List of Presumptions

BASIC PRESUMPTIONS OF LEGISLATIVE LEGISLATIVE INTENTION  ABLE OF   ABLE  OF  C  ONTENTS  T   C ONTENTS 

INTENTION  AND RULES OF STATUTORY  A. PRESUMPTIONS OF LEGISLATIVE INTENTION AND INTERPRETATION RELATING TO PUBLIC AND PUBLIC  AND LEGAL POLICY L1

RESUMPTION  AGAINST CONFLICT   AGAINST CONFLICT WITH  WITH INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL LAW  P RESUMPTION 

L2

RESUMPTION  AGAINST EXTRA  AGAINST EXTRA- TERRITORIAL TERRITORIAL OPERATION  P RESUMPTION 

L3

RESUMPTION THAT STATUTE  STATUTE  LAW PROMOTES  LAW PROMOTES THE  THE PUBLIC  PUBLIC  INTEREST  P RESUMPTION THAT 

L4

RESUMPTION OF CONSTITUTIONALITY  CONSTITUTIONALITY  P RESUMPTION OF 

L5

ENERAL PRESUMPTION IN  PRESUMPTION IN FAVOUR  FAVOUR OF  OF THE  THE LIBERTY  LIBERTY OF  OF THE  THE INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL G ENERAL

L6

RESUMPTION   AGAINST  BINDING  THE  SOVEREIGN  LEGISLATIVE  POWER  OF  P RESUMPTION   ARLIAMENT IN   ARLIAMENT IN THE  THE FUTURE  FUTURE  P 

L7

ENERAL PRESUMPTION   AGAINST  THE  DELEGATION  BY  P   ARLIAMENT  OF  ITS  G ENERAL LEGISLATIVE  POWERS 

L

RESUMPTIONS   AGAINST  DELEGATION  BY  P   ARLIAMENT  OF  CERTAIN  OF  ITS  P RESUMPTIONS  LEGISLATIVE  POWERS 

L! L1#

l8.1 l8.1

Presumpt Presumption ion agains againstt the the undue undue delega delegati tion on of legisl legislati ative ve powers powers

l8.2 l8.2

Presumpt Presumption ion agai against nst dele delegat gation ion of of Parli Parliamen ament’ t’s s taxi taxing ng powers powers (“No (“No Taxation Taxation Without epresentation!"

l8.# l8.#

Presumpt Presumption ion agains againstt deleg delegati ation on of Parli Parliame ament’ nt’s s penal penal powers powers

l8.$ l8.$

Presu Presump mpti tion on again against st delega delegattion of Parli Parliam ament ent’’s power power to a%rid a%ridge ge individual rights

l8.& l8.&

Presu Presump mpti tion on again against st delega delegati tion on of Parlia Parliame ment’ nt’s s power power to exemp exempt  t  an' person or lass of persons from ompliane with its laws

l8.) l8.)

Presumpt Presumption ion agai against nst delegat delegation ion of Parl Parliam iament’ ent’s s power power to enlar enlarge ge or  restrit the *tate’s eminent domain or to diminish the pu%li domain

RESUMPTION  IN FAVOUR  IN  FAVOUR  OF E"UALITY  OF  E"UALITY  OF TREATMENT  OF  TREATMENT  P RESUMPTION  RESUMPTION  AGAINST RETROSPECTIVITY  RETROSPECTIVITY  P RESUMPTION  AGAINST 

L11

RESUMPTION  AGAINST PRE$UDICING  PRE$UDICING VESTED VESTED RIGHTS  P RESUMPTION  AGAINST 

L11

RESUMPTION  AGAINST PRE$UDICING  PRE$UDICING VESTED VESTED RIGHTS  P RESUMPTION  AGAINST 

L12

RESUMPTION  AGAINST OUSTING  OUSTING % RESTRICTING  OR ENLARGING  OR  ENLARGING THE  THE  P RESUMPTION  AGAINST  $URISDICTION  OF THE  OF  THE COURTS  COURTS 

l12.1 l12.1 +eneral +eneral presumpti presumption on against against ousting ousting or restri restriti ting ng the ,urisd ,urisdit ition ion of the superior ourts of inherent ,urisdition l12.2 l12.2 Presumpt Presumption ion against against expan expandin ding g or var'ing var'ing the ,urisd ,urisdit ition ion of the ourts l12.# -ssignment -ssignment of exlusive exlusive origi original nal ,urisdi ,urisditi tion on over ertain ertain matters matters to to ert ertai ain n auth author orit itie ies s or infe inferi rior or our ourts ts tri% tri%un unal als s or exe exeut utiv ive e authorities l12.$ l12.$ /isal /isallow lowing ing appea appeals ls on the the merits merits of of a ase ase L13

RESUMPTIONS RELATING  TO THE  TO THE EXERCISE  EXERCISE  OF STATUTORY  OF  STATUTORY  POWERS  P RESUMPTIONS RELATING 

l1#.1 Presumption Presumption against against delegat delegation ion of statuto statutor' r' funtions funtions generall' generall'.. l1#.2 Presumption Presumption against against delegation delegation of delegated delegated lawma0in lawma0ing g powers powers

& 1#.# 1 #.# Presu Presump mpti tion on that that statut statutor' or' power powers s inl inlud udin ing g the the exer exeris ise e of a regu regula lattion ma0i a0ing powe powerr must ust %e exer xeris ised ed intra-vires the ena%ling statute l1#. l1#.$ $ Presu Presump mpti tion on again against st nonpr nonpres esri ript ptio ion n of stat statuto utor' r' fees fees and and that  that  statutor' fees should %e reasona%le. L14

RESUMPTIONS RELATING  TO OFFENCES  TO OFFENCES  AND  AND PENALTIES  P RESUMPTIONS RELATING 

l1$. l1$.1 1 Presu Presump mpti tion on again against st dou%t dou%tfu full penal penalis isat atio ion n and in favo favour ur of the the li%ert' of the individual. l1$. l1$.2 2 Pres Presum umpt ptio ion n onvition

aga against nst

pun punishm shment ent

for for

offe offen ne e

without hout

prio prior  r 

& 1$.# 1 $.# Presu Presump mpti tion on that that mens rea is a reuirement for riminal lia%ilit' lia%ilit' l1$.$ Presumption Presumption against against reversing reversing the onus of proof in riminal riminal ases. l1$.& Presumption Presumption that that penalties penalties ought to to %e proportiona proportionate te to the offene offene l1$.) l1$.) Presumpt Presumption ion agai against nst mandat mandator' or' penalt penalties ies



& 1$.3 1$.3 Presumption Presumption against against dou%le penalisati penalisation on for for the same a!t"s re"s. l1$.8 Presumption Presumption that riminal riminal penaltie penalties s are no %ar to ivil remedies remedies or  disiplinar' proeedings. l1$.4 l1$.4 Presumpt Presumption ion that that powers powers of searh searh and detent detention ion of person persons s and   propert' to %e exerised under warrant  wa rrant  l1$.15 Presumption in favour of the the privilege against selfinrimination selfinrimination and  against dislosure of privileged p rivileged ommuniations

#

l1$.11 l1$.11 Presumption Presumption against immunit' immunit' from proseution. proseution. l1$.12 Presumptions Presumptions a%out the proseution proseution and punishment punishment of orporate %odies l1$.1# Presumption Presumption a%out ompounding ompounding of offenes offenes and ondonation of  statutor' %reahes l1$.1$ Presumption a%out ontrats entered in violation of the riminal law  L15

RESUMPTION  AGAINST IN$USTICE  IN$USTICE  AND  AND UNREASONABLENESS  P RESUMPTION  AGAINST 

L16

RESUMPTION  IN FAVOUR  IN FAVOUR OF  OF NATURAL NATURAL $USTICE  OR DUE  OR  DUE PROCESS  PROCESS  P RESUMPTION 

L17

RESUMPTION  THAT THE  THAT  THE LAWMA'ER  LAWMA'ER  DOES NOT  DOES  NOT INTEND INTEND ABSURD  ABSURD OR  ANOMALOUS   ANOMALOUS  P RESUMPTION  RESULTS 

L1

RESUMPTION  THAT THE  THAT  THE LAW  LAW IS  IS  A  A COMPLETE  SYSTEM  WITHOUT LACUNAE  WITHOUT  LACUNAE  P RESUMPTION 

L1!

RESUMPTION  THAT THE  THAT  THE LAWMA'ER  LAWMA'ER  DOES NOT  DOES  NOT INTEND INTEND TO  ALTER   ALTER THE  THE EXISTING  EXISTING  P RESUMPTION  LAW MORE  LAW MORE THAN  THAN IS  IS NECESSARY  NECESSARY 

L2#

RESUMPTION  AGAINST THE  THE  S  TATE  BEING BOUND BEING  BOUND BY STATUTE  BY  STATUTE ( P RESUMPTION  AGAINST   S TATE 

L21

RESUMPTION  AGAINST BLAN'ET  BLAN'ET IMMUNITY  IMMUNITY FROM  FROM CIVIL CIVIL SUIT ( P RESUMPTION  AGAINST 

L22

RESUMPTION  AGAINST BLAN'ET  BLAN'ET INDEMNITY  INDEMNITY  P RESUMPTION  AGAINST 

L23

THER  PRESUMPTIONS RELATING  PRESUMPTIONS RELATING  TO PUBLIC  TO PUBLIC  AND  AND LEGAL POLICY  O THER 

2 #.1 The presu presump mpti tion on of Omnia rite  et. & 2#.1 2#.2 Presumption Presumption a%out validit' validit' of ats of of emplo'ees emplo'ees of the the *tate where & 2#.2 the validit' of their title to offie is uestioned ( $e %a!t&   offiers’  dotrine"

& 2#.# 2 #.# The presu presump mpti tion on of In '&nam(artem l2#.$ l2#.$ Presumpt Presumption ion that taxati taxation on statutes statutes will will %e interpre interpreted ted against against the fisus l2#. l2#.& & Pres Presum umpt ptio ion n that that stat statut utor or' ' righ rights ts over overri ride de onf onflliti iting ng priv privat ate e ommon law ones

)

l2#.) l2#.) Presumpt Presumption ion of the vali validi dit' t' of stat statute utes s l2#.3 l2#.3 Presumpt Presumption ion in favour favour of the severa%il severa%ilit' it' of statutor statutor' ' provisi provisions ons to save validit'  l2#.8 l2#.8 Presumpt Presumption ion agai against nst ignor ignorane ane of of the the law  l2#. l2#.4 4 Presu Presump mpti tion on of legal legal inapa inapai it' t' on the the part part of ertai ertain n lass lasses es of   persons l2#.15 Presumption Presumption against monopolies. monopolies. l2#.1 l2#.11 1 Presumpt Presumption ion that the ourts ourts must ta0e ,udi ,udiial ial notie notie of ertain ertain fats l2#.12 Presumption Presumption that “osts “osts follow the event!  event!  l2#.1# 6ost reover' for remedial remedial ation underta0en %' pu%li authorities authorities not to %e presumed  l2#.1$ Presumption Presumption a%out the destination destination of pu%li pu%li mone's. INTENTION  AND RULES OF STATUTORY B. PRESUMPTIONS OF LEGISLATIVE INTENTION AND INTERPRETATION T*AT ARE T*AT ARE INTRINSIC TO STATUTORY TE+TS L1

ENERAL RULES  AND  AND PRESUMPTIONS  ABOUT THE   ABOUT  THE MEANINGS  MEANINGS OF  OF WORDS  WORDS  AND  AND G ENERAL PHRASES 

l1. l1.1

- word word or expr expres ess sion is presu presum med to have have the the same same mean meaniing  wherever it appears in an enatment.

l1.2 l1.2

/iffe /ifferent rent words words in a statut statute e are to %e %e given given diff differen erentt meani meanings ngs..

l1.# l1.#

Presumpt Presumption ion that that the 7egi 7egisla slature ture intends intends that words words are to %e given given their ordinar' ditionar' meaning.

l1.$ l1.$

Presu Presump mpti tion on that that the legisl legislat ature ure is aware aware of the exist existin ing g ,udi ,udii ial  al  interpretation given to words and provisions.

& 1.&

The pr presumption Omnemai"s in se min"s !&ntinet

& 1.)

The E,(ressi&"ni"seste,!"si&ateri"s  ule.

& 1.3

The Ei"s$em Generis  (“f the same 0ind!" ule.



& 1.8

The Re$$en$&sin/"asin/"is ule

l1.4

Presumption a%out gender.

l1.15 Presumptions a%out peremptor' and diretor' statutor' provisions L2

P RESUMPTIONS CONCERNING THE COMMENCEMENT  AND TERMINATION OF  STATUTES 

L3

l2.1

Presumption that the legislature intends its laws to ommene on the date of their promulgation

l2.2

Presumption that a statute one enated will have effet until  repealed %' Parliament 

l2.#

Presumption a%out ontinuit' where a statute is repealed and  su%stantiall' reenated.

l2.$

Presumption against the ontinuane or of repealed statutor' rights

l2.&

Presumption of validit' of things done under a repealed statute  prior to its repeal 

l2.)

Presumption a%out repeal of repealing statute

l2.3

Presumption a%out suspensive amendments

P RESUMPTIONS  CONCERNING  THE  CONFLICT  OR  HARMONY  OF  STATUTES   AND STATUTORY  PROVISIONS 

L4

l#.1

Presumption against the repugnane of statutes and statutor'   provisions

l#.2

Presumption favouring later over earlier onfliting statutes.

l#.#

Presumption favouring speifi over general statutes.

l#.$

Presumption favouring primar' over seondar' statutes.

P RESUMPTIONS  CONCERNING  THE  USE  OF  INTRINSIC  AND EXTRINSIC  STATUTORY  MATERIAL TO  ASCERTAIN THE MEANING  AND INTENTION OF THE  LEGISLATURE  l$.1

The 6ardinal Priniple.

l$.2

The +olden ule.

0

L5(

l$.#

Presumption in favour of ontextual interpretation.

l$.$

Priorit' of intrinsi over semiextrinsi (peripheral" matter in a statute.

l$.&

9se of matter extrinsi to a statute for purposes of disam%iguation.

& $ .)

Presumption a%out statutes in (arimateria .

l$.3

9se of legislative histor' and legislative anteedents as aids to statutor' interpretation

P RESUMPTIONS  CONCERNING  STATUTORY  TIME - LIMITS % STATUTORY  RIGHTS  OF   APPEAL AND STATUTORY  DISCRETIONS 

L6(

l&.1

Presumption that generall' time limits in statutes are mandator'

l&.2

Presumption that where a right of appeal is given %' statute against  the exerise of a *tatutor' power suh appeal suspends suh exerise until the determination of the appeal

l&.#

Presumption that a statutor' disretion reuires an o%,etive (i.e.  ,udiial" onstrution

P RESUMPTIONS  RELATING  SPECIFICALLY  TO  CORPORATE  BODIESAND TRUSTS  ) STATUTORY  OR NON - STATUTORY  *  AND E MPLOYMENT  l).1

Presumption that a “person! inludes a ,uristi person.

l).2

Presumption against “piering the orporate veil! 

l).#

Presumption of strit lia%ilit' for %reah of orporate statutor'  duties.

l).$

Presumption a%out validit' of ats of mem%ers of statutor' %odies

l).&

Presumptions a%out the propert' of statutor' orporations

l).)

Presumption that statutor' orporations are autonomous in relation to the *tate

l).3

Presumption against ontinuit' of statutor' %odies or authorities

l).8

Presumption that a deision of a statutor' %od' reuires the votes of an a%solute ma,orit' of the mem%ers of that %od' 

1

l).4

Presumption that mem%ers or diretors of statutor' or private orporate %od' are not emplo'ees of that %od' 

l).15 Presumptions a%out statutor' and implied powers of statutor'  orporate %od'  l).11 Powers of investment of surplus funds of statutor' orporate %od'  not to %e inferred  l).12 Presumptions with respet to statutor' trustees l).1# Presumption a%out suspension of emplo'ees

& 7( O THER  PRESUMPTIONS  OF  LEGISLATIVE 

INTENTION   AND RULES  OF  STATUTORY 

INTERPRETATION  THAT  ARE INTRINSIC TO STATUTORY  TEXTS 

l3.1

The :ishief Priniple.

l3.2

Presumption that the legislature intends the ourts to appl' a  purposive onstrution to a statute

l3.#

Presumption that the repeal of a statute involves also the repeal of  an' su%sidiar' legislation made under it.

l3.$

+eneral presumption that a person ma' at through an agent 

l3.&

Presumption against ontinuit' of statutor' %odies or authorities.

& 3.)

The Cas"s Omiss"s presumption.

l3.3

Presumption a%out rules of evidene

l3.8

Presumption against the ontinuit' of *tate pensions and terminal  %enefits

&( OTHER STATUTORY PRESUMPTIONS 8.1+eneral Nature of Presumptions 8.2Presumption of the Priniple of 7egalit'  8.#Presumption against ;nfringement of
2

8.)6rown 7ia%ilit'=;nternational Perspetive  6hanging -pproah 8.3Presumption of *overeign ;mmunit'. 9*- 2 /ue 6onept of *overeignt'

Proess 2

8.8Presumption of >armon' with ther statutes 8.4Presumption a%out ?ffetive /ate of *tatute 8.15Presumption that Parliament -ts easona%l' 8.11Presumption against ;ntending what is not onvenient 8.127aw is not retroative 8.1#etroative and etrospetive *tatutes 8.1$Presumption against etroative peration of *tatutes 8.1&Presumption against etrospetive peration of law 8.1)Presumption against etrospetive perations= ?xeptions 8.13Presumption that 7egislature enats 6onstitutionall' @alid *tatutes 8.18Presumption against ;nterferene with Pending 7itigation 8.14Presumption of 6orretness 8.25Presumption of 6onstitutional @alidit' of *tatute 8.21Presumption of 6onstitutional @alidit'@irginia6iruit 6ourt 8.226onstitutional @alidit' of *tatute-ustralian Position 8.2#6onstitutional @alidit' of *tatute= Wea0ens9* 6ourts 8.2$Presumption of 6ompati%ilit' with ?uropean 7aws 8.2&Presumption of 6ompati%ilit' with ;nternational

%ligations

8.2)Presumption of 6ompati%ilit' with ;nternational 7aws 8.23Presumption that ever' law has a meaning 8.28Presumption that 9pdated laws would %e applia%le 8.24Presumption against ;mpliit 6hanges in 7aw  8.#5Presumption against ?xtraTerritorial ?ffets 8.#1Presumption that 7egislature is aware of existing *tate of 7aw 8.#2Presumption that -mending -ts have meaning 8.##Presumption a%out *peial *tatute and +eneral *tatute 8.#$Presumption that 7atter enatment overrides ?arlier

34

8.#&Presumption against ;mplied epeal 8.#)Presumption against *u%stantial -lteration of 7aw= -mending *tatute 8.#3Presumption of /eferene and Weight to ;nterpretation 8.#8Presumption of deferene and extent 8.#4Presumption that *tatutor' 6onstrution is 6ore to Audiiar' 8.$5Presumption a%out +eneral -wareness of 7egislature 8.$1Presumption of :ens ea 2 *ienter.9* #.9* $ 8.$2Presumption that +reater Power inludes 7esser Power 8.43Presumption that delegated Power would %e used rationall' 

8.$$Presumption that ?natment

Parliament

%served

Proedures

during

8.$&Presumption that Parliament does not want a%surd results from *tatute 8.$)Presumption of /elegation of Power to legislate

33

BASIC PRESUMPTIONS OF LEGISLATIVE INTENTION T5e an/"a/e &% statutes  is se$&m "nam'i/"&"s6 an$ t5e !&"rts %re7"ent8 5ave t& $e!i$e 95i!5 &% t9& (&ssi'e inter(retati&ns 9as inten$e$ '8 t5e lawma0er . In s"!5 !ases t5e !&"rts 9i 5ave re/ar$ t& vari&"s r"es &r   presumptions  t& /"i$e t5em in as!ertainin/ t5e a9ma:er;s intenti&n. T5e %&&9in/ are s&me &% t5e m&re im(&rtant ommon r"es an$ (res"m(ti&ns em(&8e$ '8 &"r !&"rts in t5e inter(retati&n &% enatments . Dra%ters s5&"$ a9a8s 'ear t5em in min$ an$ raise an$ $is!"ss t5em 95ere ne!essar8 in t5e !&"rse &% !&ns"tati&ns $"rin/ t5e $ra%tin/ &% legislation. T5e r"es an$ (res"m(ti&ns are /enera8 !assi%ia'e "n$er t9& 5ea$in/s6 name86 "sti%ies t5e intr&$"!ti&n &% t5e e,!e(ti&n s&"/5t %&r. Mere8 t& sa8 t5at C&n/ress !ann&t 'e (res"me$ t& 5ave inten$e$ t& 'rin/ a'&"t a !&nse7"en!e 95i!5 man8 (e&(e mi/5t t5in: t& 'e "n>"st is n&t6 a (rin!i(e &% !&nstr"!ti&n %&r t5is ("r(&se. In (&int &% %a!t6 95atever inn&!en!e &% vie9 ma8 5ave 'een a&9a'e t& t5e a98ers &% t5e 31t5 an$ 32t5 !ent"ries6 t5e ?4t5 !ent"r8 a98er is entite$ t& %e9 ass"m(ti&ns in t5is %ie$. It is n&t &(en t& 5im t& i/n&re t5e %a!t t5at t5e Le/isat"re 5as &%ten s5&9n in$i%%eren!e t& t5e asserti&n &% ri/5ts 95i!5 C&"rts &% La9 5ave 'een a!!"st&me$ t& re!&/ni@e an$ en%&r!e an$ t5at it 5as &%ten e,!"$e$ t5e a"t5&rit8 &% C&"rts &% La9 in %av&r &% &t5er (re%erre$ tri'"nas. (er L&r$ Ra$!i%%e Smit5 <at5een R&se= v East E&e R"ra DC 32) U*L ?
&1 P+,./0  8& 9: ,+& &9  1I%

a stat"t&r8 (r&visi&n is am%iguous6 t5e !&"rts 9i %av&r t5e inter(retati&n t5at is in !&m(ian!e 9it5 internati&na a9. N&te6 5&9ever6 t5at an remains vai$ even i% it !&n%i!ts 9it5 a r"e &% internati&na a96 "ness t5e

3?

r"e &% internati&na a9 5as 'een in!&r(&rate$ int& &"r a9 '8 &r "n$er an  -t of 6ongress.

