History and Uniforms 000 ENG

Magazine devoted to military history, uniformology and war equipments since the Ancient Era to 20th century

Publishing Director: Bruno Mugnai Art Directors: Sonia Zanat; Silvia Orso Redational: Bruno Mugnai; Antony J. Jones; Andre !"avaras #ollaborators: #hun $. %ang;Andr&s '. Moln&r; #iro Paoletti; Riccardo #ai((i; Massi(o Predon"ani ))) Scienti*ic #o((itte: John +ooch; Peter ,. %ilson; Bruce -andervort; rederic/ #. Schneid; !0th erenc; #hris Stoc/ings; +uilher(e d1Andrea rota; 'ris"to* 'ubia/; Jean 2icolas #orvisier Number 0 available for free !"#$%&$N'(% N)*E

2one o* i(ages or te3t o* our boo/ (ay be re4roduced in any *or(at ithout the e34ressed ritten 4er(ission o* 4ublisher. !he 4ublisher re(ains to dis4osition o* the 4ossible having right *or all the doubt*ul sources i(ages or not identi*ies. 5ach issue 5uro 6789; Subscri4tion to  issues 5uro 9799. Subscri4tions on the Maga"ine ebsite: .historyanduni*or(s.co( or through Soldiersho47 by $uca S. #ristini7 via Padre Davide <7 Zanica =B+>. Original illustrations are on sale contacting: eb(aga"ine.director?g(ail.co( @ 9 Bruno Mugnai CSS2: 

#ontents: Articles: rehistoric, Ancient and Medieval +hinese arfare- Neolithic +hina #hun $. %ang *he .enetian Army and Navy in the &oly #eague ar, /1344=4art one> Bruno Mugnai 5ed 'renadiers and red +hasseurs- *he #ife 'uard of the rincedom of #ucca and iombino, /103/1/ Bruno Mugnai 6orgotten 6ronts of $- 'erman %amoa=4art one>

Andr&s '. Moln&r Rubrics: Books Review The Best on the Net

5ditorial Dear Reader7 dear riend: ith the nu(ber 1"ero1 begins a ne adventure *or the divulging o* uni*or(ology and (ilitary history. !he idea o* (a/ing available to the 4ublic o* enthusiasts an agile and easily accessible instru(ent as *or so(e ti(e in (y (ind7 than/s to the (any tools that (odern technology 4rovides us7 and this could be due to luc/y (eeting ith other scholars and enthusiasts7 /non in the vast and une34lored orld o* the Cnternet. ,istory E Fni*or(s has the a(bition to beco(e an instru(ent 1in 4rogress17 able to acco((odate ne contributions7 increasing the argu(ents ith the *le3ibility alloed by the electronic devices. As so(eone (ay have noticed7 the (ain edition is in 5nglish7 though at least hal* o* the subGects are o* Ctalian the(es. Cn *act7 the idea to (a/e the (aga"ine an international instru(ent is the other great a(bition o* this initiative7 hich received the su44ort o* a scienti*ic co((ittee co(4rising s4ecialists *ro( all over the orld. My s4ecial greeting is directed to the(.

Bruno Mugnai

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

7angshao warrior7 Hello River -alley; 6699 B# =Cllustration by Bruno Mugnai a*ter AuthorIs reconstruction>

Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS rehistoric, Ancient and Medieval +hinese arfare

by #hun $. %ang !he (ilitary history o* Ancient #hina  and in general the #hinese history be*ore the hal* o* 9th century K is less /non in 5uro4e and in the %estern orld as ell. ,oever7 there are several as4ects hich (ay involve the 4eo4le interested in (ilitary history7 as ell as the history enthusiasts. !he huge variety o* subGects and relative eLui4(ent7 dress and insignias (ay be to4ics o* s4ecial *avour *or (ilitary history readers and (odellers. One (ay note all these various and diverse 4articularities Gust considering the single subGects7 na(ely *ocusing structure7 organi"ation7 develo4(ent and ar*are o* the ancient and (edieval #hinese ar(ies7 hich could o4en ne hori"on o* interest. As rightly outlined by 5ndy(ion %il/inson in her e3cellent #hinese ,istory7 A ManualI7 sinology and the riting o* #hinese history are both heavily de4endent u4on scholarly out4ut in #hina7 hether this out4ut is understood in the broad sense o* archaeology e4igra4hy or historical riting. All these as4ects contribute to co(4licate the %estern a44roach to the ancient #hinese and (edieval history as ell. urther7 also *or scholars accusto(ed to #hinese historical to4ics7 the access to the 4ri(ary sources re(ains di**icult. ,istorical archives have o4ened doors that until the 8<9s ere shut. Joint archaeological researches have been 4er(itted since 88 a*ter a hiatus o* (ore than 9 years. Previously #hinese history as seen either as 4art o* orld history in a Mar3istMaoist *ra(eor/ or as the glorious story o* the *or(ation o* the (odern #hinese nation . Cn the recent ti(es7 the nu(ber and diversity o* historical or/s co(4ilations and re4rints o* #hinese historical te3ts have increased constantly. Pri(ary sources too7 including archaeological (aterials7 are beco(ing (ore accessible7 even i* the srcinal ite(s (ay still be scattered in collections in (any countries7 transcri4tions have been (ade and co(4rehensive editions 4ublished in Fnited 'ingdo( or FSA.

eriodization and concept of 8Ancient Era( and 8Middle Age( in +hinese &istory

Fnder several as4ect is not 4ossible to use a uniLue criteria *or *ra(ing #hinese ancient era and Middle Age7 ith the 4eriodi"ation used *or the %estern history. ,istorical reasons and 



ro( 88 to 8N87 the riting o* history in #hina beca(e (ore directly subordinate to 4olitics than it had been in C(4erial #hina. ,oever7 the 4ast as no longer regarded as a (irror *or the 4resent7 but as the night at the end o* hich7 *olloing liberation in 88: a ne era had daned. %hat ha44ened during the course o* the long night o* #hinese *eudalI history and even during the 4reclassI age7 as analysed in Mar3istMaoist ter(s. All other *or(s o* historical studies ere 4roscribed and the research li(ited to a *e to4ics: 4easant rebellions; *or(ation o* the ,an nation; landholding syste(s o* *eudal #hina; ca4italist s4routs in Ming and ing ages. !here are so(e signs that ne cross border and cross cultural co(4arisons are no being (ade7 even though (any #hinese and not #hinese authors still have 4redilection to regard history 4rinci4ally as a (eans to glori*y national 4ride.

Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

substantial diversity beteen 5uro4e7 2orthern A*rica and 2ear 5ast res4ect Cnner Asian societies (a/es i(4ossible to categori"e it under a uniLue *ra(e. urther7 *or a %estern observer7 #hinese Middle Age lasts until 8th century7 hile in #hina the ancient era *inish (any years be*ore the *all o* %est Ro(an 5(4ire. !hen7 to categori"e the various age7 cultures and dynasties in the #hinese ancient era7 e ado4t the e**ective division 4ro4osed in the (ore recent studies 6. Prehistoric and Ancient 5ra: 2eolithic: c. 97999 K c. 99 B# ia dynasty: c. 99 K c. 99 B# Shang dynasty: c. 99 K9N B# Zhou dynasty: 9N K  B# !hese 4eriods are classi*ied as the actual ancient era7 4receding the C(4erial AgeI lasted until the dissolution o* the e(4ire in 8. !he 89s and 869s sa the *irst (odern archaeological digs and i(4ortant discoveries7 including Pe/ing ManI and the late 2eolithic culture o* Yangshao and Longshan: the al4ha and the o(ega o* 2eolithic #hina. !he ne3t 4eriod o* discovery as in 89s and early 89s. Planned e3cavation concentred on the traditional core area7 the Hello River valley and on the ancient ca4itals such as $uoyang. One o* the (ost notable and today still controversial e3cavation as the *irst o4ening o* an C(4erial to(b by archaeologists7 that o* the Ming %anli e(4eror. 2evertheless so(e e3tre(ely i(4ortant discoveries ere (ade during the *irst hal* o* the 8N9s7 such as the ba(boo and sil/ (anuscri4ts at Maangdui7 Shuihundi7 HinLueshan7 %uei and Juyan. So(e o* the *inds have beco(e household ords: 4erha4s the best/non e3a(4le being the N7999 terracotta arriors o* the underground ar(yI *ound in 8N in the guard cha(bers to the to(b o* the *irst e(4eror in Shi ,uang. Although the (ost s4ectacular archaeological *inds have co(e *ro( 4rehistoric and ancient #hina7 these researches has contributed (uch to later #hinese archaeology. !a/e the e3a(4le o* the discovery o* to(b *rescoes and to(b bric/ 4aintings. !hese ite(s have survived *ro( every 4eriod *ro( the 2eolithic through the Ming. #hina has been inhabited since the dan o* ti(e and Paleolithic re(ains have been *ound in various 4rovinces. !hat being said7 the 4relude to #hinese history is the 2eolithic 4eriod. 6





5ndy(ion %il/inson: #hinese ,istory. A Manual; revised and enlarge edi tion; #a(bridge and $ondon7 999. 53cavations have concentrated on ancient ca4ital cities and their alls and 4alaces7 Buddhist te(4le7 or/sho47 *or e3a(4le /ilns and *oundries; i(4erial (ausoleu(s; (ore ordinary to(bs and on the arti*acts *ro( all o* these. !he e3cavation here and elsehere as interru4ted by the govern(ent in 8N. !here as also a large interru4tion and (uch destruction during the #ultural Revolution =8N>7 hich delayed the e3cavations u4 to 69 years and archaeological studies sus4ended *or several years.

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F4 to no (ore than 7999 2eolithic sites have been identi*ied in various 4arts o* the country and e3cavations have been underta/en at (ore than a hundred. *he Neolithic +hinese culture as 4rinci4ally s4read along the ,uang ,o =Hello River>

and the $iao River in 2orthern #hina. Both these regions ere the cradle o* cultures dating bac/ in the early ,olocene. Cn the north area the scholars have identi*ied a succession o* several cultures: Xinglongwa =<99N999 B#>; Xinle =N999999 B#>; Hongshan =99 <99 B#>. !he best /non7 the (ost e34anded and the *irst discovered in 89 by the Sedish geologist Johan +unnar Anderson is the Yangshao culture =9996999 B#>7 settled in the Hello River area. Ct ta/es its na(e *ro( the village here this culture as discovered in the district o* Mianchi7 in ,enan 4rovince. More than a thousand o* archaeologist sites have been *ound distributed in the Hello River valley *ro( Zheng"hou in the east to the u44er reaches in +ansu and inghay. !here are (any regional subdivisions; the (ost interesting *ro( the 4oint o* vie o* early civili"ation are those to the northest o* the area o* distribution in the 4rovince o* +ansu. ,ere so(e late Hangshao sites o* the variants /non as Maia!ao =699 K 999 B#>7 "anshan =99 K 699 B#>7 and Machang =99 K 999 B#> have yielded the earliest evidence *or a /noledge o* earliest bron"e castingN. !he Hangshao culture e(4hasi"es the i(4ortance o* o(en. So7 there are (ore *e(ale to(bs and graves here than (ale ones7 and the o(en graves contain (ore obGects and valuables than their (ale counter4arts do. !hese everyday obGects reveal the high degree o*

technical

4ro*iciency

achieved

by

the

2eolithic

cra*ts(en.

!he

changes

and

develo4(ents o* *or(7 decorative (oti*s and techniLues o* *iring identi*y di**erent subcultures7 enabling us to date the( and revealing the relationshi4s and reci4rocal in*luences beteen the various grou4s <.



5arliest sites o* 2eolithic culture as e3cavated near 2an"huangtou village in ushi7 centre o* the culture o* PeligangI dated very close to 97999 years ago. See in 'ang#hih #hang7 China in the eve of the Historical Period7 4. ; in: !he #a(bridge ,istory o* Ancient #hina7 #a(bridge7 888. N #harles . %. ,igha(7 5ncyclo4aedia o* Ancient Asian #ivili"ation; 2e Hor/7 99; 4. 99. < !he re(ains unearthed in the e3cavations in the villages in the district o* $intong7 are another ty4ical e3a(4les o* the Hangshao culture7 See in Zhong(in ,anDelahaye ,ubert7 A #o$rne! %hro$gh Ancient China7 BeiGing7 8<7 4.6 Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

Anthro4o(or4hic *igure =o* arrior Q> on a vessel o* 7angshao3Ma9iayaoculture7 6999 B#.

#iangzhu a3e in Gade7 66999 B#. Recent discoveries reveal that so4histicated develo4(ents

ere already under ay in the Middle 2eolithic across a (uch broader e34anse o* the Mainland. ro( north to south7 the host cultures ere Hongshan in the estern Manchurian Basin7 Dawenkou on the east coast7 and Liangzhu in the Shanghai Delta region. !rends toards status di**erentiation7 cra*t s4eciali"ation and 4ublic architecture are evident in these societies. !hese trends continue in the $ate 2eolithic7 but an insidious ne addition at that ti(e is violence7 es4ecially in the #entral Plain region.

Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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!he village co((unities o* the MaGiayao 4hase o* the Hangshao culture7 hich is dated in the vicinity o* 6999 B#7 ty4ically include houses sun/ into the so*t loess soil as a 4rotection against the bitter inter cold. !he inhabitants cultivated (illet and (aintained do(estic stoc/. !hey *ashioned and /iln*ired 4ottery vessels and used 4olished stone tools such as Gade. !he longevity o* these stable villages led to the *or(ation o* large inhu(ation Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

ce(eteries. !heir (illet as stored in underground 4its *or inter consu(4tion7 and in one o* these 4its at the site o* $inGia7 $iang"hou district7 +ansu7 a bron"e /ni*e that as beteen  and 9 4ercent tin as *ound. Ct as cast in a double (old and re4resents one o* the earliest bron"es7 i* not the earliest7 *ro( #hina. Other e3cavations at the sa(e site have yielded *rag(ents o* bron"e as ell7 but the /ni*e is the only actual bron"e arti*act *ro( this e3tensively e3cavated site. Ct 4resents a 4roble( o* inter4retation in that (aGor e3cavations at sites o* the succeeding Banshan 4hase =N99K69 B#> o* the late Hangshao in this region have revealed no other bron"es. !his lac/ is 4articularly notable at $iuan7 here (ore than 7999 graves have been o4ened. O* these7 N belong to the Banshan 4hase7 and . Het no ite(s o* bron"e ere recovered7 hile 4ottery is still abundant. Sadly7 the huge nu(ber o* 4ottery shos very *e hu(an *igures7 e3ce4t *or so(e ite(s discovered in Bn47 a village si3 /ilo(eters east o* ian. !his e3cavated site o* a Hangshao village as discovered in 86 and dates bac/ to 99 B#. Bn4 site is the largest and best4reserved 2eolithic Hangshao cultural sites o* #hina1s Hello River basin. !he 2eolithic village (useu( is built around a historical site consisting o* the re(ains o* a 7999 yearold village once ho(e to a (atriarchal clan co((unity. Ct is the *irst Prehistoric site (useu( in #hina. !he living section o* the ancient village occu4ied an area o* 697999 sLuare (eters. Ct as surrounded by a (oat to 4rotect the village against ene(ies7 ild ani(als and *loods. !he largest a(ong the re(ains o* the  houses7 located in the centre o* the living area7 is 4ossibly a (eeting hall. !here are cellars to store grain and tools outside the houses7 and they illustrate the eLual distribution and co((unal *eatures o* the society. !hey (ay also have 4racticed an early *or( o* sil/or( cultivation. A 4ottery o* Bn4 4ortray a hu(an *ace 4ossibly ith a 4rotohel(et and *ish *igures ona basin7 and another one ith a hu(an *ace ith hair braids and 4aints.

Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

All these ite(s hel4 us to *or( an idea about natural colours e(4loyed and decorative (oti*s *or clothes and other gar(ents. Blac/7 car(ine red7 bron and natural ochre are the (ost co((on 4aints used7 hile geo(etrical 4atterned decorations7 as roundels and triangles7 are already ty4ical in this era7 na(ely around 9996999 B#. !hese e3a(4les are enough to introduce our *irst reconstruction o* a Hangshao arrior at 4age *our. Although the arrior illustrated is a (ale7 the (atriarchal structure o* the Hangshao culture could 4erha4s include *e(ale arriors too. 2othing is /non about the history o* the Hangshao culture and i* these grou4s ere alays allied or so(eti(es ene(y. Possibly7 the e3change o* handicra*t ite(s and other 4roducts could 4ush so(e villages to Goin a *ederationI7 but so(e evidence see(s to suggest that each co((unity had to be a state villageI clans structured in a characteristic chie*do(I societies 8. %ar*are as 4racticed 4rinci4ally *or de*ensive 4ur4oses against no(adic grou4s co(ing *ro( the northestern regions. !he de*ensive attitude o* their settle(ents could be re*lected in the ea4onry7 li/e slingshot7 Gavelin and s4ear. Ct is not sure i* they /ne bo and arros7 due to the absence o* any /ind o* re(ains o* both. Ct is hard to su44ose hether in so(e villages there ere grou4s o* (en and o(en considered Gust as arriors7 hile the other (e(bers continued to deal ith the routine. Cn any case7 archaeological deductions see( to indicate that the hole co((unity as called u4on to de*end the settle(ent in case o* assault. ))) !oard the end o* the Hangshao culture in the central 4lains7 cultural changes Luic/ly led to the e(ergence o* ne societies. ro( the (idthird (illenniu( B#7 the northern regions o* #entral 5urasia7 east o* the Frals7 ere trans*or(ed by the shi*t *ro( an econo(y o* 4redation to an econo(y o* 4roduction. !he ste44e regions beca(e 4o4ulated ith diversi*ied co((unities o* 2eolithic hunters and *isher(en as ell as 4astoralists and agriculturalists. Pastoralists occu4ied the higher (ountain 4astures7 such as those in the !Iienshan and the Altai regions7 hereas along the loer course o* the A(u Darya7 in #entral Asia7 ani(al breeding coe3isted ith irrigated agriculture (odeled a*ter the syste( o* irrigation such as in the early Meso4ota(ia or in ancient 5gy4t. #hinaIs internal *rontier has been o*ten understood as an ideal line dividing to ecological "ones: the ste44es and deserts o* the north and the *ar(land o* the south. Although this line (ay have shi*ted north or south in res4onse to cli(atic variations over ti(e7 *ro( the vie4oint o* hu(an agency this inter4retation o* the *rontier re(ains *unda(entally static and tells us little about cultural e3change and 4olitical interaction. Fntil the hal* o* the third (illenniu( B# hen a clearly de(arcated 4olitical boundary beteen the north and south 8

Organi"ed co((unities under the control o* a single chie* or a cou4le *or(ed by i*e and husband.

Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

central #hina e(erged ith the *or(ation o* the *irst e(4ires  the northern *rontier o* #hina re(ained e3tre(ely *luid. ,oever7 at least three interconnected but inde4endent 4rocesses 4layed roles in de*ining the northern *rontier: one ecological and econo(ic7 another cultural7 and the last 4olitical. %ith agriculture7 hu(an settle(ents tend to be tied to a *i3ed 4lace *or longer than is the case *or hunters and she4herds; hence7 several *ar(ing cultures ado4ted the *irst e3a(4les o* structured sel*govern(ent. !he socalled #ongshan culture =6999999 B#>97 settled in an area close to the Hangshao culture7 are a(ong the (ost signi*icant discoveries that archaeology had (ade in recent years. -ery rich in the(selves7 they are o* great i(4ortance 4roviding tangible and reliable clues to the reasons hy and ho the state *irst ca(e to being. Such re(ains indicate a society at a stage o* develo4(ent beteen that o* the Hangshao culture and the earlier Shang dynasty.

,u(an *ace in Gade7 #ongshan culture. !he decorations could be re4resent tattoos or 4aints.

9

$ongshan culture as *irst discovered in 86 at #heng"iyai7 near the *or(er $ongshan district o* $icheng7 Shandong. Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

#ongshan monile in stone ith carved decoration.

#ongshan 9ade a:e ith the ty4ical co(4osite decoration. !he $ongshan co((unities that

e34anded in the ,uang =Hello> River -alley and Shandong Peninsula reveal a Luic/ening o* social co(4le3ity. Archaeologically7 this is (ani*ested in villages ith de*ensive alls7 rich burial asse(blages7 the ado4tion o* (etallurgy7 and an increase in arti*acts associated ith ar(ed con*lict. Bones7 Jades and7 es4ecially7 bron"es7 hich ere to re*lect high social distinction *or (illennia to co(e7 (ade their *irst a44earance. Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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,oever7 the (echanis( o* this transition did not beco(e clear until (uch (ore evidences ere discovered. !he e(ergence o* co(4le3 society on the #hina Mainland is usually discussed in ter(s o* the $ate 2eolithic era7 or $ongshan cultures o* the #entral PlainI. Recent discoveries reveal that so4histicated develo4(ents ere already under ay in the Middle 2eolithic across a (uch broader e34anse o* the Mainland. !he (ost i(4ortant o* these ne data consist o* the settle(ent 4attern o* the tons e3cavated in Shandong 4eninsula and ,enan. !he graduating o* *urnishing and s4atial distributions o* graves and so(e ritual obGects7 es4ecially ritual Gades7 sho a (ore structured and co(4le3 society hich had beco(e (ore strati*ied and co(4le37 as the decorative (oti*s7 tonsI structure7 and handicra*t clearly suggest. !he $ate 2eolithic $ongshan cultures ere characteri"ed by advanced cera(ic and Gade technologies; an increased reliance on do(estic ani(als7 es4ecially shee4 and cattle; varying degrees o* social di**erentiation7 including strati*ied clans; and the utili"ation o* e3otic ite(s such as Gades7 bones7 ivories7 and turtle shells in ritual and e3change. !he graves7 *or e3a(4le7 ere built in ce(eteries outside the villages and tons; (aterial ealth buried ith the dead beco(e concentrated into the graves o* a s(all nu(ber o* 4resu(ably s4ecial 4ersonalities. !his 4articular cultural (i3 had been breing since the (iddle o* the 4eriod. !he outstanding additions in the $ate 2eolithic ere social con*lict and the resulting e(ergence o* ne settle(ent *or(s and larger hu(an grou4s. !he e3istence o* a larger nu(ber o* ordered co((unities in this 4eriod lasted *or (ore than *ive centuries and it is /non in #hina as wan gwo: the ten thousand statesI: an era do(inated by ars. Cnterestingly7 these $ate 2eolithic trends o* con*lict and ar*are ere resolved ith the ulti(ate strati*ication o* $ongshan society7 hich as 4ossibly *acilitated by the a44lication o* a ne technology  bron"e casting K and to the social strati*ication (ar/ed by the 4restigious activity o* elite rituals. %ar*are and (ilitary organi"ation o* these cultures are still (ysterious to4ics7 but in the $ongshan culture7 certain ell4laced co((unities gre *urther in si"e and co((anded su**icient resources to construct large alls and 4lat*or(s to de*end elite buildings. 53tensively e3cavated ce(eteries7 4rovide evidence *or social distinctions. !his trend as acco(4anied by a groing density o* sites and a shar4 rise in 4o4ulation. +roth too/ 4lace at a ti(e o* increasing evidence *or violence and ar*are. More ea4ons ere (anu*actured7 and so(e sites reveal evidence *or the dis4osal o* (en ho had been severely handled. !he 4ro(inence o* $ongshan culture as 4ossibly the result o* better organi"ed *ighting 

!he *inest e3a(4le i s the site o* !aosi7 iang*en district7 Shan3i.

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units. !here are so(e evidences hich con*ir( the 4resence o* a structured (ilitary *orce *ighting as organi"ed unit o* *oot(en. %arriors could be recogni"ed ith s4ecial signs and headdress and naturally by the ea4ons. Jade a3e7 bo and long s4ear are ty4ical ea4ons o* the $ongshan culture7 and in the late age is very 4robable the use o* the *irst e3a(4les o* dagger a3e sha4ed li/e that co((on in the *olloing Shang dynasty. %ar as a (eans o* legiti(i"ing the 4oer o* the ne aristocracy7 and the (ain ai( o* *oreign 4olicy as the sending out o* e34editions to 4arade this 4oer and gather tribute. So(e traces and re(ains suggest that $ongshan e34editions could cover hundreds (iles through uninhabited regions. Details o* ho e34editionary *orces ere su44lied are lac/ing7 but they covered very i(4ressive distances on occasion. $onghsan e34lorers 4robably reached the loer Hangt"e7 hile it is not unli/ely that they occasionally 4enetrated in the Cnner Mongolian ste44e. Surrounding 4eo4les ere deliberately le*t unconLuered to serve as an e3cuse *or ar and a reservoir o* booty and 4risoners. !his re4resents a 4ri(itive stage in the evolution o* e3ternal relations7 in hich the resources o* other co((unities at a loer technological level are e34loited in a (anner analogous to a hunting e34edition. !his as also 4robable e3a(ining the (ilitary ca(4aigns led by the *olloing ancient reigns o* ia and Shang. Cn *act7 hunting tri4s and (ilitary ca(4aigns ere organi"ed in the sa(e ay and the distinction beteen the( is o*ten vague. 5arly #hinese histories7 such as the hii, re*er to a distant 4eriod o* ive 5(4erors. !hey na(e /ings7 cities and (any battles beteen innu(erable rival /ingdo(s. !he Han h$ =the boo/ o* ,an>7 in re*erring to this re(ote 4redynastic 4eriod7 also cites the e3istence o* alled cities. Ct is an intriguing 4ossibility that the (uch later #hinese historians ere still in touch ith the very srcins o* their civili"ation.

Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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!he #ongshan culture ty4ical sites ere discovered in 8< on the Shandong 4eninsula. Several alled settle(ents no /non ith and these vary si"e7 but all see( to have enco(4assed dellings and so(eare cra*t *acilities7 4ottery andgreatly stone in tools a(ong their arti*act re4ertoires. !his *or( o* settle(ent layout and de*ence stands in star/ contrast to the village 4atterns 4receding it. !he alled settle(ent o* ingliangtai had guard houses on each side o* its southern gate = 6/ and 62> and several dellings in its interior7 all built o* adobe bric/s =a>. So(e o* these houses ere distinguished *ro( others by being raised on ta(4edearth 4lat*or(s = b>. Scattered a(ong si(ilar earthen *oundations ithin the enclosure ere *ound (ore than a do"en o*l underground 4its7 *illed ith s/eletons o* both adults and children7 sandiched beteen ta(4edearth layers.

Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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#ongshan noble and warrior;

=Cllustration by Bruno Mugnai a*ter AuthorIs reconstruction> Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Chinese Warfare

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS *he .enetian Army and Navy in the &oly #eague ar, /13/44

by Bruno Mugnai =4art one>

CorazzaVeneta< 'reece, summer /1=; #onte(4orary accounts relate that the -enetian heavy cavalry(en e(4loyed (ore (etal 4lates res4ect their *oreign colleagues. Also later docu(entary sources tells that this trend ill long survive in -enice: *or this reason the -enetian cuirassiers ere nic/na(ed PadelloniI =iron 4ot>. %he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS 

$ntroduction- ars and .enetian %ingularities

Although -enice had never 4ursued a (ilitary 4olicy in the (odern sense7 during the Nth century the erenissi.a 3e1$lica as *orced to increase its ar(ed strength to counterbalance the groing e3ternal threats. or centuries7 the *leet  co((only re*erred to as the Ar.ada  had re4resented the -enetian (ain instru(ent o* ar. Cn *act7 the navy had alays been the (ain ea4on against the greatest ene(y o* the Re4ublic  the Otto(an 5(4ire  but in the early Nth century ar *ronts had (oved on land and this ti(e the o44onents ere the troo4s o* the Austrian ,absburgs. !he Fs/o/ %ar o* < had co(4elled -enice to co(e to gri4s ith co(4letely ne strategic 4roble(s. !he con*lict against the Austrians re4resented a ne challenge *or the Re4ublic7 because the con*lict centre o* gravity as not on the sea7 but (oved its *orces to the borders7 leaving the *leet Gust ith the tas/ o* liLuidating the 4resence o* 4irates under -iennaIs 4ay. 2o the attac/ ca(e *ro( the north and7 above all7 the technological escalation generated by a con*lict against a (odern 5uro4ean ar(y *orced the govern(ent to reconsider its (ilitary 4olicy. urther troubles *or -enice arose during its involve(ent in the *irst %ar o* #astro =>7 hen its troo4s and galleys had to *ace the Pa4al Ar(y in 5(ilia and in the Adriatic. !here ere no choices hich -enice could not esca4e and  in the *ierce co(bat against the Otto(ans  ould later reLuire even (ore drastic changes. !he e3hausting con*lict *or the 4ossession o* #rete =N> 4roved even (ore crucial in the evolution o* the -enetian ar(y and navy *or the *uture ars. C* the great island re4resented the centre o* gravity7 the strategic duel as bound to ta/e 4lace on the seas. !he scenario o* ar in*luenced the choices and so7 during the hole Nth century7 des4ite the gradual increase o* other ar involve(ents7 -enice continued to consider 1*leet1 and 1ar(y1 as a single instru(ent. Seaborne assaults ith landing troo4s continued to be 4er*ectly coherent to its strategy7 es4ecially against targets *ar *ro( its do(ains7 co(bined ith a huge net o* garrison in the (ainland and overseas. !he result as the creation o* an entirely srcinal instru(ent o* ar unli/e any other 5uro4ean ar(ies: a result hich as 4robably not the best 4ossible one to de*end itsel*7 but surely the (ost a44ro4riate ay to *ace any 4olitical contingency and ar e(ergency. Cn this conte3t7 the aristocracyIs atavistic conservationis( contributed to slo the develo4(ent o* (ilitary ar(ed *orces in the (odern (eaning7 but even (ore

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

decisive as the attitude derived *ro( the Tgarrison syste(U to in*luence the -enetian (ilitary 4olicy. !he resistance against the (oderni"ation o* the ar(y as nourished by the State #ityI ideology. Cn -enice7 the govern(ent continued to 4ursue the goal o* (anaging the (osaic o* 4eo4les and (ilitary cor4s in a rather conservative ay. !hese (ilitary choices see(s to suggest hat ,ocLuet has called Vthe double 4arado3 o* -eniceV7 unable to *ree the(selves *ro( the statecity1s role to beco(e the ca4ital o* a territorial state7 but also to rule its territories beyond the traditional sche(es o* do(ain6. 2otithstanding this attitude7 the -enetian Re4ublic re4resented the only (ultiethnic state o* Ctaly7 here di**erent languages and religions coe3isted until its dissolution in N8N. Because the -enetian 4olitical doctrine obeyed to a 4rinci4le o* balanced 4oer7 this as4ect contributed ulti(ately to (aintain se4arate the land *orces in the rigid classi*ication o* the troo4s according to their co(4osition7 srcin and econo(ic re(uneration. !he ,oly $eague %ar could be re4resent a reversal in this trend7 than/s to the re*or(s introduced by rancesco Morosini7 interru4ted7 hoever7 by his death in 8. ,istorians have long considered the -enetian (ilitary traGectory as an unsuccess*ul 4arable7 neglecting the innovative tactics and ea4onry introduced in the ca(4aigns on the sea. 5ven hen they investigated the naval strategy *ocusing on tactical and technical i(4rove(ents7 historians had assu(ed so(e not co(4letely right co((on vies7 or they considered the (atter as a (ystery Gust to elude it. 

