Paradigma Konstruktivisme dan pembelajaran pembelajaran Lesson Study
Oleh : Rum Rosyid NIP : 196609141990021002
KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN NASIONAL UNIVERSITAS TANJUNGPURA FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN TAHUN 2010
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Kata Pengantar
Dengan memanjatkan puji syukur kehadirat kehad irat Allah SWT kami dapat menyelesaikan karya ilmiah mengenai Lesson Study sebagai kegiatan pembelajaran yang memusatkan pada kegiatan membelajarkan siswa. Semoga shalawat dan salam atas Nabi Besar Muhammad SAW. Paradigma Behavoristik yang mendominasi dunia kependidikan sepanjang orde baru, melahirkan para lulusan yang memandang guru sebagai sumber pengetahuan yang utama, dengan demikian tatanan masyarakat Paternalistik lebih masuk akal sebagai akibat dari paradigma tersebut. Gelombang demokratisasi, tidak urung melanda bangsa Indonesia sehingga membawa bangsa ini menuju era reformasi 1997. gerakan Mahasiswa meruntuhkan hegemoni kekuasaan orde baru yang selama 32 tahun mendominasi kehidupan masyarakat. Berdasarkan uraian di atas, bahwa untuk dapat melaksanakan tugasnya secara profesional, seorang guru dituntut dapat memahami dan memliki keterampilan yang memadai dalam mengembangkan berbagai model pembelajaran yang efektif, kreatif dan menyenangkan, sebagaimana diisyaratkan dalam Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan. Mencermati upaya reformasi pembelajaran yang sedang dikembangkan di Indonesia, para guru atau calon guru saat ini banyak ditawari dengan aneka pilihan model pembelajaran, yang kadang-kadang untuk kepentingan penelitian (penelitian akademik maupun penelitian tindakan) sangat sulit menermukan sumber-sumber literarturnya. Namun, jika para guru (calon guru) telah dapat memahami konsep atau teori dasar pembelajaran yang merujuk pada proses (beserta konsep dan teori) pembelajaran sebagaimana dikemukakan di atas, maka pada dasarnya guru pun dapat secara kreatif mencobakan dan mengembangkan model pembelajaran tersendiri yang khas, sesuai dengan kondisi nyata di tempat kerja masing-masing, sehingga pada gilirannya akan muncul model-model pembelajaran versi guru yang bersangkutan, yang tentunya semakin memperkaya khazanah model pembelajaran yang telah ada. Jika memperkuat keunggulan yang dimiliki para siswa dan mahasiswa maka kedepan
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Meskipun pendekatan pragmatis sangat berperanan dalam memahami LS, tetapi setiap kebenaran pada dasarnya saling melengkapi. Artinya semangat untuk menemukan kebenaran secara lengkap tidak akan membatasi setiap sudut pandang. Baik idealisme, realisme, esensialisme, perenialisme dan pragmatisme itu sendiri. Terselesaikannya tulisan ini tidak terlepas dukungan dari kolega di FKIP UNTAN. Semoga diskusi-diskusi dilingkungan perguruan tinggi akan menambah pencerahan bagi diri dan masyarakat. Ahirul kalam Pontianak, 8 Agustus 2010
Rum Rosyid
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Daftar Isi
Kata Pengantar
2
Daftar Isi
4
Pendahuluan
5
Pembelajaran Menurut Konsep Konstruktivisme
7
Konstruktivisme Individu dan Konstruktivisme Sosial
11
1. Konstruktivisme Individu
12
2. Konstruktivisme Sosial
12
Proses Belajar Menurut Konstruktivisme
13
Realitas dan kebenaran
15
Konstruktivisme dalam Pemikiran Ki Hadjar Dewantara
17
Dari Teori Konvergensi ke ‘Sistem Merdeka’
21
Orisinalitas dan Progresivitas Ki Hadjar
24
Hubungan Teori Konstruktivis dan lesson study
27
Menerapkan Pembelajaran “Student-centered learning strategies”
29
Dimensi Pembelajaran Konstruktivisme
33
Lingkungan Belajar Yang Konstruktivistik
34
Pengertian Pendekatan, Strategi, Model , Metode, teknik dan taktik Pembelajaran
36
Penutup
40
Daftar Pustaka:
40
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Pendahuluan