25ere

an internati&na treat8 5as 'een a((r&ve$ '8 6ongress an$ ratified  '8 t5e Presi$ent in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 t5e (res"m(ti&n in %av&r &% !&m(ian!e 9it5 Internati&na a9 &(erates as %&&9s 35ere t5e internati&na treat8 is domestiated an$ t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n !&n%i!ts 9it5 it6 t5e stat"te is invai$ t& e,tent t5at it !&n%i!ts 9it5 t5e treat8. 45ere t5e internati&na treat8 is n&t $&mesti!ate$ '"t is (artia8 &r  95&8 selfexeuting 6 an$ t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n !&n%i!ts 9it5 it6 t5e stat"te is invai$ t& t5e e,tent t5at it !&n%i!ts 9it5 t5e se%e,e!"tin/ (art &% t5e treat8. 5In !ertain rare !ases 95ere an internati&na &'i/ati&n is n&t em'&$ie$ in an8 treat8 &r6 i% s& em'&$ie$6 is n&t a((r&ve$ '8 C&n/ress an$ rati%ie$ '8 t5e Presi$ent in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 &r is n&t $&mesti!ate$6 a stat"te ma8 sti 'e 5e$ t& 'e &verri$$en '8 s"!5 an &'i/ati&n i% it is (art &% !"st&mar8 internati&na a9 e./. t5e (r&5i'iti&n &% /en&!i$e6 saver8 an$ t&rt"re. 6" =.  A r"e &% e/a inter(retati&n 95ere'8 $&mesti! a9 is rea$6 95erever  (&ssi'e6 !&nsistent8 9it5 internati&na a9 an$ !&mit8. Pres"m(ti&n t5at a stat"te 9i n&t 'e inter(rete$ s& as t& vi&ate a r"e &%  internati&na a9 &r &'i/ati&n

It re7"ires t5e !&"rts t& see: an inter(retati&n &% a stat"te t5at 9i n&t ma:e $&mesti! a9 in !&n%i!t 9it5 internati&na a9. Pres"m(ti&n &% C&m(ati'iit8 9it5 Internati&na La9s T5is (res"m(ti&n &% !&m(ati'iit8 9it5 internati&na &'i/ati&ns 9as state$ '8 *en!58 . as %&&9s H&ne m"st ass"me t5at t5e stat"te 9as ena!te$ e!t t& t5e (&st"ate t5at it 9&"$ 'e !&nstr"e$ an$ a((ie$ in !&ns&nan!e 9it5 t5e States &'i/ati&ns "n$er  internati&na a96 in!"$in/ an8 reevant treat8 &'i/ati&ns.H T5is 9as raise$ in O D&m5nai v Merri!: 95ere it is !&n!erne$ 9it5 t5e inter(retati&n &% se!ti&ns &% t5e Stat"te Limitati&ns. In t5is !ase6 t5e S"(reme C&"rt !&nsi$ere$ 95et5er t5e sti("ati&n &% Arti!e  <3= &%  t5e E"r&(ean C&nventi&n &n *"man Ri/5ts an$ F"n$amenta Free$&ms t5at !ases s5&"$ 'e 5ear$ H9it5in a reas&na'e timeH a%%e!te$ t5e meanin/ &% t5e Stat"te Ca statute must %e onstrued so far as possi%le so as not to %e

3

inonsistent with esta%lished rules of international law and ... one should  avoid a onstrution whih will lead to a onflit %etween domesti and  international law.C 

T5e 3210 P5ii((ine C&nstit"ti&n
T5is s5&9s t5at even &"r !&"ntr8 %&&9s t5e internati&na a9 an$ %r&m time t& time6 as& a$&(ts a9s an$ (rin!i(es t5at are internati&na8 a!!e(te$. ;2 P+,./0  ,<+-,+++& 0,+

T5ere is a str&n/ (res"m(ti&n t5at a t5e a9s &% a State a((8 &n8 9it5in its &9n territ&r8. I% t5e State 9is5es t& e/isate extraterritoriall' 6 es(e!ia8 %&r its !iti@ens a'r&a$6 it m"st insert an e,(ress (r&visi&n t& t5is e%%e!t in t5e Bi. E,tra-territ&ria e/isati&n '8 s"'si$iar8 e/isati&n is never t& 'e !&"ntenan!e$ "ness s(e!i%i!a8 a"t5&ri@e$ '8 t5e A!t "n$er 95i!5 t5e s"'si$iar8 e/isati&n is ma$e. Desira'86 e,tra-territ&ria e/isati&n s5&"$ res(e!t t5e  priniple of  reiproit' 6 in!"$in/ in t5e !ase 95ere e,tra-territ&ria &%%enses an$ (enaties are e/isate$
T5is (res"m(ti&n  

I% an ena!tment is !a(a'e &% t9& meanin/s6 &ne &% 95i!5 9&"$ ren$er it "n!&nstit"ti&na6 t5e !&"rt 9i ass"me t5at t5e a9ma:er inten$e$ t5e ena!tment t& !&n%&rm 9it5 t5e C&nstit"ti&n. I% an ena!tment is !5aen/e$ in !&"rt &n t5e /r&"n$ t5at it !&ntravenes t5e /elaration of ights  in t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 t5e onus is &n t5e !5aen/er t& (r&ve t5at it is "n!&nstit"ti&na < Bim Township /evelopers (Pvt" (7td" v 7ou’s *hoes Pvt 7td 148# (2" B7 #3) =. 3#

T5e (res"m(ti&n arises in am&st ever8 !&nstit"ti&na $em&!ra!8 95ere t5e !&nstit"ti&n is t5e s"(reme a9 &% t5e an$. An A!t &% C&n/ress is (res"me$ t& 'e !&nstit"ti&na "nti t5e !&ntrar8 is s5&9n. F"rt5er i% a (r&visi&n is !a(a'e &%  t9& meanin/6 9it5 &ne &% t5e (&ssi'e inter(retati&ns %ain/ 9it5in t5e meanin/ &% t5e !&nstit"ti&n 95ie &t5ers $& n&t6 it 9i 'e (res"me$ t5at t5e e/isat"re inten$e$ t& a!t !&nstit"ti&na8 an$ t5at &ne (&ssi'e meanin/ 9it5in t5e !&nstit"ti&n 9i 'e a$&(te$. &5 G,,+& 0+,./0  8?+ 8 :, &=,+> 8 :, @?@.& 

 A (ers&ns 5ave t5e Jresidual freedomK t& $& an8t5in/ t5at is n&t e,(ress8 (r&5i'ite$ '8 a9 an$ n&t trans/ressive &% an8 &t5er (ers&n;s %ree$&m. In m&st !&nstit"ti&na an$ $em&!rati! s8stems t5e (rimar8 'earers &% ri/5ts are in$ivi$"a !iti@ens6 an$ Bis &% Ri/5ts an$ Free$&ms are /enera8 %rame$ in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5at (rin!i(e. Am&st an8 e,er!ise &% State (&9er6 95et5er  t5r&"/5 t5e ?xeutive6 t5e 7egislature &r t5e Audiiar' 6 ma8 (&tentia8 a'ri$/e &r in%rin/e a (ers&n;s i%e6 %ree$&m &r (r&(ert8 a!!&r$in/86 n& s"!5 e,er!ise is reasona%l' ,ustifia%le in a demorati soiet'  e,!e(t "n$er t5e !ear terms &% a a9. One &% t5e 9a8s in 95i!5 t5is (res"m(ti&n &(erates in t5e %ie$ &% statutor'  interpretation is t5e JD&"'t%" La9 Prin!i(eK6 name8 t5at J$&"'t%" a9s $& n&t 'in$K <7exdu%ia non o%ligat =. T5e a9s re%erre$ t& in t5is ma,im are t5&se t5at are man$at&r8 in !5ara!ter &r t5at in%rin/e "(&n a (ers&n;s resi$"a %ree$&m in an8 9a8. I% s"!5 a a9 is %rame$ in an intrata%l' am%iguous 9a86 t5e !&"rts 9i /enera8 !5&&se t5e inter(retati&n t5at %av&"rs t5e resi$"a i'ert8 &% t5e in$ivi$"a. T5is (rin!i(e in%&rms man8 &t5er (res"m(ti&ns iste$ 5ere6 in!"$in/ es(e!ia8 t5e (res"m(ti&ns re%erre$ t& in (ara/ra(5s 1.#6 3363# an$ 3).3.S&me ri/5ts an$ %ree$&ms are !&nsi$ere$ s& essentia t& in$ivi$"a i'ert8 t5at t5e8 are s(e!i%i!a8 ens5rine$ in t5e Bi &% Ri/5ts em'&$ie$ in $i%%erent !&"ntries; C&nstit"ti&na9s as %&&9s 3Pr&visi&ns sa%e/"ar$in/ t5e ri/5t t& (ers&na i'ert86 &r6 t& ("t it ne/ative86 sa%e/"ar$in/ a/ainst $etenti&n 9it5&"t tria6 &r $e(&rtati&n. Der&/ati&ns %r&m t5ese (r&visi&ns are n&t t& 'e !&"ntenan!e$ e,!e(t &n t5e %&&9in/ /r&"n$s a&9e$ '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n ?in !&nse7"en!e &% a (ers&n;s "n%itness t& (ea$ t& a !rimina !5ar/e &r in e,e!"ti&n &% t5e senten!e &r &r$er &% a !&"rt6 9it5 res(e!t t& a !rimina &%%ense &% 95i!5 5e &r s5e 5as 'een !&nvi!te$ in e,e!"ti&n &% t5e &r$er &% a !&"rt ("nis5in/ a (ers&n %&r !&ntem(t &% t5at !&"rt &r &% an&t5er !&"rt &r tri'"na &r in e,e!"ti&n &% t5e &r$er &% t5e C&n/ress ("nis5in/ 5im &r 5er %&r a !&ntem(t #in e,e!"ti&n &% t5e &r$er &% a !&"rt ma$e in &r$er t& se!"re t5e %"%iment &% an &'i/ati&n im(&se$ &n a (ers&n '8 a9 <%&r  e,am(e6 !ivi im(ris&nment t& en%&r!e a matrim&nia maintenan!e a9ar$ &r &t5er $e't= 3)

)%&r t5e ("r(&se &% 'rin/in/ a (ers&n 'e%&re a !&"rt in e,e!"ti&n &%  t5e &r$er &% a !&"rt &r an &%%i!er &% a !&"rt &r 'e%&re t5e C&n/ress in e,e!"ti&n &% t5e &r$er &% t5e Senate &r t5e *&"se &% Assem'8 "(&n reas&na'e s"s(i!i&n &% 5is 5avin/ !&mmitte$6 &r 'ein/ a'&"t t& !&mmit6 a !rimina &%%ense 0%&r t5e (r&te!ti&n an$ (r&m&ti&n &% t5e ri/5t t& 5eat5 &% t5e (e&(e an$ insti 5eat5 !&ns!i&"sness am&n/ t5em 1i% a (ers&n is6 &r is reas&na'8 s"s(e!te$ t& 'e6 &% "ns&"n$ min$6 a$$i!te$ t& $r"/s &r a!&5&6 &r a va/rant6 %&r t5e ("r(&se &% 5is &r  5er !are6 treatment &r re5a'iitati&n &r t5e (r&te!ti&n &% t5e !&mm"nit8 &r  2%&r t5e ("r(&se &% (reventin/ a (ers&n;s "na9%" entr8 int& t5e territ&ria >"ris$i!ti&n &% ≠s !&"ntr8 &r %&r t5e ("r(&se &% e%%e!tin/ 5is &r 5er e,("si&n6 e,tra$iti&n &r &t5er a9%" rem&va %r&m t5e territ&r8 &r t5e ta:in/ &% (r&!ee$in/s reatin/ t5eret&. 34T5e ri/5t t& %ree$&m &% s(ee!5 &r e,(ressi&n6 t5at is t& sa86 %ree$&m t& 5&$ &(ini&ns an$ t& re!eive an$ im(art i$eas an$ in%&rmati&n 9it5&"t inter%eren!e6 an$ %ree$&m %r&m inter%eren!e 9it5 ≠s !&rres(&n$en!e. Der&/ati&ns %r&m t5is ri/5t are n&t t& 'e !&"ntenan!e$ e,!e(t &n t5e %&&9in/ /r&"n$s a&9e$ '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n "sti%ia'e in a $em&!rati! s&!iet8K= 33A (ers&n;s %ree$&m &% e,(ressi&n ma8 'e !"rtaie$ '8 5is &r 5er &9n !&nsent6 &r as a !&nse7"en!e &% t5e e,er!ise &% (arenta $is!i(ine &ver a !5i$ &r &t5er (ers&n "n$er /"ar$ians5i(. 3?Limitati&ns in t5e interests &% $e%ense6 ("'i! sa%et86 ("'i! &r$er6 t5e e!&n&mi! interests &% t5e State6 ("'i! m&rait8 &r ("'i! 5eat5 3Limitati&ns %&r t5e ("r(&se &% 3#Pr&te!tin/ t5e re("tati&ns6 ri/5ts an$ %ree$&ms &% &t5er  (ers&ns &r t5e (rivate ives &% (ers&ns !&n!erne$ in e/a (r&!ee$in/s 3)(reventin/ t5e $is!&s"re &% in%&rmati&n re!eive$ in !&n%i$en!e 3maintainin/ t5e a"t5&rit8 an$ in$e(en$en!e &% t5e !&"rts &r  tri'"nas &r t5e C&n/ress 30re/"atin/ t5e te!5ni!a a$ministrati&n6 te!5ni!a &(erati&n &r  /enera e%%i!ien!8 &% tee(5&n86 tee/ra(586 (&sts6 9ireess 'r&a$!astin/ &r teevisi&n &r !reatin/ &r re/"atin/ an8 m&n&(&8 in t5ese %ie$s 31(reventin/
?3T5e ri/5t &% %ree assem'8 an$ ass&!iati&n6 t5at is t& sa86 a (ers&n;s ri/5t t& assem'e %ree8 an$ ass&!iate 9it5 &t5er (ers&ns an$ in (arti!"ar t& %&rm &r 'e&n/ t& (&iti!a (arties &r tra$e "ni&ns &r &t5er ass&!iati&ns %&r  t5e (r&te!ti&n &% 5is &r 5er interests. T5is ri/5t en!&m(asses t5e ri/5t n&t t& 'e !&m(ee$ t& 'e&n/ t& an ass&!iati&n. Der&/ati&ns %r&m t5is ri/5t are n&t t& 'e !&"ntenan!e$ e,!e(t &n t5e %&&9in/ /r&"n$s a&9e$ '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n "sti%ia'e in a $em&!rati! s&!iet8K=  ??Limitati&ns in t5e interests &% $e%ense6 ("'i! sa%et86 ("'i! &r$er6 ("'i! m&rait8 &r ("'i! 5eat5 ?Limitati&ns %&r t5e ("r(&se &% (r&te!tin/ t5e ri/5ts &r %ree$&m &%  &t5er (ers&ns ?#Limitati&ns in !&nne!ti&n 9it5 t5e re/istrati&n &% !&m(anies6 (artners5i(s6 s&!ieties &r &t5er ass&!iati&ns &% (ers&ns6 &t5er t5an (&iti!a (arties6 tra$e "ni&ns &r em(&8ers; &r/ani@ati&ns ?)T5e %ree$&m &% assem'8 an$ ass&!iati&n &% ("'i! &%%i!ers ma8 'e !"rtaie$ in t5e interests &% "(5&$in/ ("'i! !&n%i$en!e in t5e !ivi an$ "ni%&rme$ servi!es &% t5e !&"ntr8. ?Limitati&ns !"rtaiin/ t5e e,er!ise &% a (ers&n;s %ree$&m &% %ree$&m &% assem'8 an$ ass&!iati&n in &r &n an8 r&a$6 street6 ane6 (at56 (avement6 si$e-9a:6 t5&r&"/5%are &r simiar (a!e 95i!5 e,ists %&r  t5e %ree (assa/e &% (ers&ns &r ve5i!es. ?0T5e ri/5t t& %ree$&m &% m&vement6 t5at is t& sa86 t5e ri/5t t& m&ve %ree8 t5r&"/5&"t t5e state6 t5e ri/5t t& resi$e in an8 (art &% t5e !&"ntr86 t5e ri/5t t& enter an$ t& eave t5e state an$ imm"nit8 %r&m e,("si&n %r&m t5e !&"ntr8. Der&/ati&ns %r&m t5is ri/5t are n&t t& 'e !&"ntenan!e$ e,!e(t &n t5e %&&9in/ /r&"n$s a&9e$ '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n "sti%ia'e in a $em&!rati! s&!iet8K= ?1Limitati&ns %&r t5e im(&siti&n &% restri!ti&ns &n t5e %ree$&m &%  m&vement &% (ers&ns /enera8 &r an8 !ass &% (ers&ns t5at are re7"ire$ in t5e nati&na interest6 &r in t5e interests &% $e%ense6 ("'i! sa%et86 ("'i! &r$er6 ("'i! m&rait86 ("'i! 5eat56 t5e ("'i! interest &r t5e e!&n&mi! interests &% t5e State ?2%&r t5e im(&siti&n &% restri!ti&ns &n t5e a!7"isiti&n &r "se &% an$ &r  &t5er (r&(ert8 &% t5e /&vernment 4%&r t5e im(&siti&n &% restri!ti&ns '8 &r$er &% a !&"rt &n t5e m&vement &r resi$en!e 9it5in t5e !&"ntr8 &% an8 (ers&n &r &n an8 (ers&n;s ri/5t t& eave  3in !&nse7"en!e &% a (ers&n 5avin/ 'een %&"n$ /"it8 &% a !rimina &%%ense "n$er t5e a9 &r %&r t5e ("r(&se &% ens"rin/ t5at 5e &r s5e a((ears 'e%&re a !&"rt %&r tria %&r s"!5 a !rimina &%%ense &r %&r (r&!ee$in/s (reiminar8 t& tria ?%&r (r&!ee$in/s reatin/ t& a (ers&n;s e,tra$iti&n &r a9%" rem&va %r&m t5e territ&r8 &r  %&r t5e ("r(&se &% ens"rin/ t5at 5e a((ears 'e%&re a !&"rt as a 9itness %&r t5e ("r(&ses &% an8 !rimina (r&!ee$in/s 30

#%&r t5e im(&siti&n &% restri!ti&ns &n t5e m&vement &r resi$en!e 9it5in t5e !&"ntr8 &% an8 (ers&n 95& is neit5er a !iti@en n&r  re/ar$e$ '8 virt"e &% a 9ritten a9 as (ermanent8 resi$ent in t5e state &r 95et5er &r n&t 5e &r s5e is marrie$ &r reate$ t& an&t5er  (ers&n 95& is a !iti@en &% &r (ermanent8 resi$ent in t5e state )%&r t5e im(&siti&n &% restri!ti&ns '8 &r$er &% a !&"rt &n t5e ri/5t &%  an8 (ers&n t& eave t5e !&"ntr8 t5at are re7"ire$ %&r t5e ("r(&se &%  ens"rin/ t5at 5e &r s5e a((ears 'e%&re a !&"rt &r &t5er  a$>"$i!atin/ a"t5&rit8 as a (art8 &r a 9itness &r t& se!"re t5e  >"ris$i!ti&n &% t5e !&"rt &r &t5er a$>"$i!atin/ a"t5&rit8 %&r t5e ("r(&ses &% an8 !ivi (r&!ee$in/s &r  %&r t5e im(&siti&n &% restri!ti&ns &n t5e resi$en!e 9it5in C&mm"na Lan$ &% (ers&ns 95& are n&t tra$iti&na8 resi$ent t5erein6 t& t5e e,tent t5at s"!5 restri!ti&ns are reas&na'8 re7"ire$ %&r t5e (r&te!ti&n &% t5e interests &% (ers&ns 95& are tra$iti&na8 resi$ent t5erein &r t5eir 9e-'ein/ 0Pr&(&sas &% a $is!riminat&r8 nat"re &n /r&"n$s &% ra!e6 rei/i&n6 se,6 et!. e!t t& t5e 'asi! ri/5ts &% t5e in$ivi$"aH &6 P+,./0  =@ :, ?,+, &,&?, 09,+ 8  P+&/,  :, 8..+,

T5e C&nstit"ti&n assi/ns t& C&n/ress am&st a's&"te s&verei/nt8 in t5e e/isative s(5ere as t5e s"(reme a9ma:in/ '&$8. An8 restraint "(&n t5at s&verei/nt8 !an &n8 'e e%%e!te$ '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n itse%. A!!&r$in/8 n& a9 ma8 ("r(&rt t& 'in$6 restri!t &r (r&5i'it t5e e,er!ise &% t5e e/isative (&9er &%  C&n/ressi&na in t5e %"t"re6 95et5er $"rin/ an e,istin/ C&n/ress &r in an8 %"t"re C&n/ress6 '86 %&r e,am(e6 s(e!i%8in/ t5at a a96 95et5er ena!te$ '8 C&n/ress &r '8 an a"t5&rit8 $ee/ate$ '8 C&n/ress6 !ann&t 'e re(eae$ &r amen$e$6 &r  t5at a %"t"re a9 &n a (arti!"ar s"'>e!t !ann&t 'e ena!te$ '8 Pariament <5&9ever J*unset 6lausesK6 95i!5 reate t& t5e $emise &% an e,istin/ a9 an$ 95i!5 C&n/ress is n&t e,(ress8 %&r'i$$en t& amen$ &r re(ea6 are (ermissi'e=

31

&7 G,,+& 0+,./0  :, @,&, => P+&/, 8  &,&?, 09,+

Un$er t5e C&nstit"ti&n an$ t5e dotrine of the separation of powers 6 C&n/ress is t5e (rimar8 a9ma:in/ '&$8. *&9ever6 C&n/ress <&r t5e C&nstit"ti&n= !an t5r&"/5 an A!t $ee/ate s&me &% its a9ma:in/ (&9ers t& t5e E,e!"tive Bran!5 <"s"a8 a Presi$ent &r s&me &t5er s(e!i%ie$ '&$8 &r a"t5&rit8= an$ as& t& t5e "$i!ia Bran!5 "$i!iar8 t& %rame r"es &% !&"rt=. T5e $ee/ati&n &% a9ma:in/ (&9ers t& t5e E,e!"tive Bran!5 5a((ens ver8 %re7"ent8 n&9a$a8s6 (arti!"ar8 &n matters &% $etai %&r 95i!5 it 9&"$ n&t 'e (ra!ti!a'e t& ma:e e,tensive (r&visi&n in t5e ena%ling -t . S"!5 a (&9er !an never 'e in%erre$. It m"st 'e e,(ress8 e/isate$ in t5e A!t6 an$ t5e A!t m"st s(e!i%8 s&me (arameters 9it5in 95i!5 t5e Minister &r &t5er $ee/ate$ a9ma:er  m"st &(erate 95en ena!tin/ delegated legislation . Even t5en6 C&n/ress;s (&9er  t& $ee/ate its a9ma:in/ %"n!ti&n is n&t an "n7"ai%ie$ &ne6 as t5e ne,t (res"m(ti&n 9i s5&9. T5e&reti!a86 ever8 $ee/ate$ a9ma:er is "timate8 a!!&"nta'e t& C&n/ress %&r t5e manner in 95i!5 t5e $ee/ate$ a9ma:in/ (&9er is e,er!ise$6 eit5er $ire!t8 a!!&"nta'e in$ire!t8 a!!&"nta'e t5r&"/5 t5e Presi$ent 95& a$ministers t5e A!t "n$er 95i!5 t5at (&9er 9as $ee/ate$. & P+,./0  @,&, => P+&/, 8 ,+ 8  &,&?, 09,+

T5e (&9er &% Pariament t& $ee/ate its a9ma:in/ %"n!ti&n is 7"ite 'r&a$6 '"t is s"'>e!t t& /reater restri!ti&n &r even e,!"$e$ at&/et5er in t5e %&&9in/ !ases. &(1 P+,./0  :, .@., @,&, 8 &,&?,  09,+

 A n&t in%re7"ent instan!e &% 95at mi/5t 'e J"n$"e $ee/ati&nK in t5is res(e!t is t5e $ee/ati&n t& t5e E,e!"tive &% t5e (&9er t& amen$ an A!t &%  t5e C&n/ress. T5is :in$ &% (r&visi&n is :n&9n 5ist&ri!a8 as a J >enr' @;;;  lauseK6 'e!a"se it 9as m"!5 "se$ &r a'"se$ $"rin/ t5e rei/n &% in/ *enr8 VIII in t5e ear8 (art &% 3 t5 Cent"r8 En/an$. C&n/ress6 (ariament in t5is !ase at t5at time 9as ver8 m"!5 "n$er t5e s5a$&9 &% t5e E,e!"tive6 t& s"!5 an e,tent t5at it 9as (ers"a$e$ &r intimi$ate$ int& (assin/ man8 a9s !&ntainin/ a !a"se t& t5e e%%e!t t5at t5e Presi$ent !&"$6 '8 sim(e  prolamation 6 ater an8t5in/ in t5at a9 95ats&ever. In t5is 9a8 t5e Presi$ent (ra!ti!a8 "s"r(e$ t5e a9ma:in/ (&9er &%  C&n/ress. N&9a$a8s t5is (ra!ti!e is "s"a8 !&n%ine$ t& em(&9erin/ a Presi$ent t& amen$ '8 stat"t&r8 instr"ment a *hedule t& an A!t6 '"t in s"!5 !ases6 t& (revent a'"se &% t5e Presi$ent;s (&9ers6 t5e $ra%ter  s5&"$ ma:e (r&visi&n in t5e A!t !&n!erne$ %&r t5e stat"t&r8 instr"ment t& 32

'e !&n%irme$ '8 a “positive! resolution &r “negative! resolution &%  C&n/ress. T5ere is as& a (res"m(ti&n a/ainst t5e C&n/ress $ee/atin/ its (&9er t& re(ea its &9n stat"tes6 even 95ere t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n 5as a(se$ t5r&"/5 &'s&es!en!e
T5e (rin!i(e &% JN& Ta,ati&n it5&"t Re(resentati&nK is a %"n$amenta (rin!i(e &% $em&!ra!8 /r&"n$e$ in t5e $&!trine &% t5e Jse(arati&n &%  (&9ersK. It a((ies e7"a8 at t5e nati&na an$ &!a /&vernment eve.  At5&"/5 it is n&t e,(ress8 9ritten int& &"r C&nstit"ti&n6 it is a 9eesta'is5e$ an$ 9i$e8 re!&/ni@e$ (rin!i(e in a !&"ntries $erivin/ t5eir  !&nstit"ti&na tra$iti&ns %r&m t5e (ariamentar8 m&$e &% $em&!ra!8
?4

&(3

P+,./0  @,&, 8 P+&/, 0,& 09,+

N& stat"t&r8 instr"ment !an im(&se !rimina &r !ivi ia'iit8 "(&n a (ers&n "ness t5e im(&siti&n an$ t5e e,tent &% t5e im(&siti&n is s(e!i%i!a8 a"t5&ri@e$ '8 t5e ena'in/ A!t. 8.4 Presumption against delegation of Congress’s power to abridge individual rights

 A&9a'e $er&/ati&ns %r&m t5e ri/5ts an$ %ree$&ms &% in$ivi$"as t5at are ens5rine$ in t5e Bi &% Ri/5ts m"st 'e s(et &"t in t5e stat"te itse% an$ n&t e%t t& 'e $etermine$ '8 a Presi$ent &r &t5er &%%i!ia &r $ee/ate$ a9ma:er '8 stat"t&r8 instr"ment6 general notie &r a$ministrative a!ti&n. &(5 P+,./0  @,&, 8 C+, 09,+  ,<,/0 > 0,+ + & 8 0,+ 8+/ /0&, 9:  &9

S"!5 e,em(ti&ns an$ t5e e,tent t& &r !ir!"mstan!es "n$er 95i!5 t5e8 ma8 'e /rante$ m"st 'e s(et &"t in t5e stat"te itse% an$ n&t e%t t& 'e $etermine$ '8 a Minister &r &t5er &%%i!ia &r $ee/ate$ a9ma:er '8 stat"t&r8 instr"ment6 /enera n&ti!e &r a$ministrative a!ti&n. In a$$iti&n6 t5e a&9a'e e,em(ti&ns m"st n&t 'e s"!5 as t& !&n%i!t 9it5 t5e (res"m(ti&n in %av&r &% e7"ait8 &% treatment $is!"sse$ in Pres"m(ti&n  A.2 'e&9. &(6 P+,./0  @,&, 8 C+, 09,+  ,&+, + +,+ :, S, ,/, @/ +  @/: :,  0.=& @/

