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History of theatre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia URLs for citations citations,, which may be threatened by link rot. rot . Pl This article uses bare URLs for consider adding full citations so citations so that the article remains verifiable verifiable.. Several templates the Reflinks toolare toolare available to assist in formatting. (Reflinks ( Reflinks documentat documentation ion)) (July 20
Performer playing Sugriva Sugriva in in the Koodiyattam form of Sanskrit of Sanskrit theatre
Hannah Pritchard as Pritchard as Lady Macbeth and Macbeth and avid !arrick as !arrick as Macbeth Macbeth at at the "heatre #oyal, rury Lane in $pril %&'(
Symbolist Shakespeare at the M$" M$")) *d+ard !ordon raigraig-s %./( design for his collaboration +ithKonstantin +ithKonstantin Stanislavski,, the M$" production of Hamlet Stanislavski of Hamlet 0%.%%1%23
"he history of theatre charts the development of theatre of theatre over the past 2,4// years5 While performative elements are present in every society, it is customary to ackno+ledge a distinction bet+een theatre as anart an art form and entertainment and theatrical or performative or performative elements elements in other activities5 "he history of theatre is primarily concerned +ith the origin and subse6uent development of the theatre as an autonomous activity5 Since classical $thens in the 'th century 7, vibrant traditions of theatre have flourished in cultures across the +orld5 8%9 Contents
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Origins8edit edit99 "heatre probably arose as a performance of ritual activities that did not re6uire initiation on the part of the spectator5 "his similarity of early theatre to ritual is negatively attested by $ristotle $ristotle,, +ho in his Poetics Poetics defined defined theatre in contrast to the performances of sacred mysteries) mysteries) theatre did not re6uire the spectator to fast, drink the kykeon kykeon,, or march in a processionC ho+ever theatre did resemble the sacred mysteries in the sense that it brought purification and healing to the spectator by means of a vision, the theama theama55 "he physical location of such performances +as accordingly 829 named theatron theatron55 $ccording to the historians :scar :scar 7rockett and Franklin Hildy, Hildy, rituals typically typically include elements that entertain or give pleasure, such as costumes and masks masks as as +ell as skilled performers5 $s societies gre+ more compleB, these spectacular elements began to be acted out under non>ritualistic
conditions5 $s this occurred, the first steps to+ards theatre as an autonomous activity +ere being taken58;9
Western tradition8edit9 Greek theatre8edit9
"he best>preserved eBample of a classical !reek theatre, the "heatre of *pidaurus, has a circular orchêstra and probably gives the best idea of the original shape of the $thenian theatre, though it dates from the
Main articles: Theatre of Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek comedy and Satyr play !reek theatre, most developed in $thens, is the root of the Western traditionC theatre is in origin a !reek +ord5 @t +as part of a broader culture of theatricality and performance in classical !reece that includedfestivals, religious rituals, politics, la+, athletics and gymnastics, music, poetry, +eddings, funerals, and symposia5849 Participation in the city>state-s many festivalsDand attendance at the ity ionysia as an audience member 0or even as a participant in the theatrical productions3 in particular D+as an important part of citiEenship58'9 ivic participation also involved the evaluation of the rhetoric of orators evidenced in performances in the la+>court or political assembly, both of +hich +ere understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic vocabulary58&9 "he theatre of ancient !reece consisted of three types of drama) tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play58(9 $thenian tragedyDthe oldest surviving form of tragedyDis a type of dance>drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city>state5 8.9 Having emerged sometime during the 'th century 7, it flo+ered during the 4th century 7 0from the end of +hich it began to spread throughout the !reek +orld3 and continued to be popular until the beginning of the Hellenistic period5 8%/9 =o tragedies from the 'th century and only ;2 of the more than a thousand that +ere performed in during the 4th century have survived5 8%%9 We have complete teBts eBtant by $eschylus, Sophocles, and *uripides58%29 "he origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 4th century it +as institutionalised in competitions 0aon3 held as part of festivities celebrating ionysos 0the god of +ine and fertility358%;9 $s contestants in the ity ionysia-s competition 0the most prestigious of the festivals to stage drama3, play+rights +ere re6uired to present a tetralogy of plays 0though the individual +orks +ere not necessarily connected by story or theme3, +hich usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play5 8%<9 "he performance of tragedies at the ity ionysia may have begun as early as 4;< 7C official records 0 didaskaliai 3 begin from 4/% 7, +hen the satyr play +as introduced5 8%49 Most $thenian tragedies dramatise events from !reek mythology, though The PersiansD+hich stages the Persian response to ne+s of their military defeat at the 7attle of Salamis in <(/ 7Dis the notable eBception in the surviving drama5 8%'9 When $eschylus +on first priEe for it at the ity ionysia in <&2 7, he had been +riting tragedies
for more than 24 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest eBample of drama to survive58%&9 More than %;/ years later, the philosopher $ristotle analysed 4th>century $thenian tragedy in the oldest surviving +ork of dramatic theoryDhis Poetics 0c5 ;;4 735 $thenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, :ld omedy, Middle omedy, and =e+ omedy5 :ld omedy survives today largely in the form o f the eleven surviving plays of $ristophanes, +hile Middle omedy is largely lost 0preserved only in relatively short fragments in authors such as $thenaeus of =aucratis35 =e+ omedy is kno+n primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of plays by Menander 5 $ristotle defined comedy as a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of error or ugliness that does not cause pain or destruction5 8%(9
Roman theatre8edit9
#oman theatre at :range, France
Main article: Theatre of ancient !ome Western theatre developed and eBpanded considerably under the #omans5 "he #oman historian Livy +rote that the #omans first eBperienced theatre in the
theatrical practices for some time before that recorded contact5 82/9 "he theatre of ancient #ome +as a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from festival performances of street theatre, nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of Plautus-s broadly appealing situation comedies, to the high>style, verbally elaborate tragedies of Seneca5 $lthough #ome had a native tradition of performance, the HelleniEation of #oman culture in the ;rd century 7 had a profound and energiEing effect on #oman theatre and encouraged the development of Latin literature of the highest 6uality for the stage5 Follo+ing the eBpansion of the #oman #epublic 04/.12& 73 into several !reek territories bet+een 2&/12 7, #ome encountered !reek drama582%9 From the later years of the republic and by means of the#oman *mpire 02& 7><&' $3, theatre spread +est across *urope, around the Mediterranean and reached *nglandC #oman theatre +as more varied, eBtensive and sophisticated than that of any culture before it5 8229 While !reek drama continued to be performed throughout the #oman period, the year 2 7 marks the beginning of regular #oman drama5 82;9 From the beginning of the empire, ho+ever, interest in full>length drama declined in favour of a broader variety of theatrical entertainments5 82<9 "he first important +orks of #oman literature +ere the tragedies and comedies that Livius $ndronicus +rote from 2 75 8249 Five years later, !naeus =aevius also began to +rite drama5 8249 =o plays from either +riter have survived5 While bo th dramatists composed in both genres, $ndronicus +as most appreciated for his tragedies and =aevius for his comediesC their successors tended to
