Electronics Minor Project Metro Train Prototype

A MINOR PROJECT REPORT ON

METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE SUBMITTED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIRMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. FROM

KURUKSHETRA UNIVERSITY,KURUKSHETRA

SUBMITTED BY:

GUIDED BY:

NIKHIL (1705429)

Asstt. Prof. DEVENDER PRAKASH

HEMANT KUMAR (1705433)

CO-GUIDED BY:

PRIYANSHU CHAUHAN (1705439)

Er. VARSHA SOOD

DEPTT. OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT AMBALA ROAD, KAITHAL-136027

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Many lives & destinies are destroyed due to the lack of proper guidance, directions & opportunities. It is in this respect I feel that I am in much better condition today due to continuous process of motivation & focus provided by my parents & teachers in general. The process of completion of this project was a tedious job & requires care & support at all stages. I would like to highlight the role played by individuals towards this. I am eternally grateful to honorable principal Dr. D.P. Gupta for providing us the opportunity & infrastructure to complete the project as a partial fulfillment of B.Tech degree. I am very thankful to Asst. Prof. Rajiv Chechi, Head of Department, for his kind support & faith in us. I would like to express my sincere thanks, with deep sense of gratitude to my project guide Asst. Prof. Devender Prakash for their keen interests my project. I also thank Mr. Varun Sharma for his valuable help in our project. I am also thankful to all visible & invisible hands which helped us to complete this project with a feeling of success.

Nikhil (1705429) Hemant Kumar (1705433) Priyanshu Chauhan (1705439)

(i)

CERTIFICATE We hereby certify the work which is being presented in the project entitled “METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE” by “NIKHIL SHARMA, HEMANT KUMAR, PRIYANSHU CAUHAN” in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of degree B.Tech (Electronics & Communication Engg.) submitted in the Department of Electronics & Communication Engg. at Haryana College Of Technology & Management, Kaithal under Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra is carried out during a period from August2008 to December2008 under the supervision of “Asstt. Prof. Devender Prakash” Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, HCTM Kaithal. The matter presented in this project has not been submitted by me in any other University/ Institue for the award of B.Tech. Degree. NIKHIL SHARMA (1705429)

HEMANT KUMAR (1705433)

PRIYANSHU CHAUHAN (1705439) This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my/our knowledge. Asstt. Prof. Devender Prakash

Er. Varsha Sood

Project Guide

Project Co-guide

The B.Tech Viva Voce Examination of “Nikhil Sharma, Hemant Kumar, Priyanshu Chauhan” has been held on _____________ and accepted.

(Asstt. Prof. Rajiv Chechi) H.O.D

(ii)

ABSTRACT This project is designed so that students can understand the technology used in the now a day’s driver less metro train which is used in most of the developed countries like Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are equipped with the CPU, which control the train. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined.

In this Project In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using microcontroller 8051 as CPU. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad & New Delhi. The Stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec. There is a LCD display for showing various messages in the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. Up path and Down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the buzzer. It also includes an emergency brake system due to which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied and resumes journey when the emergency situation is over. This paper describes a prototype that has been developed to demonstrate the concept of integrated gaming and simulation for incident management. Architecture for the purpose was developed and presented at the last conference. A hypothetical emergency incident scenario has been developed for demonstrating the applicability of integrated simulation and gaming. A number of simulation and gaming modules have been utilized to model the major aspects of the hypothetical scenario. The modules demonstrate the value of utilizing simulation for incident management applications. They can be used to highlight the value of simulation and gaming for training applications in particular. Two of the simulation modules have been integrated using a modified implementation of the high level architecture to give an idea of the advantages. Technical issues in integration are identified.

(iii)

LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO.

TOPIC

PAGE NO.

1.1

List of Components

4

1.2

Maximum Rating of ULN

14

4.1

Cost Analysis

45

(iv)

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE NO.

TOPIC

PAGE NO.

1.1

Pin Diagram of 8051

5

1.2

Reset Diagram

7

1.3

Block Diagram of 8051

10

1.4

ULN 2003

13

1.5

Voltage Regulator 7805

15

1.6

12V 75Ω Unipolar Stepper Motor

16

1.7

Basic Stepper Motor

18

1.8

Schematic Diagram of LCD

19

1.9

LCD Display

20

1.10

Power Supply

20

1.11

Bridge Rectifier

21

1.12

Basic Transformer

22

1.13

Diode

22

1.14

Symbol of Resistance

23

1.15

Carbon Film Resistance

24

1.16

Capacitor

26

1.17

Symbol of Capacitor

26

1.18

Capacitor & Battery Connection

27

1.19

LED & LED Symbol

27

1.20

Detailed Diagram of LED

28

1.21

Buzzer

28

3.1

Block Diagram

43

3.2

Circuit Diagram

44

(v)

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

Page No.

Certificate

(i)

Acknowledgement

(ii)

Abstract

(iii)

List of Tables

(iv)

List of Figures

(v)

Chapter 1 • Introduction

1-29

Chapter 2 •

Literature Review

30-37

Chapter 3 •

PCB Designing

38-40

•

Working

41-42

•

Block Diagram

43

•

Circuit Diagram

44

Chapter 4 •

Cost Analysis

45

•

Problem Faced & Troubleshooting

46

Chapter 5 •

Conclusion

47

•

Future Scope

47

REFERENCES

48-49

APPENDIX •

Program Coding

50-58

•

Datasheets

59-77

MINOR PROJECT: METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE

1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION & COMPONENTS

INTRODUCTION This project is designed so that students can understand the technology used in the now a day’s driver less metro train which is used in most of the developed countries like Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are equipped with the CPU, which control the train. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined. This is very wonderful project to control the working of the train without driver. These train are equipped with the CPU which control the train.