 A (&9er 'est&9in/ "(&n t5e State6 a statutor' orporation &r &t5er arm &%  t5e State a (&9er &% enar/in/ t5e State;s eminent domain  
?3

&! P+,./0  8?+ 8 ,.&> 8 +,/, 

T5is (res"m(ti&n ma8 as& 'e e,(resse$ ne/ative8 as t5e (res"m(ti&n a/ainst ar%itrar' disrimination or differentiation . T5e J(res"m(ti&n &% e7"ait8 'e%&re t5e a9K is an&t5er (&sitive 9a8 &% $es!ri'in/ it.T5e a9ma:er is (res"me$ t& inten$ t& treat ever8&ne a%%e!te$ '8 its a9s &n t5e 'asis &% e7"ait8. A (ers&ns are e7"a8 ia'e t& t5e &'i/ati&ns im(&se$ &r ri/5ts !&n%erre$ '8 stat"te. T5is (res"m(ti&n is rein%&r!e$ '8 t5e a96 95i!5 (r&5i'its $is!riminati&n &n t5e /r&"n$s &% ra!e6 tri'e6 (a!e &% &ri/in6 (&iti!a &(ini&ns6 !&&r6 !ree$6 (58si!a $isa'iit86 se, &r /en$er. I% a a9 (r&(&ses t& $is!riminate &n an8 &% t5ese /r&"n$s6 t5e $is!riminat&r8 (r&visi&n m"st %a "n$er &ne &% t5e $er&/ati&ns %r&m t5is sa%e/"ar$. One &% t5ese $er&/ati&ns is t5at affirmative disrimination  &n t5e 'asis &% se, an$ ra!e is (ermissi'e t& re$ress (ast $is!riminat&r8 a9s an$ (ra!ti!es. &1# P+,./0  +,+0,?> 

O'servan!e &% t5e (res"m(ti&n a/ainst retrospetivit'   is a %"n$amenta (rin!i(e &% &"r a9. S& %ar as (&ssi'e6 e/isati&n s5&"$ n&t 'e /iven retr&s(e!tive e%%e!t. JIt is 9r&n/ in (rin!i(e t& !5an/e t5e !5ara!ter &% (ast a!ts an$ transa!ti&ns 95i!5 9ere vai$8 !arrie$ &"t "(&n t5e 'asis &% t5e t5en e,istin/ a9.K I% t5e a9ma:er inten$s an ena!tment t& 5ave retr&s(e!tive e%%e!t6 t5en t5at m"st 'e state$ e,(ress8 an$ !ear8 in t5e ena!tment. *&9ever6 penal provisions !an never 'e /iven retr&s(e!tive e%%e!t6 even '8 C&n/ress itse%. In re/ar$ t& su%ordinate legislation 6 &n8 C&n/ress 5as t5e (&9er t& e/isate retr&s(e!tive8 &r t& a"t5&ri@e retr&s(e!tive e/isati&n6 s& t5at retr&s(e!tive &(erati&n &% t5e (r&visi&ns &% s"'si$iar8 e/isati&n is never t& 'e !&"ntenan!e$ "ness s(e!i%i!a8 a"t5&ri@e$ '8 t5e A!t "n$er 95i!5 t5e s"'si$iar8 e/isati&n is ma$e.  An e,!e(ti&n t& t5e /enera (res"m(ti&n a/ainst retr&s(e!tivit8 is t5at aterati&ns in t5e %&rm &% (r&!e$"re !an &(erate retr&s(e!tive8 "ness t5ere is s&me /&&$ reas&n 958 t5e8 s5&"$ n&t. en0s 6onstrution v Bim%a%we /efene 1448 (1" B7 $4 (*". 6 =. Pres"m(ti&n a/ainst retr&s(e!tive e/isati&n

In t5e a'sen!e &% e,(resse$ (r&visi&n6 t& t5e !&ntrar8 n& stat"te is (res"me$ t& &(erate retr&s(e!tive8. T5e e/isat&r is (res"me$ t& e/isate &n8 %&r t5e %"t"re. ??

&11 P+,./0  0+,.@ ?,,@ +:

S&me95at reate$ t& t5e %&re/&in/ (res"m(ti&n is t5e (res"m(ti&n a/ainst inter%erin/ 9it5 e,istin/ ri/5ts. Man86 (er5a(s m&st6ne9 stat"tes inter%ere in s&me 9a8 &r an&t5er 9it5 e,istin/ ri/5ts. In &r$er %&r t5e inter%eren!e 9it5 e,istin/ &r vested rights t& 'e a9%" 3t5e inter%eren!e &r t5e a"t5&rit8 t& inter%ere is im(&se$ '8 C&n/ress itse%  t5r&"/5 its an$ ?T5e e,tent &% t5e inter%eren!e is (res!ri'e$ '8 t5e A!t &% C&n/ress &r6 i%  (res!ri'e$ '8 a $ee/ate$ a9ma:er6 t5e imits 9it5in 95i!5 t5e $ee/ate$ a9ma:er ma8 inter%ere m"st 'e $e%ine$ '8 t5e A!t an$ t5e nat"re &% t5e (res!ri'e$ inter%eren!e m"st 'e !ear an$ "nam'i/"&"s an$ 4t5e a((i!ati&n &% t5e stat"te;s re7"irements m"st 'e e,(ress8 e,ten$e$ t& t5&se 95&se e,istin/ &r veste$ ri/5ts 9i 'e a%%e!te$6 &r at east m"st 'e neessaril' impliit . F&r e,am(e6 a stat"te t5at re7"ires a 5&tes t& 'e re/istere$ 95i!5 is ena!te$ in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 !&n$iti&n 3 ma8 e!t t& t5e %"%iment &% !&n$iti&ns  an$ #= a9%"8 inter%ere 9it5 an e,istin/ 5&te-:ee(er;s ri/5t t& !&ntin"e t& &(erate 9it5&"t an8 %&rmait8 &% re/istrati&n &r &t5er inter%eren!e '8 t5e State. T5at is t& sa86 t5e stat"te;s re7"irements are !ear an$ "nam'i/"&"s
?

&12 P+,./0  .% +,+ + ,&+ :, .+@ 8 :, .+ &12(1 G,,+& 0+,./0  . + +,+ :,  .+@ 8 :, .0,++ .+ 8 :,+, .+@

It is im(&ssi'e "n$er &"r !&nstit"ti&na s8stem t& entire8 &"st t5e  >"ris$i!ti&n &% t5e ourts of inherent ,urisdition  "ris$i!ti&n "n$er t5e C&nstit"ti&n t& 5ear t5e a((i!ati&n &% an8 (ers&n 95& ae/es t5at t5e De!arati&n &% Ri/5ts 5as 'een6 is 'ein/ &r is i:e8 t& 'e6 !&ntravene$ in reati&n t& 5im &r 5er. *&9ever6 it is (&ssi'e '8 means &% (rimar8 e/isati&n t& $ea8 &r 7"ai%8 t5e &(erati&n &% t5e in5erent >"ris$i!ti&n &%  t5e s"(eri&r !&"rts '8 &ne &r '&t5 &% t9& means6 name86 assignment of  exlusive original ,urisdition over ertain matters to ertain authorities or  inferior ourts or tri%unals an$ disallowing appeals on the merits of the ase 
Pres"m(ti&n t5at stat"tes s5&"$ n&t 'e !&nstr"e$ s& as t& &"st t5e  >"ris$i!ti&n &% s"(eri&r !&"rts.

In &r$er t& &"st t5e >"ris$i!ti&n &% t5e !&"rt &% a96 it m"st 'e !ear t5at s"!5 9as t5e intenti&n &% t5e e/isat"re. In a !&nstit"ti&na $em&!ra!8 i:e P5ii((ines6 t5e (res"m(ti&n 5as itte reevan!e. T5e C&nstit"ti&n (r&vi$es ever8 (ers&n t& t5e (r&te!ti&n &% t5e a9 an$ %&r an in$e(en$ent  >"$i!iar8. T5ere%&re an8 stat"te ("r(&rtin/ t& &"st >"ris$i!ti&n &% t5e !&"rt 9i 'e $e!are$ "n!&nstit"ti&na.

F"rt5er6 &"r !&"rts are a !reat"res &% stat"tes. &12(2 P+,./0  ,<0@ + ?+> :, .+@ 8  :, .+

C&nverse86 a$$iti&na >"ris$i!ti&n !ann&t 'e !&n%erre$ &n ourts of  limited ,urisdition e,!e(t '8 A!t &% C&n/ress. N&r !an a$$iti&na  >"ris$i!ti&n 'e !&n%erre$ &n t5e *upreme 6ourt   &r t5e &t5er A((eate 6ourts as the ase ma'%e  '8 9a8 &% '8(assin/ t5e esta'is5e$ r&"te t5at ?#

a !rimina &r !ivi !ases6 revie9s an$ a((eas m"st ta:e <%&r instan!e6 '8 e/isatin/ t5at an8 s(e!i%i! !ass &% !ases6 a((eas &r revie9s m"st '8(ass t5e A((eate C&"rts an$ (r&!ee$ $ire!t8 t& t5e S"(reme C&"rt6 &r t5at a matter &r$inari8 9it5in t5e >"ris$i!ti&n &% a ma/istrates !&"rt m"st &ri/inate in t5e A((eate C&"rts=6 e,!e(t '8 e,(ress an$ "nam'i/"&"s (r&visi&n in an A!t &% C&n/ress. &12(3 A/, 8 ,<&.?, +& .+@ ?,+ ,+ /,+  ,+ .:+, + 8,++ .+% +=.& +  ,<,.?, .:+,

E,!"sive &ri/ina >"ris$i!ti&n in res(e!t &% !ertain matters &% a !ivi nat"re ma8 'e assi/ne$ t& speial ourts <%&r instan!e6 t5e La'&r C&"rt 5as e,!"sive &ri/ina >"ris$i!ti&n &ver a a'&r matters=6 &r t& an esta'is5e$ !&"rt &% imite$ >"ris$i!ti&n 95i!5 &r$inari8 9&"$ n&t 5ave 5a$ t5e >"ris$i!ti&n t& a$>"$i!ate t5at matter &r even t& an e,e!"tive a"t5&rit8 <%&r instan!e6 a Minister6 &%%i!ia &r stat"t&r8 '&$8=6 '"t s"!5  >"ris$i!ti&n m"st 'e s(e!ia8 !&n%erre$ '8 A!t &% C&n/ress6 an$ t5e s!&(e &% t5e >"ris$i!ti&n &% s"!5 a !&"rt &r a"t5&rit8 m"st 'e state$ in t5e A!t in (re!ise an$ "nam'i/"&"s terms. T5e assi/nment &% s"!5 &ri/ina  >"ris$i!ti&n !ann&t $er&/ate %r&m t5e %ina a((eate >"ris$i!ti&n &% t5e S"(reme C&"rt6 n&r %r&m t5e "timate revie9 >"ris$i!ti&n &% t5e *i/5 C&"rt. it5 res(e!t t& t5e atter6 t5e *i/5 C&"rt6 in reati&n t& matters n&t !&nne!te$ 9it5 t5e De!arati&n &% Ri/5ts6 5as "n$er t5e !&mm&n a9 inherent review ,urisdition t& revie9 t5e e,er!ise &% an8 stat"t&r86 a$ministrative6 >"$i!ia &r &t5er &%%i!ia a!ti&n &n t5e grounds of review  set in se!ti&n. 3T5e a'sen!e &% >"ris$i!ti&n &n t5e (art &% t5e !&"rt6 tri'"na &r a"t5&rit8 !&n!erne$ ?Interest in t5e !a"se6 'ias6 mai!e &r !&rr"(ti&n &n t5e (art &% t5e (ers&n (resi$in/ &ver t5e !&"rt &r tri'"na !&n!erne$ &r &n t5e (art &% t5e a"t5&rit8 !&n!erne$ Gr&ss irre/"arit8 in t5e (r&!ee$in/s &r t5e $e!isi&n &% t5e !&"rt6 tri'"na &r a"t5&rit8 !&n!erne$. T5e (&9er &% revie9 &n t5e /r&"n$s a'&ve &"tine$ !ann&t 'e &"ste$ '8 an8 stat"te. &12(4 D&&9 00,&  :, /,+ 8  ,

It is (&ssi'e '8 A!t &% C&n/ress t& e/isate t5at a $e!isi&n &% a s(e!ia !&"rt6 !&"rt &% imite$ >"ris$i!ti&n &r e,e!"tive a"t5&rit8 is J%inaK in t5e sense t5at t5e $e!isi&n is n&t s"'>e!t &n a((ea t& an a$>"$i!ati&n &%  its merits6 '"t t& s!r"tin8 &n t5e /r&"n$s &% revie9 a&ne. *&9ever6 in &r$er t& $& t5is 3T5e :in$s &% $e!isi&ns in 7"esti&n m"st 'e $es!ri'e$ in e,(ress an$ "nam'i/"&"s terms in an A!t &% C&n/ress an$ 2T5e A!t &% C&n/ress m"st ens"re t5at due proess  is &'serve$ in arrivin/ at t5e $e!isi&n an$

?)

It m"st 'e e,(ress8 &r im(i!it8 !ear %r&m t5e A!t &% Cin/ress t5at a revie9 &% t5e $e!isi&n in 7"esti&n is n&t e,!"$e$ an$ 4Es(e!ia8 in t5e !ase 95ere an e,e!"tive a"t5&rit8 ma:es t5e $e!isi&n6 gross unreasona%leness of the deision m"st 'e a&9e$ as an a$$iti&na /r&"n$ %&r revie9in/ t5e $e!isi&n in 7"esti&n. 5P+,./0 +,&  :, ,<,+, 8 .+> 09,+

T5e (res"m(ti&n t5at stat"t&r8 (&9ers m"st 'e e,er!ise$ reas&na'8 ;13(1 P+,./0 ,,+&&> 



@,&,

8

.+>

8.

5ere C&n/ress '8 stat"te 5as assi/ne$ t5e e,er!ise &% s(e!i%ie$ %"n!ti&ns6 (&9ers an$ $"ties t& a s(e!i%ie$ &%%i!ia6 t5at &%%i!ia a&ne m"st e,er!ise t5&se %"n!ti&ns e,!e(t t& t5e e,tent t5at C&n/ress in t5e same stat"te a&9s t5e &%%i!ia t& $ee/ate t5e same t& an&t5er (ers&n. T5is (rin!i(e is em'&$ie$ in t5e Latin ma,im delegatus non potestdelegare
5ere Pariament 5as $ee/ate$ t& a (ers&n &r '&$8 t5e (&9er t& ma:e re/"ati&ns6 '8-a9s6 r"es6 et!. s"!5 (ers&n &r '&$8 m"st n&t $ee/ate t5e e,er!ise &% t5at (&9er t& an&t5er (ers&n &r a"t5&rit86 &r6 at an8 rate6 m"st e,(ress8 a((r&ve t5e re/"ati&ns6 '8-a9s6 r"es6 et!. 'e%&re t5e8 !&me int& %&r!e. & 13(3 P+,./0 :% .+> 09,+% &.@ :, ,<,+, 8   +,.& / 09,+% /. =, ,<,+,@ intra-vires :, ,=& .,

T5is (res"m(ti&n !ann&t 'e &vert"rne$. A (r&visi&n &% s"'si$iar8 e/isati&n
?

• A

(&9er t& raise reven"e is n&t t& 'e (res"me$6 s& %&r e,am(e a loal authorit'   t5at 5as (&9er t& !a"se anima !ar!asses t& 'e ins(e!te$ $&es n&t6 in t5e a'sen!e &% a"t5&rit86 5ave (&9er t& !5ar/e a %ee %&r ins(e!ti&n. A (&9er t& im(&se (enaties is n&t t& 'e (res"me$ 8,, @  : .+> 8,, :.&@ =, +,=&,

 A (&9er t& ev8 %ees %&r servi!es (r&vi$e$ "n$er a stat"te m"st 'e e,(ress6 an$ t5e %ees t5emseves s5&"$ 'e (res!ri'e$ '8 stat"t&r8 instr"ment an$ n&t 'e e,!essive6 t5at is t& sa86 m"st n&t in!&r(&rate an8 eement &% (r&%it. T5e re7"irement &% reas&na'eness as t& t5e eve &%  stat"t&r8 %ees is ne!essitate$ '8 t5e %a!t t5at t5e G&vernment &%ten 5as a m&n&(&8 &ver t5e servi!es t5at it (r&vi$es t& t5e ("'i!. &14 P+,./0 +,&  88,, @ 0,&, &14(1 P+,./0  @.=8.& 0,& @  8?+ 8 :, &=,+> 8 @?@.& 

JN&'&$8 s"%%ers a $etriment '8 t5e a((i!ati&n &% a $&"'t%" <(ena= a9K. T5is (res"m(ti&n is t5e ne/ative e,(ressi&n &% t5e (&sitive (res"m(ti&n in %av&r &% t5e i'ert8 &% t5e in$ivi$"a in a $em&!rati! s&!iet8. It is as& a restatement in $i%%erent terms &% t5e (rin!i(e &% nulla poene sine lege 6 t5at n& (ers&n;s i%e6 %ree$&m &r (r&(ert8 ma8 'e ("t in >e&(ar$8 e,!e(t "n$er t5e !ear terms &% a a9 t5at e,iste$ at t5e time t5e ae/e$ &%%en!e 9as !&mmitte$. F&r t5is reas&n6 (ena stat"tes 9i 'e ver8 stri!t8 ?0

!&nstr"e$. It is am&st im(&ssi'e t& se!"re a !&nvi!ti&n %&r an &%%en!e 95i!5 is va/"e8 %rame$. T5e !riteria %&r av&i$in/ t5e (res"m(ti&n are set &"t in :ullins v. /istrit Audge >arnett and thers 1443G#$) A  3T5ere m"st 'e e,(ress an/"a/e %&r t5e !reati&n &% an &%%ense ?&r$s settin/ &"t t5e &%%ense m"st 'e stri!t8 inter(rete$ F"%iment &% t5e etter &% t5e stat"t&r8 !&n$iti&ns (re!e$ent t& t5e in%i!ti&n &% its ("nis5ment is re7"ire$. #T5ere m"st 'e insisten!e &n a stri!t &'servan!e &% te!5ni!a (r&visi&ns !&n!ernin/ !rimina (r&!e$"re an$ >"ris$i!ti&n &14(2 P+,./0  0.:/, 8+ 88,, 9:. 0++  ?

T5e mere (res!ri(ti&n '8 a9 t5at s(e!i%ie$ !&n$"!t is !rimina $&es n&t s"%%i!e t& ("t a (ers&n;s i%e6 %ree$&m &r (r&(ert8 in >e&(ar$8 a (ers&n ma8 &n8 'e $e(rive$ &% t5ese t5in/s a%ter due proess of law 6 t5at is6 a%ter tria an$ !&nvi!ti&n '8 a !&"rt &% a9 in 95i!5 t5e !ase a/ainst t5e a!!"se$ (ers&n is (r&ve$ 'e8&n$ a reas&na'e $&"'t. See in t5is res(e!t item . &% t5e Dra%tin/ O%%i!e Man"a. & 1 4(3 P+,./0 : mens rea   +,.+,/, 8+ +/& &=&>

T5is means t5at t5ere is an unassaila%le presumption a/ainst im(&sin/ a%solute lia%ilit' in !rimina !ases6 i.e. ia'iit8 even 95ere t5e a!!"se$ (ers&n !an (r&ve an8 &r a &% t5e %&&9in/ !ir!"mstan!es e!t 9&"$ 'e $e%eate$ i% (r&&% &% a menta eement 9ere t& 'e re7"ire$ an$ t5e (enat8 %&r t5e &%%ense is n&t man$at&r8 im(ris&nment &r  im(ris&nment 9it5&"t t5e &(ti&n &% a %ine.

?1

Nevert5eess6 in $e%eren!e t& t5e (rin!i(e a/ainst $&"'t%" (enai@ati&n6 $ra%ters m"st n&t t& a&9 s& im(&rtant a matter t& 'e 5&sta/e t& >"$i!ia inter(retati&n. I% t5e e/isat&r inten$s t& !reate a stri!t ia'iit8 &%%ense6 t5is m"st 'e ma$e !ear '8 t5e "se &% e,(ress 9&r$s !&ntaine$ in a (r&visi&n s"!5 as t5e %&&9in/ •in

a ase e!t matter &% t5e &%%ense6 %&r  e,am(e 95ere t5e (r&5i'iti&n reates t& a /rave s&!ia $an/er &r matter  &% ("'i! !&n!ern is ess i:e8 t& 'e re'"tte$ 95ere t5ere is itte evi$en!e t5at t5e im(&siti&n &% stri!t ia'iit8 9i 5e( t& a!5ieve t5e aims an$ &'>e!tives &% t5e e/isati&n. Pres"m(ti&n &% Intent means a (ermissive (res"m(ti&n t5at a !rimina $e%en$ant 95& inten$e$ t& !&mmit an a!t $i$ t5e a!t. F&r e,am(e6 95ere a $e%en$ant a&n/ 9it5 t9& !&$e%en$ants 9as %&"n$ /"it8 &% %e&ni&"s (&ssessi&n &% '"r/ari&"s t&&s an$ im(ements 9it5 intent t& !&mmit a %e&n86 !&nvi!ti&n 9i 'e im(&se$ &n n& (r&&% &% a !rime &r an attem(t t& !&mmit a !rime. T5ere%&re6 t5e !&"rts vie9 t5at n& (r&&% &% a !rime &r an

?2

attem(t t& !&mmit a !rime 9as ne!essar8 9as (r&!aime$ &n a stat"t&r8 (res"m(ti&n &% intent t& !&mmit a %e&n8. &14(4 P+,./0  +,?,+ :, . 8 0+8  +/& ,

T5is (res"m(ti&n
Dra%ters m"st en$eav&r t& ens"re t5at t5e ma,im"m (enat8 %&r an8 &%%ense "sti%8 s"!5 (enat86 an a((eate !&"rt 9i m&st i:e8 %in$ s"!5 a senten!e t& 'e in vi&ati&n &% se!ti&n 3)<3= &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 95i!5 'ans Jin5"man &r $e/ra$in/ ("nis5mentK see Dennet v  :nangagwa N F rs 255) (1" B7 218 (*" . &14(6 P+,./0  /@+> 0,&, :andator' penalties  ma8 &%%en$ a/ainst t5e $&!trine &% t5e se(arati&n &% 

(&9ers i% t5e8 !&m(ete8 rem&ve %r&m t5e >"$i!iar8 t5e (&9er t& e,er!ise a $is!reti&n &n t5e im(&siti&n &% (enaties *&9ever6 t5is (res"m(ti&n

4

!an 'e &vert"rne$ '8 stat"te "n$er !ertain s(e!i%ie$ !&n$iti&ns see * v   -ra% 1445 (1" B7 2&#. & 1 4(7 P+,./0  @.=&, 0,& 8+ :, /, a!t"s re"s See *tate v +a%riel 1435 7 2&1 . T5is (res"m(ti&n is as& :n&9n as t5e (rin!i(e a/ainst dou%le ,eopard' 6 95i!5 states t5at n& (ers&n s5a 'e in >e&(ar$8 &% 'ein/ trie$ %&r an$ !&nvi!te$ &% t5e same &%%ense m&re t5an &n!e. *&9ever6 !ivi ia'iit8 is n&t e,!"$e$ '8 t5e (enai@ati&n &%  t5e same atus reus. &14( P+,./0 : +/& 0,&, +,  =+  ?&  +,/,@, + @0&+> 0+,,@

T5e im(&siti&n &% a stat"t&r8 !rimina (enat8 %&r an &%%ense s5a n&t 'e !&nstr"e$ t& $e(rive an in>"re$ (ers&n &% t5e ri/5t t& re!&ver %r&m t5e &%%en$er !ivi $ama/es s"staine$ '8 reas&n &% t5e &%%ense. Simiar86 i% t5e &%%en$er is a mem'er &% a disiplined fore  &r a stat"t&r8 (r&%essi&na '&$8 95i!5 as& ("nis5es t5e a!t %&r 95i!5 t5e &%%en$er 5as 'een !&nvi!te$6 s"!5 !&nvi!ti&n is n& 'ar t& (r&!ee$in/s '8 t5e %&r!e &r '&$8 in 7"esti&n. T5is (res"m(ti&n 5&$s even 95ere t5e &%%en$er is a!7"itte$ '8 t5e !rimina !&"rt6 'e!a"se t5e degree of proof   is $i%%erent in t5e !ivi !&"rt &r $is!i(inar8 a"t5&rit8 i.e. (r&&% &n a 'aan!e &% (r&'a'iities. Pres"m(ti&n t5at 95en a (ers&n is $e(rive$ &% 5is (r&(ert86 !&m(ensati&n 9i 'e (ai$ 5en a stat"te $e(rives a (ers&n &% (r&(ert86 t5ere is a (res"m(ti&n t5at !&m(ensati&n 9i 'e (ai$. Uness s& state$ it is (res"me$ t5at an A!t $&es n&t inter%ere 9it5 ri/5ts &ver (rivate (r&(ert8.  As state$ in Arti!e 30 &% t5e Universa De!arati&n &% *"man Ri/5ts
3

&14(! P+,./0 : 09,+ 8 ,+: @ @,, 8 0,+ @ 0+0,+>  =, ,<,+,@ .@,+ 9++ 

5ere an ena!tment !&n%ers a (&9er &n t5e (&i!e &r an8 &t5er &%%i!ia t& enter an$ sear!5 (remises &r t& sear!5 (ers&ns6 &r t& sei@e an8 t5in/6 $&!"ment &r arti!e %&"n$ $"rin/ t5e sear!56 &r t& arrest &r $etain (ers&ns6 it is t& 'e (res"me$
5ere an ena!tment !&n%ers a (&9er &n t5e (&i!e &r an8 &t5er &%%i!ia t& 7"esti&n an8 (ers&n6 95et5er in t5e !&"rse &% an a"t5&ri@e$ sear!5 &% a (remises &r a%ter t5e $etenti&n &% a (ers&n &r $"rin/ a  pu%li hearing  &r  &t5er %&rma in7"ir86 t5e  privilege against selfinrimination an$ t5e (rivie/e a/ainst $is!&s"re &% inter-s(&"sa an$ att&rne8-!ient !&mm"ni!ati&ns ma8 'e s"!!ess%"8 inv&:e$ '8 t5e (ers&n s"'>e!te$ t& 7"esti&nin/6 even 95ere t5e stat"te e,(ress8 (enai@es t5e re%"sa t& ans9er an8 7"esti&ns6 "ness t5e stat"te as& e,(ress8 e,!"$es s"!5 (rivie/es. *&9ever6 t5e e/isat"re s5&"$ never e,!"$e s"!5 (rivie/es e,!e(t &n !&m(ein/ ("'i! (&i!8 /r&"n$s <95i!5 m"st 'e >"sti%ie$ '8 re%eren!e t& an8 &ne &r m&re &% t5e deroga%le grounds a&9e$ '8 t5e Bi &% Ri/5ts6 t5at is6 t5e interests &% $e%ense6 ("'i! sa%et86 ("'i! 5eat56 ("'i! m&ras &r ("'i! &r$er &r &n s&me &t5er s(e!i%ie$ $er&/a'e /r&"n$ a&9e$ '8 t5e Bi &% Ri/5ts=. Even t5en6 it is 7"esti&na'e 95et5er evi$en!e &'taine$ t5r&"/5 t5e stat"t&r8 e,!"si&n &% t5e (rivie/e a/ainst se%-in!riminati&n !an 'e "se$ in a !rimina tria &% t5e (ers&n 95& ans9ere$ an8 7"esti&ns t& 5is &r 5er (ers&na (re>"$i!e. &14(11 P+,./0  //.> 8+/ 0+,.(

C&m(ete an$ "n7"ai%ie$ im("nit8 is !&ntrar8 t& ("'i! (&i!8 an$ !ann&t 'e !&"ntenan!e$. A!!&r$in/86 immunit'   %r&m !rimina (r&se!"ti&n 9i never 'e in%erre$ '8 t5e !&"rts. S"!5 an imm"nit8 !an &n8 'e ae/isate$ '8 A!t &% C&n/ress in t5e %&rm &%  ba Jstat"t&r8 amnest' K
?