See in Piero Del 2egro7 Cl $eone in #a(4o: -ene"ia e gli Oltra(arini nelle +uerre di #andia e di Morea7 in Mito e Anti.ito di -eneia nel "acino Adriatico 0secoli X-  X8X2; Ro(a 997 4. 66. 6 Jean #laude ,ocLuet7 cited by P.$. !a(burrini7 L9:rganiaione Militare di -eneia nella 1ri.a .et; del ettecento7 #ollana SCSM7 9; 4ag. 8.  Ct is re(ar/able to observe ho the (ilitary history o* -enice in the (odern age is /non es4ecially on outdated stereoty4es. !he studies o* John ,ale and Michael Mallett o4ened a indo to investigate the -enetian (ilitary structure7 but un*ortunately their contributions have arrested to the th century. !he accurate or/s o* Jere(y Blac/7 Warfare K 3enaissance to 3evol$tion (4'*(7'*7 #a(bridge 88 and John #hilds7 Warfare in the eventeenth Cent$r!7 $ondon7 997 have both neglected the -enetian ars. !he sa(e oversight occurred in the e3cellent boo/ o* John +lete7 Warfare at Sea7 $ondon 9997 closing his study Gust be*ore the #andian ar and the develo4(ent o* the sea ar*are in the Mediterranean. !he N th century (ilitary history o* -enice re(ains then %erra 8ncognita outside Ctaly and although in the recent years i(4ortant contributes by Piero Del 2egro7 Pietro Marchesi7 +uido #andiani7 $uca Porto7 Alberto Prelli7 +uido 5rcole7 Pier $uigi !a(burrini7 $uciano Pe""olo7 Marco Morin and Riccardo #ai((i had a44eared7 these or/s are yet scarcely di**used outside Ctaly. Recently7 Mario Cn*elise and Anastasia Stouraiti had been the editors o* an i(4ortant contribute about the Morean %ar. !his boo/ includes research by Ctalian and *oreign s4ecialists *ocusing the 4olitical and cultural scenario o* the ca(4aigns =*or *urther in*or(ation see in the Bibliogra4hy cha4ter>. %he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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5ven conte(4orary sources sho so(e di**iculty in understanding the -enetian ar*are. Several Nth century co((enters agreed that -enice entrusted its sa*ety to the *leet7 (a/ing its (ilitary *orces strongly asy((etric7 hich ere considered too s/eed toards the navy co(4ared to the land *orces. ro( a broad 4ers4ective7 a strong dichoto(y see(ed to e3ist beteen the navy7 (ade u4 o* o**icers and sailors7 ho ere (ostly -enetian7 and the ar(y7 co(4osed in a high 4ercentage o* (ercenaries recruited *ro( all over 5uro4e and co((anded by *oreign o**icers. !he decision to rely on (ercenaries as7 in e**ect7 a calculated 4rice to guarantee 4olitical stability7 avoiding the *or(ation o* a class o* 4ro*essional soldiers ho could change the internal balance o* the state. Di**ering *ro( it7 ould have (eant Luestioning the 4olitical and social order. Moreover7 the a44oint(ents to (ilitary 4ositions o* 4restige ere use*ul to (anage the netor/ o* di4lo(atic relations to hich -enice had alays attributed great i(4ortance. Sci4ione Pannocchieschi7 4a4al nuncio to -enice beteen N and 7 tried to give a 4ersonal e34lanation o* the 4articular -enetian (ilitary structure: T%he Ar.ies =o* -enice> are reg$larl! co.1osed ! 8talians who are not s$ects, and -enice did not need noles to the co..and, eca$se wants to 1reserve the govern.ent fro. the t!rann!, fearing .ore the condition of its s$ects that the foreigners one=U

Other co((enters7 (ore (aliciously7 attributed this trend to the 4oor arrior attitude o* the T...avid (erchants o* the lagoonU . Fnli/e the above (entioned Luotation7 the native -enetian 4resence in the ar(y as not a (inority as clai(ed by certain sources and7 although throughout the Nth century de*ining the ar(y as 1-enetian1 as al(ost li/e de*ining rancisco rancoIs *orces in the civil ar o* 8668 as S4anishI7 o**icers and soldiers *ro( the -enetian (ainland and *ro( the ca4ital itsel* re(ained relevant throughout the centuryN. 

Cn this conte3t7 so(ething e3e(4lary is the enlist(ent o* the MarLuis JacLues de +rW(onville in N7 na(ely the brother o* the rench a(bassador in -enice7 ith the ran/ o* lieutenant general o* the in*antry.  !his ter( as used by 4o4e +iulio CC during the %ar o* the $eague o* #a(brai =9<> and beca(e 4o4ular in the 5uro4ean courts to de4lore the (ercantilist behaviour o* the Re4ublic. N See in +regory ,anlon7 %he %wilight of a Militar! %radition, 8talian Aristocrats and ?$ro1ean Conflicts, (56)(&))7 $ondon 88<; 44. . %he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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Another interesting vie about the -enetian ar(y is its 4resu(ed ea/ness in ca(4aigns. !his 4oor attitude a44ears to rely on considerations related to its (ilitary 4olicy  hich too/ 4lace (ainly in the .

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS .enetian >omains in <6.

Cn addition to service aboard shi4s7 until the ar against the Austrian ,absburgs in <7 -enetian troo4s o4erated (ainly *or 4assive de*ence and internal security7 as can be clearly deduced *ro( their distribution in the *orti*ied centres o* the Mainland and overseas. !he ele(entary (ilitary *unctions (ini(i"ed the need to increase the *orces7 hich in the early Nth century barely reached N7999 regular soldiers in all. Des4ite this7 since the outbrea/ o* the ar against the Austrians7 the ar(y had Luic/ly gron to a total o* 7999 soldiers o* all the s4ecialties. Cn s4ite o* its unconventional (ilitary structure7 -enice still a44eared as one o* the (ost re(ar/able 5uro4ean 4oers and certainly one o* the *irst in Ctaly7 ca4able o* de4loying substantial nu(bers o* troo4s7 as the 7999 (en e(4loyed to counter the %he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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rebellion o* the -altellina in N. $ater on7 the underta/ings against 2orthern A*rican corsairs and the successive international 4olitical crises acted as (odi*iers o* these nu(bers7 resulting in an alternating 4attern o* consistency Luotas. Cn the 69s7 the govern(ent decreased the 1rovisionati  na(ely 4ro*essional soldiers K less than 97999 (en7 reducing this nu(ber to 7899 hen the Re4ublic recruited this *orce *or the ar against the Po4e o* . !he econo(ic crisis that a**ected the Mediterranean in the Nth century (ade it di**icult to (aintain a large standing ar(y7 *orcing -enice to ado4t a 4olicy o* rigid 4arsi(ony. !he decision to (aintain a standing ar(y belo 97999 (en *ound co(*ort assu(ing as (odel the ar(y o* the Fnited Provinces o* the 2etherlands. Although -enice ada4ted the (ilitary 4olicy o* the 2etherlands to itsel* in a rather incongruous ay7 all *acts and events regarding both the Dutch ar(y and *leet ere held in high regard. !here*ore7 since the beginning o* the Nth century7 the govern(ent subscribed to the declaration o* Maurice o* 2assau7 ho considered a elltrained *orce o* <799 *oot soldiers and 799 cavalry(en7 su44orted by a 4oer*ul *leet and by a (odern netor/ o* *ortresses7 as able to stand u4 to any o44onent<. ,oever7 the con*lict against the Po4e7 initially considered as Gust a regional crisis7 in a *e years led to a ne increase in (obili"ation and7 at the end o* the hostilities7 -enice *ielded (ore than 97999 (en including 4ro*essional soldiers and (ilitia(en. Cn 97 the Senate had deter(ined *or the standing ar(y in 4eaceti(e 87999 regular soldiers7 o* hich 799 in %errafer.a K Mainland7 the Ctalian 4rovinces  divided into  (ain tons and *ortresses7 and another 7<99 (en in Dal(atia7 #or*u7 Zante7 #e4halonia7 #erigo =today #ythera in +reece>7 5gina7 !inos and #rete. !he govern(ent s4eci*ied that all these troo4s could be trans*erred on the *leet i* necessary. Cn the (idcentury7 the -enetian 4er(anent troo4s ere co(4leted ith 799 cavalry(en7 99 artillery(en and another 99 including o.ardieri7 engineers and other s4ecialists. Besides these soldiers and o**icers under contract7 the govern(ent could associate7 i* necessary7 hired *oreign troo4s and *inally turn to the (obili"ation o* (ilitias  the Ordinances or cernide in Ctaly and +reece7 and craine in Dal(atia  ith a 4hysiologically heterogeneous level o* e**iciency7 but they could increase the ar(y by several thousands o* (en. Cn *act7 in 7 the (ilitia nu(bered on 4a4er 97999 (en in the Mainland and additional <7999 in the Archi4elago and in

<

#ontariniIs relation7 cited i n: Can ,eath7 Ar(ies o* the Si3teenth #entury7 +uernsey7 8<<; 4. 9N.

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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Dal(atia. !he huge e3tension o* its borders and the e34ansion o* the con*lict against the Otto(ans in de*ence o* the /ingdo( o* #andia7 urged the Re4ublic to *ace strategic decisions hich could not be 4ost4oned7 and hich could not disregard a 4olicy o* heavy invest(ent to increase the strength o* the ar(y7 and es4ecially the in*antry to 4rotect the *ortresses7 to attac/ the islands ith a(4hibious landings7 and to besiege the ene(y strongholds in Bosnia and in +reece. !he hole *orces de4loyed in the #andian %ar had reached un4recedented levels7 scoring at various ti(es (ore than 697999 4ro*essional soldiers7 7999 sailors7 gunners and oars(en7 and about 697999 (ilitia(en o* the cernide and craine ith several (ounted or *oot irregulars recruited in Dal(atia7 +reece and Albania. Beteen 8 and 9  hen -enice undertoo/ the 4lan to e34el the Otto(ans *ro( #rete ith a landing assault  contingents ere recruited in every corner o* 5uro4e. Cn the su((er o* 97 799 in*antry(en and 799 horses ere asse(bled at #erigo7 ho landed in the *olloing Se4te(ber in *ront o* $a #anea =today #hania>. Si3 years later7 during the last atte(4t to de4rive the Otto(ans o* the (aGor islandIs 4orts7 <78 *oot soldiers and 799< horses landed in #rete. !he last three years o* *ighting around #andia de(anded an even larger nu(ber o* soldiers to su44ort the resistance o* the besieged city. 5very ee/ hundreds o* lives ere consu(ed in the *ierce *ighting7 li/e in a *urnace. %ithout counting the irregulars7 in Gust to and a hal* years7 -enice enlisted no less than 7999 4ro*essional soldiers7 (ost o* hich out o* their borders. A*ter a 4eriod o* disengage(ent and de(ilitari"ation beteen N9 and <67 the %ar o* the ,oly $eague increased the *orces again7 ith the de4loy(ent o* landing cor4s co(4osed o* thousands o* (en7 but the nu(bers reached *i*teen years earlier ere never eLualled and rarely totalled (ore than 7999 4ro*essional soldiers. Cn <7 *or the *irst action o* the ar7 the siege o* Santa Maura =today $ev/as7 $e*/ada island in +reece>7 the *orce available totalled 97999 Ctalian7 +er(an7 Maltese7 #roatian and +ree/ in*antry(en ith so(e cavalry co(4anies 8. One year later7 *or the u4co(ing ca(4aign in the Pelo4onnese7 (ore than 97999 (en ere gathered in #or*u7 but the actual *ighting *orce totalled 8799 soldiers 9; then7 in <7 at the initiative o* the Ca1itano
Archivio di Stato di -ene"ia =AS-e>7 avio alla critt$ra7 <7 Mili"ie esistenti in #or*X7 =ithout date> *. 7 **. 9. 9 +iaco(o Diedo7 Storia della Re4ubblica di -ene"ia7 -ene"ia7 N; t. CCC7 4. 68.  Dal 2egro7 cited or/; 4. 68. %he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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strength o* 7<8 (en7 included in*antry *ro( Braunscheig$Yneburg7 2ea4les7 the Milanese7 !uscany and Malta; the total *orce co(4rised 7999 horse ith *our co(4anies o* S4anishI dragoons *ro( Milan. Cn 7 the land *orce totalled 7999 in*antry(en and <99 horse(en6. Cn <<7 the -enetian e**ort 4roduced the considerable strength o* 77 but this *orce included in the *inal 4hase signi*icant 4ercentage o* sailors and even ar(ed oars(en. One year later7 the outbrea/ o* the Augsburg1s $eague %ar =<<8N> re4resented the turning 4oint not only *or the C(4erial o**ensive against the Porte7 but also *or the -enetians strategy in +reece7 due the groing di**icult to enlist *urther +er(an (ercenary contingents. or the ca(4aigns o* <87 rancesco Morosini could de4loy Gust 7< soldiers *ro( the Mainland and overseas do(ains ; hile on the Bosnian border the 4ro*essional *orce consisted in 7999 (en su44orted by local (ilitia and irregulars N. Beteen 89 and the end o* the ar7 every year -enice (obili"ed about <7999 soldiers and (ilitia(en7 necessary not only *or the %ar theatres in +reece and Dal(atia7 but also to secure the unsa*e Ctalian estern border7 la44ed by the 4assage o* the ar(ies that *aced each other in the ar o* the AugsburgIs $eague. Hears be*ore7 the (enace co(ing *ro( 5uro4ean belligerents beca(e a real threat in the Mediterranean too. Already in the su((er o* 7 Dutch and 5nglish vessels engaged the(selves in a *ierce battle in *ront o* $eghorn; 9 years later the rench *leet landed soldiers to su44ort the rebellion against S4ain in Messina7 attracting the S4anish and Dutch *leet close to the Conian Sea7 then in <6 K even (ore orrying  the rench navy bo(barded +enoa and then landed in*antry to occu4y Sa(4ierdarena7 to 4unish the Re4ublic *or its aid to S4ain. Moreover7 the 2orthern A*rican corsairs did not di(inished their 4resence in the Mediterranean and their co((anders introduced ne tactics e(4loying sLuadrons o* sail shi4s to re4ulse ene(ies and better interce4t the (erchant sea trade. !he ne scenario7 at least7 *avoured a gradual strategic turning o* -enice *ro( a *leet based on galleys to one based on vessels and in N the Senate decided to 4roceed to a signi*icant increase o* sail arshi4s through the construction o* ne vessels. !he



AS-e7 avio alla critt$ra7 <7 *. 7 **. 6. Cbide(7 
%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

*olloing year7 the initial anti*oreign trade 4olicy as directed toards the (ost traditional rival Otto(an 5(4ire7 based on the re4ort 4resented to the Senate by ailo =a(bassador to the Otto(an Porte> +iaco(o uerini a*ter his return *ro( Cstanbul. uerini e(4hasi"ed as the Sultan as ithout an actual arshi4s *leet and suggested recu4erating the su4re(acy in the eastern Mediterranean. !he #andian %ar had de(onstrated the Otto(an ea/ness *aced to the Dutch and 5nglish vessels in -enetian service. !hen the Re4ublic could re4lace the costly and so(eti(es unreliable *oreign units ith ne vessels 4rovided by the -enetian Arsenal to *or( a larger Ar.ata still co(4rised7 in -enice7  galeae ith another  in reserve. %hen the ar against the Otto(ans ended ith the Peace o* #arloit" in 887 and notithstanding the conLuest o* the Pelo4onnese7 the accu(ulated debt o* -enice had reached un4recedented levels7 hich heavily in*luenced the *uture (ilitary 4olicy. Cn the ne century7 the increasingly un*avourable econo(ic situation ould *orce the govern(ent to 4ursue a 4olicy o* ar(ed neutralityI destined to shar4en the contradictions o* a (ilitary organi"ation no launched toards an irreversible disar(a(ent. Des4ite a reduced e**ort on the sea res4ect the 4revious con*lict7 the -enetian *leet <

!he *irst -enetianbuilt sail vessel as the 7 enato Mar7 **. 7 <. 8

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

and ar(y i(4roved success*ully several ar tactics. !he use o* the galleys to ide radius to 4aralyse the Otto(an su44ly in the Aegean sea =techniLue and (ethods e(4loyed rese(ble those used by the +er(an B"oat in the to orld ars to be unnoticed>7 the strategic (assive use o* a(4hibious o4erations and the s4ecial role 4layed by the irregular *or(ations to /ee4 on alert the o44onents on the secondary *ronts7 such as in Dal(atia and Albania7 re4resent very innovative as4ects ith results greater than those achieved by the great 5uro4ean navies in the N th century7 e3ce4t the Dutch navy.