Teori-teori baru dalam psikologi pendidikan dikelompok dalam teori pembelajaran konstruktivis (constructivist theories of learning). Teori ko nstruktivis ini menyatakan bahwa siswa harus menemukan sendiri dan mentransformasikan informasi kompleks, mengecek informasi baru dengan aturan-aturan lama dan merevisinya apabila aturanaturan itu tidak lagi sesuai. Bagi siswa agar benar-benar memahami dan dapat menerapkan pengetahuan, mereka harus bekerja memecahkan masalah, menemukan segala sesuatu untuk dirinya, berusaha dengan susah payah dengan ide-ide. Teori ini berkembang dari kerja Piaget, Vygotsky, teori-teori pemrosesan informasi, dan teori psikologi kognitif yang lain, seperti teori Bruner (Slavin dalam Nur, 2 002: 8). Menurut teori konstruktivis ini, satu prinsip yang paling penting dalam psikologi pendidikan adalah bahwa guru tidak hanya sekedar memberikan pengetahuan kepada siswa. Siswa harus membangun sendiri pengetahuan di dalam benaknya. Guru dapat memberikan kemudahan untuk proses ini, dengan memberi kesempatan siswa untuk menemukan atau menerapkan ide-ide mereka sendiri, dan mengajar siswa menjadi sadar dan secara sadar menggunakan strategi mereka sendiri untuk belajar. Guru dapat memberi siswa anak tangga yang membawa siswa ke pemahaman yang lebih tinggi, dengan catatan siswa sendiri yang harus memanjat anak tangga tersebut ( Nur, 2002 :8).
Paradigma konstruktivistik merupakan basis reformasi pendidikan saat ini. Menurut paradigma konstruktivistik, pembelajaran lebih mengutamakan penyelesaian masalah,mengembangkan konsep, konstruksi solusi dan algoritma ketimbang menghafal prosedur dan menggunakannya untuk memperoleh satu jawaban benar. Teori
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merupakan himpunan dan pembinaan pengalaman demi pengalaman. Ini menyebabkan seseorang mempunyai pengetahuan dan menjadi lebih dinamis.
Pendekatan konstruktivisme mempunyai beberapa konsep umum seperti:
Pelajar aktif membina pengetahuan berasaskan pengalaman yang sudah ada.
Dalam konteks pembelajaran, pelajar seharusnya membina sendiri pengetahuan mereka.
Pentingnya membina pengetahuan secara aktif ak tif oleh pelajar sendiri melalui proses saling mempengaruhi antara pembelajaran terdahulu dengan pembelajaran terbaru. Unsur terpenting dalam teori ini ialah seseorang membina pengetahuan dirinya secara aktif dengan cara membandingkan informasi baru dengan pemahamannya yang sudah ada.
Ketidakseimbangan merupakan faktor motivasi pembelajaran yang utama. Faktor ini berlaku apabila seorang pelajar menyadari gagasan-gagasannya tidak konsisten atau sesuai dengan pengetahuan ilmiah.
Bahan pengajaran yang disediakan perlu mempunyai perkaitan dengan pengalaman pelajar untuk menarik miknat pelajar.
Pembelajaran lebih dicirikan oleh aktivitas eksperimentasi, pertanyaan-pertanyaan, investigasi, hipotesis, dan model-model yang dibangkitkan oleh siswa sendiri. Secara umum, terdapat lima prinsip dasar yang melandasi kelas konstruktivistik, yaitu (1) meletakkan permasalahan yang relevan dengan kebutuhan siswa, (2) menyusun pembelajaran di sekitar konsep-konsep utama, (3)menghargai pandangan siswa, (4) materi pembelajaran menyesuaikan terhadap kebutuhan siswa, (5) menilai pembelajaran secara kontekstual. Hal yang lebih penting, bagaimana guru mendorong dan menerima otonomi siswa, investigasi bertolak dari data mentah dan sumber-sumber primer (bukan hanya buku teks), menghargai pikiran siswa, dialog, pencarian, dan teka-teki sebagai pengarah pembelajaran.Secara tradisional, pembelajaran telah dianggap sebagai bagian
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Menurut paradigma konstruktivistik, pembelajaran lebih diutamakan untuk membantu siswa dalam menginternalisasi, membentuk kembali, atau mentransformasi informasi baru. Pembelajaran teori kontemporer adalah pembelajaran berdasarkan teori belajar konstruktivisme. Pembelajaran berfungsi membekali kemampuan siswa mengakses berbagai informasi yang dibutuhkan dalam belajar. Sesuai dengan prinsip belajar teori konstruktivisme, maka dalam pembelajarannya nampak ada pergeseran fungsi guru dan buku sumber sebagai sumber informasi. Guru lebih berfungsi membekali kemampuan siswa dalam menyeleksi informasi yang dibutuhkan.
