BIOMOLECULES AND ITS USES CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT:-
PREPARED BY – MASTER ADITYA SWARNAKAR ROLL NO. ……….., CLASS-XII KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA, SECTOR-6, ROURKELA
GUIDED BY – Mr, SALBEG PANDA,
LABORATORY CERTIFICATE Certified that this is the bonafide record of the work done by Master AdityaSwarnakar bearing Roll No…………… of class XII in the academic session 2015-16 in the Chemistry laboratory of Kendriya Vidyalaya, Sector-6, Rourkela. The Project has been done in the intellectual and inspiring environment of Mr. Salbeg Panda.
Signature of Student
Signature of External
Signature of Internal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am thankful to Kendriya Vidyalaya, Sector-6, Rourkela for giving me an opportunity to prove my skills. In the process of preparing the project I have made use of theoretical knowledge that I have gained in my class. I wish my gratitude and sincere thanks to our principal for his encouragement and for all the facilities that he provided for this project work. I sincerely appreciate his magnanimity by taking of into his folds for which I shall remain indebted to him. I owe my sincere thanks to my Chemistry teacher Mr. Salbeg Panda without whose intervention this project would not have been the same. His constant motivation and positive complement have added to the successive completion of the project. Lastly, I express my sincere thanks to my family and friends who have extended helping hands in completing the project.
Signature of Student
Signature of Teacher
Signature of External
BIOMOLECULES AND ITS USES
Although there is vast diversity of living organisms. The chemical compositon and metabolic reactions of the organisms appear to be similar. The composition of living tissues and non-living matter also appear to be similar in qualitative analysis. Closer analysis reveals that the relative abundance of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen is higher in living system. All forms of life are composed of biomolecules only. Biomolecules are organic molecules especially macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins in living organisms. All living forms bacteria, algae, plant and animals are made of similar macromolecules that are responsible for life. All the carbon compounds we get from living tissues can be called biomolecules.
DEFINITION:A biomolecule is any molecule that is present in living organisms, including large macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products. A more general name for this class of material is biological materials. Biomolecules are usually endogenous but may also be exogenous. For example, pharmaceutical drugs may be natural products or semisynthetic (biopharmaceuticals) or they may be totally synthetic.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES: Biomolecules are of different types and can be classified as
1.
Based on availability or source.
2.
Based on their role or purpose in body.
3.
Based on their chemistry.
Based on availability: Different types of biomolecules are available in different set of organisms. Not all the bio-molecules of plants are available in animals and vice-verse. Hence based on the availability they can be divided as those available in 1.
plants
2.
animals
3.
Microbes.
Example: Lignin, chitin are biomolecules present only in plants in plant cell wall. While the same cell wall in bacteria is made of gluco-polysacharrides gluco-peptides are present in bacterial cell wall. While animals do not have a cell wall. Hence there is difference of existence of biomolecules. Besides these plants have alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, resins, gums etc. which are specific to them. In animals biomolecules like epinephrine, dopamine like substances are so specific. Based on purpose: Further these bio-molecules have different role and purpose in body. So their existence in this manner is solely dependent on the purpose. Ex: Hemoglobin is a protein molecule formed in combination with iron (heme). It is meant for oxygen supply in the body. It is available only in animals and humans. But not available and also not needed for plants and microbes. Though there are many biomolecules based on their role in body. Based on their role in the body. There are 4 types of bio-molecules as. 1.
Food sources.
2.
Body elements
3.
Primary metabolites
4.
Secondary metabolites.
Food sources: These are the substances which act as food materials. They give energy and nutrients to all the living beings on the earth. Examples include: Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins. Constitutional (Form Body) : These are the molecules which make up the body structure. They also tend to control the body physiology. Examples include: DNA, RNA, steroids, cholesterol etc. DNA forms the genes and also mRNA, RNA from the body proteins. Steroids are part of many hormones. Primary metabolites: These are the substances which act as intermediates in the body metabolism and other reactions. They are formed from one or other bio-molecules like food based or constitutional based. Ex: UDP-Glucuronic acid, keto-glutaric acid etc. Secondary metabolites: These are mostly end metabolic substances. They are mostly excreted from the body. Ex: Urea, uric acid, ketones etc. Biomolecules are the natural substance present from birth to death of living being. They are synthesized in the body by use of different elements from nature. Substances like carbon-dioxide, ammonium, water and other inorganic elements from soil contribute to the chemical formation of these molecules.
