TEMA IV. TERRENOS Y CIMIENTOS 1. EL TERRENO: Espacio de tierra destinado a edificar sobre él y que recibe las cargas del edificio a través de la cimentación. El terreno desde el punto de vista constructivo y geotécnico, es la capa más exterior de la corteza terrestre, de espesor variable según los casos; desde cerca de un metro a unas decenas de metros. Habitualmente Habitualmente en la metodología metodología tradicional los terrenos se dividen en dos grupos: minerales, que para sufrir modificaciones modificaciones ROCAS: Son agregados naturales de uno o varios minerales, sensibles en su estructura en presencia del agua precisan periodos de tiempo muy largos. Es un material coherente capaz de soportar con escasa deformación el peso de las edificaciones.
SUELOS: Que proceden de la degradación de las rocas y son una parte de la corteza terrestre formada por materiales que pueden ser disgregados en partículas individuales mediante la acción del agua. Se dividen en: Granulares o gruesos: constituido por materiales de origen sedimentario en los que el porcentaje de material fino (limos y arcillas) es inferior al 35% en peso. Cohesivos o finos: constituidos por materiales detríticos pero en ellos el porcentaje de elementos finos es superior al 35% en peso. pe so. Orgánicos: los que en su composición tienen una parte muy importante de materia orgánica (>50%). Generalmente se supone que estos suelos no son aptos para realizar en ellos cimentaciones. El terreno sobre el que actuaremos de forma habitual, será una mezcla de los cuatro mencionados en distintas proporciones y habitualmente organizados en estratos. En general terreno es lo que tenemos bajo nuestro edificio y en sus alrededores, para bien o para mal. Debemos considerar la definición anterior como válida para la mayoría de los casos constructivos, pero no para la totalidad, como veremos más adelante. adelante. A mí me gustaría definir el terreno como cualquier material o elemento capaz de sustentar arquitectura, sin más.
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2. COMPORTAMIENTO: El comportamiento del terreno, depende de infinidad de variables que esencialmente se pueden agrupar en dos series: A) Variables de origen exterior, aportadas cuando se le manipula de alguna manera, modificando las fuerzas o características características del ambiente exterior (el hecho de construir sobre él es una de ellas). B) Variables propias propias del terreno, adquiridas adquiridas durante durante el tiempo de formación formación de éste como actualmente se encuentre. Para predecir el comportamiento del terreno es necesario conocer sus características geomecánicas mediante la ejecución de ensayos "in situ" y de laboratorio de muestras de suelo y/o roca extraídas a distintas profundidades, profundidades, (Estudio Geotécnico). Con estos datos se desarrolla un modelo matemático de comportamiento que permite estudiar su respuesta frente a cambios o condiciones de contorno producidas producidas en nuestro caso por el hecho de construir sobre o junto a él.
3. TIPOS: Según CTE, los terrenos te rrenos pueden pueden ser: aquellos con poca variabilidad, variabilidad, y en los que que la práctica habitual en la T-1 Terrenos favorables: aquellos zona es de cimentación directa mediante elementos aislados. intermedios: los que presentan variabilidad, variabilidad, o que en la zona no siempre se recurre T-2 Terrenos intermedios: a la misma solución de cimentación, o en los que se puede suponer que tienen rellenos antrópicos de cierta relevancia, aunque probablemente probablemente no superen los 3,0 m. desfavorables: los que no pueden clasificarse clasificarse en ninguno de los tipos anteriores. T-3 Terrenos desfavorables: Todo lo visto hace referencia exclusivamente a elementos pétreos sólidos en los que anclar nuestro edificio, pero es evidente que existen otras posibilidades:
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4. UBICACIÓN Y ARRANQUE DE LOS EDIFICIOS: La ubicación de los edificios habitualmente no la elige el proyectista, viene condicionada por la Propiedad o el Promotor, y el arranque del edificio depende del diseño de éste no siendo siempre posible hacerlo en cota cero. La existencia de sótanos o de terrenos pobres puede hacer que el arranque del edificio comience a cierta profundidad y empleando medios de cimentación especiales, como veremos más adelante. El arranque del edificio, o cimentación, es la parte de la estructura encargada de transmitir las acciones que reciben de la superestructura al terreno y de anclar a éste el edificio (como las raíces de los árboles o las muelas).
