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1. INDIA- LOCATION AND EXISTENCE
The name India is derived from the river Indus or Sindhu. It is also known as Bharat on the name of the ruler Bharatha. It was also known as Hindustan by the Muslim invaders. It was called as Indoi by the Greeks. Finally it was called as India by the Britishers.
LOCATION
2 India lies in the Northern Hemisphere. India lies between 8o 4’ – 37o 6’ N Latitudes and 68o 7’ – 97o 25’ E Longitudes.
India’s length from North to South is 3214 kms and from East to West is 2933 kms. India commands a geographical area of 3.28 million or 32,87,263 km2 In terms of area India is the Seventh largest country with 2.4% of the area of the world. The six largest countries before India are Russia, Canada, China, U.S.A, Brazil and Australia. In terms of area Rajasthan is the largest state and Goa the smallest state. India has a land frontier of 15200 kms and has a Coastline of 6100 kms. India’s coastline including islands is 7516.6 kms.
3 There are nine coastal states; they are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odissa and West Bengal. India is the only country which has given its name to an Ocean, i.e. India Ocean, encircled by 46 countries(27 littoral countries including Australia 7 island states and 12 land locked countries). The five land locked states are Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Telangana Jharkhand. Tropic of Cancer passes through Eight states- Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram. The Southernmost tip of India is known as Indira Point or the Pygmalion Point. Gujarat and Arunachal Pradesh differs by 2 hours in terms of Sunrise. India Standard Time is based on 82o30’ E Longitude which passes through Allahabad. Indian Standard Time is ahead of GMT by 5 ½ hours. In terms of population, India is the Second largest country with a population of 121 crores. In respect to population- Uttar Pradesh is the largest populated state and the Sikkim is the least populated. India’s Density of Population is 382 persons per km2. Bihar is the most Densely populated state(1103) and Arunachal Pradesh is the least densely populated(17) state. BOUNDARIES OF INDIA ARE: North
Kilik Dawan pass or Indira Col.
South
Kanyakumari or Cape Comorin
East
Virgin forests and Untrampelled hills or Dong range.
West
Rann of Kutch(Salty Marshes)
INDIA SHARE BOUNDARIES OR LAND FRONTIER WITH SEVEN COUNTRIES: S.No 1
Country Bangladesh
Length of the boundary 4096
Name of the boundary
4 2
China
3917
Mac Mahon line
3
Pakistan
3310
Radcliffe line
4
Nepal
1752
5
Myanmar
1454
6
Bhutan
587
7
Afghanistan
80
Durand line
INDIAN MAP SHOWING LAND FRONTIERS India is a Union of 29 states and 7 Union Territories: S.No 1
States Andhra Pradesh
Capital Amravati (Guntur)
Language Telugu
5 2
Arunachal Pradesh
Itanagar
Tribal
3
Assam
Dispur
Assamese
4
Bihar
Patna
Hindi
5
Chhattisgarh
Raipur
Hindi
6
Goa
Panaji
Konkani and Marathi
7
Gujarat
Gandhinagar
Gujarati
8
Harayana
Chandigarh
Hindi
9
Himachal Pradesh
Simla
Hindi
10
Jammu and Kashmir
Srinagar[S] and Jammu[W]
Kashmiri
11
Jharkhand
Ranchi
Hindi
12
Karnataka
Bengaluru
Kannada
13
Kerala
Thiruvananthapuram
Malayalam
14
Madhya Pradesh
Bhopal
Hindi
15
Maharashtra
Mumbai
Marathi
16
Manipur
Imphal
Manipuri
17
Meghalaya
Shillong
Khasi, Garo and English
18
Mizoram
Aizwal
Mizo and English
19
Nagaland
Kohima
Angami Ao
20
Odisa
Bhubaneswar
Odiya
21
Punjab
Chandigarh
Punjabi
22
Rajasthan
Jaipur
Rajasthani and Hindi
23
Sikkim
Gangtok
Lapcha and Bhutia
24
Tamil Nadu
Chennai
Tamil
6 25
Telangana
Hyderabad
Telugu
26
Tripura
Agartala
Bengali and Tripuri
27
Uttar Pradesh
Lucknow
Hindi
28
Uttarakhand
Dehradun
Hindi
29
West Bengal
Kolkatta
Bengali
UNION TERRITORIES 1
Andaman and Nicobar
Port Blair
Andamanese and Nicobarase
2
Chandigarh
Chandigarh
Punjabi and Hindi
3
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Silvassa
Gujarati and Marathi
4
Daman and Diu
Daman
Gujarati
5
Delhi
Delhi( it has a special status of National Capital Territory)
Hindi
6
Lakshadweep
Kavaratti
Malayalam
7
Puducherry
Puducherry
Tamil and French
Countries Indian states as their borders -
Pakistan
: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, JK. (RadCliffe line.)
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Afghanistan
: JK (Durand line)
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China
: JK, HP, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Ar.pradesh. (MacMahon line)
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Nepal
: UP, Uttaranchal, Bihar, WB, Sikkim
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Bhutan
: Sikkim, WB, Assam, Ar.pradesh,
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Bangladesh
: WB, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura
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Myanmar
: Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Ar.pradesh
7 ISLANDS Andaman islands Location –
10o – 14o N Latitudes
Origin
Volcanic
Area
6204 km2
Location –
6.30o – 9.30o N Latitudes
Origin
Volcanic
Area
1841km2
Nicobar islands
Lakshadweep islands Location –
8o – 11o N Latitudes
Origin
Corals
Area
32 km2
8 INDIA’S PHYSIOIGRAPHIC DIVISIONS: India can be divided into three major physical divisions. They are 1. The Himalayan mountains 2. The Great plains of Indus and Ganga. 3. The Peninsular plateau 4. The Coastal plains. The Himalayan Mountains Origin: The origin of the Himalayas is related to continent-continent collision. The continentcontinent collision occurs when two continental plates collide. As the continents carried by plates move towards each other, the ocean basin is reduced in size and eventually closed. The Himalayas were formed when Gondawana land moved towards Eurasia or the Indian plate moved towards Eurasian plates eventually enclosing the Tethys Sea. The major events in the generation of the Himalayan Mountain were: 1. Geoclinal sediments occur along the margins of Indian plate and Eurasian plate. 2. The wedges of the sediments along the margins of the continent are deformed above the Subduction zone as the ocean basin decreases in size. Subduction begins as the oceanic crust is consumed. 3. Collision forced some of oceanic crust to be caught between two plates and squeezed upwards and plastered against the plates. This marked the site of welding of two plates called as suture zone. The Indus -Tsangpo Suture zones is one such zone. As the continental crust collide one continent moves into the subduction zone, its buoyancy prevents it from descending into the mantle more than perhaps 40 kms. below its normal level. Here two things happened:a) Indian plate was thrust under the overriding plate, creating a double layer of low density which rose buoyantly to produce a broad belt of deformed rocks with adjacent high plateau, e.g., Tibet. b) Even before continental were caught, masses became welded together and fragments of oceanic crust between the sequeezed upwards and plastered against the plates, thus marking the site of welding of two plates called suture zone.
9 4. The oceanic slab descending into the mantle becomes detached and sinks independently. When the slab has been consumed completely, the volcanic activity and the earthquake it generated are ceased. 5. As resisting forces build up the convergence stopped, the mountain becomes eroded and adjusts itself isostatically. Himalayas: they are the youngest fold mountains in the world.
They extend between Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh to a length of 2400 km.
Average width – 240 kms. The average width in Jammu and Kashmir is 500 kms. and in Arunachal Pradesh is 200 kms.
Its total area is –5 lakh sq. kms.
PAR
10 ALLEL RANGES OF THE HIMALAYAS: THE GREATER HIMALAYAS- Their average height is 6100 mts. and their average width: 250 km. They stretch from Nanga Parbhat (JK) to Namcha Barwa in Arunachal Pradesh -
Important mountain peaks of the greater Himalayas: Mt. Everest- 8850m/29,035 feet, K2- Godwin Austin, Indian local name- Krishnagiri and in China- Chouburi First lady to scale Mount Everest- Jungo Tapri First from AP to scale Mount Everest - Shekhar babu. First Indian to scale Mount Everest – Tengiz Norgay. First Indian women to scale Mount Everest – Bachendri pal. .
MIDDLE HIMALAYAS: average height from the sea level-3000m. Width: 60-80km. -
Important Mountain Ranges: Pirpanjal range, Mussori range, Nagtiba range, and the Mahaparbhat range.
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Important Hill Statioins: Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Nainital, Mussorri, Dehradun, Ranikhet and Darjeeling in WB. Important valleys:
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Kangra valley: HP famous for apple plantations.
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Flower valley: Uttaranchal. Famous for varieties of flowers.
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Chumbi valley: sikkim- famous place for tourism.
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Surma valley: Assam famous for Sal trees.
SHIVALAK MOUNTAINS: -
Total length- 2400 kms, average height- 600-1500 mts, width at HP-50 kms and width at Arunachal pradesh- 15 km.
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Important hills: Abor hills, Dafla hills, Mishmi hills.
11 TRANS HIMALAYANS OR TIBET HIMALAYAS. -
The Trans Himalaya includes the Karakoram and the Laddakh ranges.
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The karakoram lies to the north of the Indus. The karakoram range extend from the Pamir, east of the Gilgit river crossing the regions of Gilgit, Balistan and Laddakh.
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This range have some of the highest peaks including Mt. K2 or Godwin Austin or Qagir as the Chinese have named it.
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The Laddakh plateau is situated towards the north of the Karakoram range.
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Total length 1000 kms, average width- 300 m., average height-40km
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Important ranges: Zaskar, Kailas, and Ladakh.
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In Tibet Himalayas highest mountain peak is –K2, Godwin Austin-8611 m. It is situated in POK Kashmir.
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World’s highest battle field –Siachen glacier located in the Karakoram range.JK–72 kms.
EASTERN HIMALAYAS/ PURVACHAL HIMALAYAS: -
Located between Bharat and Myanmar. The highest peak – Saramati in Nagland.
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Important hills- Garo hills, Kasi hills, Jaintai hills, Naga hills.
CLASSIFICATION OF HIMALAYA ON THE BASIS OF GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: NAME
LOCATION
Length
1. Punjab Himalaya
Between Indus and Sutlej
560 km
2. Kumaon Himalaya
Between Sutluj and Kali
320 km
3. Nepal Himalaya
Between Kali and Tista
800 km
4. Assam Himalaya
Between Tista and Dihang
720 km
IMPORTANT PASSES: -
Banihal pass
Doda & Anantnag districts, Jammu and Kashmir
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Shipkila la pass
Sutlej enters India from Tibet , Himachal Pradesh
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Bara Lancha La pass
Kyelang & leh, Himachal pradesh
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Rohtang
Kullu & Kyelang, Himachal Pradesh
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Bomdi La pass
Tezpur & Tawang, Arunachal pradesh
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Thanga La
Uttaranchal
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Niti La pass
Uttaranchal
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Lipu
Leh, Indo-Nepal-China, Uttaranchal
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Jelepla
India & China (gangtok-lhasa road), Sikkim
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Nathu La pass
India & china, Sikkim
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Karakoram pass
Jammu and Kashmir
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Palghat
Palakkad & Coimbatore
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Shenkotta
Kollam & Madurai
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Thalghat
Mumbai & Pune
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Bhorghat
Mumbai & Nasik.
GREAT PLAINS OF INDIA: Location and origin The lowland or the plain is largely spread in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The North Indian plain lie between the Peninsular plateau and the Himalayan wall. The entire stretch of the plains from Pakistan to Assam is known as Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra plain. It extends over a length of 2400 km and a width of 240 in Bihar to to 500 km in Punjab. It forms a great curve from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. Infact, the Ganga plain the n is an alluvium filled depression. It might have been formed by bending down of the peninsular India confronted by the Himalayas, or it was a simple rift valley at the northern edge of the peninsular plateau. This plain formed by almost 400 m thick alluvium is sinking since its time of formation, while the Himalayas has been rising to maintain an equilibrium. The plain is divided into two parts by the Aravalli hills which form the water divide between the east flowing and west flowing rivers. Indus is the west flowing river while Ganga and Brahmaputra are the east flowing rivers. Rajasthan plain: The western extremity of the Great plain of India consists of the Thar or the Great Indian desert which covers western Rajasthan and the adjoining parts of Pakistan. The desert is 650km long and 250-300 km wide. Its total area is about 1.75 lakh km2 in India. The vast desert territory consists of two parts:a. The desert proper or the Marusthali, fringed by b. Semi desert known as the Rajasthan Bagar, which also contains some sand free land with steppe type of vegetation.
13 The Marusthali is a wide expanse of sand containing sand dunes. In general the eastern part of the Marusthali is rocky; the western Marusthali is sand covered almost all over by shifting sand dunes locally known as the Dharian. Sambhar Lake near Jaipur which is India’s largest salt water lake. The Punjab Plains: The Punjab-Haryana plains extend for about 640 kms. form northeast to southwest and cover an area of 1.75 lakh kms. the aravalli ranges extending up to Delhi and the ground swell running along the west bank of Yamuna form its eastern boundary. The altitude varies from 300 m in the north to 200 m in the south. The Punjab-Haryana plain is drained by five rivers and the intervening area between the rivers is known as Doab. The famous doabs are a) Sindh Sagar doab- between the Jhelum-Chenab and the Indus b) Chajj doab between the Chenab and the Jhelum. c) Rechana doab between the Ravi and the Chenab. d) Bari doab between Beas and Ravi. e) Bist-Jalandhar doab lying between the Beas and the Sutlej. The northern part of this plain adjoining Siwaliks has witnessed intensisve erosion leading to gully formation by a network of streams called Chhos. Ganga plain: The indo-Gangetic plain is divided into four shelf area separated from one another by three transverse high( bubrried hills). From west to east they are known as the DelhiHaridwar ridge, Faizabad ridge and the Munger-Saharsa ridge. Thus, from east to west the various units are
1. The Delhi-Haridwar Ridge. 2. The Sharada Depression 3. The West Uttar Pradesh Shelf 4. The Faizabad Ridge. 5. The Gandak Depression 6. The East Uttar Pradesh Shelf 7. The Munger- Saharsa Ridge
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The ganga plain lies in Uttar Pradesh , Bihar and West Bengal. it includes the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Rohilkhand plains, Avadh plains, Bihar plains, the north Bengal plains and the Rarh plains. The plain has been formed by the alluvium brought down by the Yamuna, ganga, Ghaghar and their tributaries aligned parallel to them. It is bounded on the north by the siwaliks which forms a knife edge boundary whereas the southern boundary is formed by the Peninsula and is broken by its impenetration. The Ganga-Yamuna is the largest doab. The general slope of the land is from north to south but there are many micro slopes. The old banger alluvium of the doab has formed an pland that is quite distinct from the low khadar. The Rohilkhand plains merge imperceptibly into the Avadh plains. It lies towards the north of the Ganga and is gently sloping eastwards. The Avadh plains is traversed by the
15 Ghaghara. The numerous bars and channels indicate that the river is an aggrading river and constantly shifts its channels. The Avadh plains end in Bihar plains. The Bihar plains have been narrowed down by the Rajamahal hills. The two parts north and south and south of the ganga are known as the North Bihar plain and the South Bihar plain, respectively. The North Bihar plain is a land of rivers. The Ganga receives three major Himalayan rivers, the Ghaghara, Gandak and the Kosi and a large number of mountain streams on its left bank. The general slope of the plain is towards southeast in the western part and the south in the eastern part. The plains of North Bengal extending from the foot of ht eastern Himalaya to the northern limit of the Bengal basin is formed by the detritus being brought from a number of powerful streams like the Tista, Jaldhaka, and the Torsa and its western fringe, known as Western Duars, is most typical. South of the Duars, the plains are more flattish and get waterlogged during the rains. Deccan plateau The Deccan plateau is a vast territory occupying the major part of the peninsula extending from the Satpura-Mailala ranges in the north through the Maharashtra plateau to the Telangana and the Karnataka plateaus on the south. The Western Ghats occupy most of the Maharashtra plateau while Archean crystallines are spread over the rest of the Deccan. The Satpura range lies between the valley of Narmada in the north and the Tapti in the south. It commences in the west from the Rajpiplal hills through the Mahadeo hills to the Maikala ranges. The two highest peaks of the satpura are the Astamba dongar and Dhupgarh. Nearly the whole of the Maharashtra plateau is formed of plateau basalt which has given rise to rolling plains with intervening shallow valleys. Flanking each of the three river valleys of the Godavari, Bhima and the Krishna, there are flat topped but steep sided low hills. The plateaus of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are carved out of Archean gneissic rocks. The Godavari divides the Telangana plateau into two sections. The northern section is bounded on the north by east flowing Wardha and on the east by south flowing Pranhita. The surface of the plateau is dotted with low hills and shallow depressions. The twin city of Hyderabad-Secunderabad is located in such a depression.