Map of Morea ?eloponnese@ by .incenzo Maria +oronelli ?ca /40@

=AuthorIscollection>

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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6rancesco Morosini, //43/4

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS Cn <7 at the outbrea/ o* the ar7 6rancesco Morosini too/ the (ilitary co((and and over the ne3t years7 he conLuered (ost o* the Pelo4onnese a*ter an i(4ressive series o* successes. ,is *a(e reached such heights that he as given the title o* Pelo1onnesiac$s7 and as the *irst -enetian citi"en to have a bron"e bust 4laced during his on li*eti(e in the 7 hen he as a44ointed as Sea +eneral #a4tain7 Morosini 4lanned aggressive and success*ul a(4hibious ca(4aigns in the 5gean Sea to cut the Otto(an su44lies *or the besieging ar(y at #andia =,era/lion>. Des4ite the negative outco(e o* the ar and the *inal loss o* #rete7 Morosini could i(4rove the a(4hibious tactics introduced tenty years be*ore7 achieving the uninterru4ted triu(4hs in <
Cllustration a*ter the Trattato di Artiglieria7 by *ommaso Moretti, "resciano7 ritten be*ore . !his *ine or/ 4resents caliber bron"e 4roduced *oundries and e(4loyed by both (ain the 2avy and o* thethe Ar(y in theguns last Luarter o* in thethe N th-enetian century =AuthorIs archive>.

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS 6ocus on- 'uns roduction in the .enetian 5epublic during the &oly #eague ar ?part one@

!he bron"e artillery 4roduction o* the hole state as (anaged by the Arsenal o* -enice. !he cast o* bron"e too/ 4lace in the arsenal *oundry and in other 4laces in the i((ediate vicinity  the (ost i(4ortant one as the *oundry o* the Alberghetti *a(ily  hile the carriages ere built inside the (ain Arsenal7 in the carreri =carters or/sho4s> located ne3t to the artillery storage. !here as also a or/sho4 *or (odels and co(4assesI here 4rototy4es o* (achines7 eLui4(ent and shi4s 4roduced in the Arsenal6 ere designed. !he 4rogressive increase o* large vessels7 since the #andian %ar7 had increased the need *or naval artillery. Bron"e ea4ons destined to galleys and galea""as could be easily 4roduced in -enice7 but the 4roduction o* a larger nu(ber reLuired by vessels obliged the govern(ent to loo/ *or alternatives. Moreover7 the heavy bron"e guns ere less suitable *or vessels. !he need *or iron guns7 instead7 in N as risen to (ore than 99 4ieces7 and this *orced the Senate to 4rocure the ea4ons abroad. Cn < the *oundry technician Sigis(ondo Alberghetti as sent to 5ngland to buy guns o* 9lb and7 at the sa(e ti(e7 to learn the technology *or the 4roduction o* iron 4ieces. AlberghettiIs (ission lasted *our years. Cn < he signed the last delivery7 bringing the total o* the guns 4urchased in 5ngland to 97 9 o* hich ere 9lb guns6. Cn <8 the %ar o* the AugsburgIs $eague involved 5ngland7 leaving the -enetian (ar/et ithout the (ain su44ly source. ,oever7 the steel technology *ound in the state an i(4ortant ea4ons (anu*acturing industry in the 4rovinces o* Brescia and Berga(o667 here *ine Luality (etal ith characteristics o* resistance and 4urity as (ined. Although they began late7 both $o(bard *oundries7 a*ter ten years o* studies and e34eri(ents7 4rovided *irst rate iron guns to the *leet7 co(4arable to the conte(4orary northern 5uro4ean ea4ons6. !he need to 4ro(ote the 4roduction o* iron artillery srcinates *ro( the *unda(ental trans*or(ation o* the -enetian ar *leet. Fntil the hal* o* the Nth century the *leet as based al(ost e3clusively on roing shi4s7 na(ely galleys and galea""as7 /non

6

Guida per l’Arsenale di Venezia G. Antonelli; Venice, 1829. AS-e7 enato Mar7 *. <87 <. 66 !he entre4reneurs ho 4roduced the largest nu(ber o* iron cannons *or the -enetian navy ere !ibur"io Bailo in Sare""o =Brescia> and #arlo #a(o""i in #lane""o =Berga(o>. 6 Cn 8N7 the goodLuality o* the guns 4roduced in the $o(bard *oundries as con*ir(ed also by Alessandro Molin7 the last Ca1itano traordinario delle /avi a44ointed during the ,oly $eague %ar; see in +uido #andiani7 %i$rio "ailo e i Cannoni di areo, Politica Militare e @ornit$re Militari nella 3e1$lica di -eneia d$rante la Pri.a <$erra di Morea 0(6&4(6''27 in Societ e Storia n. 96; 9967 4. N99. 6

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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as the Ar.ata ottile. !he need *or guns aboard these shi4s as not a 4roble(7 considering that a galley had nor(ally  cannons and the galea""a no (ore than 9. Cn overall7 the *leet reLuired no (ore than 699 guns7 a *igure that could be 4rovided by the 4roduction o* the bron"e artillery *oundries hich ere active in the State. Although *our or *ive ti(es (ore e34ensive than iron7 the bron"e cannons shoed nu(erous advantages: lighter7 less stressing *or the hull structures; they ere subGect to higher heating7 but they resisted better to a long shot and ere sa*er; 4articularly7 they could be easily cast a second ti(e7 so (uch so that they ere considered by govern(ents a relatively 4recious (etal reserves. !han/s to the artillery bron"e (ass accu(ulated in the 4ast and the relatively li(ited Luantities reLuested7 -enice had never seriously *aced the 4roble( o* e34loiting the (ineral resources o* the Mainland to 4lant a 4roduction o* iron artillery7 si(ilarly to the (aGor 5uro4ean sea 4oers. !he need o* iron artillery as not increased even a*ter the introduction o* sail arshi4s7 initiated during the undeclared con*lict that o44osed the Re4ublic to the S4anish -iceroy o* 2a4les beteen N and 9. A shi4 ith bron"e cannons (eant *acing a cost7 and a signi*icant *inancial loss in the event o* sin/ing. !he erenissi.a by4assed this 4roble( by relying on the rental o* a long series o* ar(ed (erchant shi4s  es4ecially Dutch and 5nglish7 but even *ro( the ,anseatic ton o* ,a(burg  hose oners rented the shi4s already eLui44ed ith iron artillery. %ith these units a ne Ar.ata
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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

starting a co(4le3 and uncertain industrial activity. Previously7 the govern(ent had 4urchased iron cannons in the ca4ital  -enice re(ained a (aGor (ar/et7 attended by the (aGor naval 4oers  or in $eghorn and +enoa. !rade e3changes ere *reLuent ith the a*ore(entioned tons and their govern(ents enGoyed good di4lo(atic relations ith -enice. !he ne naval 4rogra( de(anded not only a greater nu(ber o* guns7 but also higher calibres than those available in the Ctalian (ar/ets7 srcinally designed *or (erchant shi4s but not suitable *or (odern vessels. !he research as then e3tended to the to (ain 5uro4ean e(4oriu(s o* iron artillery7 A(sterda( and $ondon7 here the -enetian technician7 Sigis(ondo Alberghetti7 as sent in (ission. !han/s to his co((it(ent and the netor/ o* relationshi4s he i(4le(ented7 in the three years <6< the Re4ublic (anaged to i(4ort nearly 99 iron cannons *ro( 5ngland. !he 5nglish guns see(ed to be the o4ti(al solution: *ine or/(anshi4; reasonable 4rice7 bene*iting *ro( the easy and chea4 trans4ort ensured by the (erchant ho sailed *ro( the !ha(es to the $aguna. !hey ent to su44le(ent  and in so(e cases to re4lace K the bron"e artillery o* the 4ublic vessels7 hich rose to 9 units in <7 a*ter the outbrea/ o* the ne con*lict against the Porte. ,oever7 the Senate reali"ed early that the international (ar/et7 and in 4articular the one o* ea4ons7 had (ade its *leet highly de4endent on the 4olitical scenario. !he *all o* the Stuarts in <<7 the -enetian lac/ o* recognition o* the ne sovereign %illia( CCC o* Orange K in order not to co(4ro(ise the already di**icult relationshi4s ith $ouis CK and the 5nglish 4artici4ation in the $eague o* Augsburg7 (ade i(4ossible the su44ly o* iron artillery across the #hannel. C* -enice anted to continue to ar( its vessels7 and get *ree *ro( hat no a44eared as a dangerous de4endence *ro( *oreign countries7 it as necessary to start a ne iron artillery industry ithin its do(ains. Already in the late 1N9s7 coinciding ith the ne naval 4olicy7 the Re4ublic had atte(4ted to i(4lant a cannon *oundry in Schio7 near -icen"a7 an area close to -enice. Cn N8 the 4roduction started ith (ortar bo(bs and artillery 4roGectiles in iron7 but hen it ca(e to the casting o* cannons7 technical di**iculties beca(e insur(ountable. urther tries *ailed in other 4laces and7 although (any had guessed that the ne industry could be a good econo(ic deal7 this outco(e a44eared di**icult to achieve. !he (anage(ent o* technology (ade it di**icult7 as iron reLuired higher *usion te(4eratures and (uch (ore care in the or/ing 4rocess. Cn these events Sigis(ondo Alberghetti as also involved7 hose (ission in 5ngland coincided ith the end o* the atte(4ts in -icen"a. !he *ailure 4ro(4ted to (ove interest into the Brescia area7 the 4rovince o* (aGor (etallurgical traditions o* the state. A irst %he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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atte(4t *ailed here too7 hen in <6 the (us/et barrels *actory o* the #hinelli *a(ily in +ardone -al !ro(4ia e34eri(ented ith a greater iron casting. Sigis(ondo Alberghetti K ho returned *ro( 5ngland to years later K as sent to Brescia to study the 4ossibility o* i(4lanting ne *oundries conceived in the 5nglish (ethod o* *usion. !he inco(ing ar caused this 4roGect to be delayed7 because all the *oundries concentrated their 4roduction in the ne (ortar bo(bs introduced in rance and used ith good results in the Pelo4onnese ca(4aigns under Morosini. Moreover7 on several occasions7 the -enetian Arsenal co(4leted the ar(a(ent o* the vessels ith bron"e guns7 turning to its larger collection o* ea4ons7 including the Otto(an guns ca4tured during the ar. ,oever7 the research as not sus4ended. Cn the s4ring o* <<7 the #a4tain o* Brescia7 +irola(o #orner7 re4orted that7 a(ong sa(4les o* (inerals e3tracted near the village o* Sare""o7 one revealed itsel* o* Ve3Luisite LualityV *or casting cannons. At the beginning o* <87 ta/ing advantage o* the 4resence o* a rench engineer enlisted *or the 4roduction o* (ortar bo(bs7 #orner *orarded to -enice the nes o* the success*ul casting o* to s(all iron cannons in the *oundry o* !ibur"io Bailo. ,e belonged to a rich *a(ily o* -al !ro(4ia7 ho had been active in the *oundry industry and local onershi47 as ell as *orests7 land and livestoc/7 *or at least a century. A *riend7 and 4erha4s a relative o* #hinelliIs7 in < !ibur"io Bailo had7 in turn7 started a 4roduction o* (ortar bo(bs7 *ocusing on the largest and (ost di**icult ones7 even casting 4roGectiles eighing 999 -enetian lb. =699 /g>. ,e had *ound the (ine re4orted by #orner and7 later on7 he studied the co(4osition to create the suitable (i3ture *or casting cannons. ,e had even antici4ated (oney in this 4roGect Tas evidence o* his loyalty to the 4ublic serviceU 6. !he good results achieved ith the (inor calibres encouraged the *usion o* greater guns *or the arshi4s. Cn the *irst (onths o* <8 the *irst  lb. and 9 lb. iron guns ere cast in Sare""o. !he success7 hoever7 as not enough to begin a regular 4roduction. Cn Arsenal7 the construction o* ne vessels had been sus4ended a*ter the initial ave o* great successes had sto44ed in *ront o* the *ierce Otto(an de*ence at 2egro4onte. =continue>

6

AS-e7 enato is1acci 3ettori7 "rescia7 *.87 <8.

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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Artillery tools and 4roGectiles a*ter the Trattato di Artiglieria by !o((aso Moretti =-enice7 >.