5. VARIABLES A CONSIDERAR EN LAS CIMENTACIONES: Para diseñar y calcular una cimentación es preciso: a. DATOS GEOMÉTRICOS DEL EDIFICIO: Tomados Tomad os del diseño de éste y de las características geométricas del terreno (Número y forma de sótanos, pendientes del terreno,…). b. ACCIONES: Sobre los elementos elementos del edificio edificio y en sus aledaños aledaños pueden pueden ejercerse una serie de acciones por el hecho de su construcción y de la composición composición del terreno: ACCIONES EN EL EDIFICIO propiamente dicho, ya enumeradas en clases anteriores y son las que indica CTE DB SE-AE (acciones en la edificación). ACCIONES DEL EDIFICIO SOBRE LA CIMENTACIÓN: CIMENTACIÓN: las cargas que ha trasladado la estructura hasta el arranque del edificio son transmitidas a los elementos de cimentación. cimentación. Su tratamiento se se indica indica en CTE DB DB SE-C (cimientos). ACCIONES SOBRE LA CIMENTACIÓN QUE SE TRANSMITEN O GENERAN A TRAVÉS DEL TERRENO (acciones geotécnicas): dependen de la naturaleza de éste, de su contenido de agua, de la existencia o no de nivel freático… Entre las acciones que deben considerarse en el cálculo de las cimentaciones están, en primer lugar, los esfuerzos. (axiles, momentos y cortantes) que le transmite la estructura. Además está el peso propio de la cimentación, el del suelo y rellenos situados sobre la misma, el empuje de tierras y, si hay agua, el empuje hidrostático (subpresión). (subpresión). Se debe comenzar realizando el cálculo de la estructura, obteniéndose así las reacciones en la base de los pilares. Luego se calcula la cimentación sometida a acciones opuestas a estas reacciones (axiles, cortantes y momentos). Esta forma de proceder presupone que el conjunto formado por la cimentación y el suelo es mucho más rígido que la estructura, de modo que sus pequeños desplazamientos elásticos no alteran apreciablemente los esfuerzos y reacciones de la misma.
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6. ESTUDIO GEOTÉCNICO. PARÁMETROS DEL TERRENO: Es conveniente formularse una serie de cuestiones previas para decidir la cimentación a emplear, que son entre otras: Que clases de terrenos existen y a que profundidades se encuentran. A que profundidad se encuentra el terreno elegido como firme y el espesor que tiene el estrato que lo forma. Cuál es el nivel más alto de las aguas subterráneas ( nivel freático más elevado). Si son de prever asientos, el valor máximo admisible para su cálculo y limitación. Si existe peligro de que el terreno se hiele, se deslave y posible anegamiento. Si existen en el terreno materiales perjudiciales para los componentes del cimiento. Si la piedra (tierra) arrancada del suelo puede tener aplicación como material de construcción. Y forman parte del estudio geotécnico, si bien éste puede contener mucha más información en función del tipo de obra y de las características “especiales” “especiales” del terr eno. terr eno.