Classes of Biomolecules
There are four major classes of biomolecules:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are good source of energy. Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are long chains of sugars. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that are composed of 3-7 carbon atoms. They have a free aldehyde or ketone group, which acts as reducing agents and are known as reducing sugars. Disaccharides are made of
two
monosaccharides. The bonds shared between two monosaccharides is the glycosidic bonds. Monosaccharides and disaccharides are sweet, crystalline and water soluble substances. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. They are unsweet, and complex carbohydrates. They are insoluble in water and are not in crystalline form. Carbohydrates are another important biomolecule. These are polymers, called polysaccharides, which are made up of chains of simple sugars connected via glycosidic bonds. These monosaccharides consist of a five to six carbon ring that contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - typically in a 1:2:1 ratio, respectively. Common monosaccharides
are
glucose,
fructose,
and
ribose.
When
linked
together
monosaccharides can form disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides: the nomenclature is dependent on the number of monosaccharides linked together. Common dissacharides, two monosaccharides joined together, are sucrose, maltose,
and lactose. Important polysaccharides, links of many monosaccharides, are cellulose, starch, and chitin. Cellulose is a polysaccharide made up of beta 1-4 linkages between repeat glucose monomers. It is the most abundant source of sugar in nature and is a major part of the paper industry. Starch is also a polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers; however, they are connected via an alpha 1-4 linkage instead of beta. Starches, particularly amylase, are important in many industries, including the paper, cosmetic, and food. Chitin is a derivation of cellulose, possessing anacetamide group instead of an –OH on one of its carbons. Acetimide group is deacetylated the polymer chain is then calledchitosan. Both of these cellulose derivatives are a major source of research for the biomedical and food industries. They have been shown to assist with blood clotting, have antimicrobial properties, and dietary applications. A lot of engineering and research is focusing on the degree of deacetylation that provides the most effective result for specific applications. Example: glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, starch, cellulose etc. There are four major classes of biomolecules:
Lipids Lipids are composed of long hydrocarbon chains. Lipid molecules hold a large amount of energy and are energy storage molecules. Lipids are generally esters of fatty
acids and are building blocks of biological membranes. Most of the lipids have a polar head and non-polar tail. Fatty acids can be unsaturated and saturated fatty acids.
Lipids present in biological membranes are of three classes based on the type of hydrophilic head present:
Glycolipids are lipids whose head contains oligosaccharides with 1-15 saccharide residues.
Phospholipids contain a positively charged head which are linked to the negatively charged phosphate groups.
Sterols, whose head contain a steroid ring. Example steroid. Lipids are biomolecules that are made up of glycerol derivatives bonded with
fatty acid chains. Glycerol is a simple polyolthat has a formula of C3H5(OH)3. Fatty acids are long carbon chains that have a carboxylic acid group at the end. The carbon chains can be either saturated with hydrogen; every carbon bond is occupied by a hydrogen atom or a single bond to another carbon in the carbon chain, or they can be unsaturated; namely, there are double bonds between the carbon atoms in the chain. Common fatty acids include lauric acid, stearic acid, and oleic acid. The study and engineering of lipids typically focuses on the manipulation of lipid membranes and encapsulation. Cellular membranes and other biological membranes typically consist of a phospholipid bilayer membrane, or a derivative thereof. Along with the study of cellular membranes, lipids are also important molecules for energy storage. By utilizing encapsulation properties and thermodynamic characteristics, lipids become significant assets in structure and energy control when engineering molecules. Example of lipids: oils, fats, phospholipids, glycolipids, etc.