!a Jstat"t&r8 imm"nit8K (r&(er8 s&-!ae$ "$i!ate$ in a !rimina !&"rt an$ reate t& (ast a!ts &n86 n&t %"t"re &nes e!te$ t& t5e e,!"sive !&nstit"ti&na $is!reti&n t& (r&se!"te s"!5 !&n$"!t an$ )'e "n!&n$iti&na6 t5at is6 t5e amnest8 m"st n&t 'e $e(en$ent &n t5e 'ene%i!iar8 $&in/ !ertain t5in/s in t5e %"t"re in &r$er t& 7"ai%8 %&r t5e Jamnest8K. a Cemen!8 Or$er ma8 'e "n!&n$iti&na &r !&n$iti&na6 t5at is6 t5e Presi$entia amnest8 ma8 $e(en$ &n t5e 'ene%i!iar8 $&in/ !ertain t5in/s in t5e %"t"re in &r$er t& 7"ai%8 %&r t5e amnest8 &r (ar$&n t5is is 'e!a"se6 at5&"/5 s"!5 !&n$iti&nait8 ma8 ren$er t5e amnestie$ !&n$"!t (&tentia8 !rimina6 t5e Presi$entia (rer&/ative &% mer!8 &verri$es t5e e,!"sive !&nstit"ti&na $is!reti&n t& instit"te !rimina (r&!ee$in/s at an8 sta/e. %&r t5e same reas&n6 a Cemen!8 Or$er $&es n&t nee$ t& 'e s& %rame$ t5at t5e amnestie$ !&n$"!t is $eeme$ t& 'e n&t !rimina.  A stat"t&r8 imm"nit8 !&verin/ (r&s(e!tive as 9e as retr&s(e!tive !rimina a!ts6 &r (r&s(e!tive !rimina a!ts &n86 ma8 &n8 'e e/isate$ i%  3!&n$iti&ns 36 # an$ ) a'&ve reatin/ t& a stat"t&r8 amnest8 are met it $&es n&t reate t& !&n$"!t area$8 a$>"$i!ate$ in a !rimina !&"rt an$ ?m"st 'e imite$ t& !ases 95ere t5e a!t &r &missi&n !&nstit"tin/ an essentia eement &% t5e &%%ense in 7"esti&n 9as $&ne Jin /&&$ %ait5K an$ J%&r t5e ("r(&ses &% &r in !&nne!ti&n 9it5K s&me s(e!i%ie$ en$ m"st never entire8 e,!"$e t5e (&ssi'iit8 &% re!&"rse t& t5e !ivi !&"rts &n t5e (art &% an8 (ers&n 95& 5as s"%%ere$ a !ivi 9r&n/ as a res"t &%  t5e imm"ni@e$ a!ti&n "sti%ie$ is 95ere 5eat5 9&r:ers are 

/rante$ an imm"nit8 a/ainst !5ar/es &% assa"t &r "na9%" $etenti&n in &r$er t& 7"arantine an$ va!!inate (e&(e $"rin/ an &n/&in/ me$i!a emer/en!8=6 t5e imm"nit8 )m"st never 'e /rante$ %&r !rimes 95i!5 '8 t5eir nat"re &r '8 t5e r"es &% internati&na !"st&mar8 a9 it 9&"$ 'e in!&n!eiva'e t& imm"ni@e an8&ne a/ainst6 s"!5 as se,"a !rimes6 /en&!i$e6 saver8 an$ t&rt"re s5&"$ $esira'8 'e !ir!"ms!ri'e$ '8 a Js"nset !a"seK6 a&9in/ t5e Presi$ent '8 stat"t&r8 instr"ment &r Pariament '8 a s(e!ia res&"ti&n <&r (re%era'8 eit5er t5e Presi$ent &r Pariament= t& terminate t5e imm"nit8 9it5&"t %"rt5er a$&. In a$$iti&n6 $ra%ters 95& are instr"!te$ t& $ra%t stat"t&r8 amnest8 &r  stat"t&r8 imm"nit8 (r&visi&ns m"st satis%8 t5emseves t5at  3t5e amnest8 &r imm"nit8 s&"/5t is >"sti%ie$ '8 !&"ntervaiin/ ("'i! (&i!8 !&nsi$erati&ns t5at are a((i!a'e t& t5e !ase in 7"esti&n an$ ?t5e !&"ntervaiin/ ("'i! (&i!8 !&nsi$erati&ns are >"sti%ie$ '8 re%eren!e t& an8 &ne &r m&re &% t5e /enera $er&/ati&ns t& t5e Bi &% Ri/5ts <$e%ense6 m&rait86 ("'i! 5eat56 ("'i! &r$er6 et!.= an$ #are &t5er9ise reas&na'8 >"sti%ia'e in a $em&!rati! s&!iet8. &14(12 P+,./0 =. :, 0+,. @ 0.:/, 8  +0+, =@,

5ere a !&r(&rate '&$8 is (r&se!"te$ %&r a !rimina &%%ense 1t5e $ire!t&rs &% t5at '&$8 m"st 'e !ite$ t&/et5er 9it5 t5at !&r(&rate '&$8 in t5e inditment  ?5&9ever6 t5e $ire!t&rs &r em(&8ees t5"s !ite$ are (res"me$ t& 'e a!tin/ in a re(resentative !a(a!it8 &n8 &n 'e5a% &% t5e !&r(&rate '&$86 an$ a!!&r$in/8 !ann&t 'e ("nis5e$ in t5eir (ers&na !a(a!ities6 an$ in (arti!"ar !ann&t 'e im(ris&ne$6 n&r %ine$ in a$$iti&n t& an8 %ine im(&se$ &n t5e !&r(&rate '&$8. At5&"/5 t5e Crimina La9 C&$e s&"/5t t& &vert"rn t5is (res"m(ti&n '8 im("tin/ t5e J!&n$"!t; an$ Jintenti&nK &% t5e !&r(&rate '&$8 t& ever8 $ire!t&r &r em(&8ee a!t"a8 res(&nsi'e %&r t5at !&n$"!t &r a!t"a8 %&rmin/ t5at intenti&n s5a 'e ia'e t& 'e (r&se!"te$ an$ ("nis5e$ (ers&na8 %&r t5e !rime !&n!erne$K=6 t5is /enera (r&visi&n r"ns !&"nter t& t5e t5e (res"m(ti&n &% inn&!en!e6 t5e (res"m(ti&n in %av&r &% i'ert8 <(res"m(ti&n ) a'&ve= an$ a/ainst $&"'t%" (enai@ati&n <'e!a"se in man8 instan!es t5e $ire!t&rs &r em(&8ees 9i 'e a!tin/ in t5e interests &% t5e !&r(&rate '&$86 n&t t5eir (ers&na interests6 see (res"m(ti&n 3#.3 a'&ve= a!!&r$in/8 t5e !&"rts 9i 'e re"!tant t& ("nis5 in t5eir (ers&na !a(a!ities $ire!t&rs an$ em(&8ees 95& are !ite$ in t5e in$i!tment &% a !&r(&rate '&$8. T5ere ma8 'e /&&$ ("'i! (&i!8 /r&"n$s %&r 5&$in/ t5e $ire!t&rs &% a !&r(&rate '&$8 >&int8 an$ (ers&na8 ia'e %&r t5e &%%enses &% t5e !&r(&rate '&$86 '"t s"!5 #

ia'iit8 m"st never 'e ass"me$ '8 im(i!ati&n in an ena!tment.  A!!&r$in/86 95ere t5e $ra%ter is satis%ie$ t5at s"!5 ("'i! (&i!8 /r&"n$s e,ist6 5e &r s5e m"st e,(ress8 (r&vi$e %&r t5e ("nis5ment &%  t5e $ire!t&rs in 7"esti&n in t5eir (ers&na !a(a!ities6 95et5er  aternative8 &r a$$iti&na8 t& t5e ("nis5ment &% t5e !&r(&rate '&$8 itse%. Even in s"!5 !ases6 5&9ever6 a t5e ena!tment m"st e,(ress8 a&9 a $e%ense t& in$ivi$"a $ire!t&rs <&r em(&8ees= t& t5e e%%e!t t5at Ji% a $ire!t&r <&r em(&8ee= &% t5e !&r(&rate '&$8 t&&: n& (art in t5e !&n$"!t s"'>e!t t& (r&se!"ti&n =+,:,

8

88,,

@ 

Stat"t&r8 (r&visi&ns t5at /rant a (&9er t& an &%%i!ia t& J!&m(&"n$K an &%%ense (&tentia8 &%%en$ a/ainst %&"r %"n$amenta (rin!i(es T5e %"n$amenta !&nstit"ti&na ri/5t &% ever8 (ers&n t& 5ave t5e e,isten!e &r e,tent &% 5is &r 5er !ivi ri/5ts &r &'i/ati&ns $etermine$ '8 a !&"rt &r &t5er a$>"$i!atin/ a"t5&rit8 t5at is in$e(en$ent an$ im(artia T5e !&nstit"ti&na !&m(eten!e t& instit"te6 ta:e &ver &r $is!&ntin"e !rimina (r&!ee$in/s T5e %"n$amenta (rin!i(a &% nat"ra >"sti!e t5at n& &ne s5&"$ 'e a  >"$/e in 5is &r 5er &9n !a"se <'8 ma:in/ t5e &%%i!ia (r&se!"t&r  an$ >"$/e &% t5e !&m(&"n$a'e &%%ense=. S"!5 a (&9er 'est&9s "(&n an e,e!"tive 'ran!5 &%%i!ia a $is!reti&n t5at s5&"$ &r$inari8 'e e,er!ise$ '8 a !&"rt. S"!5 (r&visi&ns are (ermissi'e i% t5e a9 in 7"esti&n s(e!i%i!a8 a((ies &r a$a(ts t5e deposit fine (r&visi&ns &% t5e Crimina Pr&!e$"re an$ Evi$en!e A!t t& t5e (a8ment &% $e(&sit %ines "n$er t5e a9. T5ese (r&visi&ns anti!i(ate an8 &'>e!ti&ns 'ase$ &n t5e (rin!i(es a'&ve menti&ne$ '8 3re7"irin/ t5at t5e &%%en$er !&n!erne$ m"st 5ave ma$e an Ja$missi&n &% /"itK an$ ?ena'in/ a !&"rt &% !&m(etent !rimina >"ris$i!ti&n t& revie9 t5e (a8ment &% t5e $e(&sit %ine6 an$ em(&9er t5e !&"rt t& s"'stit"te its &9n >"$/ment in t5e matter in a((r&(riate !ases.  Aternative86 J!&m(&"n$in/K is (ermissi'e i% t5e J&%%enseK is %rame$ as a !ivi in%rin/ement &% t5e a9. T5is ena'es t5e &%%i!ia !&n!erne$ t& assess an a((r&(riate m&netar8 (enat8 n&t e,!ee$in/ a s(e!i%ie$ ma,im"m am&"nt an$ t& im(&se it 9it5 &r 9it5&"t an8 a$missi&n &% ia'iit8 &n t5e (art &% t5e &%%en$er. I% t5e ivil penalt'  is im(&se$ 9it5&"t an a$missi&n &%  ia'iit8 '8 t5e &%%en$er6 &r t5e &%%en$er a$mits ia'iit8 '"t $is("tes t5e )

am&"nt &% t5e assesse$ !ivi (enat86 t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n m"st ma:e (r&visi&n %&r a !&"rt &% !ivi >"ris$i!ti&n t& $etermine t5e ia'iit8 &r assess t5e a((r&(riate (enat86 as t5e !ase ma8 'e. Simiar &'>e!ti&ns t& t5e %&re/&in/ ma8 'e raise$ 95ere an e,e!"tive 'ran!5 &%%i!ia is en$&9e$ 9it5 t5e (&9er t& J!&n$&neK a 'rea!5 &% t5e a96 '"t t5e &'>e!ti&ns are ess seri&"s 'e!a"se in s"!5 !ases t5e &%%en$er 'ene%its %r&m t5e !&n$&nati&n '8 'ein/ a's&ve$ !&m(ete8. Nevert5eess6 !&n$&nati&n (r&visi&ns ma8 'e &(en t& a$$iti&na &'>e!ti&n t5at t5e &%%i!ia in 7"esti&n ma8 e,er!ise 5is &r 5er (&9er ar'itrari8 in %av&r &% s&me (ers&ns t& t5e e,!"si&n &% &t5ers. On t5is 7"esti&n6 'e /"i$e$ '8 item 34<5= &% t5eC5e!:ist &% S"'stantive Dra%tin/ Re7"irements. &14(14 P+,./0 =. + ,,+,@  ?& 8 :, +/& &9 

Rea$ t5is t&/et5er 9it5 Pres"m(ti&n A.?.# 'e&9. Dra%ters m"st 'e aert t& t5e (&ssi'iit8 t5at (ers&ns ma8 !&n!"$e J!&ntra!tsK "sti!e &% t5e !ase ma86 5&9ever6 (ers"a$e t5e !&"rts t& rea, t5e r"e in %av&r &% t5e (art8 see:in/ t& re!&ver t5e



t5in/. T9& ma>&r !&nsi$erati&ns 9i s9a8 t5e !&"rts in t5is $ire!ti&n6 name8 3t5e J!&ntra!tK in 7"esti&n is '8 its nat"re s& ii!it t5at ("'i! (&i!8 9i6 &n 'aan!e6 'e m&re (re>"$i!e$ '8 a&9in/ t5e (&ssess&r t& :ee( t5e t5in/ t5an '8 &r$erin/ its s"rren$er t& t5e &t5er (art8 &r  ?i% t5e J!&ntra!tK is n&t s& Jii!it t5at a !&"rt !ann&t &&: at itK6 it ma8 &r$er re!&ver8 &% t5e t5in/ t& (revent t5e (&ssess&r <95& ma8 n&t 5ave (ai$ &r $&ne an8t5in/ at a t& J5&n&rK 5is &r 5er (art &% t5e J'ar/ainK= 'ein/ J"n>"st8 enri!5e$K <&n t5e 'asis t5at6 i% t5e J!&ntra!tK is a !rime in a$$iti&n t& 'ein/ a n"it86 it 9as s"%%i!ient ("nis5ment %&r  t5e !aimant t& s"%%er t5e !rimina (enat8 9it5&"t s"%%erin/ %"rt5er &ss= T5e si/ni%i!an!e &% t5is r"e %&r $ra%ters is t5at t5e8 m"st !&nsi$er 95et5er  it is (&ssi'e t5at t5e Le/isat"re ma8 !&ntem(ate &vert"rnin/ t5is t5e a((i!ati&n &% t5is r"e in a (arti!"ar set &% !ir!"mstan!es6 es(e!ia8 i%  t5e ("'i! (&i!8 !&nsi$erati&ns it 9is5es t& a$van!e ma8 n&t 'e &'vi&"s t& t5e !&"rts "ness t5e8 are e,(resse$ in t5e stat"te itse%. See in t5is re/ar$ '8 item 34<5= &% t5e C5e!:ist &% S"'stantive Dra%tin/ Re7"irements. Stat"t&r8 Pres"m(ti&n means a re'"tta'e &r $e!isive (res"m(ti&n !reate$ '8 a stat"te. It $&es n&t s5i%t t5e '"r$en &% (r&&%. It is mere8 an evi$entiar8 r"e 95ere'8 t5e a!!"se$ m"st /& %&r9ar$ 9it5 an e,(anati&n t& re'"t t5e (ermissive (res"m(ti&n. A stat"t&r8 (res"m(ti&n !ann&t 'e s"staine$ I% t5ere 'e n& rati&na !&nne!ti&n 'et9een t5e %a!t (r&ve$ an$ t5e "timate %a!t (res"me$ &r  I% t5e in%eren!e &% t5e &ne %r&m (r&&% &% t5e &t5er is ar'itrar8 'e!a"se &%  a!: &% !&nne!ti&n 'et9een t5e t9& in !&mm&n e,(erien!e. ?M&r/an

Pres"m(ti&n is a (res"m(ti&n t5at s5i%ts t5e '"r$en &% (r&&%. It re7"ires t5at t5e (ers&n a/ainst 95&m it &(erates t& (r&$"!e s"%%i!ient evi$en!e t& &"t9ei/5 t5e evi$en!e t5at s"((&rts t5e (res"me$ %a!t. As in re7"irin/ a !rimina $e%en$ant 95& 9as arreste$ 95ie in (&ssessi&n &% an ie/a s"'stan!e. It is t5ere'8 (res"me$ t& 5ave :n&9in/8 (&ssesse$ it. T& (r&$"!e s"%%i!ient evi$en!e t& entite t5e >"r8 nee$ t& %in$ t5at t5e $e%en$ants evi$en!e &"t9ei/5s t5e evi$en!e &% :n&9in/ (&ssessi&n.

?*ee$in/

Pres"m(ti&n means a (res"m(ti&n t5at i% t5e man"%a!t"rer &% a (r&$"!t 5a$ /iven a 9arnin/ a'e t5en t5e !&ns"mer &% s"!5 (r&$"!t 9&"$ 5ave %&&9e$ t5e 9arnin/. In &t5er 9&r$s6 a 5ee$in/ (res"m(ti&n a&9s t5e %a!t-%in$er t& (res"me t5at t5e (ers&n in>"re$ '8 (r&$"!t "se 9&"$ 5ave 5ee$e$ an a$e7"ate 9arnin/6 i% /iven. T5ere%&re6 a 5ee$in/ (res"m(ti&n s5i%ts t5e '"r$en &% (r&$"!ti&n %r&m t5e (ainti%% t& t5e man"%a!t"rer6 95& m"st re'"t t5e (res"m(ti&n '8 (r&vin/ t5at t5e (ainti%% 9&"$ n&t 5ave 5ee$e$ a $i%%erent 9arnin/. It is a re'"tta'e (res"m(ti&n.

0

Pres"m(ti&n &% Inn&!en!e T5is is a (res"m(ti&n !&mm&n8 "se$ in !rimina a9. It sa8s t5at &ne is !&nsi$ere$ inn&!ent "nti (r&ven /"it8. In t5e P5ii((ines6 t5e (res"m(ti&n &%  inn&!en!e is a e/a ri/5t &% t5e a!!"se$ in a !rimina tria t5at is 958 t5e '"r$en &% (r&&% is t5"s &n t5e (r&se!"ti&n6 95i!5 5as t& !&e!t an$ (resent en&"/5 !&m(ein/ evi$en!e t& !&nvin!e t5e trier &% %a!t sin!e t5e a!!"se$ /"it m"st 'e 'ase$ &n 'e8&n$ reas&na'e $&"'t. I% reas&na'e $&"'t remains6 t5e a!!"se$ is t& 'e a!7"itte$.  A (&("ar (5rase %&r t5is (res"m(ti&n is t5e (5rase innoent until proven guilt'  95i!5 is !&ine$ '8 t5e En/is5 a98er6 Sir iiam Garr&9 <304Q31#4=. &15 P+,./0  ., @ .+,=&,,

T5e e/isat"re is (res"me$ t& 'e reas&na'e. S& 1A statute is to be construed so as to impose the least possible burden

upon those affected by it. Stat"tes t5at en!r&a!5 t5e (e&(e;s ri/5ts6 95et5er 

as re/ar$s (ers&ns &r (r&(ert86 9i 'e stri!t8 !&nstr"e$. •In re/ar$ t& (r&(ert8 ri/5ts6 t5ere is a (res"m(ti&n t5at e,(r&(riati&n s5&"$ 'e a!!&m(anie$ '8 !&m(ensati&n. I% a a9 (r&(&ses t& e,(r&(riate an8 (ers&n6 it m"st eit5er (r&vi$e %&r !&m(ensati&n in t5e manner (r&vi$e$ in t5e C&nstit"ti&n. •In re/ar$ t& ta,in/ stat"tes6 see presumption A.23.4 •In !ases &% $&"'t t5e m&st 'ene%i!ia inter(retati&n 9i 'e a$&(te$. •T5e Stat"te a96 i:e t5e !&mm&n a96 is n&t (res"me$ t& re7"ire t5e im(&ssi'e

1he right to legal representation before any ad!udicative or "uasi#!udicial

body $other than any of the established courts% is not e&cluded  "ness t5ere

is e,(ress (r&visi&n in t5e A!t &% C&n/ress t& t5at e%%e!t. *&9ever6 n& s"!5 e,!"si&n s5&"$ 'e ma$e 95ere an8 matter is t& 'e 5ear$ '8 a !&"rt &% in5erent  >"ris$i!ti&n6 &r an8 &% t5e esta'is5e$ !&"rts &% imite$ >"ris$i!ti&n. ¬Presumption

that a statute is not intended to be unreasonable or to

cause in!ustice

T5e !&rnerst&ne &% t5is (res"m(ti&n is t5e nat"ra a9 t5e&r8 t5at a9 s5&"$ 'e  >"st3. 5ere a stat"te is !ear t5e !&"rt m"st /ive e%%e!t t& t5e intenti&n &% t5e e/isat"re 5&9ever 5ars5 its &(erati&ns ma8 'e t& in$ivi$"as a%%e!te$ t5ere'8. 5ere 5&9ever t9& meanin/s ma8 'e /iven t& a se!ti&n6 an$ t5e &ne meanin/ ea$s t& 5ars5ness an$ in>"sti!e6 5ist t5e &t5er $&es n&t6 t5e !&"rt 9i 5&$ 1 Madhuku L (2010) supra

1

t5at t5e e/isat"re rat5er inten$e$ t5e mi$er t5an t5e 5ars5er meanin/. In vie9 &% t5e $&!trine &% se(arati&n &% (&9ers6 t5e (res"m(ti&n is !ear8 re'"tta'e.

his presumption is the basis of the following rules'

T5e e/isat"re is (res"me$ n&t t& 5ave inten$e$ t& $e(rive an in$ivi$"a &%  e,istin/ veste$ ri/5ts. ϖ