7. SUPERFICIE Y PROFUNDIDAD DE APOYO: La superficie de la cimentación depende de las cargas que recibe del edificio y de la tensión admisible del terreno calculada con el estudio geotécnico previo. En estos cálculos se deben incluir determinados coeficientes de seguridad (mínimo de 3) respecto de la presión de hundimiento que produzca la rotura del terreno por deslizamiento, que permitan cimentar con garantías suficientes. suficientes. La profundidad de apoyo depende de que la tensión admisible del terreno sea suficiente para hacer que la cimentación sea viable. La estructura de cimentación (infraestructura del edificio) debe estar convenientemente situada respecto a las influencias de agentes exteriores, que pueden modificar su comportamiento. Quedará fuera del alcance de las heladas, convenientemente aislados de acciones térmicas y meteorológicas. En zonas rocosas se profundizará como mínimo 0,20 m en esa capa para cumplir la condición de anclaje del cimiento. Habitualmente Habitualmente los terrenos se encuentran estratificados, y eso hace que aparezcan zonas en las que se mantienen unas constantes, diferentes a las de los estratos superiores o inferiores. El proyectista tiene que considerar las características de estas zonas y sus dimensiones reales para poder emplearlas en la cimentación o no. Esto hace que sea preciso realizar cimentaciones a profundidades adecuadas, y aporta una primera clasificación de éstas en función de su profundidad de ejecución: superficiales y
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Como referencia de valores de la resistencia de los distintos terrenos, adjuntamos la siguiente tabla:
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8. TIPOS DE CIMENTACIÓN: Los cimientos pueden clasificarse en cimentaciones propiamente dichas, anclajes y murospantalla. Las primeras transmiten al terreno principalmente esfuerzos de compresión y momentos flectores y se dividen atendiendo a su profundidad, contada siempre desde la línea de cota de la obra, en directas o superficiales, cimentaciones en pozo y cimentaciones profundas. Los anclajes transmiten tensiones de tracción. Conceptualmente, los muros-pantalla destinados a la contención de tierras en excavaciones de sótanos suelen considerarse dentro de la categoría de las cimentaciones cimentaciones aunque su función primordial no sea la transmisión transmisión de esfuerzos al terreno.
8.1 CIMENTACIONES DIRECTAS (o superficiales): Son aquellas que se apoyan en capas poco profundas del terreno que se suponen o consideran con suficiente capacidad de carga para soportar las edificaciones y las acciones que sobre ellas se producen, reparten la carga en un plano de apoyo horizontal y produce en el terreno cedimientos admisibles. Consideramos capas poco profundas o firmes superficiales, aquellos que se encuentran a profundidades medias, hasta los - 3,00 m. aproximadamente. Cuando superen esas cotas, desde – – 4,00 a – – 6,00 m. deberán utilizarse, bien pozos de cimentación, bien pilotes. Los tipos principales de cimientos directos y su utilización más usual se recogen en la tabla 4.1. Figura 4.2. del DB SE-C, y la insertamos a continuación: continuación:
ZAPATAS ZAPATAS AISLADAS: AISLADAS: Cuando el terreno es firme y competente, se pueda cimentar con una presión media alta y se esperan asientos pequeños o moderados, la cimentación normal de los pilares de un edificio estará basada en zapatas individuales o aisladas. Son bloques de hormigón armado de planta generalmente cuadrada o rectangular. Normalmente
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Desde el punto de vista estructural, pueden ser rígidas o flexibles:
Con el fin de evitar desplazamientos laterales, las zapatas aisladas se podrán unir entre sí mediante vigas de atado o soleras. Para evitar cargas excesivamente excéntricas, se podrán atar las zapatas de medianera o esquina a otras mediante vigas centradoras que resistirán momentos o redistribuirán cargas y presiones sobre el terreno:
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Zapata aislada. Colocación de la armadura metálica sobre el hormigón de limpieza.
Hormigonado Hormigonado de una primera fase hasta el arranque de la estructura vertical.
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Vista de una obra con zapatas aisladas y zapata corrida perimetral para sustentación del muro de sótano.
Una curiosidad: zapatas aisladas sobre roca.
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Zapata combinada para dos soportes.
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Zapatas aisladas y combinada combinada
Zapata corrida
POZOS DE CIMENTACIÓN: Se podrán realizar pozos de cimentación cuando el terreno lo permita y la ejecución sea ventajosa con respecto a otras soluciones. Se trata de una solución intermedia entre una cimentación superficial y una profunda por eso, a veces se las denomina cimentaciones semiprofundas. Los pozos más habituales en edificación son de dos tipos. El primero consiste en un relleno de la excavación desde la cota de apoyo con hormigón pobre, situando la zapata encima de éste de forma que se transmitan las cargas a la profundidad deseada. El segundo tipo, menos habitual, consiste en bajar bajar la cota de zapata zapata hasta alcanzar el nivel de terreno terreno competente competente de apoyo, elevando a continuación un plinto de gran rigidez con el f in de evitar problemas de pandeo.