1. 8051 Microcontroller 2. ULN 2003 3. Stepper motor 4. LCD

In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using ATMEL microcontroller 8051 to control all the function as CPU. Microcontroller controls the rotation of motor. First the motor is controlled and name of each station is displayed over LCD and accordingly the different delay for each station is provided. So this project works for metro train without driver. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as New Delhi, Noida, and Greater Noida. The Stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec. There is a LCD display for showing various messages in the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. UP path and down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the buzzer. It also includes an emergency brake system due to which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied and resumes journey when the emergency situation is over.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL


WHAT IS EMBEDDED TECHNOLOGY Embedded technology is software or hardware that is hidden embedded in a large device or system. It typically refers to a fixed function device, as compared with a PC, which runs general purpose application. Embedded technology is nothing new. It all around us and has been for years. An early example of embedded technology is the engine control unit in a car, which measures what setting to give the engine. Your coffee maker has embedded technology in the form of a microcontroller, which is what tells it to make the coffee at 6 a.m. the vending machine has it too. Overall, billions of devices woven into everyday life use embedded technology. In the past embedded technology existed in standalone device vending machines and copiers that did their jobs with little regard for what went on around them,. But as technology has learned to connect device to the internet and to each other, embedded technology potential has grown. Suddenly it is and what actions those connections let them perform. Cell phone companies figured that out a long time ago, which is why cell phones are cheap and the service, plans are expensive. It is not the phone itself that matters, but the connectivity to a vast network of other phones, other people and the internet. Until you download software that lets you find a local restaurant or mange your finances. Let say you make freezers the big, expensive kind that grocery stores buy. You sell ne and you are done with that customer. When it brakes the customer calls a service person, who probably comes from somewhere other than your company. But let us say that freezer knows that it is about to go on the fritz. Let say three refrigerator alerts the customer before it breaks. Better yet, let us say the freezer alerts the manufacturer and you are able to send a service person to do preventative work and save a lot of haagen- dazs from melting. Embedded technology allows all of that to happen. You, the freezer company have transformed yourself from a product company to product and services company. The possibilities go beyond that programming device to communicate with businesses can eliminate the need for costly call centers. Copy machines that can order their own replacement cartridges will save businesses time and money. Remember, the fact the technology is embedded is not what important, and neither is the device.


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APPLICATIONS Telecom Mobile phone systems (handsets and base stations), modems, routers

Automotive application Braking system, Traction control, Airbag release system, Management units, and Steer-by-wire systems.

Domestic application Dishwasher, television, washing machines, microwave ovens, Video recorders, Security system, Garage door controllers, Calculators, Digital watches, VCRs, Digital cameras, Remote Controls, Treadmills

Robotic Fire fighting robot, Automatic floor cleaner, robotic arm

Aerospace application Flight control system, Engine controllers, Autopilots, Passenger entertainment system

Medical equipment Anesthesia monitoring system, ECG monitors, Pacemakers, Drug delivery systems, MRI scanners

Defense system Radar systems, Fighter aircraft flight control system, Radio system, Missile guidance systems

Office automation Laser printers, Fax machines, Pagers, Cash registers, Gas pumps, Credit /Debit card readers, Thermostats, Grain analyzers


3


COMPONENTS LIST OF COMPONENTS USED Table No. 1.1 List of components

Sr. no

Equipment

Quantity

1

IC 8051 MC

1

2

IC ULN 2003

1

3

Transformer

1

4

Voltage Regulator 7805

1

5

2 line LCD display

1

6

Stepper Motor

1

7

Crystal Oscillator

1

8

Switch

2

9

LED

2

10

Resistors(220Ω,4.7kΩ,10kΩ)

10

11

Capacitors(33pf,ceramic disk)

2

12

Diode

2

13

Buzzer

1


4


COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

1) MICRO-CONTROLLER 8051

DESCRIPTION The IC 8051 is a low-power; high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The onchip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel IC 8051 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The IC 8051 provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the IC 8051 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning.

Figure No. 1.1: Pin Diagram of 8051


5


PROCESSOR

A processor is an electronic device capable of manipulating data in a way specified by a sequence of instructions.

INSTRUCTIONS Instructions in a computer are binary numbers just like data. Different numbers, when read and executed by a processor, cause different things to happen. The instructions are also called opcodes or machine codes. Different bit patterns activate or deactivate different parts of the processing core. Every processor has its own instruction set varying in number, bit pattern and functionality.

PROGRAM The sequence of instructions is what constitutes a program. The sequence of instructions may be altered to suit the application.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE Writing and understanding such programs in binary or hexadecimal form is very difficult ,so each instructions is given a symbolic notation in English language called as mnemonics. A program written in mnemonics Form is called an assembly language program. But it must be converted into machine language for execution by processor.

ASSEMBLER An assembly language program should be converted to machine language for execution by processor. Special software called ASSEMBLER converts a program written in mnemonics to its equivalent machine opcodes.


6


HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE A high level language like C may be used to write programs for processors. Software called compiler converts this high level language program down to machine code. Ease of programming and portability.

PIN DESCRIPTION VCC (Pin 40) Provides voltage to the chip . +5V

GND (Pin 20) Ground

XTAL1 (Pin 19) and XTAL2 (Pin 18) Crystal Oscillator connected to pins 18, 19.Two capacitors of 30pF value. Time for one machine cycle:11.0592/12=1.085 µ secs

Fig

No.

1.2:

Reset

RST (Pin 9) RESET pin 1. Active high. On applying a high pulse to this pin, microcontroller will reset and terminate all activities. 2. INPUT pin 3. Minimum 2 machine cycles required to make RESET 4. Value of registers after RESET


7


External Access: EA 31 •

Connected to VCC for on chip ROM

•

Connected to Ground for external ROM containing the code Input Pin

Program Store Enable: PSEN 29 •

Output Pin

•

In case of external ROM with code it is connected to the OE pin of the ROM

Address Latch Enable: ALE 30 •

Output Pin. Active high

•

In case of external ROM ,ALE is used to de multiplex (PORT 0) the address and data bus by connecting to the G pin of 74LS373 chip

I/O Port Pins and their Functions: •

Four ports P0,P1,P2,P3 with 8 pins each, making a total of 32 input/output pins

•

On RESET all ports are configured as output. They need to be programmed to make them function as inputs

PORT 0 •

Pins 32-39

•

Can be used as both Input or Output

•

External pull up resistors of 10K need to be connected

•

Dual role: 8051 multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins .AD0-AD7

•

ALE is used to de multiplex data and address bus


8


PORT 1 •

Pins 1 through 8

•

Both input or output

•

No dual function

•

Internal pull up registers

•

On RESET configured as output

•

Pins 21 through 28

•

No external pull up resistor required

•

Both input or output

•

Dual Function: Along with Port 0 used to provide the 16-Bit address

PORT 2

for external memory. It provides higher address A8-A16

PORT 3 •

Pins 10 through 17

•

No external pull up resistors required


9


PROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE

Figure No. 1.3: Block Diagram of Microcontroller DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL

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ALU

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs the internal arithmetic manipulation of data line processor. The instructions read and executed by the processor decide the operations performed by the ALU and also control the flow of data between registers and ALU. Operations performed by the ALU are Addition , Subtraction , Not , AND , NAND , OR , NOR , XOR , Shift Left/Right , Rotate Left/right , Compare etc. Some ALU supports Multiplication and Division. Operands are generally

transferred from two

registers or from one register and memory location to ALU data inputs. The result of the operation is the placed back into a given destination register or memory location from ALU output.

