A Giant of Latin Jazz: An investigation of three improvisational improvisational approaches of Chucho Valdes in his performance of La Negra Tomasa.
Cristian Contreras
2011
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
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........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ................................. ...... 3 Introduction ............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ..................................... ..........4 Biography .............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. ............................................ .........................5 Literature Review .............................................. ............................................................... .............................................. .................................... ......... 12 What is Afro Cuban Music? ............................................ Clave ............................................ ............................................................... .............................................. ..................................................... ...................................... ............13 ........................................................................ .............................................. ......................................... ......................16 What is Latin Jazz? ............................................. ........................................................................ .............................................. .......................................... ......................17 Rhythmic Analysis .............................................. Leitmotiv Leitmotiv ............................................. ........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ............................... .... 18 Clave Lapse .............................................. ........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ..........................19 19 One Bar Patterns Patterns .............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. ..................................... .................. 20 Beat Displacement Displacement ............................................ ............................................................... ............................................. ............................................ ..................29 ........................................................................ .............................................. .......................................... ......................30 Harmonic Analysis .............................................. Montuno ............................................. ........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ............................... .... 31 Suspended Suspended Harmony ............................................ ....................................................................... .............................................. ................................. ..............34 Tri Tone Substitution Substitution ...................................................... ................................................................................. .................................................. ....................... 39 39 So What .............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ............................... .... 39 Upper Structures Structures .............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. ..................................... ..................43 ........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ................................... ........ 45 Conclusion ............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ............................... .... 46 Bibliography ..............................................
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
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........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ................................. ...... 3 Introduction ............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ..................................... ..........4 Biography .............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. ............................................ .........................5 Literature Review .............................................. ............................................................... .............................................. .................................... ......... 12 What is Afro Cuban Music? ............................................ Clave ............................................ ............................................................... .............................................. ..................................................... ...................................... ............13 ........................................................................ .............................................. ......................................... ......................16 What is Latin Jazz? ............................................. ........................................................................ .............................................. .......................................... ......................17 Rhythmic Analysis .............................................. Leitmotiv Leitmotiv ............................................. ........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ............................... .... 18 Clave Lapse .............................................. ........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ..........................19 19 One Bar Patterns Patterns .............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. ..................................... .................. 20 Beat Displacement Displacement ............................................ ............................................................... ............................................. ............................................ ..................29 ........................................................................ .............................................. .......................................... ......................30 Harmonic Analysis .............................................. Montuno ............................................. ........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ............................... .... 31 Suspended Suspended Harmony ............................................ ....................................................................... .............................................. ................................. ..............34 Tri Tone Substitution Substitution ...................................................... ................................................................................. .................................................. ....................... 39 39 So What .............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ............................... .... 39 Upper Structures Structures .............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. ..................................... ..................43 ........................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ................................... ........ 45 Conclusion ............................................. ......................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ............................... .... 46 Bibliography ..............................................
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Australian Institute of music for its continued support of my musical studies. The experiences learnt here have been invaluable to my research and growth as an academic. I would like to convey my sincere appreciation to my thesis supervisor and mentor Mr. Dan Wallace, who contributed a considerable amount of his time and energy into the realization of my project. Thanks for your patience and persistence! To Mr. Yuval Shay-El, a special commendation for your generosity and illustrious transcription abilities which have proven invaluable to my research. Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family for all the encouragement and emotional support they have given me over the past years of study. I love you all! Cristian Contreras
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Introduction
The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the individual application of 3 improvisatory techniques employed by Latin Jazz composer and pianist, Chucho Valdes. There have been a number of articles, magazines, journals, books, media publications and online articles written on the very broad and well documented subject of Chucho Valdes and Latin jazz. However most take a historical and biographical point of view which focuses more on Valdes’ music with his group Irakere. Whilst this study does not intend to cover the intricacies of this period, it will instead analyze Valdes’ performance of a Latin Jazz composition in order to further understand his unique improvisatory style and technique. This study will also examine the manner in which Chucho Valdes has adapted the traditional functions of an Afro-Cuban rhythm section to a solo piano context. Latin Jazz owes its origins to both North American and Cuban influences, being a third stream genre which encapsulates the rhythms of the Afro Cuban tradition but is also fused with Jazz harmony. A key founder of this genre included Damaso Perez Prado who made the mambo famous in the 1950’s with its Afro-Cuban rhythms which were combined with big band idioms. Then came Afro-Cuban composers such as Frank Grillo and Mario Bauza, who helped drive this new style alongside U.S musicians like Dizzie Gillespie. This amalgamation of Afro-Cuban rhythms with Jazz harmony and improvisation fashioned fashioned what is today known as L atin Jazz. (West 2003, p.68) An exceptional exponent of this musical tradition is Chucho Valdes who in 1973 deviated from the Latin jazz tradition when he combined Jazz, Rock and Afro Cuban roots to create a unique sound through his internationally acclaimed group ‘Irakere’. (Rosati 2005, p.8) It was the music produced during this period of his life which truly defined him as an industry leader and established his international reputation reputation as “one of the best jazz pianists in the world”. (Perna 2005, p.39) The manners in which Valdes manipulates the traditional Latin jazz canon will be analyzed throughout the course of this thesis in respect to his h is improvisatory use of the following 3 techniques, as recorded on the tune ‘La Negra Tomasa’ by Alejandro Rodriguez. These are:
Clave Structures
Rhythmic Cells
Harmony
Through the use of the aforementioned resources, this study will begin by establishing the biographical context of Chucho Valdes in order to shed light on his background and experiences. An overview of the origins and key aspects of Afro Cuban music will then be discussed which includes a brief analysis of the clave concept, and its associated rhythmic cells. The subsequent section features a summary of Latin Jazz and its main contributors before an in-depth analysis of Valdes’ improvisatory work will conclude by determining his specific use of these 3 main techniques.
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Biography
Chucho Valdes th
Cuban pianist Jesus Dionisio Valdes (Chucho) was born in the province of Quivican on October 9 , 1941. As the son of two musicians he received much of his initial training and inspiration from his parents, notably Ramon (Bebo) Valdes who was then director of the famous Tropicana Club. His fathers’ connections with the club allowed Chucho to become acquainted with the likes of Buddy Rich, Nat King Cole, Dizzy Gillespie, Sarah Vaughn and Milt Jackson. (Valdes biography, 2010) His initial classical music studies culminated at the prestigious Municipal conservatory of Havana when he was merely 14 years old. (Hager n.d, p.12) In 1967 Valdes attained the position of pianist for the Cuban Modern Music Orchestra under the direction of Armando Romeu; and out of this ensemble came the infamous ‘Irakere’ which was officially founded by Chucho in 1973 . (Perna 2005, p.39) Irakere began with three founders which were Carlos Del Puerto (bass), Oscar Valdes (percussion, vocals), and Chucho Valdes on piano/keyboard. Valdes had sought to modernize Cuba’s rhythmic practices through the inclusion of Jazz and other elements; and so Irakere was the ideal setting where he brought to life his experimentations with the fusion of African, Cuban and North American instrumentation, musical traditions and rhythms. (Leymarrie 2002, p. 259) Chucho pays respects to the African origins and influences (specifically Nigerian) which shaped his individual sound, as the literal meaning of the word Irakere is taken from the Yoruba language which translates forest or lush place. (Moore 2006, p.116) His work with Irakere saw him win a Grammy award in 1979, and the group is now considered as one of the most important in Cuba’s rich musical history. ( Valdes biography, 2010)
Chucho’s musical legacy has seen him become one of the most renowned Latin Jazz performers and earned him a reputation of being the “A rt Tatum of Cuba” (Yanow 2005, p.140). H is accomplishments as a composer, arranger and professor have gained him 7 Grammy awards, several doctorates, plus a recording history of 87 discs and 33 collaborations to his name. Chucho Valdes truly is a Giant of Latin Jazz.