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Por la profundidad aparente, bien podrían ser pozos de cimentación, como hemos señalado, la diferencia entre pozo y zapata aislada, radica únicamente en la profundidad de la base.
EMPARRILLADOS: Cuando el terreno presente baja capacidad de carga y elevada deformabilidad, o bien muestre heterogeneidades que hagan prever asientos totales elevados y, consiguientemente, importantes asientos diferenciales, se podrá cimentar por e l sistema de emparrillados. emparrillados. En este caso todos los pilares de la estructura quedarán recogidos en una única cimentación, consistente en zapatas corridas entrecruzadas en malla habitualmente ortogonal. Al quedar así reunidos todos los apoyos de la estructura en una sola cimentación se podrá conseguir una
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Apertura de hueco para ejecución de cimentación cimentación (emparrillado). (emparrillado). Observad la protección p rotección de la cabeza del corte vertical para evitar desprendimientos. desprendimientos.
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LOSAS: Se podrán emplear en los casos indicados en el apartado anterior o cuando el área cubierta por posibles cimentaciones aisladas o por emparrillados cubra un porcentaje elevado de la superficie de ocupación en planta del edificio. Las losas de cimentación pueden ser de los siguientes tipos: continua y uniforme, con refuerzos bajo pilares, con pedestales, con sección en cajón, nervada, aligerada.
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Emparrillado y losa (a veces también se la llama placa)
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Colocación de la armadura inferior de una losa. Lo que se está montando ahora, son los separadores de ésta armadura con la superior. Garantizan el paralelismo entre ambas y la distancia de colocación correcta.
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Otra muy pequeña y fraccionada en tres partes.
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8.2 CIMENTACIONES PROFUNDAS: El CTE considerará que una cimentación es profunda si su extremo inferior, en el terreno, está a una profundidad superior a 8 veces su diámetro d iámetro o ancho. Las cimentaciones profundas se pueden clasificar en los siguientes tipos: a) pilote aislado: aquél que está a una distancia lo suficientemente alejada de otros como para que no tenga interacción interacción geotécnica con ellos; b) grupo de pilotes: son aquellos que por su proximidad interaccionan entre sí o están unidos mediante elementos estructurales lo suficientemente rígidos, como para que trabajen conjuntamente; c) zonas pilotadas: son aquellas en las que los pilotes están dispuestos con el fin de reducir asientos o mejorar la seguridad frente a hundimiento de las cimentaciones. Suelen ser pilotes de escasa capacidad portante individual y estar regularmente espaciados o situados en puntos estratégicos; d) micropilotes: son aquellos compuestos por una armadura metálica formada por tubos, barras o perfiles introducidos dentro de un taladro de pequeño diámetro, pudiendo estar o no inyectados con lechada de mortero a presión más o menos elevada. elevada.
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3. POR LA FORMA DE LA SECCIÓN TRANSVERSAL: TRANSVER SAL: CILÍNDRICOS, CILÍNDRICOS, CUADRADOS, CUADRADOS, HEXAGONALES, HEXAGONALES, OCTOGONALES,… O CTOGONALES,…
4. POR EL PROCEDIMIENTO CONSTRUCTIVO: PILOTES PREFABRICADOS HINCADOS. PILOTES “IN SITU”.
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Grupo de pilotes prefabricados y ejecutados en obra, se diferencian por la punta, aguda en los prefabricados, que se clavan por “hinca”, plana en los fabricados “in situ”.
Almacén de pilotes pilotes prefabricados. prefabricados.
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8.3. ELEMENTOS DE CONTENCIÓN PANTALLAS Elementos de contención de tierras que se emplean para realizar excavaciones excavaciones verticales en los siguientes casos: Que el terreno, los edificios u otras estructuras cimentadas en las inmediaciones de la excavación, no sean estables e stables sin sujeción Si se trata de eliminar posibles filtraciones de agua a través de los taludes de la excavación y eliminar o reducir a límites admisibles las posibles filtraciones a través del fondo de la misma
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MUROS Los muros son elementos de contención destinados a establecer y mantener una diferencia de niveles en el terreno con una pendiente de transición superior a lo que permitiría la resistencia
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