REGISTERS Registers are the internal storage for the processor. The number of registers varies significantly between processor architectures.

•

WORKING REGISTERS Temporary storage during ALU Operations and data transfers.

•

INDEX REGISTERS Points to memory addresses.

•

STATUS REGISTERS Stores the current status of various flags denoting conditions resulting from various operations.

•

CONTROL REGISTERS Contains configuration bits that affect processor operation and the operating modes of various internal subsystems.


11


MEMORY Memory is used to hold data and program for the processor.

• SRAM Volatile, fast, low capacity, expensive, requires lesser external support circuitry.

• DRAM Volatile, relatively slow, highest capacity needs continuous refreshing. Hence require external circuitry.

• OTP ROM One time programmable, used for shipping in final products.

• EPROM Erasable programmable, UV Erasing, Used for system development and debugging.

• EEPROM Electrically erasable and programmable, can be erased programmed in- circuit, Used for storing system parameters.

• FLASH Electrically programmable & erasable, large capacity, organized as sectors.

BUSES A bus is a physical group of signal lines that have a related function. Buses allow for the transfer of electrical signals between different parts of the processor.


12


Processor buses are of three types: •

Data bus

•

Address bus

•

Control bus

CONTROLLER LOGIC Processor brain decodes instructions and generate control signal for various sub units. It has full control over the clock distribution unit of processor.

I/O Peripherals The I/O devices are used by the processor to communicate with the external world •

Parallel Ports.

•

Serial Ports.

•

ADC/DAC.

2) ULN 2003

Figure No. 1.4: ULN 2003


13


FEATURES - Output current 500mA per driver (600mA peak) - Output voltage 50V - Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads - Outputs can be paralleled for higher current - TTL/CMOS/PMOS/DTL Compatible inputs - Inputs pinned opposite outputs to simplify Layout

DESCRIPTION The ULN2001, ULN2002, ULN2003 and ULN2004 are high voltage, high current Darlington Arrays each contain seven open collector Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each Channel rated at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression diodes are Included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify board

MAXIMUM RATING Table No. 1.2: Maximum Rating of ULN


14


WHY WE USE ULN 2003?

Digital system and microcontroller pins lack sufficient current to drive the relay. While the stepper motor’s coil needs around 10ma to be energized, the microcontroller’s pin can provide a maximum of 1-2 mA current. For this reason, we place a driver.

3) VOLAGE REGULATOR Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current (over load protection) and overheating (thermal protection). Many of fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads. They include a hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.

Figure No. 1.5: 7805 Voltage Regulator

DESCRIPTION These voltage regulators are monolithic circuit integrated circuit designed as fixed voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications including local, on card regulation. These regulators employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown, and DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL

15


safe-area compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output current in excess of 1.0 A. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage regulator, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and current.

FEATURES •

Output current in Excess of 1.0 A

•

No external component required

•

Internal thermal overload protection

•

Internal short circuit current limiting

•

Output transistor safe-area compensation

•

Output voltage offered in 2% and 4% tolerance

•

Available I n surface mount D2PAK and standard 3-lead transistor packages

•

Previous commercial temperature range has been extended to a junction temperature range of -40 degree C to +125 degree C.

4) STEPPER MOTOR

Figure No. 1.6: 12-Volt 75 Ohm Unipolar Stepper Motor


16


GENERAL INFORMATION A stepper motor system is an electro-mechanical rotary actuator that converts electrical pulses into unique shaft rotations. This rotation is directly related to the number of pulses. Motion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an object based on speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these factors. There are numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear Step Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more. Stepper motors are ideally suited for precision control. This motor can be operated in forward/reverse with controllable speed from a BASIC Stamp or any other microcontroller through a transistor driver circuit. Some of the applications for this motor include educational experimentation, robotics and precision mechanical control the #27964 is a Unipolar (4 phase) 12 VDC, 150 mA motor that takes 3.6 degrees per step.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

· Phase resistance (Ohms): 75 · Current (mA): 150 · Phase Inductance (mH): 39 · Detent torque (g-cm): 80 · Holding Torque (g-cm): 600 · Mounting hole space diagonal (in.): 1.73 · Mounting hole (in.) 0.11 · Shaft diameter (in.): 0.197 · Shaft length (in.): 0.43 · Motor Diameter (in.): 1.66 ·Motor height (in.): 1.35 · Weight: 0.55 lbs.


17


Figure No. 1.7: Basic Stepper Motor

5) LCD DISPLAY

DESCRIPTION OF LCD DISPLAY This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will start with something simple. This example doesn't use the Bi-directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should work with most, if not all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show the use of the Status Port as an input. These LCD Modules are very common these days, and are quite simple to work with, as all the logic required to run them is on board.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Figure No. 1.8: Schematic Diagram of LCD Display


18


CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and Register Select is connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open collector / open drain output. While most Parallel Ports have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore by incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is more portable for a wider range of computers, some of which may have no internal pull up resistors. We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire the R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us if the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last instruction. This problem is overcome by inserting known delays into our program. The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here. As with all the examples, I've left the power supply out. You can use a bench power supply set to 5v or use an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors, especially if you have trouble with the circuit working properly. The 2 line x 16 character LCD modules are available from a wide range of manufacturers and should all be compatible with the HD44780. The diagram to the right shows the pin numbers for these devices. When viewed from the front, the left pin is pin 16 and the right pin is pin 1.