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Literature Review
Calle 54
Fernando Trueba
Trueba, F , Calle 54, 2000, DVD, potential Films. Boasting some of the true legends of the genre; Calle 54 is an outstanding documentary that rivals Buena Vista social club as an iconic tribute to music. Featuring Tito Puente, Cachao, Jerry Gonzalez, Chano Dominguez, Bebo Valdes, Puntilla, Chico O’Farrill, Paquito D Rivera and pianists Eliane Elias, Michel Camilo and Chucho Valdes; it showcases their individual talents and insight through a number of intimate performances and interviews. Chucho Valdez’ composition ‘Caridad Amaro’, found in the eighth chapter was truly eye opening as it displayed his technical flare and mastery on the solo piano. Having this audio visual perspective was invaluable to my research as I could actually see his playing style and technique in great detail. This also taught me about how to overcome the problems of emulating an Afro-Cuban ensemble and its individual parts on the solo piano. A truly remarkable work of art, Calle 54 perfectly unites the music of Afro-Caribbean and North American Jazz together in this ninety-three minute masterpiece by Fernando Trueba.
Validations An acclaimed film critic, screenplay writer and founder of the journal Cassablanca; Spanish film director Fernando Trueba is an Iconic veteran of the independent and foreign film scene since the early 1980’s. His gift for blending elements of comedy, drama and art into film saw him take out the 1993 Oscar for best foreign film with his film “Belle Epoch”. Currently running his own independent film journal as well as freelancing and producing, Fernando Trueba is a truly unique visionary with a love for art in its many diverse forms.
Pocket Manual of Musical Terms
ed. Laura Kuhn
Ed. Baker, T , Pocket Manual of Musical Terms, Schirmer Trade Books, New York A thorough yet surprisingly compact publication, Schirmer’s pocket music dictionary, edited by Laura Kuhn, provides a solid foundation of musical terms, definitions, biographies and elements of notation.
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Commencing on elemental musical concepts such as Staff notation, scales, cleffs, accidentals, note lengths, intervals, and musical symbols; it soon discusses more specific subject themes and advanced terminology. It’s in text transcriptions and pronunciation notes helped me to both fill any theoretical holes which presented themselves; and to expand upon my musical vocabulary. This proved to be very reliable and useful publication for the purposes of my research of this highly detailed subject matter.
Validations Dr. Laura Kuhn is a Ph.D. studies graduate from the University of California, Los Angeles. Throughout her illustrious career she has worked as an arts administrator, writer, director, and performer with names such as Nicolas Slonimsky, John Cage, James Joyce and Marcel Duchamp. She currently works for Schirmer Trade Books as an editor.
Timba Funk
David Garibaldi
Garibaldi, D, 1997, Timba Funk-Talking Drums, Warner Bros, Miami Timba Funk by David Garibaldi is a percussionist’s crash course into the various Afro-Cuban rhythmic styles and patterns that occurred over the last century. The word Timba denotes a popular dance and musical style that began in Cuba during the 1990’s. The author credits its origins as “…traditional forms [that] came from Africa during the era of slavery… [which were later]…reinvented in Cuba as they came into contact with the Europeans, and have a continuing influence on popular Afro-Cuban music” (Garibaldi 1997, Pg 1). The following chapters vividly describe and il lustrate various rhythmic patterns through transcriptions such as: guiro, Bembe, Yongo, Rumba Columbia, Guaguanco, Arara, Pilon, Mozambique, Conga and Guaramina to name a few. It hen divulges the clave concept and how one would adapt these various rhythms to the modern Drum-set / Drum-kit. A thoroughly educational publication, Timba Funk really sets matters straight in regards to the various rhythmic and drumming styles of Afro Cuban Music.
Validations David Garibaldi was Born in Oakland, California and had since childhood shown a love for music. By age 17 David had already began his professional career, however in 1966 the Vietnam War saw him enlist in the US Air Force as a member of the 724th Air Force Band. Upon returning home in 1970 David joined the group Tower of Power, which eventually led him to become one of the most
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influential drummers of his generation. He has since appeared in a variety of studio and live settings including work for television and film. He currently tours with Tower of Power and writes for Alfred Publishing and Warner Brothers Publications.
The Jazz Piano Book
Mark Levine
Levine, M, 1989, Jazz Piano Book, Sher Music Co, California. Mark Levine’s earlier publication the Jazz Piano Book profoundly encapsulated the essence of Jazz through the study of the piano forte. It proved to be an integral text for my research as it specifically dealt with the Jazz aspect of Piano technique, performance, analysis and improvisation. Chapters twelve to fourteen proved invaluable to my harmonic analysis as they respectively dealt with the application of different harmonic mechanisms to Piano voicings. So What Chords, Fourth Voicings and Upper Structures were discussed with many useful transcriptions, examples and analysis included. Chapter 20 highlighted touched on the subject of salsa and Afro Cuban music which shed some insight on facets like the different forms of Clave, the origins of Afro Cuban music, the pre and post Cuban revolutionary effects on music, and its effect on the U.S. After demonstrating how to adapt Jazz standards into clave governed arrangements, Levine delves into the performances of montunos and other Afro Cuban rhythmic patterns. Levine subsequently recounts a brief historical overview of the key figures which influenced and pioneered this music from the early 1900’s. In the concluding portion of this chapter he then credits Rebecca Mauleon and recommends her publications for a more in depth study of Clave, history and examples of Afro Cuban music. A superb publication, Mark Levine’s the Jazz Piano book offers beginners to professionals a clear and concise guide through the vast study of Jazz piano.
Validations Mark Levine is a seasoned pianist and composer who currently records for the Concord Jazz Label in America. He has worked with many famous musicians including Woody Shaw, Joe Henderson, Sonny Sitt, Milt Jackson, Cal Tjader, Art Pepper, Chet Baker, Mongo Santamaria, and Bobby Hutcheron. Currently still active in the San Francisco jazz scene, he lectures in the local conservatorium of music as well as the Jamey Abersold, Stanford Jazz, Camp West and Jazz studio camps around the world
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The Jazz Theory Book
Mark Levine
Levine, M, 1995, Jazz Theory Book, Sher Music Co, California.
The jazz theory book by Mark Levine offers a well rounded course through the never ending spirals and turns of Jazz theory. Of particular interest to my research was the twenty second chapter which dealt exclusively with Latin Jazz. It briefly skimmed through the main points of the genre including the history of the clave; it’s relation to the entire Afro-Cuban ensemble, it’s relation to various rhythmic cells, and various transcriptions of both 3-2, 2-3 and Rumba clave. Mark Levine also mentioned how important figures like Xavier Cugat paved the way in the early twentieth century for the future masters of Latin Jazz. “… The popularity in the U.S of Latin bands such as Xavier Cugat, [who] in the 1930’s paved the way for the Jazz-influenced big bands of Machito and Tito Puente in the 1940’s and 1950’s ” (Levine, 1995 pg 471). They in turn continued to stir this new
found Latin Jazz pot and greatly influenced many others including Chucho Valdes.
