R E S EA EA R C H R E P O R T
The State of Civic Education in Pakistan
Report written by Dr. Bernadette L. Dean
With support from the CRRP Programme team 1 Umelaila Amin, Cassandra Fernandes, Rahat Joldoshalieva, Karim Panah and Shazia Solangi
Submitted to Civil Society Programme, Aga Khan Foundation (Pakistan) ( Pakistan) Islamabad
Aga Khan University, Institute for Educational Development (AKU-IED) August 2007 For more information about the AKDN Civil Society Programme, please see http://www.akdn.org/civil_society.asp
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Team 1 members names are given in alphabetical order.
Table of Content
INTRODUCTION................................................................................ INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ .................................................................... 1 SECTION 1: THE CONTEXT........................................................................... CONTEXT ........................................................................... .................................................... 1
THE POLITICAL CONTEXT ................................................................................ ...................................................... 1 THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CONTEXT .......................................................................................... ... 2 THE EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT ...............................................................................................................................3 SECTION 2: THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................... ............ 4 SECTION 3: THE RESEARCH STUDY....................................................... STUDY.............................................................................................................. ....................................................... 6
PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH .......................................................................................... ........................................ 6 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH STUDY ............................................................................................ ..................... 6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................. ...................................................... 6 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON CIVIC EDUCATION .......................................................................................... ... 6 MAPPING CIVIC EDUCATION INITIATIVES IN PAKISTAN....................................................................................... . 7 NATIONAL CIVIC EDUCATION EXPERT’S WORKSHOP .......................................................................................... . 7 SECTION 4: FINDINGS....................................................................................... FINDINGS ....................................................................................... .................................................. 8
CONCEPTIONS OF CITIZENSHIP ...............................................................................................................................8 CIVIC EDUCATION AND SYSTEMIC CHANGE ...................................................................................... ..................... 9 A RECOMMITMENT TO CIVIC EDUCATION ........................................................................... ................................... 9 THE GOALS OF CIVIC EDUCATION ........................................................................................................................10 WORK BEING DONE IN CIVIC EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN .......................................................................................11 THE DIFFERING CONTENT OF CIVIC EDUCATION ..................................................................................................11 THE TRANSMISSION MODEL OF CIVIC EDUCATION.............................................................................................13 TEACHER EDUCATION..........................................................................................................................................14 SUCCESSES AND CHALLENGES ............................................................................................................................14 SECTION 5: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AKF................................................................................ ............ 15
BENEFICIARIES OF CIVIC EDUCATION .................................................................................................................15 STRATEGIES TO PROVIDE QUALITY CIVIC EDUCATION.......................................................................................17 Change the national curriculum ................................................................................... ................................. 17 Materials Development .......................................................................................................... ........................ 17 Build Partnerships Partnerships between CSOs and Schools ............................................................. ............................... 17 Research for an indigenous knowledge base.................................................................................................18
CREATION OF A CIVIC EDUCATION NETWORK ....................................................................................................18 REFERENCES ................................................................................ ....................................................................... 19 APPENDIX I.......................................... ................................................................................................................. 22 APPENDIX II ....................................................................................... .................................................................. 24 APPENDIX III ..................................................................................... .................................................................. 28 APPENDIX IV......................... ....................................................................................................... ........................ 31 APPENDIX V ....................................................................................... .................................................................. 34
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THE STATE ST ATE OF CIVIC EDUCATION I N P AK ISTAN INTRODUCTION New political and social realities within and between states have led to an increased emphasis on civic education in both emerging and established democracies in order to build and secure democracy. In Pakistan, the creation of conditions more favourable to democracy has led to an increased emphasis on civic education for both leaders and the electorate. There is however, little known about the work being done in civic education in Pakistan. This report presents findings from the examination of the discourse and practice of civic education in Pakistan in both the formal and informal education sectors and makes recommendations for the design of a civic education programme for Pakistan. The report consists of five sections. Section one sets the scene by presenting the political, socio-economic and educational context of Pakistan at the time of writing the report. Section two presents the theoretical framework that informed the study and in Section three the methodology for the study is discussed. Section four delineates the key findings from the review of both the national and international literature on citizenship education, the work being done by civil society organizations in Pakistan. This section also includes the thoughts shared by participants at the national civic education experts workshop conducted on July 31, 2007 at AKU-IED. Based on the findings specific recommendations are made for the design of a civic education programme for Pakistan in Section five.
SECTION 1: THE CONTEXT Pakistan is situated in South Asia. It is a country of 160 million people. Approximately 67 percent of the people live in the rural areas where agriculture is the main source of livelihood. The gross domestic product per capita is around US$ 360. 24 percent of the population or about 38 million people were living below the national poverty line in 2004-2005. Only around 50 percent of the adult population is literate and life expectancy is 64 years.
The Political Context Pakistan was created in the process of decolonisation following World War II and the realization by the Muslims of India that they did not want a change of rulers, but the right to determine their own future. When Pakistan came into being, it had to choose its political system. It could have chosen monarchy, a legacy of the Mughals and its colonial past. Having demanded a separate state so Muslims could live their lives in accordance with Islam, it could have chosen theocracy. The political leaders, however, chose democracy. Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan addressing members of the constituent assembly on August 11, 1947 said: We are starting with the fundamental principle that we are all citizens and equal citizens of one state…Now I think we should keep that in front of us as our ideal and you would find in due course of time Hindus would cease to be Hindus and Muslims would cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the state. (quoted in Rashid, 1985, p. 81)
Although Pakistan chose democracy, the extreme circumstances of the beginning years necessitated “center[ing] attention on executive decision making, on the centralization of authority and on crises management…Jinnah[‘s] authoritative voice…all but silenced the representative institutions” (Ziring, 1997, p. 100). In subsequent years intrigue and manoeuvring among politicians opened the way for the bureaucracy and armed forces to play
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more formidable roles and for dominant personalities to conclude that Pakistanis were unfit for democracy and that the “Pakistani nation wanted strong leaders, not weak democracy” (Ziring, 1997, p. 169). The events of the initial years have influenced the subsequent history of Pakistan so that it has repeatedly had ten years of weak democracy followed by ten years of military rule. Democracy has been reduced to the participation of people in choosing their representatives in elections while the other major pillars are ignored. Military dictatorships have sought legitimacy through holding elections and declaring Pakistan to be a democracy. This has blurred the distinction between dictatorship and democracy, and created a tension about the form of government for Pakistan and the role of citizens. After eight years of military rule, today, the people of Pakistan are once again demanding a return to democracy. They want a reorganization of the political system so that democracy is institutionalized. They want power to be devolved to them and politics to be made more participatory, a return to the 1973 constitution and the strengthening of the judiciary and civil society. In other words, they want substantive democracy.
The Social, Economic and Cultural Context The social, economic and cultural context of Pakistan is one of extreme disparity in terms of class, gender, ethnicity, religion and geographical region. To illustrate the nature of the disparity we will focus on gender disparity and the struggle for greater gender equality. Statistics of Pakistan's social sector show a clear disparity between men and women: •
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Pakistan is one of the few countries in the world where the proportion of men exceeds that of women. In 1985 there were only 91 women for every 100 men. Life expectancy at birth for women has only just risen above that for men; until 1989, Pakistan was one of only four countries in the world where men lived longer than women; Primary school enrolment rates for girls are among the ten lowest in the world. While the incidence of ill-health and premature death among the poor of both sexes is very high in Pakistan, women and girls are worst affected; Pakistan's maternal mortality rate is the highest in South Asia and greater than that in other Muslim countries; Only 13 percent of the labour force is constituted of women, substantially below the 36 per cent average for all low-income countries (Zaidi, 1999).
The huge differences are the result of the social, economic and cultural structures and practices that discriminates against women. The 1985 Report of the Pakistan Commission on the Status of Women says it all: Women in general are dehumanised and exercise little control over either themselves or on affairs affecting their well being. They are treated as possessions rather than as self-reliant self-regulating humans. They are bought and sold, beaten and mutilated, even killed with impunity and social approval. They are dispossessed and disinherited inspite of legal safe-guards. The vast majority are made to work for as long as sixteen to eighteen hours a day, without any payment, while the Quran even provides for the husband to pay the wife for nursing her own infant. Their status is based mostly on local customs.