specialise in one or the other, +hich led to a separation of the subse6uent development of e ach type of drama58249 7y the beginning of the 2nd century 7, drama +as firmly established in #ome and a guild of +riters 0collei"m poetar"m3 had been formed5 82'9 "he #oman comedies that have survived are all fa#"la palliata 0comedies based on !reek subGects3 and come from t+o dramatists) "itus Maccius Plautus 0Plautus3 and Publius "erentius $fer 0"erence3582&9 @n re>+orking the !reek originals, the #oman comic dramatists abolished the role of the chorus in dividing the drama into episodes and introduced musical accompaniment to its dialogue 0bet+een one>third of the dialogue in the comedies of Plautus and t+o>thirds in those of "erence3582(9 "he action of all scenes is set in the eBterior location of a street and its complications often follo+ from eavesdropping582(9 Plautus, the more popular of the t+o, +rote bet+een 2/4 and %(< 7 and t+enty of his comedies survive, of +hich his farces are best kno+nC he +as admired for the +it of his dialogue and his use of a variety of poetic meters582.9 $ll of the siB comedies that "erence +rote bet+een %'' and %'/ 7 have survivedC the compleBity of his plots, in +hich he often combined several !reek originals, +as sometimes denounced, but his double>plots enabled a sophisticated presentation of contrasting human behaviour 582.9 =o early #oman tragedy survives, though it +as highly regarded in its dayC historians kno+ of three early tragediansDuintus *nnius, Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius $ccius582(9 From the time of the empire, the +ork of t+o tragedians survivesDone is an unkno+n author, +hile the other is the Stoic philosopher Seneca58;/9 =ine of Seneca-s tragedies survive, all of +hich are fa#"la crepidata 0tragedies adapted from !reek originals3C his Phaedra, for eBample, +as based on *uripides- Hippolyt"s58;%9 Historians do not kno+ +ho +rote the only eBtant eBample of the fa#"la praete$ta 0tragedies based on #oman subGects3, %ctavia, but in former times it +as mistakenly attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a character in the tragedy58;/9
Transition and early Medieval theatre, 500–10508edit9 Main article: Medieval theatre $s the Western #oman *mpire fell into decay through the
Hrosvitha of !andersheim, the first dramatist of the post>classical era5
7y the *arly Middle $ges, churches in *urope began staging dramatiEed versions of particular biblical events on specific days of the year5 "hese dramatiEations +ere included in order to vivify annual celebrations58;<9 Symbolic obGects and actions 1 vestments, altars, censers, and pantomime performed by priests 1 recalled the events +hich hristian ritual celebrates5 "hese +ere eBtensive sets of visual signs that could be used to communicate +ith a largely illiterate audience5 "hese performances developed into liturgical dramas, the earliest of +hich is the &hom do yo" Seek ("em)("aeritis* *aster trope, dating from ca5 .245 8;<9 Liturgical drama +as sung responsively by t+o groups and did not involve actors impersonating characters5 Ho+ever, sometime bet+een .'4 and .&4, Ithel+old of Winchester composed the !e"laris Concordia Monastic Areement* +hich contains a playlet complete +ith directions for performance5 8;49 Hrosvitha 0c5.;41.&;3, a canoness in northern !ermany, +rote siB plays modeled on "erence-s comedies but using religious subGects5 "hese siB plays 1 A#raham, Callimach"s, +"lciti"s, Gallican"s, Paphn"ti"s, and Sapientia 1 are the first kno+n plays composed by a female dramatist and the first identifiable Western dramatic +orks of the post>classical era5 8;49 "hey +ere first published in %4/% and had considerable influence on religious and didactic plays of the siBteenth century5 Hrosvitha +as follo+ed by Hildegard of 7ingen 0d5 %%&.3, a 7enedictine abbess, +ho +rote a Latin musical drama called %rdo irt"t"m in %%445
High and late Medieval theatre, 1050–1500 8edit9
Stage dra+ing from %4th>century vernacularmorality play The Castle of Perseverance5
Main article: Medieval theatre $s the Jiking invasions ceased in the middle of the %%th century, liturgical drama had spread from #ussia to Scandinavia to @taly5 :nly in Muslim>occupied Spain +ere liturgical dramas not presented at all5 espite the large number of liturgical dramas that have survived from the period, many churches +ould have only performed one or t+o per year and a larger number never performed any at all5 8;'9 "he Feast of Fools +as especially important in the development of comedy5 "he festival inverted the status of the lesser clergy and allo+ed them to ridicule their superiors and the routine of church life5 Sometimes plays +ere staged as part of the occasion and a certain amount of burles6ue and comedy crept into these performances5 $lthough comic episodes had to truly +ait until the separation of drama from the liturgy, the Feast of Fools undoubtedly had a profound effect on the development of comedy in both religious and secular plays5 8;&9 Performance of religious plays outside of the church b egan sometime in the %2th century through a traditionally accepted process of merging shorter liturgical dramas into longer plays +hich +ere then translated into vernacular and performed by laymen5 The Mystery of Adam 0%%4/3 gives credence to this theory as its detailed stage direction suggest that it +as staged outdoors5 $ number of other plays from the period survive, including -a Seinte !es"rrection 0=orman3, The Play of the Mai .ins 0Spanish3, and Spons"s 0French35 "he importance of the High Middle $ges in the development of theatre +as the economic and political changes that led to the formation of guilds and the gro+th of to+ns5 "his +ould lead to significant changes in the Late Middle $ges5 @n the 7ritish @sles, plays +ere produced in some %2& different to+ns during the Middle $ges5 "hese vernacular Mystery plays +ere +ritten in cycles of a large number of plays) ?ork 0<( plays3, hester 02<3, Wakefield 0;23 and nkno+n 0<235 $ larger number of plays survive from France and !ermany in this period and some type of religious
dramas +ere performed in nearly every *uropean country in the Late Middle $ges5 Many of these plays contained comedy, devils, villains and clo+ns58;(9 "he maGority of actors in these plays +ere dra+n from the local population5 For eBample, at Jalenciennes in %4<&, more than %// roles +ere assigned to &2 actors5 8;.9 Plays +ere staged on pageant +agon stages, +hich +ere platforms mounted on +heels used to move scenery5 :ften providing their o+n costumes, amateur performers in *ngland +ere eBclusively male, but other countries had female performers5 "he platform stage, +hich +as an uni dentified space and not a specific locale, allo+ed for abrupt changes in location5 Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around % / and flourished until %44/5 "he most interesting morality play is The Castle of Perseverance +hich depicts mankind-s progress from birth to death5 Ho+ever, the most famous morality play and perhaps best kno+n medieval drama is /veryman5 *veryman receives eath-s summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity5 $long the +ay, he is deserted by Kindred, !oods, and Fello+ship 1 only !ood eeds goes +ith him to the grave5 "here +ere also a number of secular performances staged in the Middle $ges, the earliest of +hich is The Play of the Green0ood by $dam de la Halle in %2&'5 @t contains satirical scenes and folk material such as faeries and other supernatural occurrences5 Farcesalso rose dramatically in popularity after the %;th century5 "he maGority of these plays come from France and !ermany and are similar in tone and form, emphasiEing seB and bodily eBcretions5 89 "he best kno+n play+right of farces is Hans Sachs 0%<.<1%4&'3 +ho +rote %.( dramatic +orks5 @n *ngland, "he Second Shepherds- Play of the Wakefield ycle is the best kno+n early farce5 Ho+ever, farce did not appear independently in *ngland until the %'th century +ith the +ork of Aohn Hey+ood 0%<.&1%4(/35 $ significant forerunner of the development of *liEabethan drama +as the hambers of #hetoric in the Lo+ ountries58<%9 "hese societies +ere concerned +ith poetry, music and drama and held contests to see +hich society could compose the best drama in relation to a 6uestion posed5 $t the end of the Late Middle $ges, professional actors began to appear in *ngland and *urope5 #ichard @@@ and Henry J@@ both maintained small companies of professional actors5 "heir plays +ere performed in the !reat Hall of a nobleman-s residence, often +ith a raised platform at one end for the audience and a screen at the other for the actors5 $lso important +ere Mummers- plays, performed during the hristmas season, and court mas6ues5 "hese mas6ues +ere especially popular during the reign of Henry J@@@ +ho had a House of #evels built and an :ffice of #evels established in %4<458<29 "he end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the +eakening po+er of the atholic hurch, the Protestant #eformation and the banning of religious plays in many countries5 *liEabeth @ forbid all religious plays in %44( and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the %4(/s5 Similarly, religious plays +ere banned in the =etherlands in %4;., the Papal States in %4<& and in Paris in %4<(5 "he abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto eBisted and forced each country to develop its o+n form of drama5 @t also allo+ed dramatists to turn to secular subGects and the reviving interest in !reek and #oman theatre provided them +ith the perfect opportunity58<29 Commedia dell'arte 8edit9