16 The Karnataka plateau is drained by the Krishna and its tributaries. The Mysore plateau is the loftiest and most well defined plateau in south India. Physiographically, the Mysore plateau can be divided into two sections Malnad and the Maidan. The Malnad portion is a hilly area bordering the sahyadri having an average width of 35 kms. and an average elevation of 1000m. The Maidan is an area of rolling plains with low granitic hills. Western Ghats: The Western Ghats also known as the Sahyadris form the western end of the Peninsular plateau running from Khandesh, south of the Tapti to Kanya Kumari for 1600 kms. they have a general altitude of 900-1100 meters but ocassionlally rise to 1600m. The northern section of the Ghats is made up of horizontal sheets of lava. The Western Ghats reach elevations upto 1200m but some of the peaks attain greater height such as Kalsubai near Igatpuri and Salhar. The Thalghat and the Bhorghat are two important passes in this range. In the south the Sahyadris are more rugged and run closer to the coast. The western scarp is considerably dissected by headward erosion of the west flowing streams. The Nilgiris is the meeting point of the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats. The southern portion of the Ghats is separated from the main Sahyadri Range by Palaghat gap which is believed to be an abandoned valley of an old river. Anaimudi is the highest point in the southern India. The ranges are the Anaimalai to the north, the Pilani to the northeast and the Cardamom to the south. The Ghats terminate near the southern tip of India at Kanya Kumari. The Western Ghats form a perfect Watershed. The rivers flowing eastward journey all through the Peninsula before they empty themselves Total length 1600 kms between Tapti valley to kanyakumari. Average height-1200 Mts. Highest mountain peak- Anaimudi with 2695 Mts. of height in Kerala. -
Kalasubai- height- 1640 Mts.- Maharashtra- western ghats-
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Western ghats and eastern ghats join in blue mountains in Kadaluru.
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Blue mountains are the highest mountain peak- Doda betta, -2637 Mts.
Important passes-
Palaghat pass: between palakhad and Coimbatore.
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Shenkotta pass: between kovalam and Madurai.
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Thalghat pass:
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Bhorgahat pass: between Mumbai and Nasik.
between Mumbai and Pune.
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Eastern ghats: The Eastern Ghats are highly broken and discontinuous running in fragmentary spurs and ranges down the east side of the Peninsula from the Mahanadi in Orissa to the Vaigai in Tamil Nadu. The range is cut into various discontinuous blocks of hills by several large antecedent rivers flowing down towards the Bay of Bengal. The highest peak of the Eastern Ghats is the Mahendragiri. This moountainous tract, principally composed of Khondalites and Charnockites, it localley known as Maliyas. Besides Maliyas the Eastern Ghats also comprise the Madugula Kons Enfw.
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Total length- 1000kms, average height- 1100 Mts., highest mountain peak-Mahendragiri 1501 Mts. in Srikakulam.
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Important hills: Nallamalla, Erramalla hills between Mahboobnagar and Kurnool, Papikondalu between east and west Godavari, Palakondalu- Cuddapah, VelikondaNellore.
IMPORTANT LAGOONS AND LAKES Vembnad Lake: Large sized lagoons of Kerala, have fertile alluvial islands, 63 km in length. Kayals : Popularly called back water in Kerala. A chain of lakes which are connected with each other y canal. Peaty soils of backwaters are called Kari in Kerala. Chilka Lake: Situated to the south west of the Mahanadi Delta. Enclosed by the sand pit. It has an opening which permits sea connection. Largest brackish water lake in Asia. FRESH WATER LAKE Wular Lake: It is the largest fresh water lake of India Kolleru Lake: A part of the sea enclosed between the deltas of Godavari and the Mahanadi and has a number of islands in it. Pulicat Lake: It is situated on the southern border of Andhra Pradesh. Lagoon formed due to enclosure by sand bar. Jaisamand Lake: It is the Largest fresh water lake of Rajasthan Nakki Lake: It is a small natural lake near Mt. Abu surrounded by hills. It is an important tourist place.
SALINE WATER LAKES: Sambhar Lake: It is the largest Lake in Rajasthan, lies on the border of Jaipur and Nagaur District. Common salt and sodium sulphate are produced mainly by the Hindustan Salt Ltd. Deedwana Lake: it is situated near Deedwana Town of Nagaur District of Rajasthan.
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WEST COAST: The plains of West Coast, are confined to a narrow zone the width ranging from 10 to 25 kms. it extends for about 1500 kms. in length from Surat in the north to Kanyakumari in the South. The western coast is divided into three sections- the Kathaiwar coast, the Konkan coast and the Malabar coast. The west coastal plain is a fault coast. The Gujarat plains are built up mainly of alluvium of the Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada and the Tapti, all of which have formed large estuaries. The northern part of the plains is drained by the Banas, the Saraswati into the Gulf of Cambay. Elsewhere the plain is
20 drained by the Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada and the Tapti. Near the western limit of the Gujarat plains, a series of saline marshes occur which are subjected to overflow at high tides. The Konkan coast stretches from Daman to Goa for a distance of 500 kms. it is narrow and has typical coastal features. The coastline is generally cliffy.
The submerged
coasts are indicative of rise in the Sea level. The northern portion of the Konkan coast is drained by the Vaitarna river which provided means of earliest trade between the Sea and north Deccan. The coastal plain is dotted with flat topped hills. The Malabar coast runs for about 725 kms. north to south. In the northern part in Karnataka, transverse flat topped spurs come down almost to the shoreline from the edge of the plateau. The plains in Kerala are much wider and less hilly with an average width of 35 kms. and ranging from 10 to 30 kms. in elevation. Only on the malabar coast there are a number of lakes, lagoons and backwaters locally called the Kayals. The largest of such backwater is the Vembnad lake. Some unique mud banks have been located between Cochin and Alleppy in the continental shelf off Vembnad lake. They are the modern analogues of an ancient hydrocarbon generating environment. EAST COAST: The east coast of India starts from the edge of the Ganga delta and runs to the southernmost tip of India. The coast is mostly of emergent type,i.e., it is regular inn outline and is characterised by offshore bars, fine Sea beaches, sand ridges and lagoons. It extends from Cape Comorin northwards to the united deltas of Krishna and Godavari for 1100 kms. with an average width of 100 to 130 kms. from North to South the coastal plains are known as the Utkal, Andhra and the Tamil Nadu plains. The Utkal plains extend for about 400 kms. it include the Mahanadi delta with Cuttack at its head. South of Mahanadi delta is the Chilka lake. The Andhra plains stretch from the southern limits of the Utkal plains to the Pulicat lake. The Godavari and the Krishna flowing through this regiion have formed deltas. Between the two deltas lier the Kolleru lake. The Pulicat lake has been barred by a long sand spit now called the Sriharikota islands. The lagoon is about 60 kms. long and about 60 kms. wide. It is dotted with several large islands.
21 The Tamil Nadu plains is about 675 kms. in length with an average width of 100 kms. The Kaveri delta is the most important physiographic unit in this region. The Kaveri river divides the delta into two channels. The islands Srisailam, Srirangapattanm and Sivasamudram are found in the Kaveri delta. DRAINAGE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE:
The Himalayan drainage system has evolved through a long geological history. It mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and the Brahmaputra river basins. These rivers are fed both by melting of snow and precipitation, therefore these systems are perennial.
22 These rivers creates gorges, V shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in their mountainous course. In the plains they create features like flat valleys, ox-bow lakes, flood plains, braided channels and deltas near the mouth of the rivers. In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is highly tortuous, but over the plains they display a strong meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently. Evolution of the Himalayan drainage: Geologists believe that a mighty river called Siwaliks or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the Himalayas from Asom to Punjab. It is opined that in due course of time Indo-Bahma river was dismembered into three main drainage systems the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The dismemberment was probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval in the western Himalayas including uplift of the Potwar plateau, which acted as the water divide between the Indus and Ganga drainage systems. Himalayan drainage system: The Indus system: It is one of the largest river basins of the world. It is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India. It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetian region. In Tibet it is known as Singi Khamban or Lion’s mouth. It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge near gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir.
It receives a
number of Himalayan tributaries such as Shyok, the Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gastings and the Dras. The Panjanad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the Satluj, Ravi, Beas, Jhelum and Chenab. It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir. Jhelum: it is an important tributary of the Indus, rising from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. . It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. It joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan. Chenab: is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
23 Ravi: it is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows throug the Changa valley of the state. It drains the area lying between the south eastern part of the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges. Beas: is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang pass at an elevation of 4000m above the mean Sea level. The river flows through the Kukllu valley and form gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaladhar range. It enters the Punjab plains and meets the Satluj near Harike. Satluj: it originates in the Rakas lake near Mansarovar. In Tibet it is known as Langchen Khambab. It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India and comes out of a gorge at Rupar. It passes through the shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains. it is an antecedent river, it is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal system of the bhakra nangal project. THE GANGA SYSTEM: Ganga is the most important river of India both from the point of view of its basin and cultural significance. It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal. Here it is known as Bhagirathi. At Devgrayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter it is known as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source in the satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar. Frp, here it flows first to the south, then to the south-east and east before splitting into two distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and Hoogly. The Son is the major right bank tributary while the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the Kosi, the Gandak and the Mahanada. The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal. Yamuna: the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source in the Yamunotri glacier. It joins the Ganga at Prayag. It is joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken on its right bank. Chambal: it rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows through a gorge up wards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has been constucted. The Chambal is famous for its badland topography called the Chambal ravines.
24 Gandak: it comprise fo two streams namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises near Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest. It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna. kosi : it is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet, where its main stream Arun rises. After crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it is joined by the Son kosi and the Tamur kosi. It form sapt kosi after uniting with the river Arun. Ramganga: it is comparatively a small river rising in the Garhwal hills. It changes its course to the southwest direction after crossing the Shiwaliks and enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad. Finally it joins Ganga near Kannauj Damodar: it occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur plateau where it flows through a rift and finally joins the Hugli. It was once known as the sorrow of Bengal. Sarda or Saryu: thi river rises from a glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where it is known as the Gori Ganga. Along the Indo-Nepal border it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins the Ghaghara. Son: it is the largest south bank tributary of the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak plateau. After forming a series of waterfalls at the edge of the plateau, it reaches Arrah, west of Patna, to join the Ganga. Brahmaputra: it is one of the largest rivers of the world, has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake. In tibet it is known as Tsangpo, which means the Purifier. It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh flowing sourhwest, it receives its main left bank tributaries-Ddibang and Lohit, thereafter it is known as the Brahmaputra. Its left bank tributaries are Burhi, Cihing, dhansari and Kalang where as its right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh. The Brahmaputra is well known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion. This is due to the fact that most of its tributaries are large and bring large quantity of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area.
25 The Indus and Ganga River system River Indus
Chenab Ravi Beas
Sutlej
Ganga
Yamuna
Ram Ganga
Ghaghara Gandak
Source Snow ranges of the Himalaya at an altitude of 5080m in Tibet, near Manasarovar lake. At an elevation of 4900m at Lahul. Kulu hill of Himachal Pradesh Kulu hill at an elevation of 3960m near Rohtang pass At an elevation of 4570m near Dharma Pass. Alaknanda at an elevation of 7800m Bhagirathi at an elevation of 6600m. both join at Devprayag.
Length (kms.) 2880 of which 1570 kms in India.
Drainage Area 3,21,290 km2
Tributaries Zaskar, Astar, Dras, Shyok, Swat, Kurram, shigar, Gilgit, Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej
1800m in India
26755 km2
725
14,442 km2
460
20,303 km2
1050
24,087 km2
Beas joins at Harike
2525
861404 km2
West of the Ganga source at an elevation of 6330m from a hot spring at Yamunotri. Near Nainital, in the lower Himalaya at an elevation of 3110m Rises east of the Ganga At an elevation of 7620m, in the central Himalaya near Tibet.
1300
359000 km2
Yamuna, Ram Ganga, Gandak, Ghaghara, Kosi, Burhi Gandak, Bagmati, Gomti, Son, Mahananda, Kamla, Damodar, Jalangi, bhairavi, Gorai, Matabhanga, Hoogly Confluence of Yamuna at Allahabad Chambal, Betwa, Hindu, Ken, Sarda.
696
32412 km2
Joins the Ganga below Farukkhabad.
1080
127950 km2
Rapti, Sarda
425
9540 km2
In Nepal, it is known as Narayani. It joins Ganga at Patna.
26 Kosi
From Tibet/Nepal
730(in India)
11600 km2
Gomati
About 3 kms east of Pilbhit at 200m elevation. Rises in Chotanagpur plateau(near Balumath) at an elevation of 1366m Amarkantak
940
30,437 km2
541
22,000 km2
Damodar
Son
km2
Kosi, Arun, Tamur. Notorioius for floods and hence known as “Sorrow of Bihar” Sai, Barma, Saryu, Chuha, Gachai, Jomki. Gartus, Konar, Jamunia and Barakar. Once known as “Sorrow of Bengal” Joins ganga at Maner near Patna. Tributaries – North Koel and Punpun
The Brahmaputra river system River
Source
Length (kms.)
Drainage Area
Tributaries
Subansiri
In Tibet
442
32,640 km2
Kamla
Jia Bhorelli
In Tibet
264
11,843 km2
Manas Buri Dihang
In Bhutan
376 362
37,500 km2 8,473 km2
Dhansiri
In Nagaland
354
12,250 km2
Koppili
Mikir North, Cachar hills. In Sikkim
256
15,800 km2
309
12,540 km2
In Sikkim In Chumbi valley of Tibet Manipur hills
186 358
3,958 km2 4,883 km2
Bichom, Khari, Dikari, Sonai, Tongsa, Kur. Tonsa and Kur. Namphunk, Namchik, Manaton, Tirap Dihing, Diphu, Nambar, Kalyan. Jamuna, borpani, Umum Rajani, Ranjit, Lish, Gish, Ghel. Murk and Dihana Holong and Kalgani
902
25,900 km2
Teesta Jaldhaka Torsa Barak
Jiri, Chiri, Horong, Katakhel, Longai
27 THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM The evolution of peninsular drainage system: Three major geological events International he distant past have shaped the present drainage systems of Peninsular India
Subsidence of the western flank of the peninsula leading to its submergence below the Sea during the early tertiary period.
Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent tough faulting. There is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.
Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from northwest to the southeastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
Mahanadi: it rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs through Odisa to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal. navigation is carried on in its lower course. Godavari: it is the largest Peninsular river and is also called the Dakshin Ganga. It rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run through the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisa and Andhra Pradesh. The Penganga, Indravati, Pranhita and Manjira are its principal tributaries. This river is subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches to the south of Polavaram, where it forms a picturesque gorge. It is navigable only in the deltaic stretch. Krishna: it is the second largest east flowing river which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadris. Its tributaries are Tungadhadra, Panchaganga, Musi, Koyana, Varna etc. Kaveri: it rises in Brahmagiri hills in Karnataka. Its upper catchment area receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon season and the lower part during the northeast monsoon season, the river carries water throughout the year with comparatively less fluctuation than the other Peninsular Rivers. Its tributaries are Kabini, Bhavani and the Amravati. Narmada: it originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau. Flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhya range in the north, itforms a picturesque gorge in marble rocks and Chuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur. The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river. Tapi: it is the other west flowing river. It originates from Multai in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
28 Luni: is it the largest river system of Rajasthan, west of Aravalli. It originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati and the Sabarmati, which join with each other at Govindgarh. From here the river comes out of the Aravali and is known as Luni. It flows towards the west and joins the Rann of Kutch. The entire river is Ephemeral.
THE PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM River
Source
Length (kms.)
Drainage Area
Tributaries
WEST FLOWING RIVERS Narmada
Amarkantak plateau in Madhya Pradesh
1,312
98,796 km2
Burner, Baiyar, Sher, Dudhi, Tawa, Shakkar, Hiran, Tendoni, Barna, Goi, Kundi, Karyan
Tapi/Tapti
Near Multan in Betul district
724
64,145 km2
Purna, Betul, Bori Levda, Vaghur, Patkai, Ganjal, Dhatranj, Bohad, Anbhora, Khursi, Kapra, Sipra, Mor, Panjhara, Garja, Khokri, Utaoli, Bokar, Subi, Gomal, Harki, Valer, Arunavati.
Luni
Annasagar in Ajmer district
482
37,250 km2
Sabarmati
Aravalli hills
300
21,674 km2
Wakal, Jawai, Sei, Mitri, Harnav, Hathmathi, Watrak, Meshwa.
29
River
Mahanadi
Brahmani
Source
Length (kms.)
Drainage Area
EAST FLOWING RIVERS Near Pharsia village 860 1,41,600 km2 in Rajpur district
Near Nagri village of Ranchi district
Baitami
800
39,033 km2
333
19,500 km2
Tributaries
Sheonath, Hadse, Mand, Ib, Jonk, Ong, Tel. Kura, Sankhed, Tikra.
Subarnarekha
Bihar
395
19,300 km2
Kanchi, Karfari.