Figure No. 1.9: LCD Display


19


20

6) POWER SUPPLY

A

1

7805

D1

D3 1000 µF

AC Suppl

3

+

+

4 D4

D2

B

2

Figure No. 1.10: Power Supply

BRIDGE RECTIFIER Bridge rectifier circuit consists of four diodes arranged in the form of a bridge as shown in figure.

A

1 D1

AC Supply

D3

3 +

Load

D4 B

4 D2

2

Figure No. 1.11: Bridge Rectifier



OPERATION During the positive half cycle of the input supply, the upper end A of the transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to its lower point B. This makes Point1 of bridge Positive with respect to point 2. The diode D1 & D2 become forward biased & D3 & D4 become reverse biased. As a result a current starts flowing from point1, through D1 the load & D2 to the negative end. During negative half cycle, the point2 becomes positive with respect to point1. Diodes D1 & D2 now become reverse biased. Thus a current flow from point 2 to point1.

7) TRANSFORMER Transformer is a major class of coils having two or more windings usually wrapped around a common core made from laminated iron sheets. It has two cols named primary and secondary. If the current flowing through primary is fluctuating, then a current will be inducted into the secondary winding. A steady current will not be transferred from one coil to other coil.

Figure No. 1.12: Basic Transformer

Transformers are of two types:

1. Step up transformer 2. Step down transformer


21


In the power supply we use step down transformer. We apply 220V AC on the primary of step down transformer. This transformer step down this voltages to 6V AC. We Give 6V AC to rectifier circuit, which convert it to 5V DC.

8) DIODE The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used to control the flow of the current in any one direction. The diode widely works in forward bias.

Figure No. 1.13: Diode

When the current flows from the P to N direction. Then it is in forward bias. The Zener diode is used in reverse bias function i.e. N to P direction. Visually the identification of the diode`s terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line. The silver/black line is the negative terminal (cathode) and the other terminal is the positive terminal (cathode).

APPLICATION •

Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc

•

Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc.

• Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier circuit, etc


22


23

9) RESISTORS The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar in many respects to mechanical friction .this opposing force is called resistance of the material .in some electric circuit resistance is deliberately introduced in form of resistor. Resistor used fall in three categories , only two of which are color coded which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the third category is the wire wound type ,where value are generally printed on the vitreous paint finish of the component. Resistors are in ohms and are represented in Greek letter omega, looks as an upturned horseshoe. Most electronic circuit require resistors to make them work properly and it is obliviously important to find out something about the different types of resistors available. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega ohm. 1 ohm is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in kohm and Mohm. Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 ohm or as high as 10 Mohm.

Figure No. 1.14: Symbol of Resistance

FUNCTION Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.

TYPES OF RESISTORS

FIXED VALUE RESISTORS It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film .These two types are explained under



24

1. CARBON FILM RESISTORS

During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive coating is spiraled away in an automatic machine until the resistance between there two ends of the rods is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added, the resistors is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted with colored bands to indicate the resistor value

Figure No. 1.15: Carbon Film Resistors

Another example for a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22 Kilo-Ohms also known as 22K at 5% tolerance:

Band 1 = Red, 1st digit Band 2 = Red, 2nd digit Band 3 = Orange, 3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in this case 3 zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%

3. METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made in a similar way, but can be made more accurately to within ±2% or ±1% of their nominal vale there are some difference in performance between these resistor types, but none which affects their use in simple circuit.



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WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this, they can be manufactured to precise values. Also, high wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire material. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency circuits. Coils are used in high frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case, strengthened with special cement. They have very high power rating, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of watts. These resistors can become extremely hot when used for high power application, and this must be taken into account when designing the circuit.

TESTING

Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter. For a defective resistor the ohm-meter shows infinite high reading.

10) CAPACITORS In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read How Batteries Work, then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery, chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons at the other terminal.

Figure No. 1.16: Capacitor DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL


BASIC Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other. You can easily make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It won't be a particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it will work. In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:

Figure No. 1.17: Symbol of Capacitor When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what happens: • The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing. • The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the battery

loses electrons to the battery.

Figure No. 1.18: Capacitor & Battery Connection


26


27

TESTING To test the capacitors, either analog meters or special digital meters with the specified function are used. The non-electrolyte capacitor can be tested by using the digital meter.

Multi – meter mode

: Continuity

Positive probe

: One end

Negative probe

: Second end

Display

: `0`(beep sound occur) `OL`

Result

:

Faulty OK

11) LED LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In any forward biased P-N junction there is, with in the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of hole and electrons. This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to another state. The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source is called electroluminescence.

Figure No. 1.19: LED & LED Symbol

LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being carried out are displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows when the current is being flown through it in forward bias condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and also in the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg.



Figure No. 1.20: Detailed Diagram of LED

BUZZER Buzzer is a device used for beep signal. This will help us to make understand information or message. A buzzer is usually electronic device used in automobiles, household applications etc.

Figure No. 1.21: Buzzer

It mostly consists of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was identical to an electrical bell without the DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL

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metal gong. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to derive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit to a cheap 8-ohm speaker.

These buzzers do not make a sound or turn on a light, they stop a nearby digital clock, briefly fire two smoke cannons on each side of the stage exit and open the exit. However, at the end of the Heartbreaker in Viking, the buzzer is replaced with a sword that, when removed, causes two contacts to touch, closing the circuit and causing the latter two actions above to occur.


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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

PREHISTORY: 8048

In fact, it should have started with chapter -2, the invention of microprocessor. Intel introduced a single-chip processor, the 4004, in 1971. It was a 4-bit microprocessor, with whopping processing speed of 100 thousand operations per second, and was meant for an electronic calculator. There is a lot of 4-bit processing in calculators, especially if the software is based on BCD arithmetics. Later Intel introduced the 8bitter 8008 and it's grown-up brother - the famous 8080 (which then was perfected by an ex-Intel employee as Zilog Z80, one of the best 8-bit microprocessors of all times).

In 1976, Intel introduced its first microcontroller, 8048. It integrated the processing core with code and data memory and certain peripherals. The code memory was a 1kB mask ROM (defined by the last metallisation mask during the chip processing) or EPROM (after all, Intel invented EPROM), the data memory was 64 bytes of RAM (including the 8-level stack and two pages of eight general purpose registers). Besides general-purpose I/O (see below), peripherals included a timer and an external interrupt (plus the necessary interrupt system).