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challeng removed. (April 2011)
Main article: Commedia dell'arte Commedia dell'arte troupes performed lively improvisational playlets across *urope for centuries5 @t originated in @taly in the %4'/s5 Commedia dell'arte +as an actor>centred theatre, re6uiring little scenery and very fe+ props5 Plays did not originate from +ritten drama but from scenarios called la11i , +hich +ere loose frame+orks that provided the situations, complications, and outcome of the action, around +hich the actors +ould improvise5 "he plays utilised stock characters, +hich could be divided into three groups) the lovers, the masters, and the servants5 "he lovers had different names and characteristics in most plays and often +ere the children of the master5 "he role of master +as normally based on one of three stereotypes) Pantalone, an elderly Jenetian merchantC ottore, Pantalone-s friend or rival, a pedantic doctor or la+yer +ho acted far more intelligent than he really +asC and apitano, +ho +as once a lover character, but evolved into abraggart +ho boasted of his eBploits in love and +ar, but +as often terrifically unskilled in both5 He normally carried a s+ord and +ore a cape and feathered headdress5 "he servant character 0called 1anni 3 had only one recurring role) $rlecchino 0also called Harle6uin35 He +as both cunning and ignorant, but an accomplished dancer and acrobat5 He typically carried a +ooden stick +ith a split in the middle so it made a loud noise +hen striking something5 "his +eapon gave us the term slapstick5 $ troupe typically consisted of %; to %< members5 Most actors +ere paid by taking a share of the play-s profits roughly e6uivalent to the siEe of their role5 "he style of theatre +as in its peak from %4&4 to %'4/, but even after that time ne+ scenarios +ere +ritten and performed5 "he Jenetian play+right arlo !oldoni +rote a fe+ scenarios starting in %&;<, but since he considered the genre too vulgar, he refined the topics of his o+n to be more sophisticated5 He also +rote several pla ys based on real events, in +hich he included commedia characters5
Golden age theatre8edit9 Main article: Spanish Golden Ae theatre
alderon de la 7arca, a key figure in the theatre of the Spanish !olden $ge
uring its !olden $ge, roughly from %4./ to %'(%,8<;9 Spain sa+ a monumental increase in the production of live theatre as +ell as the in importance of theatre +ithin Spanish society5 @t +as an accessible art form for all participants in #enaissance Spain, being both highly sponsored by the aristocratic class and highly attended by the lo +er classes5 8<<9 "he volume and variety of Spanish plays during the !olden $ge +as unprecedented in the history of +orld theatre, surpassing, for eBample, the dramatic production of the *nglish #enaissance by a factor of at least four 58<;98<<9 8<49 $lthough this volume has been as much a source of criticism as praise for Spanish !olden $ge theatre, for emphasiEing 6uantity before 6uality,8<'9 a large number of the %/,/// 8<<9 to ;/,///8<'9 plays of this period are still considered masterpieces5 8<&98<(9 MaGor artists of the period included Lope de Jega, a contemporary of Shakespeare, often, and contemporaneously, seen his parallel for the Spanish stage,8<.9 and alderon de la 7arca, inventor of the EarEuela84/9 and Lope-s successor as the preeminent Spanish dramatist5 84%9 !il Jicente, Lope de #ueda, and Auan del *ncina helped to establish the foundations of Spanish theatre in the mid> siBteenth centuries,842984;984<9 +hile Francisco de #oGas orrillaand "irso de Molina made significant contributions in the later half of the !olden $ge5844984'9 @mportant performers included Lope de #ueda 0previously mentioned among the play+rights3 and later Auan #ana584&984(9 "he sources of influence for the emerging national theatre of Spain +ere as diverse as the theatre that nation ended up producing5 Storytelling traditions originating in @talian ommedia dell-arte84.9 and the uni6uely Spanish eBpression of Western *urope-s traveling minstrel entertainments 8'/9 8'%9 contributed a populist influence on the narratives and the music, respectively, of early Spanish theatre5 =eo>$ristotelian criticism and liturgical dramas, on the other hand, contributed literary and moralistic perspectives5 8'298';9 @n turn, Spanish !olden $ge theatre has dramatically influenced the theatre of later generations in *urope and throughout the +orld5 Spanish drama had an immediate and significant impact on the contemporary developments in *nglish #enaissance theatre58<&9 @t has also had a lasting impact on theatre throughout the Spanish speaking +orld5 8'<9 $dditionally, a gro+ing number of +orks are being translated, increasing the reach of Spanish !olden $ge theatre and strengthening its reputation among critics and theatre patrons5 8'49
Renaissance theatre8edit9 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challeng removed. (April 2011)
$ %4.' sketch of a performance in progress on the thrust stage of "he S+an, a typical *liEabethan open>roof playhouse5
Main article: /nlish !enaissance theatre #enaissance theatre derived from several medieval theatre traditions, such as the mystery plays that formed a part of religious festivals in *ngland and other parts of *urope during the Middle $ges5 :ther sources include the morality plays and the niversity drama that attempted to recreate $thenian tragedy5 "he @talian tradition of Commedia dell'arte, as +ell as the elaborate mas6ues fre6uently presented at court, also contributed to the shaping of public theatre5 Since before the reign of *liEabeth @, companies of players +ere attached to households of leading aristocrats and performed seasonally in various locations5 "hese became the foundation for the professional players that performed on the *liEabethan stage5 "he tours of these players gradually replaced the performances of the mystery and morality plays by local players, and a %4&2 la+ eliminated the remaining companies lacking formal patronage by labelling them vagabonds5 "he ity of London authorities +ere generally hostile to public performances, but its hostility +as overmatched by the ueen-s taste for plays and the Privy ouncil-s support5 "heatres sprang up in suburbs, especially in the liberty of South+ark, accessible across the "hames to city d+ellers but beyond the authority-s control5 "he companies maintained the pretence that their public performances +ere mere rehearsals for the fre6uent performances before the ueen, b ut +hile the latter did grant prestige, the former +ere the real source of the income for the professional players5 $long +ith the economics of the profession, the character of the drama changed to+ard the end of the period5 nder *liEabeth, the drama +as a unified eBpression as far as social class +as concerned) the ourt +atched the same plays the commoners sa+ in the public playhouses5 With the development of the private theatres, drama became more oriented to+ard the tastes and values of an upper>class audience5 7y the later part of the reign of harles @, fe+ ne+ plays +ere being +ritten for the public theatres, +hich sustained themselves on the accumulated +orks of the previous decades58''9 Puritan opposition to the stage 0informed by the arguments of the early hurch Fathers +ho had +ritten screeds against the decadent and violent entertainments of the #omans3 argued not only that the stage in general +aspagan, but that any play that represented a religious figure +as inherently idolatrous5 @n %'<2, at the outbreak of the *nglish ivil War , the Protestant authorities banned the performance of all plays +ithin the city limits of London5 $ s+eeping assault against the alleged immoralities of the theatre crushed +hatever remained in *ngland of the dramatic tradition5
Restoration comedy8edit9 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challeng removed. (May 2011)
Main article: !estoration comedy
#efinement meets burles6ue in#estoration comedy5 @n this scene from!eorge *therege-s -ove in a T"#0%''<3, musicians and +ell>bred ladies surround a man +ho is +earing a tub because he has lost his trousers5
