Linguistic School in the Twentieth Century

LINGUISTIC SCHOOL IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY  A GRAMMATICAL MODEL OF A LANGUAGE is an attempt to represent syte sy tema mati tica call lly y and and over overtl tly y wat wat te te nati native ve sp spea ea! !er o" tat tat lan# lan#$a $a#e #e int$itively !nows% &e sall loo! 'rie(y at te di)erent models advanced in tis cent$ry in *ritain and in te United states and we sall indicate teir respective stren#ts and wea!ness%

Traditional Latin-infuenced models Until te +,-.s/ most models o" En#lis were 'ased on Latin/ te #rammar o" wic was itsel" 'ased on Gree!% 0t$dy o" te nat$re and str$c$re o" lan#$a#e #oes 'ac! at least a1 "ar as 2lato and Aristotle "or western E$ropean lan#$a#es% Gree! was compreensively descri'ed 'y Dionysi$s Tra3 toward te end o" te second cent$ry *C% All Gree! words words were classi4ed in terms o" case/ #ender/ n$m'er/ tense/ voice and mood%  Tree cent$ries later/ Apoiloni$s Dyseol$s improved on te Tra3 model 'y incl$din# r$les "or com'inin# words into accepta'le sentences% Lat Latin #ram #ramm maria arian ns adop adopte ted d te Gree! ee! model del "or "or teir eir own own lan#$a#e/ and/ since Gree! and Latin were str$ct$rally very similar/ te 'elie" #rew tat #rammatical cata#ories wic were valid "or Gree! and Latin were valid "or all lan#$a#e% For eam!le" +% In Latin/ Latin/ a no$n no$n li!e li!e 5domin 5domin$s6 $s6 meanin meanin# # 5lord 5lord66 co$ld co$ld 'e declin declined ed as "ollows1 Singular Plural Nominative domin$s domini Vocative domine domini  Accusative domin$m dominos Genitive domini dominor$m Dative domino dominis  Ablative domino dominis -% Gram Gramma mari rian ans s wo wo "oll "ollow owed ed te te Lati Latin n model model "or "or En#l En#lis is  o"te o"ten n declined En#lis no$ns as "ollows1 Singular Plural Nominative lord lords Vocative O lord O lords  Accusative lord lords Genitive lord6s lords6 Dative to te lord to te lord

 Ablative

8ocative Nominative

Acc$sative Genetive Dative A'lative

'y7 wit7 "rom te lord

'y7 wit7 "rom te lords

To address someone or sometin# in direct speec% Mar!s s$'9ect o" a statement person7o'9ect and "or pridicate also sow te act% Mar!s te direct o'9ect o" a ver'% E3presses possession/ meas$rement or so$rce Mar!s te recipent o" an action7indirect o'9ect o" a ver's E3presses seperation/ indirection/ te means 'y wic an action is per"ormed

:% Te En#lis ver' system was even more distinct "rom Latin% I" we consider only te simple present o" 5portare6 te e;$ivalent o"  5carry6/ we 4nd tat is mar!ed "or person and n$m'er1 1st sing. 2orto I carry 2nd sing. 2ortas yo$ 4nal position/ especially in collo;$ial speec% 0imilarly/ #enerations o" st$dents o" En#lis ave 'een ta$# tat s$c sentences as1 It6s me% 0e6s taller tan me% are wron#1 Latin ad te same case 'e"ore and a"ter te ver' *E and 0O so$ld En#lis% Tis view/ wic tries to p$s En#lis into a Latin mo$ld/ i#nores te parallelism o" s$c sets as1 ?e arrived 'e"ore I did% ?e6s taller tan I am% ?e arrived 'e"or me% ?e6s taller tan me%

It also i#nores te "act tat/ in En#lis/ 5me6 is not only acc$sative% It is also te ematic "orm o" te prono$n1 &o6s tere@ Me. Latin>oriented #rammars "ailed 'eca$se tey did not reco#nie tat eac lan#$a#e is $ni;$e in its or#anisation and patterns%

Structuralism Lin#$ists spent a lot o" time on Indict lan#$a#es many o"  wic ad lon# traditions o" literacy and scolarsip% *ritis lin#$ists/ not $nnat$rally/ paid more attention to te written medi$m and to orto#rapic systems% 0tr$ct$ralists envisa#ed lan#$a#e as a i#ly str$ct$red/ predicta'le system were one co$ld move "rom so$nd to sentence/ discoverin# te si#ni4cant $nits at cac level and providin# r$les "or com'inin# tem% Tey started wit so$nd and de4ned a 5poneme6 as te smallest $nit o" a lan#$a#e6s so$nd system% Eac lan#$a#e ad an inventory o" so$nds and a lin#$ist6s tas! was to esta'lis wic ponemes were si#ni4cant in te lan#$a#e 'ein# descri'ed% One step a'ove ponemes came 5morpems6% Tese were composed o" ponemes and were de4ned as te smallest $nit o"  synta3% Tere were two !inds o" morpemes/ 'o$nd morpemes li!e 5$n>5 wic co$ld not occ$r in isolation and "ree morpemes li!e 5!ind6 wic co$ld% Free morpemes were e;$ivalent to words% &ord classes were determined 'y 'ot "orm and "$nction% No$ns/ "or e3ample/ di)ered in "orm 'etween sin#$lar and pl$ral/ wit pl$rality 'ein# indicate 'y means a" addin# 7s7/ 77 or 7i7 to te sin#$lar/ t$s1 #nat B 7s7  #nats tree B 77  trees orse B 7i7  orses No$ns also 4"ted into s$c test "rames as1   "$nny   #ood ordinatin# and s$'ordinatin#= 2rono$ns E3clamations considera'le and all s$'se;$ent