Although the 8048 is clearly an 8-bit architecture, it is said to be an ancestor of the 4bit 4004 rather than the 8080. Also it is said to bear remarkable similarities to Fairchild F8 microprocessor. Today, it is hard to say whether something of this is true, but one thing is sure, the 8048 has a couple of strange features. Using four of its general purpose input/output ports, and adding one or more 8243-type chip - and the I/O expand into another four 4-bit ports. This expansion has not only support in the hardware - dedicated pins on 8048 - but also in the instruction set, having dedicated instructions for I/O operations (including AND and OR(!)) via the expander.


30


The 8048 already had a lot of useful features known well to 8051-users: external code memory support; external data memory support (inherently only 256 bytes addressed indirectly by R0 and R1 as there is no 16 bit pointer register such as the DPTR in 8051 - the 8051 inherited this 8-bit external data access); quasibidirectional I/O ports. Maximum clock is 11MHz, but an instruction cycle takes 15 oscillator clocks. The "A" version (advanced) introduced powerdown mode

There were multiple variations of the 8048 around, mostly with different numbering, but generally denoted as the MCS-48 family. 8048 itself denoted a mask-ROM part, 8748 an EPROM part - windowed (CERDIP - erasable) for development, and unwindowed (PDIP) OTP. The romless part was a bit surprisingly marked 8035 (probably most of the parts sold as romless were parts with unusable ROM, due to error in the "programmed" firmware). There was a low-cost version with reduced pin count and omitted some of the features as 8021, and versions with more ROM and RAM as 8049 (2kB ROM/128B RAM) and 8050 (4kB ROM/256B RAM); with ROMless versions as 8039 and 8040; and 8049 had also an EPROM version 8749 (the funny thing is, that 8749 came in 1981, one year after 8051/8751). 8048's were second sourced by a number of manufacturers, including NEC, Toshiba, and were cloned also behind the then iron curtain in Czechoslovakia (Tesla MHB8048/8035) and USSR. Application specific versions of 8048 were also built quite early, with adding of various peripherals, such as 8-bit ADC in 8022 and a parallel-bus slave interface in 8041/8042.

The MCS-48 family was used in a quite wide range of applications. One of the first applications of 8048 was in a gaming console (Magnavox Odyssey2), but there were also more "serious" applications, for example in one of the first car engine "computerized" control units. But the biggest hit came when IBM decided to use 8048 in its original PC keyboard. Although in the AT keyboard IBM used the (presumably cheaper) 6805, it used 8042 as a co-processor on the mainboard, communicating with the keyboard. The 8042 is still present in almost each and every PC even today, but don't search for a chip with "8042" on it - it is integrated in the chipset. It may come as a surprise to somebody, but thanks to this fact the 8048 with its derivatives is most probably the most widespread microcontroller at all. DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL

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As in the 70s there were no pdf-s and no world-wide web, datasheets and other documentation is hardly available over the internet. I believe Intel will give out a copy if one really wants it (there is a "literature request" form at their "museum" pages). However, there seems to be a couple of enthusiastic people, one of the maintaining a wonderful document called “Grokking the MCS-48 System” at http://home.mnetonline.de/al/mcs-48/mcs-48.pdf .

8051: THE CLASSICS

In 1980, Intel introduced the successor to 8048, the 8051.

Intel made sure that the transition from the already successful model will be as smooth as possible. Architecturally, the 8051 is an extension to 8048. Almost every feature and resource of 8048 is present in 8051 in same or superior form. 4kB ROM and 128B RAM on chip. Pin compatibility was not maintained, but it was not a real issue. Software compatibility is not binarywise but source-wise, but that is also acceptable. The preliminary datasheet read: "Enhanced MCS-48 Architecture".

The extensions included code and data memory extended to 64kB with appropriate support in instruction set and registers (DPTR), relative conditional and unconditional jumps (conditionals and DJNZ were constrained within a 256-byte page in 8048), four register banks instead of two, "unlimited" stack (8048 had stack limited to 16 bytes), multiple and divide instructions. As for peripherals, second timer was added and both were extended to 16 bits with multiple modes (including 8-bit autoreload mode), and an UART (which was a luxury that many lower-end microcontrollers didn't have even a couple of years ago). The raw clock frequency did not increase considerably, being 12MHz, but an instruction cycle is 12 clocks now.

Similarly to 8048, also the 8051 had variants, but there was no cut-down "low-cost" version (presumably because of the cost of ROM/RAM and the DIP40 package went low enough). The romless version was 8031 and the EPROM version was 8751. The DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL

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"extended" version - 8052 (with 8032 and 8752) came 3 years later and featured besides 8kB ROM and 256B RAM also an extra 16-bit timer. An unusual chip was the 8052AH-BASIC, which according to Intel was "software-onsilicon version of the 8052 microcontroller with a BASIC interpreter on-chip in 8K ROM". The whole family was eventually called MCS-51 and was manufactured in NMOS, since 1986 in CMOS.

Intel provided all the needed initial tools and support with the 8051 - assembler, application notes, example software, in-circuit emulator. Some of the appnotes and software still can be found on Intel's webpages and are of excellent quality. The basic datasheet set - dubbed in the community as "the bible" - is still THE reference source of information on 8051 and its derivatives, even today.

So, Intel did its job, providing everything needed to make 8051 successful, and the rest is history.

THE BIRDS ARE OUT OF THE NEST Similar to 8048, also the 8051 has been licensed to various manufacturers worldwide. Some of the early adopters include Philips, Signetics, MHS (Matra) and Siemens. Most of these companies don't exist any more, some have been taken over, others have been renamed; but most of them still manufacture some derivative of 8051.

The licensees started to make fully compatible models. Naturally, they took over also the datasheets, for example the "bible" is better used in the Philips version, which is a verbatim copy of the Intel version, except that it is a true searchable pdf, while the Intel is a scanned copy of paper document, unsearchable. More than that, the manufacturers took over the annoying practice of Intel to include in datasheets only the specific differences to the "bible", very confusing for the newbies (but there are opinions on this, some of the users consider this arrangement better than having huge datasheets containing all the “common” details). The manufacturers published their own appnotes, which all together form a huge


33


knowledge base and code library, but... due to competition it is scattered across the manufacturers' sites, an another confusing fact for the newbies.