Godavari
Trimbak in Nasik
1465
3,12,812 km2
Pravara, Purna, Manjra, Painganga, Wainganga, Maner, Wardha, Pranhita, Indravati, Sabari
Parvara
Western Ghats
200
6,537 km2
Mula
Purna
Ajanta hills
373
15,579 km2
Manjra
Balaghat
724
30,844 km2
Tima, Lanaya
Painganga
Buldhana range
676
23,895 km2
Pus, Arna, Aran
Wainganga
Seoni
609
61,093 km2
Pench, Bagh, Andhari
Wardha
Betul district
483
24,087 km2
Wunna, Bembla, Painganga
133
1,09,077 km2
Wainganga, Wardha
531
41,665 km2
Marangi, Kotri, Bandia, Nandira
113,106 km2
Haldi
Pranhita Indravati
Maner
Kalahandi
30 River
Source
Sabari
Sindaram hills
Krishna
At an elevation of 1,360m north of Mahabaleshwar
Ghatprabha
Drainage Area
Tributaries
2,40,427 km2
Sileru
1400
2,58,948 km2
Ghatprabha, Musi, Malprabha, Bhima, Muneru, Kaveri, Harnagi, Hemvati, Kabini, Bhavani
Western Ghats
283
8,829 km2
Hiranyakshi, Markandeyu.
Malprabha
Western Ghats
306
11,549 km2
Bhima
Western Ghats
861
76,614 km2
Mula, Mutha, Ghod, Nora
531
71,417 km2
Varada, Hagari
240
11,212 km2
Aleru
235
10,409 km2
Tungbhadra Musi
Medak district
Muneru
Length (kms.)
Kaveri
Brahmaputra hills
800
87,900 km2
Harangi, Hemvati, Kabini, bhavani
Harangi
35
540 km2
Yagachi Algur
165
5200 km2
Kabini
Pushpagiri hills, coorg district Western Ghats in Mudgil Taluk Wynad Taluk
210
6693 km2
Suyarnayathi
Nasurum ghat
64
1689 km2
Bhavani
Silent Valley Forest
216
7144 km2
Hemvati
Siruvani, Kundah, Coonoor, Moyar.
31
Climate The climate of a country is mainly based on the study of its temperature, rainfall, atmospheric pressure and direction of winds. The climate of India is greatly influenced by two factors:
Tropic of Cancer: dividing the country into two halves- North Temperate Zone and South Tropical zone.
Great Himalayan range separating the Indian subcontinent forms the rest of Asia, thus preventing the bitter cold winds from the central Asia from entering the country.
THE CLIMATE OF INDIA IS DESCRIBED AS TROPICAL MONSOON TYPE OF CLIMATE.
Climate of the Indian subcontinent: In spite of the great diversity and variation in Indian climate and topography due to various reasons stated earlier, the most important factor that lends unity to the Indian subcontinent is the fact of the monsoons.
The word monsoons owe its origin to an Arabic word Mausam meaning ‘season’. It was used by Sea men several centuries ago, to describe a system of alternating winds over the Arabian Sea. Thes e winds appear to blow from the south-west for six months and form North-east for another six months. Hence, as they reverse their directions seasonally, they are called ‘monsoon winds’ and the climate the tropical monsoon type.
Monsoon winds can be called land and Sea breeze on a large scale as both are caused due to differential heating of land and Sea.
Factors affecting the climate of India: The climate of India is a complex phenomenon and is influenced by large number of geographical factors. Some of the important factors are as follows1. Location and Latitudinal Extent
7. Distance from the Sea
2. Northern Mountain ranges
8. Physiography
3. Monsoon winds
9. Upper Air circulation
4. Tropical cyclones and Western Disturbances 5. El-Nino effect 6. Southern Oscillation.
10. La Nina
32 MECHANISM OF MONSOONS The origin of monsoons is still shrouded in mystery. Still attempts have been made to explain the mechanism of the monsoons but no satisfactory explanation is available till date. The theories regarding the monsoons are generally divided into broad categories. The word Monsoon owes it origin to an Arabic word meaning season. It was used by Sea men several centuries ago, to describe a system of alternating winds over the Arabian Sea. These winds appear to blow from South West for six months and from North-East for another six months. Hence, as they reverse their directions seasonally, they are called monsoon winds and the climate as Tropical Monsoon Type.
SEASONS HOT DRY SEASON: The hot season commences in March and continues till the end of May. During summer solstice, the sun shines directly overhead Tropic of Cancer which divides India into two halves. Mainland of India experiences intense heat during the months of March to May. Low pressure conditions develop on the mainland of India while high pressure conditions prevail over the surrounding seas. There is a steady increase in temperature from south to north with the highest in the interior. As the warmest area shifts from Deccan towards north west India in the month of May, it builds up a low pressure trough between Thar desert to Chota Nagpur Plateau. Winds from the surrounding regions descend in this region. These winds give rise to thunderstorms with stong dusty winds, often bringing a shower of rain mostly in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. The local winds during the hot season are: Kal Baisakhi: they are the local winds in West Bengal, meaning the calamity of the month of Baisakhi. They are also called Norwesters because they usually blow in the north west direction. These winds are accompanied by thunder storms and bring heavy rainfall.
33 Loo: are hot dusty dry winds, some of them called Sandstorms, which blow particularly in the month of May and June in the northern plain. The fierce heat with temperature rising upto 450- 500 C may cause sunstroke which may be fatal. Mango showers: these occur in south India during April/May. They bring a little rain which is important for mango, tea and coffee plants. Hence the name Mango showers. Characteristics of hot season: This season is marked by dry weather and excessive heat. In this season, the sun shines vertically overhead the Tropic of Cancer. The whole of tropical India, south of Himalayas experiences very high temperatures. The range of temperature is very high in the interior. Thunderstorms accompanied by dusty winds are common. The brief spell of showers experienced at this time is very useful for tea crop in Asom, rice in Bengal and mango and coffee in south.
THE ADVANCING MONSOON: The climate of India is strongly influenced by monsoon winds. The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 200N and 200S. the following facts explains the mechanism of monsoons:
The differential heating and cooling of land and water: creates low pressure on the landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.
The shift of the position of ITCZ : in summer, over the Ganga plain ( this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 50N of the equator. It is also known as the monsoon trough during the monsoon season).
The presence of high pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 200S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high pressure area affects the Indian monsoons.
The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9km above Sea level.
34
The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.
THE ONSET OF MONSOON AND WITHDRAWAL:
The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady winds but are pulsating in nature, affected by different atmospheric conditions encountered by it, on its way over the warm tropical seas. The duration of the monsoon is between 100-120 days from early June to Mid September. The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula generally by the first week of June. It divides into two branches- the Arabian Sea branch and the bay of Bengal branch. Arabian Sea branch hits the west coast the first week of June. By mid-June the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over Saurashtra- Kutch and the Central part of the
35 country. The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches merge over the northwestern of the Ganga plains. Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon is a more gradual process. The withdrawal of the monsoon begins northwestern states of India by early September. By mid-October, it withdraws completely from the northwestern half of the Peninsula is fairly rapid. By early December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country. The islands receive the very first monsoon showers, progressively from south to north, from the last week of April to the first week of May. The withdrawal takes place progressively from north to south from the first week of December to the first week of January.
Summer monsoon: in summer the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer resulting in high temperature and low pressure in Central Asia while the pressure is still sufficiently high over Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. This induces air flow from sea to land and brings heavy rainfall to Indian coast. Winter monsoons: in winter the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn. The north western part of India grows colder than Arabian Sea and bay of Bengal and the flow of the monsoon is reversed.
MODERN THEORY: Air mass theory: the south east trade winds in the southern hemisphere and the north east trade winds in the northern hemisphere meet each other near the equator. The meeting place of these winds is known as ITCZ( Inter Tropical Convergence Zone). The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of equator with the change of season. In summer season, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and the ITCZ shifts northwards. The south east trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and start flowing from south west to north east direction under the influence of Coriolis force. These displace trade winds are called south west monsoons when they blow over the Indian sub continent. The front where the south west monsoons meet the north east trade winds is known as the Monsoon Front.
36 In the month of July the ITCZ shifts to 200-250 N latitude and is located in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the south west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. This ITCZ shift is known as Monsoon Trough. CLASSICAL THEORY: Although monsoons are mentioned in our old scriptures and in the writings of several Greek and Buddhist scholars, the credit for the first scientific studies of the monsoon winds goes to the Arabs. Al Masudi, gave an account of the reversal of ocean currents and the monsoon winds over the north Indian ocean. In 1686, the famous Englishman Sir Edmund Halley explained the monsoon as resulting from thermal contrasts between continents and oceans due to the differential heating. Accordingly, Halley conceived summer and winter monsoons depending upon the season.
JET STREAM THEORY: Jet stream is a band of fast moving air from west to east usually found in the middle latitudes in the upper troposphere at a height of about 12 km. the wind speed in the westerly jet stream are commonly 150 to 300 km/hour. It is the latest theory regarding the origin of the monsoons and has earned worldwide acclaim from the meteorologist. The southern jet becomes active and heavy rainfall is caused by south west monsoons. The westerly jet stream is located along the southern slopes of the Himalayas in winter but it suddenly shifts to the north with the onset of the monsoons. An easterly jet stream called the Sub tropical easterly jet stream blows over peninsular India, approximately over 140 N during the summer months.
COLD WEATHER SEASON: Temperature: usually the cold weather season sets in by mid-November in northern India. December and January are the coldest months in the northern India. The mean daily temperature remains below 210C over most parts of northern India. The night temperature may be quite low, sometimes going below freezing point in Punjab and Rajasthan. There are three main reasons for the excessive cold in north India during this season-
37 1. The moderating influence of Sea experience continental climate. 2. The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan ranges create cold wave situation. 3. Cold winds coming from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan bring cold wave along with frost and fog over the northwestern parts of India. Peninsular region of India does not have any well defined season, there is hardly any seasonal change in the distribution pattern of the temperature in coastal areas because of moderating influence of the Sea and the proximity to equator. Temperature at the hills of Western Ghats remain comparatively low. Pressure and winds: by the end of December, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere. The weather in this season is characterized by feeble high pressure conditions over the northern plain. In south India the air pressure is slightly lower. As a result the winds start blowing from northwestern high pressure zone to the low air pressure zone over the Indian ocean in the south. RETREATING MONSOON:
During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the south, the monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains becomes weaker. This
38 is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system. The south-west monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By the beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains. The months of October-November form a period of transition from hot rainy season to dry winter conditions. The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. While day temperatures are high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive during the day, it is commonly known as October heat. The low pressure conditions over north western India, get transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early November. This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over the Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and widespread rain. The tropical cyclones are often very destructive, which cause great damage to life and property. Sometimes, these cyclones arrive at the coasts of Orissa, West Bengal and Bangladesh. The bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from depressions and cyclones. Characteristics of Monsoons: Monsoons are erratic in nature. Monsoons are unevenly spread and sporadic Monsoon rains are orographic in nature. Monsoons bring rain in summer Monsoon rains determine the economic state of the country by controlling the agricultural prosperity.
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA India can be divided into a number of climatic regions. Tropical Rain Forests in India: Found in the west coastal plains, the Western Ghats and parts of Assam. Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall, though seasonal, is heavy- about 200 cm annually during May-November. Tropical Savanna Climate: In most of the peninsula region except the semi-arid zone in the leeward side of the Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter and early summer and high temperature (above 18 – 32C); annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east. Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate: It prevails in the rain-shadow belt running southward from Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. It is characterized by low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature between 20 and 30.
39 Tropical and Subtropical Steppes : Large areas in Punjab, Haryana and Kutch region. Temperature varies from 12-35c. The maximum temperature reaches up to 49c. The annual rainfall, varying from 30.5-63.5 cm, is also highly erratic.
Tropical desert: This climate extends over the western parts of Banner, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. It is characterized by scanty rainfall (30.5 cm), which is highly erratic. Rains are mostly in the form of cloud-burst. Mean monthly temperature is uniformly high (about 35c). Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters: This area includes south of the Himalayas, east of the tropical and subtropical steppes and north of tropical savannah. Winters are mild to severe while summers are extremely hot. The annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than 254 cm, most of it received during the south west monsoon season. Mountain Climate: Such type of climate is seen in mountainous regions which rise above 6,000 m or more such as the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range.
40 Climatic regions of India: The essential characteristics of the climate of India is always tropical in nature. The elements of climate reveal many regional pattern. These regional patterns thus formed are more or less homogenous in character broadly with respect to temperature, moisture and rainfall. Many climatic factors for this purpose are taken into account such as temperature-its diurnal and annual range, precipitation- its quantity, seasonability and frequency, evaporation and transpiration and the vegetation types which are reflective of a particular climate. Based on these postulates there have been attempts to divide India into climatic zones. Most notable of these attempts are from Koppen, Thornthwaite and Trewartha. Koeppen’s Scheme: His classification is based on the nature and type of vegetation which is determined by climatic factors like temperature and rainfall. Based on his scheme India can be divided into the following climatic types: Monsoon type(AmW): this region comprises the western coastal strip where the rainfall exceeds 120 inches. The dry weather is very short and the vegetation is chiefly of evergreen type.
NATURAL VEGETATION Among the most valuable resources of India, their magnificent forest plays a very important role in its climate as well as economic development. Forests are our renewable resources and help in maintaining ecological balance, reduce pollution, maintain humidity, purify air and are a source of timber, fruits, flowers and fuel. The forests prevent soil erosion and provide habitat to a variety of wild animals, birds and insects. According to state of forest report 2009, the total forest cover of the country is 69.06million hectares (21.02% of the total geographic area of the country). The National forest policy has laid down a target of raising the area covered by forests in India to be 33.3%. There is a net increase of 728km2 of forest cover as compared to the previous assessment.
41
Forest types in India Forest
Climate
Distribution
Forest and trees
Tropical evergreen forests
Rainfall- 200 to 300 cms High humidity and temperature 25o to 27o C
Windward side of the Western Ghats, Garo hills, Jaintia, khasi hills and lower slopes of Eastern Himalayas.
Forests: dense thick undergrowth. Tall trees in layer arrangement. Climbers, creepers, ferns, bamboo, epiphytes and luxuriant growth.
Tropical deciduous forests
Rainfall- 150 to 200 cms temperature 20o C
Extent from Shivaliks in the north to Eastern edge of the Western Ghats and north-east Deccan plateau.
Dense undergrowth, shed leaves for 6-8 weeks in summer during conditions of drought.
Species / Special features Rosewood, Shisham and Ebony are used for making high quality furniture. Gurjan- railway sleepers Toon, ironwood and Bamboo are other important species. Sal- resistant to termites. Teak- resistant to termites and nails does not rust. Sandalwoodhandicrafts. Myrobalan- tanning of
42 hides, dyeing of cotton, wool and silk.
Thorn forests
Rainfall- 25 to 100 cms temperature 25o +
Drier parts of North Western India, rain shadow region of Western Ghats.
Trees are widely scattered within the forest. They are stunted with long roots, glossy leaves and spines.
Khajuri- fruit is edible Khair- yield timber and dye Khair and babool- yield gum for tanning leather.
Tidal forests Also known as Mangrove and Littoral forests.
Rainfall- over 200 cms Temperature over 25o C
Found in the areas flooded by Sea water- deltas of GangaBrahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari
Dense forests. Trees have stilt roots and phenmatophores.
Sundari- boats, boxes and telephone posts. Casuaina-checks transgression of the Sea and erosion along the coast.
Mountain forests
Rainfall- 150 to 250 cms temperature less than 20o C
Eastern Himalayas and western Himalayas
Softwood conifers used for making paper, matches, packing cases and planks. Deodar- railway sleepers.
Desert vegetation
Rainfall- less than 25 cms temperature 25o to 27o C
Drier parts of southern Punjab, Rajasthan and the Deccan Plateau states.
Xerophytes, thorny bushes, scattered trees, deep roots, thick fleshy stems.
Suitable for wildlife sanctuaries. Due to less rain, low temperature and snowfall. The trees are mainly evergreen with needle shaped leaves, more wood and less leaves. Wild berries, cactii, kikar, Babool- yields gum used for tanning hides and skins.
Problems of Indian forestry: 1. Low forest cover: the forest cover in India is only 21.02% as against the world average of 35%. 2. Open grazing: overgrazing by cattle, sheep and goats in hilly and mountainous areas damages the forest cover. 3. Shifting cultivation: jhooming or shifting cultivation by tribal’s in hilly areas cause extensive damage. 4. Growing demand for agricultural land: with growing population, demand for food products and agricultural raw materials has increased significantly. This has caused considerable shrinkage in forest area.
43 5. Urbanisation and Industrialization- increasing urbanization and industrialization is also an important cause of degradation in forest cover. 6. Construction of hydroelectric projects like Narmada has caused displacement and submergence of forest area. 7. Human activities like mining, quarrying and building has resulted in deforestation at a large scale. THE NATIONAL FOREST POLICY:
India is one of the few countries where forest policy is in operation since 1894.
Amendments have been made International he policy by the Government periodically to protect, conserve and develop the forest resources.
Under the scheme of forest conservation programme following steps have been taken1. Afforestation- the scheme of plantation of new forest. 2. Van Mahotsava –thousand of trees have been planted along the roads, railway lines and hill slopes. 3. Re-afforestation- the restoration of forest wherever they have been indiscriminately cut is called re-afforestation. In this scheme, two saplings are planted to replace one.