%he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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O**icer and 4rivate o* the Alabardieri =,alberdiers7 $i*e +uard>7 8. !he srcin o* this cor4s as very old and dates bac/ to the early 199. !he unit as a 4alace guard cor4s7 e(4loyed to escort the Doge and other i(4ortant 4ersonalities in -enice or in the Do(ains. !he cor4s had a si"e o* to co(4anies7 each ith  and 69 4rivate halberdiers; the co(4lete strength includes  (usicians7 < staffieri =lac/eys> and  ca4tain ith  lieutenant. Cn the #orrer Museu( in -enice7 the halberdiers are 4ortrayed in 2au4lia hile they are escorting the burial service o* rancesco Morosini. Possibly7 in that occasion7 the cor4sI (e(bers ore the high uni*or(I ith gold laced doublet7 breeches and stoc/ings in yello7 a"ureblue aist *or 4rivates and yello *or o**icer and (usicians. 2ote the *alse sleeves *or the 4rivateIs doublet. %he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

!he ordinary uni*or(I o* the Alaardieri is described in the docu(ents 4reserved in the StateIs Archive o* -enice. !his uni*or( as less aulic res4ect the 4recedent7 although it as co(4leted by large 4lu(ed hat in blac/ *elt 4i4ed o* yello and rich gilded laces. Fni*or(s included a"ureblue stoc/ings *or 4rivate halbediers and red *or (usicians and o**icers. A> velada =coat>; B> ca.isiola =aist>; #> braghe =breeches>; d> detail o* sord bandolier *or both uni*or(s. %he -enetian Ar.! and /av! in the Hol! Leag$e War 01art one2

+&

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS 6ound in the Archives 3 5ed 'renadiers and 5ed +hasseursthe Guardie del Coro of the rinces of #ucca and iombino ?/103/1/@

By Bruno Mugnai S(all and virtually unar(ed7 the 4rincedo( o* $ucca and Pio(bino inaugurated a series o* states entrusted to 2a4oleonIs relatives. Cn <97 the ancient 4rincedo( o* southern !uscany7 hich already belonged to the Bonco(4agni$udovisi *a(ily7 as ceded to elice Baciocchi7 husband o* the e(4erorIs sister7 5lisa Bona4arte. A *e ee/s later7 on  June <97 the De(ocratic Re4ublic o* $ucca de(anded that 2a4oleon receive Prince elice Baciocchi and his i*e as the ne rulers. !hus7 a ne state as born7 co(4rised o* the strategic out4ost o* Pio(bino7 hich guarded the 5lba #hannel7 and the citystate o* $ucca7 here the ne court resided. !he creation o* this state did not occur by chance. 2a4oleon alays considered Ctaly a 4olitical laboratory to introduce ne syste(s o* 4oer and to e34eri(ent ith (ethods o* govern(ent. !he 'ingdo(s o* Ctaly and 2a4les ere consolidated into the ne order and Ctalian beca(e the second language in the 5(4ire. 7<997999 Ctalians lived in the ne rench de4art(ents created in the Peninsula7 the socalled @rance8talienne6. Moreover7 a*ter <97 there e3isted in Ctaly  duchies7  4rincedo(s7 and other (aGor *ie*s6Nallotted to the Bona4arte *a(ily and the (ost valiant (ilitary co((anders. !hese ne states clearly indicate that7 *or 2a4oleon7 no rench(an could rule in the 5(4ire better than his brethren7 ensuring the hege(onic 4olicy *oreshadoed since <9. 2aturally7 the e3istence o* a s(all state li/e $ucca and Pio(bino as guaranteed by co(4lete obedience to the 2a4oleonic order7 as the Re4ublic o* $uccaIs si*t involve(ent in the rench continental bloc/ade against 5ngland in <96 clearly de(onstrates. Des4ite its li(ited sovereignty7 the Princedo( o* $ucca and Pio(bino distinguished itsel* as the only state in the rench 5(4ire here (ilitary conscri4tion re(ained un/non. !he Baciocchi 4rinces see(ingly ruled an island in the stor(y 2a4oleonic ocean7 and their e34erience re4resented a considerable change in the history o* both states. !he rise o* the #orsican elice Baciocchi in the 2a4oleonic Parnassus as (ostly due to the ability and initiative o* his i*e 5lisa. She 4ossessed 6

!he Ctalians re4resented in <98 about [ o* the hole C(4erial 4o4ulation; see in Roger Du*raisse7 Le 3Dle de lE8talie dans la PolitiF$e /a1oleonienne7 4. 7 in the #ongress Acts Cl Princi4ato 2a4oleonico dei BaciocchiI7 $ucca7 8<. 6N  *ie*s in the 'ingdo( o* Ctaly7  in the 'ingdo( o* 2a4les and *urther 6 co(4rised in the territory o* Par(a and Piacen"a. /a1oleonic Bnifor.s

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

e3traordinary organi"ational s/ills7 an undoubted talent *or econo(ic (atters7 and tireless energy. #onte(4oraries recogni"ed these Lualities and she earned the nic/na(e: T!he e(ale 2a4oleon.U6<5lisaIs illu(inated 4olicies 4ro(oted e**ective bene*its in 4ublic institutions7 and as a result7 $ucca beco(e an i(4ortant cultural centre in Ctaly.

6<

. Masson7 cited by Roger !ho(as7 inLes
/a1oleonic Bnifor.s

4)

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

Des4ite the Princedo(Is (odest (ilitary *orce7 the 4rinces reorgani"ed the little ar(y by raising ne units and re*or(ing the (ilitia. Cn <97 the ar(y consisted o* the Prince @elice Battalion K *ive co(4anies o* light in*antry7 additional soldiers *ro( Pio(bino that nu(bered nearly a Luarter o* the Battalion  to outnu(bered artillery co(4anies7 one co(4any o*
*he #ife 'uards of rinces "aciocchi

Prince elice Baciocchi recogni"ed the *irst co(4any o* the <$ardie del Cor1o on 8A4ril <97 and on  May7 the *irst co(4any o* N< Private +renadiers7 2#Os7 and o**icers entered service in $ucca. !he decree also established a (ini(u( height o* the unit7  *eet and  inches =NN c(.>. or(ing the co(4any necessitated e3tracting so(e troo4s *ro( the +renadier #o(4any o* the line battalion. Previously7 on 69 A4ril7 the ancient co(4any o* the Siss +uards as dissolved7 and ste4byste4 li/e a (osaicIs tiles7 Siss guards aged under 9 co(4leted the ne unit. Just  Privates7  2#Os7 and  o**icer could be enlisted in the co(4any7 hile another 9 soldiers ca(e *ro( the in*antry Luartered in $ucca and Pio(bino 9. !he co(4any as *inally co(4leted in January <9N7 hen the Prince a44ointed the o**icers. Cn the sa(e 4eriod7 another co(4any ith eLual strength as organi"ed7 designated Co.1agnia Cacciatori. !he PrinceIs secretary ad(inistrated the $i*e +uards7 a unit that belonged to the Maison des Princes and as directly co((anded by Prince elice7 ran/ed
68

Archivio di Stato di $ucca =AS$u>7
/a1oleonic Bnifor.s

4(

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

in the PrinceIs residence in Marlia K here he 4osted  soldiers and  o**icer. Pri(arily due to his 4resence7 or lac/ thereo*7 in his residence7 the Prince eventually (odi*ied the co(4osition o* the Marlia unit. A*ter BaciocchiIs 4rincedo( absorbed the territory o* the ancient A4uan duchy7 another detach(ent o* the $i*e +uards *or(ed *or the sovereignsI residence in Massa in Se4te(ber <9N. !he ne unit consisted o*  Sergeant7  #or4orals7  Dru((er7 and 9 +renadiers. #o((and alternated beteen  $ieutenant o* the +renadiers and  o* the #hasseurs7 ho had under hi(  Sergeant7  #or4oral7  Musician7 but only < soldiers. Moreover7 hen aged (e(bers resigned at the end o* the year7 the strength o* the #or4s *urther di(inished7 and the ga4s ere only 4artially *illed ith other troo4s. A large 4ro4ortion o* Ctalian and #orsican soldiers re(ained in the ran/s7 but soldiers ith un(ista/ably rench na(es ere also enlisted.

!he sovereigns o* the Princedo(7 6elice "aciocchi and Elisa "onaparte. !he legacy le*t by 5lisa dee4ly (ar/ed the history and society o* $ucca and !uscany. ,er i(4erial brother also recogni"ed her e34ertise in governance issues: VShe /ne the a**airs o* her #abinet li/e the (ost veteran di4lo(ats.U !o their (erit7 the 4rinces also 4rotected their subGects *ro( conscri4tion. !his 4robably saved (any young lives and s4ared their *a(ilies *ro( the blood tribute reLuired by the 2a4oleonic ars.

/a1oleonic Bnifor.s

4*

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

Des4ite the attention and the care dedicated to the $i*e +uards7 in June <9N7  chasse$rs si(ultaneously deserted. Mariotti in*or(ed Prince elice about the un4leasant e4isode7 hich incidentally only involved #orsican soldiers . !o 4revent the *ugitives *ro( e(bar/ing *or #orsica7 the co((ander 4assed a note to the rench authorities in $eghorn and 4rovided a brie* 4hysical descri4tion o* the deserters. !he 4ort o* -iareggio as also alar(ed and other dis4atches ere sent to Pisa7 lorence7 and even #orsica. inally7 on  July7 the rench


Cbide(; <9N7 *.6CCC. !he investigation revealed the co(4licity o* deter(ining a #orsican cor4oral na(ed Piero #olonna. !he cor4oral had not only conceived the night esca4e7 but he ould have *avoured even sabotaging the alar(. 6 Cbide(. Ct is interesting to note ho the Princedo(Is authorities insisted to recover the uni*or(s7 considered their concrete econo(ic value.  ondo egreteria di tato e
4+

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

three and a hal* days . Since both 4rinces increasingly resided in lorence7 the +uardsI duties decreased. %hen co(bined ith the di**iculties *aced in (aintaining the strength o* the co(4anies7 the govern(ent as *orced to re*or( the entire cor4s. !he Decree o* 69 August <9 (erged the to co(4anies:  #a4tain #o((ander7  Second #a4tain7  irst $ieutenant7  Second $ieutenant7  Sub $ieutenants7  Sergeant uarter(aster7  Sergeant MaGor7  Sergeants7  #or4oral uarter(aster7  Dru(s7 and < +uards. Cn . October7 the s as increased to N (en ith an additional  Privates and  2#Os

!he ne unit beca(e /non as Co.1agnia delle <$ardie del Cor1o di $a Altea erenissi.a= Cn the inter o* <67 a 4roGect as 4resented to re*or( the co(4any to N< (en under the co((and o* $ieutenant #olonel +iaco(o Maestroni. !his #orsican o**icer had co((anded the line battalion and arrived in the Princedo( alongside the Baciocchi *a(ily. !his trans*or(ation o* the +uards as only 4artially co(4leted. At the eve o* the 2ea4olitan occu4ation7 the co(4any nu(bered a higher strength7 totalling 8 Privates7  2#Os7 and  o**icers N. Cn March7 hen the co(4anyIs *inal co((ander7 $ieutenant Sebastiano Donati7 revieed the $i*e +uards *or the last ti(e7 his *orces nu(bered < (en in $ucca K ith another 8 Luartered in Marlia7  o**icer and  2#O assigned in lorence to the MaGor Sta** o* Prince elice7  soldiers hos4itali"ed7 and  (ore assigned to other duties <. On 8 March <7 a 2ea4olitan colonel7 #ount +aetani7 reLuested the consign(ent o* all ea4ons7 eLui4(ent7 and uni*or(s. De4rived o* any e3terior (ilitary sign7 the $i*e +uards ceased to e3ist.

*he !niform of the #ife 'uards- a olitical Message

C(4ortant rench scholars and historians7 such as Paul Mar(ottan7 have been interested in the (ilitary history o* the Princedo( o* $ucca and Pio(bino. !his authoritative (e(ber o* the aretache travelled to !uscany several ti(es in search o* ite(s and in*or(ation concerning the Princedo(Is soldiers 8. A*ter Mar(ottan7 Roger ortho**er discovered other i(4ortant details concerning the uni*or(s o* Prince BaciocchiIs s(all ar(y. Both authors de(onstrated a great interest in the history o* 2a4oleonic $ucca and Pio(bino K regions that shar4ly contrasted the rest o* rench 

AS$u; egreterIa di tato e <98  @ora Ar.ata7 4rotocollo n. N6. Cbide(7 4rotocollo n. 9. N Cbide(7 tato /o.inativo delle <$ardie del Cor1o di =A== 6st January 8. < Cbide(7 is1osiioni 1er la @ora Ar.ata, vol -, <<. 8 Paul Mar(ottan7 "ona1arte et la 3G1$licF$e de L$cF$es7 Paris7 <87 and Le "ataillon de Pio.ino7 in #arnet de la Sabretache7 88\. 

/a1oleonic Bnifor.s

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

ruled 5uro4e7 yet contained an a(bivalent res4ect *or the C(4erial order. Cn (any res4ects7 the Princedo( o* $ucca and Pio(bino had been: Tthe (ost renchI o* the Ctalian States and K 4ossibly K (ore 2a4oleonicI than ranceU9. So(eti(es7 the notion that (ilitary uni*or(s have so(e sort o* relationshi4 to the society that created the( is e3tre(ely clear. !he di**iculty7 hoever7 is untangling the nu(erous threads that lin/ these ite(s to the institutions that conceived and 4roduced the(. Cn several as4ects7 the choice o* colours *or the $i*e +uard #o(4any uni*or(s encry4ted a signal o* sel*deter(ination. Fni*or(s o* gloing colours7 designed by the 4restigious scenogra4her and 4ainter JeanBa4tiste Csabey7 ere (anu*actured *or this unit. or Princess 5lisa7 these colours 4rovided a orthy *ra(e *or her court7 hich7 *ro( the beginning7 she ished to a44ear (agni*icent and gorgeous. !he *eatures o* this uni*or( 4ossibly *olloed the sa(e 4attern o* the rench C(4erial +uards7 but ith very di**erent colours to those nor(ally e(4loyed in the 5(4ire. Perha4s scarlet red and 4istachio green could be attributed to 5lisaIs 4ersonal taste7 but at the sa(e ti(e7 these colours 4roclai(ed a state co((itted to e(4hasi"e its 4olitical and cultural autono(y ithin the rench order. As ty4ical in ancient docu(ents7 even in 8 th century docu(ents7 details and descri4tions regarding uni*or( costs7 but not alays colours and *or(s7 are e34lained. !he $i*e +uardsI uni*or( is ell described in the Bulletin o* $as and Decrees o* the Princedo(7 but the lac/ o* s4eci*ication on accessories and other details obliges us to resort to co(4arison and su44ositions. urther(ore7 there is no 4ictorial evidence *or the Princedo(Is $i*e +uards7 and regarding the accessories7 the te3t only s4eci*ies: Tto be ta/en *ro( the (odels.U 5ven hen the second co(4any as created7 de*icient in*or(ation 4ersists. Des4ite the uncertainties7 the bears/in ca4 and eLui4(ent could be si(ilar to the obGects o* the rench C(4erial +uard. Si(ilarly7 the uni*or( 4attern o* the Co.1agnia Cacciatori could have *olloed the line o* the light in*antry hait veste. ortunately7 so(e discoveries in the state archive reveal other signi*icant accounts regarding this uni*or(. A (e(orandu( attached to a State Secretary docu(ent indicates that hite (etal buttons ith the e(ble( o* the Panther7 a sy(bol o* the ancient Re4ublic o* $ucca67 had been recovered *ro( the coats o* the disbanded Siss +uards and ere destined *or the ne uni*or(s o* the $i*e +uards K 9

-ito !irelli7 Prol$sione agli Atti del #ongresso 8l Princi1ato /a1oleonico dei "aciocchi7 $ucca7 8<.  Bruna 2iccoli7 #ostu(e a $ucca7 contenuti e 4roble(i di (oda dalla Re4ubblica al Princi4ato7 $ucca 88; 4. 9.  Decree dated 8th A4ril <97 art. -. 6 AS$u7 egreterIa di tato e <9  @ora Ar.ata7 4rotocollo n. N6. /a1oleonic Bnifor.s

45

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

a (easure o* good econo(ics7 but also a strong re*erence to the 4ast. Another docu(ent discovered in the archives recounts a change o* the uni*or( in <. So(e letters sent to lorence in the inter < contained 4roGects sub(itted to Prince elice regarding the ne $i*e +uard #o(4any. Fn*ortunately7 the unintelligible handriting obscures hich colours ould be chosen7 but it is certain that the uni*or( received signi*icant changes. !o years later7 than/s to a note attached to docu(entation concerning the reLuisitions ordered by the 2ea4olitan occu4ants7 e learn that the #o(4any as co(4letely dressed in hite ith car(ine red *acings. ,y4othetically7 this change is con*ir(ed in an otherise unidenti*ied source shoing a *ront and bac/ uni*or( (odel ith so(e 4articular ele(ents. !he grenadier bears/in headgear had a brass 4late ith a 4anther7 the sa(e distinctive sy(bol that a44eared in <9. Once again7 the lin/ ith the 4ast as a 4olitical declaration o* autono(y had not disa44eared.