Later, the manufacturers rolled out their own derivatives and variants with varying marking - there is no real standard in it (although there are some idiosyncrasies present in the marking of most manufacturers). All types of modifications described in the following chapters were applied; but the compatibility to the original 8051 was usually maintained. This, together with the availability of second-, third-,...,35th-,...source of 8051 is the true source of its immortality.

EMBEDDED IN EMBEDDED Intel and the licensees soon realized that 8051 is a nice core that can be embedded in various ASIC chips to perform setup and control tasks. Typically, the resources of the ASIC are mapped as external data memory, as if the ASIC would be connected to a conventional 8051 chip. This approach allows to use an unmodified core, which speeds up the chip development and decreases the chance for error; also the ASIC could be breadboard-prototyped in this form easily.

As an example, Intel produced 80C51SL, a descendant of 8042. Philips has a line of 8051-based teletext controllers. In a particular USB webcamera, the chip interfacing the CCD and USB was controlled by an embedded 8051. There are probably much more examples around, but most of them never get public. In spite of this, the 8051 in this form is produced probably in much higher volumes than as general-purpose microcontrollers.

EXTRAS Besides application-specific, also general purpose derivatives have been introduced by Intel and the licensees, with enhanced features and increased code and data memories. In contrast with the ASICs mentioned above, these chips tend to implement the extra features in the core itself, accessed usually via extra SFRs. This DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL

34


allows faster code as SFRs are accessed by all the instructions using direct addressing (mov, logic), and some of them by the bit-manipulation instructions, too.

One of the first such derivative by Intel was the 80C51FA, which introduced the programmable counter array (PCA) (and was a 8052 otherwise). It was intended for automotive applications (brake control). Soon, FB and FC continued, with more and more code memory. 80C51RA/RB/RC followed, with added "internal external" data memory. These were the basis for the today's 89C51RD2 "sub-family", produced by Philips, Atmel (as ex-Temic), SST and Winbond.

FAT BOYS: 16-BIT EXTENSIONS When the 8051 was accepted widely enough, some of the applications started to grow and soon required more power than the 8051 even with enhancements could provide. There were 16-bit microcontrollers around (e.g. Intel had it's 80C196 line), but it seemed a good idea to provide a more natural migration path by creating a 16-bit version of 8051.

Intel addressed the problem by introducing 80C251. It went all the way to achieve compatibility - it was able to run 8051 binary code (being able to switch to native 16bit 251-mode) and had a package pin-compatible with 8051. It was not a big success, most probably for bad market timing (although it is second sourced by Temic/Atmel).

Philips on the other hand employed source-compatibility for its XA family, which seems to be adequate for most of the applications, where legacy code has to be maintained or parallel development with 8051 is needed; and poses little constraint on the chip design itself.

All in all, the 16-bit versions of 8051 gained far less popularity than the 8051 and are less widespread.


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FLASH FOR THE MASSES In the 90s, Atmel introduced a derivative of 8051 with Flash code memory, enabling fast erasure and reprogramming. It enabled to use the production-grade chip in development, and enabled the chips used in the product to be reprogrammed when upgrade or a bugfix was needed, cutting down costs. It brought down the 8051 to the masses - the small "garage" companies and hobbyists. Besides that, Atmel introduced also 89C2051 with decreased pin count (and price).This was a smart move, the chip proved to be extremely popular in many small applications.

Today, virtually all manufacturers produce 8051 derivatives with Flash, most of them able to be programmed via some few-pin serial interface (called in-situ programming (ISP), SPI-style or UART-style) and the higher-end versions also able to reprogram themselves (in-application programming, IAP). MaskROM and EPROM - windowed or OTP - seems to become extinct, at least in the mainstream applications.

NEED FOR SPEED The need for higher processing power, addressed unsuccessfully by the 16-bit versions, has been solved by introducing the high speed derivatives of 8051. The original 12-clock instruction cycle scheme is obviously inefficient and also the technology progressed enough to achieve higher clock rates than the original 12MHz.

The first derivative addressing this in a radical way is the now legendary Dallas DS80C320. It featured a 4-clocker core with incompatible timing, and could be clocked as high as 33MHz. Unfortunately, it was produced as ROMless only.

The following step was taken by Cygnal, where a single-clock core has been developed. In the top-range models, the clocking is as high as 100MHz, being the fastest 8051s around.


36


Today, there are many 8051 derivatives with sped-up cores available. They can be divided into two groups: the

6-clockers (e.g. the 8xC51RD2) and 2-clockers

(Philips LPC9xx) have the same number of instruction cycle per instruction as the original; while the 4-clockers and singleclockers are incompatible in this way, requiring recalculation of timing loops if used.

WHERE IS IT GOING? The 8051 is a sound mcu core with rich history. However, it seems that it is already over its peak, although it might take quite a lot of time until it will be completely replaced by most modern microcontrollers.

So we now have superfast 8051 derivatives with loads of internal FLASH and RAM. ISP and IAP seems to be the standard these days. There are the 8051s built around advanced analog circuits, mainly high resolution ADC. There are derivatives suitable for extreme applications – high temperature, radiation hardened. There are softcores around, tuned up, and even open source.

There is a wealth of knowledge and experience, however, it is scattered around and the newbies tend to get the easier path - competing 8-bit microcontrollers usually do have a single-stop information resource site, so this knowledge and experience seems to die out as the "old boys" retire gradually. The price difference between the highend 8-bitters and the much more powerful low-end 32-bit RISCs (such as the ARMs) seems to decrease rapidly and will change eventually, as the 32-bitters are becoming the standard in all but the least demanding applications.So there is perhaps still a need for the 8051s, but this need is decreasing and 8051s life cycle is slowly approaching its end.


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CHAPTER 3 P.C.B. DESIGNING & WORKING

1) P.C.B. DESIGNING P.C.B. LAYOUT The entire circuit can be easily assembled on a general purpose P.C.B. board respectively. Layout of desired diagram and preparation is first and most important operation in any printed circuit board manufacturing process. First of all layout of component side is to be made in accordance with available components dimensions.

The following points are to be observed while forming the layout of P.C.B.

1. Between two components, sufficient space should be maintained. 2. High voltage/max dissipated components should be mounted at sufficient distance from semiconductor and electrolytic capacitors. 3. The most important points are that the components layout is making proper compromise with copper side circuit layout. Printed circuit board (P.C.B.s) is used to avoid most of all the disadvantages of conventional breadboard. These also avoid the use of thin wires for connecting the components; they are small in size and efficient in performance.