44 Important national parks:
Dachigam National park-
Jammu and Kashmir
Deer
Shikari National park
Himachal pradesh
Deer
Valley of flowers
Uttaranchal
Jim Corbett National park
Uttaranchal
Tiger
Dudwa National park
UP
Tiger
45 Chandra Prabha National park
UP
Tiger
Nanda devi National park
Uttaranchal
Tiger
Kanchenganga National park
Sikkim
Musk deer
Valmiki National park
Bihar
Musk deer
Bharatpur NP
rajasthan
Siberiam crane
Sariska National Park
rajasthan
Tiger
Ranthambor National Park
rajasthan
Birds & animals
Sultanpur National Park
Harayana
Birds
Kaziranga National Park
Assam
Rhino
Manas tiger project
Assam
Tiger
Kanha National Park
Madhya Pradesh
Tiger
Shivpuri National Park
Madhya Pradesh
Tiger
Gir National Park
Gujarat
Lions
Bandhipur National Park
Karnataka
Tiger
Silent valley project
kerala
Monkeys
Madhumati National Park
TN
Elephants
Nandan kanan National Park
Orissa
White tiger
Simpala National Park
Orissa
White tiger
Sundarbans National Park
WB
Tiger
Rajiv Gandhi National Park
AP
Tiger
Kolleru bird sanctuary
AP
Siberian cranes
46 BIOSPHERE RESERVES:
A Biosphere reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas which are internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere programme. The Biosphere Reserve aims at achieving the three objectives of
Conservation- conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem.
Development- association of environment with development.
Logistics- international network for research and monitoring.
There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India.
Four reserves namely Nilgiris, Nanda Devi, Sunderbans and Gulf of Mannar have been recognised by the UNESCO on World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
Nine of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.[2][3][4]
47
Name
States
Year
Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh 2012[3] Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
Tamil Nadu
2001
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
Uttarakhand
2004
Nicobar Islands
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2013[5]
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka 2000
Nokrek Biosphere Reserve
Meghalaya
2009
Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
Madhya Pradesh
2009
Simlipal Biosphere Reserve
Odisha
2008
Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve
West Bengal
2001
SOCIAL FORESTRY: It means the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development. The National Commission on Argiculture(1976) has classified social forestry into three categories. These are Urban Forestry, Rural forestry and farm forestry. Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and private owned lands such as parks, roadside avenues, industrial and commercial green belts etc. Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and community forestry. Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agricultural crops on the same land imcllusive of the waste patches. It combines forestry with agriuclutre, thus altering the simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruit.
48 Community forestry involves the raising of trees on public or community land such as the village pasture and temple land, roadside, canal bank, etc, it aims at providing benefits to the community as whole.
SOILS: Diversity of Indian physiography, climate, structure and vegetation justifies the diverse soil types. Importance of soil: Soils support plants, animals as well as human life. Life depends on the food we eat and soil is the source of that food for man and animals. Thus, agricultural production depends on the fertility of soil. Formation of soil: It is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface. The major factors affecting the formation of the soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and other life forms and time. Soil essentially is the loose material which forms the thin surface layer of the earth. Soil is formed under specific natural conditions. It is a mixture of mineral or inorganic matter which results from denudation and disintegration of rocks. Thus, soil is a renewable natural resource though it takes a long time to regenerate it. The process of soil formation is called Pedogenesis. Composition of soil Soil is a mixture of inorganic material, minerals and organic materials like humus. The inorganic components mainly consists of silica, clay and chalk. Organic components determines the fertility of the soil. They are derived from the decay vegetable matter. The ultimate form of organic matter is humus. It imparts a dark colour to the soil. It also helps the plant to draw the nutrients from the soil essential for its growth. Soil profile: As per the soil profile, the soil mainly consists of two layers- top soil and sub soil.
49 Top soil: forms the layer where the plant growth takes place; hence fertile top soil yields good crop. It also contains bacteria, worms and insects which are so important for the fertility of the soil. Sub soil: is formed by the weathering of the parent rock. It also contains a part of the organic matter and moisture but it is not very productive. For good crops, it would have to be converted to soil which is a very slow process. Below sub soil is the solid, unweathered bed-rock. Characteristics of different soils: Sandy soils:
It contains 60% of sand and 10% of clay
They allow the water to pass through
They are good for cultivation only if some fertilizers are added. It is good mainly for fruits and vegetables.
Clayey soils:
It has more than 60% of clay
It retains moisture and is sticky in nature.
Its fertility improves if sand and chalk are added to it.
Loamy soils:
It contains mixture of sand and clay
It can be very fertile with the right mixture of sand and clay.
If higher percentage of sand is present, it is called sandy loam and if there is higher percentage of clay it is called clayey loam.
50 SOILS IN INDIA: Classification of soils: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research(ICAR) set up an All India Soil Survey Committee in 1953 which divided Indian soils into eight major groups. S.No . 1.
Soil
2.
Black 16.6%
Rich in Lime, aluminium, calcium, potash, iron, magnesium. Poor in Nitrogen and humus
Weathering of volcanic rocks forms by lava. It is found where it is formed hence formed in situ.
3.
Red 10.3%
Rich in iron. Poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus, lime and humus. Colour brown to yellow.
Decompositi on of metamorphi c rocks.
4.
Laterite 4.3%
Rich in iron. Poor in Potassium, lime, nitrogen
Due to weathering of laterite rocks or leaching.
Alluvial 45.6%
Composition Origin and formation Rich in Silt brought Potash, by rivers, Lime and hence is poor in called Phosphorou transported s and soil. Humus.
Occurrence
Characteristic
Rivers valleys, Coastal strip of Peninsular India. Punjab, Harayana, UP , Bihar, West Bengal Deccan plateau, valley of Godavari and Krishna. Maharashtr a, Gujarat, AP,TN.
Varies in textureCoarse to fine.
Crops grown Rice, Wheat, sugarcane , cotton, oilseeds and jute.
Retain moisture, sticky when wet and cracks when dry.
Cotton, sugarcane , oilseeds and tobacco.
Eastern parts of Deccan plateau, southern India. TN, Kerala and Karnataka.
Not retentive to moisture, when fertilizers are added, soil becomes productive. Coarse, porous and crumbly.
Wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane , pulses.
Eastern and Western ghats, Asom hills. Andhra Pradesh,
High content of acidity and unable to retain moisture,
Cashew, tapioca, coffee, rubber.
51 and silica.
5.
Arid
They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature.
6.
Saline
They are also known as Usara soils.
7.
Peaty
8.
Forest
They are found in areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a good growth of vegetation. Are formed in forests where sufficient rainfall is available.
Due to dry climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture and humus. They contain larger proportion of potassium and magnesium. Large quantity of dead organic matter accumlates and gives rich humus and organic content to the soil.
They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper valley sides
TN, WB & Odisa.
coarse in texture. Porous and crumbly.
These soils are characterist ically developed in western Rajasthan.
These soils are poor and contain little humus and organic matter,
These soils are found in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sunderbans These soils are found in northern part of Bihar and southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas or West Bengal These soils are found in forest areas.
They lack in nitrogen and calcium content.
These soils are generally heavy and black in colour. They are alkaline also.
Their texture, quality and nature are vital for the germination and growth of plant and vegetation.
52 Alluvial soils: This gradational soil type which is rich in humus, nitrogen, potash and is specified with favourable amount of phosphorous forms the fertile soil. It corresponds ot he physiographic regions of the country. Geologically this soil is categorised into three prominent types: Bhabar: it forms the coarsest texture, alluvial soil confined at the foot of Shiwalik range. In accordance to the texture of the material deposited it marks the genesis of marshy lowlands called Tarai. Bhangar: it represents the old alluvium that owe its origin from the active channel or its elevation fails to experience annual renewal. It includes a sub type called Betland, which is rich in calcium nodules called Kankar- that is largely confined in Sutlej-Yamuna plains. Khadar soil represent the new alluvium that experience the annual flooding in accordance to its height or nearness to the active channel. It
is also identified with a sub type called
Dhaya or Satluj-Yamuna plains. Geographically alluvial soil is categorised into two prominent categories: Extra Peninsular and Peninsular Extra Peninsular: this represents dominating characteristics of flood plain soil. It is in accordance that the complete trans-gangetic and Brahmaputra plains qualifies to be fertile alluvial low lands. Here the distinction is outlined in accordance to the prevailing climatic conditions which makes Bist and Bari doab soils more fertile compared to Bhur soil of Rohilkhand and Awadh. The Brahmaputra plain soil forms the least fertile horizon with true pedalfer characteristics. The exceptional locatioin of the northern plains in regards to the soil type includes the alluvium of Hugli plains, black alluvium of Rahr plaims and coarse textured semir arid Bagar soil as Bhiwani Bagar and Rajasthan Bagar. In the Peninsular locations alluvial soil commonly represent deltaic texture with the fundamental distinction outlined between coarse textured west coast delta and fine textured east coast delta. Specifically the soil or malabar plains reprsent finestt texture among the west coast alluvial soil and Narmada. Tapi plains are known for near complete absence of deltaic soil. Among the east coast rivers prominent contrast is identified in the mid course of the channel which is determined by variations in the composition or the flood plain soil. The Godavari and Krishna basin prominently forms black alluvial soil thus
53 fertile flood plain soil when compared to Mahanadi, Kaveri and Penerru Basins, where the soil is less fertile In the climatologically terms alluvial soil fertility in the rain shadow interiors of Sahyadri remains significantly less when compared to humid locations inspite of same texture. Collectively the alluvial soil type of the country represents diverse commercial significance as per its potentialities of facilitating the cultivation of all the major types of crops. Black soil The structural soil of the country that has developed over basaltic table land of Deccan trap called Vertisol. This soil type is characterised with significant amount of lime, iron, magneisum and some potash however it totally lacks in humus and nitrogen. It is called Black soil as per its dark colour due to the dominating concentration of heavy minerals. Geologically this soil is categorised into three sub types: Dark black soil: forms the most developed vertisol over the most developed basaltic table land. It is therefore identified to be most fertile category. Geographically this type is confined in Maharashtra plateau and Kathiawar uplands. Medium black soil: represents comparatively coarser i.e. less developed profile. It is therefore moderate in its fertility. Geographically it is confined in Malnads of Karnataka and Malwa, Bundelkhand of MP. Light black soil represents the least developed black soil, which also includes the black alluvium characteristics. Geographically it is confined in the Piedmont upland of Tamil Nadu, Chota Nagpur plateau and Shillong plateau. This structural soil is identified with clayey texture and water retention and water retention capacity as its positive characteristics with more than 2/3rd of its area International he country devoted to the cultivation of cotton. It is also called Black cotton soil. Commercially it is known for the cultivation of another non traditional plantation crop i.e. sugarcane. It is also famous for the cultivation of Jowar, pulses, oil seeds and horticultural crops. Red soils: It is the structural soil of the country that is developed over the Archean base. It is significantly rich in iron but completely lacks in all the three principle nutrients N,P,K. this
54 soil type is geologically classified into three prominent categories- red yellow soil with the savannah or xerophyte locations. Red brown soil with woodland vegetation. Geographically this soil region demarcates black soil belt in all the cardinals wherein southern and eastern cardinals represents broader red soil belt in the reference of Banalore-Mysore table land with charnokite series along with drought prone tablelands of Telangana, Dandakarnaya, Chota Nagpur with eastern Ghats. Along the western locations narrow Sahyadri belt and Aravallis to NW forms the other geographical locations. In the far eastern tableland the red soil belt exclusively denotes red brown category as per the wooded location. On the commercial parameter this soil is referred to be one crop wonder soil as the natural carrying capacity of it is highly restricted. Traditionally this soil have been utilised for the cultivation of wide range of coarsed grains like Jowar, Ragi and Bajra. However in the present orientation with the support of infrastructural inputs it is been put to the cultivation of varities of oil seeds, pulses and even fodder crops. Laterite soils: This soil type is referred to be the variant of red soil as it is also developed over Archean base. It is distinguished on the grounds of par moist climatic conditions. This soil type in accordance represents effects of leaching and laterisation, thus rich in aluminum and iron oxides. Geologically this soil type incorporates a variant that relates only to par moist climatic conditions with complete absence of Archean structural base. This subcategory is geographically specified along the par moist slopes of Purvachal. The typical Laterite soil belt denoting the combination of both geological structure and climate is majorly specified along windward slopes of southern hills, Sahyadris and Meghalayan tableland. The minor locations includes Eastern Ghats. The Laterite soil represent infertile soil type because of its acidic characteristics however it is prominently utilised for the cultivation of traditional plantation crops as Rubber, spices and coffee in the country. Mountain soil It represents a varied category of Alpine soil that relates to physiographic unit of the country. This soil represents mineral rich, nitrogen; humus rich well drained fertile soil. The only limiting factor is its limited depth as per the steep gradient of the mountains.
55 This soil type is also referred to be forested soil as with the change in altitude and prevailing climate. There is change in the natural vegetation stand justifying the change in the soil type from podzolic to podzol in NW Himalayas and form brown forest soil to podzolic in Purvachal. The physiographic diversity that relates to these mighty mountains adds diversity to montane soil. The prominent types include: Glacial soil- Karewas of Kashmir valley Alpine soils- chestnut relating to high altitudinal grassland lke Margs or Bugiyals.
The
montane soil represents the specified utility of cultivation of Saffron in Karewas and wide variety of horticultural products in the true montane or skeletal soil. The ntrue of horticultural crop clearly differs form NW Himalayan soil and Purvachal soil. Desert soil:It is the soil type that is confined to Rajasthan as typical aridisol. This soil type is characterised with coarse textured mineral rich and humus less fertile characteristics with the mobilisation of Indira Gandhi canal. This restricted soil type of the country have been put to elaborate commercial uses. It is used for cultivation of wheat, groundnuts and varieties of fruits as Ber. With the efforts of National Dairy Development Board it is also put to the cultivation of fodder crops. It is unsustainable cultural practices with more areas devoted to water intensive crop wheat. Stalinization is dominantly increasing along the feeder canals of the main Indira Gandhi Canal. Naturally the saline alkaline soil represents the infertile soil type confined in Kutch peninsula, Gujarat called Rann of Kutch. These salt marshes represents Solanchaks that is alkaline layers which completely restrict it potentiality of supporting crop stand with the efforts of NDDB. Salt resistant varieties of fodder crop cultivation have been initiated in the peripheral margins of little Rann of Kutch. Peat Bog soil: The mineralized soil relating to the process of gleying forms the infertile soil of the country. Locational it is classified as piedmont and coastal. The piedmont peat bog corresponds to Tarai and chose with moist hardwood deciduous stand where as the coastal peat bog soil relates to the littoral vegetation zones as Sundarbans, Chilka, Vembanad and Gulf of Khambat shoreline. Soil erosion: It is the removal of top soil by different agents of weathering such as
Running water
Men, plants and animals
Wind
Faulty methods of agriculture
Overgrazing
Running water: it is the prime factor of soil erosion indirectly. Soil erosion helps in soil forming because from wherever the soil is removed it is deposited else where. The different types of soil erosion taking place due to running water areSplash erosion: where the soil is pulverized by the impact of heavy drops and hailstones as incase of convectional rainfall. Sheet erosion: whereby due to heavy rains, a surface film of water carries away the even surface layer of the top soils as it moves. Rill erosion: it is found on steep slopes, in absence of any vegetation, the flow of storm water flows with force downhill developing finger shaped grooves. Gully erosion: when the rills enlarge and deepen they form gullies. Gullies cut up the agricultural land into bad land where no cultivation is possible. Example Chambal ravines. Soil conservation: It is an effort made by man to prevent soil erosion to retain the fertility of soil. Soil is our most precious resource. It is important to our national economy as productive soil ensures prosperity in agriculture, industrial development and general economic development. The various measures adopted by the government of prevent soil erosion are: 1. Afforestation 2. To check over grazing 3. Constructing dams and barrages. 4. Contour method of ploughing. 5. Terraced farming to control the direct flow of water down the slope. 6. Crop rotation 7. Planting of cover crops. 8. Shifting or Jhumming or slash and burn type of practice to be banned. 9. Belts of trees and shrubs should be planted. ___________________________________________________________________
IRRIGATION Need for irrigation development: 1. Rainfall is inadequate for all the crop seasons. 2. Monsoon rainfall is uncertain and uneven. 3. Irrigation is essential to supply supplement source of water even in good rainfall areas. 4. Rainfall in India is Seasonal. 5. Irrigation safeguards against droughts. 6. To increase agricultural production through multiple cropping system. 7. It is also needed for the practice of superior cropping and for the Hybrid farming. 8. To bring the fallow lands under effective utilization.
Sources of irrigation: The main sources of irrigation in the country are Canals, Wells, Tube wells, Tanks and other sources. Tank irrigation: a tank consists of water storage which has developed by constructing a small bund across a stream. The water is impounded by the bund is used for irrigation and for other purposes. Tank irrigation is popular in the Peninsular India especially in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Tanks comprise an important source in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisa and Kerala. Tank irrigation is practiced in Peninsular India due to:
The undulating relief and hard rocks make it difficult to dig canals and wells.