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Women have constantly struggled to improve their status through social and structural change. In 1961, their struggle resulted in legislation that eliminated child marriages, restricted polygamy and curtailed a man’s (and increased a woman’s) right to divorce. The 1973 constitution recognized men and women as equal citizens, repudiated discrimination on the basis of sex, and provided for affirmative action by the state to ensure the full participation of women in all spheres of life. However, in 1977, the Islamization policy of General Zia-ul-Haq reversed these gains by rescinding women's rights, enacting discriminatory laws and promoting retrogressive attitudes through what some describe as a fundamentalist interpretation of the Qur'an and Shari'ah. These measures were actively opposed by women’s rights advocacy groups. Women’s groups have continued to advocate for equality and have had some success. Greater awareness of rights of women have led to increased emphasis on female education, programmes for increasing employment opportunities for women and passing of the Women's Protection bill in 2006. Their efforts would have borne more fruit were they not on the one hand opposed by ethnic, regional or religious groups ready to use violence in pursuit of their goals and on the other hand by the lack of commitment of the state (Shaheed, 2002).
The Educational Context Pakistan does not have free, compulsory and universal education although it is a stated constitutional right. The lack of state provision of education has resulted in two trends: increased provision of education by the private sector (profit and not-for-profit) and the increased enrolment of children in madrassas. Thus there are different education systems: the religious madrassas, the Matriculation (government and private) and the Cambridge (private) systems. The great majority of students attend Matriculation schools run by both the government and private sector. The Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for developing the national curriculum, syllabi and prescribing the content of the textbooks used in the Matriculation system. Teacher training is mostly conducted by government colleges of education where most programmes are of one-year duration. These institutions are of lowstatus because of poor planning, low allocation of budgets, violation of merit, political influence, low status of the teaching profession and the quality of content and delivery of training. The education history indicates that no government has given the education sector the required attention and therefore the education system of Pakistan suffers from a crisis of quantity, quality and relevance. Pakistan has a population of 160 million of which 39 million are children of school going age (5-14). 20 million children are between the ages of 5-9 and 19 million between the ages of 10-14 (Federal Bureau of Statistics, 2005a). Of the 20 million children between the ages of 5-9, 8 million are not enrolled in school. Of the 12 million enrolled 50 percent drop out by class 5. Of the 19 million children between the ages of 10-14, 15 million are enrolled in secondary school (Federal Bureau of Statistics, 2005b). Teaching and learning in Pakistani classrooms is simply the transmission of textbook facts which students must memorize in order to pass examinations. School graduates are good at “parroting” what they learn rather than thinking and reasoning for themselves. Every education policy and every book written on education in Pakistan laments the declining quality and relevance of education to the lives of Pakistanis and to Pakistani society, observing that it does not prepare students well for higher education, employability or citizenship (Dean, 2000, 2005; Hayes, 1987; Hoodbhoy, 1998; Ministry of Education, 1998; Saigol, 1994; Warwick & Reimers, 1995).
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Pakistan is trying to improve its education system. Educational development programmes like the Education Sector Reforms Assistance (ESRA) have been initiated all over Pakistan. Although there is little possibility that Pakistan will meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) it has made progress in increasing enrolment by opening new schools and offering incentives to students. At the time of writing this report a new education policy is being developed and new curriculum written. A policy allowing multiple textbooks has been adopted and the first private examination board is bringing changes in the examination system. Numerous teacher education initiatives are also been under taken. Improving the education system is essential because education empowers people. At a personal level it provides them the knowledge, skills, values and self-confidence to make personal decisions. At the community level it provides them the knowledge and skills required to protect and advance their rights and participate actively as citizens in social and political life.
SECTION 2: THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK From the initial conception of citizenship in the Greek city-states to the modern conception of citizenship that emerged in the 18 th century, citizenship has meant the participation of those who have the rights of citizens in public assembly, in decision-making and operation of public affairs. This indicates that citizenship is both a legal and political status as well as a social role. From the Greeks through to modern time citizenship was limited to male members of the society, to the educated class and to property owners. It was only after a long struggle by women that they were accepted as citizens. Democratic ideals have led to demands to lower the voting age, to give the press freedom and to open up the processes of government (Crick, 1998). T.H. Marshall in his book Citizenship (1950) saw three groups of rights necessary to the understanding and practice of citizenship: civil rights, political rights and social rights. Marshall stressed the importance of civil rights, “the rights necessary for individual freedom – liberty of the person, freedom of speech, the right to own property and to conclude valid contracts”. “The right to participate in the exercise of political power, as a member of a body invested with political authority or as an elector of the members of such a body” and “the whole range from the right to a modicum of economic welfare and security, to the right to share to the full in the social heritage and to live the life of a civilized being according to the standards prevailing in the society” were also deemed necessary for citizenship. More recently cultural rights (Kymlicka, 1995) have also come to be seen as important to citizenship. The provision of rights means that there are reciprocal responsibilities. In addition, to rights and responsibilities, citizens also have different roles to play. Some of these roles are to participate actively in respecting the rights of others, active political engagement to enact just laws and to act to change unjust laws in a peaceful and responsible manner (Crick, 1998) and joining voluntary groups and organizations to take actions in the interest of the public good. To be able to carry out the differing roles and responsibilities of citizenship means that citizens must have the knowledge, skills and dispositions to effectively exercise their citizenship status. This calls for citizenship education. There are a number of definitions of citizenship education including the ones given below:
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[Citizenship education seeks to] develop knowledge, skills and attitudes and values which enable students to participate as active and informed citizens in our democratic society within an international context. (National Goals for Schooling, Australia, 1989) Education for citizenship is concerned with both the personal development of students and the political and social development of society at the local, national and international levels. On a personal level, citizenship education is about integration into society. It is about overcoming structural barriers to equality; challenging racism and sexism in institutions. On a political and social level, it is about creating a social order that will help provide security without the need for repression. (Osler and Starkey, 1996) These definitions reveal a number of themes, concepts and dimensions to citizenship education. They include the themes of: the preservation of a democratic society and its associated rights; the notion of participation in society; the preparation or capacity-building of young people for active and informed participation; a focus on inclusion or integration into society; a concentration on contemporary society; key concepts…including democracy, rights, responsibilities, tolerance, respect, equality, diversity and community; and the dimensions of knowledge and understanding, skills, attitudes and values… (Kerr, 2003, p. 8). The breadth and depth of the linked themes, concepts and dimensions indicate that citizenship education is an umbrella concept that encompasses many forms of education, including civic education, human rights education, values education, peace education, and global education. It also has connections with other subjects of the curriculum including history, geography, the languages, religious studies, politics and economics. It also points to the fact that citizenship education is not just confined to teaching and learning in schools but encompasses all forms of education, the focus of which is the preparation for democratic life (Audigier, 1998). There are different approaches to citizenship education such as the ‘values-explicit’ and values-neutral’ approaches, the minimal and maximal approaches (Mclauglin, 1992) and the education about, through, and for citizenship. However, for the purpose of this report we would like to use the octagon model (refers to its schematic shape) of citizenship education (Torney-Purta, et al, 1999, 2001) illustrated in figure 1. The octagon model of citizenship education places the individual at the centre surrounded by public discussion about goals, values and practices relevant to civic education. The public discourse and practices of society influence the individual through direct contact with family, peers, school staff and neighbours and through its institutions and the mass media. The outer octagon that circumscribes these processes includes institutions, processes and values in domains such as politics, economics, education and religion. It also includes the country’s position internationally, local and national heroes and symbols, the socio-economic stratification structure and opportunity structure and values related to Fig. 1: Octagon Model of Citizenship Education social participation
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This model suggests that learning about citizenship is not limited to instruction in schools but engagement with all that surrounds the individual and provides the context in which the development of the understanding of citizenship takes place.
SECTION 3: THE RESEARCH STUDY Purpose of the Research The present government is being encouraged to put in place structures, institutions and processes that would give Pakistan a better chance of sustaining democracy. Democracy requires informed citizens willing to participate in the democratic and development processes at the local, national and global levels. To prepare informed and participatory citizens a civic education programme is required through which citizens will acquire the knowledge, skills and dispositions as well as have opportunities for civic engagement through such activities as participating in the political processes and engaging in community service. In Pakistan there are a number of organizations working in the field of civic education. Little, however, has been done to assess their work. It is therefore important that an assessment of the work of key civil society organizations (CSOs) in the field of civic education in Pakistan be undertaken to identify what each organization is doing to promote civic education, as well as to identify their successes, challenges and future needs. Findings of the research will facilitate identification of strategies for the development of a comprehensive civic education programme for Pakistan.
Objectives of the Research Study The objectives of the research study were to: identify what the theoretical and empirical literature says about civic education in general and civic education in Pakistan; map the work being done in civic education in Pakistan by CSOs, educational institutions and government departments to find out what civic education programmes they offer, the objectives of the programmes, the target groups, their curriculum and key messages; study the impact, successes and challenges of the civic education programmes conducted by CSOs; have civic education experts critically review findings and suggest a way forward. •
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Research Methodology The research methodology entailed three processes: a review of the literature on civic education, a mapping of civic education initiatives in Pakistan and a national civic education experts workshop.