Pembelajaran Menurut Konsep Konstruktivisme
Menurut konsep konstruktivisme, pengetahuan seseorang bersifat temporer, terus berkembang, terbentuk dengan mediasi masyarakat dan budaya. Pengetahuan itu tidak pernah berhenti berkembang. Pengetahuan dalam diri seseorang terbentuk ketika seseorang mengalami tempaan kognitif. Melalui perspektif ini belajar dapat dipahami sebagai proses terbentuknya konflik kognitif yang bergulir dengan sendirinya dalam diri seseorang ketika yang bersangkutan memperoleh pengalaman kongkrit, wacana kolaboratif, dan kegiatan melakukan refleksi. Dalam pengertian konstruktivisme, belajar adalah suatu proses pembentukan pengetahuan. Pembentukan ini harus dibuat sendiri oleh pelajar atau orang yang mau mengerti. Orang itulah yang aktif berpikir, membuat konsep, dan mengambil makna. Guru atau pendidik di sini hanyalah membantu agar proses konstruksi itu berjalan. Guru bukan mentransfer pengetahuan sebagai yang sudah tahu, tetapi membantu agar anak
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sudah membawa "pengertian awal" akan sesuatu sebelum mereka mulai belajar secara formal. Bahkan seorang murid klas 1 SD pun sudah membawa pengetahuan awal mengenai macam-macam hal yang dalam tarafnya berlaku untuk memecahkan persoalan. Pengetahuan awal tersebut, meski kadang sangat naif atau tidak cocok dengan pengertian para ahli, perlu diterima dan nanti dibimbing untuk semakin sesuai dengan pemikiran para ahli. Pemikiran mereka itu meski naif, bukanlah salah; tetapi terbatas berlakunya. Pihak guru dituntut pengetahuan yang luas dan mendalam, agar dapat memahami jalan pikiran anak. Guru menantang, mempertajam, dan menunjukkan apakah jalan pikiran murid benar. Guru tidak mengklaim bahwa satu-satunya jalan yang benar adalah yang sama dengannya. Kesalahan pemikiran anak diterima sebagai landasan kemajuan. Bukankah perkembangan semua ilmu mulai dari kesalahan, demikian tandas para konstruktivis. Para pendidik yang telah mencoba mewujudkan paradigma konstruktivisme di dalam kelas kemudian mendeskripsikan prinsip-prinsip pembelajaran berdasarkan paradigma tersebut. Catherine Twomey Fosnot, ketika memberikan pengantarnya untuk buku berjudul In Search of Understanding the Case for Constructivist Classrooms karya Grennon Brooks dan Brooks (1993) (199 3) memformulasikan 5 prinsip belajar menurut paradigma konstruktivisme yang satu sama lain berjalin berkelindan, yaitu: (1) menghadapkan peserta didik kepada problem yang saling berkaitan; (2) membuat struktur pembelajaran lewat konsep pokok dan di sekitar pikiran dasarnya; (3) mendorong dan menghargai munculnya pandangan dari dalam diri peserta didik; (4) kurikulum disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan dan kemauan peserta didik, dan (5) selalu menilai kemajuan peserta
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yang belum jelas Kelima ciri di atas bertolak b elakang dengan pola belajar-mengajar konvensional yang dikenal memiliki ciri-ciri berikut: (1) pendidik yang banyak berbicara di dalam kelas, (2) pembelajaran banyak ditekankan pada penggunaan buku teks, (3) meskipun mengaku menggunakan strategi belajar kooperatif, pendidik jarang memberikan kesempatan kepada murid untuk bekerja sama menyelesaikan tugas-tugas yang mestinya dapat diselesaikan bersama oleh siswa, (4) menyuruh peserta didik mengerjakan tugas mandiri padahal tugasnya tergolong low level skill yang tidak menuntut kemampuan berpikir rumit, dan (5) Guru kurang menghargai kemampuan berpikir peserta didik. Kebanyakan pendidik tidak membuat peserta didik mampu berpikir dengan membiasakan mereka berhadapan dengan isu yang menantang, dan acapkali meminta Murid hanya memberikan satu jawaban yang benar, (6) Pendidikan di sekolah dirumuskan sebagai dunia yang pasti. Peserta didik datang ke sekolah untuk tahu hal yang pasti tersebut, dan ini pun sepenuhnya disediakan oleh guru. Tidak ada kemungkinan bagi siswa untuk memperoleh sesuatu yang lain yang ingin diketahuinya. Berbeda dengan ciri kelas konvensional di atas, kelas konstruktivistik mempunyai ciri penanda yang berbeda secara signifikan dengan keadaan kelas yang tidak berwawasan konstruktivisme.