Little percolation of rain water due to hard rock.
Most of the rivers are seasonal and rain fed.
The scattered nature of population and agricultural fields also favorable for tank irrigation.
Wells and tube wells: a well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil water. This method of irrigation has been used in India from time immemorial. Various methods are used like Persian wheel, reht, charas or mot and dhinglhy(lever). Well irrigation is possible in the Great Northern Plains, the deltaic regions of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Narmada, the Tapi etc. A tube well is a deeper well from which water is lifted with the help of a pumping set operated by an electric motor or a diesel engine.
Conditions favourable for well irrigation:
There should be sufficient quantity of ground water.
The water level should be nearly 15 meters.
There should be regular supply of cheap electricity or diesel so that water can be taken out.
The soil in the immediate neighborhood of the tube well should be fertile.
Canals: canals are effective source of irrigation in areas of low level, deep fertile soils, perrennial source of water and extensive command area. It is mainly confined to Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM: It is the Central sponsored program intended to bridge the gap between the potential created and potential utilized. 1. Its main objective is to reduce the gap between potential created and potential utilized. 2. It envisages the construction of field channel, field drains, land leveling and shaping. 3. This program conducts demonstration and training classes for the farmers on latest technological developments in irrigation. 4. This program is intended to introduce suitable cropping patterns ___________________________________________________________________ MULTIPURPOSE PROJECTS: Bhakra Nangal project:It is the largest multipurpose project named after two dams build at Bakra and Nangal on Sutlej river. It is a joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. The Bhakra dam id one of the highest straight dams in the world. It has been constructed on the Satluj at the site of Bhakra gorge near Rupnagar. The Nangal dam has been constructed at Nangal about 13 km downstream of the bhakra dam. Damodar valley project: Damodar river is a tributary of the Hugli river. It flows or less in the west to east direction through Jharkhand and West Bengal. its total length is about 541 kms. the Damodar Valley corporation was established on 18th February, 1948 to execute the Damodar Valley Project. Four dams are constructed on this project, they are Tilaiya, Maithon, Konar and Panchet hill. Hirakud project: on river Mahanadi in sambalpur district, located in Orissa, it is the India's longest project. Length 4801 Mts. this is one of the longest dams in the world with
a gross storage capacity of 8100 million km3. Two dams have been consturcted on the Mahanadi- one at Tikrapara and the other at Naraj
Chambal valley project: on river Chambal. It is the joint venture of MP and Rajasthan. Important reservoirs- Gandhi sagar project- at bhanupura in Madhya Pradesh Jawahar sagar project in kota in rajasthan. Ranapratap sagar in rawatbatta in Rajasthan. Damodar valley project- on river damodar. It is a joint venture of west bengal, Bihar and Jharkhand. It is the first constructed project after independence in the year 1948. The main purpose is to control floods. Important dams: Tilaiya, Maithol, Panchat, Konar. All these are located in Jharkhand. Damodar valley project is based on Tennis Valley project in United States of America. Silent valley project: on the river Kuntipooja located in kerala. The construction is stopped due to environmental problem.
Sardar sarovar project on river Narmada, located in Gujarat. It is a joint venture of MP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Its height is 121.92Mts. its length is 1250Mts. Ramganga project- UP on the river Ramganga Gandak project- UP Kosi project- kosi river, Bihar Rihand project- MP
Sardar sarovar project- Narmada river Gujarat
Mahi project- Mahi in Gujarat
Sabarmati – Gujarat
Koyana- Maharashtra
Bheema- Maharashtra
Krishna- Maharashtra
Almati- upper Krishna
______________________________________________________________
AGRICULTURE
India is an agriculturally important country. Two-thirds of its population is engaged in agricultural activities. It it a primary activity which produces most of the food that we consume. Besides food grains, it also produces CROP SEASONS IN INDIA : -
Kharif season: June to October. Imp crops- Rice, Maize, Jowar, groundnut etc
-
Rabi season: October to March. Important crops- Wheat, Barley etc.
-
Jayath/ Zayad season: March to June. All types of crops are grown if proper irrigational sources are available.
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS: Indian Agriculture Research Institute –
New Delhi
Indian dairy corporation –
Anand, Gujarat .
Milk Research Institute-
Karnal, Harayana
Goat Research Institute-
Mathura, UP
Poultry training Institute-
Banglore, Karnataka
Wheat research institute-
Karnal
Soyabean Research institute-
Indore, MP
Silk research institute-
Mysore, Karnataka
Coffee Research institute-
Chikmanglore
Coffee Board-
Banglore
Tobacco Research center-
Rajahmundary
Tobacco board-
Guntur
Potato Research Center-
Shimla, HP
Jute research Institute-
Bharatpur, WB
Coconut Research Institute-
Kasarghat, Kerala
Spice Research institute-
Calicut, Kerala
Rubber Research institute-
Kottayam kerala
Ground nut Research Institute-
Junagarh, Gujarat
Salt Research institute-
Bhavnagar, Gujarat
Cotton Research institute-
Mumbai and Nagpur, Maharashtra
Sugarcane Research institute-
Lucknow,UP
Rice Research institute-
Cuttack Orissa
Indian Institute of Pulse research-
Kanpur.
Banana Research institute-
Thiruchivapalli
Bee Research institute-
Pune
Forest Research institute-
Dehradun, Uttaranchal
Maize Research institute-
New Delhi
Leather Research institute –
Chennai, TN
International Rice Research institute –
Manila, Philippines
ICRISAT-
Patancheru, Hyderabad
Geographical names Rice Bowl of India-
Krishna- Godavari delta
Granary of south India-
Andhra Pradesh
Granary of India-
Punjab
Spice Garden of India-
Kerala
Sugar bowl of India-
UP
Sugar bowl of the world-
Cuba
Indian Hawana-
Andhra Pradesh
Tea Garden of India –
Assam
Granary of kerala-
Palkhad
Granary of TN-
Tanjore
Granary of world-
United States of America, Canada and Ukraine
Granary of Europe-
Ukraine.
Prairie grasslands of USA-
breadbasket of the world
Spice bottle of India-
Kerala
Queen of spices-
cardamom
King of spices- pepper-
black gold
Tea garden of India –
Assam
Sugar bowl ophidian -
Uttar Pradesh
Indian Hawana-
Andhra Pradesh
Golden fibre-
jute
White gold-
cotton
Green gold-
bamboo
Coffee sea of the world –
Brazil
REVOLUTIONS IN AGRICULTURE: Blue revolution:
fisheries, sea foods, started in 1970.
Yellow revolution:
Oil seeds Production.
Pink revolution:
Pharmaceuticals.
Brown revolution:
Leather and leather products.
Golden revolution:
Fruits, mainly apples
Silver revolution:
Poultry industry.
Violet revolution:
Wollen products
Round revolution:
Potato production
Red revolution:
Meat and tomatoes
Black revolution:
Crude oil
Rainbow revolution-
agricultural industries
Grey –
production of fertilizers
Golden-
vegetables and fruits
Green Revolution:
M S SWAMINATHAN
-
Food crops production eg- Wheat, Rice, Jowar, Maize. In the year 1967-68. First it was started in India in Punjab, Harayana, UP. Later (II stage) 1983-84, it evolved in WB, Bihar, Orissa. Father of green Revolution in India is M.S. Swaminathan and for the world is Norman Borlong.
Green revolution: The contemporary development of Indian agriculture both in terms of quantity of produce and diversification relates to 1960’s Green revolution. The term is applied to denote emergence and diffusion of high yielding verities of seeds in the agricultural fields of the country. It is this diffusion that facilitated broad transition in Indian agriculture. The main characteristic of HYV seeds is the less maturity period ranging between 110-120 days. It is also neutral in its productivity level whether applied to big farms or marginal farms. The first generation Green revolution actually attained limited spatial expanse in the country. Inspite of this, transition in Indian agriuclutre, induced range of favourable impacts on agriculture. These are largely referred as
Surplus production
Starting up of FCI and its growth and expansion
Regulating control at the disposal of state administration.
The Green revolution facilitated the transformation of Indian agriculture from primitive subsistence type to non-primitive subsistence type with growing edge of commerciality.
Plantation crops: Tea: -
It is a bush type of a plant. In the year 1840, tea seeds were imported from china and commercial tea plantation were set up in the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam. Conditions for growth
Temperature- 20 – 300 C Rainfall- 150-300 cm Most of the tea plantations in India are found at elevation from 600-800 Mts. high above sea- level. Distribution : North-east Indian states in order are Assam, W.Bengal, Darjeeling, are -
famous for green tea plantation. South- India in order are TN, Karnataka, Kerala In the whole world, India is the largest tea producing country. Coffee -
-
Coffee is the second most important beverage crop of IndiaIt is indigenous to Abyssinia plateau in Ethiopia from where it was taken to Arabia in the 11th century. From Arabia, its seeds were brought to India by Baba-ud-din in the 17th century. Coffee estates were setup in 1826 at Chikmanglore. Conditions for growth: Temperature- 15-280C Rainfall- 150-200cm Height above sea level- 600-1600 Mts. Distribution: Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamilnadu Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, and India.
Rubber: First rubber plantation in India was setup in 1895. On the hill slopes of Kerala Conditions for growth: Temperature- 25-350C
Rainfall- 250-300cm Height above the
sea level- 300-450cms Distribution: Kerala, TN, Karnataka, Tripura, Andaman and Nicobar islands -
Rubber production that is 9% . First in rubber production is Malaysia, Indonesia. Etc. both the countries contribute to about 9% of the worlds rubber.
Pepper: -
It is a most important spice crop
-
Growth conditions: Temperature- 10-300C Rainfall- 200-300cm Distribution: Kerala, Karnataka, TN the world followed by India.
Height above sea level-1200Mts. Indonesia is the leading country in
Cardamom -
It is known as the Queen of spices. Growth conditions: Temperature- 15-320C Rainfall –150-300 cm Height above sea-level 800-1600Mts. Distribution : Kerala, Karnataka and TN are the leading producers in India India is the leading producer of cardamom in the world
Ginger -
It is a spice and medicine crop. It is used as a spice and in preparation of medicines. Growth conditions: temperature- 10-250C, rainfall – 125-250 cm Kerala, Sikkim, Orissa, Mizoram, W.Bengal are the leading producers in the country.
Turmeric: -
India occupies first position in the world in its porduction. 90% approximately. In India the leading producers are AP(41.6 %), TN( 10.9%) and Orissa ( 9.7%)
FIBRE CROPS: Cotton: -
It is also called as White gold. It is a most important fiber crop not only of India but of the entire world. Conditions of growth: Temperature-21-300C Rainfall- 75-100cm Total period- 210 days India – Punjab, Maharashatra, Gujarat, Harayana, AP, Rajasthan. First cultivated in India in Indus Valley civilization.
Jute:
-
It is the second important fiber crop. It is also known as golden fiber. Growth conditions: temperature- 24-350C, rainfall- 120-150cm Distribution in India: West Bengal-70%, Bihar- 13%, Assam- 10% are the leading producers in our country. India is the leading producer of jute in the world and the second largest producer is Bangladesh.
Sugarcane -
It belongs to bamboo family Growth conditions: Temperature- 21-240C Rainfall- 75-150cm Period of cultivation 18 months India occupies first position in the world cultivated area. It occupies fourth place in production. The leading producers of the world are- Cuba, Brazil, Russia, India etc In India the leading producers are – UP, Maharashtra, TN, Karnataka, AP, Gujarat etc
Tobacco: -
It is another important cash crop of India. This was brought to India by the Portuguese in the year 1508. Growth for conditions: temperature- 16-350C, rainfall –100-150cm Types of tobacco: Nicotine tobacco and Nicotine Rustica. Production : India is the third largest producer of tobacco in the world after China and United States of America. It produces 81% of the world tobacco. The leading producers are Gujarat, AP, UP, Karnataka, West Bengal etc In the production of /Virginia type of tobacco, AP occupies first position in India.
Groundnut: - Groundnut is a most important oilseed of India. - Growth for conditions: temperature- 20-300C, rainfall- 75-100cm - Distribution: areas in India are AP, TN, Gujarat, Orissa and MP. - World wise the leading producer is India.
Food crops:
Rice -
Rice is the most important food crop. There are about 10000 varieties of rice in the world. Total number of varieties in India are 4000. Growth conditions: temperature- 240C and rainfall- 150cm Period –90days or 120days The leading producers of rice in India are- WB, UP, Punjab, TN, MP etc World wise the leading producer is China followed by India. Golden rice is a newly developed Hybrid seed. The main purpose is to eradicate night blindness. UNO has announced the year 2004 as International Rice Year.
Wheat -
Wheat is the most important food crop. India is the fourth largest producer of wherat in the world after russia, United States of America, and China Conditions for growth: winter temperature- 10-150C, summer temperature- 4-260C, rainfall 75-100cm. Distribution: the leading producers in India are UP, Punjab, MP etc
Maize -
Conditions for growth: temperature- 21-270C, rainfall 50-100cm, period 90 days The leading producers of mica in our country are Karnataka and AP.
Jowar: -
It is the most important food crop after rice and wheat. Growing conditions: temperature- 26-330C, rainfall –10cm The leading producers in our country are Maharashtra and TN
Cities famous for: -
Orange city of India
-Nagpur
- Pineapple largest producing state
- Karnataka
- Grapes largest producing state
- Punjab
- Banana largest producing state
- Tamilnadu
- Mango largest producing state
- UP
- Apple largest producing state
- Himachal pradesh
- Cashew nut largest producing state
- Kerala
- Coconut largest producing state
- Kerala
- Saffron largest producing state
- Jammu Kashmir
CROPS AND CONDITIONS Crop
Temperature
Rainfall
Soil
Rice
Growing period- 16o to 20o C and ripening- 18o to 32oC
150 to 200 cms.
Alluvial soils
Wheat
Growing 10o to 16o C
50 to 100 cms
Millets
26o to 33o C
50 to 120 cms. These are known as dry crops bcoz they do not require much rain 50 to 75 cms.
Pulses
20o to 30o C
Tea
12o to 35o C
Methods of cultivation Broadcasting, Dibbling, Drilling, Transplantation and Japanese method of cultivation.
Area and states.
Alluvial and black soils
It is sown by broadcasting, dibbling and drilling method
Can be grown in less fertile soils.
Mostly by broadcasting method
UP, Punjab, Haryana, MP, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujarat Jowar and Bajra: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, UP, Jharkhand , Rajasthan, and Gujarat
Northern Plains, Eastern Coastal plains, WB, TN, Bihar, Jharkhand, UP and Punjab.
Ragi: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Dry light soils
Dibbling method
Punjab, Haryana, UP and Bihar
Light
By sowing seeds
Asom, WB, HP,
loams rich in iron content
in germinating beds and another method is to use cuttings from high yielding plants.
Uttaranchal and Kerala. Five stages of processing: Withering Rolling Fermentation Firing or Drying Cutting and packing
Coffee
18o to 28o C
125 to 250 cms
Loamy soils with humus content
Seeds are sown in nurseries and then transplanted in coffee estates.
Karnataka, TN, Kerala, Nilgiri hills. Coffee berries are processed in two ways: Wet method: berries are fermented, washed, dried and roasted. Dry method: dried in sun and pounded
Rubber
21o to 35o C
200 to 400 cms
Porous and well drained laterite soils.
Rubber plants are obtained by seeds or by bud grafting.
Sugarcane 21o to 35o C
75 to 100 cms
Rich alluvial and black soils
Cotton
21o to 35o C
80 to 120 cms
Water retentive black or lava soils
Can be grown from seeds but commercial plantings are made from stalk cuttings of two or three joints. Broadcasting and drilling methods.
Kerala, TN, Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar Latex collected from trees is coagulated by adding acetic acid. After pressing between rollers, the wet sheets are dried. UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Haryana.
Jute
21o to 35o C
170 to 200 cms
Alluvial soils
CROP COMBINATION REGIONS
Sown by broadcasting, dibbling and drilling methods.
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, UP, Punjab, MP, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and, Haryana. WB, Asom, Odisa, Bihar and Chhattisgarh.
These regions are outlined on the empirial basis for the country. Formally recognises first priority crop with dominating district level existence. In accordance these its priority crops reveals the perfect agricultural capability in the specified regions. The major crop combination regions are : Food crops combination region
Non food crop combination region
Rice crop combination region
Cotton crop combination region
Wheat crop combination region
Pulses crop combination region
Jowar crop combination region
Oil seeds crop combination region
Bajra crop combination region
Plantation crop combination region
Barley crop combination region Rice crop combination region: is demarcated of its boundary by 100 cm isohyte making lower gangetic plains, Brahmaputra valley and Delta plains of east coast. Rice otherwise is cultivated in almost entire geographical expanse. Wheat crop combination region: in comparison is confined to Satluj-Yamuna plains, where it is cultivated as first priority crop, as the combination crop however wheat is cultivated in larger part of Western and North Central India. Maize crop combination region: marks its specified location in chamb
AGRO BASED INDUSTRIES: Indian industrialisation from its modern genesis that was registered during the colonial regime has been fundamentally agro-based. Even in the present profile dominating status of agro based industries is maintained. In this category textile industry accounting for sixty percent of the total output from the agrobased industrial sector forms most prominent constitutent followed on by sugar, paper, and leather works. In the textile sector cotton textile and jute represents the correct decreasing order of the commercial value.
COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY: The genesis of cotton textile in the country on the modern lines is traced back to 1850’s, when the modern cotton mills were established in Mumbai on the basis of series of locational factors like cotton producing hinterland, port oriented location, proximity to Suez canal route. The second phase of the growth marked in the early 20th century registered the growth of industry in Gujarat. Post 1920 cotton textile registered its growth in southern India with major establishments in Tamil Nadu. In post 1950’s development countrywide diffusion of this industry is seen making it one of the most decentralized industry in the country. Cotton textile mills have both the orientations; it is a raw material producing hinterland that however avails additional benefit of cotton yarn and cotton threads making hierarchies concentration. It is at viewing level that decentralization is noticed.
The largest producer is Maharashtra. The industry is concentrated around Mumbai. The other major cotton producing areas are Kalyan, Jalgaon, Akola, Amravati, Nagpur, Pune, Sangli, Satara, Kolhapur, Solapur etc. The second leading producer is Gujarat. Ahmedabad is the leading centre and the other centres are are Vadodara, Surat, Bharuch, Valsad, Rajkot and Surendra nagar. Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer. The important centres are Salem, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Chennai and Kancheepuram. Madhya Pradesh: Bhopal, Indore, Dewas, Ujjain, Ratlam, Gwalior, Jabalpur, etc West Bengal: Kolkata, Howrah, Serampur, Murshidabad,etc. Uttar Pradesh: Kanpur, Varanasi, Mirzapur, Lucknow, Agra, Modinagar, Saharanput, etc.: Rajasthan: Jaipur, Pali, Bhilwar, Kota, Udaipur, Ganganagar. Karnataka: Bangalore, Mysore, Mangalore, Chitradurga, Belgaum. Orissa: Cuttack Punjab: Amritsar, Dhariwal, Phagwara, Ludhiana. Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram, Alleppey Bihar: Patna, Gaya, Bhagalpur. Andhra Pradesh: Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Rajahmundry, East Godavari and Udayagiri.
WOLLEN TEXTILE INDUSTRY One of the oldest textile Industries of India. Wollen textile mills marked its modern genesis from late 19th century with the establishment of Wollen textile plant in Kanpur. The development of this sector has remained significantly partial because of lack of both regular markets and quality raw material supplies. Locational aspects of this industry reveals it to be market oriented with its confinement in the northern plains of India into the segment of Hosiery products upto 90% of the production is confined to Punjab and Haryana with the prominent centres as Amritsar, Ludhiana, Firojpur, Faridkot, Panipat and Faridabad. It is Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh that stands distinguished as the oldest and largest wollen textile centre with other centres in Uttar Pradesh as Motinagar, Agra and Varanasi. As wollen textile of our country is largely based on imported grade wool. Mumbai with benefit of port orientation also forms a significant producer of this textile. The true characteristics of wollen textile with broad geographical avenues relates to carpet weaving industry as the non apparel grade of wool largely produced in arid, semi-
arid locations has been utilised for carpet weaving. This sector of wollen textile is not just significantly decentralised it also denotes small and cottage industries status with broad employment generation. Prominent carpet weaving centres in Peninsular India includes Manglore, Chennai and Warangal. Whereas in extra peninsular it is Srinagar, Amritsar, Panipat, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaipur. It is carpet sector of wollen textile that has actually developed external economies for Indian wollen garments in broader profile. It is therefore this sector is largely planned from the carpet sector perspective. Inspite of well established status of India at par with Turkey and Iran as the carpet exporter country elementary challenges as quality of dye, child labour have been resurfacing for the sector MANUFACTURING CENTRES PUNJAB (257 mills) Dhariwal, Amristsar, Ludhianan and Patiala MAHARASHTRA (31 mills) Mumbai, Jalgaon, Ambernath. UTTAR Pradesh: Kanpur(Largest Woollen Textile centre in the state) Other centres: Modinagar, Allahabad, Varanai and Mirzapur. Gujarat: Jamnagar, Kalol, Vadodara. Other important states: Karnataka: Bangalore, Bellary, Tamil Nadu: Chennai, Salem, Jammu and Kashmir: Srinagar, Himachal Pradesh: Kullu, West Bengal: Kokata.
SUGAR INDUSTRY The genesis of sugar mills to the country on the modern lines can be traced from the beginning of 20th century with its concentrated growth in upper Gangetic plains. it was 1920 onwards that growth of sugar mill was registered towards peninsula with major established in Maharashtra. 1960 onwards countrywide diffused profile of sugar mills were registered. The locational aspects of sugar mills reveals raw material orientation as it forms the example of weight loosing industry and is also perishable in nature. Commercialization of the by products are bagasse and molasses have increased. The major producer of sugar in the country are Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, they accounts for nearly 60% of the total output. THE PROMINENT CENTRES OF SUGAR PRODUCTION IN Maharashtra: Ahmedmagar, kolhapur, Pune, Sangali, Nasik, Aurangabad. Uttar Pradesh: Sahranpur, Muzaffarnagar, Moradabad, Gaziabad, Meerut, Gorakhpur,
Azamgarh, Basti. Tamil Nadu: Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Dindigul Karnataka: Belgaum, Mandya, Chitradurg, Bellary. Gujarat: Surat, Valsad, Amreli, Junagarh, Vijayawada. Andhra Pradesh: Nizamabad, Hyderabad, Vijayawada. Bihar: Muzaffarpur and Chappra Sugar production in the country reveals significant status with India being the leading producer of sugar with Gur, Khandsari and Crystal sugar. Major production of sugar is in the cooperative sector followed on by private sector. Growth of this agro based industry have been extreme regulated and controlled PAPER INDUSTRY: The genesis of paper mills in the country is traced form late 19th century with the establishment of paper plant in Titagarh(W.B.) following establishment in Pune and Lucknow. Traditionally locational aspects of the industry reveals pulp making levels to be raw material oriented and paper production to be market oriented In India however upto 40% of the produced paper being based on recycled fivre and paper denotes footloose industry. Other raw material sources of the paper in the country includes agricltural residue, wood and chemical inputs. Most prominent produced catergory is paper and paperboard, which relates to the variety of paper production utilised for writing, printing and wrapping. The prominent producers includes Andhra Pradesh: Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Tirupati as the prominent centres. Maharashtra: Kalyan, Pune, Jalgoan, and Sangli. West Bengal: Titagarh, Ranigunj, Kolkotta and Howrah. Uttar Pradesh: Meerut, Modinagar etc. The Strawboard sector largely referred to be the input for making up of display boards and packaging material have made commercial growth not just in the display board segment but also the making up of falls ceiling. The production of this type of paper is largely bamboo based with Gauwahati as the significant centre.
Newsprint marked up its formal beginning in the country in 1956 with the establishment of Nepanagar plant in Madhya Pradesh, presently the prominent production centres are at Kottayam and Mokokchung(Nagaland) Security paper forms highest grade paper produced in the country that is prominently wood based. It is largely centred at Mysore, Chennai, Tirupati, Nainital and Hoshangabad. JUTE TEXTILES: Commercially least significant textile constituent of the country jute is identified to be the golden fibre as per the broad avenue of its commercial potentialities in the likely future. The beginning of jute textile on the modern lines can be traced back to mid 19th century in West Bengal. 90% of the jute production is confined along Hugli river basin. In accordance the industry forms raw material oriented. The important production centres includes Kolkata, Hoara, Haldia, Titagarh, Barakpur, Chunchura, Bahrampur etc. among the other production centres Srikakulam, Guntur, Kakinada in Andhra Pradesh, Gorakpur and Azamgarh in Uttar Pradesh , Purnia, Katihar in Bihar, cuttack in Odisa and Guwahati in Asom are included. The growth of jute textile have registered cascading pace in the recent past as the fibre has been recognised to be the fibre of millinium. It is its versatile bio-degradable and annually renewable capactiy that makes it the significant in construction industries. Production of wearing apparel and significant constituent for canal maintenance. It is on these prospects that jute technological mission have been oriented towards providing all the range of support to the jute growers and weavers. Technology transfer, monetary support, design and engineering enhancement forms the important targeted avenues. The challenges faced by this sector if extreme restricted possibilities of raw material supply as the required agro climatic conditions for the production of jute is absolutely similar to that of rice. At the market front non-traditional producers of jute like Thailand has become the leading producer of it. Moreover Brazil is making elaborate expansion of infrastructure to cultivate jute. In the contemporary perspective dominating market is available for the country for all the avenues of jute textile though the challenges are fast growing. LEATHER INDUSTRY It is the most unorganised and fragmented agrobased industry of the country which is characterised with large scale employment generation, diversity of produce, large quantity of raw material and wide spectrum of skills. Its importance further lies to the fact that 80% of the work force are females, largely belonging to poor economic class.
This industry is mainly confined in Tamil Nadu with Chennai and Dindigual as the prominent centres. Among the other locations Kanpur, Agra, Bhavnagar, Hyderabad and Jalandhar are included. The sector accounts for 10% of the global leather output but in terms of trade the share is relatively less as the marketing infrastructure and technology transfer required for diversified growth. It is thus more of a prospect sector in the agro based industry.
CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES: This industry predominantly includes fertilizers, pharmaceutical and cement industry as the prominent industries wherein the localization factor and producers represent distinctive profile. Moreover the nature of the problems in the prospects identified of these industries significantly varies. This industry started post independence with the establishment of Sindri fertilizer plant in 1951. The formal mobilization of consolidated Public Sector Undertakings however is traced from 1961 with Fertilizer Corporation of India Ltd. coming into being. The
locational aspects of this industry largely reveals raw material orientations wherein both the raw materials Naptha and Natural gas are been mobilised by the means of pipelines to avail the decentralised look of the sector. The prominent pipelines that regulate the location of the fertilizer industries in the country includes
Digboi- Bongaigaon- Siliguri- Baruni pipeline extended to Kanpur and Haldia.
Salaya- Mathura pipeline extended to Panipat, Bathinda and Jalandhar.
HBJ- Hajira- Biajapur-Jagdishpur extended upto Shahjahanpur.
AUTOMOBILE SECTOR: The genesis of this sector of the industry is traced back to 1928 when the beginning of assembly work of the imported parts was initiated in Mumbai. The real development of this industry however is registered with the establishment of Premier Automobile production plan in Mumbai(1947) and Hind motors production plant in Kolkata(1948). Since then the sector have registered slow steady growth with variable phases of segment specific revolutions.
This industry forms market oriented industry wherein well specified cluster have marked its development in country as Gurgaon and Manesar in North. Pune and Ahmadabad in west, Chennai and Bengaluru in South, Jamshedpur and Kolkata in East and Indore in Central India. The first phase of development on elaborate commercial lines is traced in early 60’s when Auto products of India (API) initiated the large scale production of Scooters and Enfields. With the arrival of Bajaj Auto Ltd. there was a tremendoous growth in the two wheeler segment of this industry. The second phase of Automobile revolution is traced back to 1985, with the establishment of Maruti Udyog Ltd. in Gurgaon. Post liberalisation incorporation of big brand names as Hyundai, Honda, Ford, Daewoo have registered diversified and comprehensive growth of the sector. One of the major change over in the passenger car segments is the SUV’s supplementing jeep largely produced by Mahindra and Mahindra. The third segment of this industry commercial vehicle segment have been well paced in its development since independence with domination role of Tata Motors, M and M and Ashok Leyland. PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY This segment of chemical industry marked its genesis during the colonial time with the imported bulk drugs being formulated and processed in the centres like Mumbai and Kolkata. This sector marked its commercial growth onlyafter independence with country developing self reliance. The locational aspects of the industry reveals it to be market oriented with maximum capacity concentrated in the centres like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Kanpur, Vadodara and Hyderabad. It has been PSE that played the major role in the modern growth of this industry among the major PSE Hindustan Antibiotic Ltd. Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (IDPL) are included. Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd(HAL) came in 1954 as the Ist public sector enterprise centred at Pimpri(Pune). It is having three joint sector companies with variable stakes of concerned state government. Karnataka antibiotics and pharmaceutical Ltd(KAPL) centred at Bengaluru. Maharashtra antibiotics and pharmaceutical Ltd(MAPL) centred at Nagpur and Manipur State Drugs and Pharm (MSDPL). IDPL is the largest PSE, came into being in 1961 with its functioning plants at Rishikesh, Hyderabad and Gurgaon. it has two fully owned subsidiaries i.e. IDPL Tamil Nadu and Bihar Drugs and Chemical Ltd. the company has two joint sector functioning plants at Jaipur and Bhubaneswar.
CEMENT INDUSTRY: The third prominent chemical industry, cement marked its genesis on the modern lines in India from the early 20th century. It forms raw material oriented industry owing to its weight loosing characteristics. Limestone continues to be the prominent raw material for the sector making localization characteristics specified with both Vidhhyan and Cuddappah regions. Up to 75% of country’s cement is produced from Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. The most important challenge for this sector includes high cement handling charges and general absence of coal linkages. India is one of the leading producer of cement in the world. METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY: The core sector heavy industries of the country includes two prominent categories that are iron and steel Aluminum industries. The beginning of Iron and Steel industry on the formal lines can be traced back to 1907, when Tata Iron Steel Company Ltd. was established as the Ist
S no. 1
2
Name Tata steel co.
Bhilai Steel plant
Collabora tion No
Russia
State
Location
Raw materials
Jharkhan d
At the confluence of Karkai and Subernarekha rivers.
Iron ore Coal Limestone Manganese Water, labour
Singhbhum, Bonai, Mayurbhanj Jharia, Singhbhum & Gangpur Noamudi & river Subernarekha Odisa and MP Subernarekha, Bihar, UP and WB.
Chhattisg arh
Durg district
Iron ore Coal Limestone
Durg, Bastar & Chandrapur Jharia, Ranigunj
Manganese Water, labour Power
3
Durgapur Britain steel plant
West Bengal
160 km from Kolkata in the burdan district of West Bengal
Iron ore, Coal, limeStone, Manganese, Water, labour
4
Rourkela Germany steel plant
Odisa
Sundargarh district
Iron ore Coal Limestone Manganese Water, labour Power
5
Bokaro steel plant
Russia
Jharkhan d
At the confluence of Bokaro and Damodar rivers in Hazaribagh district
Iron ore Coal Limestone Manganese Water, labour Power
6
Visveswar aya steel plant
U.S.A
karnataka
Located at Bhadravati in Shimoga district
Iron ore Coal Limestone Manganese Water, labour Power
Nandini quarries, Balaghat Bhandara Tendula canal Korba Thermal power station Singhbhum(B), Keonjhar(O) Ranigunj, Jharia Birmitrapur(MP), Barbil(O) Sundergarh Damodar, WB, UP &Bihar Bonaigarh, Mayurbhanj Ranigunj, Jharia, Talcher, Korba Birmitrapur and Hirri Keonjhar and Sundergarh Brahmani, Odisa, Bihar Hirakhud power project Kiriburu mines(O) Jharia Bhavanathpur(J) Keonjhar Damodar Damodar Valley Corporation Kemmangundi in Chikmanglur. Locally Bhundiguda Shimoga and Chitradurga Bhadravati Sharavati and M Gandhi projects
7.
IISCO
8
Visakhapa tnam steel plant
Central govt.
West Bengal
At Hirapur, Kulti and Burnpur.
Iron ore Coal Limestone Manganese Water, labour
Singhbhum, Mayurbhanj Jharia Sundargarh Sundargarh Damodar river, UP, Odisa
Andhra Pradesh
Visakhapatnam
Iron ore Coal Limestone Manganese Water, labour
Bailadila (Chhattisgarh) Pookkii and Bhalore(J) Jaggayyapeta Birmitrapur (O)
ALUMINUM SECTOR: The second major metallugrical industry that is identified with important and diverse role in the overall growth of economic capacity of the country is also raw material oriented. The weak beginning of this sector can be seen from 1938, however the formal genesis and development has been post independence. With bauxite, coal forming the heavy raw material the industry denotes raw material orientation wherein the dominating determiners of the location of the plant is the cheap electricity supply that accounts for more than 50% of the input cost. The chronological development of aluminum production capacities in the country is traced from 2nd plan period with two PSE’s -Indian Aluminum company- INDALCO, centered at Hirakhud in Odisa. - Hindustan aluminum company- HINDALCO, centered at Renukut in Uttar Pradesh . Both these plants have cheap hydroelectricity orineted locations that is the Hydel power plant of Mahanadi and Govind Vallabah pant sagar reservoir and Rihand project. The majority stake of HINDALCO is acquired by Aditya Birla group making it a private sector company in the present profile. In the second phase of development two more PSE’s BALCO- Bharat aluminum company centered at Korba and Ratnagiri along with MALCO- Madras aluminum company centered atMettur wer initiated. It is both Korba and Mettur plant that have been quired by sterilite companies making them the private sector players though the Ratnagiri plant maintains the publick sector characteristics. In the last major phase largest integrated aluminum PSE i.e. National Aluminum company NALCO was established with the functioning plants at Koraput in Odisa..