/a1oleonic Bnifor.s

46

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

'uardie del +orpo di %ua Altezza %erenissima il Princi4e di $ucca e Pio(bino =<>

=Private #ollection>

/a1oleonic Bnifor.s

47

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

Guardie del Coro!



#o(4any Sta**: Co"agnia Granatieri =May <9>

 #a4itano #o(andante =#o((ander #a4tain>  #a4itano in Seconda =Second #a4tain>  !enenti =$ieutenants>  Sottotenenti =Sub $ieutenants>  Sergente Maggiore =Sergeant MaGor>  Sergenti =Sergeants>  #a4orale uriere =uarter(aster #or4oral>  !a(buri =Dru(s> 9 +ranatieri =Private +renadiers>

!he Co"agnia Ca##iatori had the sa(e sta** and strength.

Co"agnia delle Guardie del Coro di $ua Altezza $erenissi"a!



#o(4any Sta** =<>

 #a4itano =#a4tain>  !enente =$ieutenant>  Sottotenente =Sub $ieutenant>  Sergente Maggiore =Sergeant MaGor>  Sergenti =Sergeants>  #a4orale uriere =uarter(aster #or4oral> < #a4orali =#or4orals>  !a(buri =Dru(s> 9 +uardie =Private +uards>  ?nfants de %ro$1e =Boys>

/a1oleonic Bnifor.s

4&

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

'uardie del +orpo, /103/1/2 =Reconstruction by Bruno Mugnai> > $ieutenant7 +renadier #o(4any; > Private7 +renadier #o(4any; 6> haitveste *or the #hasseur #o(4any ; a> details o* the buttons; b> bears/in ca4 *or both co(4anies; c> Private +renadier #o(4any sabre stra4 and d> *or the Private #hasseur #o(4any.

/a1oleonic Bnifor.s

4'

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

!his co44er engraving by Antonio -erico7 a*ter a draing o* +iovanni Matraia7 is a uniLue illustration de4icting the Guardie del Coro 4reserved in the StateIs Archive o* $ucca: @ondo ta.1e . !he vie o* the Piaa 3eale in $ucca =today 1iaa /a1oleone> shos the 4ic/et guard at the entrance o* the +overn(ent 4alace7 clearly uni*or(ed in a 2a4oleonic +renadier +uardIs style.

/a1oleonic Bnifor.s

5)

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

%orgotten %ronts o& ''( *he 'erman acific +olonies 3 art )ne- >eutsch %amoa

by Andr&s '. Moln&r

estern %amoa beca(e a +er(an 4rotectorate in the last years o* 8th century7 *olloing

the e34anding in*luences o* the +er(an trade co(4anies in the South Paci*ic area a*ter <<. #o(4etition in the trading o4erations in the Archi4elago involved *oreign co(4anies7 4articularly British ones. !ensions caused in 4art by the con*licting interests o* the +er(an traders and 4lantation oners o44osed to British business enter4rises and A(erican business interests led to the Sa(oan #ivil %ars . !hese ars involved the A(erican and British naval sLuadrons in the area7 but. notithstanding these ante *acts7 

!he $ondon based trade co(4any Ruge7 ,ede(ann E #o7 established in 
5)

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

+er(an Sa(oa re(ained a less strategic base *or Berlin7 hich did not sho great interest in (ilitari"ing the islands. %ar as not on the agenda o* the +er(an colonies in the Paci*ic. !he cannons available in the +er(an Paci*ic ere useless *or de*ensive 4ur4oses because they had alays been used e3clusively *or *iring salutes7 and no actual a((unition had been ordered. Fn4re4ared *or a ar at sea7 the +er(ans had given eLually little thought to the de*ence o* their colonies by land. !he only *orti*ications7 those in 'olonia on Pona4e in Micronesia7 had been ra"ed a*ter having been ta/en over *ro( the S4anish. !he *ailure to ta/e de*ensive (easures could be inter4reted as the result o* a rather naive belie* in a general consensus a(ong 5uro4eans to leave the colonies out o* any (ilitary con*licts in 5uro4e. Although the #ongo Act did not a44ly to the Paci*ic7 it (ay have nourished such ideas. Moreover7 there as a historical 4recedent. During the rancoPrussian %ar7 the naval co((anders o* the rench and Prussian *leets in the ar 5ast had co(e to a 4rivate agree(ent not to attac/ each other. !he Paci*ic under +er(an ad(inistration as at the 4eri4hery7 a orld o* its on here e3ce4tions ere 4ossible and local solutions could be *ound. !hose ho bene*ited *ro( this situation had no ish to be dictated to by (ilitary constraints and 4ressures *ro( outside. !he *act that Berlin did not initiate any (oves to 4ut its Paci*ic colonies in a 4osition at least to de*end the(selves against attac/s indicates ho little strategic and 4olitic value as 4laced on the(. On closer ins4ection7 all tal/ o* the CslandsI econo(ic value 4roves to have been e(4ty. !hese ere (erely sho coloniesI to boost +er(anyIs 4restige as a orld 4oer. !his also (eant that +er(any did not ant to /no about develo4(ents that ould have reLuired an urgent change o* 4olicy. During the Agadir crisis o* 87 the British arshi4 Challenger, under the co((and o* #a4tain =later Ad(iral> 5rnest . A. +aunt7 entered the harbour o* the +er(anSa(oan chie* ton o* A4ia at night and unannounced. !he circu(stances surrounding this event  all the shi4sI lights had been 4ut out7 and the regulation that a +er(an 4ilot as to be ta/en on board had been ignored  suggest that there as (ore than a grain o* truth in the ru(our soon circulating that the Challenger had received orders to occu4y Sa(oa on the outbrea/ o* the ar in 5uro4e. As the shi4 arrived7 the British settlers in Sa(oa gathered at the harbour to elco(e it7 hile the +er(ans *led into the bush in 4anic. 5ven a*ter this7 the +er(an ad(inistration sa no reason to revise its naive idea that its 4aradise o* har(ony as not under threat. 

Fntil 8 the +er(an Reich as not in a 4osition to bac/ u4 its clai( to be a orld 4oer7 ith all this entailed. !he Paci*ic colonies reveal as a sha( a sel*4ro*essed orld 4oer that su**ered *ro( i(4erial overstretchI even be*ore it beca(e a real orld 4oer. See in Jose4h ,er(ann7 %he /eglected War= %he
5(

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

Fntil 8 the +er(an 4rotectorates in the Paci*ic re(ained al(ost unde*ended. 2o (arine stations had been established and the cres o* arshi4s *ro( !singtao =the +er(an base in #hina> regarded the visits to the Paci*ic as elco(e recreational brea/s. !here ere no (ilitary laurels to gather there; nor ere they sought. 5ven in the orst case7 5ast Asia and the Paci*ic ere o* only secondary signi*icance to the +er(an *leet. !he +er(an navy had (ade no contingency 4lans to de*end +er(anyIs Paci*ic colonies. Provision had not even been (ade *or the *leet to have adeLuate access to coaling stations in the case o* a con*lict. Most o* the coal de4ots in the +er(an s4here o* in*luence in the Paci*ic ere under the control o* 4rivate co(4anies7 the (ost i(4ortant o* hich ere the /ordde$tsche Llo!d and the /e$g$ineaJo.1anie. !he C(4erial 2avy had only a contractual right to use these de4ots. 2o colonial troo4s ere stationed in +er(an Sa(oa. !he +er(ans had not introduced obligatory (ilitary training *or the colonial 4o4ulation. 2or had any atte(4t been (ade to organi"e a civil de*ence or (ilitary reserve *or the contingency o* an invasion. Cn 8 less than 6.999 +er(ans lived in Sa(oa along ith other 5uro4eans7 out o* <97999 natives and 7999 seasonal #hinese or/ers. A large nu(ber o* +er(an 4lanters had evaded (ilitary service at ho(e: in Sa(oa7 not even the governor had served. 53ce4t *or the "Krgerwehr 5uro4ean (ilitia on voluntary basis7 the native 4olice as all that e3isted in the ay o* (ilitary su44ort. !his Poli"eiI could Goin occasionally the native (ilitia7 but in Sa(oa they had been both disbanded in January 8 and re4laced by Melanesian 4olice(en. !here had been no (ilitary training *or the eventuality o* countering a 5uro4ean or Asian invasion. !he only thing that had been started be*ore 8 as a 4lanned netor/ o* Paci*ic radio lin/s. ,istorically7 the +er(an rule as the (ost econo(ically 4rogressive that the country had ever e34erienced. !he +er(an 4rotectorate as ell acce4ted but also *eared. Cts actions and conduct beca(e T4aternal7 *air and absoluteU N. Cn 89<7 hen the nonviolent Ma$ a P$le resistance (ove(ent arose7 the +er(an authorities did not hesitate to banish the Ma$ leader $aua/i 2a(ulauulu Ma(oe to Sai4an in the +er(an 2orthern Mariana Cslands. !he +er(an colonial ad(inistration governed on the 4rinci4le that T] there as only one govern(ent

in

the

islands.U
there

as

no

Sa(oan

%$1$=/ing>7

nor

an aliisili =governor>7 but to @a$t$a =native advisors> Goined the colonial govern(ent. !raditional *or(s o* sel*govern(ent ere *or a ti(e silent; all decisions on (atters a**ecting lands and titles ere under the control o* the +overnor a44ointed *ro( Berlin. All

N

Mc'ay7 #yril +ilbert Reeves7a.oana, A Personal tor! of the a.oan 8slands; %ellington and Auc/land7 8<; 4. <. < $ethaite7 +ordon7 $i*e7 $and and Agriculture to Mid#enturyI in Western a.oa. #hristchurch7 8; 4. <. @orgotten @ronts of WW8

5*

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

the Paci*ic nations under +er(an colonial govern(ents de(onstrated dedication and loyalty to the 'aiser and *ro( the 4oint o* vie o* social order they never created serious 4roble(s. C* +er(any had not been able to gain econo(ically or strategically i(4ortant territories in the South Paci*ic7 it had at least acLuiredI the bestI 4eo4le7 ins4iring the envy o* the other 5uro4ean 4oers. +er(an Paci*ic colonies ere7 in every sense7 at the 4eri4hery o* the ord. !he *act that they ere so *ar aay *ro( 5uro4e  (uch *arther than A*rica  had a variety o* conseLuences. !he +er(an 4ublic7 li/e +er(an 4oliticians7 ere (uch less concerned about develo4(ents in the Paci*ic than in A*rica. +er(anyIs Paci*ic 4ossessions ere certainly regarded as conclusive evidence that +er(any had *inally attained the status o* a orld 4oer. But there as little strategic value in e3tending the Reich to the Paci*ic. Cndeed7 as the orld ar as to sho7 it brought +er(any (ore disadvantages than advantages. As early as Dece(ber <8<7 the +er(an 2aval ,igh #o((and had advised against the acLuisition o* Micronesia7 4ointing out that the islands ere too re(ote *ro( +er(any to be o* any (ilitary use7 and si(ilar o4inion as concerned ith Sa(oa. 2onetheless7 4ride in having acLuired a real 4lace in the sunI at last7 harboured by the *uture +er(an chancellor von BYlo7 the 'aiser7 and (any other +er(ans7 gave the Paci*ic colonies so(ething li/e collectorsI value. !hey re4resented an ideal that alloed +er(any to sho o**7 enhancing the 4restige o* a country still striving to be ac/noledged as an eLual by the old7 traditionally acce4ted orld 4oers. +er(anyIs Paci*ic e(4ire as li/e beauti*ul GeelleryI7 hich is o* value only to its collector and does not yield a 4ro*it7 but hich gave us 4leasure. +er(an governors in the Paci*ic enGoyed also great in*luence. %ilhel( Sol*7 the +er(an governor in Sa(oa. as a la graduate and a doctor o* 4hiloso4hy. ,e as a clever (an ho had or/ed in A4ia *or eleven years7 s4ending ten as governor.

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

5+

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS %amoa %urrenders

Once the ar had bro/en out7 Berlin did not ta/e signi*icant (easures to strengthen the de*ence. !he only decision ta/en as to e3tend the socalled VAustralian StationV =enco(4assing all +er(an South Seas 4rotectorates7 not the British do(inion ith the sa(e na(e>. !he s(all gunboat o* SavaiC Csland7 a British citi"en7 naturally had to give u4 his 4osition7 but he as not subGect to any restrictions on his (ove(ents either. !he +er(ans in Sa(oa Luite clearly believed that the good relations beteen the di**erent nations hich had e3isted so *ar could continue in the *uture7 even under changed circu(stances. Cn any case7 there as no alternative to this course o* action8. Sa(oa as the second +er(an territory7 a*ter !ogo in A*rica7 to *all to the Allies in the %%C. -iceAd(iral #ount Ma3i(ilian von S4ee7 the co((ander o* the +er(an 5ast Asia 2aval SLuadron7 gained /noledge o* the occu4ation and hastened to Sa(oa ith the ar(oured cruisers charnhorst and
8

Jose4h ,er(ann7 cited or/; 4. .

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

55

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

gunboat and bo(barding Pa4eete.

Military )rganization in 'erman %amoa

!he *irst (ilitary cor4s under +er(an control as created in <<< by the e34erienced veteran Ha$1t.ann 5ugen Brandeis7 ho serviced in Sa(oa as (ilitary advisor *or /ing !a(asese. ,e trained < young Sa(oans as (ilitary 4olice(en7 decreased to  in August <<<. Military service on voluntary basis lasted initially to years and later three7 recruiting ell bodied (en aged 97 es4ecially the subGects belonging to the (ost i(4ortant *a(ilies. !he e$tschea.oanishe Poliei (ustered u4 to 9 (en in the *olloing years. Searching the srcinal (uster roll7 e co(e to /no even the 4hysical characteristics o* these 4olice(en: the shortest (easured (t. 77 the tallest (t. 7
o fitafita o le .alo =Sa(oan: govern(ent soldiers>7

directed by a +er(an o**icer ith a native 2#O. !he ran/s *illed by the native ere indeed


See in !ho(as Morlang7 AsNari $nd @itafita= O@arigeE ldner in den de$tschen Jolonien; Berlin7 99<; 4. <. Cde(7 4. 6.

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

56

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

January 87 the ne governor 5rich Schult"5erth considered the annual e34ense o* <7999 Mar/s *or Sa(oan (ilitary 4olice as e3cessive and as/ed Berlin to disband both the @itafita and the Leoleo cor4s. !he elco(e o44ortunity *or this resolution as o**ered by the (ulti4le (urder hich involved *our @itafitas in January 8. !he causes that 4rovo/ed the incident ere never clari*ied. !he (assacre too/ 4lace at a cine(a in A4ia and involved the @itafitas and so(e #hinese or/ers. !he inLuiry co((ission issued a disconcerting state(ent7 citing as *unda(ental cause the e3cite(ent deriving *ro( the subGect o* the (ovie  the A(erican ild est  hich triggered the reaction o* Sa(oans against the #hinese 4ublic in the cine(a . On the eve o* the invasion7 only < or 9 *or(er @itafitas ere serving in A4ia *or the surveillance o* the governor1s residence7 re4laced *or other duties by 9 Melanesian Polieitr$11en under +er(an 2#Os and O**icers. A4art *ro( a *e do"en o* volunteers o* the 5uro4ean "Krgerwehr7 the 4olice(en ere the only (ilitary *orce active in Sa(oa at the eve o* the 2e Zealand invasion.