Review of the Literature on Civic Education In order to achieve the study’s objectives a review of the literature on civic education from around the world including Pakistan was undertaken. Beginning with an ERIC search and reading the abstracts we selected country case reports and cross national reviews of the theory and research on citizenship education. Because of the rather limited literature on Pakistan all accessible studies were reviewed (see Appendix I). The foci of this exercise were to: assess the current state of citizenship education prevailing nationally and internationally; identify suggestions for what needs to be done to better prepare democratic citizens, identify the barriers to change and ways to overcome the barriers.
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Mapping Civic Education Initiatives in Pakistan The first step in mapping civic education initiatives was to develop a performa to document the work of CSOs in the field of civic education in Pakistan (see Appendix II). Given the number of CSOs working in Pakistan it was important to delimit the scope to CSOs working in the areas of citizenship education, human rights education (minority rights, child rights, women rights), law and legal issues, peace and conflict resolution education, institutions working to further understanding of democracy and democratic institutions, structures and processes at the local and national level and institutions working with the mass media. Government departments working in the above areas were also identified. Moreover, both public and private universities (having departments like Political Science, Sociology, Gender/women’s studies, Mass communication and Media, Pakistan Studies) from all over the country were also included in the study. CSOs involved in social welfare work like Edhi or Ansar Burni Welfare Trust were not included nor were the far too many community based organizations (CBOs). In order to identify relevant organisations, the directory on organizations working in the area of citizenship, human rights and conflict resolution education prepared by Idara-e-Taleem-oAagahi was referred to, organizations already known to the CRRP Programme team were contacted with a request to identify other organizations engaged in civic education, and an internet search for such organizations was also conducted. This resulted in an exhaustive list of relevant organizations (see Appendix III). The identified organizations were then contacted by telephone, regular mail or email through which they were informed about the purpose and objectives of the study and requested to provide the required information and any relevant curriculum materials (if any) at their earliest. The information and materials collected were reviewed in order to identify the institutions/organizations doing the best work in the field of civic education. Criteria were developed to facilitate judgements which included the aims and objectives of the organizations (specific to areas identified), scope of work, the nature of the work and their impact, successes, challenges and future needs. Appointments were then made to meet the civic education experts in the organizations that best met the criteria (see Appendix III the names of organizations are highlighted). The visits entailed introductions to the CRRP Programme, its aims and objectives, the aims and objectives of the research study and interviews/conversations to gather detailed information regarding the work of the organization in the field of civic education, their successes, challenges and the impact they thought their work was having. In addition curriculum material such as books, booklets, fliers, posters, CDs and videos were also collected. An indepth review of the curriculum materials was undertaken to identify the key messages being delivered.
National Civic Education Expert’s Workshop In order to share findings of the literature review and mapping exercise and receive input on strategies for developing a civic education programme for Pakistan a national expert’s workshop on civic education was conducted on July 31, 2007. Invitations were sent out to CSOs assessed as doing the best work in civic education, teachers from various educational institutions, government departments involved in civic education and the media (see
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Appendix IV). The invitations included the objectives and structure of the workshop. Thirty experts from CSOs, government departments, media and educational institutions from around Pakistan discussed the existing state of civic education in Pakistan and suggested the vision, goals and strategies required to further develop the civic education programme in Pakistan (see Appendix V). The major findings from all these exercises are summarised in the next section of the report.
SECTION 4: FINDINGS Conceptions of citizenship A review of the literature on citizenship indicates that citizenship is an evolving, polysemous and contested concept. Most writers (Turner, 1986; Resnick, 1990; Clarke, 1994) argue that conceptions of citizenship began with the Greeks where all free men shared in the decision making and operation of common affairs. Modern conceptions of citizenship were influenced by the French Revolution which called for equality, social fraternity and national s overeignty. The modern conception of citizenship gave rise to new understanding of the individual's relationship to each other and the state (Sears 1997). Presently citizenship is understood as the relationship between an individual and a political community in which the individual is provided with certain rights and has to fulfil certain responsibilities (Bottery, 20003). Women are challenging the present construction of citizenship. They claim that citizenship as it is presently defined relies on the notion of the free, autonomous being who acts in the political/public sphere and receives social entitlements based on individual citizenship. This conception excludes women as it is defined in opposition to the sphere of work relegated to them (Freedman, 2002). Thus there is a gulf between guaranteed full citizenship and the actual lived experiences of citizenship for women (Leech, 1994). Present understandings of citizenship are also being challenged by sub-national and supranational forces giving rise to local and global conceptions of citizenship. Empirical research (Theiss-Morse, 1993; Conover, Crewe & Searing, 1991; Ichilov & Nave, 1981; Carrington & Short, 2000) on citizenship indicates different conceptions within and between different countries. A study conducted by Dean (2003) in Pakistan found that Pakistanis had four conceptions of citizenship. They think of citizenship in terms of being born in Pakistan and sharing a common culture, being patriotic, sharing a common religious identity and as someone who has to fulfil duties. National civic education experts defined citizenship in terms of its political and legal components. They felt that the macro system, that is, the institutional processes, values in the social, political, economic and religious domains and the position of Pakistan in the international context greatly influenced how Pakistanis conceived of themselves as citizens. The experts noted that the promotion of a singular religious identity, the reduction of heroes to pre-partition political leaders, religious personalities and military leaders and symbols to those associated with religion and the military and the increasingly negative image (violent, intolerant, extremist) of Pakistan internationally had given rise to a negative conception of Pakistani citizenship. The result they felt is that Pakistanis have a negative self-image, low esteem and confidence, a growing feeling of despondency and lack of agency among Pakistanis.
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The experts expressed the need for a civic education programme to prepare a more hopeful, peace loving and active citizenry. Such a programme they felt must stress the multi-ethnic and multi-religious identity of Pakistan and be based on principles of democracy and pluralism.
Civic education and systemic change Civic education experts in Pakistan, like their counterparts around the world have high expectations of civic education for addressing societal problems. This is likely because of the stated goals of civic education in most curriculum documents. For example, the standards document of the Centre for Civic Education 1994 reads, “It has been recognized since the founding of the nation that education has a civic mission: to prepare informed, rational, humane, and participating citizens committed to the values and principles of American constitutional democracy”. In Australia, the only nationally accepted statement of curriculum intent the Common and Agreed National Goals for Schooling in Australia, explicitly highlighted civic education: To develop knowledge, skills, attitudes and values which will enable students to participate as active and informed citizens in our democratic Australian society within an international context. (Goal 7) To develop in students … a capacity to exercise judgement in matters of morality, ethics and social justice. (Goal 6) (Print, 1999). •
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In Pakistan, too civic education is seen as the panacea for all the ills of society. Over the years this has resulted in additions to the curriculum of population education, environmental education, drug education to address persistent and current problems and issues in Pakistani society. Civic education experts noted that in most cases these lofty goals have not been achieved because as the theoretical framework indicates along with civic education, changes in the social, political, economic and cultural systems are also needed for societal change. They criticized the emphasis laid on raising awareness in both formal and informal civic education programmes. They noted that while raising awareness was important it did not necessarily lead to action for systemic change. They pointed out that success had come when in addition to awareness raising concerned groups and their supporters had been mobilized to advocate for implementation of existing laws, changes in existing discriminatory laws and practices and for new legislation.
A recommitment to civic education There is a rethinking of civic education taking place around the world in new and emerging democracies as well as in well-established democracies. A result of this rethinking has been a greater emphasis on civic education the world over. This can be seen in recent development in civic education in Australia, Canada and England as well as in countries that are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States. This rethinking is also taking place in Pakistan, but unlike other countries this rethinking is being directed not by the government but by CSOs. This fact led to the question, “Whose agenda is civic education? Is it a donor funded agenda or our own agenda?” Civic education experts observed that the need for civic education has arisen from the present local context in which there is a growing commitment to democracy. They pointed to the many political changes such as increased number of seats in the national assembly and the institution of local government as providing the impetus for civic education.
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Civic education experts noted that in most established and emerging democracies, civic education was a goal of education. It was part of the curriculum and all students received citizenship education. Pakistan, however, does not have a universal, compulsory and free system of education. Therefore, only a few receive civic education which the experts held was of poor quality. A large population of school-age children were denied the opportunities of receiving an education and thereby civic education. Furthermore, a large adult population had not received any education, they too had to be educated for citizenship. Because of this context the experts were of the view that we have to find innovative ways to provide civic education to young people both in and out of school. They felt that in order to provide civic education to all civic education programmes must be supported by the government and the government must commit resources to it.