ϖ

Ta,ati&n an$ (ena stat"tes s5&"$ 'e stri!t8 !&nstr"e$. ¬Presumption

against (ntending what is not convenient

It is (res"me$ t5at t5e intenti&n t5at is Jm&st in a!!&r$ 9it5 !&nvenien!e6 reas&n6 >"sti!e an$ e/a (rin!i(es s5&"$6 in a !ases &% $&"'t%" si/ni%i!an!e6 'e (res"me$ t& 'e t5e tr"e &neK
T5is is a s(e!ia !ase &% t5e %&re/&in/ (res"m(ti&n. 5en an ena!tment !&n%ers 7"asi->"$i!ia (&9ers &n a (ers&n &r a"t5&rit86 &r em(&9ers s"!5 (ers&n &r a"t5&rit8 t& e,er!ise a (&9er t5at ma8 $iminis5 &r $e(rive an&t5er (ers&n;s ri/5ts6 t5en it is (res"me$ t5at t5&se (&9ers m"st 'e e,er!ise$ in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5e r"es &% nat"ra >"sti!e6 t5at is t& sa86 t5e (ers&n a%%e!te$ '8 e,er!ise &%  a stat"t&r8 (&9er  •s5&"$ re!eive (ri&r n&ti!e &% t5e a!ti&n •s5&"$ 5ave an &((&rt"nit8 t& 'e 5ear$ "sti!e  -udi alteram partem  r"e
•

'e%&re an a$verse $e!isi&n is ta:en= •Nemo ,udex  (rin!i(e "$/e in 5is &9n !a"se=

2

T5e (res"m(ti&n t5at a$ministrative tri'"nas an$ &t5er stat"t&r8 '&$ies 9i a!t in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5e (rin!i(es &% nat"ra >"sti!e. &17 P+,./0 : :, &9/,+ @,  ,@ =.+@ + /&. +,.&

T5is is a !&r&ar8 &% t5e G&$en R"e 'e&9 menti&ne$. T5is (res"m(ti&n tes t5e !&"rts t5at 95en inter(retin/ stat"tes t5e8 s5&"$ av&i$ a res"t t5at is •"n9&r:a'e &r im(&ssi'e •in!&nvenient •an&ma&"s &r i&/i!a •%"tie &r (&intess &r  •arti%i!ia.  A!!&r$in/86 i% t9& &r m&re inter(retati&ns &% a (r&visi&n are (&ssi'e6 t5e &ne ren$erin/ t5e (r&visi&n vai$ &r e%%e!tive s5&"$ 'e (re%erre$ &ver a !&m(etin/ inter(retati&n t5at res"ts in ine%%e!tiveness &r invai$it8 &r !&n%"si&n. T5e !&"rt m"st n&t6 5&9ever6 a$&(t an inter(retati&n t5at 9&"$ vi&ate a %"n$amenta (rin!i(e &% t5e !&mm&n a9  %&r e,am(e t5e (rin!i(e nullum rimen sine lege "$i!i&"s 9ei/5in/ "( &%  !&m(etin/ interests in &r$er t& ens"re t5at >"sti!e is $&ne t& t5e (arties a!!&r$in/ t& '&t5 t5e etter an$ t5e s(irit &% t5e a9. T5ere is a !&r&ar8 t& t5is (res"m(ti&n 9&r$s in a stat"te are n&t t& 'e re/ar$e$ as ta"t&&/&"s &r  meanin/ess. B"t as &ne earne$ a"t5&r sa8s JRe/retta'8  ta"t&&/8 is n&t "n!&mm&n in e/isati&n6 an$ t5e inter(reter m"st &% ne!essit8 ta:e t5is int& a!!&"nt 95en !&n%r&nte$ 9it5 (5rases &r 9&r$s t5at are in essen!e re(etiti&"s.K In as!ertainin/ t5e intenti&n &% t5e Genera Assem'8 in t5e ena!tment &% a stat"te t5e %&&9in/ (res"m(ti&ns6 am&n/ &t5ers6 ma8 'e "se$ <3= T5at t5e Genera Assem'8 $&es n&t inten$ a res"t t5at is a's"r$6 im(&ssi'e &%  e,e!"ti&n &r "nreas&na'e. e!t matter inten$s t5e same !&nstr"!ti&n t& 'e (a!e$ "(&n s"!5 an/"a/e. <)= T5at t5e Genera Assem'8 inten$s t& %av&"r t5e ("'i! interest as a/ainst an8 (rivate interest.

#4

&1 P+,./0 : :, &9   /0&,, >,/ 9:. &.,

T5e a9 is (res"me$ t& 'e a !&m(ete se%-s"%%i!ient '&$8 &% stat"t&r8 an$ !&mm&n a9 r"es. An a((arent a!"nae; m"st 'e res&ve$ in %av&"r &% veste$ &r  in$ivi$"a ri/5ts. T5"s6 i% a stat"te (r&vi$es %&r a Re/istrar t& a((r&ve a((i!ati&ns %&r !iti@ens5i( '8 re/istrati&n6 an$ t5e C&nstit"ti&n s"'se7"ent8 (r&vi$es %&r s"!5 a((i!ati&ns t& 'e a((r&ve$ '8 a !&nstit"ti&na '&$86 eavin/ t5e !&m(&siti&n an$ (r&!e$"re &% t5at '&$8 t& 'e re/"ate$ '8 an A!t &%  C&n/ress6 t5e Re/istrar ma8 !&ntin"e t& a!t as t5e a((r&vin/ a"t5&rit8 "nti s"!5 time as reevant A!t &% C&n/ress is ena!te$. &1! P+,./0 : :, &9/,+ @,  ,@  &,+ :, ,<  &9 /+, :  ,,+> 

T5is a((ies t& aterati&n &% '&t5 t5e !&mm&n a9 an$ t5e stat"te a9. S& a stat"te 9i n&t 'e (res"me$ t& 5ave amen$e$ a (revi&"s stat"te t5at is sti in %&r!e e,!e(t '8 ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n. C&mm&n a9 is a9a8s %av&"re$ '8 !&"rts "ness it is e,(ress8 &r '8 ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n &verri$$en '8 stat"te. On t5e &t5er 5an$6 in t5e event &% an8 $ire!t !&n%i!t 'et9een Stat"te an$ C&mm&n a96 Stat"te a9 a9a8s (revais.

$Presumption against the alteration of the common law more than is necessary%

In t5e a'sen!e &% !ear an/"a/e6 t5e !&"rts 9i n&t r"e t5at t5e e/isat"re inten$e$ a si/ni%i!ant $e(art"re %r&m t5e !&mm&n a9. Stat"te s5&"$ 'e !&nstr"e$ in !&n%&rmit8 9it5 t5e !&mm&n a9 rat5er t5an a/ainst it. &2# P+,./0  :, S, =, =.@ => .,

It is (res"me$ t5at t5e State is n&t '&"n$ '8 its &9n stat"tes6 s& i% t5ere is an intenti&n t5at t5e State s5&"$ 'e '&"n$ '8 an ena!tment6 t5e ena!tment m"st state s"!5 e,(ress8. T5is (res"m(ti&n is n& &n/er a((ie$ in an a's&"te sense. A!!&r$in/86 even 9it5&"t an e,(ress (r&visi&n s"'>e!tin/ t5e State t& an ena!tment6 s&me ena!tments ma8 'e inter(rete$ as 'in$in/ t5e State '8 ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n.

#3

&21 P+,./0  =&, //.> 8+/ ?& .(

C&m(ete an$ "n7"ai%ie$ imm"nit8 %r&m !ivi s"it is !&ntrar8 t& ("'i! (&i!8 an$ (&tentia8 trans/ressive &% t5e ri/5ts an$ %ree$&ms &% &t5ers. N&r !an t5e8 'e s& %rame$ as t& &"st entire8 t5e >"ris$i!ti&n &% t5e !&"rts &r t5e !&nstit"ti&na8 /"arantee$ ri/5t &% (ers&ns t& 'e a%%&r$e$ t5e (r&te!ti&n &% t5e a9. S"!5 an imm"nit8 (r&visi&n6 i% it is e/isate$ •m"st 'e "nam'i/"&"s8 e,(resse$ '8 an A!t &% C&n/ress •m"st /enera8 'e /rante$ &n8 t& a stat"t&r8 '&$8 an$ its mem'ers6 em(&8ees &r a/ents a!tin/ in /&&$ %ait5 an$ 9it5in t5e s!&(e &% t5eir em(&8ment •m"st n&t /enera8 'e /rante$ t& in$ivi$"as6 even i% a!tin/ Jin /&&$ %ait5K in a s(e!i%ie$ &%%i!ia !a(a!it86 i% t5e8 !an 'e /iven an indemnit'  instea$. •m"st never e,!"$e ia'iit8 %&r “gross! negligene &r 'rea!5 &% !&ntra!t6 even i%  !&mmitte$ Jin /&&$ %ait5K. •s5&"$ $esira'8
P+,./0  =&, @,/> 

Ban:et in$emnit8 !a"ses "$/ment is /iven in t5eir  %av&"r &r t5e8 are a!7"itte$6 as t5e !ase ma8 'e
#?

t5e in$emnit8 s&"/5t is >"sti%ie$ '8 !&"ntervaiin/ ("'i! (&i!8 !&nsi$erati&ns t5at are a((i!a'e t& t5e !ase in 7"esti&n an$ #t5e !&"ntervaiin/ ("'i! (&i!8 !&nsi$erati&ns )are >"sti%ie$ '8 re%eren!e t& an8 &ne &r m&re &% t5e /enera $er&/ati&ns t& t5e Bi &% Ri/5ts <$e%ense6 m&rait86 ("'i! 5eat56 ("'i! &r$er6 et!.= an$ are &t5er9ise reas&na'8 >"sti%ia'e in a $em&!rati! s&!iet8 T5e (res"m(ti&n t5at n& (ers&n s5a 'e a&9e$ t& /ain a$vanta/e %r&m 5is 9r&n/. ϖ

ϖ23

O:,+ 0+,./0 +,&  0.=& @ &,& 0&>  ϖ23(1 T:,

0+,./0 8 )mnia rite ,(

T5e ma,im mnia rite esseatapraesumuntur
Presumption of *egularity.

It is a (rin!i(e a((ie$ in evi$entiar8 eva"ati&n t5at transa!ti&n ma$e in t5e n&rma !a"se &% '"siness are ass"me$ t& 5ave 'een !&n$"!te$ in t5e "s"a manner "ness t5ere is evi$en!e t& (r&ve &t5er9ise. & 23(2 P+,./0 =. ?&@> 8  8 ,/0&>,, 8 :, S, 9:,+, :, ?&@> 8 :,+ &,  88,  .,,@ ) d e facto 88,+ @+,*

T5is (res"m(ti&n is s&me95at reate$ t& t5e %&re/&in/ &ne. 5ie t5e stat"t&r8 re7"irements %&r t5e a((&intment an$ 7"ai%i!ati&ns &% mem'ers &% stat"t&r8 '&$ies are t& 'e stri!t8 !&nstr"e$ "$/es an$ e/isative 'ran!5 &%%i!ers. In t5e Unite$ States &r P5ii((ines6 t5is (res"m(ti&n is !ae$ t5e J de fato &%%i!er $&!trineK. It 9as $eve&(e$ t& (r&te!t t5e ("'i! %r&m t5e !5a&s an$ "n!ertaint8 t5at 9&"$ ens"e i% a!ti&ns ta:en '8 in$ivi$"as a((arent8 &!!"(8in/ /&vernment &%%i!es !&"$ ater 'e #

invai$ate$ '8 e,(&sin/ $e%e!ts in t5e &%%i!ias tites. T5e $&!trine 5as /enera8 'een a((ie$ t& in$ivi$"as 395& are in (&ssessi&n &% an &%%i!e an$ (er%&rmin/ t5e $"ties &% t5e &%%i!e6 95i!56 t& a a((earan!es6 t5e &%%i!er in 7"esti&n 5as a ri/5t t& 5&$ ?t5e e,er!ise &% 95&se &%%i!ia %"n!ti&ns inv&ve t5e interests &% t5e ("'i! an$ t5ir$ (ers&ns 395&se a((&intment &r ee!ti&n t& t5e &%%i!e in 7"esti&n 9as vitiate$ '8 reas&n &% s&me 9ant &% 7"ai%i!ati&ns atta!5in/ t& t5e &%%i!e6 &r '8 s&me $e%e!t &r  irre/"arit8 in t5e manner &% t5e a((&intment &r ee!ti&n6 '"t 9it5&"t t5at inei/i'iit86 $e%e!t &r irre/"arit8 'ein/ :n&9n t& t5e ("'i! at t5e time t5e &%%i!ia in 7"esti&n e,er!ise$ 5is &r 5er ("'i! %"n!ti&ns <&r at an8 rate6 9it5&"t t5e iss"e &% t5e inei/i'iit86 $e%e!t &r irre/"arit8 'ein/ iti/ate$ an$ $etermine$ '8 !&"rt at t5e time t5e &%%i!ia in 7"esti&n e,er!ise$ 5is &r 5er ("'i! %"n!ti&ns= Even 95ere t5e ten"re &% a ("'i! &%%i!er is invai$ate$ '8 t5e !&"rts &n t5e 'asis &% inei/i'iit86 &r $e%e!t &r irre/"arit8 in 5is &r 5er a((&intment &r ee!ti&n6 5is &r 5er (revi&"s a!ts e,er!ise$ &r (er%&rme$ '8 virt"e &%  t5at ten"re are n&t t5ere'8 invai$ate$. T5is $&!trine 5as minima im(a!t ins&%ar as e/isative $ra%tin/ is !&n!erne$. On8 in ver8 e,!e(ti&na !ir!"mstan!es s5&"$ it 'e !&nsi$ere$ ne!essar8 %&r t5is (res"m(ti&n 'e restate$6 m"!5 ess &vert"rne$6 '8 an e,(ress (r&visi&n in a stat"te. S&metimes it ma8 'e !&nsi$ere$ e,(e$ient t& rati%8 t5e a!ts &% an &%%i!e5&$er 95&se ei/i'iit86 a((&intment &r ee!ti&n 5as 'een &r is i:e8 t& 'e im("/ne$ '8 t5e !&"rts6 in 95i!5 event a JVai$ati&n BiK &r  vai$ati&n (r&visi&n s5&"$ 'e ena!te$. & 2 3(3 T:, 0+,./0 8 (n bonampartem T5e e/isat"re is (res"me$ t& inten$ t5at &n8 a9%" a!ts are re%erre$ t& in a its a9s. T5is is :n&9n as t5e in %onampartem(res"m(ti&n. See - -%reu v 6ampos 143& (1" B7 148E -ttorne' +eneral @ *mith 1438 B7  1&8E *tate v 7ev' 1441 (1" B7 121 (*" . &23(4 P+,./0 : < ., 9&& =, ,+0+,,@   :, 8.

Stat"t&r8 (r&visi&ns t5at im(&se (e!"niar8 '"r$ens6 s"!5 as ta,in/ stat"tes6 9i 'e stri!t8 !&nstr"e$ '8 t5e !&"rts6 i.e. a !&"rt 9i &n8 $e!i$e t5at a ta, is (a8a'e 95en satis%ie$ t5at t5e an/"a/e &% t5e stat"te 5as !ear8 im(&se$ t5at ta, in t5e !ir!"mstan!es &% t5at (arti!"ar  !ase 'e%&re it in a !ase 95ere t5e stat"te is am'i/"&"s &n t5e iss"e 95et5er a (&tentia ta,(a8er is in$ee$ t& 'e s"'>e!te$ t& a ta,6 t5e stat"te 'e inter(rete$ ontra fisum 
&23(5 P+,./0 : .+> +: ?,++@, 8& 0+?, // &9 ,

Stat"t&r8 (r&visi&ns 9i &verri$e !&ntra!t"a &nes 8 .,

 A stat"te is (res"me$ t& 'e vai$ "nti $e!are$ &t5er9ise '8 a !&"rt &%  a9 a!!&r$in/86 "nti s"!5 time6 it m"st 'e !&m(ie$ 9it5 even i%6 &n t5e %a!e &% it6 it a((ears t& 'e invai$. &23(7 P+,./0  8?.+ 8 :, ,?,+=&> 8 .+>   0+?  ?, ?&@> 

T5is is a !&r&ar8 t& t5e (revi&"s (res"m(ti&n &% vai$it8. It (r&vi$es t5at6 i% an8 (r&visi&n &% a stat"te &r t5e a((i!ati&n t5ere&% t& an8 (ers&n &r  !ir!"mstan!e is 5e$ invai$6 t5e remain$er &% t5e stat"te6 an$ t5e a((i!ati&n &% s"!5 (r&visi&ns t& &t5er (ers&ns &r !ir!"mstan!es6 s5a n&t 'e a%%e!te$ t5ere'8 <"ness t5e !&"rt %in$s t5at t5e remainin/ (r&visi&ns &% t5e stat"te are s& essentia8 an$ inse(ara'8 !&nne!te$ 9it56 an$ s& $e(en$ &n6 t5e v&i$ (r&visi&n &r a((i!ati&n6 t5at it !ann&t 'e (res"me$ t5at t5e e/isat"re 9&"$ 5ave ena!te$ t5e (r&visi&ns 9it5&"t t5e v&i$ &ne &r "ness t5e !&"rt %in$s t5at t5e remainin/ (r&visi&ns6 stan$in/ a&ne6 are in!&m(ete an$ in!a(a'e &% 'ein/ e,e!"te$ in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5e e/isative intent=.

#)

&23( P+,./0  +, 8 :, &9 

T5e Le/isat"re (res"mes t5at ever8&ne :n&9s t5e a9 i.e. i/n&ran!e &r  mista:e &% t5e a9 is n& e,!"se <'"t it ma86 in !ertain !ases6 'e miti/atin/=. Parti!"ar stat"tes ma8 $e(art %r&m t5is (res"m(ti&n '8 e,(ress 9&r$s t& t5e !&ntrar8. &23(! P+,./0 8 &,& 0>  :, 0+ 8 ,+ &, 8 0,+

Min&rs6 (ers&ns &% "ns&"n$ min$6 ins&vents an$ (r&$i/as are (res"me$ n&t t& 'e as !a(a'e in a res(e!ts as &t5er (ers&ns &% e,er!isin/ ri/5ts &r %"%iin/ &'i/ati&ns "n$er t5e a96 n&r t& 'e e7"a8 !"(a'e as &t5er  (ers&ns %&r %aiin/ e,er!ise &r %"%i s"!5 &'i/ati&ns. A!!&r$in/86 min&rs s5&"$ /enera8 'e assiste$ '8 t5eir /"ar$ians in e,er!isin/ t5eir ri/5ts &r %"%iin/ t5eir &'i/ati&ns6 an$ simiar8 t5e !"rat&rs &r legal  representatives  &% &t5er (ers&ns 9it5&"t %" e/a !a(a!it8 m"st a!t &n 'e5a% &% s"!5 (ers&ns. As re/ar$s t5e !rimina ia'iit8 &% s"!5 (ers&ns6 t5is 5as 'een !&$i%ie$ in t5e Crimina La9 C&$e. T5ere is a!!&r$in/8 n& nee$ t& restate in a stat"te an8 &% t5e e,!e(ti&ns t& !ivi an$ !rimina ia'iit8 ma$e &n 'e5a% &% s"!5 (ers&ns6 "ness it is $esire$ t& $e(art %r&m t5is (res"m(ti&n in !ertain ver8 imite$ !ir!"mstan!es. F&r e,am(e6 t5e a9ma:er ma8 9is5 t& !a(a!itate min&rs a'&ve a s(e!i%ie$ a/e 95ere t5e nat"re &% t5e transa!ti&n is s"!5 t5at t5e assistan!e &% t5e /"ar$ian ma8 'e s"(er%"&"s6 &r 95ere t5ere are /&&$ ("'i! (&i!8 /r&"n$s %&r  e,!"$in/ t5e ri/5ts &% t5e /"ar$ian. &23(1# P+,./0  /0&,

 A m&n&(&8 (&9er
 A !&"rt 9i ta:e >"$i!ia n&ti!e &% a %a!t "$i!ia8 n&ti!e an8 !ase a9 (re!e$ents 9it5in t5e territ&ria >"ris$i!ti&n 95ere it sits6 an$ an8 ena!tments ("'is5e$ in t5e +aHette6 '"t n&t %&rei/n a9s &r ena!tments6 95&se e,isten!e an$

#

!&ntent nee$ t& 'e esta'is5e$ '8 e,(ert evi$en!e. T5is (res"m(ti&n ma8 'e m&$i%ie$ in a stat"te6 eit5er '8 re7"irin/ a !&"rt t& ta:e >"$i!ia n&ti!e &% s&met5in/ t5at is n&t &r$inari8 5e$ t& 'e in$is("ta'e '8 !&mm&n n&t&riet8 &r '8 re7"irin/ a !&"rt n&t t& ta:e >"$i!ia n&ti!e &%  s&met5in/ t5at is &r$inari8 5e$ t& 'e in$is("ta'e '8 !&mm&n n&t&riet8 &% t5e Crimina La9 C&$e. &23(12 P+,./0 :  8&&9 :, ,?, 

In /enera6 in !ivi iti/ati&n arisin/ &"t &% !&mm&n a9 &r stat"t&r8 !aims6 it is (res"me$ t5at J!&sts %&&9 t5e eventK6 in &t5er 9&r$s t5at t5e s"!!ess%" (art8 t& iti/ati&n is entite$ t& see: an &r$er %r&m t5e !&"rt6 tri'"na &r 7"asi->"$i!ia a"t5&rit8 t5at t5e "ns"!!ess%" (art8 m"st (a8 t5e %irst-menti&ne$ (art8;s reovera%le !&sts &% iti/ati&n "$i!ia a"t5&rit8 t& ma:e s"!5 &r$er as t& t5e !&sts &%  an8 stat"t&r8 !ivi iti/ati&n as Ja((ears t& it >"stK &r K>"st an$ reas&na'eK &r J>"st an$ %airK is "s"a8 inter(rete$ as a restatement &% t5e %&re/&in/ r"e. I% t5e iss"e &% !ivi iti/ati&n arises in t5e !&nte,t &% a stat"te6 $ra%ters s5&"$ 'e 5esitant t& $e(art %r&m t5is r"e6 "ness t5ere are /&&$ ("'i! (&i!8 reas&ns %&r e/isatin/ a $i%%erent r"e in t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n. S"!5 ("'i! (&i!8 !&nsi$erati&ns ma8 re7"ire t5e ris:s &%  stat"t&r8 iti/ati&n t& 'e re$"!e$ re7"irin/ ea!5 (art8 'ear its &9n !&sts6 &r in!rease$ '8 ma:in/ t5e "ns"!!ess%" (art8 'ear !ertain a$$iti&na !&sts n&t a&9e$ '8 t5e &r$inar8 r"e. P"'i! (&i!8 ma8 as& re7"ire t5at6 in !ertain t8(es &% stat"t&r8 !aims6 !aims %&r !&sts 'e imite$ t& 3t5e s!ae &% !&sts a((i!a'e t& t5e in%eri&r !&"rts "sti!e '8 sma !aimants6 re!&vera'e !&sts are imite$ t& t5e %ee %&r t5e s"mm&ns an$ t5e %ees an$ e,(enses &% t5e messen/er=. &23(13 C +,?,+> 8+ +,/,@&  .@,+, => 0.=&  .:+,   =, 0+,./,@ 

5enever t5e State6 an arm &% t5e State6 &!a a"t5&rit8 &r stat"t&r8 '&$8 "n$erta:es an8 9&r: in ("rs"an!e &% its ("'i! &r stat"t&r8 %"n!ti&ns t5at is &!!asi&ne$ '8 an8 $e%a"t &r 'rea!5 &% t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n &n t5e (art &% an8 (ers&n
t5e !&sts &% s"!5 9&r: t& t5e State6 &!a a"t5&rit8 &r stat"t&r8 '&$8 !an 'e re!&vere$ %r&m t5e $e%a"tin/ (ers&n. &23(14 P+,./0 =. :, @, 8 0.=& /,>

It is (res"me$ t5at a  pu%li mone's- re!eive$ &r !&e!te$ '8 an8 ("'i! a"t5&rit86 95et5er in t5e %&rm &% ta,es &r %ees &r &t5er9ise6 are t& 'e !re$ite$ t& t5e 6onsolidated evenue
&1 G,,+& +.&, @ 0+,./0 =. :, /, 8 9+@ @   0:+, lPresumptions of general application

T5ese are %"n$amenta e/a (rin!i(es t5at s5&"$ a9a8s 'e :e(t in min$6 even 95ere t5e an/"a/e is !ear an$ "nam'i/"&"s. T5e8 are (res"me$ t& a((8 "ness e,!"$e$ '8 e,(ress 9&r$s &r ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n. 5en a reevant !&nte,t"a !&nsi$erati&ns 5ave 'een $"8 9ei/5e$6 t5e inter(reter s5&"$ a/ain test 5is !&n!"si&ns in i/5t &% t5e (res"m(ti&ns. ϖPresumption

that all aws bear a 1eaning

It is (res"me$ t5at n& 9&r$s &% a stat"te are ena!te$ 9it5&"t a reas&n. T5is is s& as n&t t& 9aste t5e 9&r$s "se$ in a stat"te. It 9&"$ 'e a's"r$ %&r t5e e/isative '&$8 t& ma:e a a9 t5at %&r s&me &% t5e 9&r$s t& 'e meanin/ess. T5e (res"m(ti&n is i"strate$ "ris(r"$en!e= in t5e !ase &% 6or0 6o 6ounil v Whillo0 95i!5 t"rne$ &n t5e inter(retati&n &% t5e :aliious ;n,uries -t 1481. OFa5ert8  a((ie$ a itera inter(retati&n t& t5e se!ti&n a!!&r$in/ t& t5e &r$inar8 an$ nat"ra meanin/ &% its 9&r$s. *e as& state$ t5at Ha !&nstr"!ti&n 95i!5 9&"$ eave 9it5&"t e%%e!t an8 (art &% t5e an/"a/e &% t5e stat"te 9i n&rma8 'e re>e!te$.H E/an  en$&rse$ t5e same (rin!i(e6 statin/ HT5ere is a'"n$ant a"t5&rit8 %&r t5e (res"m(ti&n t5at 9&r$s are n&t "se$ in a statute 9it5&"t a meanin/ an$ are n&t ta"t&&/&"s &r s"(er%"&"s6 an$ s& e%%e!t m"st 'e /iven6 i%  (&ssi'e6 t& a t5e 9&r$s "se$6 %&r t5e e/isat"re m"st 'e $eeme$ n&t t& 9aste its 9&r$s &r sa8 an8t5in/ in vain.H