Cuban Fire
Isabelle Leymarie
Leymarie, I, 2002, Cuban Fire, Continuum, New York. Cuban fire represents Isabelle Leymarie’s popularized chronological account of the birth and development of salsa and Latin Jazz. It begins by crediting Africa for Cuba’s success in conceiving its Afro Cuban influenced music: specifically the Abakwa, Yoruban, Congolese and Bantu Cultures. “Popular
Cuban
music
oscillates
between
sacred
Abakwa,
Yoruba,
and
Congo
chants…”(Leymarie,2002 Pg 9) I found it interesting how the Abakwa and Yoruba liturgies directly influenced the likes of Mongo Santamaria who wrote Afro Blue, a true Latin Jazz standard based upon the 6/8 clave. The description of the clave and its structures was limited yet concise. However the sections on Son and Rumba were of particular importance to my research as they thoroughly discussed key pianists of the genre such as Perrochin who influenced Chucho Valdes. An entire section on Latin Jazz even goes into the life and music of Chucho Valdes, providing crucial facts on his seventies’ band Irakere, and even a transcription of his composition ‘Lo que va a pasar’. Cuban Fire established a sound foundation for my research into Latin Jazz. With its clear transcriptions, accurate accounts, vivid illustrations and ample discography; it truly provided me with a large and detailed scope of the advent of Latin J azz.
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Validations Dr. Isabelle Leymarie is a recognized jazz pianist who holds a degree in ethno-musicology from the University of Columbia. As an author, she has written a number of texts on the broad subject of Latin Jazz which includes Cuban Fire, La Salsa et la Jazz Latin, Du Tango au Reggae and Musiques Caraibes. Once the assistant Professor of African-American studies at the prestigious Yale University, she currently teaches, performs, writes and resides in Paris.
The Salsa Guide Book
Rebecca Mauleon
Mauleon, R, 1993, Salsa Guidebook, Sher Music Co, California. Rebecca Mauleon’s Salsa guide book for piano and ensemble is a condensed yet thorough text which deals with the roots, history, development, technical aspects, artists and fundamentals of Afro -Cuban music. It begins with a brief chapter on the origin’s and instrumentation of salsa, which extensively demonstrates how a predominant West African, (as well as partial European) influence laid its foundation. The entire chapter on clave transformation and development was of specific value as it profoundly analyzed its origins and that of other rhythmic cells such as the cinquillo, conga and tumbao.”In order to understand the clave’s development, we must refer back to African religious music… (In particular) the rhythmic patterns of the Yoruba culture of Nigeria” (Mauleon 1993 Pg 49). Given that I am studying this material in relation to Chucho Valdes’ improvisational techniques; its articulate transcriptions and excerpts were invaluable to my thesis. A concise description of the bass tumbao was also very note worthy in regards to the left hand patterns as Chucho imitates the bass part using this rhythmic and melodic technique. The fourth chapter which dealt with the instrument patterns and clave was specifically of importance as it included a specialized section on the piano and Montuno. It deconstructs it by starting with a standard triadic example, followed by more complicated and modern versions which feature advanced harmony, rhythmic variations, beat displacement/anticipation, and chromaticism. Along with various examples of Cha-cha-cha patterns and their voicings, this chapter was indispensable for my analysis of these two Latin Jazz pianists. Overall, I found the Salsa Guide Book to be an impressive introduction to the entire Afro-Cuban tradition for the piano and ensemble. It provided much insight on the function of the clave, the various piano styles and the harmony of Cuban music.
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Validations Rebecca Mauleon is a renowned pianist, arranger, composer and performer of Afro-Cuban music for over fifteen years. Completing a Bachelor of Arts degree in California, she soon traveled around the world as a researcher and teacher. Her recording and performance history boasts some of the best musicians in the business including Carlos Santana, Tito Puente, Joe Henderson, Israel Cachao Lopez and many others. She is currently the co-director of the Machete Ensemble, a faculty member of the Rhythmic Concepts programs and Jazz-Camp as well as a composer for the Berkeley school of music repertory Theatre.
101 Montunos
Rebecca Mauleon
Mauleon, R, 1999, 101 Montunos, Sher Music Co, California. A fantastic and genuinely informative publication, 101 montunos by Rebecca Mauleon specializes almost entirely on the piano as a major part of the Afro-Cuban and Latin Jazz ensemble. Its in-depth and accurate content travels chronologically through the origins of the Afro-Caribbean piano during the late nineteenth century up until the nineties and beyond. The clave concept, its related rhythmic cells and its history are all carefully reviewed through the entire first chapter, with examples and diagrams scattered through-out.”…the clave is all at once and instrument, a rhythmic pattern, and more importantly as a concept…” (Mauleon 1999 Pg 1). It then leads the way into the second fascinating chapter which specifically focuses on the evolution of the Afro-Caribbean piano. I found the Rumba, Son, Son Montuno and Cha-cha-cha particularly interesting as these are all styles employed by the likes of Chucho. The following sections investigate the initiation of Latin music through the America’s, (particularly north) and how these two diverse cultures ignited the fusion of Latin Jazz. Its concluding chapter successfully completes the text by analyzing and explaining specific tec hniques used by Latin Jazz pianists in modern times. Advanced musical concepts such as harmonic expansion, altered chords, upper structures, quartal harmony, poly chords, contemporary montuno playing and beat displacement are just some of the gems found in this section.101 Montunos was by far the most relevant and most important book to my research. Reading it has certainly helped me to grasp many of the concepts and mechanisms utilized by Latin Jazz pianists.
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Down beat
John Storm Roberts
Roberts, J, S, 1977, Latin Persuasions, Maher Publications, U.S.A This article featured in the April 21, 1977 issue of Down Beat magazine is written by John Storm Roberts, the author of the Latin Tinge. It is a brief overview on the subject of Latin Jazz in America during the early to mid twentieth century. Roberts discusses similar points as does Rebecca Mauleon, specifically in crediting Xavier Cugat for helping to promote this emerging new style. “…Above all Latin music’s answer to Paul Whiteman, Xavier Cugat. (Roberts 1977, Pg 13). He continues on to discuss some key musicians of the era including Tito Puente, Perez Prado, Dizzy Gillespie, Mario Bauza, and Machito; as well as the roles they individually played in the popularization of the genre. After mentioning some aspects of Brazilian music and the 1970’s Latin rock craze, he concludes by acknowledging people like Carlos Santana as true innovators of the new Latin sound that hit America by storm in the twentieth century. An interesting historical account, John S Roberts’ article Latin Persuasions offers a specific scope into world of Latin Jazz in North America during the 1970’s
Validations John Anthony Storm Roberts was a writer, scholar and producer born in London in 1936. His work explored the rich diversity of world music, specifically the popular music of Africa and Latin America and its influence on North America. Roberts completed a bachelor’s degree in modern languages at the prestigious Oxford University; then in the mid-1960s he utilized his 6 different languages as an international reporter and editor. He later worked as a London radio producer with the BBC in the early 1980’s before founding his own enterprise called Original Music. With nearly two decades in the business, Original Music co is now a successfully established mail-order company which distributes records and world music books.
Latin Tinge
J.S.Roberts
Roberts, J, Storm, 1999, the Latin Tinge, Oxford University Press, New York. Latin Tinge, Written by J.S Roberts is an insightful text which historically describes the advent of Latin American music from its roots to the late twentieth century. It does however focus primarily on the music’s impact on North America, offering little information on composition, improvisation or Chucho Valdes. This being said however, I found it a well structured and informative publication with and extensive discography featuring many works from the Icons of Latin Jazz.
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What is Afro Cuban music?