Jose4h ,er(ann7 cited or/7 4. .

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

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#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

!his *igure is based a*ter a 4hotogra4h o* an )fficer or N+) o* the Deuts#h3$a"oanis#he B)rgerwehr in 86. $i/e the other (e(bers he ears a /ha/i tunic. ,e has (atching /ha/i trousers7 civilian hite tro4ical hel(et and boots. Probably all these ite(s ere 4rivately 4urchased.

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

5&

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

'erman Melanesian Police(an in Sa(oa7 87 4hotogra4hed Gust a*ter their surrender to the

2e Zealanders =AuthorIs Archive>.

%amoan %ita&ita; A4ia7 8 =AuthorIs Archive>.

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

5'

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

6)

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS %e /no uni*or(s and eLui4(ent o* the +er(an troo4s in Sa(oa than/s to the ell 4reserved 4hotogra4hic archives in +er(any and 2e Zealand7 hile other in*or(ation is available in o**icial ordinances o* the +er(an colonial uni*or(s. Other good sources are re4resented by srcinal obGects and conte(4orary draings. !his Cllustration is based on 4hotogra4hs o* Sa(oan ita*ita cere(onial guards. !he native military3policemen N+) to right ore a hite uni*or( 4i4ed in blue consisting o* a sarong7 tunic =/non in Sa(oa as a Lava Lava> and 4ea/less *ield ca4 ith a s(all +er(an C(4erial coc/ade. !his 2#O ears the sa(e *ield ca4 as the 4rivate soldiers but ith to blue stri4es around the cu** o* the Gac/et. !he red sash edged ith gold ith an brass i(4erial eagle in brass on the chest is the cere(onial sash *or ita*ita 2#Os assigned to the governorIs residence !he other *igure is based on a 4hotogra4h o* a 'erman )fficer on 4arade ith the %ita&ita. ,e ears a standard hite tro4ical uni*or( o* the i(4erial navy =ithout ch$ttr$11e blue 4i4ing> and a (atching 4ea/ed *ield ca4 ith a hatband and 4i4ing in red7 as co((on to (ost +er(an colonial 4olice units7 ith the blac/\hite\red i(4erial coc/ade on the *ront o* the hatband. A shade o* dar/ 4in/ as authorised as the *acing colour *or +er(an Sa(oa in 87 but it as al(ost certainly not issued be*ore 8. %hite tro4ical hel(ets ith s(all i(4erial eagles and coc/ades ere also co((on. ,e is ar(ed ith only a navy cere(onial sord although 4istols ere issued.

Brass eagle and yellogold lace on the red 6itafita(s ceremonial sash.

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

6(

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

!he illustration is based on a 4hotogra4h o* a Military oliceman ta/en in A4ia in 87 4robably by a (e(ber o* the 2e Zealand 534editionary orce that ca4tured the islands. !his (ilitary 4olice(an7 4ossibly a Melanesian *ro( New 'uinea7 ears a hite tro4ical hel(et and a /ha/i uni*or(. !he tunic is o* a style seen be*ore by the 5ast Asian 534editionary #or4s7 ith a standing collar and one le*t breast 4oc/et. !he 4oc/ets =including the to hi4 4oc/ets> a44ear to have no 4oc/et *la4s. Above the breast 4oc/et is a seven 4ointed star badge. !his 4olice(an has a dar/ coloured band around each cu**7 4robably dar/ red. ,e is ar(ed ith a Dreyse Kndnadelgewehr =aging ri*le> 76 c(. calibre ith bayonet. @orgotten @ronts of WW8

6*

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

!he srcinal 4hotogra4h on hich illustration is based shos *our 4olice(en. !hey all ear the sa(e uni*or(s e3ce4t that one has no cu** bands7 one has one =7another has to =Jor1oral> and the *inal one has three =ergeant>. Also in the srcinal 4hotogra4h to soldiers ear 4uttees as seen here hile the other to ear their trousers loose around the an/les. Most o* the 4olice(en 4hotogra4hed on Sa(oa in the early years o* +er(an rule sho the( earing hite naval *atigues or ith a dar/ red sarong li/e those orn by the Neuguinea *olizeitruen7 ith the sa(e naval style 4ea/less ca4s as the Sa(oan

@itafita, or stra hats held u4 on the right hand side ith a large i(4erial coc/ade as srcinally issued to the 5ast Asian 534editionary #or4s during the Bo3er Rebellion.

East Asia 'erman bayonet, issued to the garrison in the Paci*ic colonies.

Brass +er(an #olonial olice "adge.

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

6+

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS 6ocus on- the 6ate of 'erman +ivilians in %amoa

Des4ite the occu4ation had ta/en 4lace ithout bloodshed7 the *ate o* the civilian 4o4ulation gradually beca(e unha44y. Cn his boo/ o* 887 Jose4h ,er(ann tells7 not ithout 4ole(ical 4ur4oses7 the harsh treat(ent received by +er(an residents in Sa(oa by the 2e Zealanders. Cn co(4arison ith other *oreign occu4ations in +er(an Paci*ic colonies  according to ,er(ann  the +er(ans in Sa(oa had the orst ti(e o* all. A*ter the retreat o* the +er(an *leet7 Sa(oa as a co(4lete bac/ater as *ar as the 5uro4ean ar as concerned. Relations beteen the +er(an and the British colonists had been a**ected by the ar7 but in general good 4ersonal relations stood u4 to its strains. !he Sa(oans gave no cause *or concern. 2onetheless7 $ieutenant#olonel $ogan7 the 2e Zealand (ilitary governor7 ruled the islands ith e3traordinarily coercive (easures that ere otherise used only in direct ar "ones. !he *act that the island had been occu4ied so Luic/ly did nothing *or relations beteen +er(ans and 2e Zealanders. Cn the absence o* an o**icial treaty o* surrender7 the guidelines *or the (ilitary ad(inistration o* an occu4ied territory laid don in the ,ague #onvention a44lied to relations beteen the +er(an civilian 4o4ulation and the occu4ying troo4s. $ogan inter4reted these guidelines in an unconventional ay. ,is basic idea as continually diluted7 until all that re(ained o* the +er(an la theoretically still in *orce as the (arriage la. or the rest7 the $ieutenant #olonel ruled by (eans o* 4rocla(ations7 (ilitary decrees7 and courts (artial. ,er(ann argues that: TAll +er(ans7 including those ho lived in the re(ote 4arts o* the archi4elago7 had to re4ort in A4ia once a ee/7 and they had to observe a co(4lete blac/out beteen 8 4.(. and  a.(. A general cur*e as in *orce *ro(  4.(. !he 4ost to and *ro( +er(any ca(e to a co(4lete halt *ro(  2ove(ber 8. 5ven censored letters ere no longer carried7 and the last consign(ent o* +er(an (ail that reached Sa(oa as burnt in sight o* the +er(ans. ,igher +er(an o**icials7 including the governor7 ere sent to 2e Zealand as PO%s i((ediately a*ter the occu4ation o* Sa(oa. !hey ere interned on the island o* Motuihi o** Auc/land. !he ooden barrac/s in hich they ere housed ere dirty7 not eather4roo*7 and unheated. Al(ost all the +er(ans there*ore su**ered *ro( s/in diseases and rheu(atis(. #o(4laints ere 4unished by con*ine(ent in the dar/ and not being alloed to ash. !he +er(an governor7 accusto(ed to s4ecial treat(ent7 su**ered es4ecially. !here had already been tension beteen hi( and his de4uty7 ho ca(e *ro( +er(an South %est A*rica; under these conditions it si(4ly e34loded. A*ter the Fnited States entered the ar7 the situation as (ade even orse by the *act that the Siss consul in Auc/land as an 5nglish(an ho did not 4ass on any co(4laints (ade by the civilian PO%s. +radually7 the re(aining +er(an o**icials on Sa(oa ere also sent to 2e Zealand as PO%s. !hey ere ta/en to So(es Csland in %ellington Bay7 here the sus4ect @orgotten @ronts of WW8

64

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

2e Zealand +er(ans ere also interned. More and (ore +er(an civilians *ro( Sa(oa Goined the( there. !hey had *allen victi(7 *or various reasons7 to the ra4id (oodsings o* the un4redictable $ogan. #onditions on So(es Csland ere even orse than on Motuihi. A 4ublic investigation underta/en on the reLuest o* #ount eli3 von $uc/ner7 a 2e Zealand +er(an ho as idely ad(ired in 2e Zealand and hi(sel* detained on Motuihi7 revealed e3tre(ely harsh conditions. !he Sa(oan+er(ans7 accusto(ed to the tro4ical heat o* Sa(oa7 ere *orced to slee4 on (uddy *loors in cla((y roo(s7 hich ere *ree"ing cold in inter. $ittle stra as 4rovided. At least as (any as three hundred 4risoners ere e34osed to constant harass(ent by the arders. !heir s4ecialty as ordering the 4risoners to do 4hysical e3ercisesI. !his included the 4risoners bending over bac/ards to 4ass under stic/s that the arders held at a higher or loer level7 de4ending on their vie o* the 4risoner7 lea4*rogging7 and running around in a circle: Tthey ere /ic/ed7 shoved7 and sla44ed to (a/e the( (ove at the 4ro4er s4eedI =...>.U #ircu(stances orsened *urther a*ter the nes co(ing *ro( 5uro4e. !he death o* 5dith #avell7 the British nurse ho as e3ecuted by a +er(an *iring sLuad in 8 *or hel4ing Allied soldiers esca4ed *ro( occu4ied Belgiu(7 i(4ressed the 4ublic o4inion o* the hole 5(4ire. Outrage echoed across the oceans and she as e3tensively (e(orialised in 2e Zealand. According to ,er(ann7 nor did the +er(ans ho re(ained in Sa(oa have an easy ti(e: Ttheir businesses ere seLuestered in 8. C* anyone co(4lained about the e3tre(e a44lication o* (artial la in Sa(oa7 $ogan re4lied that co(4ared ith hat the +er(ans ere doing in Belgiu( it as nothing. ,e 4ointed out that he could 4ersonally shoot every +er(an ith his on revolver. $egal 4roceedings against +er(ans accused o* cri(es ere a *arce. !here ere cases here the Ad(inistrator set the (a3i(u( 4enalty by 4rocla(ation only a*ter a trial. A(ong the (ost un*airly treated ere three e(4loyees o* the e$tsch Handels $nd Plantagengesellschaft =trading and 4lantation co(4any> ho ere sto44ed by a (ilitary 4atrol on their ay ho(e and subseLuently sentenced to si3 (onths o* 4rison ith hard labour *or brea/ing the cur*e. Cn Motuihi Prison they s4ent their ti(e brea/ing stones ith ordinary cri(inals. !herea*ter they ere ta/en into ca4tivity as PO%s. During their trial7 in hich they ere denied a de*ence counsel7 the 4residing (ilitary Gudge re*used their a44lication to call itnesses *or the de*ence. %hen they insisted7 they ere threatened ith an additional 4unish(ent *or conte(4t o* courtI. So (any PO%s ere sent *ro( Sa(oa to 2e Zealand that the govern(ent eventually re*used to acce4t any (ore. A s4ecial 4rison ca(4 as there*ore set u4 in Sa(oa. Men ho had hung +er(an *lags *ro( their indos or had been caught singing Heil ir i. iegerNran7 ie Wacht a. 3hein7 or e$tschland Ker Alles ere sent there. !oard the end o* the ar7 the situation in Sa(oa @orgotten @ronts of WW8

66

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escalated. An unsuccess*ul atte(4t by +er(an PO%s to esca4e *ro( Sogi7 the intern(ent ca(47 gave $ogan occasion to issue a s4ecial decree 4lacing all +er(ans7 including children7 under house arrest. ,e anted to e3ecute the PO%s by court (artial. %hen %ellington telegra4hed that according to international la an atte(4t by PO%s to esca4e as not a statutory o**ense7 $ogan reacted by deciding to intern all +er(ans in Sa(oa7 including Sa(oans o* +er(an descent. Be*ore Sa(oa could be trans*or(ed into a giant 6 PO% ca(47 hoever7 the ar(istice as signed in 5uro4e.U

=AM>

6

Cde(7 4. 6.

@orgotten @ronts of WW8

67

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS "))% 5E.$E

#ARDC2C7ranco; $l *urco a .ienna< storia del grande assedio del /1B =!he !ur/at -ienna; ,istory o* the +reat Siege o* <6> ; Bari7 $ater"a7 NN< 4.; hardcover7 (a4s7 bibliogra4hy7 inde3. CSB2: 8N<<<9<7 and7 *inally concludes ith the Otto(an de*eat at Belgrade and the 4eace o* Passaroit" in N<. #ardiniIs or/ 4aints a detailed reconstruction o* the international conte3t in hich the contrasts beteen the Otto(an 5(4ire and the Austrian ,absburgs a44eared. or #hristian 5uro4e7 the siege o* -ienna is the last 1+reat ear1 and *ro( this conte3t arose tones o* a4ocaly4tic struggle ca4able o* distorting7 *or centuries7 the actual vision o* the *acts. Rightly7 this boo/ deconstructs (any o* the 4rinci4al (yths7 na(ely the 1clash o* civili"ations and religions1 that is today evo/ed ith un4ardonable ea/ness and su4er*iciality o* historical content. Cn *act7 it is i(4ossible to ignore that counting a(ong the ene(ies o* 5(4eror $eo4old C ere the Orthodo3 #hristians o* Moldavia and %allachia7 and K ith a 4olitical te(4era(ent (ore develo4ed in an antiAustrian and anti#atholic trend K the ,ungarian #alvinist (agnates7 led by C(re !h_/_ly. 5Lually develo4ed is an analysis o* the relationshi4 beteen Cstanbul and Paris7 here $ouis C- (anaged his relationshi4s7 (ore or less secretly7 ith the Sultan to obtain a *ree 4ass in +er(any. On the o44osite side7 the Shah o* Persia received #hristian e(issaries ho urged ar against the Sultan7 a Musli( li/e hi(7 and  hen the Otto(ans ere de*eated  reGoiced no less than the Po4e. Des4ite this scenario7 the author e(4hasi"es that this con*rontation as not an actual religious con*lict7 hoever7 it as a ar beteen (en belonging to di**erent *aiths7 and that *aith as the *oundation o* their vision o* the orld7 ith its on las and (orals .!here*ore7 the *ronts could be distinguished in their res4ective religious sy(bols. !his as the (ore s4eci*ically %estern vision7 elaborating the traditional i(age o* the cross o44osing the crescent: a distinction hich did not hold the sa(e (eaning to the Otto(ans as that attributed to the( in the #hristian orld. 6&