PREPARING CIRCUIT LAYOUT First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of the copper clad board. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of connection with the help of a shade brush. We have to apply the paints surrounding the point at which the connection is to be made. It avoids the disconnection between the leg of the component and circuit track. After completion of painting work, it is allowed to dry. DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL

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DRILLING After completion of painting work, holes 1/23inch(1mm) diameter are drilled at desired points where we have to fix the components.

ETCHING The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit is known as etching. From this process the copper clad board wit printed circuit is placed in the solution of FeCl with 3-4 drops of HCL in it and is kept so for about 10 to 15 minutes and is taken out when all the excess copper is removed from the P.C.B. After etching, the P.C.B. is kept in clean water for about half an hour in order to get P.C.B. away from acidic, field, which may cause poor performance of the circuit. After the P.C.B. has been thoroughly washed, paint is removed by soft piece of cloth dipped I thinner or turbine. Then P.C.B. is checked as per the layout, now the P.C.B. is ready for use.

SOLDERING Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductor the joint where two metal conductors are to be join or fused is heated with a device called soldering iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied which melts and converse the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure is good and durable connection between the jointed metal converting the joint solder also present oxidation.

SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING TECHIQUES: These are basically two soldering techniques. •

Manual soldering with iron.

•

Mass soldering.


39


SOLDERING WITH IRON The surface to be soldered must be cleaned & fluxed. The soldering iron switched on and bellowed to attain soldering temperature. The solder in form of wire is allied hear the component to be soldered and heated with iron. The surface to be soldered is filled, iron is removed and joint is cold without disturbing.

SOLDER JOINT ARE SUPPOSED TO

1. Provide permanent low resistance path. 2. Make a robust mechanical link between P.C.B. and leads of components. 3. Allow heat flow between component, joining elements and P.C.B. 4. Retain adequate strength with temperature variation.

The following precaution should be taken while soldering:

1. Use always an iron plated copper core tip for soldering iron. 2. Slightly for the tip with a cut file when it is cold. 3. Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead of asking the iron. 4. Tighten the tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power supply. 5. Clean component lead and copper pad before soldering. 6. Apply solder between component leads, P.C.B. pattern and tip of soldering iron. 7. Iron should be kept in contact with the joint for 2-3 seconds only instead of keeping for very long or very small time. 8. Use optimum quantity of solder


40


2) WORKING OF PROJECT METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE is a microcontroller based device. It is used in driverless metro train, which is used in most of developed countries. These trains are equipped with CPU, which control the chain. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined.

Basically it has four parts

1. POWER SUPPLY 2. 8051 IC 3. DISPLAY UNIT 4. STEPPER MOTOR

The 230 AC supply is converted into 9 volts by the power supply section in which 4 .

Elements are used.

1. TRANSFORMER 2. 7805 REGULATOR 3. DIODES 4007 (in bridge shape) 4. CAPACITOR OF 100 MICRO FARADS & 470 MICRO FARAD

The 230 volts is attenuated by 9 volts by transformer. Then it is rectified by the bridge rectifier made up of diodes. Then the 9 v is regulated by 7805. 1000 micro farad capacitor is used to filter the DC voltage. The LED attaches to check the correctness of power supply. In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using microcontroller 8051 as CPU. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad and New Delhi. The stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 Sec. There is a LCD display for showing DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, KAITHAL

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various messages in the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. UP path and Down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the buzzer.

.


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3) BLOCK DIAGRAM

STEPPER MOTOR

8 0 5 1

U L N

LCD DISPLAY

BUZZER

Figure No. 3.1: Block Diagram


43


4) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure No. 3.2: Circuit Diagram


44


45

CHAPTER 4 COST ANALYSIS & TROUBLESHOOTING COST ANALYSIS OF COMPONENTS USED Table no. 4.1: Cost Analysis

Sr. no 1

Equipment

Rating

Quantity

Cost

IC 8051 MC

---

1

80

2

IC ULN 2003

---

1

40

3

Transformer

9-0-9

1

45

4

Voltage Regulator

7805

1

5

5

2 line LCD display

---

1

120

6

Stepper Motor

---

1

80

7

Crystal Oscillator

12Mhz

1

10

8

Switch

---

2

10

9

LED

---

2

4

10

Resistors

220Ω,4.7kΩ,10kΩ

9

18

11

Capacitors(ceramic disk)

33pf,470µf,100µf

4

8

12

Diode

---

4

12

13

Buzzer

---

1

20

14

PCB

---

1

60

15

Variable Resistance

10k

1

8

16

40 Pin IC Base

---

1

4

Total

545



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PROBLEM FACED •

First problem that was in making the circuit of METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE that, it is difficult to match time with rotation of stepper motor & LCD.

•

Second problem is faced due to redundancy in handling the rotation of STEPPER MOTOR

• We have to take extra care while soldering 2 line LCD •

During soldering, many of the connection become short cktd. So we desolder the connection and did soldering again.

•

A leg of the crystal oscillator was broken during mounting. So it has to be replaced.

•

LED`s get damaged when we switched ON the supply so we replace it by the new one.

TROUBLESHOOT •

Care should be taken while soldering. There should be no shorting of joints.

•

Proper power supply should maintain.

•

Project should be handled with care since IC are delicate

•

Component change and check again circuit



CHAPTER 5 CONCULSION

AREA OF APPLICATIONS The theme of the project when merged with certain established technologies can be quite effective in number of countries like Germany, France & Japan etc. which control the train . The project when used with an improved sensitivity. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train & distance between the two stations is predefined. The circuit diagram is shown in the figure. Here LCD display is connected with the P1 of the MC. Control lines are connected with port 3 of the microcontroller. The contrast of the LCD is controlled by 10K variable resistor.

Unipolar Stepper motor is used for running of the train. This motor has 5 wires, which are named as A1, B1, B2, and COM. Common line is given at +5V. The other lines can be connected with port 2 of microcontroller. The stepper motor is derived by the ULN 2003 chip. This Chip includes Darlington pairs, so that motor can get enough current to for its running. This chip required pull ups at inputs.