Chucho Valdes’ interweaves an array of stylistic rhythms, harmonies, and musical traditions from both the Afro Cuban and Latin Jazz idioms into his performance and improvisation. It is therefore essential to familiarize oneself with the origins, terms, and features of both genres in order to fully comprehend their practical application throughout this thesis. “Cuban music can be described as a melting pot of African and European harmonies, melodies, rhythms and musical instruments”. (Mauleon 1993, p. 1) Over time, these influences also combined with religious and secular elements which consolidated into three main styles of Cuban music: Son, Danzon, and ‘Rumba’. The origins of Afro Cuban music stem back to African slaves who were exported from their homelands to various locations around the Caribbean and South America. They were predominantly from the western coastal regions of Africa and they played a crucial role in the musical development of the new world. (Mauleon 1993, p. 2) Some of the most influential peoples include: the Yoruba from Nigeria, the Bantu of Congo and Angola, the Eue-fon and Fanti Ashanti of Dahomey and the Male’/Madinga of Sudan. Although many of their musical traditions were lost after being enslaved and sent to the new world, several remain dominant to this day and include: call and response, polymeter, polyrhythm, pentatonic melody, antiphonal melodies and improvisation. (Mauleon 1993, p. 2) It was the combination of these African musical traditions and drumming practices mixed with Spanish harmony, melody, songs and dance forms which over time evolved into what is now known as Afro Cuban music. (Levine 1995, p. 470) These elements eventually broke off into the three main secular forms of popular Cuban music which must also be examined in order to understand the scope of the genre.
1. The Son was originally the popular dance music of the peasant working class in the Oriente province of Cuba. Established during the late nineteenth century, it drew upon elements of Spanish lyricism and performing media together with African rhythms, harmony and instruments. (Mauleon 1993, p. 177)
2. The ‘Rumba’ can be described as a folkloric secular dance which consists of drumming, dancing, and call and response singing. The traditional Cuban Rumba form is derived from several African elements with vast Bantu influence. (Mauleon 1993, P. 179) The style of Rumba can be divided further into three individual styles which are known as ‘Yambu’, ‘Guaguanco’ and ‘Columbia’.
3. The Danzon was yet another 19
th
century Cuban form which originally came from early
European court dances. The music style combined European classic instrumentation such as strings, brass and woodwinds with Afro-Cuban influences. (Mauleon 1993, P. 180)
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Clave The aforementioned popular Cuban music styles are all based upon a specific underlying structure which determines the phrasing and syncopation for any performing media involved. This structure is known as clave. The term clave denotes 3 things: a physical instrument which is a set of 2 sticks; a rhythmic pattern, and an organizing concept. The study of clave is essential in due to the fact that is serves as the “…foundation of most Cuban rhythms, patterns, melodic phrases and even improvisation”. (Mauleon 1993, p. 43) First, the rhythm known as clave comprises of 2 rhythmic figures in a tension-relaxation relationship, which are usually kept constant throughout a composition. This ostinato is maintained by a set of physical instruments struck together in unison with the rhythmic figures. The final aspect is known as the concept of clave, and it specifically refers to the direction in which the pattern is played, and how the clave is applied or manipulated. This concept is by far the most important to understand and interpret as it governs the entire use of the first two aspects. The origins of the clave trace back to a specific rhythmic pattern known as 6/8 clave, which was founded upon the religious music of the Yoruba culture in Nigeria. Although this vast subject demands an entire study of its own, it must as a minimum be acknowledged that the source of the ‘Son’ and ‘Rumba’, is the 6/8 clave pattern. (Mauleon 1993, p. 49)
Son Clave
The Son clave is a binary measure, five note pattern which in itself contains an important one bar rhythmic cell called tresillo . Located in the first bar of figure 1.2 it is referred to as the strong side of the clave due to its accent of the first beat. The tresillo features an important accent on the ‘and’ of the second beat in measure one called the bombo; and another on the fourth beat of the measure called ponche. (Mauleon 1993, pg 257) The second measure is known as the weak side of the clave which completes the tension-relaxation relationship of these two contrasting cells and helps determine clave direction. (Mauleon 1993, pg 51) Originally written in 2/4, today’s standard clave is notated in 4/4 cut time meter.
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Rumba Clave Rumba clave originated from sacred African music and drumming practices which specifically trace back to Abakua traditions. (Mauleon 1993, p. 52)
Cinquillo and Baqueteo Both the son and rumba claves are also closely related to yet another African derived rhythmic cell which is known as the Cinquillo. The term literally translates as ‘little 5’ in Spanish as it contain 5 rhythmic pulses per bar.
Originally a one bar rhythmic cell in itself, a second bar of straight quarter notes was later added to create a binary rhythmic function of tension ( measure 1) and relaxation ( measure 2). It was subsequently labeled ‘Baqueteo’, and is now known as the signature pattern for the Danzon. In an Afro-Cuban
ensemble
situation
it
would
be
performed
by
the
Timbales
and
Guiro.
(Mauleon 1999, p. 5)
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Clave Direction In order to determine the use of clave in any Afro Cuban piece, one must first ascertain its actual direction by examining the phrasing and implied accents. The melody will usually help determine the direction of clave. The Son clave creates tension in the first measure by accenting the + of beat two, before releasing this tension in the following measure by accenting beats 2 and 3 to create relaxation. This creates a specific clave direction in the music which will remain constant as long as it is played over an even amount of bars. Mark Levine highlighted the importance that every component of Afro Cuban rhythms (including) drum patterns, piano montuno, bass lines, melodic phrasing (and) horn line has to be ‘in gear’ with the clave. (1995, p. 462)
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What is Latin Jazz?
Latin Jazz is the term utilized to describe a style of music which over the course of many decades, combined elements of both Afro-Cuban music, and Jazz, into an individual 3
rd
stream genre. There
were many different musical cultures and traditions which were essential to the evolution of this eclectic genre, some of which originated in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Cuba, Africa and North America. (Mauleon 1993, p.1) The primary contributing factors involved in the development of this genre can be condensed into the following 3 particulars:
1) The incorporation of African Religious Traditions into Cuban secular music. 2) The adaptation of the European style military band into popular instrumentation 3) The harmonic developments and innovations introduced by the European impressionists, mixed with African derived harmonies and rhythms. (Mauleon 1993, p.6)
Some of the most notable musicians who contributed to the blending of Jazz and Afro-Cuban music were Xavier Cugat, Mario Bauza Juan Trizol, Pedro Justiz, Mongo Santamaria, Jerry Gonzales, Eddie Palmieri, Tito Puente, and Chano pozo who collaborated with Dizzy Gillespie during the 1 940’s. This constant evolution and cross culmination between North and Latin American music gave birth to its predecessors, such forms as Cubop, Latin Rock and Salsa. The most direct influence came from Cubop, which was the combination of be-bop harmonies and tempi mixed with Afro Cuban son and cha cha cha patterns. Like most popular Latin dance music of that time, Cubop eventually absorbed other non Cuban musical strains which eventually became known as Latin Jazz (Leymarie 2002, p. 238) Commencing in the 1970’s, This Latin Jazz music progressively became diversified through the increasing influence of immigrating musicians who were drawn to North America. (Leymarie 2002, p. 315)Cuban artists such as Chucho Valdes who belonged to this era, sought to uphold the traditions of their own popular music, and explore the creation of new sounds by combining the older styles with the new ones. (Mauleon 1993, p.7)
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Rhythmic Analysis
The following section will analyze Chucho Valdes’ solo performance from his 1998 album ‘Live in New York”. The analysis will focus on the final performance of a traditional Latin American piece called ‘La Negra Tomasa’ by Alejandro Rodriguez.
In clave The concept of being IN clave refers to being in sync or agreement with a specific clave direction. Once the direction is established, a performer would not play a phrase or rhythm which would upset or disrupt the flow of clave if one was to remain IN clave. If this direction is not considered carefully during a performance or improvised section, it may lead to the clave being crossed or reversed; which if not specifically intended can cause a breakdown of rhythmic structure and therefore the overall equilibrium of the music is destroyed. (Leymarie 2002, p. 38) Valdes therefore begins his performance of La Negra Tomasa by establishing a specific 2-3 clave direction in conjunction with a minim pulse through this phrasing of the first two measures. The term beat or pulse is defined by Laura Kuhn as “A beat or Accent”, (1995, p. 184) which in this particular case represents a duple meter cut common time signature of 2/4.