Proteins Proteins are heteropolymers of stings of amino acids. Amino acids are joined together by the peptide bond which is formed in between the carboxyl group and amino group of successive amino acids. Proteins are formed from 20 different amino acids, depending on the number of amino acids and the sequence of amino acids. Proteins are polymers that are made up of amino acid chains linked with peptide bonds. They have four distinct levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Primary structure refers to the amino acid backbone sequence. Secondary structure focuses on minor conformations that develop as a result of the hydrogen bonding between the amino acid chain. If most of the protein contains intermolecular hydrogen bonds it is said to be fibrillar, and the majority of its secondary structure will be beta sheets. However, if the majority of the orientation contains intramolecular hydrogen bonds, then the protein is referred to as globular and mostly consists of alpha helixes. There are also conformations that consist of a mix of alpha helices and beta sheets as well as a beta helixes with an alpha sheets. The tertiary structure of proteins deal with their folding process and how the overall molecule is arranged. Finally, a quaternary structure is a group of tertiary proteins coming together and binding. With all of these levels, proteins have a wide variety of places in which they can be manipulated and adjusted. Techniques are used
to affect the amino acid sequence of the protein (site directed mutagenesis), the folding and conformation of the protein, or the folding of a single tertiary protein within a quaternary protein matrix. Proteins that are the main focus of manipulation are typically enzymes. These are proteins that act as catalysts for biochemical reactions. By manipulating these catalysts, the reaction rates, products, and effects can be controlled. Enzymes and proteins are important to the biological field and research that there are specific subsets of engineering focusing only on proteins and enzymes. See protein engineering.
There are four levels of protein structure:
Primary structure of Protein - Here protein exist as long chain of amino acids arranged in a particular sequence. They are non-functional proteins.
Secondary structure of protein - The long chain of proteins are folded and arranged in a helix shape, where the amino acids interact by the formation of hydrogen bonds. This structure is called the pleated sheet. Example: silk fibres.
Tertiary structure of protein - Long polypeptide chains become more stabilizes by folding and coiling, by the formation of ionic or hydrophobic bonds or disulphide bridges, this results in the tertiary structure of protein.
Quaternary structure of protein - When a protein is an assembly of more than one polypeptide or subunits of its own, this is said to be the quaternary structure of protein. Example: Haemoglobin, insulin.
Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are organic compounds with heterocyclic rings. Nucleic acids are made of polymer of nucleotides. Nucleotides consists of nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate group. A nucleoside is made of nitrogenous base attached to a pentose sugar. The nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, thyamine, cytosine and uracil. Polymerized nucleotides form DNA and RNA which are genetic Nucleic acids are macromolecules that consist of DNA and RNA which are biopolymers consisting of chains of biomolecules. These two molecules are the genetic code and template that make life possible. Manipulation of these molecules and structures causes major changes in function and expression of other macromolecules. Nucleosides are glycosylamines containing a nucleobase bound to either ribose or deoxyribose sugar via a beta-glycosidic linkage. The sequence of the bases determine the genetic code. Nucleotides are nucleosides that are phosphorylated by specific kinases via aphosphodiester bond.[3] Nucleotides are the repeating structural units of nucleic acids. The nucleotides are made of a nitrogenous base, a pentose (ribose for RNA or deoxyribose for DNA), and three phosphate groups. See, Site-directed mutagenesis, recombinant DNA, and ELISAs.
Functions of Biomolecules
Carbohydrates provide the body with source of fuel and energy, it aids in proper functioning of our brain, heart and nervous, digestive and immune system. Deficiency of carbohydrates
in
the
diet
causes
fatigue,
poor
mental
function.
Each protein in the body has specific functions, some proteins provide structural support, help in body movement, and also defense against germs and infections. Proteins
can
be
antibodies,
hormonal,
enzymes
and
contractile
proteins.
Lipids, the primary purpose of lipids in body is energy storage. Structural membranes are composed of lipids which forms a barrier and controls flow of material in and out of the cell. Lipid hormones, like sterols, help in mediating communication between
cells.
Nucleic Acids are the DNA and RNA, they carry genetic information in the cell. They also help in synthesis of proteins, through the process of translation and transcription.
Structure of Biomolecules
Structure of biomolecule is intricate folded, three-dimensional structure that is formed by protein, RNA, and DNA. The structure of these molecules are in different forms, primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure. The scaffold for this is provided
by
the
hydrogen
bonds
within
the
molecule.
Primary structure of a biomolecule is the exact specification of its atomic composition and and the chemical bonds connecting the atoms. Secondary structure of the biomolecule is the three-dimensional form of biopolymers, secondary structure is defined by the hydrogen bonds of the biomolecules Tertiary structure of the biomolecule is the three-dimensional structure,defined by its atomic coordinates, by the formation of hydrogen, ionic or sulphide bonds Quaternary structure is the arrangement of multiple folds of complex, in a mutli-subunit complex
Characteristics of Biomolecules: 1) Most of them are organic compounds. 2) They have specific shapes and dimensions. 3) Functional group determines their chemical properties. 4) Many of them arc asymmetric. 5) Macromolecules are large molecules and are constructed from small building block molecules. 6) Building block molecules have simple structure. 7) Biomolecules first gorse by chemical evolution. Important Biomolecules of life: 1) Water: Being the universal solvent and major constituents (60%) of any living body without which life is impossible. It acts as a media for the physiological and biochemical reactions in the body itself. Maintain the body in the required turgid condition.