#1

&1(1 A 9+@ + ,<0+,  0+,./,@  :?, :, /, /,  9:,+,?,+  00,+   ,/,(

I% a 9&r$ &r e,(ressi&n a((ears m&re t5an &n!e in an ena!tment6 it is (res"me$ t& 5ave t5e same meanin/. &1(2

D88,+, 9+@   ., +,  =, ?, @88,+, /,(

T5is is t5e !&nverse &% t5e a'&ve (res"m(ti&n. &1(3 P+,./0 : :, L,&.+, ,@ : 9+@ +,  =, ?, :,+ +@+> @+> /,(

T5e Le/isat"re inten$s t5at 9&r$s are t& 'e /iven t5eir &r$inar8 $i!ti&nar8 meanin/ "n!tive Jan$K in a ist means t5at a &% t5e iste$ re7"irements m"st 'e satis%ie$. T5e "se &% t5e $is>"n!tive J&rK means t5at &n8 &ne &% t5e iste$ re7"irements nee$ 'e satis%ie$. C&"rts $& n&t a((8 t5ese meanin/s ine,&ra'86 5&9ever6 i% a Jstri!t /rammati!a !&nstr"!ti&nK 9i %r"strate evi$ent e/isative intent6 a !&"rt ma8 rea$ Jan$K as J&rK6 J&rK as Jan$K. F"rt5erm&re6 stat"t&r8 !&nstr"!ti&n !an ren$er t5e $istin!ti&n se!&n$ar8. •

Use &% s5a ma8. S5a is man$at&r8 an$ ma8 is (ermissive. M&re&ver6 t5ese 9&r$s m"st 'e rea$ in t5eir 'r&a$er stat"t&r8 !&nte,t. 5en t5ese t9& 9&r$s are '&t5 "se$ in t5e same (r&visi&n6 t5eir $istin!ti&n ma8 'e "n$ers!&re$. •

Sin/"ar("ra. It is 'asi! in stat"t&r8 !&nstr"!ti&n t5at t5e sin/"ar in!"$es t5e ("ra. A!!&r$in/ t& t5e Di!ti&nar8 A!t6 J"ness t5e !&nte,t in$i!ates &t5er9ise6 9&r$s im(&rtin/ t5e sin/"ar in!"$e an$ a((8 t& severa (ers&ns6 (arties6 &r  t5in/s 9&r$s im(&rtin/ t5e ("ra in!"$e t5e sin/"arK. •

•1(4

P+,./0 : :, &,&.+,  9+, 8 :, ,<   .@& ,+0+, ?,  9+@ @ 0+?(

5ere t5e !&"rts 5ave !&nstr"e$ t5e an/"a/e in a stat"te6 t5e e/isat"re is (res"me$ t& inten$ t5at t5e same !&nstr"!ti&n is t& 'e (a!e$ "(&n s"!5 an/"a/e in s"'se7"ent stat"tes &n t5e same s"'>e!t matter. & 1(5 T:, 0+,./0 )mnemaius in se minus continet It is (res"me$ t5at in inter(retin/ stat"tes6 t5e ess is a9a8s in!"$e$ in t5e /reater6 an$ t5e (arti!"ar is a9a8s in!"$e$ in t5e /enera.

#2

 A!!&r$in/86 95en a (&9er t& /rant &r re%"se is !&n %erre$ "(&n a stat"t&r8 '&$86 t5at (&9er is ta:en t& in!"$e a (&9er t& /rant s"'>e!t t& !&n$iti&ns6 even i% t5e atter is n&t e,(ress8 9ritten int& t5e stat"te. & 1(6 T:, &pressiouniuseste&clusioalterius R.&,( T5e !&"rts 9i /enera8 !&nstr"e a stat"t&r8 ist &% 9&r$s &r terms <95et5er 'e&n/in/ t& t5e same !ass &r n&t= t& 'e e,5a"stive rat5er t5an i"strative. In a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5is r"e6 an8 &missi&n %r&m t5at ist 9i 'e !&nstr"e$ as a $ei'erate &missi&n &n t5e (art &% t5e Le/isat"re6 "ness &mittin/ t5e item in 7"esti&n %r&m t5e ist ea$s t& a mani%est a's"r$it8 . T5e (res"m(ti&n !an 'e av&i$e$ '8 t5e "se &% (5rases i:e Jin!"$in/ '"t n&t imite$ t&......K & 1(7 T:, !usdem 5eneris )O8 :, /, @* R.&,( Genera8 s(ea:in/ i% a /enera 9&r$ &r (5rase (re!e$es &r !&n!"$es a ist &% s(e!i%i! 9&r$s &r (5rases reate$ in meanin/ t& t5at /enera 9&r$ &r  (5rase6 t5e e/isat"re is &%ten (res"me$ t& 5ave inten$e$ t5at t5e /enera 9&r$ &r (5rase is imite$ in s!&(e t& t5e same !ass as t5e s(e!i%i! 9&r$s &r (5rases t5at %&&9 &r (re!e$e it e!t an$ m&re t5an &ne &'>e!t6 it ma8 'e ne!essar8 t& rea$ t5e senten!e $istri'"tive8 '8 mat!5in/ ea!5 &'>e!t t& its a((r&(riate s"'>e!t simiar86 i% t9& &r m&re ver's <&r a$>e!tives6 &r &t5er (arts &% s(ee!5= in t5e same senten!e are %&&9e$ '8 t9& &r m&re s"'>e!ts6 it ma8 'e ne!essar8 %&r  t5e a((r&(riate (art &% s(ee!5 t& 'e mat!5e$ t& its a((r&(riate s"'>e!t in &r$er t& arrive at a sensi'e meanin/ &% t5e senten!e. E./. JN& &ne s5a $ra9 &r &a$ a s9&r$ &r /"nK J$ra9 &r &a$K !an reas&na'8 'e a((ie$ t& t5e s"'>e!t J/"nK6 '"t &n8 J$ra9K !an 'e a((ie$ t& Js9&r$K. T5e (5rase Jas t5e !ase ma8 'eK !an 'e "se%"8 em(&8e$ t& aert t5e !&"rts t& a((8 t5is r"e6 e./. JMem'ers &% t5e B&ar$ s5a 'e entite$ t& t5e reim'"rsement &% t5eir reas&na'e travein/ e,(enses '8 t5e C&r(&rati&n &r t5e State6 as t5e !ase ma8 'eK i.e. mem'ers &% t5e B&ar$ in t5e em(&8 &% t5e State 9i 'e reim'"rse$ '8 t5e State6 95ie &t5er mem'ers 9i 'e reim'"rse$ '8 t5e C&r(&rati&n

)4

&1(!

P+,./0 =. ,@,+(

T5is is a stat"t&r8 (res"m(ti&n !reate$ '8 JR"es as t& /en$er an$ n"m'ersK - &% 95i!5 re%eren!es t& (ers&ns in stat"tes6 "ness &t5er9ise e,(ress8 &r im(i!it8 (r&vi$e$6 in!"$e mae6 %emae an$ !&r(&rate (ers&ns. &1(1# P+,./0 =. 0,+,/0+> @ @+,+> .+>   0+?

T5e %&&9in/ (res"m(ti&ns are a((i!a'e in $eterminin/ 95et5er a (arti!"ar stat"t&r8 in>"n!ti&n is J(erem(t&r8K <&r man$at&r8 &r im(erative= &r sim(8 J$ire!t&r8K <(ermissive6 $is!reti&nar8 &r &(ti&na= 8Presumption that “shall (or “must!" indiates a peremptor' provision not a

diretor' one T5&"/5 t5is r"e 5&$s tr"e %&r m&st !ases6 it is n&t an a's&"te8

in%e,i'e &ne6 as t5e %&&9in/ !&nsi$erati&ns i"strate. •T5e "se &% Js5aK !an6 in ver8 e,!e(ti&na !ir!"mstan!es6 'e inter(rete$ as Jma8K "n!ti&n in 7"esti&n=6 i% t5e atter a((ears t& a !&"rt t& 'e m&re !&n%&rma'e t& t5e intenti&n &% t5e Le/isat"re &r t5e %"n$amenta ri/5ts &% in$ivi$"as6 &r even "n!ti&n is $ire!te$ at t5e State &r s&me &t5er stat"t&r8 a"t5&rit86 an$ s"!5 in>"n!ti&n !&nstit"tes a !&n$iti&n (re!e$ent %&r t5e e,er!ise '8 t5e (ers&n a%%e!te$ '8 it &% a ri/5t &%  revie9 &r a((ea &r t5e e,er!ise &% s&me &t5er %"n$amenta ri/5t '8 t5e a%%e!te$ (ers&n6 t5e !&"rts 9i %av&"r an inter(retati&n &% t5e in>"n!ti&n m&st %av&"ra'e t& t5e a%%e!te$ (ers&n6 95i!5 ma86 a!!&r$in/ t& t5e !ir!"mstan!es &% t5e !ase6 res"t in t5e in>"n!ti&n 'ein/ inter(rete$ as a $ire!t&r8 &r (erem(t&r8 &ne. T5e "se &% Js5aK6 Jm"stK &r &t5er (erem(t&r8 e,(ressi&n $&es n&t ne!essari8 mean t5at Je,a!tK rat5er t5an Js"'stantiaK !&m(ian!e 9it5 a (erem(t&r8 stat"t&r8 in>"n!ti&n is re7"ire$ in ever8 !ase.S"'stantia !&m(ian!e 9i s"%%i!e in t5&se !ases 95ere6 5avin/ re/ar$ t& t5e (arti!"ar %a!ts6 t5e &'>e!t inten$e$ '8 t5e e/isat"re 9i 'e a!5ieve$ *&9ever •5ere t5e ri/5ts &% t5ir$ (arties intereste$ in t5e matter $e(en$ "(&n Je,a!tK rat5er t5an Js"'stantia; !&m(ian!e 9it5 t5e im(erative stat"t&r8 in>"n!ti&n !&n!erne$6 t5e !&"rts 9i insist &n e,a!t !&m(ian!e. •5ere t5e stat"t&r8 in>"n!ti&n !&n!erne$ ma:es t5e $&in/ &% s&met5in/ "n!ti&nK= $e(en$ent "(&n t5e $&in/ &%  s&met5in/ ese "n!ti&nK=6 s"!5 se!&n$ar8 stat"t&r8 in>"n!ti&n m"st 'e stri!t8 !&m(ie$ 9it56 es(e!ia8 95ere t5e (rimar8 stat"t&r8 in>"n!ti&n 9i s"'>e!t s&me&ne t& a !rimina (enat8 &r  s&me &t5er $imin"ti&n &% 5is &r 5er %"n$amenta ri/5ts. •

)3

 Jma8K is a (ermissive &r ena'in/ e,(ressi&n6 an$ !an 'e sa%e8 reie$ "(&n as s"!5 in m&st !ases 5&9ever6 as &'serve$ in &t5er >"ris(r"$en!e6 Jt5ere are !ases in 95i!56 %&r vari&"s reas&ns6 as s&&n as t5e (ers&n 95& is 9it5in t5e stat"te is entr"ste$ 9it5 t5e (&9er6 it 'e!&mes 5is $"t8 t& e,er!ise it even i% its e,er!ise is %rame$ as a $is!reti&n. 8Presumption that “ma'! indiates a diretor' provision not a peremptor' one

&2 P+,./0 ,+ :, //,,/, @ ,+/ 8  ., &2(1 P+,./0 : :, &,&.+, ,@ //,,  :, @, 8 :,+ 0+/.&



&9



It is (res"me$ t5at t5e e/isat"re inten$s its a9s t& !&mmen!e &n t5e $ate &% t5eir (r&m"/ati&n C+,

It is (res"me$ t5at a stat"te &n!e ena!te$ 9i 5ave e%%e!t "nti re(eae$ '8 C&n/ress. T5is (res"m(ti&n ma8 'e &vert"rne$ '8 t5e %&&9in/ e,(e$ients &r !ir!"mstan!es •

'8 t5e !&"rts in t5e %&&9in/ !ir!"mstan!es '8 t5e a((i!ati&n &% t5e ma,im 6essante ratio legisessatipsalex  
In a$$iti&n6 it is in (rin!i(e (&ssi'e %&r C&n/ress a9ma:ers t& &mit a  A!ts t5at are !&nsi$ere$ t& 'e Js(entK 9:,+,  .,  +,0,&,@ @  .=&&> +,-,,@(

5enever a stat"te is re(eae$ an$ its (r&visi&ns are at t5e same time an$ 9it5&"t an8 interva re-ena!te$ in t5e same &r s"'stantia8 t5e same terms '8 t5e re(eain/ stat"te6 t5e earier stat"te s5a 'e !&nstr"e$ as !&ntin"e$ in a!tive &(erati&n. A ri/5ts an$ ia'iities in!"rre$ "n$er s"!5 earier stat"te are (reserve$ an$ ma8 'e en%&r!e$. ϖPresumption

of Continuity.

)?

 A s"'stantive a9 re7"ires native tite !aimants t& (r&ve !&ntin"it8 in t5e a!:n&9e$/ment an$ &'servan!e &% tra$iti&na a9s an$ !"st&ms an$ t5e !&ntin"e$ e,isten!e &% t5e ri/5ts an$ interests 95i!5 $erive$ %r&m t5&se a9s an$ !"st&ms %r&m s&verei/nt8 t5r&"/5 "nti t5e (resent $a8. &2(4 P+,./0  :, ., 8 +,0,&,@ .+>  +:

T5e %&re/&in/ (res"m(ti&n $&es n&t a((8 t& re(eas an$ re-ena!tments &% stat"tes in 95i!5 an8 interva &% time intervenes 'et9een t5e re(ea an$ re-ena!tment. Ri/5ts !&n%erre$ e,!"sive8 '8 stat"te !an 'e e,tin/"is5e$ '8 stat"te "ness t5e8 5ave veste$ in in$ivi$"as 95& 5ave (revi&"s8 en>&8e$ t5em. T5ere is n& (res"m(ti&n a/ainst !reatin/ a 5iat"s in t5e stat"te a9 even 95ere in$ivi$"as; (r&s(e!tive !aims t& stat"t&r8 ri/5ts ma8 'e a%%e!te$. T5"s 95ere s"!5 stat"t&r8 ri/5t is re(eae$ in &r$er t& 'e re(a!e$ '8 t5e same &r a simiar stat"t&r8 ri/5t6 an$ t5ere is a $ea8 in im(ementin/ t5e atter6 t5e re(eae$ stat"t&r8 (r&visi&n is n&t $eeme$ t& !&ntin"e 'e8&n$ its re(ea "ness e,(ress stat"t&r8 (r&visi&n is ma$e t& (r&vi$e %&r t5is interva. &2(5 P+,./0 8 ?&@> 8 : @, .@,+  +,0,&,@  ., 0++   +,0,& 

T5e re(ea &% an ena!tment $&es n&t '8 itse% invai$ate &r !a int& 7"esti&n t5e vai$it8 &% an8t5in/ $&ne in terms &% t5e re(eae$ ena!tment (ri&r t& t5e $ate &% its re(ea. It is a!!&r$in/8 n&t ne!essar8
P+,./0 =. +,0,& 8 +,0,& .,

T5e re(ea &% a stat"te t5at re(eae$ an earier stat"te s5a n&t 'e !&nstr"e$ t& revive t5e earier stat"te.

)

&2(7

P+,./0 =. .0,?, /,@/,

5ere a stat"te is amen$e$ in s"!5 a 9a8 t5at t5e amen$ment is e,(resse$ t& e,(ire &n a !ertain $ate &r "(&n t5e 5a((enin/ &% a !ertain event6 t5e e,(ir8 &% t5at amen$ment s5a 'e !&nstr"e$ t& revive t5e stat"te in its (revi&"s %&rm. 8.1P+,./0 8 A=@/,(

 A stat"t&r8 (res"m(ti&n t5at a (art8 t5at 5as n&t "se$ its mar: %&r t5ree 8ears 5as a'an$&ne$ its ri/5ts in t5e mar:. T5is (res"m(ti&n &%  a'an$&nment s5&9s t5at t5e (art8 5as $is!&ntin"e$ "se 9it5 intent n&t t& res"me "se. It is internati&na tra$emar: (ra!ti!e t& (res"me t5at mar:s are a'an$&ne$ i% t5e8 are n&t "se$ %&r a !ertain %i,e$ (eri&$ &% time. T5is (res"m(ti&n &% n&n"se !an 'e !&"ntere$ 9it5 !&ntrar8 evi$en!e. &3 P+,./0 ,+ :, 8& + :+/> 8 ., @  .+> 0+? &3(1 P+,./0  :, +,0., 8 ., @ .+>   0+?

T5e8 m"st as %ar as (&ssi'e 'e inter(rete$ in a manner !a!"ate$ t& 5arm&ni@e t5em 9it5 ea!5 &t5er6 in !&n%&rmit8 9it5 t5e /enera (rin!i(e t5at t5e a9 s5&"$ 'e !&nsistent an$ se%-!&5erent. &3(2

P+,./0 8?.+ &,+ ?,+ ,+&,+ 8& .,(

In t5e a'sen!e &% e,(ress re(ea6 ater ena!tments re(ea earier  ena!tments $eain/ 9it5 t5e same s"'>e!t matter6 t& t5e e,tent &% an8 in!&nsisten!8 'et9een t5em < 7ex posterior derogat priori =. See6 5&9ever6 t5e %&&9in/ (res"m(ti&n. &3(3

P+,./0 8?.+ 0,8 ?,+ ,,+& .,(

Des(ite t5e %&re/&in/ (res"m(ti&n6 t5e Le/isat"re is (res"me$ t& 5ave inten$e$ t5at /enera (r&visi&ns in a ater stat"te $& n&t &verri$e (ree,istin/ s(e!i%i! (r&visi&ns in an earier stat"te 'earin/ &n t5e same s"'>e!t-matter. T& 7"&te t5e reevant Latin ma,im +enerali%usspeiali%us non derogant < JPr&visi&ns !&"!5e$ in /enera terms $& n&t $er&/ate %r&m t5&se e,(resse$ in s(e!i%i! termsK=. &3(4

P+,./0 8?.+ 0+/+> ?,+ ,@+> .,(

It is an irreversi%le presumption t5at i% t5e (r&visi&ns &% an8 s"'si$iar8 e/isati&n ma$e "n$er &ne A!t !&n%i!t 9it5 (r&visi&ns !&ntaine$ in )#

an&t5er A!t6 t5e (r&visi&ns &% t5e atter A!t 9i (revai &ver t5e !&n%i!tin/ (r&visi&ns &% t5e s"'si$iar8 e/isati&n. ϖPresumption

Against (mplicit Changes in the aw

T5is (res"m(ti&n entais t5at a (art &% t5e a9 &r (r&visi&n in it 95i!5 is am'i/"&"s as t& 95et5er &r n&t it e%%e!ts a !5an/e in t5e a9 s5a 'e re/ar$e$ as n&t e%%e!tin/ an8 s"!5 !5an/e. T5e S"(reme C&"rt reiterate$ t5e /enera (rin!i(e t5at /enera 9&r$s in a ater A!t s5&"$ n&t 'e (res"me$ t& re(ea &r amen$ earier e/isati&n6 s& &n/ as t5e8 9ere !a(a'e &% reas&na'e !&nstr"!ti&n 9it5&"t e%%e!tin/ an8 s"!5 amen$ment6 (as raised in the 9* *upreme 6ourt" n&te$ t5at t5ere 9as n& a"t5&rit8 re/ar$in/ t5e a((i!ati&n &% t5is (rin!i(e t& !rimina a9 stat"tes. T5e (rin!i(e t5at !rimina stat"tes s5&"$ 'e stri!t8 !&nstr"e$ %&r t5e 'ene%it &% t5e in$ivi$"a !&"$ 5ave an im(a!t &n t5e &(erati&n in t5is area &% t5e (res"m(ti&n a/ainst "n!ear !5an/es. T5e C&"rt a((ie$ t5e (rin!i(e an$ %&"n$ t5at t5e t9& stat"tes 95i!5 9ere at iss"e in t5e !ase !&"$ stan$ t&/et5er an$ &(erate se(arate8 an$ in$ivi$"a86 9it5&"t &ne 'ein/ !&nsi$ere$ t& 5ave im(i!it8 re(eae$ an&t5er. &4 P+,./0 ,+ :, ., 8 + @ ,<+ .+>  /,+&  ,+ :, /, @ , 8 :, L,&.+, &4(1

T:, C+@& P+0&,(

T5e Car$ina Prin!i(e6 &r %"n$amenta r"e &% inter(retati&n &% stat"tes6 is t5at t5e !&"rt m"st en$eav&"r t& arrive at t5e intenti&n &% t5e a9-/iver  e,!"sive8 %r&m t5e a!t"a an/"a/e "se$ in t5e ena!tment. T5e e%%e!t &%  t5is r"e is t5at t5e !&"rts s5&"$ n&t &&: &"tsi$e a stat"te in &r$er t& as!ertain its meanin/6 '"t see #.) 'e&9. &4(2

T:, G&@, R.&,(

T5e G&$en R"e states t5at t5e !&"rt m"st ta:e t5e an/"a/e &% t5e ena!tment6 &r &% t5e reevant (&rti&n &% t5e ena!tment6 as a 95&e6 an$6 95ere t5e 9&r$s are !ear an$ "nam'i/"&"s6 m"st (a!e "(&n t5em t5eir  /rammati!a !&nstr"!ti&n an$ /ive t5em t5eir &r$inar8 e%%e!t. I% t5e 9&r$s &% an ena!tment are (re!ise an$ "nam'i/"&"s6 n& m&re is ne!essar8 t5an t& e,(&"n$ t5em in t5eir &r$inar8 an$ nat"ra sense. T5e G&$en R"e ma8 'e $e(arte$ %r&m i% a$5eren!e t& it 9&"$ ea$ t& an a's"r$it8 s& /arin/ t5at t5e a9ma:er !&"$ n&t 5ave inten$e$ it. In t5at event t5e !&"rt ma8 var8 &r m&$i%8 t5e an/"a/e s& as t& av&i$ t5e a's"r$it86 '"t n& %"rt5er.

))

&4(3

P+,./0  8?.+ 8 ,<.& ,+0+,(

T5e Le/isat"re is (res"me$ t& inten$ t5at a stat"te is t& 'e !&nstr"e$ as a 95&e an$ n&t (ie!emea6 in &t5er 9&r$s6 n& (r&visi&n is t& 'e !&nstr"e$ in is&ati&n '"t in t5e !&nte,t &% t5e 95&e stat"te. &4(4 P++> 8 + ?,+ ,/-,<+ )0,+0:,+&* /,+   .,(

T5e Le/isat"re is (res"me$ t& inten$ t5at6 t5e '&$8 &% a stat"te &r  stat"t&r8 (r&visi&n m"st 'e inter(rete$ %irst6 'e%&re res&rt is 5a$ t& (eri(5era matter in t5e stat"te. i.e. t5e &n/ tite6 (ream'e6 5ea$in/s &%  se!ti&ns &r (arts an$ %&&tn&tes. &4(5 U, 8 /,+ ,<+   ., 8+ 0.+0, 8 @/=.(

I% t5e Le/isat"re;s intenti&n !ann&t 'e "nam'i/"&"s8 as!ertaine$ in t5e %irst instan!e '8 re%eren!e t& t5e stat"te itse%6 res&rt ma8 'e 5a$ t& !ertain e,trinsi! materias (ertinent t& t5at intenti&n. e!t matter= are t& 'e /iven a "ni%&rm inter(retati&n. &4(7 U, 8 &,&?, :+> @ &,&?, ,,@,  @  .+> ,+0+,

 As res(e!ts e/isative 5ist&r86 t5is as(e!t &% t5e matter is ar/e8 /&verne$ "n$er item #.) a'&ve. As re/ar$s e/isative ante!e$ents6 t5e %&&9in/ $i!t"m is (ertinent “;n the interpretation of statutes a ourt ma'  have regard to those external and historial fats suh as the prior  existene of some law ustom or pratie whih are neessar' for the omprehension of the legislation and to onsider whether the statute whih is the su%,et matter of interpretation was intended to alter the existing law or merel' to odif' it!.