The established 2-3 clave direction is seen in the first measure (excluding the pickup) which commences on the down beat of 1, and features an implied accent on beat 3 which is indicative of the 2 side. The second measure contrasts this with an anticipated start, consequently placing more emphasis on the upbeats which is typical of the 3 side. It also features a clearly outlined bombo on beat 2 and, as well as a ponche on beat 4 which consequently eliminates the possibility of an alternate clave direction .Valdes subsequently continues to support this clave direction throughout the majority of the composition in order to maintain continuity and the rhythmic structure. He does so by continually referring back to the 2-3 son clave rhythm through his phrasing of melodies and harmonic rhythms.
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LEITMOTIV Valdes extensively utilizes the concept of clave as a Leitmotiv throughout his performance in order to create unity. Laura Kuhn defines the term leitmotiv as a “Leading motive; any striking musical motive (theme, phrase)…” which is frequently referred to at various phases of a piece. (1995, p.134) This leitmotiv is surprisingly never actually played in all 347 measures of the piece. However, Valdes implies this Leitmotiv continually by phrasing in a manner which reinforces the 2-3 clave direction.
Measure 56 demonstrates this reference in the phrasing of the chorus melody, which features key accents on beats 2 and 3 which outline a 2 side of the clave. Measure 57 on the other hand begins on an offbeat before accenting the bombo and the ponche which is an unmistakable reference to the 3 side.
Measures 288-289 depict a simple melody which again begins on the 2 side of the clave due to the emphasis of beats 2 and 3. The second measure consequently outlines the 3 side with the presence of the bombo on the + of beat 2, and the ponche on beat 4. In the final stages of the performance, measures 325-326 clearly concur with the 2-3 direction by featuring the same accents on beats 2 and 3, as well as a bombo and ponche in the second measure. This is also supported by the fact that the 3 preceding excerpts were taken at initial, intermediate and concluding periods of the composition; yet they all in agreement with the same 2-3 clave direction. This demonstrates Valdes’ particular use of Le itmotiv to generate unity throughout the composition.
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Clave Lapse Since Valdes chooses to play solo in this performance, he is therefore forced to find alternative ways in which to emulate the textural and rhythmic drive of an Afro-Cuban ensemble. A particular manner in which Valdes achieves this is through exploring the concept of intentionally breaking, or playing outside of clave direction. Since clave direction needs to be established by two individual rhythmic cells, the breaking of clave direction is thereby accomplished when an artist plays a consecutive one bar rhythmic cell or variation of pattern which eludes a specific clave d irection.
Chucho first uses clave lapse in measures 13-14 which shows a distinct absence of a logical binary clave direction. This is achieved by repeating the anticipated 3 side of the clave which in turn generates added rhythmic tension due to the exclusive emphasizes on the upbeats for 3 consecutive measures in the right hand register. The 2 side is eventually reinstated in measure 15 with a D minor rd
chord on the 3 beat which provides relaxation in terms of rhythm and harmony. In measures 75-79 Valdes continually repeats the 3 side to generate a lapse in natural clave direction. This is evident in the examination of both registers, where the absence of the 2 side of the clave is produced due to the lack of accents on beats 2 or 3. Instead, the lower register stresses the 3 side with the continual presence of both the bombo and ponche through 6 consecutive measures. The resolution comes in measure 80 where the 2 side of the clave is finally restored through the presence of treble clef octaves in the melody on beat 3.
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One bar Patterns One bar patterns are extensively utilized in order to create a lapse in clave. In order to do this, Valdes draws upon various rhythmic cells and structures derived from the Afro Cuban idiom.
Tumbao Pattern Rebecca Mauleon Identifies the ‘bass tumbao’ as a repeating one bar rhythmic pattern or cell which does not interfere with the direction of the clave. (Mauleon 1993, p. 106) Once this cell has been activated, it seldom lands on beat 1, choosing instead to anticipate the harmony of the following measure. The tumbao bears a close resemblance to the tresillo rhythmic cell with the emphasis of both the Ponche and Bombo. It differs in that the fourth beat is tied to beat 1.
Note the specific pattern utilized by Valdes in the bass clef register which repeats constantly through
measures 12-15. Although it does not tie the last note beyond the bar line, the Tumbao’s distinguishing key accents are still on the upbeat of 2, and on beat 4. Also note that both the pitch and rhythm is precisely repeated which not only serve as a rhythmic function of syncopation but also harmonically provides the tonic of each suspended chord. (Mauleon 1993, p. 105) Furthermore, the treble clef register then superimposes an implied one bar 3 side clave rhythm over the continuous tumbao which consequently adds a further degree of rhythmic syncopation and due to this lapse in clave. Valdes uses the tumbao pattern often to emulate the function of the bass in an Afro Cuban ensemble.
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Montuno The word montuno is defined as “a traditional two measure ostinato piano pattern…originally interpreted by the tres”, which is a Cuban guitar consisting of 3 sets of double strings. (Mauleon 1999, p.9) However the word in itself carries the connotation of coming from the mountains; which was the case during the late nineteenth century when working class peasants called ‘campesions’ nurtured its growth in the mountainous ‘Oriente’ province of Cuba. (Mauleon 1999, p. iv) The original montuno pattern was derived from the Son style and combines two distinct features: 1) A rhythmic component 2) A melodic/harmonic component which together culminate into a repeating ostinato. (Mauleon 1999, p. 9) Since the underlying clave pulse must be taken into account when performing any Afro Cuban piece, the montuno pattern therefore retains a general clave direction which can be established through analysis. It begins on the downbeat of measure 1 then accents the ponche on beat 2 before finishing with a delayed bombo on beat 4 and.
Notice too how the second measure is anticipated which creates an immediate syncopation for the remainder of the measure. This indicates a 2-3 clave direction which would need to be kept constant in order for it not to turn or be reversed. After many years of development, experimentation and cross cultural influence, the term montuno has come to envelop the repeated vamp section found in most styles of Afro Cuban music. (Mauleon 1999, p. iv) This term now encompasses many differing forms of both 1 and 2 bar ostinati which can feature variations such as arpeggiation, beat displacement, one bar cells, varied syncopation and altered harmony. Since the montuno simultaneously encompasses both metric and harmonic elements, the rhythmic component will first be isolated and analyzed through the subsequent section.
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The use of the montuno may be adapted in order to create a lapse in clave. This is accomplished by playing a one bar montuno pattern which utilizes a majority of eighth notes such as the example found in bar 81-86. The octaves featured in the right hand ark out the minim pulse. This generates a lapse of clave from bar 81 which later concludes in measure 88. It is interesting to note Valdes’ reference back to t he ponche in his left hand octaves which emphasize the fourth beat in measures 80-82. Valdes capitalizes on this same rhythmic pattern in an alternate way where he earlier inverts the ponche to his right hand register in measures 43-45 which In turn reinforcing the key accent in Cuban music which is beat 4.
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Bongo Bell Pattern The bongo bell pattern is a repeated one measure rhythmic cell which is originally played on the bell or guiro and emphasizes beats one and three with open tones and beats 2, 2 and, 4, 4 and with muted tones. (Mauleon, p 75) Valdes utilizes this call due to its static rhythmic nature which undermines the natural binary relationship of clave direction, and instead promotes neutrality.
Valdes first makes use of this rhythm in measures 120-123 where he plays this constant pattern over a span of nearly 4 bars. However note that both the start and finish land on beat 3 which creates rhythmic contrast.
Measures 210-213 reveal an even clearer outlined bongo bell pattern which is this time sustained over 5 consecutive bars and commences on beat 1. It is also interesting to note how these identical one bar rhythmic cells are performed consecutively by both hands at an intervallic distance of two octaves.
This technique, coupled with sustained clave neutrality provides both register, harmonic and textural contrast to the heavily clustered chordal harmony which was featured only a few pages prior to this passage.