2) Carbohydrates: It is very important for source of energy for any physical body function. 3) Proteins: These are very important from body maintenance point of view,helps in tissue, cell formation. 4) Lipids: These are very important from energy source as well as human nutrition point of view. LIST OF BIOMOLECULES: In a simple worksheet explaining characters, role and availability. Biomolecule Glucose
Class Carbohydrates.
Sucrose (sugar) Starch Cellulose DNA
Nucleic Acid
RNA
Nucleic Acid
Amino acids
Proteins
Enzymes
Proteins
Hormones
Amides, lipids, amines
Gums Glycosides
Carbohydrates in nature Made of carbohydrate + Glycoside moiety Metabolites
Tannins Cholesterol Essential oils
Lipids Hydrocarbons (volatile oil which are gases at high temperature.
Vitamins A,B,C,D,E & K Biomolecule Glucose
Vitamins Class Carbohydrates.
Characters Sweet in taste & provides energy to body Sweet in taste & provides energy to body Breaks down to sugars Breaks down to sugars & eaten by animals Regulates Body composition & Physiology Protein synthesis & physiology To make up proteins and body building As catalysts to aid reactions Act as messengers to regulate physiology
Metabolites but are used in medicine Waste matter for plants but used by humans Forms cell membrane As metabolites. To attract insects for pollination. Humans use as perfumes. To aid in body physiology Characters Sweet in taste & provides energy to body
Presence Animals & plants
Animals & Plants Animals & plants Plants Animals & Plants Animals & Plants Animals & plants Animals & plants Animals & plants Plants Plants Plants Animals Plants
Animals & Plants Presence Animals & plants
Sucrose (sugar) Starch Cellulose DNA
Nucleic Acid
RNA
Nucleic Acid
Amino acids
Proteins
Enzymes
Proteins
Hormones
Amides, lipids, amines
Gums Glycosides
Carbohydrates in nature Made of carbohydrate + Glycoside moiety Metabolites
Tannins Cholesterol Essential oils
Lipids Hydrocarbons (volatile oil which are gases at high temperature.
Vitamins A,B,C,D,E & K
Vitamins
Sweet in taste & provides energy to body Breaks down to sugars Breaks down to sugars & eaten by animals Regulates Body composition & Physiology Protein synthesis & physiology To make up proteins and body building As catalysts to aid reactions Act as messengers to regulate physiology Metabolites but are used in medicine Waste matter for plants but used by humans Forms cell membrane As metabolites. To attract insects for pollination. Humans use as perfumes. To aid in body physiology
Animals & Plants Animals & plants Plants Animals & Plants Animals & Plants Animals & plants Animals & plants Animals & plants Plants Plants Plants Animals Plants
Animals & Plants
This is not the end of the list but a brief categorization of biomolecules. But of all those available, only 4 important biomolecules are studied widely. These 4 major biomolecules include 1.
Carbohydrates.
2.
Proteins (amino-acids)
3.
Fats
4.
Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, nucleotides). These are studied so because of their role in health and diseases.
IMPORTANCE OF BIOMOLECULES:
Biomolecules are used for different purposes like food, medicine, cosmetics etc. by humans. Below are few uses of them 1.
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats are used as food stuffs in various forms.
2.
Volatile oils or essential oils are used for perfumes.
3.
Compounds like alkaloids, glycosides, tannins are used in medicine.
4.
Tannins are also used to tan (toughen) the leather in industry. These biomolecules are vital to the living beings. But they can be harmful and
toxic if misused or over stagnated in the body.