FUTURE SCOPE

This Project is useful in dveloping conturies & this project has a bright future as it is being used in countries like Germany, France & Japan. This project helps us to control train without a driver and the stations are shown on the LCD so the passenger doesn’t has any difficulty. This project will lead to increase in technological trends & this will help the people in many ways.


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REFRENCES 1. Collins, J.; Pymm, P, “Replacement of the station data logger at Hunterston B nuclear power station”, ‘Retrofit and Upgrading of Computer Equipment in Nuclear Power Stations, IEE Colloquium’ on 11 Mar 1991 Page(s):11 - 15.

2. Engel berg, S.; Kaminsky, T.; Horesh, M.; “Instrumentation notes - A USBEnabled, FLASH-Disk-Based DAS”, Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine, IEEE, Vol. 10, Issue 2, April 2007 Page(s):63 – 66.

3. Erdem, H, “Design and implementation of data acquisition for fuzzy logic controller” ‘Industrial Technology, 2002. IEEE ICIT '02. 2002 IEEE International Conference’ on 11-14 Dec. 2002 Page(s):199 - 204 vol.1.

4. Kuchta, R.; Stefan, P.; Barton, Z.; Vrba, R.; Sveda, M, “Wireless temperature data logger”, ‘Sensors and the International Conference on new Techniques in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Research, 2005 Asian Conference’ on 5-7 Sept. 2005 Page(s):208 – 212.

5. Lee Tat Man, “Recording power demand characteristics and harmonic pollution by a general-purpose data logger”, ‘Advances in Power System Control, Operation and Management, 1991. APSCOM-91., 1991 International Conference’ on 5-8 Nov 1991 Page(s):737 - 743 vol.2.

6. Luharuka, E.; GAO, R.X., “A microcontroller-based data acquisition for physiological sensing”, ‘Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, 2002. IMTC/2002. Proceedings of the 19th IEEE’, 21-23 May 2002 Page(s):175 - 180 vol.1.


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WEBSITES  www.atmel.com  www.seimens.com  www.philipsemiconductors.com  www.howstuffworks.com  www.alldatasheets.com  www.efyprojects.com  www.thomson.com/learning  www.google.com


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APPENDIX CODING ;Program for a stepper having connected & to show message on the LCD

$mod51 data equ p1 ;p0 busy equ p0.7 ;p0.7 rs equ p3.2 rw equ p3.1 en equ p3.0 org 400h show0: db 'Welcome To All','0' show1: db 'Current Station','0' show2: db 'Next Station','0' show3: db 'Aligarh','0' show4: db 'Ghaziabad','0' Show5: db 'New Delhi','0' org 0000h here: mov p2,#00h acall ini mov dptr,#show0 acall read

clr p3.3

;p1.0


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MINOR PROJECT REPORT: METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE

acall delay mov a,#01h acall command; Now make memory clear cursor home mov dptr,#show1 acall read mov a,#0c0h acall command mov dptr,#show3 acall read acall delay ;Stopage1 time 3 sec new delhi acall delay acall delay mov a,#01h acall command mov dptr,#show2 acall read mov a,#0c0h acall command mov dptr,#show4 acall read ; acall delay ;Stopage1 time 3 sec new delhi acall stepperf mov a,#01h acall command mov dptr,#show1

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUICATION ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT KAITHAL

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acall read mov a,#0c0h acall command mov dptr,#show4 acall read acall delay ;Stopage2 time 3 sec noida acall delay acall delay mov a,#01h acall command mov dptr,#show2 ;display ne acall read mov a,#0c0h acall command mov dptr,#show5 acall read ;acall delay acall stepperf mov a,#01h acall command mov dptr,#show1 acall read mov a,#0c0h acall command mov dptr,#show5 acall read DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUICATION ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT KAITHAL

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acall delay ;Stopage2 time 3 sec greater noida acall delay acall delay setb p3.3

; p1.0 ;off led at p1.0 for forward journey

clr p3.4 ;

p1.1 ; 0n Led for back ward journey

mov a,#01h acall command mov dptr,#show2 ;display ne noida acall read mov a,#0c0h acall command mov dptr,#show4 acall read acall stepperb mov a,#01h acall command mov dptr,#show1 acall read mov a,#0c0h acall command mov dptr,#show4 acall read acall delay ;Stopage2 time 3 sec noida acall delay acall delay DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUICATION ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT KAITHAL

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mov a,#01h

acall command mov dptr,#show2 ;display ne new delhi acall read mov a,#0c0h acall command mov dptr,#show3 acall read ; acall delay acall stepperb mov a,#01h acall command mov dptr,#show1 acall read mov a,#0c0h acall command mov dptr,#show3 acall read setb p3.4

;p1.1

ljmp here ;routine for stepper motor ; Delay Routine delay: push acc push 00h DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUICATION ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT KAITHAL

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push 01h push p0

push p1 mov r0,#0eh loopr: mov a,#0ffh loopb: mov b,#0ffh loopa: djnz b,loopa djnz 0e0h,loopb djnz r0,loopr pop p1 pop p0 pop 01h pop 00h pop acc ret ;dlay stepper delays: push acc push 00h push 01h push p0 push p1 mov a,#0ffh DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUICATION ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT KAITHAL

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loopa1: mov b,#0ffh loopb1:

djnz b,loopb1 djnz 0e0h,loopa1 pop p1 pop p0 pop 01h pop 00h pop acc ret ;++++++++++++Routine to read data from prog mem read: nex: clr a movc a,@a+dptr cjne a,#'0',aga sjmp down aga: acall display ;acall delay inc dptr sjmp nex down: ;acall delay ret ;================ stepper routine stepperf: DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUICATION ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT KAITHAL

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push acc push p1 mov a,#88h ;

mov p2,a

mov r0,#0e0h mov r1,#01h loop: mov p2,a acall delays rr a dec r0 cjne r0,#00h,loop dec r1 cjne r1,#00h,loop pop p1 pop acc ret stepperb: push acc push p1 mov a,#88h ; mov p2,a mov r0,#0e0h mov r1,#01h loop1: DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUICATION ENGG. HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT KAITHAL

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mov p2,a acall delays rl a dec r0 cjne r0,#00h,loop1

dec r1 cjne r1,#00h,loop1 pop p1 pop acc ret end


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DATASHEETS


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Electronics Minor Project Metro Train Prototype

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