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Another example of using one Bar Patterns to create clave lapse is through the manipulation of a more obvious rhythmic motif which is first seen in measure 92. He begins by stating the identical phrase twice in a row with a slight diffe rence in pitch; which in turn creates a lapse in clave direction.
Valdes subsequently begins to develop the motif through the addition of more notes in measures 94 and 95.He also utilizes the same rhythmic starting points in measures 98 and 100 before finally returning back to the original motif in bar 104. The original motif is then restated then developed even further by adding more notes and syncopation before ending the phrase at measure 118.
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An alternate yet excellent example of using repeating rhythms to create clave lapse is seen in
measures 173-177 where Valdes develops a rhythmically identical one bar pattern. He begins by clearly stating it in measure 173 with an implied 3 side clave, which is seen by the presence of the bombo and lack of accent on beat 3. Valdes then repeats the identical rhythm over the following 2 measure with equal support in the unison left hand register. In doing this, the 3 side of the clave has therefore been played more than twice in a row which activates the lapse in clave. In measures 176-
178 he repeats motif in a virtually identical manner, minus a simple exchange of the first 2 notes. This ingenious change generates a clave lapse for 5 continuous measures, thereby creating rhythmic interest and tension.
Measures 233-235 feature a great example of clave lapse where a virtually identical 1 bar rhythmic figure is used to create rhythmic tension. Constant crotchet triplet cells are repeated incessantly by nd
rd
th
both registers in a combination of simple 2 , 3 , 4
and 5
th
voicings. However both registers are
rhythmically interlocked with the right hand performing simple chords and the left, accompanying with singular notes.
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This interlocking manner in which Valdes plays through the previous excerpt makes reference to the Toccata style which is defined as “…free and bold in style, consisting of runs and passages alternating with fuged or contrapuntal work…”(Kuhn 1995, p. 238) Upon cross referencing the term contrapuntal, it indicated a connotation of two handed Interlocking rhythms or cross hand Touch.
Valdes makes similar reference to this technique again in measures 267 onwards. However this time he creates contrast by significantly separating the registers and utilizing mainly octaves in the right hand, and singular lines in the left hand. However, upon closer examination of the previous 2 excerpts; a secondary improvisational mechanism is revealed in the interlocking rhythmic nature of the patterns.
Polymeter Yet another way in which Chucho generates clave lapse is by repeating a specific two handed pattern which is not only rhythmically identical’ but also includes the presence of a secondary meter or time signature. This technique is known as polymeter. The term polymeter is identified by Laura Kuhn as “The simultaneous presence of musical lines in different meters…” (1995, p. 179) Valdes utilizes polymeter to divert attention away from the natural duple time signature and instead creates a polymetric 12/8 meter which generates rhythmic interest and clave lapse.
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Cinquillo and Baqueteo Pattern Measures 132-133 show how Chucho utilizes a variation of the baqueteo rhythm which draws upon the Danzon tradition. He does this by maintaining the second half of the binary cell intact, and then inverting both the start and end of the Cinquillo in the first measure. This still preserves the 5 distinct pulses found in the original cinquillo rhythm as well as upholding its tension to relaxation relationship to the second measure which is amplified by the r egister unison.
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A more direct reference to the baqueteo pattern is found in measures 293-298 where Valdes utilizes the cinquillo to create a sustained tension and lapse of clave. The cinquillo cell is clearly outlined by both registers in the first 5 measures which imply the 3 side of the clave due to the presence of the bombo and ponche.
Although the 5
th
measure has an alternate ending it still evades the 2 side of the clave thereby
generates a clave neutral zone due without resolution of the rhythmic tension. The re instatement of the 2 side of the clave comes in measure 298 where the baqueteo rhythm is utilized to provide relaxation by the presence of chords on beats 2, and 3, along with return of the clearly marked pulse.
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Beat Displacement This concept refers to a displacement of the beat which is characterized by an ostensible shift of pulse. Rebecca Mauleon described it as a concept which had been recently popularized and integrated into the contemporary piano style of Afro-Cuban music. (Mauleon 1999, p. 136)
Valdes utilizes this technique in measure 141 where he triggers the first beat of a 6/8 meter grouping on beat 4 +. The subsequent phrasing of the bass clef register supports this pulse shift by regularly incorporating quaver notes tied over the beat. This displacement is maintained for 6 consecutive measures which produces the illusion that the beat is shifted or twisted around, thereby creating significant rhythmic interest throughout the passage. Although this displacement is first initiated by lower register, the right hand still maintains its convergence to the pulse shift through a superimposed 3/4 triple time meter which begins on the last quaver beat of measure 143. Interestingly, Valdes chooses to start and end this grouping at an alternative point from the 6/8 grouping which adds even more rhythmic syncopation. The right hand returns to the regular pulse in measure 147, whilst the lower registers displacement is finally concluded in
measure 148 where beats 2, 3 and 4 are clearly and individually outlined. This vast syncopation and polymeter, coupled with alternate starting and ending points; masterfully demonstrate how Valdes creates beat displacement which greatly heightens the sense of rhythmic and metric interest throughout the composition.
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Harmonic Analysis
Throughout his improvisation over this piece, Valdes’ utilizes various alternate harmonic choices to break free from the original changes. Some of the main concepts which he utilized are analyzed in the following section.
Rhythmic Harmony Due to the complex combination of rhythms, melodies and harmonies that is Afro Cuban music; there are times where an excerpt must be simultaneously analyzed in reference to both rhythm and harmony in order to do it justice. The first example relates to Valdes’ specific placement of harmony in relation to rhythmic anticipation and delay.
Valdes uses harmonic anticipation of the following bar in order to create both rhythmic and harmonic interest. When this anticipation is repeated over a number of consecutive measures, both the rhythmic and harmonic tension is heightened until a suitable resolution point is reached. Measure 11 provides the first example of this where Valdes anticipates the quartal harmony of the subsequent bar by an eighth note which is tied over the bar line on beat 4 +. This anticipation of rhythm and harmony is repeated and sustained over the next 3 measures which generates tension before finally resolving back to the minor tonic in beat 3 of measure 15. This rhythmic anticipation of harmony reoccurs 9 measures later in bar 25 where Valdes pre-empts an A7 chord on beat 4+ which is also tied across the bar. As the rhythmic frequency of the chords increases, so does the complexity of the harmony which inevitably amplifies the tension and interest. The following measure also features anticipation of harmony and rhythm in the same location which is promptly resolved on the + of beat 3 in measure 27.
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Valdes utilizes the same technique in a contrasting manner to create rhythmic and harmonic delay in
measure 92. The starting point of the D minor harmony is delayed to the + of beat 1 by an eighth rest, which is then arpeggiated in a simultaneous two hand phrase. The following two measures feature this delay in the same manner and location until the resolution point found on beat 1 of measure 95. This identical delay of harmony and rhythm is repeated throughout measures 104-106, 108-110, and 112 which generate both rhythmic and harmonic interest as well as promoting unity.
Although there are numerous Afro-Cuban cells and patterns, one of the most illustrious is the montuno which simultaneously combines various rhythmic and harmonic elements. This is evident through the examination of its distinguishing characteristics compared to other rhythmic and harmonic combinations which are nonetheless important to the Afro-Cuban musical idiom. The montuno cannot be performed on an exclusively rhythmic instrument due to the absence of harmony which undermines its very nature. While it may be imitated or partially performed by other harmonic contemporaries; the complete harmonic intricacy, intervallic enormity and rhythmic complexity of the two handed piano montuno cannot be entirely replicated by any other including its predecessors the guitar and tres. Just like the traditional clave pattern, Valdes chooses not to specifically play the standard cliché pattern of the montuno, instead opting to explore his own distinct possibilities which are found throughout this composition. The first example of this is found in measures 80-86 where Valdes’ stylistically combines rhythm and harmony to establish a recurring one handed montuno pattern. Valdes first alters the pattern by utilizing double accents on beat 4, 4+ through the marked ponche which is not typical of the standard montuno pattern. In addition, the montuno is introduced by solitary right hand octaves in measure 80 which emphasize its initial harmony of A Major.