INDUSTRIAL REGIONS: REGIONS
CLUSTER/COMPLEXES
1. Northern India
Punjab and eastern Awadh
2. Mumbai-Pune
central India
3. Ahmedabad- Vadodara
coastal Kathiawar
4. Chota Nagpur
Mahanadi delta
5. Hugli belt
hugli river delta
6. Southern India
Kollam- Kottaypuram
7. Visakhapatnam –Guntur 8. Kollam-Thiruvanthamthpuram
MINERALS: India is richly endowed with a variety of minerals. Large size and diverse geological formations have favoured Indian in providing wider variety of minerals. India is rich in iron ore, manganese, mica and bauxite. It is sefl sufficient in materials for making cement such as dolomite and limestone, chromite, marble and other building stones, sodium salts and precious stones. India is deficient in copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickle and tungstun. India is also poor in minerals required for chemical fertiliser industry including sulphur, potash and rock phosphate. Large reserves of bituminous coal are found but there is scarcity of cooking coal and petroleum in the country. However, it holds a strong position in the atomic minerals like uranium and thorium.
NON METALLIC MINERALS MICA:(Abhrak) valuable mineral in electrical and electronic industry. India has near monopoly in the production of mica, producing about 60% of the world’s total production. Distribution: Bihar – Gaya, Hazaribagh (Jharkhand, Largest mica producing state of India) Andhra Pradesh – Nellore. Rajasthan – Ajmer, Bewar, Tonk, Bhilwara, Udaipur, and Banswara. LIME STONE: It is associated with rocks composed of either calcium carbonate, the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium, or mixture of these two constituents. It is used for a large variety of purposes, of the total consumption 75% is used in cement industry, 16% in irons and steel industry. 4% in chemical industry. Rest of the limestone is used in paper, sugar, fertilisers, glass, rubber and ferromanganese industries. Distribution: Madhya Pradesh- Satna, Jabalpur, Betul, Sagar and Rewa. Chhattisgarh – Bilaspur, Raigarh, Raipur and Durg. Andhra Pradesh-Adilabad, Warangal, Nalgonda, Mohboobnagar, Guntur Karnataka – Bijapur, Gulbarga, Shimoga (cement grade limestone) Rajasthan – Jhunjhunu, Bikaner, Nagaur, Jodhpur, Pali, Sirohi, Udaipur Chittorgarh, Ajmer, Sawai Madhopur, Bundi, Banswara. Gujarat – Banaskantha, Amreli Junagadh, Surat, Kachchh, Kheda and Panchmahals. DOLOMITE: limestone with more than 10% of magnesium is called dolomite, when the percentage rises to 45% it is called true dolomite. The economic uses of dolomite are chiefly metallurgical as refrigerators, as blast furnace flux as a source of magnesiu salts and in fertilizers and glass industries. Distribution: Bihar –Rohtas Jharkhand – Chaibasa in Sighbhum district and Palamau district. Orissa (largest produces)-Sundargarh, Sambalpur, and Koraput districts Madhya Pradesh – Chhindwara, Jhabua, Jabalpur, Balaghat,
Chhatisgarh – Bilaspur, Durg and Bastar district. Gujarat – Bhavnagar and Vadodara district. ASBESTOS:it has great commercial value due to its fibrous structures, its capability to be readily separated into filaments of high tensile strength and its great resistance to fire. It is used for making fire proof cloth, rope, paper, paint, etc. and also asbestos cement products like sheets etc. Distribution: Rajasthan – Alwar, Ajmer, Pali, Udaipur and Dungarpur districts, Andhra Pradesh – Cuddapah district. Karnataka – Shimoga, Chickmagalur, Hassan, Mandya and Mysore districts. GYPSUM: Mainly used in making of ammonia sulphate fertilizer in cement industry and in making plaster of Paris, moulds in ceramic industry, nitrogen chalk, partition blocks, sheets, tiles, plastics etc. Distribution: Rajathan – (largest producer of gypsum in India): Churu, Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Nagaur and Pali districts produce 95 percent of the total gypsum ofIndia. Jammu and Kashmir – Baramula and Doda districts. Tamil Nadu – Tiruchirapalli DIAMOND: are found in ancient hard metamorphic rocks of Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh are other producers. Cutting and polishing of diamonds is done in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kerala and Goa. Distribution: Madhya Pradesh – Panna Andhra Pradesh – Anantpur, Kurnoot Karnataka – Bellary. ATOMIC MINERALS (URANIUM, THORIUM) URANIUM: it is a nuclear energy mineral. Distribution: Bihar – Gaya Jharkhand – Hazaribagh and Singhbhum. Uttar Pradesh – Saharanpur Rajasthan – Udaipur. Kerala – Uranium from monazile sand of coastal regions. THORIUM: it is a nuclear energy mineral. Distribution: Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Rajasthan. METALLIC MINERALS
IRON ORE: it is the backbone of modern civilization. It is the foundation of our basic industry. Today, it is used all over the world. The standard of living of the people of a country is judged by the consumption of iron. Iron is taken out from the mines in the form of iron ore which contains varying percentage of iron. Two main types of ore found in our country are haematite and magnetite. Haematite ore mainly occurs in Jharkhand, Odisha, MP, Goa and Karnataka. Large reserves of magnetite ore cover occur along west coast, primarily in Karnataka with minor occurances in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Distribution: Jharkhand: Singhbhum (Noamundi, Sindurpur, Kiriburu) Orissa – Mayurbhanj( Gurumahisani., Badampahar, Sulaiput), Keonjhar Madhya Pradesh – Jabalpur, Balaghat Chhatisgarh – Durg (Dalli Rajara), Bastar (Bailadila) Andhra Pradesh – Guntur, Kurnool Tamil Nadu – Salem, Tiruchirapalli Maharashtra – Surajgarh, Lohra-Piplagaon Ratnagir. Kerala – Kozhikode BAUXITE: It is the raw material for making aluminium. It is not specific mineral but a rock consisting manily of hydrated aluminium oxides. About 88% of the reserves are of metallugrical grade. More than half of the reserves are confined in Odisa and nearly one-fifth in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, MP, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Jharkhand also have large deposits. Distribution:Jharkhand – Palamanu, Ranchi Madhya Pradesh – Katni, Amarkantak, Maikata Range. Chhattisgarh – Sarguja, Raigarh and Bilaspur. Odisa – Kalahandi, Koraput Tamil Nadu – Salem, Nilgiri, Coimbature and Madurai. Gujarat – Sabarkanha, Jamnagar, Surat.
Maharashtra – Kalaba, Ratnagiri, Kolhapur. Karnataka – Belgaum. COPPER: is a malleable and ductile metal. This non-ferous metal is used for electrical goods, utensils and coins.
Distribution: Jharkhand – Hazaribagh, Singhbhum. Madhya Pradesh – Balaghat (Malanjkhand belt) Andhra Pradesh – Khammam, Guntur and Kurnool Rajasthan – Jhunjhunu, Khetri, Alwar, Bhilenara and Udaipur. Maharashtra – Chandrapur Karnataka – Chitradurga, Hassan.
LEAD AND ZINC: Distribution: Sikkim, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh (Cuddapah) Rajasthan- Zawar(Udaipur) Aguncha – Rampura (Bhilwara) Gujarat _ Banaskantha, Panchmaha, Vadodra, Surat.
LIGNITE COAL: Distribution: Tamil Nadu – Neyveli Jammua and Kashmir, Rajasthan (Palana in Bikaner dist.) Gujarat (Umrasar) TERTIARY COAL FIELD: Distribution: Assam – Makum (Sibsagar), Najtra, Janji Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh(Namchik, Namphuk)
OIL FIELDS: Distribution:
Assam –Digboi, Naharkatia, Moran, and Sibsagar. Gujarat – Mehsana, Cholka, Kalol, Nawagam, Ankaleshwar and Kosamba
OFF SHRE OIL FIELDS Distribution: 1. Mumbai High 2. Bassein 3. Ravva 4. Aliabet OIL REFINERIES: Distribution: Assam – Digboi(IOC), Guwahati (IOC), Bongaigaon Bihar – Barauni (IOC) Uttar Pradesh – Mathura Gujarat – Koyali, Jamnagar (largest oil Refinery) Maharashtra – Mumbai (BPCL) Karnataka – Mangalore(MRPL) Kerala – Kochi(CRI) West Bengal – Haldia (IOC) Andhra Pradesh – Vishakhapatnam (HPCL) Tamil Nadu – Chennai (MRI)
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION INDIAN ROADWAYS: Road sector in the country has been one of the most traditional constituent of economic growth since the traditional times. India is identified with one of the largest road network. In decreasing order of hierarchy, the roads are classified as Express Highways, National Highways, State roadways, District roads and rural roads. National Highways accounting for 2% of the total network avails the macro level of development whereas rural roads accounting for 80% of the network avails the micro levels of development. In 1960, with the establishment of Border Road Organization, new class category of roads came into existence. Though the country has made favourble development in the road networking the actual road density remains significant marginal. It is identified at approximately 75km/100km2 of moderate road density category of the country in world. More challenging characteristics is the prevailing regional disparity wherein the unfavorable climate, relief locations are having sparser road profile when compared to favourabe climatic low lands of the country. Jammu and Kashmir has the lowest road density and Kerala has the highest road density. At the level of National Highways the 2%of total network is loaded with more than 40% of total movement b the roadways, wherein it is only 12% of the total National Highways that reveals four of more lanes. It is upto 35% of the total network that is still the single lane National Highways revealing the backwardness. Mobilisation of National Highways to keep pace with growing economic and demographic requirements cause the paradigm changes in the execution of management of National Highways in 1994-95. This led to the participation of the private players at BOT, participating in upgrading the existing highways as expressways. Major amendments were made in National Highways Act which prominently includes declaring roadways as industry to facilitate market borrowing on easy terms. Incorporating toll tax culture to ensure revenue earning for the private players, completely nominalising the environmental clauses for the lane enhancement and provisions of land being provided free of cost to the BOT bidder for the corridor development are other developmental activities undertaken. Clauses of financial sharing by NHAI, tax holiday and provisions of availing road side plot at nominal cost to the corridor developer to generate any type of road side amenities as its owned
asset were introduced by the Government.
It were these highlighting amendments that
made the mobilisation of NHDP in 1999 referred to as NHDP-1. It includes three components: Golden quadrilateral: it connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and Delhi. It consists of NH8, NH4, NH 5, NH 2 measuring 5800 kms. The North-South, East-West corridor representing efficient connectivity’s between the extreme cardinals of the country, collectively it is of 7400 kms, wherein NS corridor from Srinagar to Kanyakumari and Kochi includes NH1A, NH-2, NH26, NH7 and NH47. Whereas the EW corridor incorporates Silcher to Porbander link incorporating NH31, NH31C, NH28, NH14, NH76, NH25, NH8A and NH8B . This component of NHDP-1 is not completely developed with partial corridors marking the continuation of the development works- . It is port hinterland connectivities with the approximately length of 400 km. this segment is identified with NH8A(Kandla), NH7A(Tuticorin), NH4A(Marmogaon), NH48(Mangalore), NH5A(Paradip). The development of National Highway’s represents the continuity of other ambitious programs wherein the fund mobilization channelized form JBIC – Japanese Bank for International Cooperation, ADB and WB is being utilised. The major nature of projects includes the efficient connectivities of all the state capitals and other commercial towns it also includes the clause of bypasses, flyovers, constructions in existing expressway in order to enhance commercialities of the sector. Thought the NH development is identified with sound prospect of the growth profile absence of similar momentums of mobilisation in other class categories of roadways and mixed traffic are referred to be the prominent challenges of the sector restricting its complete commercial mobilisation. INDIAN RAILWAYS: The modern growth of Indian Railways is traced from the humble beginning in mid 19th century and with regular paced growth it has evolved as one of the largest network on the map of the world. In order to cater the diversities relating to the Indian physiography multi guage development denotes the practical approach followed by the sector. In terms of its spatial growth barring the exception of remote western desert of the country, salt marshes of Gujarat, northern Uttarakhand and northern Arunachal Pradesh. The rail links are very well evolved in the entire country. Its density increases in the entire country. Its density increases in the lowlands and it denotes significant sparse profile in the dryer plateau interiors.
Fairy queen the first train in India between Mumbai to Thane, 1853 For the basic purposes of administration territorial allocation have been the traditional approach followed on by Indian railways. In the planning proposals the continuous subdivisions have been attempted to enhance management in the time bound manner. In accordance at present 17 Rail Zones with the specified headquarters are functioning. In 2004-05 mobilisation of rail divisions as the secondary headquarters deloading the work of headquarters were incorporated. These rail divisions includes Agra, Ahmadabad, Nanded, Guntur, Pune, Raipur, Ranchi and Rangiya(Guwahati). The development of Indian Railways on commercial lines is identified with achievement of self reliance by this large PSE in its rolling stock requirement. The dominating plants contributing to rolling stock self sufficiency includes Diesel Locomotive Work at Varanasi, Chittaranjan Locomotive Works at Chittaranjan (West Bengal), Rail Coach Factory at Kapurthala(Punjab), Integral Coach Factory
( Chennai) and Rail Wheel Factory(Yelankha). The development of the
sector beyond rolling stock can be identified with the functioning of 10 different PSE’s with variable orders of commercial activities and achievements.
The Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC)
Indian Railway Construction(IRCON)
Rail Tel Corporation of India. These are the PSE’s that are diluting their stakes to incorporate private
participation in order to mobolise required commercialities in the globalised setup. The Dedicated Fright Corridor Corporation Ltd. have developed 2700 km of dedicated fright corridor with eastern and western components. Eastern relating to Kolkata port and Western to Mumbai port is interlinking northern Indian market enhancing the efficiency of the fright movements. The Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd. marks exclusive recognition in developing the engineering expertise of Indian railways as broad guage 760 km of rail link between Roha to Manglore, crisscrossing the rugged terrain of Sahyadris.
The scale enlargements of the operation and the hunt for capital generation for the railways also includes the simultaneous attempts of mobilising quality passenger services wherein the milestone achievement are identified with computerisation of rail reservation links development and maintenance of high speed luxury trains as Rajdhani and Shatabadi increases growth and also by incorporating Janshatabadi expresses and continued increase in the numbers of Adarsh stations, Uniguage project for efficient inter linkages of all the major Urban nodes along with SIMRAN(Satellite Imaging for Rail Navigation) are included as milestone achievement. Inspite of broad range of developments justifying inclusive charateristics, Indian railways have lacked behind in the capital generation required for the maintenance of the developed assets and for upgradation of decreasing capacity infrastructure. It is lack of commercial motivation that is revealed in maintenance of high magnitude of subsidies in both passenger and fright fairs. Exclusively leaving the sector on commercial market forces is the remotest possibility however come favourable changes oriented towards increasing the commercial gain has been seen in the efforts of “Rail Land Development Authority”. The two prominent approach practically mobilised by the authority is easing out vacant land on variable terms of lease order to generate rent as the revenue. Secondly some of the expanse is been exclusively put to the cultivation of wide range of plants that can be utilised as bio-fuel with the objective of both generating employment, reducing the cost of transportation on economic front and mobilising clauses simultaneously.
- Railway transport: - World’s first train started on 27th September 1825. from starten to Darlington(UK) - Second train in England – Liverpool to Manchester-1830 - 1827- first train started in France, 1835- Germany, 1836- Russia, 1853- India - Worlds largest train route is in - USA- 2,22,000 kms. Russia – 1,51,000 kms Germany- 85,287 kms India – 71,898kms Largest electrical railway network in Russia, India etc
The first railway line in India was opened for public traffic on April 16th, 1853 from Bombay to Thane. Length of the track was 34 km, 14 coaches, 400 guests, engine name- fairy queen, it was world’s railway engine. Locomotives sindh, sultan and Saheb - Father of Indian railways- Lord Dalhousie. - 1853-2003, Indian railways completed 150 years. Indian railway mascot is Bol, the guard. - Second railway started from Howra to Hugli, on 15th August 1854. - AP first train in 1862 from Puttur to Renigunta. - India is the second largest railways network in asia and fourth largest in the world after USA, Russia, China - India's total railway length is 63122 kms - Railway board was established in the year 1905. There are totally 19 railway boards in India. There are 16 railway zones in India. - In 1929, first electrical train –Deccan queen from Bombay to Pune. - On 4th October 1984, India's first underground metro railway started in Calcutta- dum-dum to Toligunj total length of 11kms. - In 1921-22 they s separated railway budget from general budget. - After independence the first railway minister was Lal Bahadur Sastri. - First woman railway minister was Kumari Mamta Banarjee. Railway guages: 4 tyes- Broad (1.676), Meter, Narrow (0.762) and Light narrow guage(0.610) -
Railway zones: -
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Northern railways: HQ New Delhi. Total length -10995kms. It is the India's longest railway zone. North-east frontier - HQ Maligaon (Gawhati). It is India's smallest zone- length-3860kms South railway zone: HQ Chennai. India's first established railway zone Central railway zone: HQ Mumbai- Victoria Terminal (VT) or Chatrapathi Shivaji terminal (CST). It is India busiest railway station or the biggest railway junction. Architecture of Bombay VT was done by F.W.Stevens. In 2004, UNESCO identified CST as world Heritage centr. Western railway zone- HQ Mumbai (Church Gate). Recently bomb attack took place in this locality. South central railway: HQ Secunderabad- recently it completed 40 years in 2006. Eastern railway –HQ-Calcutta. South eastern railway- HQ Calcutta Northern eastern railway- Gorakpur. North western railway: Jaipur South western railway- Bangalore.