)

&5( P+,./0 ,+ .+> /,-&/% .+> +: 8 00,& @ .+> @+, &5(1 P+,./0 : ,,+&&> /, &/  ., +, /@+>

Uness t5e stat"te s(e!i%i!a8 !&n$&nes n&n-!&m(ian!e &r a&9s t5e e,tensi&n &% stat"t&r8 time imits6 s"!5 time imits are /enera8 t& 'e !&nstr"e$ as man$at&r8 5&9ever6 t5e same $&es n&t a((8 %&r stat"t&r8 time imits &n t5e State %&r t5e (er%&rman!e &% its &'i/ati&ns. &5(2 P+,./0 : 9:,+,  +: 8 00,&  ?, => .,  :, ,<,+, 8  S.+> 09,+% .: 00,& .0,@ .: ,<,+, .& :, @,,+/ 8 :, 00,&

T5is (res"m(ti&n ma8 'e &vert"rne$ '8 an e,(ress (r&visi&n in an A!t &%  C&n/ress t& t5e !&ntrar8. &5(3 P+,./0 :  .+> @+, +,.+,  =,?, )(,( .@&* +.

T5is (res"m(ti&n a((ies "ness a ontrar'  intenti&n is e,(ress8 in$i!ate$ in t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n. Use e,(ressi&ns s"!5 as Jin t5e &(ini&n &%K6 Jin t5e $is!reti&n &%K6 Jis satis%ie$ t5atK6 in &r$er t& ma:e !ear  t5at t5e $is!reti&n is e,er!ise$ s"'>e!tive8 "$/ment &% t5e (ers&n &r a"t5&rit8 "(&n 95&m t5e e/isat"re 'est&9s it6 an$ n&t (&tentia8 $e(en$ent "(&n t5e >"$/ment &%  t5e !&"rts=. I% a s"'>e!tive $is!reti&n is e,er!ise$ reas&na'8 it !ann&t 'e !5aen/e$ 'e%&re t5e !&"rts6 n&r !an t5e !&"rts e,er!ise t5eir &9n $is!reti&n in s"'stit"ti&n %&r a stat"t&ri8 'est&9e$ $is!reti&n t5at is e,er!ise$ reas&na'8. &6( P+,./0 +,& 0,8&&>  +0+, =@, @ +. ).+> + -.+>* @ ,/0&>/,  &6(1

P+,./0 :  0,+ &.@,  .+ 0,+

T5is im(&rtant (res"m(ti&n "risti!
)0

&6(2

P+,./0  0,+ :, +0+, ?,& 

 A !&m(an8 &r &t5er !&r(&rate '&$8 5as a se(arate e/a  persona  %r&m its mem'ers. Its a!ts6 &missi&ns6 ri/5ts an$ ia'iities are n&t attri'"te$ t& an8 &% its in$ivi$"a mem'ers &int8 9it5 t5e !&r(&rate '&$8 &r in$e(en$ent8 &% it. &6(3 P+,./0 8 + &=&> 8+ =+,: 8 +0+, .+>  @.,

C&r(&rate '&$ies !reate$ '8 stat"te 8  8 /,/=,+ 8 .+>  =@,

T5is ass"mes t5at t5e stat"t&r8 re7"irements %&r t5e a((&intment an$ 7"ai%i!ati&ns &% mem'ers &% stat"t&r8 '&$ies are t& 'e stri!t8 !&nstr"e$ a!!&r$in/86 95ere an8 7"esti&n arises a'&"t t5e vai$it8 &% t5eir a!ts in ("rs"an!e &% t5eir stat"t&r8 %"n!ti&ns6 an8 $e%e!t in t5eir a((&intment &r  7"ai%i!ati&ns at t5e time t5e a!t in 7"esti&n 9as e,er!ise$ is %ata t& t5at a!t t5e (res"m(ti&n !an 'e &vert"rne$ '8 an e,(ress (r&visi&n in t5e stat"te t& t5e !&ntrar8.
P+,./0 =. :, 0+0,+> 8 .+> +0+

T5e (r&(ert8 &% a stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&n is "timate8 State (r&(ert86 '"t is 5e$ '8 t5e stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&n in its &9n name. A!!&r$in/86 t5e stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&n !an $ea 9it5 s"!5 (r&(ert8 in t5e same 9a8 as an8 &t5er n&n-stat"t&r8 !&r(&rate '&$8
)1

!ir!"mstan!es e!t t& Re/"ati&n. T5e assets !ann&t 'e $is(&se$ &% t& an&t5er stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&n &r t& a 95&8 &r (art8 State-&9ne$ !&m(an8 re/istere$ in t5e C&m(anies Re/istr86 &r t& an8 &t5er entit8 &r in$ivi$"a6 "ness e,(ress (r&visi&n t& t5at e%%e!t is ma$e in t5e Stat"te 95i!5 terminates t5e stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&n. &6(6 P+,./0 : .+> +0+ +, ./.  +,&  :, S,

 A stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&n is a $istin!t e/a entit8 se(arate %r&m t5e State6 a'eit t5at it is an arm of the /tate. A!!&r$in/86 s"!5 stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&ns ma8 n&t s"e an$ 'e s"e$ i:e an8 &t5er n&n-State entit86 "ness t5ere are !&m(ein/ ("'i! (&i!8 reas&ns %&r $&in/ s&. T5is (res"m(ti&n ma8 'e &vert"rne$ '8 e,(ress 9&r$s in t5e %&"n$in/ stat"te in$i!atin/ t5at t5&se res(&nsi'e %&r t5e stat"te e,er!ise rea !&ntr& &ver  t5e $a8-t&-$a8 r"nnin/ &% t5e stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&n &6(7 P+,./0  .:+,(

.>

8 .+>

=@, + 

T5ere is n& (res"m(ti&n &% !&ntin"it8 &% stat"t&r8 '&$ies &r a"t5&rities a!!&r$in/8 i% a stat"te t5at !reate$ a stat"t&r8 '&$8 &r a"t5&rit8 is re(a!e$ '8 an&t5er stat"te !reatin/ t5e same &r a simiar '&$8 t5e ten"re &% &%%i!e &% t5e a"t5&rit8 in 7"esti&n &r &% t5e mem'ers &% t5e (revi&"s '&$8 is a"t&mati!a8 terminate$ "ness t5e !&ntrar8 intenti&n is e,(ress8 in$i!ate$ '8 t5e re(a!in/ stat"te &6( P+,./0 :  @, 8  .+> =@> +,.+, :, ?, 8  =&., /+> 8 :, /,/=,+ 8 : =@> 

J5ere an ena!tment a"t5&ri@es &r re7"ires an a!t &r t5in/ t& 'e $&ne !&e!tive8 '8 m&re t5an t9& (ers&ns6 a ma>&rit8 &% t5&se (ers&ns ma8 $& t5at a!t &r t5in/6 "ness a 7"&r"m %i,e$ '8 t5at ena!tment 5as n&t 'een %&rme$.K A!!&r$in/86 i% an ena!tment %ais t& s(e!i%8 a 7"&r"m &%  mem'ers 95& ma8 ma:e !&e!tive $e!isi&ns6 an a's&"te ma>&rit8 is re7"ire$ %&r !&e!tive $e!isi&n-ma:in/.

)2

&6(! P+,./0 : /,/=,+% @+,+% , @ ,<,+&  .@+ 8 .+> + 0+?, +0+, =@> +,  ,/0&>,, 8  : =@> 

Neit5er t5e mem'ers &% a stat"t&r8 !&r(&rate '&$8 n&r t5e $ire!t&rs &% a !&m(an8 are t& 'e re/ar$e$ as Jem(&8eesK &r Jsta%%K &% t5at '&$8 &r  !&m(an8 "ness t5e %&"n$in/ stat"te &r artiles of assoiation 6 as t5e !ase ma8 'e6 $e%ine t5em t& 'e s"!5 %&r !ertain s(e!i%i! &r /enera ("r(&ses. T5e same (res"m(ti&n a((ies t& t5e a/ents an$ e,terna a"$it&rs &% a stat"t&r8 !&r(&rate '&$8 &r !&m(an8. &6(1# P+,./0 =. .+> @ /0&,@ 09,+ 8 .+>  +0+, =@>  1C&nsistent8

9it5 t5e ?xpressio 9nius r"e &% stat"t&r8 inter(retati&n e!ts !a"se in its memorandum of assoiation =. A!!&r$in/86 i% it is $esire$ t& !ir!"mvent t5is (res"m(ti&n6 a statement m"st 'e in!"$e$ in t5e founding statute  t& t5e e%%e!t t5at t5e (&9ers s& itemi@e$ Js5a n&t 'e !&nstr"e$ as $er&/atin/ %r&m t5e /enerait8 &% (&9ers /iven t& t5e C&r(&rati&n. 25ere t5e %&"n$in/ stat"te $&es n&t !&ntain an in!&r(&rati&n !a"se &r $&es n&t itemi@e t5e (&9ers &% a stat"t&r8 '&$86 &r '&t56 '"t t5ere &t5er in$i!ati&ns in t5e stat"te t5at it a!ts in a !&r(&rate !a(a!it8 <%&r instan!e6 95ere it is em(&9ere$ t& em(&8 (ers&ns an$ !&ntr& its &9n %"n$s=6 it is ne!essari8 im(i!it t5at s"!5 a '&$8 5as  perpetual suession6 an$ is !a(a'e &% s"in/ an$ 'ein/ s"e$ in its !&r(&rate name6 an$ &% (er%&rmin/ a s"!5 a!ts as '&$ies !&r(&rate ma8 (er%&rm '8 a9. *&9ever6 t5e %" s!&(e &% s"!5 im(ie$ (&9ers is "n!ertain6 an$ $ra%ters m"st never eave s"!5 im(&rtant matters t& 'e im(ie$ '8 t5e !&"rts. &6(11 P9,+ 8 ?,/, 8 .+0&. 8.@ 8 .+> +0+, =@>   =, 8,++,@ 

 A stat"t&r8 !&r(&rate '&$8 $&es n&t 5ave %ree$&m t& invest its s"r("s %"n$s in an8 manner $esire$ '8 t5e '&ar$ &% t5at '&$8. S"!5 a (&9er  m"st 'e e,(ress8 (r&vi$e$ %&r in t5e %&"n$in/ stat"te6 an$ is "s"a8 e,er!ise$ 9it5 t5e (ri&r :n&9e$/e &r a((r&va &% e,e!"tive res(&nsi'e %&r a$ministerin/ t5e %&"n$in/ stat"te. &6(12 P+,./0 9: +,0,  .+> +.,,

 "st as a stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&n !ann&t 'e veste$ 9it5 t5e (&9ers &% a n&n16ommon law trustee powers not to %e inferred in favour of statutor' trustees

4

stat"t&r8 !&r(&rate (ers&n e,!e(t '8 e,(ress (r&visi&n in t5e %&"n$in/ stat"te6 s& as& t5e (&9ers &% a stat"t&r8 tr"stee <95et5er an in$ivi$"a &r !&r(&rate (ers&n= m"st n&t 'e in%erre$ t& 'e t5e same as t5&se &% a !&mm&n a9 tr"stee. T5e (&9ers &% t5e stat"t&r8 tr"stee in reati&n t& t5e tr"st <&%ten6 '"t n&t a9a8s6 a statutor' fund = m"st 'e e,(ress8 sti("ate$ in t5e stat"te6 eit5er in itemi@e$ %&rm <(re%era'8 in a s!5e$"e t& t5e stat"te= &r '8 a /enera (r&visi&n t5at t5e stat"t&r8 tr"stee Jma8 e,er!ise an8 (&9er !&n%erre$ "(&n a tr"stee '8 t5e !&mm&n a9K. 2Power of delegation of the administration of a statutor' trust not to %e inferred.

 A stat"t&r8 tr"stee m"st 5imse%5erse%itse% a$ministers t5e tr"st "ness t5ere is an e,(ress (r&visi&n in t5e stat"te esta'is5in/ t5e tr"st (ermittin/ t5e tr"stee t& $ee/ate t5e (&9er &% a$ministrati&n t& a s(e!i%ie$ (ers&n. 3eover'

of administration expenses from statutor' fundor trust %'  administrator of fund or trust not to %e inferred.  T5e e,(enses t5at a stat"t&r8

a$ministrat&r &r tr"stee in!"rs in a$ministerin/ a stat"t&r8 %"n$ &r &t5er stat"t&r8 tr"st !ann&t 'e !5ar/e$ &n &r re!&vere$ %r&m t5at %"n$ &r tr"st "ness e,(ress (r&visi&n t& t5at e%%e!t is ma$e in t5e stat"te esta'is5in/ t5e %"n$ &r tr"st in 7"esti&n. &6(13 P+,./0 =. .0, 8 ,/0&>,,

T5e s"s(ensi&n &% an em(&8ee6 95et5er em(&8e$ '8 t5e State6 a stat"t&r8 !&r(&rati&n &r a (rivate em(&8er6 $&es n&t a"t&mati!a8 entai t5e s"s(ensi&n &% t5at em(&8ee;s rem"nerati&n &r a&9an!es $"rin/ 5is5er s"s(ensi&n "ness t5e terms &% em(&8ment a((8in/ t& 5im5er  '8 virt"e &% an ena!tment &r t5e !&ntra!t &% em(&8ment s(e!i%i!a8 (r&vi$e %&r t5e a"t&mati! s"s(ensi&n &% 5is5er rem"nerati&n &r  a&9an!es in 95&e &r in (art. N&r m"st a s"s(ensi&n a%%e!tin/ t5e 95&e &r an8 (art &% em(&8ees rem"nerati&n &r a&9an!es 'e in$e%inite s& as t& am&"nt t& !&nstr"!tive $ismissa. &7( O:,+ 0+,./0 8 &,&?, , @ +.&, 8 .+> ,+0+, : +, +  .+> ,< &7(1

T:, M:,8 P+0&,(

 As sai$ a'&ve in !&nne!ti&n 9it5 t5e Car$ina Prin!i(e an$ t5e G&$en R"e6 t5e %irst re!&"rse in esta'is5in/ t5e Le/isat"re;s intenti&n m"st 'e t& t5e an/"a/e &% t5e Stat"te itse%. I% t5is $&es n&t s"%%i!e6 re!&"rse ma8 'e 5a$ t& e,trinsi! materias an$ t5e an/"a/e &% t5e Stat"te ma8 'e m&$i%ie$ t& arrive at t5e tr"e intenti&n &% t5e Le/isat"re. Y&" 9i n&te t5at t5e common element in both of these e&pedients is to establish the intention of the egislature . T5is is 95ere t5e Mis!5ie% R"e !&mes int& (a8. T5e m&st $ire!t 9a8 &% as!ertainin/ e/isative intenti&n is t& as: J5at 9as t5e mis!5ie% t5at e$ t& t5e (r&m"/ati&n &% t5e a9 'ein/ inter(rete$K In &t5er 9&r$s6 95at 9as t5e reas&n %&r t5e A!t &r 95at 3

(r&m(te$ t5e !5an/e in t5e &$ a9 T5is 7"esti&n is em'&$ie$ in t5e  >"st-menti&ne$ JMis!5ie% R"eK. T5e r"e 9as ai$ $&9n in an &@ E&: , re(&rte$ in 3)1#6 95ere t5e >"$/es e,(&"n$e$ t5e r"e as %&&9s “
was the law %efore the passing of the -tI

•What

was the mishief and the defet for whih the law did not provideI

•What

remed' has the Parliament resolved and appointed to ure the disease of  the ommonwealthI •The

true reason of the remed'.  -nd then the offie of all ,udges is alwa's to ma0e suh onstrution as shall suppress the mishief and advane the remed'.!  As a !&nse7"en!e

&% t5is r"e6I it is (res"me$ t5at t5e e/isat"re 9ants t5e !&"rts t& a((8 t5e a((r&(riate reme$8 (r&vi$e$ %&r t5e i$enti%ie$ mis!5ie%. &7(2 P+,./0 : :, &,&.+, ,@ :, .+  00&>   0.+0?, +.   .,

T5is is an e,(ressi&n in 'r&a$er terms &% t5e Mis!5ie% Prin!i(e. 5ere a stri!t &r itera !&nstr"!ti&n &% a stat"t&r8 (r&visi&n !ear8 !&n%i!ts 9it5 t5e evi$ent ("r(&se &% t5e stat"te6 an$ an aternative ("r(&sive !&nstr"!ti&n is n&t a's&"te8 e,!"$e$ '8 t5e (r&visi&n in iss"e6 t5e atter  !&nstr"!ti&n 9i 'e (re%erre$. &7(3 P+,./0 : :, +,0,& 8  ., ?&?, & :, +,0,& 8 > .=@+> &,& /@, .@,+ (

T& &vert"rn t5is (res"m(ti&n 8&" m"st insert a saving provision  in t5e re(a!in/ e/isati&n. &7(4

G,,+& 0+,./0 :  0,+ />  :+.:  , 

T5ere is a /enera (res"m(ti&n t5at a (ers&n ma8 a!t (ers&na8 &r  t5r&"/5 an a/ent6 an$ t5at in t5e atter !ase t5e a!ts &% t5e a/ent are t& 'e im("te$ t& t5e (ers&n as t5e (rin!i(a < Jui fait per aliumfait per se 6 J95&ever a!ts t5r&"/5 an&t5er a!ts 5imse%5erse%K=. A!!&r$in/86 an8 a!t re7"ire$ t& 'e (er%&rme$ in terms &% a stat"te6 s"!5 as t5e !&m(eti&n &r  s"'missi&n &% a %&rm &r ret"rn6 ma8 'e (er%&rme$ &n 'e5a% &% t5e (ers&n re7"ire$ t& !&m(ete &r s"'mit it t5r&"/5 t5e a/en!8 &% 5is &r 5er a98er  &r &t5er a"t5&ri@e$ re(resentative6 "ness t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n e,(i!it8

?

&r '8 ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n re7"ires &t5er9ise. T5is (res"m(ti&n $&es n&t a((8 t& stat"t&r8 &%%i!e-'earers &r t& t5e e,er!ise &% !ertain stat"t&r8 (&9ers
s"((8 a 9&r$ &r (5rase t5at 5as mani%est8 'een &mitte$ %r&m a (r&visi&n t5r&"/5 a $ra%ter;s &r (rinter;s err&r •

trans(&se 9&r$s &r !a"ses in a senten!e 95ere t5e senten!e is 9it5&"t meanin/ as it stan$s •

•

s"((86 &mit &r trans(&se ("n!t"ati&n mar:s t& ren$er senten!es meanin/%". *&9ever6 t5ere are  !&n$iti&ns %&r t5e (res"m(ti&n;s a((i!ati&n '8 t5e !&"rts6 name8 t5at



3T5e mis!5ie% inten$e$ t& 'e reme$ie$ '8 t5e stat"te m"st 'e !a(a'e &%  (re!ise $eterminati&n ?T5e &missi&n &n t5e (art &% t5e $ra%ter &r (rinter m"st 'e a((arent an$ ina$vertent T5e an/"a/e t5at t5e e/isat"re$ra%ter 9&"$ 5ave em(&8e$ m"st 'e !a(a'e &% 'ein/ $etermine$ 9it5 !ertaint8. &7(7

P+,./0 =. +.&, 8 ,?@,,

In >"$i!ia &r 7"asi->"$i!ia (r&!ee$in/s !&n$"!te$ ("rs"ant t& an8 stat"te6 t5e &r$inar8 !&mm&n a9 r"es &% evi$en!e a((8 "ness t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n e,(ress8 e,!"$es &r m&$i%ies t5em. &7( P+,./0  :, .> 8 S, 0, @  ,+/& =,,8

T5ere is a (res"m(ti&n a/ainst t5e !&ntin"ati&n &% t5e (ensi&n ri/5ts &%  mem'ers &% t5e P"'i! Servi!e 95& are trans%erre$ &"t &% t5e P"'i! Servi!e t& s&me &t5er %&rm &% $ire!t &r in$ire!t State em(&8ment. 5ere a stat"te trans%ers mem'ers &% t5e P"'i! Servi!e t& t5e em(&8ment &% a stat"t&r8 '&$86 t5e mem'ers in 7"esti&n 9i 'e!&me entite$ &n8 t& t5&se termina 'ene%its a((i!a'e t& t5e a'&iti&n &% t5eir &%%i!es6 "ness t5e stat"te (r&vi$es %&r t5e (reservati&n &r trans%er &% t5e P"'i! Servi!e (ensi&n ri/5ts &% s"!5 mem'ers. &( OTHER STATUTORY PRESUMPTIONS 8.1

&(1

G,,+& N.+, 8 P+,./0

On (res"m(ti&nsT5e8 are n&t re%e!ti&ns 95i!5 are !a(a'e &%  $eterminin/ t5e !&nstr"!ti&n &% t5e A!t &n!e it 5as 'een (asse$6 "ness t5ere is s&met5in/ t5at &ne !an a8 5&$ &% in t5e !&nte,t &% t5e A!t 95i!5  >"sti%ies t5e intr&$"!ti&n &% t5e e,!e(ti&n s&"/5t %&r. Mere8 t& sa8 t5at Pariament !ann&t 'e (res"me$ t& 5ave inten$e$ t& 'rin/ a'&"t a !&nse7"en!e 95i!5 man8 (e&(e mi/5t t5in: t& 'e "n>"st is n&t6 in m8 &(ini&n6 a (rin!i(e &% !&nstr"!ti&n %&r t5is ("r(&se. In (&int &% %a!t6 95atever inn&!en!e &% vie9 ma8 5ave 'een a&9a'e t& t5e a98ers &%  t5e 31t5 an$ 32t5 !ent"ries6 t5e ?4t5 !ent"r8 a98er is entite$ t& %e9 ass"m(ti&ns in t5is %ie$. It is n&t &(en t& 5im t& i/n&re t5e %a!t t5at t5e Le/isat"re 5as &%ten s5&9n in$i%%eren!e t& t5e asserti&n &% ri/5ts 95i!5 C&"rts &% La9 5ave 'een a!!"st&me$ t& re!&/ni@e an$ en%&r!e an$ t5at it 5as &%ten e,!"$e$ t5e a"t5&rit8 &% C&"rts &% La9 in %av&r &% &t5er  (re%erre$ tri'"nas (er L&r$ Ra$!i%%e Smit5 <at5een R&se= v East E&e R"ra DC 32) U*L ?
&(2

P+,./0 8 :, P+0&, 8 L,&> 

T5e (rin!i(e &% e/ait8 in stat"t&r8 inter(retati&n 5as a &n/ 5ist&r8 in  A"straian a96 stret!5in/ 'a!: t& t5e *i/5 C&"rt !ase &% P&tter v Mina5an in 3241. In Ee!tr&", *&me Pr&$"!ts Pt8 Lt$ v AU6 Gees&n C s(&:e &% t5e (rin!i(e &% e/ait8 as a 9&r:in/ 58(&t5esis 'et9een Pariament an$ t5e !&"rts6 an$ an as(e!t &% t5e r"e &% a9. T5e !&"rts 9ere n&t t& im("te an intenti&n t& Ha'r&/ate &r !"rtai !ertain 5"man ri/5ts &r  %ree$&ms "ness s"!5 an intenti&n is !ear8 mani%este$H. Re!ent *i/5 C&"rt $e!isi&ns s"//est t5at mem'ers &% t5e ne9 'en!5 $& n&t s5are t5e %&rmer C5ie% "sti!es 5i/5 reveren!e %&r t5e (rin!i(e6 an$ t5at t5e C&"rts (revi&"s insisten!e &n "nam'i/"&"s an/"a/e t& !"rtai %"n$amenta ri/5ts ma8 'e 9anin/. D,?,&0/, 8 :, 0+0&, 8 &,&>

 As e/isati&n in!reasin/8 in%itrate$ areas (revi&"s8 t5e $&main &% t5e !&mm&n a9 $"rin/ t5e t9entiet5 !ent"r86 t5e !&"rts sta/e$ a rear /"ar$ a!ti&n t& $e%en$ t5e e/a!8 &% t5e a9 $eve&(e$ '8 >"$/es &ver  !ent"ries. Vari&"s ri/5ts6 $es!ri'e$ eit5er as %"n$amenta &r v"nera'e6 m&st8 emanatin/ %r&m t5e !&mm&n a96 9ere H(r&te!te$H '8 a re7"irement im(&se$ '8 t5e !&"rts t5at Pariaments e,5i'it a !ear  intenti&n t& &verri$e t5em n& /enera 9&r$s 9&"$ 'e en&"/5 %&r t5e !&"rts t& %in$ an intenti&n &n t5e (art &% t5e e/isat&rs t& ("s5 t5&se ri/5ts asi$e. T5is 9as $es!ri'e$ as t5e H(rin!i(e &% e/ait8H6 &r at &t5er  times6 t5e H!ear statement (rin!i(eH.  At5&"/5 (&se$ as re(resentin/ t5e intenti&n &% Pariament6 in man8 !ases t5e a!t"a intenti&n &% t5&se 'rin/in/ t5e e/isati&n int& e%%e!t 5a$ itte &r n& 'earin/ &n t5e a((r&a!5 &% t5e !&"rts. In C&!& v T5e "een6 it 9as re(resente$ as a matter &% (rin!i(e Ht5e !&"rts s5&"$ n&t im("te t& t5e e/isat"re an intenti&n t& inter%ere 9it5 %"n$amenta ri/5tsH an$ H!"ria insisten!e &n a !ear e,(ressi&n &% an "nmista:a'e an$ "nam'i/"&"s intenti&n t& a'r&/ate &r !"rtai a %"n$amenta %ree$&m 9i en5an!e t5e (ariamentar8 (r&!essH. T5e %irst rea %a9 9it5 t5is H(rin!i(e &% e/ait8H 9as t5at t5e 9ei/5t &%  e,(erien!e s5&9e$ t5at e/isat&rs $i$ in %a!t inten$ t& m&$i%86 a$>"st an$6 in s&me !ases6 rem&ve ri/5ts t5at 5a$ (revi&"s8 'een en>&8e$ "n$er t5e !&mm&n a9. T5at t5e !&"rts6 in reait86 &n8 /ave (assin/ re%eren!e t& t5e intenti&n &% t5e e/isat&rs meant t5at t5is !&"$ &n8 !a"se a /an!in/ '&9 t& t5e (rin!i(e &% e/ait8. )