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

!he author addresses the (ilitary as4ects by reconstructing ar*are in the BaroLue age using analysis o* the latest research in the 4olitical7 econo(ic and social historical *ields. !he analysis o* co(4le3 Otto(an (ilitary organi"ations7 long regarded as a (ilitary based e3clusively on its ability to (obili"e large nu(bers o* contingents7 here re*lects dee4ly on Otto(an (ilitary ca4abilities. !hese re*lections *or( a scenario (uch (ore co(4le3 than7 su4er*icially7 o**ered a *e years ago. or the Sultan7 de*eat in -ienna as not only the (ilitary disaster that arrested his i(4erial e34ansion in the %est7 but also re4resented an end to a syste( o* relationshi4s  including (ilitary  ithin the social structure o* the State. !ur/ish inability to control the regional7 social and religious tensions7 due to the a*ore(entioned colla4se o* social relationshi4s7 eru4ted into chaos be*ore the advent o* the vi"iers '_4rYlY7 s4ar/ing *ierce riots in $ebanon7 Syria and Anatolia. A*ter -ienna7 it beca(e necessary *or the Porte to co(4ro(ise ith local realities7 not only in the Bal/ans  here occurred a (ar/ed increase o* Albanian and Bosnian 4resence in the ar(y  but also ith the #orsair states in 2orth A*rica7 ho7 in a *e years7 ere able to *ree the(selves al(ost co(4letely *ro( the SultanIs sovereignty. Parado3ically only in a44earance7 in so(e 4rovinces the (ilitary crisis brought rela3ation o* ties ith Cstanbul7 hile in others Otto(an control increased7 until the su44ression o* guarantees that had regulated relations ith the ederated and !ributaries states. !he case o* !ransylvania7 *or(ed into an Otto(an 1aQaliN and then abandoned to the ,absburgs7 and7 es4ecially7 the destiny o* %allachia and Moldavia7 ruled by (en a44ointed directly by the grand vi"ier7 (ar/ed the turning 4oint in relations ith 4eo4les and clergy in those regions7 both o* ho( ere interested in *inding an agree(ent ith the #atholic (onarchy in -ienna and7 ithin a short ti(e7 Orthodo3 Mosco. !he siege o* -ienna as no less crucial *or the other (ain actor in this event: the ,ouse o* AustriaIs ar(y. ocusing solely on the develo4(ent o* AustriaIs standing ar(y7 the ar o* <688 acted as a crucial engine o* groth *or the C(4erial (ilitary structure. %ith around 697999 soldiers at the start o* the ar7 the ar(y totalled so(e <<799 hen the 4eace o* #arloit" as signed. Although these are 4artly theoretical nu(bers7 hich do not ta/e *ull account o* absences and other 4hysiological shortages7 this data reveals that the increase in the ,absburgsI ar(ed *orces as N[ *or the cavalry and [ *or the in*antry. !he boo/ includes (ore than 99 4ages o* notes7 (a4s7 bibliogra4hy and an interesting glossary o* conte(4orary ter(inology. =BM>

6'

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

ZOPPC7 Massi(o; #a %pada di 5adetzCy< le armate imperiali dalla 5estaurazione alla rivoluzione, /1B34 =Radet"/yIs Sord; the C(4erial Ar(ies *ro( Restoration

to Revolution>; Bassano del +ra44a =-C>7 Ctinera Progetti; N8 4.; hardcover7 illustrations7 bibliogra4hy7 (a4s7 inde3. CSB2: 8 N<<<<N; ^ N799. Des4ite being one o* the (ost 4oer*ul ar(ies in 5uro4e during one o* the (ost i(4ortant (o(ents in its history7 the Austro,ungarian 5(4ire during the years o* the Ctalian %ars o* Cnde4endence has *e studies ith *eer o* recent e3a(ination. !he boo/ accurately discussed organic structures7 ea4onry7 co(bat tactics7 uni*or(s and eLui4(ent o* all s4ecialties o* the ar(y7 (ilitary 4olice and navy. !he di**erent to4ics are analy"ed ithin their 4olitical and strategic conte3t in the interior and $o(bardo-eneto7 closing ith an analysis the (ilitary *ronts in $o(bardy and ,ungary beteen < and <8. !he substantial e**ectiveness o* AustriaIs (ilitary e(erged in all its evidence. Beginning in (idMarch o* <<7 in less than three ee/s7 all (aGor cities o* the Austrian 5(4ire revolted; ,ungary7 hile not brea/ing the lin/ ith

the

,absburg

dynasty7

declared

its

inde4endence.

Paralleling

these

develo4(ents7 +er(any see(ed on the verge o* coalescing into a national unit7 hich ould have resulted in *e 4ositive outco(es *or the e3istence o* the ,absburg state. Cn the Ctalian 4eninsula7 *olloing decades o* vassalage7 al(ost all local govern(ents declared ar on AustriaIs erdinand C. %ithin a *e days7 thirty years o* 4eace7 guaranteed by the #ongress o* -ienna7 vanished and 5uro4e see(ed to sli4 bac/ into N8.e thought the ar(y7 a*ter thirty years o* inaction7 ould be able to reverse a see(ingly ho4eless situation. Cn that *ate*ul 4eriod7 the less re4uted a(ong its instru(ents saved the Austrian state *ro( colla4se7 ignoring and o*ten contravening directives *ro( an evanescent govern(ent co((itted to *acing a revolution in its on ca4ital7 hich navigated beteen to 4arlia(ents  -ienna and ran/*urt Kboth eLually hostile. Starting ith 7999 soldiers in ar(s in the (id<9s7 the Austro,ungarian ar(y7 des4ite (any di**iculties7 a(assed a *orce o* 997999 (en7 garrisons e3cluded. !he reorgani"ation o* this *orce began ith the a44oint(ent to chie* co((ander the si3ty*ive year old Radet"/y von Rade/7 ho introduced to all units: theory education in inter7 *ield e3ercises in s4ring and (anoeuvring in o44osing 4arties in su((er. Cn this boo/7 the author sheds a di**erent light on the contributions o* the (any Ctalians 4resent under the banner o* the ,ouse o* Austria. !he historiogra4hy born a*ter the Risorgi(ento argued that the ,absburgs e(4loyed their soldiers *ro( one region to o44ress another nationality. Cn *act7 as related by Zo44i: Vi* it as ever 7)

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

thought a 4lan to se4arate and dis4erse the hostile *orces or those o* dubious loyalty7 one has to onder hy in March << (any troo4s *ound the(selves in the rong 4lace7 at the rong ti(e and hy they ere there so long7 nor ere able to (ove here they served or here there ould be in less dangerV. Cn <<7 onethird o* Radet"/yIs ar(y ere Ctalians7 and 7999 o* the 697999 enlisted in the $o(bardo -eneto region7 had Luartered in the Peninsula7 here their insubordination could cause deleterious e**ects. Ct a44ears that the (ilitary co((anders doubted little the *idelity o* their Ctalian regi(ents; in *act7 allegations in this regard raised in -ienna ere even considered an a**ront to (ilitary honour. =AM>

D5 $F2A7 +iovanni; $l +orpo del Nemico !cciso, .iolenza e Morte nella guerra contemporanea =!he body o* the 'illed 5ne(y7 -iolence and Death in the

#onte(4orary %ar>. Milano7 !orino; +iulio 5inaudi; -CCC69 4ages; hardcover7 illustrations7 (a4s7 bibliogra4hy7 inde3. CSB2: <<9N<8<; ^ . !he lin/ beteen ar and death and beteen ar and cruelty (ay7 at *irst7 a44ear trivial7 in the sense that all ars are cruel and deadly7 but not all cruelties are *ree. Cn an era in hich e are s4ectators7 o*ten distracted by (any e4isodes o* ar (ore or less traditional7 De $una re(inds us that /illing an ene(y and 4unishing hi( are not e3actly the sa(e thing. %hat is ne in this or/ is the central conte3t o* i(ages shoing /illed ene(ies7 although the *inal conclusion co(es don to using i(ages as e3a(4les K *ourteen; thirteen in the te3t and one on the cover  and describing7 through te3t7 hundreds7 and 4erha4s thousands7 o* others. !his vie o4ens u4 entirely ne considerations7 such as7 *or e3a(4le7 4enetrating the analysis o* violence and death in conte(4orary ars through the stories 1ritten1 on the body o* the /illed ene(y. A body hose sy(bolic value is established in the individual and collective needs o* each society involved in a con*lict. !his then beco(es7 in turn7 a source hich can be interrogated in addition to the narratives o* riters7 Gournalists7 (ilitary historians and chroniclers7 (edical re4orts and7 es4ecially7 a(ong the structures o* the visual i(ages in hich the bodies are in their (aGority: V4ut 4osing7 dra(as7 e34osed to light to be 4hotogra4hedV. or this reason7 it ha44ens *reLuently that the i(ages o* slain ene(ies re4resent to contradictory realities. !o de(onstrate a 4icture in the boo/ hich shos its a(bivalence and realstaged dra(a7 the author chose the 4hoto 4ortraying the 53ecutioner 4osing by the gallos alongside the itnesses to the 7(

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

e3ecution o* #esare Battisti7 ho as hanged by the Austrians in the castle o* !rento on July th7 8. !he boo/ tells o* ar and dead bodies7 and traces a route *ro( Bra"il in the si3teenth century through the Bo3er Rebellion7 and reaches the con*lict in conte(4orary CraL7 going through all the ars o* the last century. !he author 4ro4oses: Vthe i(age o* a (ass death un4recedented in history7 both *or the i(4ressive *igures7 and *or coordinates ithin hich it is inscribedV. Photogra4hy in the tentieth century has *or(ed the iconogra4hy o* death (ore e3tensively than any other 4eriod in history. About these ty4e o* i(ages De $una rites no coincidence: V!he (ost 4oignant and disturbing is certainly 4hotogra4hic docu(entation currently available on the 2a"i concentration ca(4s. !he historian ho a44roaches those i(ages does so ith a /ind o* ae7 /noing that this is docu(entation 4ertaining to the history o* hu(anity. !he scholars are on the edge o* a 1blac/ hole1 in hich they ris/ 4lunging both their 4ro*essional and e3istential di(ension: the 4resence o* those docu(ents not allos any (ethodological naivety7 no co(4lacency narrative; in this case the test o* 1true1 and 1*alse1  the bac/bone o* any criticis( o* the sources  is ai(ed at overco(ing the (eaning attributed to it ithin the (ethodology o* historical research7 to ta/e on (uch (ore ide signi*icance7 connected to a debate that touches the ulti(ate reasons o* our civili"ationV. Obviously7 the di**iculties o* reading this boo/ a44ear7 in this ay7 to investigate 4ro4erly the characteristics o* the ne docu(entation7 to hich historians today o*ten subvert7 *or e3a(4le7 the intent o* the 4hotogra4her =ho 4ortrays the (an1s body o*ten as a victi( and not as an ene(y>; ithout considering the visual structures o* the

i(ages

that

can

ins4ire

(odels

o*

re4resentation

consolidated

in

the

conte(4orary i(agination. or those ho have the ill to choose this 4ath7 the (ethodological strength resulting *ro( investigating the i(ages in a ne and di**erent ay re(ains intact7 ithout relegating the( to the role o* illustrative *ra(e7 a *act certainly not very co((on. C(4ulses *or re*lection =as ell as *or a 4ro4osal based on a language not yet *ully shared7 and there*ore easy to (isunderstand> ill inevitably characteri"e the discussion around $unaIs thesis. ,oever7 it is i(4ortant that these issues o4en a serious debate: in *act7 the essay 4uts *orth7 indirectly7 an i(4ortant (ethodological 4roble(. =#P>

7*

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

R5CD7

Stuart; %cots Armies in the 'reat 5ebellion /B13/=1<

2ottingha(7

Parti"an Press; 6 4.; hardcover; illustrations; bibliogra4hy; inde3. CSB2: 8N< <<<86; +BP 879 =^. 97N> Stuart Reid has 4rovided a ne study on the Scottish ar(ies during a historical 4eriod o* great change in the British Csles. !he rebellionI began ith the accession o* the Scottish #ovenanters to the cause o* 'ing #harles C. !he ar(ies *ielded ere not a (ass o* irregulars and rebels7 but the actual ar(y o* Scotland. %hile the con*lict began as yet another *ight by Scotland against 5ngland7 the ar 4roduced international re4ercussions by draing the interests o* rance and7 es4ecially7 S4ain. !he author revies the (aGor co(4onents o* the ar(y and e34ands the understanding o* a 4eriod o* (ilitary history (ar/ed by transition and tactical e34eri(entations7 destined to leave a lasting i(4act *or all the nations involved. O* great interest is the re(ar/able collection o* insignias used by Scottish units on ca(4aign: a heraldic narration o* the Scottish 4olitical scene in the (idseventeenth century. 5Lually interesting are the historical notes and organics o* the regi(ents involved in the ar. =BM>

7+

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS *he "est on the Net

A g$ide to the est wesites of .ilitar! histor! and $nifor.olog!

!here are (any ebsites that tell a story or *ollo de*ined 4aths7 ithin hich collect7 and (a/e available7 i(ages and te3ts. On the other hand7 there are sites that can instead be de*ined as generalist and include everything to do ith the history7 uni*or(s and (ilestones at large. One o* the (ore interesting syntheses o* these ebsites7 and ithout doubt one o* the richest o**ered by the net7 is the +er(an site

>eutsche

MilitDrgeschichte

htt4:\\.grossergeneralstab.de\hich has o4erated *or the 4ast *i*teen years ith regular u4dates o* ne contents.

A4art *ro( the unusual gra4hical inter*ace7 hich can be a cause o* so(e concern to (ore de(anding Cnternet users7 the a44eal o* the 4ages is very orthy o* the ty4ical +er(anic rigor in historical narration. Most o* the content is devoted to the +er(an ar(y in the 74

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS i(4erial age7 ith beauti*ul7 detailed i(ages o* the srcinal uni*or(s o* the early 899s.Do

not overloo/ the high de*inition series o* 4lates *ro( the
Another site devoted to the i(4erial +er(anar(y7 but unli/e the 4revious7 *ocuses only on the colonial 4eriod. 'erman +olonial !niforms7 htt4:\\.ger(ancolonialuni*or(s.co.u/\ (anaged since

99 by the talented #hris Dale7 is co(4letely in 5nglish7 and *or this reason7 4erha4s7 accessible to a greater nu(ber o* Cnternet users.

!he richness and abundance o* the (aterial is e3traordinary and each to4ic is acco(4anied by a re(ar/able Luantity o* i(ages. Just to give a brie* list o* the to4ics covered on the site7 they range *ro( uni*or(s in the estern +er(an colonies to Asia and the South Paci*ic. Much s4ace is also dedicated to the Austro,ungarian ar(ed *orces on the overseas *ronts during the irst %orld %ar. !he site contains an archive o* beauti*ul (ilitary decorations7 badges and ran/s o* di**erent s4ecialties o* the i(4erial ar(y and navy in the years be*ore the +reat %ar7 as ell as an e3tensive 4hoto gallery o* souvenirs7 4ostcards and regalia o* the +er(an colonies. #hris has also been o* great hel4 in reali"ing the illustrations *or the article on +er(an Sa(oa in orgotten ronts o* %%C. 75

#HISTORY&UNIFORMS

One o* the best e3a(4les o* the 4hiloso4hy o* the blog can be *oundin the e3cellent site Anno >omini /2 htt4:\\ra(4Gaar.blogs4ot.it\ (aintained and u4dated by 5din +root in the 2etherlands.

!he (ain the(e is the Dutch %ar o* NN<7 although the site o**ers contents ranging *ro( the AngloDutch con*licts throughout the seventeenth century. !he 4osts7 u4dated (ore or less s4oradically7 are alays interesting and never banal7 but7 above all7 address a the(e that outside the 2etherlands is s4arsely attended. !han/s to the Dutch5nglish bilingual edition7 e can access this in*or(ation ith relative ease. !his ebsite stands as a (odel o* clarity and 4assion *or the history that really deserves to4 (ar/s. =BM>

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