compressing. Ratio

This control determines the slope of the input-to-output gain ratio. In simpler terms, it determines the amount of input signal (in decibels) that’s needed to cause a 1-dB increase at the compressor’s output Attack

determines how long the compressor will wait before turning down the volume on a loud sound. Attack time is usually within the range of microseconds. Release

Similar to the attack setting, release (which is calibrated in milliseconds) is used to determine how slowly or quickly the device will restore a signal to its original dynamic level once it has fallen below the threshold point (defined as the time required for the gain to return to 63% of its original value) Output gain

This control is used to determine how much signal will be sent to the device’s output. It’s used to boost the reduced dynamic signal into a range where it can best match the level of a medium or be better heard in a mix.

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 A limiter is essentially a compressor with the most extreme setting in effect, and sets a sound level ceiling on a signal instead of a slow curve.  Limiters suppress very loud pops (such as when unplugging a guitar or dropping a microphone) which could damage the audio system.`

A noise gate sets a threshold where if it Is any quieter it will not let the signal pass and if it is louder it "opens the gate.“ Thus the noise gate’s functions are very much opposite to those of a compressor. Noise gates are useful for microphones which will pick up noise which is not relevant to the program

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Reverberation, Echo and Delay (audio effect) effects

are widely used in sound reinforcement systems to give the effect of natural reverb. •

Less commonly, modulation effects such as Flanging and Phaser (effect)s are applied to some instruments for an unusual sound effect.

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The Exciter (effect) "livens up" the sound of audio signals by applying dynamic equalization, phase manipulation and harmonic synthesis of (usually) high frequency signals.