The goals of civic education Educators around the world are unanimous that the goals of civic education be preparation for participation in a democratic society. In Pakistan there is no such unanimity. There are many civic educators who like their counterparts in the rest of the world believe that the goal of civic education in Pakistan should be preparation for democratic life. There is another group who believes that the goal of education in general and civic education is not to foster democracy but to produce good, practicing Muslims. At present there is a struggle between these two forces which is reflected in the heated debates about the goals of education in general and civic education in particular. Civic education experts accepted the fact that in such a diverse society like Pakistan, different groups have different visions of and goals for civic education. They wondered as to how the space could be created for discussion on issues and negotiation for coming to a consensus on the vision, goals and strategies for civic education. The national civic education experts found the existing vision and goals of education in general and civic education in particular to be very narrow, limited to facilitating young people to obtain gainful employment and become good, practicing Muslims. They proposed a vision based on a philosophy of humanism and underpinned by a human rights framework. They suggested that the goals of civic education be the promotion of a democratic and pluralistic society and preparation of young people as informed, responsible and participatory citizens. Civic education experts were unanimous in their belief that civic education is vitally important to the development of Pakistan as a democratic society. They suggested that civic education be a separate subject in the school curriculum. Less idealistic participants pointed to the difficulty of obtaining this curricula change and suggested civic education be designed as a co-curricular activity. They felt we had to find innovative ways to educate adults and out-of-school young people for citizenship. University professors suggested the setting up of departments of civic education in universities to develop the knowledge base and provide the expertise required in both the formal and informal education sectors. When it came to identification of the strategies to achieve the goals, there was clearly a division between CSOs working in the formal education system and the more activistoriented CSOs. The former believed the best way to attain the goal was through character education, life skills education and developing a civic sense while the latter believed that the goal could be obtained through teaching young people inquiry, critical thinking and communication skills and giving them the opportunity to act as informed, responsible and active citizens in their schools and local community.
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Civic education experts also suggested the setting up of a civic education network the goals of which would be to improve the status, the quality and outcomes of civic education in Pakistan. The network would provide CSOs working in the field of civic education an opportunity to share experiences, support each others efforts and facilitate nation-wide research on important issues and problems and identification of strategies to address the problems and issues.
Work being done in civic education in Pakistan Civic education is integrated into the social studies/Pakistan studies and is taught in schools from grades four to fourteen. In Pakistani schools and colleges great stress is laid on science and technology and little value is ascribed to the social sciences and the humanities and thus to civic education which is a part of the social sciences. Little time is allocated on the timetable for civic education in comparison to science and math. Moreover, there is a commonly held belief among educators that the social sciences do not require conceptual understanding therefore it can be learnt by rote and anyone can teach it. Even less importance is given to civic education in universities. Universities have a number of departments (women/gender studies, political science, journalism/media studies) that are related to the field of civic education. However, teaching in most of these departments is focused on knowledge acquisition rather than understanding of key concepts and issues in society. The exception in most cases is the women/gender studies departments that are relatively new and the curriculum of which includes the study of women/gender issues in Pakistan. In addition to the delivery of civic education in the formal education system, there are a very large number of CSOs providing civic education through the work they do with different groups of people across the country. Most of the work has and is being done with marginalized groups especially children (child labourers, juvenile offenders, abused children), women (rural poor, victims of discriminatory laws and practices) and minority groups. Changing national and local conditions such as the increase in the number of seats and the reinstatement of reserved seats for women in the National Assembly, the institutionalisation of local government in Pakistan in 2000, and the fact that parliamentarians (national, provincial) and members of local government are not well prepared for their role had resulted in many CSOs working to educate legislators in general and women legislators in particular with the intention of building and strengthening democratic institutions in Pakistan. CSOs provide civic education while providing services (education, health, microfinance). They also provide opportunities for citizens to become members or volunteer in activities they undertake. Studies undertaken by CSOs on different issues make information available to citizens that they can use individually or in groups to redress similar issues. They also serve to promote and practise human rights, promote peace and harmony between different groups in society and advocate for change in discriminatory laws and practices and for framing of laws based on human rights.
The differing content of civic education Civic educators around the world largely agree about what should be a part of civic education. Often, however, the choice of content and the way it is taught undermines the results to be achieved. There have been numerous critiques of the content of the national curriculum for civic education and social studies textbooks used to deliver the civic education curriculum (Ahmad, 2004; Ali, 1986; Aziz, 1992; Dean, 2000, 2005; Future Youth Group, 2003; Nayyar
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and Salim, 2004; Rehman, 1999; Saigol, 1993, 1994). These critiques show that the existing knowledge base of the social sciences is not utilized in curriculum development instead a narrow body of instructional content is selected to serve ideological ends. Furthermore, while there is a complete absence of skills, the curricula is saturated with Isla mic and moral values. The above studies have also noted that in social studies/Pakistan studies textbooks facts are selected and carefully woven into narratives that provide a particular view of the struggle for, creation, existence and future of the Pakistani nation. Moreover, textbooks through their inclusions and exclusions teach that Islam and Pakistan are synonymous and only Muslims are Pakistanis; democracy is rule by the people, since there are too many people to rule the people elect representatives to rule them; and Pakistan is a social welfare state, the government ensures the welfare of all citizens therefore, there is no need for citizen agency. Textbooks promote a militarised state through glorification of war, discussion of specific battles and eulogizing military heroes; entrench biases against women, other nations, religions and people with disability; and promote virtues of piety, obedience and sense of duty but not the virtues of justice, equality and diversity. Furthermore, the nature of tests and examinations require student to restate textbook facts thus they promote rote memorization and ensure students learn the textbook content and messages. In contrast to the content of the national curriculum, the content of the curriculum used by CSOs is much more appropriate to civic education aimed at creating citizens for a democratic and pluralistic society. The curriculum includes the constitution of Pakistan, the many human rights documents (UDHR, CRC, CEDAW), content regarding issues and problems that is based on both national and international research, the use of tools and techniques to assess the state of democracy in Pakistan and violation of human rights, and strategies to enhance social and political participation, advocate for making effective public policy and change in discriminatory laws and practices. Key messages are: Pakistan is a democratic country, all citizens have equal rights, free and fair elections and the rule of law are key attributes of a democracy, parliamentarians are representative of the people and must be responsive to their needs rather than see themselves as working for the government; children are individuals with rights, children must be protected by the government and community so as to enable them to enjoy their childhood, children are active agents of social change; men and women are equal, women must use the legal system to advance rights, women are agents of change in the community; people must organize themselves to pressure government to make effective public policies, and change existing unjust laws ( hudood , blasphemy). The civic education experts eschewed the existing limited, biased and ideologically influenced content of the present national curriculum and the messages conveyed by the textbooks used in schools and proposed that the content and messages already being promoted by the CSOs be included. Civic education they felt must educate young people in all domains: knowledge, skills and values. Co curricular activities must provide opportunities for engagement in citizenship through active participation in school and the local community. Some civic educators held a more passive view of civic education and did not feel that provision of opportunities for active participation in the local community should be a part of civic education. Members of some CSOs pointed out that they were already working with schools to provide young people these opportunities while others were providing materials to support these endeavours, albeit much more needs to be done.