*nglish comedies +ritten and performed in the #estoration period from %''/ to %&%/ are collectively called #estoration comedy5 $fter public stage performances had been banned for %( years by the Puritan regime, the re>opening of the theatres in %''/ signalled a renaissance of *nglish drama5 #estoration comedy is notorious for its seBual eBplicitness, a 6uality encouraged by harles @@ 0%''/1%'(43 personally and by the rakish aristocraticethos of his court5 "he socially diverse audiences included both aristocrats, their servants and hangers>on, and a substantial middle>class segment5 "hese playgoers +ere attracted to the comedies by up>to>the>minute topical +riting, by cro+ded and bustling plots, by the introduction of the first professional actresses, and by the rise of the first celebrity actors5 "his period sa+ the first professional +oman play+right, $phra 7ehn5
Restoration spectaclar 8edit9 Main article: !estoration spectac"lar "he Restoration spectaclar , or elaborately staged machine play, hit the London public stage in the late %&th>century #estoration period, enthralling audiences +ith action, music, dance, moveable scenery, baro6ue illusionistic painting, gorgeous costumes, and special effects such as trapdoor tricks, flying actors, and fire+orks5 "hese sho+s have al+ays had a bad reputation as a vulgar and commercial threat to the +itty, legitimate#estoration dramaC ho+ever, they dre+ Londoners in unprecedented numbers and left them daEEled and delighted5 7asically home>gro+n and +ith roots in the early %&th>century court mas6ue, though never ashamed of borro+ing ideas and stage technology from French opera, the spectaculars are sometimes called *nglish opera5 Ho+ever, the variety of them is so untidy that most theatre historians despair of defining them as a genre at all58'&9 :nly a handful of +orks of this period are usually accorded the term opera, as the musical dimension of most of them is subordinate to the visual5 @t +as spectacle and scenery that dre+ in the cro+ds, as sho+n by many comments in the diary of the theatre> lover Samuel Pepys58'(9 "he eBpense of mounting ever more elaborate scenic productions drove the t+o competing theatre companies into a dangerous spiral of huge eBpenditure and correspondingly huge losses or profits5 $ fiasco such as Aohn ryden-s Al#ion and Al#ani"s +ould leave a company
in serious debt, +hile blockbusters like "homas Shad+ell-s Psyche or ryden-s .in Arth"r +ould put it comfortably in the black for a long time5 8'.9
!eoclassical theatre8edit9 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challeng removed. (April 2011)
2"rther information: 3eoclassicism
$n %(th>century =eoclassical theatre in :stankino, Mosco+
=eoclassicism +as the dominant form of theatre in the %(th century5 @t demanded decorum and rigorous adherence to the classical unities5 =eoclassical theatre as +ell as the time period is characteriEed by its grandiosity5 "he costumes and scenery +ere intricate and elaborate5 "he acting is characteriEed by large gestures and melodrama5 =eoclassical theatre encompasses the #estoration, $ugustan, and Aohnstinian $ges5 @n one sense, the neo>classical age directly follo+s the time of the #enaissance5 "heatres of the early %(th century 1 seBual farces of the #estoration +ere superseded by politically satirical comedies, %&;& Parliament passed the Stage Licensing $ct +hich introduced state censorship of public performances and limited the n umber of theatres in London to Gust t+o5
!ineteenth"centry theatre8edit9 Main article: 3ineteenth)cent"ry theatre "heatre in the %.th century is divided into t+o parts) early and late5 "he early period +as dominated by melodrama and #omanticism5 7eginning in France, melodrama became the most popular theatrical form5 $ugust von KotEebue-s Misanthropy and !epentance 0%&(.3 is often considered the first melodramatic play5 "he plays of KotEebue and #en harles !uilbert de PiBrcourt established melodrama as the dominant dramatic form of the early %.th century5 8&/9 @n !ermany, there +as a trend to+ard historic accuracy in costumes and settings, a revolution in theatre architecture, and the introduction of the theatrical form of !erman #omanticism5 @nfluenced by trends in %.th>century philosophy and the visual arts, !erman +riters +ere increasingly fascinated +ith their "eutonic past and had a gro+ing sense of nationalism5 "he plays of !otthold *phraim Lessing, Aohann Wolfgang von !oethe, Friedrich Schiller , and other St"rm "nd +ran play+rights, inspired a gro+ing faith in feeling and instinct as guides to moral behavior5
*d+ard !eorge 7ul+er>Lytton5
@n 7ritain, Percy 7ysshe Shelley and Lord 7yron +ere the most important dramatists of their time 0although Shelley-s plays +ere not performed until later in the century35 @n the minor theatres, burletta and melodrama +ere the most popular5 KotEebue-s plays +ere translated into *nglish and "homas Holcroft-s A Tale of Mystery +as the first of many *nglish melodramas5 Pierce *gan, ouglas William Aerrold, *d+ard FitEball, and Aohn 7ald+in 7uckstone initiated a trend to+ards more contemporary and rural stories in preference to the usual historical or fantastical melodramas5 Aames Sheridan Kno+les and *d+ard !eorge 7ul+er>Lytton established a gentlemanly drama that began to re>establish the former prestige of the theatre +ith the aristocracy58&%9 "he later period of the %.th century sa+ the rise of t+o conflicting types of drama) realism and non> realism, such as Symbolism and precursors of *Bpressionism5 #ealism began earlier in the %.th century in #ussia than else+here in *urope and took a more uncompromising form5 8&29 7eginning +ith the plays of @van "urgenev 0+ho used domestic detail to reveal inner turmoil3, $leksandr :strovsky 0+ho +as #ussia-s first professional play+right3, $leksey Pisemsky 0+hose A 4itter 2ate 0%(4.3 anticipated =aturalism3, and Leo "olstoy 0+hose The Po0er of +arkness 0%(('3 is one of the most effective of naturalistic plays3, a tradition of psychological realism in #ussia culminated +ith the establishment of the Mosco+ $rt "heatre by Konstantin Stanislavski and Jladimir =emirovich>anchenko58&;9 "he most important theatrical force in later %.th>century !ermany +as that of !eorg @@, uke of SaBe>Meiningen and his Meiningen *nsemble, under the direction of Lud+ig hronegk5 "he *nsemble-s productions are often considered the most historically accurate of the %.th century, although his primary goal +as to serve the interests of the play+right5 "he Meiningen *nsemble stands at the beginning of the ne+ movement to+ard unified production 0or +hat #ichard Wagner +ould call the Gesamtk"nst0erk 3 and the rise of the director 0at the eBpense of the actor 3 as the dominant artist in theatre>making5 8&<9
#ichard Wagner -s 7ayreuth Festival "heatre5
=aturalism, a theatrical movement born out of harles ar+in-s The %riin of Species 0%(4.3 and contemporary political and economic conditions, found its main proponent in Nmile ola5 "he realisation of ola-s ideas +as hindered by a lack of capable dramatists +riting naturalist drama5 $ndr $ntoine emerged in the %((/s +ith his Th56tre -i#re that +as only open to members and therefore +as eBempt from censorship5 He 6uickly +on the approval of ola and began to stage =aturalistic +orks and other foreign realistic pieces5 8&49
Henrik @bsen, the father of realist and modern 8citation needed 9 drama5
@n 7ritain, melodramas, light comedies, operas, Shakespeare and classic *nglish drama, Jictorian burles6ue, pantomimes, translations of French farces and, from the %('/s, French operettas, continued to be popular5 So successful +ere the comic operas of !ilbert and Sullivan, such as H7M7S7 Pinafore 0%(&(3 and The Mikado 0%((43, that they greatly eBpanded the audience for musical theatre5 8&'9 "his, together +ith much improved street lighting and transportation in London and =e+ ?ork led to a late Jictorian and *d+ardian theatre building boom in the West *nd and on 7road+ay5 Later, the +ork of Henry $rthur Aones and $rthur Wing Pinero initiated a ne+ direction on the *nglish stage5 While their +ork paved the +ay, the development of more significant drama o+es itself most to the play+right Henrik @bsen5 @bsen +as born in =or+ay in %(2(5 He +rote t+enty>five plays, the most famous of +hich are A +oll's Ho"se 0%(&.3, Ghosts 0%((%3, The &ild +"ck 0%((<3, and Hedda Ga#ler 0%(./35 @n addition, his +orks !osmersholm 0%(('3 and &hen &e +ead A0aken 0%(..3 evoke a sense of mysterious forces at +ork in human destiny, +hich +as to be a maGor theme of symbolism and the so>called "heatre of the $bsurd58citation needed 9 $fter @bsen, 7ritish theatre eBperienced revitaliEation +ith the +ork of !eorge 7ernard Sha+, :scar Wilde, Aohn !als+orthy, William 7utler ?eats, and Harley !ranville 7arker 5 nlike most of the gloomy and intensely serious +ork of their contemporaries, Sha+ and Wilde +rote primarily in the comic form5 *d+ardian musical comedies +ere eBtremely popular, appealing to the tastes of the middle class in the !ay =ineties8&&9 and catering to the public-s preference for escapist entertainment during World War @5