Ciri yang dimaksud adalah seperti berikut ini. 1. Guru akan selalu berusaha menciptakan kelas yang dapat membuat siswa berani berinteraksi. 2. Kelas selalu didorong untuk bekerja sama antar murid dan munculnya inisiatif
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guru perlu menghindari munculnya kebiasaan peserta didik yang acapkali bertindak mencari “menang” sendiri dan tidak mau menerima dan menghargai pendapat temannya.
Untuk dapat mewujudkan kelas dengan ciri-ciri di atas diperlukan pendidik dengan perspektif konstruktivisme. Pendidik dikatakan mempunyai ciri konstruktivisme apabila dirinya mampu memperlihatkan perilaku seperti berikut ini: 1. Memberikan dorongan dan menerima kemandirian kemandirian dan inisiatif peserta didik; 2. Membiasakan peserta didik berhadapan dengan beragam data: data asli (alamiah), manipulatif, interaktif, atau benda nyata; 3. Merumuskan tugas-tugas yang diberikan kepada peserta didiknya dengan rumusan tujuan seperti klasifikasikanlah, analisislah, ramalkan, atau buatlah kreasi sesuai dengan pengalaman yang kamu miliki; 4. Tidak berkeberatan mengubah strategi pembelajaran, isi atau arah pelajaran sesuai dengan tuntutan keadaan, terutama apabila hal tersebut lebih membawa keuntungan di pihak peserta didik; 5. Berusaha keras agar peserta didik memahami konsep tentang sesuatu sebelum pendidik memberitahukan bagaimana pemahamannya tentang sesuatu tersebut. 6. Berusaha mendorong keberanian peserta didik untuk berdialog dengan pendidik, dengan teman sekelasnya, dengan orang asing atau orang yang belum pernah kenal dengan mereka, terutama bila hal tersebut berhubungan dengan pencarian kebenaran.
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10. Memberikan waktu berpikir yang cukup kepada peserta didiknya untuk memikirkan jawab yang tepat untuk pertanyaan yang diajukan oleh Gurunya; Guru tidak boleh membiasakan murid berpikir tergesa-gesa. 11. Memberikan kesempatan kepada peserta didik untuk membangun hubungan baik dengan teman kelompoknya, maupun teman lain di luar kelompoknya; 12. Membangun rasa-ingin tahu (curiosity) peserta didiknya secara alamiah melalui kelompok kecil yang dibentuk untuk belajar, berusaha memecahkan persoalan, dan mencari jalan keluar bagi masalah yang dihadapi oleh kelompok secara bersamasama.