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The Transmission Model of Civic Education The teaching of civic education in schools in most parts of the world has been critiqued for being textbook bound. Kickbusch (1987) claims that such instruction…is oriented towards the acquisition of unproblematic knowledge and passive acceptance of social institutions…Critics…have faulted this approach to citizenship education…for its passive, classroom-based processes (p.174). In most Pakistani classrooms teachers have to use the government prescribed textbook and ensure students learn it so that they are successful in the examinations. The authority of the teacher and the textbook is reinforced by the use of the lecture method in which teachers “deposit” textbook facts into students (Freire, 1970) and by teachers maintaining strict discipline in the class. Students are not allowed to ask questions, present ideas or speak to each other. Students who do, are scolded, deprived of rewards and occasionally beaten. Following the lecture, teachers have students answer questions that require regurgitation of textbook facts. Teachers are reluctant to supplement the curriculum with activities that would teach students to ask questions, think critically and develop problem-solving skills or to conduct independent inquiries on issues and take responsible action as students would only be tested on the factual material in the textbook. The high stake value of, end-of-the-year and school leaving examinations have resulted in teaching and learning in schools being geared solely towards helping students memorize facts to pass the examinations (Dean, 2000, 2005; Hoodbhoy, 1998) Co-curricular activities also provide opportunities for citizenship education. In Pakistan, most schools generally celebrate national and international days and Muslim religious festivals and have students participate in interschool competitions such as science fairs, debates and sports competitions. The potential for citizenship education is limited because preparation for these events are not a regular feature of teaching and learning and only a few able students are chosen to participate. A few schools have Girls Guides/Boys Scouts and school clubs which provide better opportunities for civic education as they are open to all students and require long-term commitment. Kizilbash (1986) claims that, “The existing teaching practice is contributing to the socialization of obedient, passive citizens who lack critical thinking, questioning, decisionmaking and problem solving skills, who are closed minded followers rather than responsible and independent citizens”. The State of Education in Pakistan report prepared by the Social Policy and Development Centre for the year 2002-2003 indicates that not much has changed in the last twenty years. It states, “Instead of being able to acknowledge diversity in points of views, they (students) are likely to look at the world in oversimplified, uncritical, ‘black and white’ and ‘us versus them’ terms and develop single dimensional, exclusivist mindsets” (p.168). CSOs use both the transmission as well as active-participatory teaching methodologies in the many awareness raising and training programmes they conduct. Most of these programmes are offered for short durations - a day to a week. They are good for raising awareness but generally fail to provide participants the knowledge and skills needed for informed and responsible citizenship. Another very common method of raising mass awareness is through a large variety of publications in Urdu and English (also S indhi in Sindh), through press reports and more recently through talk shows in the electronic media. Less common is the use of non-traditional strategies such as the theatre and the internet. In case of theatre, traditional approaches are being eschewed for more participatory methods. In some cases the spectators
13
are involved in animated discussions following a theatrical performance, while in others the spectators become spectators re-enacting scenes depicting alternative ways they think a problem could be solved or an issue addressed. The internet is being used more and more for information dissemination, its potential for facilitating political empowerment and netactivism is yet to be explored. Like educators around the world civic education experts in Pakistan think civic education in schools should be conducted in more democratic environments, teachers should use pedagogies that provide students the opportunity to engage in knowledge and issue-based inquiries, discuss and debate, work together in small groups and encourage students active participation in addressing problems and issues in the school and the local community. CSOs delivering civic education in the informal sector have a formidable task ahead of them. With the expansion in the print and electronic media, CSOs were quick to recognize the potential of the media to educate the general public about the issues facing Pakistani society and to encourage them to become actively involved in addressing them. They have recognized that they will first have to educate the media if it is to play this role effectively. CSOs could then provide more sustained educational opportunities for selected groups. Civic education experts felt that CSOs must also use more innovative strategies to realize the goals of civic education.
Teacher Education Many educators believe that the limited subject matter and uninspired treatment in civics texts might not matter if teachers used a rich array of other resources and used activeparticipatory pedagogies (Cotton, 2001). This belief holds teachers to be autonomous, independent individuals who given the necessary knowledge and skills, can fulfil their desires. What is minimized in this perspective is the fact that desires are limited by one's capacities and by structures of school and society (Corrigan, 1990). In Pakistan the quality of teacher training is generally so poor that research shows that teachers have no affect on the education provided to children (Bregman & Mohammad, 1998; Kizilbash, 1998; Warwick and Reimers, 1995). Teachers who have been trained to use resources other than the textbook and more active-participatory pedagogies find it difficult to use them successfully without follow-up support. Furthermore, institutional imperatives of completing the syllabus and preparing students for examinations further constrain their efforts (Dean, 2000). Given the above scenario it came as no surprise when civic education experts complained of the difficulty in finding highly knowledgeable, motivated and committed teachers. They felt that if the quality of civic education in both the formal and informal education sector is to be improved than the quality of teacher education needs to be improved and specialist training provided to civic education teachers. They suggested that civic education should become a part of both pre-service and in-service teacher training. In order for teachers to be trained it was imperative that teacher educators in colleges of education be trained. They also suggested that civic education departments be setup in universities.
Successes and Challenges CSOs working in the formal education sector felt that they had been successful in broadening the understanding and practice of civic education among teachers and students of both government and private schools. They had provided teachers and students opportunities to study and identify ways to address issues in the local community and to share these with concerned authorities for implementation. Universities are hoping their work will have long-
14
term impact, the only immediate impact of their work is the employment of graduates. CSOs working with marginalized groups feel that they have had some success. The greatest impact seems to have been made with women and children. They felt women are more knowledgeable about their rights and they are more willing to stand up for their rights. CSOs shared examples of women demanding an equal share to property, participating in decisionmaking meeting with men and the passage of the Women's Protection Bill in 2006. Children and those who work with and for them are more aware of their rights. CSOs efforts on behalf of children has resulted in greater protection of juvenile offenders, decrease in exploitation and abuse, and the passage of the Employment of Children's Act 1991. While Pakistani society may appear globally as highly intolerant CSOs described situations where tolerance is the norm in villages across Pakistan. CSOs face a number of challenges. They expressed tremendous concern about how to develop a civic education programme and teach civic education in a diverse society. They expressed concerns about being partisan and prescriptive. They raised questions regarding content and strategies. They wondered should controversial issues be incl uded? If yes, how to teach them? Should young people be engaged in advocacy and actions for change? What direction to take in dealing with diversity? With respect to civic education in schools concerns were expressed about the many constraining factors: the goals of the curriculum and content of textbooks, the status of civic education, the authoritarian nature of Pakistani schools and classrooms, the little time allocated to civic education on the timetable, the focus on transmission of knowledge and the stress on rote learning to pass examinations. At universities professors found it very difficult to get students to ask questions, challenge the taken-for-granted and to relate theory to practise especially when it challenged deeply held personal beliefs or societal norms. A major challenge for CSOs working in the field of civic education is the perception of the general public about CSOs. CSOs are often perceived as agents of the west, whose goals are to westernize and liberalize Pakistani society. Another major challenge is the lack of human and material resources. There is a dearth of civic education teachers for all levels of the formal education system. In addition, it is difficult to find expertise in fields such as human rights and democracy. One of the key challenges CSOs face in providing civic education to various groups and the general public is that of funding. As the government does not provide funding, CSOs have to seek funding from donors. Often because of the lack of funds the number and/or duration of programmes have to be cut short, they are unable to provide adequate materials like books and manuals to those they work with and cannot travel to areas to work with the most disadvantaged groups. The lack of resources that they can draw on in the national and regional languages is another challenge. Materials are often not available at all or available only in English.
SECTION 5: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AKF Beneficiaries of Civic Education The civic education experts were of the view that the beneficiaries of civic education should be young people both in and out of school. Although young people do receive civic education as part of their school education, the authoritarian structure of Pakistani schools, the content and quality of civic education does not prepare them to play an active and responsible role in a democratic society. In schools students should be given the opportunity not only to learn
15
about but to experience democracy. Schools and classrooms must reflect the democratic society to be created (Apple and Beane, 1995, 1999). School councils, school clubs, community service and other forms of student involvement that genuinely engage students in problem solving and decision making must be structured into school life. Schools could both draw on and support the efforts of civil society organizations to provide the opportunities for young people to experience and work towards creating a democratic society. A large proportion of young Pakistanis do not go through the formal education system. While Pakistan is making concerted efforts to enrol all school-age children in school, it has not been able to stem the large number of drop-outs. Even to this day fifty percent of children enrolled in school will drop out by the time their reach class five. This group of young people have often not spent enough time in school to become beneficiaries of any formal civic education as its provision only begins in class four. A number of CSOs are working to educate these young people, they provide some civic education as they teach them to read and write, while others provide civic education when they work with various disadvantaged groups. Civic education experts all acknowledge that much more has to be done to provide quality civic education to this large group of people. Civic education experts working in both the formal and informal education sectors believe teachers are essential to the provision of quality civic education. They believe teachers must receive specialist training as part of both pre-service and in-service teacher education. Teacher education programmes must help teachers develop knowledge and understanding of the key concepts, learn to use active-participatory pedagogies and organize school councils and community service learning projects. Teacher education programmes must include support for teachers as they use their learning in real classrooms and provide opportunities for young people to learn to be citizens through active involvement in their schools and local communities. Civic education experts acknowledged that some teacher education institutions were already preparing teachers to educate for citizenship but noted that there is an urgent need for quality teacher education on a mass scale. The need to educate teacher educators to meet this need was expressed. In addition to teacher education, civic education experts observed that the media plays an important role in influencing the perception of the general public on societal issues and problems, shaping political attitudes and influencing electoral choices and therefore has the potential to contribute significantly to the provision of civic education. They highlighted the importance of an independent, neutral, pluralist and socially responsible media for the provision of civic education. For the media to play its civic education role effectively the staff of media organizations will have to be provided specialist training in learning to develop and/or produce civic education programmes and messages. Because of the literacy levels and communication infrastructure in Pakistan it is important to identify and support efforts to communicate with those who are not literate and use media channels that are most accessible to them. Another group that civic education experts felt required civic education was members of the civil bureaucracy. It was felt that civil bureaucrats played a key role in policy development, implementation and review. All civil bureaucrats receive training prior to taking up positions in the various ministries and departments, it was suggested that a civic education component be added to this training programme.