T#entieth"centry theatre8edit9 [hideThis section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on th This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2011) This section re!uires e"pansion. (May 2011)
See also: T0entieth)cent"ry theatre, Timeline of t0entieth)cent"ry theatre and M"sical theatre While much 2/th>century theatre continued and eBtended the proGects of realism and =aturalism, there +as also a great deal of eBperimental theatre that reGected those conventions5 "hese
eBperiments form part of the modernist and postmodernist movements and included forms of political theatre as +ell as more aesthetically orientated +ork5 *Bamples include) *pic theatre, the "heatre of ruelty, and the so>called "heatre of the $bsurd5 "he term theatre practitioner came to be used to describe someone +ho both creates theatrical performances and +ho produces a theoretical discourse that informs their practical +ork58&(9 $ theatre practitioner may be a director , a dramatist, an actor , orDcharacteristicallyDoften a combination of these traditionally separate roles5 "heatre practice describes the collective +ork that various theatre practitioners do5 8&.9 @t is used to describe theatre praBis from Konstantin Stanislavski-s development of his -system-, through Jsevolod Meyerhold-s biomechanics, 7ertolt 7recht-s epic and AerEy !roto+ski-s poor theatre, do+n to the present day, +ith contemporary theatre practitioners including $ugusto 7oal +ith his "heatre of the :ppressed, ario Fo-s popular theatre, *ugenio 7arba-s theatre anthropology and $nne 7ogart-s vie+points58(/9 :ther key figures of 2/th>century theatre include) $ntonin $rtaud, $ugust Strindberg, $nton hekhov, Frank Wedekind, Maurice Maeterlinck, Federico !arcOa Lorca, *ugene :-=eill, Luigi Pirandello, !eorge 7ernard Sha+, !ertrude Stein, *rnst "oller , Jladimir Mayakovsky, $rthur Miller , "ennessee Williams, Aean !enet, *ugne @onesco, Samuel 7eckett, Harold Pinter , Friedrich Qrrenmatt, Heiner MQller , and aryl hurchill5 $ number of aesthetic movements continued or emerged in the 2/th century, including) •
=aturalism
•
#ealism
•
adaism
•
*Bpressionism
•
Surrealism and the "heatre of ruelty
•
"heatre of the $bsurd
•
Postmodernism
$fter the great popularity of the 7ritish *d+ardian musical comedies, the $merican musical theatre came to dominate the musical stage, beginning +ith the Princess "heatre musicals, follo+ed by the +orks of the !ersh+in brothers, ole Porter , Aerome Kern,#odgers and Hart, and later #odgers and Hammerstein5
African theatre8edit9 $ncient %gyptian &asi"theatrical events 8edit9 "he earliest recorded 6uasi>theatrical event dates back to 2/// 7 +ith the passion plays of $ncient *gypt5 "his story of the god :siris +as performed annually at festivals throughout the civiliEation58(%9
'or(a theatre8edit9 See also: 8or"#a literat"re @n his pioneering study of ?oruba theatre, Aoel $dedeGi traced its origins to the mas6uerade of the *gungun 0the cult of the ancestor35 8(29 "he traditional ceremony culminates in the essence of the
mas6uerade +here it is deemed that ancestors return to the +orld of the living to visit their descendants58(;9 @n addition to its origin in ritual, ?oruba theatre can be traced to the -theatrogenicnature of a number of the deities in the ?oruba pantheon, such as :batala the arch divinity, :gun the divinity of creativeness and Sango the divinity of the storm, +hose reverence is imbued +ith drama and theatre and the symbolic overall relevance in terms of its relative interpretation58(<9 "he $lRrTnGU theatrical tradition sprang from the *gungun mas6uerade, from oyo @gboho around the %'th century5 "he $lRrTnGU +as a troupe of traveling performers +hose masked forms carried an air of mysti6ue5 "hey created short, satirical scenes that dre+ on a number of established stereotypical characters5 "heir performances utilised mime, music and acrobatics5 "he $lRrTnGU tradition influenced the popular traveling theatre, +hich +as the most prevalent and highly developed form of theatre in =igeria from the %.4/s to the %.(/s5 @n the %../s, the popular traveling theatre moved into television and film and no+ gives live performances only rarely5 8(49 "otal theatre also developed in =igeria in the %.4/s5 @t utilised non>=aturalistic techni6ues, surrealistic physical imagery, and eBercised a fleBibile use of language5 Play+rights +riting in the mid>%.&/s made use of some of these techni6ues, but articulated them +ith a radical appreciation of the problems of society58('9 "raditional performance modes have strongly influenced the maGor figures in contemporary =igerian theatre5 "he +ork of Hubert :gunde 0sometimes referred to as the father of contemporary ?oruban theatre3 +as informed by the $lRrTnGU tradition and *gungun mas6uerades5 8(&9 Wole Soyinka, +ho is generally recogniEed as $frica-s greatest living play+right, gives the divinity :gun a compleB metaphysical significance in his +ork58((9 @n his essay "he Fourth Stage 0%.&;3, 8(.9 Soyinka contrasts ?oruba drama +ith classical $thenian drama, relating both to the %.th>century !erman philosopher Friedrich =ietEsche-s analysis of the latter in The 4irth of Traedy 0%(&235 :gun, he argues, is a totality of the ionysian, $pollonian and Promethean virtues58./9 Hubert :gunde must also be commended for his true passion for the $frican kind of theatre that maintains accurate $fricanness, traditional forms of the $fricans, the belief system, common values, folklores of the people5 $mong the fe+ proponents of popular travelling theatre in =igeria include) uro Ladipo, Moses :laiya 0 a popular comic act35 "hese practitioners contributed a lot to kick off the $frican theatre5 uring the period of miBture and eBperimentation of the indigenous as +ell as the Western theatre5
Asian theatre8edit9
Mani amodara hakyar as King dayana in 7hasa-sS0apnavasavadattam .oodiyattam>the only surviving ancient Sanskrit theatre5
)ndian theatre 8edit9 *vervie# of )ndian theatre8edit9
Main article: Theatre in 9ndia "he earliest form of @ndian theatre +as the Sanskrit theatre58.%9 @t emerged sometime bet+een the 2nd century 7 and the %st century and flourished bet+een the %st century and the %/th, +hich +as a period of relative peace in the history of @ndia during +hich hundreds of plays +ere +ritten5 8.29 With the @slamic con6uests that began in the %/th and %%th centuries, theatre +as discouraged or forbidden entirely58.;9 Later, in an attempt to re>assert indigenous values and ideas, village theatre +as encouraged across the subcontinent, developing in a large number of regional languages from the %4th to the %.th centuries58.<9 Modern @ndian theatre developed during the period of colonial rule under the 7ritish *mpire, from the mid>%.th century until the mid>2/th5 8.49 +anskrit theatre8edit9
Main article: Sanskrit drama See also: .oodiyattam "he earliest>surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the %st century5 8.'9 "he +ealth of archaeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the eBistence of a tradition of theatre58.&9 "he ancient edas0hymns from bet+een %4// to %/// 7 that are among the earliest eBamples of literature in the +orld3 contain no hint of it 0although a small number are composed in a form of dialogue3 and the rituals of the Jedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre5 8.&9 "he Mah#hs ;ya by PataVGali contains the earliest reference to +hat may h ave been the seeds of Sanskrit drama58.(9 "his treatise on grammar from % 7 provides a feasible date for the beginnings of theatre in @ndia58.(9 "he maGor source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre 03tya<stra3, a compendium +hose date of composition is uncertain 0estimates range from 2// 7 to 2// $3 and +hose authorship is attributed to7harata Muni5 "he Treatise is the most complete +ork of dramaturgy in the ancient +orld5 @t addresses acting, dance, music, dramatic construction, architecture, costuming, make>up, props, the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre5 8.(9 @n doing so, it provides
indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices5 Sanskrit theatre +as performed on sacred ground by priests +ho had been trained in the necessary skills 0dance, music, and recitation3 in a 8hereditary process95 @ts aim +as both to educate and to entertain5 nder the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that +ere directed by a stage manager 0s"tradhara3, +ho may also have acted58..9 "his task +as thought of as being analogous to that of a puppeteer Dthe literal meaning of s"tradhara is holder of the strings or threads5 8.(9 "he performers +ere trained rigorously in vocal and physical techni6ue5 8%//9 "here +ere no prohibitions against female performersC companies +ere all>male, all>female, and of miBed gender5 ertain sentiments +ere considered inappropriate for men to enact, ho+ever, and +ere thought better suited to +omen5 Some performers played character their o+n age, +hile others played those different from their o+n 0+hether younger or older35 :f all the elements of theatre, theTreatise gives most attention to acting 0 a#hinaya3, +hich consists of t+o styles) realistic 0lokadharmi 3 and conventional 0natyadharmi 3, though the maGor focus is on the latter 58%/%9 @ts drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature58%/29 @t utilised stock characters, such as the hero 0nayaka3, heroine 0nayika3, or clo+n 0vid"saka35 $ctors may have specialised in a particular type5 Klidsa in the %st century 7, is arguably considered to be ancient @ndia-s greatest Sanskrit dramatist5 "hree famous romantic plays +ritten by Klidsa are the Mlaviknimitram 0Mlavik and Animitra3, ikram""rvashiiya 0Pertainin to ikrama and =rvashi 3, and A#hi>?na<k"ntala 0The !econition of Shak"ntala35 "he last +as inspired by a story in the Maha#harata and is the most famous5 @t +as the first to be translated into *nglish and !erman5 @ak"ntal 0in *nglish translation3 influenced !oethe-s 2a"st 0%(/(1%(;235 8%/29
"he neBt great @ndian dramatist +as 7havabhuti 0c5 &th century35 He is said to have +ritten the follo+ing three plays) Malati)Madhava, Mahaviracharita and =ttar !amacharita5 $mong these three, the last t+o cover bet+een them the entire epic of !amayana5 "he po+erful @ndian emperor Harsha 0'/'1'<(3 is credited +ith having +ritten three plays) the comedy !atnavali , Priyadarsika, and the 7uddhist drama 3aananda5 Rral )ndian theatre8edit9 This section re!uires e"pansion. (May 2011)
athakali8edit9
Main article: .athakali Kathakali is a highly stylised classical @ndian dance>drama noted for the attractive make>up of characters, elaborate costumes, detailed gestures, and +ell>defined body movements presented in tune +ith the anchor playback music and complementary percussion5 @t originated in the country-s present>day state of Kerala during the %&th century 8%/;9 and has developed over the years +ith improved looks, refined gestures and added themes besides more ornate singing and precise drumming5 Modern )ndian theatre8edit9
#abindranath "agore +as a pioneering modern play+right +ho +rote plays noted for their eBploration and 6uestioning of nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed5 8%/<9 His plays are +ritten in 7engali and include Chitra 0Chitranada, %(.23, The .in of the +ark Cham#er 0!a>a, %.%/3, The Post %ffice 0+akhar , %.%;3, and !ed %leander 0!aktakara#i , %.2<358%/<9 -1st Centry )ndian theatre8edit9
MrityunGay Prabhakar is one of the maGor young Hindi theatre director and play+right +ho emerged on @ndian "heatre Scene in the last decade of the 2/th century and established himself as a
significant theatre activist in first decade of the 2%st century5 He started his theatre career from Patna during his graduation days5 He has +orked +ith several theatre groups like $bhiyan, Prerna, Mach $rt group and Prangan in Patna5 Later, he co>founded the group $bhiyan along +ith his friends5 When he arrived elhi for his further studies in Aa+aharlal =ehru niversity, =e+ elhi5 Here he +orked +ith famous groups like #ang Saptak, 7ahroop and astak5 Later he founded his o+n group named S*H$# in 2//4 and started +orking rigorously5 He has got trained under leading figures of @ndian rama and "heatre +orld through different +orkshops he attended like Habib "anvir, 75J5 Karanth, Prasanna, #atan "hiyam, 5 #5 $nkur and many more5 He has +orked +ith directors like 5#5 $nkur, Lokendra $rambam, H5S5 Shiva Prakash, Surendra Sharma, ParveE $khtar, JiGay Kumar, Aaved $khtar Khan, Suman Kumar and others5 He has +orked as an actor, director, set designer, light designer and organiEer in theatre5 Presently, MrityunGay Prabhakar +orks primarily as a "heatre irector and Play+right +ith h is group S*H$#5 He is the founder>director of theatre troupe, S*H$# 0Society of *ducation, Harmony, $rt, ulture and Media #eproduction3 0#egistered under Society $ct3 in 2//&5 He has directed more than t+o doEens plays among them -Sabse das Kavita-829, -Kh+ahishen- 8;9,-Aee Humen "o =atak Karna Hai-, 8<9,-hruvs+amini-849, -Jithalala- and -Suicide-8'9 have got special attention from the larger section of the society5 His plays has been performed in different cities and theatre centres of the country apart from elhi5 His plays +ere part of some of the important theatre festivals of the country5 MrityunGay Prabhakar-s originally +ritten Play -Sadho ekho Aag 7audana- +as published by @nkLit Publication5 He has also +ritten famous plays like -$ao =atak =atak Khelen-, -Kh+ahishen-, -Aee Humen "o =atak Karna Hai-, -Suicide-, -Hey #am-, -"eri Meri Kahani Hai-, -Karnav- and others, +hich has been performed by different groups and directors in various theatre centres of the country5 He has adopted famous Keniyan play+right =gugi Wa "hiong-s play -"he 7lack Hermit- as -Aayen "o Aayen Kahan-5 "he adoptation +as first performed by =S !raduate #andhir Kumar in 2//4 in Patna5 Later he reproduced the play in 2/%/ +ith S*H$# in elhi5 He has adopted H5S5 Shivaprakash famous Kannad play -Mochi Madaiah- in Hin di +hich +as directed by Lokendra $rambam and published by ?ash Publication, elhi5 $n anthology on ontemporary @ndian "heatre titled -Samkaleen #angkarm- is also credited on his name published by @nkLit Publication5 His Hindi Poetry ollection -Ao Mere 7heetar Hain- +as published by $kademi of Letters 0Sahitya $kademi3, @ndia5
Chinese theatre8edit9 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challeng removed. (April 2011)
Main article: Chinese opera +hang theatre8edit9
"here are references to theatrical entertainments in hina as early as %4// 7 during the Shang ynastyC they often involved music, clo+ning and acrobatic displays5 Han and Tang theatre8edit9
uring the Han ynasty, shado+ puppetry first emerged as a recogniEed form of theatre in hina5 "here +ere t+o distinct forms of shado+ pupp etry, antonese southern and Pekingese northern5 "he t+o styles +ere differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the puppets, as opposed to the type of play performed by the puppets5 7oth styles generally performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely +as this very styliEed form of theatre used for political propaganda5 antonese shado+ pu ppets +ere the larger of the t+o5 "hey +ere built using thick leather +hich created more substantial shado+s5 Symbolic color +as also very prevalentC a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery5 "he rods used to control antonese puppets +ere attached perpendicular to the puppets- heads5 "hus, they +ere not seen by the
audience +hen the shado+ +as created5 Pekingese puppets +ere more delicate and smaller5 "hey +ere created out of thin, translucent leather usually taken from the belly of a donkey5 "hey +ere painted +ith vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colorful shado+5 "he thin rods +hich controlled their movements +ere attached to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet5 "he rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the neck5 While these rods +ere visible +hen the shado+ +as cast, they laid outside the shado+ of the puppetC thus they did not interfere +ith the appearance of the figure5 "he rods attached at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads +ith one body5 When the heads +ere not being used, they +ere stored in a muslin book or fabric lined boB5 "he heads +ere al+ays removed at night5 "his +as in keeping +ith the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets +ould come to life at night5 Some puppeteers +ent so far as to store the heads in one book and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets5 Shado+ puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the %%th century before becoming a tool of the government5 "he "ang ynasty is sometimes kno+n as -"he $ge of %/// *ntertainments-5 uring this era, *mperor XuanEong formed an acting school kno+n as the hildren of the Pear !arden to produce a form of drama that +as primarily musical5 +ong and 'an theatre8edit9
2"rther information: a>" @n the Song dynasty, there +ere many popular plays involving acrobatics and music5 "hese developed in the ?uan dynasty into a more sophisticated form +ith a four or five act structure5 ?uan drama spread across hina and diversified into numerous regional forms, the best kno+n of +hich is 7eiGing :pera, +hich is still popular today5