0tr$ct$ralists attempted to ma!e a st$dy o" lan#$a#e as scienti4c as st$dy o" cemistry%

Scale and cate#or$  Tis model o" #rammar is also re"erred to as 5systemic6 #rammar and it evolved mainly d$e to te wor! o" te *ritis lin#$ist Micael ?alliday% Generaliin# we can sow te coice 'y s$c a "orm$la as1 Nominal B 8 B Determiner B Nominal B On7Last B day 0cale and cate#ory #rammar attempts to descri'e lan#$a#e/ weter written or spo!en/ in terms o" tree primary levels1 0$'stance > "orm > sit$ation 0$'stance relates to so$nds "or spo!en medi$m past=%  Te a'ove is a very simple system networ! '$t it indicates one o" te principal tecni;$es o" scale and cate#ory
Trans%ormational #enerati&e #rammar  Trans"ormational #enerative #rammar1 0et temselves te tas! o" creatin# an e3plicit model o" wat an ideal spea!er o" te lan#$a#e int$itively !nows%

A TG model as "o$r main caracteristic +% It m$st attempt to ma!e e3plicit oe a 4nite entity li!e te 'rain can operate on a 4nite set o" items earer6s lin#$istic !nowled#e and int$itions/ it m$st 'e e3plicit% It m$st not "all lin#$istic 'ac! on int$ition to as! weter a str$ct$re is or is not correct% :% Te model m$st ave tree component1 a ponological component/ a s!ntactic component and a semantic component so tat is parallels te spea!er6s a'ility to associate noise and meanin#% % Alto$# te model m$st not rely on te int$ition o" a native spea!er m$st 'e armony wit s$c int$ition% In oter words/ it m$st 'e a'le to assi#n a str$ct$re to all sentences wic wo$ld 'e accepted 'y a native spea!er and re9ect all sentences wic wo$ld 'e re9ected 'y a native spea!er%  Te ponolo#ical component deals wit ponemes and wit te permissi'le com'ination o" ponemes% As "ar as En#lis is concerned it o)ers r$les "or stress and intonation patterns as well%  Te wor! on ponolo#y is an e3tension o" te wor! done 'y str$ct$ralists/ a model wic as received least criticism%

Case #rammar Fillmore s$##ested tat in deep str$ct$re no$ns are involved in a 5case6 relationsip wit ver's% In some lan#$a#es/ li!e Latin/ te relationsip sow $p in s$r"ace str$ct$re as case endin#s/ wereas in En#lis tey may 'e indicated 'y sentence position and te $se o" prepositions% Accordin# to Fillmore/ case is $niversal in lan#$a#es

and te "ollowin# ei#t cases are s$cient to acco$nt "or te relationsip 'etween ver's and no$ns% +% A#entive 1 tis case relates to te a#ent in a sentence/ tat is to te animate insti#ator o" te action or state identi4ed 'y te ver' 1 Mary made a dress%  Te dress was made 'y Mary% Mary was a dressma!er%  Te dressma!er was mary% 5Mary6 is te deep str$ct$re a#ent in all o" te a'ove sentences irrespective o" It s$r"ace role o" position% -% E3perience 1 tis case relates to te animate 'ein# wic is a)ected 'y te action or state identi4ed 'y te ver' 1  Hon was warmed 'y te 4re% I trew te do# a 'one%  Te cild 'elieved in 0anta Cla$s% It in"$riated Hon%  Te $nderline items a'ove all 5e3perience6 te activity o" te ver'% :% Instr$mental1 tis is te case o" te inanimate "orce/ o'9ect or ca$se wic is involved in te action or state identi4ed 'y te ver'% A#ain/ tese are $nderlined in te "ollowin# e3amples 1 Mary meas$red te c$rtains wit in r$ler%  Te r$ler meas$red o" te c$rtains%  Te stone 'ro!e te window%  Te c$rtains dar!ened te room% % O'9ective1 tis case is wat Fillmore re"ers to as is 5waste 'as!et6 in tis case wic applies to items wic are contained1  Hon 4lled is pipe wit to'acco% &ic move or $nder#o can#e or wic are a)ected 'y action or state identi4ed 'y te ver'1 0mo!e 4lled te air%

 Hon saw te intr$der% ?e it im wit a stic!% ?e died instantly "rom te 'low% % 0o$rce1 tis is te case wic mar!s te ori#in or startin# point o" te action or state identi4ed 'y te ver'1 ?e drove "rom Leeds to London 0e wor!ed "rom mornin# $ntil ni#t%  Te tro$'le 'e#an wit a mis$nderstandin#% A mis$nderstandin# ca$sed te tro$'le% J% Goal1 tis mar!s te case o" te end point or o'9ective o" te action or state identi4ed 'y te ver'1 ?e drove "rom London to Leeds% ?e wor!ed "rom mornin# $ntil ni#t% ?e painted a pict$re% 0e wrote a son#% K% Locative1 tis case speci4es te spatial orientation o" te action pr state identi4ed 'y te ver'1  Te rain in 0pain stays mainly on te plain%  Te case was 4lled wit 'oo!s%  Te (at was very com"orta'le% % Temporal1 tis case identi4es te time o" te state or action identi4ed 'y te ver'1 Lect$res end on T$rsday% &e e3pected s$nsine in te s$mmer%  H$ly is a pleasant mont% ?e arrived at noon%

 Te wea!ness o" tis teory is tat we really do not !now m$c a'o$t 5deep6 str$ct$re/ a'o$t ow it is constr$cted or even ow "ar 'elow te s$r"ace o" lan#$a#e or lan#$a#es we can pro'e% At te deepest level o" all we are tryin# to pro'e te ways te mind wor!s and/ "ascinatin# as tat st$dy is it only in its in"ancy%