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It is recommended that AKF facilitate the development and provision of civic education programmes to young people both in and out of schools, to teachers in both the formal and informal education sectors, to the media and to the civil bureaucracy.
Strategies to Provide Quality Civic Education Change the national curriculum CSOs were unanimous in the need for a national civic education curriculum based on a human rights framework. The experts hoped that the new curriculum and textbooks would be designed to address the limitations research has shown exist in the previous ones. They felt it is imperative that textbooks content be factually correct and unbiased, include substantial knowledge about democracy, citizenship rights and responsibilities, and socio-political issues, foster inquiry, critical thinking and decision making, promote values of social justice, equality and diversity and encourage informed and responsible actions to address problems and issues in the society. Civic education experts were of the view that curriculum and textbook writers be educated in both the key concepts of civic education and curriculum and textbook writing to meet civic education goals.
Materials Development Civic education experts identified the lack of curriculum resources to support civic education as one of the key challenges to delivering quality civic education programmes in Pakistan. As already mentioned, the present textbooks are not suitable nor are there many supplementary materials designed for use in schools. The research indicated that CSOs have published materials on various themes, in a variety of media, most of which are in English. Most of these materials are a good source of factual information, critical analysis on a number of issues of importance to Pakistan and suggestions for action to address them. Unfortunately most of these materials are not suitable for use with young people or with adults who have not received quality education. Some materials could be used as supplementary materials in schools where the medium of instruction is English and could be translated into the national and regional languages for use in Urdu and Sindhi medium schools. In most cases these materials will require instructions for teachers on how to use the material in their civic education classrooms. It is recommended that AKF support the development of teaching and learning materials for all the beneficiaries identified above. That the materials produced be of various kinds, be produced in various media and be published in U rdu, English and some regional languages. It is also recommended that AKF support a resource centre where copies of these materials could be housed and the development of a website so as to facilitate access to the materials nationally and globally.
Build Partnerships between CSOs and Schools Civic education requires acquisition of knowledge and understanding of key concepts and opportunities to engage in active citizenship. Most often the civic education provided to young people is limited to the former. There are many CSOs working to address a variety of problems and issues in local communities around Pakistan they often lack personnel for important activities. School-CSOs partnerships should benefit both partners. It would facilitate schools in broadening their civic education curriculum by providing young people opportunities to study about and engage in efforts to address problems in the local community that CSOs are already working on. Young people could facilitate the work of CSOs by
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engaging in inquiry on problems in the community, document the community's efforts to address the problem and identify strategies or develop campaigns to advocate for systemic change. The partnership between schools and CSOs would, in addition to, serving to facilitate the delivery of quality civic education would also provide opportunities for young people from different socio-economic backgrounds to interact with each other, for developing closer school-community relationships, and for joint actions aimed at developing a more peaceful and democratic society. It is recommended that AKF commission studies of already existing partnerships between schools and CSOs. In addition, AKF which is a part of the AKDN begin to develop partnerships between its member organizations and schools and study the development processes and outcomes of the partnerships. The findings from these studies could be used to develop new partnerships and strengthen existing partnerships between CSOs and schools.
Research for an indigenous knowledge base Little theoretical and empirical work has been done in the area of civic education in Pakistan. Much more work needs to be done to develop a indigenous knowledge base which can be drawn on for design of a civic education programme and strategies to deliver it. It is recommended that AKF support both theoretical and empirical research on civic education in Pakistan.
Creation of a Civic Education Network Networks are ways to create links between groups or organizations in order to work on a common interest or to achieve a common goal. Civic education experts proposed the formation of a civic education network to serve as a forum where CSOs could share their ideas, discuss issues/challenges and decide on the best ways to promote civic education in Pakistan. In addition, the network would serve as a platform from which to advocate for improving the status of civic education in Pakistan. Furthermore, while all CSOs could point to the impact they have had in raising awareness and building capacity, they acknowledged this was confined to relatively small groups of people. The civic education network they felt would provide a wider scope and would therefore likely have a greater impact. It is recommended that AKF support the creation of a Civic Education Network.
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REFERENCES Ahmad, I. (2004). Islam, Democracy and Citizenship Education: A n Examination of the Social Studies Curriculum in Pakistan. Current Issues in Comparative Education, Teacher College Columbia University, 7 (1), pp. 39 - 50 Ali, M. (1986). Tareekh Aur Agahi (History and Awareness). Lahore, Pakistan: Urdu Art Press. Apple, M.W. & Beane, J.A. (1999). Democratic Schools: Lesson from the chalk face . Buckingham: Open University Press. Apple, Michael, W and Beane, James A. (1995). Democratic Schools . Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Audigier, F. (1998). Basic Concepts and core competencies for education for democratic citizenship. Switzerland: University of Geneva. Aziz, K.K. (1992). The Murder of the History of Pakistan. Lahore: Vanguard. Bottery, M. (2003). Towards Understanding of Social Capital and Citizenship Education. Cambridge Journal of Education. 33 (1) Bregman, J. & Mohammad, N. (1998). Primary and Secondary Education – Structural Issues. In Hoodbhoy, P. Education and the State: Fifty Years of Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Clarke, J. (1994). Citizenship. London: Pluto Press. Conover, P.J., Crewe, I.M. and Searing, D.D. (1991). The nature of citizenship in the United States and Great Britain: Empirical comments on theoretical themes. Journal of Politics, 53(3), 800-32. Cotton, K. (2001). Educating for Citizenship. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, pp. 1-35. Dean, B., L. (2000). Islam, Democracy and Social studies education: A Quest for Possibilities. Unpublished thesis submitted to the faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of doctor of Philosophy, University of Alberta. Dean, B.L. (2004). Pakistani Conceptions of ‘Citizenship’ and their Implications for Democratic Citizenship Education. In Mündel, K. and Schugurensky, D. Lifelong Citizenship Learning, Participatory Democracy and Social Change. Toronto: TLC Dean, B. L. (2005). Citizenship education in Pakistani schools: Problems and possibilities. International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education. Vol. 1 (2) Federal Bureau of Statistics (2005a). Demographic Survey, 2005. Islamabad: Federal Bureau of Statistics.
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Federal Bureau of Statistics (2005b). National Education Census, 2005. Islamabad: Federal Bureau of Statistic. Freedman, J. (2002). Feminism and the Political: The Fight for Women’s Citizenship. Viva Books Private Ltd. New Dehli Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: The Seabury Press. Future Youth Group (2003). Ideas on Democracy, Freedom and Peace in Textbooks. Islamabad: Liberal Youth Forum. Hayes, L.D. (1987). The Crisis of Education in Pakistan. Lahore: Vanguard Books Ltd. Hoodbhoy, P. (1998). Education and the State: Fifty Years of Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Ichilov, O. and Nave, N. (1981). The ‘good citizen’ as viewed by Israeli adolescents, Comparative Politics, 13(3), 361-76. Kerr, D. (2003). Citizenship: Local, National and International. In Gearon L. Learning to Teach Citizenship in the Secondary School. London: Routledge Falmer Kickbusch, K. W. (1987). Civic Education and Preservice Educators: Extending the Boundaries of Discourse. Theory and Research in Social Education. Vol. 25 (3), pp 173-188. Kizilbash, H. H. (1998). Teaching Teachers to Teach. Education and the State: Fifty Years of Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. pp 102-135 Kizilbash, H.H. (1986). Pakistan's curriculum jungle: An analysis of the SAHE consultation on the undergraduate curriculum in Pakistan. Lahore: SAH E Publication. Kymlicka, W. (1995) Multicultural Citizenship. Oxford: Claredon Press. Marshall, T.H. (1950). Citizenship and Social Class. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mclaughlin, T.H. (1992). Citizenship, diversity and education: A philosophical perspective. Journal of Moral Education. Vol. 21 (3), pp 235-350. Ministry of Education (1998). National Education Policy ‘IQRA’ 1998-2010. Islamabad: Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education. Nayyar, A.H. & Salim, A. (2004). The Subtle Subversion: The State of Curricula and Textbooks in Pakistan. Islamabad: Sustainable Development Policy Institute. Osler, A. and Starkey, H. (1996). Teacher Education and Human Rights. London: David Fulton.