.hilippine theatre8edit9 uring the ;;;>year reign of the Spanish government, the introduced into the islands the atholic religion and the Spanish +ay of life, +hich gradually merged +ith the indigenous culture to form the Ylo+land folk cultureZ no+ shared by the maGor ethnolinguistic groups5 "oday, the dramatic forms introduced or influenced by Spain continue to live in rural areas all over the archipelago5 "hese forms include the komedya, the playlets, the sinakulo, the sars+ela, and the drama5 @n recent years, some of these forms have been revitaliEed to make them more responsive to the conditions and needs of a developing nation5
Thai theatre8edit9 2"rther information: !amakien @n "hailand, it has been a tradition from the Middle $ges to stage plays based on plots dra+n from @ndian epics5 @n particular, the theatrical version of "hailand-s national epic !amakien, a version of the @ndian !amayana, remains popular in "hailand even today5
hmer and Malay theatre8edit9 @n ambodia, at the ancient capital $ngkor Wat, stories from the @ndian epics !amayana and Maha#harata have been carved on the +alls of temples and palaces5 Similar reliefs are found at 7orobudur in @ndonesia5
/apanese theatre8edit9 2"rther information: Theatre of Bapan !oh8edit9
Main article: 3oh uring the %
Kan-ami-s company performed for $shikaga ?oshimitsu 0%;4(1%(3, the Shogun of Aapan, he implored eami to have a court education for his arts5 $fter eami succeeded his father, he continued to perform and adapt his style into +hat is today =oh5 $ miBture of pantomime and vocal acrobatics, this style has fascinated the Aapanese for hundreds of years5 nrak8edit9
Main article: 4"nrak" Aapan, after a long period of civil +ars and political disarray, +as unified and at peace primarily due to shogun "okuga+a @eyasu 0%4<;1%'%'35 Ho+ever, alarmed at increasing hristian gro+th, he cut off contact from Aapan to *urope and hina and outla+ed hristianity5 When peace did come, a flourish of cultural influence and gro+ing merchant class demanded its o+n entertainment5 "he first form of theatre to flourish +as =ingy[ G[ruri 0commonly referred to as 7unraku35 "he founder of and main contributor to =ingy[ G[ruri, hikamatsu MonEaemon 0%'4;1%&243, turned his form of theatre into a true art form5 =ingy[ G[ruri is a highly styliEed form of theatre using puppets, today about %\;d the siEe of a human5 "he men +ho control the puppets train their entire lives to become master puppeteers, +hen they can then operate the puppet-s head and right arm and choose to sho+ their faces during the performance5 "he other puppeteers, controlling the less important limbs of the puppet, cover themselves and their faces in a black suit, to imply their invisibility5 "he dialogue is handled by a single person, +ho uses varied tones of voice and speaking manners to simulate different characters5 hikamatsu +rote thousands of plays during his lifetime, most of +hich are still used today5 "hey +ore masks instead of elaborate makeup5 Masks define their gender, personality, and moods the actor is in5 a(ki8edit9
Main article: .a#"ki Kabuki began shortly after 7unraku, legend has it by an actress named :kuni, +ho lived around the end of the %'th century5 Most of Kabuki-s material came from =] and 7unraku, and its erratic dance> type movements are also an effect of 7unraku5 Ho+ever, Kabuki is less formal and more distant than =], yet very popular among the Aapanese public5 $ctors are trained in many varied things including dancing, singing, pantomime, and even acrobatics5 Kabuki +as first performed b y young girls, then by young boys, and by the end of the %'th century, Kabuki companies consisted of all men5 "he men +ho portrayed +omen on stage +ere specifically trained to elicit the essence of a +oman in their subtle movements and gestures5 toh8edit9
!yohei aitsu performing 7utoh
Main article: 4"toh 7utoh is the collective name for a diverse range of activities, techni6ues and motivations for dance, performance, or movement inspired by the $nkok"toh 0暗黒舞踏 ankok" #"t 3 movement5 @t typically involves playful and grotes6ue imagery, taboo topics, eBtreme or absurd environments, and is traditionally performed in +hite body makeup +ith slo+ hyper>controlled motion, +ith or +ithout an audience5 "here is no set style, and it may be purely conceptual +ith no movement at all5 @ts origins
have been attributed to Aapanese dance legends "atsumi HiGikata and KaEuo :hno5 7utoh appeared first in Aapan follo+ing World War @@ and specifically after student riots5 "he roles of authority +ere no+ subGect to challenge and subversion5 @t also appeared as a reaction against the contemporary dance scene in Aapan, +hich HiGikata felt +as based on the one hand on imitating the West and on the other on imitating the =oh5 He criti6ued the current state of dance as overly superficial5
Medieval Islamic theatre 8edit9 "he most popular forms of theatre in the medieval @slamic +orld +ere puppet theatre 0+hich included hand puppets, shado+ plays and marionette productions3 and live passion plays kno+n as ta'1iya, in +hich actors re>enact episodes from Muslim history5 @n particular, Shia @slamic plays revolved around the shaheed 0martyrdom3 of $li-s sons Hasan ibn $li and Husayn ibn $li5 Secular plays kno+n as akhra>a +ere recorded in medieval ada# literature, though they +ere less common than puppetry and ta'1iya theatre58%/49
See also8edit9 Theatre portal
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Notes8edit9 %5 /mp p2 7anham 0%..43, 7rockett and Hildy 02//;3, and !oldhill 0%..&, 4<35 25 /mp p2 $ristotle, Poetics J@, 25 ;5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 0%.'(C %/th ed5 2/%/3, History of the Theater 5 <5 /mp p2 avidson 02//4, %.&3 and "aplin 02//;, %/35 45 /mp p2 artledge 0%..&, ;, '3, !oldhill 0%..&, 4<3 and 0%..., 2/>BB3, and #ehm 0%..25 ;35 !oldhill argues that although activities that form an integral part of the eBercise of citiEenship 0such as +hen the $thenian citiEen speaks in the $ssembly, eBercises in the gymnasium, sings at the symposium, or courts a boy3 each have their o+n regime of display and regulation, nevertheless the term performance provides a useful heuristic category to eBplore the connections and overlaps bet+een these different areas of activity 0%..., %35 '5 /mp p2 Pelling 02//4, (;35 &5 /mp p2 !oldhill 0%..., 243 and Pelling 02//4, (;1(<35 (5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, %41%.35
.5 /mp p2 7ro+n 0%..4, <<%3, artledge 0%..&, ;143, !oldhill 0%..&, 4<3, Ley 02//&, 2/'3, and Styan 02///, %35 "aBidou notes that most scholars no+ call -!reek- tragedy -$thenian- tragedy, +hich is historically correct 02//<, %/<35 %/5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, ;21;;3, 7ro+n 0%..4, <<<3, and artledge 0%..&, ;1435 artledge +rites that although $theniansof the
century phenomenon, the product of a short>lived golden age5 @f not attaining the 6uality and stature of the fifth>century -classics-, original tragedies nonetheless continued to be +ritten and produced and competed +ith in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the democracyDand beyond it 0%..&, ;;35 %%5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, %43 and Kovacs 02//4, ;&.35 We have seven by $eschylus, seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by*uripides5 @n addition, +e also have the Cyclops, a satyr play by *uripides5 Some critics since the %&th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as *uripides-D!hes"sDis a
century play by an unkno+n authorC modern scholarship agrees +ith the classical authorities and ascribes the play to *uripidesC see Walton 0%..&, viii, BiB35 0"his uncertainty accounts for 7rockett and Hildy-s figure of ;% tragedies rather than ;253 %25 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, %435 "he theory that Promethe"s 4o"nd +as not +ritten by $eschylus adds a fourth, anonymous play+right to those +hose +ork survives5 %;5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, %;1%43 and 7ro+n 0%..4, <<%1<<&35 %<5 /mp p2 7ro+n 0%..4, <<23 and 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, %41 %&35 *Bceptions to this pattern +ere made, as +ith *uripides- Alcestisin <;( 75 "here +ere also separate competitions at the ity ionysia for the performance of dithyrambs and, after <((1& 7,comedies5 %45 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, %;, %43 and 7ro+n 0%..4, <<235 #ehm offers the follo+ing argument as evidence that tragedy +as not institutionaliEed until 4/% 7) "he specific cult honoured at the ity ionysia +as that of ionysus *leuthereus, the god -having to do +ith *leutherae-, a to+n on the border bet+een 7oeotia and $ttica that had a sanctuary to ionysus5 $t some point $thens anneBed *leutheraeDmost likely after the overthro+ of the Peisistratid tyranny in 4%/ and the democratic reforms of leisthenes in 4/(>/&Dand the cult>image of ionysus *leuthereus +as moved to its ne+ home5 $thenians re>enacted the incorporation of the god-s cult every year in a preliminary rite to the ity ionysia5 :n the day before the festival proper, the cult>statue +as removed from the temple near the theatre of ionysus and taken to a temple on the road to * leutherae5 "hat evening,