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Harmonic anticipation is then achieved by tying the last quaver beat of measure 80 beyond the bar line into measure 81 which then extends the harmony to a dominant function.
This arpeggiated use of harmony creates forward momentum which is further enhanced by the repeating octaves which emphasize the upbeats. This pattern demonstrates Valdes’ organization of structure, harmony, and rhythm which thereby creates interest and tension on multiple levels. Subsequently, in measure 83 the left hand begins to increase its role by imitating the rhythmic and melodic characteristics of the bass tumbao.
Although there is no initial emphasis of the first beat of measure 85, the pattern still functions as a tumbao in 3 ways: 1. It provides the harmonic foundation of tonics for each passing chord above. 2. Once begun it does not stop or restart on beat 1 throughout the entire passage. 3. It emphasizes both the bombo and ponche of the 3 side rumba clave which in turn also generates rhythmic syncopation and interest.
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This montuno is also evidence of how Valdes overcomes the problems of emulating an Afro Cuban ensemble in his solo playing as the left hand imitates the bass role whilst the right simultaneously deals with the guitar or tres role. Valdes then adds to the complexity of rhythm and harmony by performing the tumbao in perfect octaves which complement the right hands intervallic range. This feat alone would be impossible to replicate by a guitar, bass or tres as the total intervallic range of Valdes’ unison octaves span:
. A major 16th if stacked together. . A major 24th when performed in separate registers.
. An impressive minor 31st when in separate registers and not in unison.
In the following excerpt we see Chucho’s alternate use of montuno which is repeatedly performed over (A7 – Dm) a tonic to subdominant progression in the higher register. Interestingly he chooses to perform it in the left hand register whilst simultaneously sustaining an A pedal through alternating semiquaver octaves in the right hand.
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Valdes begins by introducing the montuno with simple close range voicings which emphasize the upbeats and produce rhythmic syncopation. Then at the end of measure 157 he suddenly expands the range to an octave on beat 4 before proceeding to arpeggiate the A7 chord tones. This not only creates interest but also anticipates the harmony of the following measure which is a typical function of the montuno. In the next measure Valdes closes the voicing back to a minor third and thus outlines the basic tonic harmony which provides both rhythmic and harmonic contrast.
After a total 8 measures of left hand arpeggiation and syncopation, Valdes finally unifies the registers by performing the concluding section of the montuno with both hands for a further 3 measures.
Measures 64 and 65 feature rhythmic contrast through a much more stable pulse which alternates between a call and response of octaves and third voicings between the left and right hand. Valdes finally ends the montuno section at measure 167 with a stern set of double F octaves before launching into yet another descending array of d issonant voicings.
Suspended Harmony In measure 12-15 Valdes employs suspended harmony to alter the original compositional form in a section which would normally contain the second response side of the melody. These parallel suspended chords substitute the second response section and are specifically voice led to produce a shifting chromatic line at the base which in turn serves to promote unity throughout the piece.
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By substituting these chords into the original form, the harmony is therefore altered from an original minor II, V, I turnaround to:
D-6/9 -> D-11 -> D^7 -> Dsus4omit3 -> D^7 -> D-11 -> D-6/9omit3 -> E^7#11 ->
Dm
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As discussed earlier the left hand plays in a rhythmic fashion known as tumbao, however it also serves the purpose of creating a suspended harmonic pedal point since it does not change in sync st
th
th
with the accompanying harmony. Only the 1 5 and 11 chord tones of a D pedal are maintained through the 4 measures which not only contrast the shifting quartal harmony but also add interest to the passage and composition in general.
Bars 20-27 usually feature 2 call and response melodies over a constant 5 - 1 progression which concludes the first section of the piece. However, Valdes again substitutes the second response melody with an anticipated section which uses a combination of third and parallel fourth composite voicings.
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It is also interesting how Valdes utilizes chromaticism throughout both registers, specifically in the descending bass line in measure 25 which is skillfully built into the voicings of the lower register.
The following measure (28) instigates a harmonic modulation from D minor to its relative major key of F major. However Valdes again strays from the norm in measures 28-31 where he delays the V-I progression with an altered II V I turnaround modally borrowed from the key of G Dorian. This turnaround begins on the upbeat of 4 in measure 29 and is tied over the bar line which produces harmonic anticipation. The following chord (D7b13) falls on the upbeat of 2 and only lasts for half a beat which adds to the rhythmic interest. The resolution to G-7 on the 3
rd
beat of measure 30 is
eclipsed by a sudden glissando which instead resolves to the C7 in beat 2 of measure 31.
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The progression therefore seems to have intended to resolve to C instead of G, which would originate from C Mixolydian. However, if examined closer it is seen that the perfect cadence (G->C) in measure
31 actually functions as an extended turnaround which leads back to the Major tonic key.
This resolution back to F major in seen in measure 36 which consequently labels the progression as III
VI II V I. Once again we perceive more suspended sounds at the end of the phrase in bar 35 (E7#11/Bb -> A-sus4) which chromatically descend to conclude the first B section melody. Bar 75-79 shows a fascinating example of Latin and Jazz harmonic fusion through the cycle of fifths progression. The first 4 chord changes primarily highlight Valdes’ Jazz style of composition which appropriates the first 5 measures of the Jazz standard, Autum Leaves. Composed by Joseph Kosma, Autum Leaves is a piece which employs the simple but effective use of 2-5-1 turnaround progressions
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in both the major and minor key signatures. Valdes this by alternating and between 4 harmonic resolution points (C,F,Bb,A) with a series of overlapping 2-5-1 progressions in the first 3 measures. Then in measure 77 he links the final turnaround with a dissonant tri tone interval between the Bb to E7 which creates harmonic interest and contrast. The section concludes with a subdominant V-I progression which seamlessly leads into the start of the Montuno.
Measure 168 onward demonstrate Valdes’ integration of this advanced Jazz harmony into a traditional Latin American piece by featuring tri tone substitution chords and Bill Evans inspired ‘So What’ voicings. Valdes modifies the so what voicings in this excerpt to create a small passage which breaks free from the standard Afro Cuban harmonic idiom; and to establish his individual identity as a composer.
Tri Tone Substitution In the never ending search for new sounds and ways to create more tension, Jazz musicians have always enjoyed altering chordal progressions; especially those which are stagnant or repeating. A classic example of a frequently used substitution is that of the dominant V7 with a chord which is 1 tri tone away. The reason this is possible is due to the fact that both chords share the rd
same 3
and 7
th
chord tones (also known as guide
tones). These guide tones not only define the V7 chord, but are incidentally also separated by a tri tone interval.
So What The term ‘So What’ chords or voicings was coined during the late 1950’s when Miles Davis helped introduce modal jazz to the world through his ‘So What’ from his ‘Kind of Blue Album’. The pianist on that particular recording was Bill Evans, and the specific voicings he chose for that piece are now considered canon for jazz pianists, a fact which is concurred by Mark Levine when he commented that “Playing some [so what chords] really helps to create needed tension and interest” (Levine 1989, p.97) By observing the intervallic structure of this chord, it is clearly seen to essentially contain three perfect fourths stacked vertically with a third on top.