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Print, M. (1999). Citizenship Education in Australia. In Torney-Purta, J. Schwille, J. & Amadeo, J. Civic Education Across Countries: Twenty-four National Case Studies from the IEA Civil Education Project . Amsterdam: IEA. Rashid, A. (1985). Pakistan: The Ideological Dimension. Islam, Politics and the State: The Pakistan Experience. Mohammad Asghar Khan (ed.). London: Zed Books, pp. 69-89. Rehman, Tariq (1999). Teaching ideology and textbooks. Daily Dawn. Karachi, September 27, 1999. Resnick, P. (1990). The Masks of Proteus: Canadian Reflections of the State. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. Saigol, Rubina (1993). Education: Critical Perspectives. Lahore: Progressive Publishers Saigol, Rubina (1994). Locating the self. Lahore: ASR Sears, A. (1997). Social Studies in Canada. In Ian Wright and Alan Sears (eds). Trends and Issues in Canadian Social Studies. Vancouver: Pacific Educational Press. Shaheed, F. (2002). Imagined Citizenship: Women, State & Politics in Pakistan. Lahore: Shirkatgah Women's Resource Centre. Theiss-Morse, E. (1993). Conceptualizations of good citizenship and political participation. Political Behaviour, 15(4), 355-80. Torney-Purta, J. Schwille, J. & Amadeo, J. (1999). Civic Education Across Countries: Twenty-four National Case Studies from the IEA Civil Education Project . Amsterdam: IEA. Torney-Purta, J., et al (2001). Citizenship and Education in Twenty-Eight Countries: Civic Knowledge and Participation at Age Fourteen. Amsterdam: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Turner, B.S. (1986). Citizenship and capitalism: The debate over reformism. London: Allen and Unwin. Warwick, D.P. & Reimers, F. (1995). Hope or Despair? Learning in Pakistan’s Primary Schools. Westport CT: Praeger. Zaidi, S.A. (2000). Issues in Pakistan’s Economy . Karachi: Oxford University Press. Ziring, L. (1997). Pakistan in the Twentieth Century: A Political History. Karachi: Oxford University Press.
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Appendix I Studies used for Review of Literature Davies, I. & Issitt, J. (2005). Reflections on citizenship education in Australia, Canada and England. Comparative Education. 41 (4), pp389-410 Hahn, C.L. (1999). Citizenship Education: an empirical study of policy, practices and outcomes. Oxford Review of Education. 25 (1-2), pp. 231-250 Akinbote, O. (1995). A Note on Citizenship Education in Nigeria: Retrospect and Prospect. Canadian Social Studies.30 (1), pp. 30-32 Karsten, S., Cogan, J.J., Grossman, D.L., Liu, & M., Pitiyanuwat, S. (2002). Citizenship Education and the Preparation of Future Teachers: A Study. Asia Pacific Education Review.3 (2), pp. 168-183 Kerr, D., MCcarthy, S. & Smith, A. (2002). Citizenship Education in England, Ireland and Northern Ireland. European Journal of Education. 37 (2), pp. 180-191 Naseem, M.A. (2006). The soldier and the seductress: a post-structuralist analysis of gendered citizenship through inclusion in and exclusion from language and social studies textbooks in Pakistan. International Journal of Inclusive Education. 10 (4-5), pp 449-467 Cotton, K. (2001). Educating for Citizenship. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, pp. 1-35. Future Youth Group (2003). Ideas on Democracy, Freedom and Peace in Textbooks. Islamabad: Liberal Youth Forum. Torney-Purta, J. et al (1999). Civic Education Across Countries: Twenty-four National Case Studies from the IEA Civil Education Project . Amsterdam: IEA. Torney-Purta, J., et al (2001). Citizenship and Education in Twenty-Eight Countries: Civic Knowledge and Participation at Age Fourteen. Amsterdam: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Dean, B., L. (2000). Islam, Democracy and Social studies education: A Quest for Possibilities. Unpublished thesis submitted to the faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of doctor of Philosophy, University of Alberta. Dean, B.L. (2004). Pakistani Conceptions of ‘Citizenship’ and their Implications for Democratic Citizenship Education. In Mündel, K. and Schugurensky, D. Lifelong Citizenship Learning, Participatory Democracy and Social Change. Toronto: TLC Dean, B. L. (2005). Citizenship education in Pakistani schools: Problems and possibilities. International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education. Vol. 1 (2) 22
Dean, B.L. (2004). Citizenship and Citizenship Education. Ottawa: Canadian Bureau for International Education (CBIE) and Canadian International Institute of Applied Negotiation (CIIAN). Dean B.L. (In Press). The Changing Face of Citizenship Education in Pakistan. UK: SAGE Publication Ltd. Ahmad, I. (2004). Islam, Democracy and Citizenship Education: A n Examination of the Social Studies Curriculum in Pakistan. Current Issues in Comparative Education, Teacher College Columbia University, 7 (1), pp. 39 – 50 Nayyar, A.H. & Salim, A. (2004). The Subtle Subversion: The State of Curricula and Textbooks in Pakistan. Islamabad: Sustainable Development Policy Institute. Saigol, Rubina (1994). Locating the self. Lahore: ASR Shaheed, F. (2002). Imagined Citizenship: Women, State & Politics in Pakistan. Lahore: Shirkatgah Women's Resource Centre.
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Appendix II AGA KHAN UNIVERSITY-INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (AKU-IED) MAPPING CIVIC EDUCATION INITIATIVES IN PAKISTAN Name of the Organization: Category: CBO □ NGO □
Regional NGO □ International NGO □
Educational Institution □ Govt. F □ Govt. P □
Address: (Head Office)
Telephone#: Outreach District □
Fax#: Provincial □
Email: National □
Regional □
Head of the Organization: Person Responsible for Civic Education Programme:
Aims and Objectives of the Organization (general):
Area of work (general):
Aims and Objectives of the Organization (specific to civic education):
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Website: International □
Area of work (specific to civic education) (last three years):
Organizational work with respect to civic education: Awareness raising/Advocacy Geographical (Type of activity) Coverage
Materials Development
Focus
Target group
Target group
Language
Start and end date
No. of Copies
Leaflets Calendars Book/Booklets Posters CDs Others 25
Successes
Successes
Challenges
Challenges
Supporting Agency
Supporting Agency
Training Programmes
Focus
Target group
Language
No. of Participants
Start and End Date
Successes
Challenges
Supporting Agency
Courses Workshops Seminars Others
Research publications & dissemination Book
Focus
Language
Target group
Articles (journal, newspaper) Research reports Paper presentations
26
Successes
Challenges
Supporting Agency
Service delivery (type of activity)
Focus
Target group
No. of people
Methodology
Successes:
Challenges:
Strategies employed and proposed to address them:
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Start and end date
Successes
Challenges
Supporting Agency
Appendix III List of Organizations involved in Civic Education Name Of NGO
Geographical Area
Scope
1. Centre for Peace and Civil Society (CPCS)
1. Hyderabad
1. District level
2. Human Rights Education Programme (HREP), Children’s Museum for Peace and Human Rights (CMPHR) 3. Pirbhat Women’s Development Society (PWDS) 4. SPARC: Society for the protection and promotion of child rights 5. Center for Civic Education Pakistan (CCEP)
2. Karachi
2. National level
3. Shahdad kot 4. Lahore 5. Islamabad
3. District level 4. National level 5. National level
6. Peace Education and Development (PEAD)
6. Islamabad
6. National level
7. Idara-e-Taleem –o- Aagahi (ITA) 8. CPEA-UNICEF (collaborating with provincial government-Social welfare department) 9. Department of Political Science-University of Karachi 10. Women Resource and Research Centre-Fatima Jinnah Women University
7. Lahore 8. Lahore
7. District level 8. National level
9. Karachi 10. Islamabad
9. National level 10. National level
11. Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU)
11. Islamabad
11. National level
12. Gender Studies Department- University of Peshawar 13. Political Science Department- Lahore College for Women 14. Strengthening Participatory Organization (SPO) 15. Sindh Development Society (SDS)
12. Peshawar 13. Lahore 14. Hyderabad 15. Hyderabad
12. National level 13. National level 14. National level 15. District level
16. Green Rural Development organization (GRDOVSK) 17. Center for peace and development initiatives (CPDI) 18. Community Development Foundation (CDF) 19. Shirkat Gah: Women’s Resource Center