Untuk menginternalisasi serta dapat menerapkan pembelajaran menurut paradigma konstruktivistik, terlebih dulu guru diharapkan dapat merubah pikiran sesuaidengan pandangan konstruktivistik. Guru konstruktivistik memiliki ciri-ciri sebagai berikut.1.Menghargai otonomi dan inisiatif siswa.2.Menggunakan data primer dan bahan manipulatif dengan penekanan padaketerampilan berpikir kritis.3.Mengutamakan kinerja siswa berupa mengklasifikasi, mengananalisis, memprediksi,dan mengkreasi dalam mengerjakan tugas.4.Menyertakan respon siswa dalam pembelajaran dan mengubah model atau strategipembelajaran sesuai dengan karakteristik materi pelajaran.5.Menggali pemahaman siswa tentang konsep-konsep yang akan dibelajarkan sebelum sharing pemahamannya tentang konsep-konsep tersebut.
Konstruktivisme Individu dan Konstruktivisme Sosial
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Konstruktivisme berfokus pada: bagaimana orang menyusun arti, baik dari sudut pandang mereka sendiri, maupun dari interaksi dengan orang lain. Dengan kata lain, individuindividu membangun struktur kognitif mereka sendiri, persis seperti mereka mengintepretasikan pengalaman-pengalamannya pada situasi tertentu. Pandangan ini didasari oleh penelitian Piaget, Vygotsky, psikologi Gestalt, Bartlett, dan Brunner. Satu cara untuk mendapatkan intisari pandangan konstruktivisme adalah membahas dua bentuknya, yaitu konstruktivisme individu dan sosial.
1. Konstruktivisme Individu
Pandangan ini fokus pada kehidupan “inner psikologi” manusia, yakni mengartikan sesuatu dengan menggunakan pengetahuan dan keyakinannya secara individu. Pengetahuan disusun dengan mentransformasikan, mengorganisasi, dan mereorganisasikan pengetahuan yang sebelumnya. Pengetahuan bukan merupakan cermin dari luar, walaupun pengalaman mempengaruhi pemikiran, dan pemikiran mempengaruhi pengetahuan.
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keyakinan dan pemikiran siswa, mempengaruhi pembelajaran. Vygotsky juga dianggap sebagai konstruktivis sosial, sekaligus individu. Yang pertama, disebabkan teorinya sangat bergantung kepada interaksi sosial dan konteks budaya dalam menjelaskan pembelajaran. Beberapa teoritikus mengkategorikannya sebagai konstruktivis individu, karena ketertarikannya dalam pengembangan individu.
Proses Belajar Menurut Konstruktivisme
Pada bagian ini akan dibahas proses belajar dari pandangan kontruktifistik dan dari aspek-aspek si belajar, peranan guru, sarana belajar, dan evaluasi belajar. 1.Proses belajar kontruktivistik secara konseptual proses belajar jika dipandang dari pendekatan kognitif, bukan sebagai perolehan informasi yang berlangsung satu arah dari luar kedalam diri siswa kepada pengalamannya melalui proses asimilasi dan akomodasi yang bermuara pada pemuktahiran struktur kognitifnya. Kegiatan belajar lebih dipandang dari segi rosesnya dari pada segi perolehan pengetahuan dari pada fakta-fakta yang terlepas-lepas. 2.Peranan siswa. Menurut pandangan ini belajar merupakan suatu proses pembentukan
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serta aktifitas-aktifitas lain yang didasarkan pada pengalaman. Adapun Model Pengajaran Konstruktivisme Model Pengajaran Interaktif (Biddulph & Osborne)
Guru lebih sensitif kepada ide dan persoalan pelajar. Guru menyediakan pengalaman penerokaan yang membolehkan pelajar menimbul persoalan dan mencadangkan penerangan yang munasabah. Guru menydiakan aktiviti yang memfokuskan kapada ide dan persoalan oleh guru Guru menyediakan aktiviti yang menggalakkan pelajar membuat penyiasatan. Guru berinteraksi dengan pelajar untuk mencabar dan melanjutkan idea mereka. Pengajaran Model Berpusatkan Masalah (Wheatley)
guru memilih tugasan yang berkemungkinan menjadi masalah besar kepada pelajar. Pelajar membuat tugasan dalam kelompok kecil. Pelajar akan berkumpul semula untuk membentangkan kepada kelas dan guru.guru hanya berperan sebagai fasilistor. Cara-cara Pelajar Membina Konsep Matematik Pelajar membuat penyelesaian matematik dengan manipulatif.