Relationship to other biological sciences:-
Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics andbiochemistry. There is not a defined line between these disciplines. The figure to the right is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields
Biomolecular Engineering Biomolecular engineering deals with the manipulation of many key biomolecules. These include, but are not limited to, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids. These molecules are the basic building blocks of life and by controlling, creating, and manipulating their form and function there are many new avenues and advantages
available to society. Since every biomolecule is different, there are a number of techniques used to manipulate each one respectively. It is the application of engineering principles and practices to the purposeful manipulation of molecules of biological origin. Biomolecular engineers integrate knowledge of biological processes with the core knowledge of chemical engineering in order to focus on molecular level solutions to issues and problems in the life sciences related to the environment, agriculture, energy, industry, food production, biotechnology and medicine. Biomolecular engineers purposefully manipulate carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids within the framework of the relation between their structure (see: nucleic acid structure, carbohydrate chemistry, protein structure,), function (see: protein function) and properties and in relation to applicability to such areas as environmental remediation, crop and live stock production, biofuel cells and biomolecular diagnostics. Fundamental attention is given to the thermodynamics and kinetics of molecular recognition
in
enzymes,
antibodies,
DNA
hybridization,
bio-conjugation/bio-
immobilization and bioseparations. Attention is also given to the rudiments of engineered biomolecules in cell signaling, cell growth kinetics, biochemical pathway engineering and bioreactor engineering. Biomolecular engineers are leading the major shift towards understanding and controlling the molecular mechanisms that define life as we know it.
Biomolecular engineering in industry Biomolecular engineering is an extensive discipline with applications in many different industries and fields. As such, it is difficult to pinpoint a general perspective on the Biomolecular engineering profession. The biotechnology industry, however, provides an adequate representation. The biotechnology industry, or biotech industry, encompasses all firms that use biotechnology to produce goods or services or to perform biotechnology research and development. In this way, it encompasses many of the industrial applications of the biomolecular engineering discipline. By examination of
the biotech industry, it can be gathered that the principal leader of the industry is the United States, followed by France and Spain. It is also true that the focus of the biotechnology industry and the application of biomolecular engineering is primarily clinical and medical. People are willing to pay for good health, so most of the money directed towards the biotech industry stays in health-related ventures.
Multi-state modeling of biomolecules Multi-state modeling of biomolecules refers to a series of techniques used to represent and compute the behaviour ofbiological molecules or complexes that can adopt a large number of possible functional states. Biological signaling systems often rely on complexes of biological macromolecules that can undergo several functionally significant modifications that are mutually compatible. Thus, they can exist in a very large number of functionally different states. Modeling such multi-state systems poses two problems: The problem of how to describe and specify a multi-state system (the "specification problem") and the problem of how to use a computer to simulate the progress of the system over time (the "computation problem").
Education and programs The discipline of biomolecular engineering has become ever more prevalent with the better understanding and advancement of current sciences and technologies. In previous years, biomolecular engineering was not a well-known career path, but the growth in popularity of this subject has resulted in new programs offered to undergraduate and graduate students. Newly developed and offered undergraduate programs often coupled to the chemical engineering program, allow students to achieve degree. Biomolecular engineering curricula "must provide thorough grounding in the basic sciences including chemistry, physics, and biology, with some content at an advanced level, engineering application of these basic sciences to design, analysis, and control, of chemical,
physical, and/or biological processes." Common curricula consist of major engineering courses including transport, thermodynamics, separations, and kinetics, with additions of life sciences courses including biology and biochemistry, and including specialized biomolecular courses focusing on cell biology, nano- and biotechnology, biopolymers, etc.
Future Bio-inspired technologies of the future can help
explain biomolecular
engineering. Looking at the Moore's law "Prediction", in the future quantum and biologybased processors are "big" technologies. With the use of biomolecular engineering, the way our processors work can be manipulated in order to function in the same sense a biological cell work. Biomolecular engineering has the potential to become one of the most important scientific disciplines because of its advancements in the analyses of gene expression patterns as well as the purposeful manipulation of many important biomolecules to improve functionality. Research in this field may lead to new drug discoveries, improved therapies, and advancement in new bioprocess technology. With the increasing knowledge of biomolecules, the rate of finding new high-value molecules including but not limited to antibodies, enzymes, vaccines, and therapeutic peptides will continue to accelerate. Biomolecular engineering will produce new designs for therapeutic drugs and high-value biomolecules for treatment or prevention of cancers, genetic diseases, and other types of metabolic diseases. Also, there is anticipation of industrial enzymes that are engineered to have desirable properties for process improvement as well the manufacturing of high-value biomolecular products at a much lower production cost. Using recombinant technology, new antibiotics that are active against resistant strains will also be produced.