16. Hyderabad
16. District level
17. Islamabad
17. National level
18. Jacobabad 19. Karachi
18. District level 19. District level
20. Pakistan Institute of Legislation Development and Transparency (PILDAT) 21. National Commission for Justice and Peace (NCJP)
20. Lahore
20. District level
21. Lahore
21. National level
22. UKS-A Research, Resource & Publication Centre on Women & Media 23. Human Rights Commission Pakistan
22. Islamabad
22. National level
24. Interactive Resource theatre Center 25. AGHS and Legal Aid (Child Rights Unit) 26. AURAT Publications and Information Service 27. NGOs Coalition on Child Rights (NCCR) 28. Directorate General of Social Welfare Women Development:
23. Lahore
23. National level
24. Lahore 25. Lahore 26. Karachi 27. Karachi
24. National level 25. District level 26. National level 27. Provisional
28
28. Lahore
28. National level
29. Society for Human Rights and Prisoners Aid (SHARP)
women political school project (funded by UNDP- government)
29. . Islamabad
29. National level
30. Fazaldad Human Rights initiatives
30. Lahore
30. District level
31. University of Punjab
31. Lahore
31. District level
32. Asia Foundation
32. Islamabad
32. National Level
33. Indus Women Development Organization 34. Murk Advocacy and Development Society 35. Shaheed Shah Nawaz Khan Memorial Social Welfare Association (SNMSWA) 36. Goth Sudhar Sangat Aghmani (GSSA) 37. Peace Education & Development (PED) 38. The Researchers 39. Insaan Foundation 40. South Asia Partnership Pakistan (SAP-PK) 41. Civic Awareness Promotion Society (CAPS) 42. Tammer Resource Centre 43. HWA Foundation 44. Social Democracy Institute Pakistan
33. Hyderabad 34. Hyderabad 35. Jacobabad
33. District Level 34. National Level 35. District Level
36. Dadu 37. Islamabad 38. Islamabad 39. Lahore 40. Lahore 41. Peshawar 42. Jacobabad 43. Ghotki 44. Gujrat
36. District 37. National Level 38. ssss 39. National 40. National 41. Provincial 42. ssss 43. ssss 44. kkkk
45. Alliance for Bight Citizens
45. Lahore
45. National level
46. War Against Child Labour 47. Pakistan Council for Human Rights 48. Organization for Peace and Development 49. Aaagahi 50. ALif Laila Book Bus Society (ALBBS)] 51. National Research and Development Foundation (NRDF) 52. Institute for Development Studies and Practices (IDSP) 53. International Foundation for Electoral System
46. fff 47. Lahore 48. Lahore 49. Multan 50. Peshawar 51. Peshawar 52. Quetta 53. sssj
46. kkk 47. ffff 48. ddd 49. sss 50. sss 51. vv 52. National 53. sss
54. Innovate Development Organization 55. Centre for peace Development (CPD)
54. Quetta 55. Quetta
54. National level 55. National level
56. Baluchistan Association of Girls Guides 57. Baluchistan Association of Boys Scouts 58. Institute for Development and Human Rights 59. Sardar Bahadur Khan Women’s University- Sociology Department 60. Society for community support for primary education in Balouchistan
56. Quetta 57. Quetta 58. Quetta 59. Quetta 60. Quetta
56. International 57. International 58. Regional 59. Provincial 60. Provincial
61. Taraqee Foundation
61. Quetta
61. Provincial
62. Pakistan Fisher Folk
62. Karachi
62. Provincial
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63. Political Science Department University of Balouchistan ________________________________________________________ 1. Joint Educational Advisor, Curriculum Wing, Ministry of Education, 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Islamabad National Institute of Management, Karachi Notre Dame Institute of Education, Karachi Minister of State for Education, Islamabad Civil Secretariat, Government of Punjab, Sindh Bureau of Curriculum, Government of Sindh, Jamshoro
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63. Quetta
63. Provincial
___________________
_________________
Appendix IV List of the Invitees to the Workshop Professor Rafia Shaikh Dean Faculty of Social Science University of Sindh, Allama I.I Kazi Campus, Jamshoro, Sindh
Mr. Quindeel Shujaat Director, Society for the protection for the rights of the child (SPARC) #151-B, Street 37, F-10/1, Islamabad
Professor Talat Zehra Naqvi Government of College of Education F.B. Area, Block 15, Karachi
Mr. Irshad Waheed Assistant Director (CW) CPEA-UNICEF (Collaborating with provincial government) 41 Empress Road, Lahore
Ms. Hina Jilani Director AGHS (Child Rights Unit) 131-E/I, Gulberg-III, Lahore
Mr. Zafarullah Khan Executive Director Center for Civic Education Pakistan (CCEP) Street 10, House 7 F/7/3, Islamabad
Mr. Muhammad Waseem
Executive Director Interactive Resource Centre 102-B, Nowab Town, Raiwind Road, Lahore
Ms. Anis Haroon Resident Director Aurat Foundation D-3/1, Block 7, KDA Scheme 5 Clifton, Karachi
Mr. Ahmed Bilal Mehboob Executive Director Pakistan Institute of Legislation Development and Transparency (PILDAT) #7 Avenue 9th F-8/1 Islamabad
Mr. Peter Jacob National Commission for Justice and Peace (NCJP) E-64/A, Street #8 Officer’s Colony, Walton Road, Lahore Cantt
Mr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ali Center for Peace and Development Initiatives (CPDI) 105, Park Towers, F-10/3, Islamabad
Ms. Baela Raza Jamil Chairperson Idara-e-Taleem –o- Aagahi (ITA) 2nd Floor, Cricket House, 20 Jail Road, Lahore
Ms. Mehr Markar Chief Coordinator Shirkat Gah: Women’s Resource Centre Flat# A-2, 2nd Floor, Parin Lodge Apartment Bath Island Road, Karachi
Mr. Zulfiqar Ali Director Human Rights Education Programme 9-C/1 East Streets, Phase 1 DHA Karachi
Ms. Sehr Tariq Asia Foundation No. 38, Khayaban-e-Iqbal F-7/3, Islamabad
Mr. Arif Majeed Joint Educational Advisor Curriculum Wing, Ministry of Education H9 Sector, Islamabad
Dr. Mehmood Ali Shah Head of Department Political Science Balochistan University Sairab Road, Quetta
Ms. Rubina Khilji Department of Gender Studies University of Peshawar Peshawar
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Dr. Tanveer Khalid Department of Political Science University of Karachi Karachi
Ms. Rukhsana Hassan Women Resource and Research Centre Fatima Jinnah Women University The Mall, Rawalpindi
Ms. Nayyar Masood Political Science Department Lahore College for Women University Jail Road, Lahore
Mr. Harris Khalique Chief Executive Strengthening Participatory Organization (SPO) H-4 to 9, Street 11, F-10/2 Islamabad-44000
Ms. Anisa Zeb Tahirkheli Minister of State for Education Pak. Secretariat, Block D Islamabad
Mr. K.A. Gillani Civil Secretariat Government of Punjab Lahore
Mr. A.L. Siddiqui Bureau of Curriculum Government of Sindh Jamshoro
Ms. Rubina Chandio Women's Development Society Shdad Kot Pirbhat Near Girls College Shahdad Kot Sindh
Mr. Abdul Gaffar Malik Sindh Development Society (SDS) Flat# B-49, Bhittai Nagar Post Box# 338, Hyderabad
Ms. Rakshanda Ovais M.Ed. Class of 2007 Karachi
Ms. Ameena Saiyid Managing Director Oxford University Press Karachi
Professor M. Ismail Chairman NGOs Coalition on Child Rights (NCCR) Street A/14, Itthad Colony Peshawar City
Mr. Naeem Sarfaraz Chairman Fazaldad Human Rights Institute 15-A, Street 21 Sector F-7/2 Islamabad
Mrs. Seemi Waheed Deputy Director (ACAD) National Mangement College (FormerPakistan Administrative Staff College) Shahrah--Quaid-i-Azam, Lahore
Major General (Retd) Khalid Naeem Director General National Institute of Management Gulshan-e-Iqbal, Block 11, Karachi
Ms. Sarwat Shah Society for the Protection for the Rights of the Child (SPARC) No.14, 4th Floor, 109-West, Sardar Begum Plaza, Blue Area, P.O. Box 301 Islamabad
Mr. Salam Dharejo Society for the Protection for the Rights of the Child (SPARC) #304, 3rd Floor, Kashif Center, Shahrah-e-Faisal Karachi
Mr. Amir Waheed Coordinator (PCCWD) Social Welfare Department Block 79, Sindh Secretariat Opp. MPA Hostel Saddar, Karachi.
32
Mr. Amir Waheed Coordinator (PCCWD) Social Welfare Department Block 79, Sindh Secretariat Opp. MPA Hostel Saddar, Karachi.
Mr. Amir Waheed Coordinator (PCCWD) Social Welfare Department Block 79, Sindh Secretariat Opp. MPA Hostel Saddar, Karachi.
Sr. Margaret Madden Director Notre Dame Institute of Education Ahmed Munir Shaheed Road, Karachi-74400
Mr. Zafarullah Khan Executive Director Center for Civic Education Pakistan (CCEP) Street 10, House 7 F/7/3, Islamabad
Dr. Rubina Ali, Deputy Chief Executive, Taraquee Foundation House No. 3, Arbab Town, New Samungli Housing Scheme Quetta
Mr. Nasurallah Centre for Peace and Development 7-C, Kabir Building MA Jinnah Road Quetta Cantt-Pakistan
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