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Notice how the intervallic structure of the first so what chord is altered by vertically stacking 4 consecutive perfect fourths instead of the usual 3 which generates harmonic tension. Valdes then adds an extra note at the bottom of the voicing to creates a perfect ‘so what’ chord structure th
sandwiched between the 5 chord tones. The next voicing includes the 9 rd
th
chord tone instead of the rd
3 which adds color to the voicing and a hint of ambiguity due to the omitted 3 . This results in a major third interval separating the 3 perfect 4ths with the b7 chord tone at the top of the voicing due to the minor 3rd. The final chord in this excerpt shares an identical intervallic structure as its predecessor due to the chromatic style of voice leading. His use of these voicings and techniques not only adds harmonic tension to the passage but also demonstrates his knowledge of advanced Jazz harmony, specifically tri tone chord substitution, secondary dominants and modal borrowing.
Observe how none of the so what chords utilized in this passage occur diatonically in the key of F major. The first and last chord in measure 168 forms a minor II V turnaround in the key of Db; however this tonal center is not part of a diatonic secondary dominant, nor is it an example of singular modal borrowing. It is instead a combination of tri tone substitution coupled with the use of a secondary dominant key center. This is evident by analyzing the origin of Db7, which in relation to the key of F major is simply a tri tone substitution for a G7 chord. The G7 in turn is a secondary dominant originating from the key of C major which therefore identifies the key of Db as SubV/V. Consequently, the minor turnaround of Ab- Eb7 in measure 168 can be labeled as [ II V ]/SubV/V.
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Still Valdes continues to add complexity and depth to this harmonic passage by inserting the chromatic passing chord A7sus4 between the II and V7 harmonies. This not only adds more tension but also beautifully voice leads the 3 chords which effectively instigates a descending chromatic bass note in the left hand register. The first resolution point is found in measure 169 when the tri tone substitution previously mentioned descends chromatically to a G11 Chord. Furthermore, the harmonic tension is still maintained due to the chords short length and suspended nature which is voiced by Chucho in a modified ‘So What’ chord style. Valdes maintains the descending chromatic bass note in each voicing until the C#-7b5 chord at measure 170; thereby further demonstrating his improvisational use of Jazz influenced harmony which permeates the chords with beautiful tone colours and tensions.
Valdes continues to augment the suspended harmony by adding more complexity to the chords as th
seen in 4 and 5th voicings of measure 169 where both the major and minor 7ths are present in the chord. This generates dissonance through the presence of a minor second interval; however it also creates an interesting major minor tonality which is complemented by the 11
th
and 9th chord tones.
The fact that fourth chord falls on the upbeat of 3 also adds syncopation to the passage as a whole and sets up the coming beat displacement in the following measure.
Measure 170 not only increase in volume and intensity, but also thickens in texture as Valdes introduces a seventh note to the voicings which alters the intervallic structure and concludes the chromatic descent. Take for example the C# half diminished chord which begins by omitting the 3 completely, and instead features the flat 9th, 11
th
rd
th
and 13 chord tones. This unusual voicing also
begins on the upbeat of 1 thereby shifting the s tart of the next 2 chords which generates syncopation and rhythmic interest.
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The Dbmaj-6 creates a different type of dissonance in comparison to measure 169 as it features both the major 3rd and minor 3
rd
in the same voicing. This would normally suggest an altered tonality,
however due to the combination of the unchanged 5
th
and 6th chord tones, the absence of a
th
dominant 7 , and the double emphasis of the tonic; the chord is therefore interpreted as a major th
minor 6 . This is yet another demonstration of Valdes’ individuality as a composer due to his breaking free of the genres standard harmonic boundaries which are reliant on major and minor tonality. The final 2 chords of measure 170 continue to provide a contrast in harmonic complexity, intervallic structure and texture due to the use of more major minor chords. The first is a dissonant major minor triad with both kinds of thirds in the chord which is then followed by an Eb7 unison cluster voicing in both hands. Both these harmonies neither provide a stable resolution point nor continue the descending chromaticism seen in the previous measure. The upbeat of 2 ushers forth a sweeping melodic line which finally resolves the passage on a solitary left hand D octave. Measure 171 therefore acts as a delay to the resolution of A7 to D- which instead provides a tri tone substitution for the A7 chord. Since both A7 and Eb7 share the same guide tones, it resolves well to the modally borrowed D Aeolian tonality which is aided by the chromatic descent from Eb to D.
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UPPER STRUCTURES Mark Levine defines upper structures as simply “a triad over a tri tone”. (1989, p.109) However, In order to identify a specific upper structure voicing one must address the upper triad in its relation to the mother or tonic chord. For example, consider figure… which demonstrates a C9, #11, 13 or C7 II upper structure. The reason for this being labeled II is due to the fact that the tonic of the triad is a major second above the root of the chord, so in essence one would play a D major triad over the tri tone found in the C dominant 7 chord. However upper structures need not be voiced in root position, nor do all 3 degrees of the triad need to be present in the one chord. Keeping in mind that the essence or basic requirement of an upper structure is a tri tone below a major or minor 3
rd
interval will thus open up a number of different
voicing options to the performer. Valdes demonstrates this technique through the use of an upper structure in
measure 176. Both the tri tone interval between F sharp to C and the B flat major triad above clearly depict an upper structure voicing. Since the B flat triad is analyzed in relation to the mother chord D7; this particular upper structure is consequently identified as D7 bVI due to the fact that Bb is the flat th
6 Scale degree of D Major. Valdes then takes this voicing one step further by adding an extra note (E) to the top of the semitonal dissonance between the natural and sharp 9
th
voicing,
thereby
creating
a
degree of the voicing. This minute attention
to detail not only demonstrates Valdes’ use of organized structure, but also highlights the advanced Jazz harmony employed throughout his improvisation; but also d isplays another example of Chucho’s improvisational use of intervallic organization is found in measure 256 where he applies upper structures to create a D7b9 harmony.
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The essential tri tone interval is found at the bottom
of
the
voicing;
however
the
presence of the triad above is obscured by the absence of the triad’s tonic: B flat. In spite of this, the minor third interval rd
th
between the 3 and 5 degrees of the triad is still present which therefore qualifies the upper
structure
and
achieves
the
representation of a Dominant7b9 chord. It is also interesting to note Valdes’ emphasis of the 3
rd
degree (F sharp) which appears 3
times in the same voicing. He accomplishes this by sandwiching the voicing between an F sharp in the bass and F Sharp octaves in the right hand register. This creates unity throughout the voicing as minimal alterations are used which in turn clearly ties its harmonic origins back to the D half whole scale.
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Conclusion
This thesis has analyzed the manner in which Chucho Valdes combines Afro Cuban idioms and jazz, through the examination of his use of 3 key improvisational devices: Clave Structures, Rhythmic Cells and Harmony. The clave concept has governed the manner in which the majority of the phrases were organized. Contrasting with this, Valdes also used one bar rhythmic cells to establish a dialectic relationship between the various 1 and 2 bar patterns. By using a c ombination of both the 1 and 2 bar clave patterns, Valdes was able to adequately emulate a variety of rhythms and functions of an Afro Cuban ensemble. The harmonic component of this thesis clearly demonstrated Valdes’ ability to draw upon the Jazz idiom over the template of a traditional Afro-Cuban ‘standard’ piece. His subsequent overlaying of sophisticated Jazz concepts such as upper structures, so what chords, Secondary Dominant and tri tone substitution, flawlessly merged the harmony of both genres together. This use of harmony was often simultaneously linked with inseparable rhythmic elements, such as the various montuno sections, which displayed Chucho’s individuality as an improviser and performer. His technical prowess and compositional ingenuity masterfully culminate in the amalgamation of traditional Afro Cuban clave structures and rhythmic cells with modern harmonic jazz concepts. This fusion of tradition Cuban music and sophisticated jazz has made him a pioneer of Latin Jazz.
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