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Pelajar dapat mengemukakan hpotesis dari pada taktifi yang dilaluinya tetapi bukan guru yang menerangkan teori. Pelajar dapat berinteraksi dengan pelajar lain dan guru Memupuk kerja sama antar individu dan kumpulan melalaui aktifiti koperatif Pengajaran berpusatkan pada pelajaran Guru akan dapat meningkatkan kemahiran berfikir di kalangan pelajarnya Guru menjadi lebih prihatin terhadap keperluan , kebolehan serta minat pelajar. Realitas dan kebenaran
Bagi kaum konstruktivis, pengetahuan bukanlah kenyataan ontologis. Malah secara ekstrem mereka menyatakan bahwa kita k ita tidak dapat mengerti realitas (kenyataan) yang sesungguhnya. Yang kita mengerti, bila boleh b oleh disebut suatu realitas, adalah sktruktur konstruksi kita akan suatu objek. Bettencourt menyatakan memang konstruktivisme tidak bertujuan mengerti realitas, tetapi lebih mau menekankan bagaimana kita tahu atau menjadi tahu. Bagi konstruktivisme, konstruktivisme, realitas hanya ada sejauh berhubungan dengan pengamat. Lalu bagaimana dengan soal kebenaran? Bagaimana kita tahu bahwa
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yang lain membentuk struktur kognitif seseorang. Oleh Toulmin struktur itu disebut ekologi konseptual. Orang cenderung untuk menjaga stabilitas ekologi tersebut dengan setiap kali mencocokkan pengetahuan yang baru dengan ekologi konseptual di atas. Inilah yang juga dapat menghambat perkembangan pengetahuan. a. Setiap guru akan pernah mengalami bahwa suatu materi telah dibahas dengan jelas jelasnya namun masih ada sebagian siswa yang belum mengerti ataupun tidak mengerti materi yang diajarkan sama sekali. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa seorang guru dapat mengajar suatu materi kepada sisiwa dengan baik, namun seluruh atau sebagian siswanya tidak belajar sama sekali. Usaha keras seorang guru dalam mengajar tidak harus h arus diikuti dengan hasil yang baik pada siswanya. Karena, hanya dengan usaha yangkeras para sisiwa sedirilah para siswa akan betul-betul memahami suatu materi yang diajarkan. b.Tugas setiap guru dalam memfasilitasi siswanya, sehingga pengetahuan materi yang dibangun atau dikonstruksi para siswa sendirisan bukan ditanamkan oleh guru. Para sisiwa harus dapat secara aktif mengasimilasikan dan mengakomodasi pengalaman baru kedalam kerangka kognitifnya. c. Untuk mengajar dengan baik, guru harus memahami model-model mental yang
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1)Konstruktivisme memandang bahwa pengetahuan non objektif, bersifat temporer, selalu berubah dan tidak menentu. 2)Belajar adalah penyusunan pengetahuan dari dari pengalaman konkrit, aktifitas kolaboratif dan refleksi dan interpretasi. 3)Si belajar akan memiliki pemahaman yang berbeda terhadap pengetahuan tergantung pengalamannya dan persepektif yang didalam menginterprestasikannya. Konstruktivisme dalam Pemikiran Ki Hadjar Dewantara
Sebagai salah satu aliran dalam filsafat pendidikan, konstruktivisme menegasikan bahwa pengetahuan kita sesungguhnya merupakan hasil konstruksi atau bentukan kita sendiri
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Konstruktivisme yang sudah besar pengaruhnya sejak periode 1930-an dan 1940-an di Amerika, juga di Eropa, secara langsung atau tidak langsung dasar-dasarnya pernah dipelajari oleh Ki Hadjar. Dasar pertama yang dari pendekatan konstruktivisme dalam pendidikan adalah ‘teori konvergensi’ yang menyatakan bahwa pengetahuan manusia merupakan hasil interaksi dari faktor bawaan (nature) dan faktor pengasuhan (nurture). Dalam tulisannya berjudul ”Tentang dasar dan ajar” di Pusara Nopember 1940-Jilid 9 no. 9/11, Ki Hadjar menunjukkan keberpihakannya kepada teori konvergensi. Menurutnya, baik ‘dasar’ (faktor bawaan) maupun ‘ajar’ (pendidikan) berperan dalam pembentukan watak seseorang.