after sacrifice and hymns, a torchlight procession carried the statue back to the temple, a symbolic re>creation of the god-s arrival into $thens, as +ell as a reminder of the inclusion of the 7oeotian to+n into $ttica5 $s the name *leutherae is eBtremely close to eleutheria, -freedom-, $thenians probably felt that the ne+ cult +as particularly appropriate for celebrating their o+n political liberation and democratic reforms 0%..2, %435 %'5 /mp p2 7ro+n 0%..4, <<235 Aean>Pierre Jernant argues that in The Persians $eschylus substitutes for the usual temporal distance bet+een the audience and the age of heroes a spatial distance bet+een the Western audience and the *astern Persian culture5 "his substitution, he suggests, produces a similar effect) "he -historic- events evoked by the chorus, recounted by the messenger and interpreted by arius- ghost are presented on stage in a legendary atmosphere5 "he light that the tragedy sheds upon them is not that in +hich the political happenings of the day are normally seenC it reaches the $thenian theater refracted from a distant +orld of else+here, making +hat is absent seem present and visible on the stageC Jernant and Jidal>=a6uet 0%.((, 2<435 %&5 /mp p2 7ro+n 0%..4, <<23 and 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, %41 %'35 %(5 /mp p2 $ristotle, Poetics) omedy is, as +e said, a representation of people +ho are rather inferiorDnot, ho+ever, +ith respect to every 8kind of9 vice, but the laughable is 8only9 a part of +hat is ugly5 For the laughable is a sort of error and ugliness that is not painful and destructive, Gust as, evidently, a laughable mask is something ugly and distorted +ithout pain 0%<<.a ;/1;43C see Aanko 0%.(&, '35 %.5 /mp p2 7eacham 0%..', 235 2/5 /mp p2 7eacham 0%..', ;35 2%5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, <;35 225 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, ;', <&35 2;5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, <;35 For more information on the ancient #oman dramatists, see the articles categorised under $ncient #oman dramatists and play+rights in Wikipedia5 2<5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, <'1<&35 245 ^ Aump up to)
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4/5 /mp p2 enise M5 iPuccio 0%..(35 Comm"nicatin Myths of the Golden Ae Comedia5 7ucknell niversity Press5 @S7= .&(>/> (;(&>4;&2>.5 #etrieved 2< Auly 2/%;5 4%5 /mp p2 alderon and Lope de Jega5 "heatredatabase5com5 #etrieved 2/%2>/4>2<5 425 /mp p2 http)\\+++5Gstor5org\stable\pdfplus\2&.22(445pdf 4;5 /mp p2 http)\\+++5Gstor5org\discover\%/52;/&\;2/<;&&_ uid`;&;.'4'uid`2uid`<uid`;&;.24'sid`<&'.(.&2(2;4%& 4<5 /mp p2 Henry W5 Sullivan 0%.&'35 B"an +el /ncina5 "+ayne5@S7= .&(>/>(/4&>'%''>45 #etrieved 2< Auly 2/%;5 445 /mp p2 http)\\+++5Gstor5org\stable\pdfplus\<&%'%(5pdf 4'5 /mp p2 http)\\+++5Gstor5org\discover\%/52;/&\;;;/'2_ uid`;&;.'4'uid`2uid`<uid`;&;.24'sid`<&'.(.&;//<''& 4&5 /mp p2 Stanley Hochman 0%.(<35 McGra0)Hill /ncyclopedia of &orld +rama: An 9nternational !eference &ork in D ol"mes5 J=# $!5 @S7= .&(>/>/&>/&.%'.>45 #etrieved 2< Auly 2/%;5 4(5 /mp p2 http)\\+++5Gstor5org\stable\pdfplus\2&&';.&45pdf 4.5 /mp p2 7$K!#:= ": SP$=@SH #$M$ > Medieval to #enascence rama Spanish !olden $ge rama > rama ourses5 ourses in rama5 2//&>%2>2;5 #etrieved2/%2>/4>2<5 '/5 /mp p2 7ruce #5 7urningham 02//&35 !adical Theatricality: Bonle"resE"e Performance on the /arly Spanish Stae5 Purdue niversity Press5 @S7= .&(>%>44&4;><<%>45 #etrieved2< Auly 2/%;5 '%5 /mp p2 http)\\+++5Gstor5org\stable\pdfplus\;%2(/2%5pdf '25 /mp p2 Share ocuments and Files :nline Microsoft :ffice Live5 Westerntheatrehistory5com5 #etrieved 2/%2>/4>2<5 ';5 /mp p2 7ristol niversity Hispanic, Portuguese Latin $merican Studies > H@SP2//<( "he "heatre of the Spanish !olden $ge5 7ristol5ac5uk5 #etrieved 2/%2>/4>2<5 '<5 /mp p2 Sebastian oggartC :ctavio PaE 0%..'35 -atin American Plays: 3e0 +rama from Arentina, C"#a, Me$ico and Per"5 =ick Hern 7ooks5 @S7= .&(>%>(4<4.>2<.>%5 #etrieved 2< Auly 2/%;5 '45 /mp p2 http)\\+++5Gstor5org\stable\pdfplus\;;.'2<5pdf ''5 /mp p2 !urr 0%..2, %21%(35 '&5 /mp p2 Hume 0%.&', 2/435
'(5 /mp p2 Hume 0%.&', 2/'12/.35 '.5 /mp p2 Milhous 0%.&., <&1<(35 &/5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, 2&&35 &%5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, 2.&12.(35 &25 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, ;&/35 &;5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, ;&/, ;&23 and 7enedetti 02//4, %//3 and 0%..., %<1%&35 &<5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, ;4&1;4.35 &45 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, ;'21;';35 &'5 /mp p2 7rockett and Hildy 02//;, ;2'1;2&35 &&5 /mp p2 "he first *d+ardian musical comedy is usually considered to be 9n To0n 0%(.235 See, e5g5, harlton, Fraser5 What are *dMusoms_ FrasrWeb 2//&, accessed May %2, 2/%% &(5 /mp p2 Milling and Ley 02//%, vi, %&;3 and Pavis 0%..(, 2(/35 !erman)Theaterpraktiker , French) praticien, Spanish) teatrist a5 &.5 /mp p2 Pavis 0%..(, ;.235 (/5 /mp p2 Mcullough 0%..', %41;'3 and Milling and Ley 02//%, vii, %&435 (%5 /mp p2 *gyptian Passion Plays5 "heatrehistory5com5 #etrieved2/%;>/.>/.5 (25 /mp p2 $dedeGi 0%.'., '/35 (;5 /mp p2 =oret 02//(, 2'35 (<5 /mp p2 7anham, Hill, and Woodyard 02//4, ((35 (45 /mp p2 7anham, Hill, and Woodyard 02//4, ((1(.35 ('5 /mp p2 7anham, Hill, and Woodyard 02//4, &/35 (&5 /mp p2 7anham, Hill, and Woodyard 02//4, &'35 ((5 /mp p2 7anham, Hill, and Woodyard 02//4, '.35 (.5 /mp p2 Soyinka 0%.&;, %2/35
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$deGeGi, Aoel5 %.'.5 "raditional ?oruba "heatre5 African Arts ;5% 0Spring3) '/1';5 AS":# ;;;<<'% 7anham, Martin, ed5 %..45 The Cam#ride G"ide to Theatre7 #ev5 ed5 ambridge) ambridge P5 @S7= .&(>/>42%><;<;&>.5 7anham, Martin, *rrol Hill, and !eorge Woodyard, eds5 2//45 The Cam#ride G"ide to African and Cari##ean Theatre7 ambridge) ambridge P5 @S7= .&(>/>42%>'%2/&><5 7aumer, #achel Jan M5, and Aames #5 7randon, eds5 %.(%5 Sanskrit Theatre in Performance7 elhi) Motilal 7anarsidass, %..;5 @S7= .&(> (%>2/(>/&&2>;5
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"aplin, :liver 5 2//;5 Greek Traedy in Action7 Second edition5 London and =e+ ?ork) #outledge5 @S7= .&(>/>&<('>%.(&>/5 "aBidou, :lga5 2//<5 Traedy, Modernity and Mo"rnin 5 *dinburgh) *dinburgh P5 @S7= />&<('>%.(&>.5 "hornbrough, *mma Lou5 %..'5 The Ancient Greeks7 $cton, M$) opley5 @S7= .&(>/>(&<%%>('/>45 "sitsiridis, Stavros, !reek Mime in the #oman *mpire 0P5:By5 <%;)Charition and Moiche"tria, -oeion % 02/%%3 %(<>2;25 Jernant, Aean>Pierre, and Pierre Jidal>=a6uet5 %.((5 Myth and Traedy in Ancient Greece7 "rans5 Aanet Lloyd5 =e+ ?ork) one 7ooks, %../5 Walton, A5 Michael5 %..&5 @ntroduction5 @n Plays 97 7y *uripides5 Methuen lassical !reek ramatists ser5 London) Methuen5 vii1 BBii5@S7= /><%;>&%'4/>;5 Williams, #aymond5 %.''5 Modern Traedy 5 London) hatto Windus5 @S7= />&/%%>%2'/>;5 arrilli, Phillip 75 %.(<5 The .athakali Comple$: Actor, Performance and Str"ct"re7 8S5l59) South $sia 7ooks5 @S7= .&(>/>;.%>/;/2.>.5
External links8edit9 #ikimedia $ommons has media related to History of theatre.
#ikibooks has a book on the topic of% History_of_Western_Theatre:_ Greeks_to_Elizabethans
#ikibooks has a book on the topic of % History_of_Western_Theatre:_ 17th_Century_to_Now
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"heatre ollections of the Jictoria and $lbert Museum, +ith information and archive material niversity of 7ristol "heatre ollection, niversity of 7ristol Music Hall and "heatre History 1 an archive of historical information and material on 7ritish "heatre and Music Hal l buildings5
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Long running plays 0over / performances3 on 7road+ay, :ff> 7road+ay, London, "oronto, Melbourne, Paris, Jienna, and 7erlin APG!+ +ata#ase 0$rchive of Performances of !reek and #oman rama3, niversity of :Bford, ed5 $manda Wrigley 5 Women-s "heatre History) :nline 7ibliography and Searchable atabase at Langara ollege [sh
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