India's longest railway route is from JK to Kanyakumari, with a total length of 3726 kms. It covers 10 states. Indians longest traveling train is Himsagar express. India's longest railwaly platform is Karagpur-833 mts in West Bengal. It is also the worlds longest railway plateform India's longest railway bridge is Nehru bridge. Its length is 3 ½ km. located in Sasaram on the river Son in Bihar. India's highest bridge- JK, on the river Chenab.It is 360 m above sea level. India’s longest railway tunnel- Katobu tunnel- 6.5kms, konkan railway- goa. Worlds largest railway route- Trans- Siberian railways- 10,000kms starting from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok. It corsses 11 time zones. Konkan railway corporation was established on 26th July 1990, is the first private and public sectors construction after independence. Total length is 760 km. starting station Roha near Mumbai to new Mangalore. It is a joint venture of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and central government. It was opened to public on 26th January 1998.
Tourist trains and Special trains: There are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites on IR — the Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus and the Mountain railways of India. The latter is not contiguous, but actually consists of three separate railway lines located in different parts of India:
The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a narrow gauge railway in West Bengal. The Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a metre gauge railway in the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu. The Kalka-Shimla Railway, a narrow gauge railway in the Shivalik mountains in Himachal Pradesh.
The Palace on Wheels is a specially designed train, frequently hauled by a steam locomotive, for promoting tourism in Rajasthan. On the same lines, the Maharashtra government introduced the Deccan Odyssey covering various tourist destinations in Maharashtra and Goa, and was followed by the Government of Karnataka which introduced the Golden Chariot train connecting popular tourist destinations in Karnataka and Goa. However, neither of them has been able to enjoy the popular success of the Palace on Wheels. The Samjhauta Express is a train that runs between India and Pakistan. However, hostilities between the two nations in 2001 saw the line being closed. It was reopened when the hostilities subsided in 2004. Another train connecting Khokhrapar (Pakistan) and Munabao (India) is the
Thar Express that restarted operations on February 18, 2006; it was earlier closed down after the 1965 Indo-Pak war. The Kalka Shimla Railway till recently featured in the Guinness Book of World Records for offering the steepest rise in altitude in the space of 96 kilometre. Lifeline Express is a special train popularly known as the "Hospital-on-Wheels" which provides healthcare to the rural areas. This train has a carriage that serves as an operating room, a second one which serves as a storeroom and an additional two that serve as a patient ward. The train travels around the country, staying at a location for about two months before moving elsewhere. Among the famous locomotives, the Fairy Queen is the oldest operating locomotive in the world today, though it is operated only for specials between Delhi and Alwar. John Bull, a locomotive older than Fairy Queen, operated in 1981 commemorating its 150th anniversary. Kharagpur railway station also has the distinction of being the world's longest railway platform at 1,072 m (3,517 ft). The Ghum station along the Darjeeling Toy Train route is the second highest railway station in the world to be reached by a steam locomotive. The Mumbai–Pune Deccan Queen has the oldest running dining car in IR. Vivek Express: It was started to commemorate the 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda, to be held in 2013, from Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari; is the longest route on the Indian Railways network, in terms of distance and time, and is the 9th longest in the world. The Bhopal Shatabdi Express is the fastest train in India today having a maximum speed of 150 km/h (93 mph) on the Faridabad–Agra section. The fastest speed attained by any train is 184 km/h (114 mph) in 2000 during test runs. The Rajdhani Express and Shatabdi Express are the superfast, fully air-conditioned trains that give the unique opportunity of experiencing Indian Railways at its best. In July 2009, a new nonstop train service called Duronto Express was announced by the railway minister Mamata Banerjee.
MARITIME REVOLUTION The growth of Indian infrastructure complementing the economic growth of the countr/y includes the significant contribution of maritime revolution. The term is applied to denote commercial development of four different segments that relates to water means of transportation. These are:
The fleet capacity development in the country is identified of its significance largely because of the fact that 95% of the country’s trade by volume is via the Sea route. The capacity reveals that India has largest fleet among the developing countries. Shipping corporation of India functioning since 1961, forms the nodal PSU relating to the shipping capacity development of the country. It was given the PSE status in 1992 and became a Navaratna in 2008. The fleet capacity of the country also relates to effective participation of the PSE’s like Kochi Shipyard- functioning since 1972 and is distinguished from other functioning PSE’x in the sector as it has maximum capacity of ship building and ship repairing. The oldest PSE- Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers ltd (Kolkata) functioning since 1934 though acquired by Union Government in 1960 is been revamped and modernised to keep pace with changing requirements of fleet capacity built up. Hindustan shipyard of Vishakhapatnam and Hugli dock and ports engineers ltd of Kolkata are other major PSE’s in this segment. Though the major Port Trust Act do avails the possibility of private participation in the Ship repair capacities, dominance of PSE’s is largely sustained. Geographical location of ht country with projecting peninsula in almost entire northern basin of India ocean justifies the significance of maritime shoreline extending for 6100 km is well dotted with 12 major ports mobilizing the maritime capacities of the country in terms of their location as well as distinguishing natural and built up characteristics, these are classified into western and eastern categories. The Western shoreline related ports are largely identified with natural harbour. Herein Mumbai with upto 12m of depth in on land creek projection not just forms the example of natural harbour but is also the biggest port with largest hinterland from among the western port cities.
In 1989 the Ist BOT participation related development of Nhava-Sheva port with peninsular and orinetal company of Australia participating as BOT player is also included in overlapping hinterland of Mumbai. This young port of western shore popularly referred as Jawahar Lal Nehru port, is also a natural harbour. Kandla though relates to the shoreline of emergence is also identified to be the naturally protected harbour as its defining characteristics. This port of partition came into being in 1951 and is identified with moderate sized hinterland largely confined to Gujarat and Rajasthan. Marmagaon apart from being a natural harbour incorporates the specified characteristics of navigable benefits of river Zuari. Manglore with smallest hinterland among the western port cities is specified with the capability of handling small cargoes. Kochi in comparison justifies its natural harbour relating to the benefit of back water Kayal. Among the Eastern port cities common characteristics barring the exception of Kolkata is on land existence, thus artificial harbour. Kolkata is unique example relating with estuarine mouth of Hugli and benefit of amphidromic system is also specified with biggest hinterland among the eastern coast port cities that includes complete NE India and major port of east India. all the other ports representing the artificial harbours do justifies individual spedific distinguishing characteristics like Chennai- the oldest artificial harbour. Visakhapatnam- deepest artificial harbour have moderate size hinterland whereas Paradeep relates to the smallest size hinterland from among the east coast port cities. In accordance to the major Port Trust Act 1963, all the major ports of the country are under the administration of the Union Government with the requirements of trade liberlisation compulsions. The Port Trust Act is been moulded to allow cent percent FDI in the capacity built up as well as private participation in port infrastructure development, Container Terminal Ltd, Kochi container Terminal Ltd., Chennai Container Terminal Ltd. forms the strong commercial example. Most of the BOT players have registered their participation with the broader objectives of consolidating or enlarging their existing shipping lines. It is justified with the fact that lack of development of operational capacities of the port is still making. Transshipment movements slipping to the hubs like Dubai, Singapore and Colombo. Another avenue of challenge is the sustained characteristics of regularity authority of Central Tariff Authority of the country. It is still the major regulator of the tariff norms restricting market oriented tariff mobilisation and economic gains for the BOT participants. It is these factors that combines to justify that though collectively the major ports accounts for 75% of the total Sea route transportation. There is the general decline in the volume of trade relating to this category of port. Compared to it the minor ports have shown impressive growth in the volume of movement largely due to availing the operational rights to the private players as BOT participants with some 200 minor ports dotting 7500 km of shoreline of Indian Union maximum is present in Maharashtra. These ports under the control of concerned State Government however have registered maximum mobilisation in Gujarat, Okha, Salaya, Mandvi, Porbandar, Veraval, Dahej, Bhavnagar are the prominent examples of commercially mobilised minor ports by Gujarat state Maritime Board. In the similar matching capacity it is Kakinada, Ratnagiri, Karwar are included. The growth prospects of minor ports is specified to be stronger as its scale of operation favours the mobilisation of regional hinterlands.
The waterways development in the country largely relates to maritime channels of oceanic routes however with the establishment of inland waterways authority of India and mobilisation of Sagarmala project that advocates integrated development of inland waterways with oceanic shipping lines. Formal growth of this segment of infrastructure was registered. Collectively the country is identified with 14500 km of The National Waterways -1 called Bhagirathi-Hugli system extensive between Allahabad to Haldia for approx. 1600 km reveals the natural navigability of the channel and is significant complementary transportation route to the eastern dedicated fright corridor and the arm of golden quadrilateral NH-2. The National Waterways-2 called Brahmaputra river system extended between Dibrugarh and Sadia for the approx length of 890 km is also the natural navigability of the channel. It is justified of its commercial potentialities in injecting inclusive growth strategy for the NE region of the country. The National Waterway -3 is the west coast canal, it forms the artificial waterway with the approx. length of 200 km developing perpendicular link to the small channels of Malabar plains. kollam and Kottayapuram forms the prominent terminals of this waterway. The National Waterway-4 is Kakinada- Puducherry linked waterway that is integrated with Godavari and Krishna system. This artificial waterway with complementary status to the arm of golden quadrilateral National Highways-5 denotes its significance in diffusing the growth momentum to the prevailing shadow zones by availing both navigability and water management. The National Waterways-5 called east coast canal integrated with Brahmani river system and delta of Mahanadi is of approx. length of 620 km. this artificial waterway also projects to mobilise economic prospects of shadow zone around Mahandi delta region. CIVIL AVIATION IN India This unique and elite category of transportation system marked its modern genesis in less consolidated profile during the colonial time period. Post independence the slow paced development marked its continuity wherein smaller players with unconsolidated fleet capacity as Tata sons, Indian National Airways, Bharat Airways were existing.
The 1953 Civil Aviation Act consolidated these minor players registering the genesis of Indian airlines and Air India as the air service provider. As the country entered the state socialism civil aviation was identified with the secondary status in the core sector infrastructure development planning. It is with the impact of liberalization and related open skies policies that the true growth of civil aviation on large and commercial basis can be traced from the increasing load of air traffic led to the requirement of the growth of civil aviation infrastructure. In the presence of large number of air services provider consumer benefits were strongly mobilized but the brand Indian representing the public sector precisely failed to keep pace with required competitive growth. This makes the air services private sector domain barring the exceptions of Pavan Han’s, the helicopter service provider which is not just maintaining its commercial existence but is also mobilizing diversifying avenues of growth. The recent examples of it are Sea plane operation where beach and coastal tourism enhancement strategies have been mobilised with the connectivity’s of Port Blair and Havelock with the helicopter services. The growth of civil aviation in totality since 1995 is geographically interpreting as civil aviation infrastructure development. The geopolitical aspects of South Asia and specifically India restricts the possibilities of aerospace infrastructure to be eased out for private players. It is therefore that AAF is managing big aerospace that measures 2.8 million square nautical miles that includes land territory of the country, both the marginal water bodies and upto 40S latitude in the Indian ocean region to manage this big airspace cardinal based Flight Information Regions(FIR) have been demarcated in the country with the headquarters at Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. Recently Guwahati have been included as a sub FIR station for eastern regions working as ancillary station for Kolkata. In order to maintain favorable communication links the challenge of radio frequency crunch was timely tamed by Airport Authority by enhancing the quality of radio receivers developed by Radio Construction and Development Unit(RCDU) that functions under AAI, with the indigenously build up satellite GAGAN and mobilisation of satellite based navigation, taming up of aerospace in all the three components – Communication, Navigation and Surveillance(CNS) is been prominently controlled by the authority. The infrastructure development of airport in both the segments of Brown Field and Green Field have been eased out to the private players as built, own, operate and transfer(BOOT) adjustment with the commercial beginning of the world class class commercial metro airports as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, hyderabad, Bangalore and Kochi ready participation for the 35 non metro airports by the private bidders have been noticed. The global economic slowdown 2008 however delayed the completion of 35 non metro airport developments by the end of 2010 it is however that the development of green field airports of Gangtok, Itanagar and Kohima along with Brown field Port Blair and Karavati, among the non metro airports is the full swing. The growth of civil aviation with growing commercial capacity of the country is projected at faster pace in the near future which will require much cascading development of civil aviation infrastructure wherein the transitional challenges and integrated growth of city side with airport poses to be the major challenges. Air transport: Air transport in India was started in 1911 between Allahabad to Naini in UP. -
India's first pilot – J.R.D.Tata, in 1931 flight from Mumbai to Karachi In 1935 Mumbai to Trivandrum, Tata airlines was started.
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In 1953- all private sector companies were nationalized. Air India was introduced. It is a world wide network. Indian Airlines- transportation only to south Asian countries. 1981- Vaydooth services was established for north eastern sector. Pawanhans limited company- established in 1985, for ----- and helicopter service for ONGC and hill stations and remote areas Now presently in India, there are 18 internatinal airports
International Airports in India : 1. Indira Gandhi Int. airport- Delhi 2. Sahara Int. airport - Mumbai 3. Netaji Subash Chandra Bose- Calcutta 4. Annadurai Int. airport- Chennai 5. Sardar vallabai patel Int. airport- Ahmedabad 6. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Int. airport- Nagpur 7. Rajiv Gandhi Int. airport- Hyderabad 8. HAL Int. airport- Bangalore 9. Vasco da gama Int. airport- Goa 10. Sanghner Int. airport- Jaipur 11. Rajasansi Int. airport- Amritsar 12. Devi Ahalyabai Valkar Int. airport-Indore 13. Gopinath Bordolio Int. airport- Gauhati 14. India's highest airport- Ladakh
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY POSTAL DEPARTMENT: -
In 1837, postal services started in India. In 1852, first postal stamp released in Karachi. In 1854, 701 post offices were established by postal department. - India occupies first position in postal network. - Total post offices in India are 155618 - No. of workers in postal dept. are 566000 - In 1972, postal Index number was introduced. - There are total 8 pin code zones, with 6 digits in the Pin number - 1-zone, 2-subzone,3-district,4,5,6-post office - Post boxes: Green- Local, Blue-Metropolitan, Red- all letters and Yellow- New Delhi - In 1975, quick mail service (QMS) was introduced. - In 1994, Metro channel was opened. - In India, for every 21sq kms there is one post office. - For every 6602 members there is one post office. - Postal Zones: - 1- Delhi, Harayana, Punjab, HP, JK and Chandigarh - 2- UP and Uttaranchal - 3- Rajasthan, Gujarat, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli - 4.- Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, MP and Goa - 5- AP and Karnataka - 6- Kerala, Tamilnadu, Pondicherry and Lakshadweep - 7- WB, Orissa, Andaman and nicobar, north eastern states. - 8- Bihar and Jharkhand Telegraph system - India's first telegraph line in 1851, from Calcutta to Diamond harbour - 1913- India's first radio station in Bombay. Radio transmission started - 1927 all private radios were nationalized into India Broadcasting service. - 1938- India broad casting service changed to All India Radio - 1957- All India Radio changed to Akashvani Television/ Doordarshan -
On September 15th 1959, first television centre was established in Delhi. Weekly twice for only 2 hrs programmes were telecasted. From 1965 onwards, regular programmes were telecasted. 1976- television was separated from Radio 1982- colour television was started in India
In the infrastructural development oriented towards mobilising commercial potentialities of the country with inclusive elements growth of communication technology is justified to be most swift and efficient. It is this sector that provides ready diffusion of information generating awareness and enlarging adaptability. The prominent constituents with spatial prospects of analysis includes postal communication and telecommunication. The postal communication forms that segment of communication technology that largely avails its services by the services outlets called post offices. The networking of post offices in the country is highly efficient and well spread. Herein more than 80% of the developed post offices are confined in the rural setup of the country. The category of services provided by post offices includes a. Mail services
c. Value added services
b. Financial services
d. Logistics or export oriented services
In its most elementary form post offices reveals the domain of public sector in the postal communication barring the exception of courier services. Herein apart from development of mail class categories to avail efficient diffusions, automatic mail processing centers have been made operational in the mega nodes like Mumbai and Chennai. As the member of Universal Postal Union and Asia Pacific Postal Union, Indian Postal Services have elaborate overseas connectivity with e-mail services having broader expanse with the commercial mobilization of the mail services value added components.