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ragam profesi (Buckmaster & LeGrand, 1992) mengungkapkan bahwa praktik kerja dalam sebuah pendidikan kejuruan pada awalnya memang menempuh risiko tinggi. Tetapi jika guru bertindak benar, baik sebagai fasilitator maupun pemandu, guru dapat membantu para siswa dalam belajar merekonstruksi pikiran mereka melalui sebuah prakondisi secara bersama-sama. Meskipun konstruksi dari sebuah pemahaman adalah unik bagi setiap individu, hal tersebut akan mudah dibentuk oleh kultur dan lingkungan tempat bekerja sekaligus belajar dalam sebuah sekolah kejuruan. Yang harus selalu diingat oleh para guru di sekolah kejuruan adalah menghargai siswa dengan instruksi langsung kepada sumber informasi. Kualitas instruksi seorang guru/fasilitator guru/fasilitator sangat penting, terutama dalam membantu siswa untuk memahami mengapa sesuatu harus
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1994, p 29). Dengan demikian peran penting sekolah kejuruan adalah memfasilitasi konstruksi pengetahuan yang dilakukan para siswa melalui sederetan pengalaman lapangan (magang), kontekstual dengan kondisi dan lingkungan sosial yang berkembang (Lynch 1997, p 27). Karena titik fokus dari sekolah kejuruan adalah upaya peningkatan keterampilan siswa, sekolah kejuruan harus digagas dan dijadikan sebagai wadah dari sebuah proses belajar, bukan proses mengajar. Artinya, baik siswa maupun guru harus sama-sama belajar membina hubungan yang positif dan setia dalam berbagi kehendak dan tujuan pembelajaran (Stevenson 1994).
Menurut Hyerle (1996), meskipun pendekatan konstruktivisme dalam model cooperative
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biasa, masih melihat pengetahuan sebagai suatu gambaran yang dibentuk dari kenyataan suatu objek.
Dari segi subyek yang membetuk pengetahuan, dapat dibedakan antara konstruktivisme psikologis personal, sosiokulturalisme, dan konstruktivisme sosiologis. Yang personal dengan tokohnya Piaget, menekankan bahwa pengetahuan itu dibentuk oleh seseorang secara pribadi dalam berinteraksi dengan pengalaman dan objek yang dihadapinya. Orang itu sendiri yang membentuk pengetahuan. Sosiokulturalisme yang ditokohi oleh Vygotsky, menjelaskan bahwa pengetahuan dibentuk baik secara pribadi tetapi juga oleh interaksi sosial dan kultural dengan orang-orang yang lebih tahu tentang hal itu dan
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Jika dicermati, maka ‘sistem merdeka’ dari Ki Hadjar sejalan den gan pandangan konstruktivisme. Dasar pemikiran konstruktivisme adalah: pengetahuan merupakan hasil
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ganjaran dan hukuman, maka “ganjaran dan hukuman itu harus datang sendiri sebagai hasil atau buahnya segala pekerjaan dan keadaan.” Ini mengingatkan saya kepada teori perkembangan dari tokoh psikologi kognitif, Jean Piaget (1954), bahwa anak
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menghargai pemikiran siswa karena seringkali siswa menampilkan pend apat yang berbeda bahkan bertentangan dengan pemikiran pengajar. Apa yang dikatakan oleh murid dalam menjawab sebuah pertanyaaan adalah masuk akal bagi mereka saat itu. Jika
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keluarga sebagai agen utama dalam pendidikan. Sebagai contoh, dalam tulisannya “Mobilisasi Intelektual Nasional untuk Mengadakan Wajib Belajar” dalam Keluarga edisi Desember 1936 th. 1 no.2, Ki Hadjar mengajukan “Asas Kultural dan Sosial” dalam
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disimpan dalam kognisi (pikiran) anak dalam bentuk pengetahuan. Sebaliknya objekobjek yang tak bermakna akan diabaikan oleh anak. Anak-anak memilih sendiri pengetahuan apa yang akan dikonstruksi dalam pikiran berdasarkan derajat
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