T:, +9 /0+, 8 :, 9+@ 8 :, .,

 A m&re seri&"s '&9 t& t5e (rin!i(e &% e/ait8 5as 'een $eat 9it5 t5e /r&9in/ attenti&n t& t5e te,t in $is!ernin/ e/isative intenti&n. C&nsistent 9it5 t5e semina $e!isi&n in Pr&>e!t B"e S:86 t5e %&!"s is sti &n "n$erstan$in/ t5e ("r(&se &% a stat"te as a means &% inter(retin/ its $is!rete (arts. *&9ever6 t5e em(5asis m&re re!ent8 5as 'een &n %in$in/ t5e ("r(&se 9it5in t5e te,t itse%. *en!e6 in Certain L&8$s Un$er9riters S"'s!ri'in/ t& C&ntra!t N&. I*44AAS v Cr&ss6 it 9as sai$ t5at Ht5e ("r(&se &% a stat"te resi$es in its te,t an$ str"!t"reH an$ in La!e8 v  Att&rne8-Genera &% "eensan$6 Ht5e ("r(&se &% a stat"te is n&t s&met5in/ 95i!5 e,ists &"tsi$e &% t5e stat"teH. Im(&rtant86 t5is a((ears t& 5ave e$ s&me mem'ers &% t5e !"rrent *i/5 C&"rt 'en!5 t& a((r&a!5 7"esti&ns &% t5e e,!"si&n &% %"n$amenta ri/5ts in a $i%%erent 9a8 rat5er t5an i$enti%8in/ t5e reevant ri/5t &r (rin!i(e an$ &&:in/ %&r !ear 9&r$s e,!"$in/ it6 s&me 5ave instea$ starte$ 9it5 a !&nstr"!ti&n &% t5e te,t an$ t5en as:e$ t5e 7"esti&n &% 95et5er t5ere remains an8 Hs(a!eH %&r t5e re!&/niti&n &% t5e reevant ri/5t &r (rin!i(e. T5e !earest e,am(es &% t5is a((r&a!5 !an 'e seen in Painti%% S34?433 v Minister %&r Immi/rati&n an$ Lee v NS Crime C&mmissi&n. Pri&r t& Painti%% S34?4336 in Saee$ v Minister %&r Immi/rati&n an$ Citi@ens5i(6 %ive mem'ers &% t5e *i/5 C&"rt em(5asi@e$ t5e %"n$amenta nat"re &% nat"ra >"sti!e an$ t5e nee$ %&r !ear e,(ressi&n &% an intenti&n t& e,!"$e &r imit t5&se re7"irements. T5e8 em(5asi@e$ t5at t5e !ear  intenti&n 5a$ t& 'e %&"n$ in t5e stat"te6 an$ n&t e,trinsi! materias6 n& matter 5&9 !ear an$ em(5ati! statement in s"!5 materias mi/5t 'e. T5ere%&re6 even !ear 9&r$s t5at attem(te$ t& e,!"$e t5e &'i/ati&ns &%  nat"ra >"sti!e 9ere rea$ restri!tive8 s& as n&t t& a((8 in t5e !ir!"mstan!es &% t5at !ase. *&9ever6 in Painti%% S34?433 t5ere 9as a s"%%i!ient8 !ear e/isative intenti&n t& e,!"$e t5e &'i/ati&ns &% (r&!e$"ra %airness6 $es(ite t5e a'sen!e &% e,(ress 9&r$s t& t5at e%%e!t. T5is intenti&n 9as $erive$ %r&m t5e !"m"ative e%%e!t &% severa str"!t"ra %eat"res &% t5e stat"t&r8 s!5eme6 in!"$in/ t5e (ri&r 5earin/ (r&vi$e$ t& t5e a((i!ants6 t5e a!: &%  an8 &'i/ati&n &n t5e Minister t& !&nsi$er t5e a((i!ati&ns an$ t5e nee$ t& ta'e in Pariament an8 $e!isi&ns t& /rant t5e visas in 7"esti&n.



 A simiar !&m(aris&n !an 'e ma$e 'et9een t5e $e!isi&n in +0 v  A"straian Crime C&mmissi&n an$ t5e $e!isi&n t5at %&&9e$ in Lee. B&t5 !ases !&n!erne$ 7"esti&nin/ (&9ers in !rimina-reate$ matters6 an$ 95et5er t5&se (&9ers !&"$ 'e e,er!ise$ 95ere t5e (ers&n 'ein/ 7"esti&ne$ 5a$ 'een !5ar/e$ 9it5 a !rimina &%%ense. In +0 an$ Lee t5ere 9as !&nsi$era'e $isa/reement 'et9een t5e vari&"s  >"$/es &n t5e a((i!ati&n &% t5e (rin!i(e a/ainst se%-in!riminati&n. In +06 a ma>&rit8 %&"n$ t5at t5e 7"esti&nin/ (&9er !&"$ n&t 'e "se$ t& re7"ire ans9ers %r&m a (ers&n 95& 5a$ 'een !5ar/e$ 9it5 an &%%ense. In Lee6 Ga/eer an$ eane 6 95& 9ere t5e &n8 >"$/es 95& $i$ n&t sit &n t5e +0 !ase6 t"rne$ t5e ta'es. A%ter re%errin/ t& t5e r&e &% !&nte,t in a((8in/ t5e (rin!i(e &% e/ait86 t5eir *&n&rs re!&/ni@e$ t5at t5ere ma8 'e He/itimate e/isative >"$/ments t5at6 %&r !&m(ein/ reas&ns &% ("'i! interest6H ea$ t& an inter%eren!e 9it5 t5e ri/5ts &r a$vanta/es in 7"esti&n HT5e inter(retative stri!t"res &% t5e e/ait8 (rin!i(e s5&"$ n&t 'e a((ie$ s& ri/i$8 as t& 5ave a s!er&ti! e%%e!t &n e/itimate inn&vati&n '8 t5e e/isat"re t& meet ne9 !5aen/es t& t5e inte/rit8 &% t5e s8stem &%   >"sti!e.H e are 8et t& see 95et5er t5e *i/5 C&"rt !&ntin"es $&9n t5e (at5 'e/"n '8 Painti%% S34?433 an$ Lee. F&r n&96 at east6 t5ese !ases a((ear t& mar: an im(&rtant t"rnin/ (&int in t5e (rin!i(e &% e/ait8.
P+,./0  I8+,/, 8 F.@/,& R:

JA %"n$amenta ri/5t is &ne e,(i!it8 &r im(i!it8 im(ie$ /"arantee$ '8 t5e !&nstit"ti&n.K Baar$ v. C&mm&n9eat56 ??1 Va. ?3 <321#=. One !an (&int t& &t5er Hr"es &% !&nstr"!ti&nH 95i!5 re7"ire !ear an$ "nam'i/"&"s 9&r$s 'e%&re a stat"t&r8 (r&visi&n 9i 'e !&nstr"e$ as $is(a8in/ a e/isative intent t& a!5ieve a (arti!"ar res"t. E,am(es &% s"!5 Hr"esH are t5&se reatin/ t& t5e !&nstr"!ti&n &% a stat"te 95i!5 9&"$ a'&is5 &r m&$i%8 %"n$amenta !&mm&n a9 (rin!i(es &r  ri/5ts
ass"m(ti&n &% >"ris$i!ti&n => G,,+& 9+@ 8 S.,

Un$er t5e (rin!i(e &% e/ait86 it is (res"me$ t5at C&n/ress $&es n&t inten$ t5e a'r&/ati&n &% %"n$amenta ri/5ts an$ %ree$&ms e!t t& t5e 'asi! ri/5ts &% t5e in$ivi$"aH &(5

P+,./0 8 L=,+> @ O.I,+& C?,

 As (er t5e E"r&(ean C&nventi&n &% *"man Ri/5t6 Art. ) $eas 9it5 i'ert8 JEver8&ne 5as t5e ri/5t t& i'ert8 an$ se!"rit8 &% (ers&n. N& &ne s5a 'e $e(rive$ &% 5is i'ert8 save in t5e %&&9in/ !ases an$ in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 a (r&!e$"re (res!ri'e$ '8 a9K. T5e (res"m(ti&n &% i'ert8 &% an

1

in$ivi$"a is 'ase$ &n t5is !&nventi&n. It &(erates as (er t5e internati&na &'i/ati&ns. Pres"m(ti&n &% Li'ert8 an$ On"s 9as a!!e(te$ '8 t5e (arties t5at t5ere is a (res"m(ti&n in %av&r &% i'ert8 at !&mm&n a9 in S!&tan$ as 9e as in En/an$ an$ n& $&"'t &t5er >"ris$i!ti&n. T5is 5as n&t 'een rem&ve$ '8 (ara/ra(5 ? &% S!5e$"e  t& t5e 3203 A!t 95i!5 $&es n&t !reate a (res"m(ti&n in %av&r &% $etenti&n &n !&m(eti&n &% a senten!e &%  im(ris&nment. T5e &n"s ies &n t5e Se!retar8 &% State t& >"sti%8 $etenti&n an$ !&ntin"e$ $etenti&n (en$in/ rem&va. &(6 C+9 L=&>I,+& P,+0,?, % C:  A00+:

T5e /enera r"e is t5at (rer&/atives !ann&t 'e a%%e!te$ &r (arte$ 9it5 '8 t5e Cr&9n6 e,!e(t '8 e,(ress stat"t&r8 a"t5&rit8. T5e (rer&/ative ri/5t !an 'e ta:en a9a8 '8 a9 'e!a"se t5e a9 is ma$e '8 t5e Cr&9n 9it5 t5e assent &% t5e L&r$s an$ t5e C&mm&ns. It !an 'e ta:en a9a8 &n8 '8 a9 t& 95i!5 t5e Cr&9n is a (art8. 5et5er a (arti!"ar stat"te 5as ta:en a9a8 s"!5 ri/5t (ertains t& t5e $&main &% t5e r"e &% !&nstr"!ti&n. T5e reevant r"e &% !&nstr"!ti&n ev&ve$ '8 >"$i!ia $e!isi&ns in En/an$ ma8 'e state$ t5"s HAt a events6 t5e Cr&9n is n&t rea!5e$ e,!e(t '8 e,(ress 9&r$s &r '8 ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n in an8 !ase 95ere it 9&"$ 'e &"ste$ &% an e,istin/ (rer&/ative &r interest.H It is (res"me$ t5at t5e e/isat"re $&es n&t inten$ t& $e(rive t5e Cr&9n &% an8 (rer&/ative6 ri/5t &r (r&(ert86 "ness it e,(resses its intenti&n t& $& s& in e,(i!it terms6 &r ma:es t5e in%eren!e irresisti'e. T5e s"'stantive r"e &% a9 is t5at t5e (rer&/ative &% t5e Cr&9n !an &n8 'e ta:en a9a8 '8 a9. T5e r"e &% !&nstr"!ti&n ev&ve$ '8 t5e !&"rts t& as!ertain t5e e/isative intenti&n is6 t5at it is (res"me$ t5at a stat"te 5as n&t ta:en a9a8 t5e (res!ri(tive ri/5t "ness it 5as e,(ress8 &r '8 ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n $&ne s&. A r"e &% a96 e./.6 t5e R"e a/ainst Per(et"ities &r t5e R"e in S5ee8s !ase
2

T5ese !an&ns $& n&t &verri$e t5e an/"a/e &% a stat"te 95ere t5e an/"a/e is !ear  t5e8 are &n8 /"i$es t& ena'e "s t& "n$erstan$ 95at is in%erentia. In ea!5 !ase t5e A!t &% Pariament is a (&9er%"6 an$ 95en its meanin/ is "ne7"iv&!a8 e,(resse$ t5e ne!essit8 %&r r"es &%  !&nstr"!ti&n $isa((ears an$ rea!5es its vanis5in/ (&int.H T5e same (rin!i(e 9as state$ '8 B5as58am A88an/ar6 .6 in Be v. T5e M"ni!i(a C&mmissi&ners %&r t5e Cit8 &% Ma$ras t5"s  HT5ese !&m(en$i&"s !an&ns &% inter(retati&n 95i!5 are in t5e nat"re &%  ma,ims !an &n8 'e re/ar$e$ as mere /"i$es t& t5e inter(retati&n &%  Stat"tes an$ &"/5t n&t t& 'e a((ie$ as i% t5e8 9ere stat"t&r8 !a"ses6 ena!te$ 9it5 a t5e (re!isi&n an$ (r&vis&s &% an Inter(retati&n A!t.H Fran%"rter6 .6 sai$ t& t5e same e%%e!t in Unite$ States v. Unite$ Mine &r:ers &% Ameri!a t5"s HAt 'est6 t5is !an&n6 i:e &t5er /eneraities a'&"t stat"t&r8 !&nstr"!ti&n6 is n&t a r"e &% a9. 5atever  (ers"asiveness it ma8 5ave in !&nstr"in/ a (arti!"ar stat"te $erives %r&m t5e s"'>e!t-matter an$ t5e terms &% t5e ena!tment in its t&ta envir&nment.HEven in En/an$ t5is r"e &% inter(retati&n 5as n&t 'een treate$ as in%e,i'e. It is /ra$"a8 &sin/ /r&"n$ in man8 'ran!5es &% a9. T5e in!&n/r"it8 &% t5e r"e &% $is!riminati&n in %av&r &% t5e Cr&9n 9as (&inte$ &"t '8 Ganvie L. iiams in 5is treatise &n HCr&9n Pr&!ee$in/sH6 at (. )  HT5e r"e &ri/inate$ in t5e Mi$$e A/es6 95en it (er5a(s 5a$ s&me  >"sti%i!ati&n. Its s"rviva6 5&9ever6 is $"e t& itte '"t t5e vis ine rtiae.H Hit5 t5e /reat e,tensi&n in t5e a!tivities &% t5e State an$ t5e n"m'er &%  servants em(&8e$ '8 it6 an$ 9it5 t5e m&$ern i$ea6 e,(resse$ in t5e Cr&9n Pr&!ee$in/s A!t6 !&m(are in t5is !&nne!ti&n Art. 44 &% &"r  C&nstit"ti&n6 Ht5at t5e State s5&"$ 'e a!!&"nta'e in 9i$e meas"re t& t5e a96 t5e (res"m(ti&n s5&"$ 'e t5at a stat"te 'in$s t5e Cr&9n rat5er  t5an it $&es n&t.HT5e ne,t 7"esti&n is6 5&9 %ar an$ t& 95at e,tent t5e !&mm&n a9 &% En/an$ reatin/ t& t5e (rer&/atives &% t5e Cr&9n 5as 'een a!!e(te$ as t5e a9 &% &"r !&"ntr8 N&t5in/ 5as 'een (a!e$ 'e%&re "s t& s5&9 t5at t5e entire '&$8 &% t5e !&mm&n a9 (ertainin/ t& (rer&/atives 9as a!!e(te$ as t5e a9 t5r&"/5&"t In$ia. In$ia at t5e reevant time !&m(rise$ Pr&vin!es an$ Native States. As B5as58am  A88an/ar6 .6 (&inte$ &"t in Be v. T5e M"ni!i(a C&mmissi&ners %&r t5e Cit8 &% Ma$rasHt5e (rer&/atives &% t5e Cr&9n in In$ia-a !&"ntr8 in 95i!5 t5e tite &% t5e Britis5 Cr&9n is &% a ver8 mi,e$ !5ara!ter-ma8 var8 in $i%%erent (r&vin!es6 as as& in t5e Presi$en!8 t&9ns as $istin/"is5e$ %r&m t5e m&%"ssi.

04

T5e $eterminati&n6 9it5 an8t5in/ i:e e/a (re!isi&n6 &% a t5e (rer&/atives &% t5e Britis5 Cr&9n in In$ia is '8 n& means an eas8 tas:.H It is 9e-:n&9n t5at t5e C&mm&n a9 &% En/an$ 9as a((ie$ as s"!5 in t5e &ri/ina si$es &% t5e *i/5 C&"rts &% Ca!"tta6 B&m'a8 an$ Ma$ras6 an$ t5at in t5e m&%"ssi !&"rts t5e (rin!i(es em'&$ie$ in t5e !&mm&n a9 9ere inv&:e$ in a((r&(riate !ases &n t5e /r&"n$ &% >"sti!e6 e7"it8 an$ /&&$ !&ns!ien!e. It !ann&t6 t5ere%&re6 'e (&site$ t5at eit5er t5e entire '&$8 &% !&mm&n a9 &% En/an$ reatin/ t& (rer&/atives &% t5e in/ &r  even t5e r"e &% !&nstr"!ti&n as %&rmin/ (art &% t5at a9 9as a!!e(te$ as a9 in ever8 (art &% t5e !&"ntr8. It 5as t& 'e esta'is5e$ 95enever a 7"esti&n arises as t& 95at (art &% t5e !&mm&n a9 9as a!!e(te$ as t5e a9 in a (arti!"ar (art &% t5e !&"ntr8. &(7 P+,./0 8 S?,+, I//.>( USA 2 D., P+, 2 C,0 8 S?,+,>

Pres"m(ti&n &% S&verei/n Imm"nit8 6 &r !r&9n imm"nit86 is a t8(e &%  imm"nit8 t5at in !&mm&n a9 >"ris$i!ti&ns tra!es its &ri/ins %r&m ear8 En/is5 a9. Genera8 s(ea:in/ it is t5e $&!trine t5at t5e s&verei/n &r  state !ann&t !&mmit a e/a 9r&n/ an$ is imm"ne %r&m !ivi s"it &r  !rimina (r&se!"ti&n 5en!e t5e sa8in/6 Ht5e :in/ <&r 7"een= !an $& n& 9r&n/H. T5ere is a str&n/ (res"m(ti&n &% s&verei/n imm"nit8 in US. T5e (res"m(ti&n is i:e n&n a((i!a'iit8 &% stat"tes a/ainst t5e Cr&9n &r t5at n& stat"te s5a a((8 t& !r&9n "ness it is e,(ress8 state$ s&. T5e %e$era /&vernment 5as s&verei/n imm"nit8 an$ ma8 n&t 'e s"e$ "ness it 5as 9aive$ its imm"nit8 &r !&nsente$ t& s"it. T5e Unite$ States 5as 9aive$ s&verei/n imm"nit8 t& a imite$ e,tent6 main8 t5r&"/5 t5e Fe$era T&rt Caims A!t6 95i!5 9aives t5e imm"nit8 i% a t&rt"&"s a!t &% a %e$era em(&8ee !a"ses $ama/e6 an$ t5e T"!:er A!t6 95i!5 9aives t5e imm"nit8 &ver !aims arisin/ &"t &% !&ntra!ts t& 95i!5 t5e %e$era /&vernment is a (art8. In *ans v. L&"isiana6 t5e S"(reme C&"rt &% t5e Unite$ States 5e$ t5at t5e Eevent5 Amen$ment re-a%%irms t5at states (&ssess s&verei/n imm"nit8 an$ are t5ere%&re /enera8 imm"ne %r&m 'ein/ s"e$ in %e$era !&"rt 9it5&"t t5eir !&nsent. In ater !ases6 t5e S"(reme C&"rt 5as stren/t5ene$ state s&verei/n imm"nit8 !&nsi$era'8. In Bat!5%&r$ v. Native Via/e &% N&ata:6 t5e !&"rt e,(aine$ t5at 9e 5ave "n$erst&&$ t5e Eevent5 Amen$ment t& stan$ n&t s& m"!5 %&r 95at it sa8s6 '"t %&r t5e (res"((&siti&n &% &"r !&nstit"ti&na str"!t"re 95i!5 it !&n%irms t5at t5e

03

States entere$ t5e %e$era s8stem 9it5 t5eir s&verei/nt8 inta!t t5at t5e  >"$i!ia a"t5&rit8 in Arti!e III is imite$ '8 t5is s&verei/nt86 an$ t5at a State 9i t5ere%&re n&t 'e s"'>e!t t& s"it in %e$era !&"rt "ness it 5as !&nsente$ t& s"it6 eit5er e,(ress8 &r in t5e H(an &% t5e !&nventi&n.H In  A$en v. Maine6 t5e C&"rt e,(aine$ t5at 95ie it 5as s&metimes re%erre$ t& t5e States; imm"nit8 %r&m s"it as HEevent5 Amen$ment imm"nit8 6H t5at (5rase is a !&nvenient s5&rt5an$ '"t s&met5in/ &% a misn&mer6 'e!a"se t5e s&verei/n imm"nit8 &% t5e States neit5er $erives %r&m n&r is imite$ '8 t5e terms &% t5e Eevent5 Amen$ment. Rat5er6 as t5e C&nstit"ti&ns str"!t"re6 an$ its 5ist&r86 an$ t5e a"t5&ritative inter(retati&ns '8 t5is C&"rt ma:e !ear6 t5e States; imm"nit8 %r&m s"it is a %"n$amenta as(e!t &% t5e s&verei/nt8 95i!5 t5e States en>&8e$ 'e%&re t5e rati%i!ati&n &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 an$ 95i!5 t5e8 retain t&$a8 "ris$i!ti&n in t5&se instan!es in 95i!5 s"'stantive a9 area$8 (r&vi$es a reme$8. A!!&r$in/86 t5e (r&visi&ns &% t5e man$am"s stat"te $& n&t 9aive t5e s&verei/n imm"nit8 &% t5e Unite$ States. C&//es5a Dev. C&r(. v. Diam&n$6 3212 USCA3 #3 11# F.?$ 36  <3st Cir.3212= D&e v. Civietti6 3214 USCA? 1) ) F.?$ 116 2#
0?

same extent. *loan *hip'ards 6orp. v. 9.*. *hipping Dd. ?merg.
T5e !&"rt in t5is !ase as& ma$e an &'servati&n in re/ar$ t& a test in t5is re/ar$ as 95at is n&t S&verei/n in t5e meanin/ &% t5e test. It &'serve$ t5"s “This is a unitar' test %ut %oth the ondut hallenged and the relief  sought ma' have a %earing on its outome. -s for ondut Cif the KhallengedL ations of an offier do not onflit with the terms of his valid statutor' authorit' then the' are the ations of the sovereignC  and ome under the protetive um%rella of sovereign immunit' 7arson v. /omesti F
P+,./0 8 H+/> 9: O:,+ .,

It is a 'asi! (res"m(ti&n t5at t5e e/isat"re :n&9s t5e e,istin/ state &%  a9s an$ is 9e a9are &% t5e (revi&"s ena!tments. *en!e a (res"m(ti&n t5at t5e stat"te s5&"$ 'e !ear8 9&r$e$ s& as t& ma:e it 5arm&ni&"s 9it5 t5e (r&visi&ns &% t5e e,istin/ stat"tes. Le/isati&n ta:es (a!e a/ainst t5e 'a!:/r&"n$ &% %"n$amenta 0

 >"ris(r"$entia vie9(&ints6 e/a !&n!e(ts6 an$ /enera a9s. Le/isative 5arm&n8 re7"ires an inter(reter t& !&nsi$er t5&se vie9(&ints6 in &r$er t& %&rm"ate a e/isative ("r(&se !&nsistent 9it5 t5em. Le/isative 5arm&n8 ass"mes t5at $i%%erent stat"tes 5ave $i%%erent r&es t5at inter!&nne!t an$ %a!iitate t5e (r&(er %"n!ti&nin/ &% e/isati&n as a 95&e. Be!a"se &%  !&n%i!tin/ stat"t&r8 (r&visi&ns "n$ermine e/isative 5arm&n8 inter(retati&n s5&"$ tr8 t& av&i$ interna !&n%i!t 'et9een $i%%erent (ie!es &% e/isati&n. T5e ass"m(ti&n is t5at ("r(&se &% t5e vari&"s stat"tes is t& !reate interna 5arm&n8 an$ (revent a %r&nta !&n%i!t t5at 9&"$ im(i!it8 r&' &ne stat"te &% its vai$it8. B8 t5e same (rin!i(e6 inter(retati&n s5&"$ n&t /ive a stat"te a meanin/ t5at ren$ers an&t5er stat"te !&m(ete8 s"(er%"&"s. &P+,./0 =. E88,?, D, 8 S., 8.1

 A!t !&mes int& F&r!e6 t5e Stat"te 'e!&mes La9 %r&m t5e $ate &% Si/nin/. B"t6 t5at r"e &% t5"m' is mere8 an ai$ t& as!ertainin/ e/isative intent. Utimate86 Ha'sent a !ear mani%estati&n &% !&ntrar8 intent6 a ne98ena!te$ &r revise$ stat"te is (res"me$ t& 'e 5arm&ni&"s 9it5 e,istin/ a9 an$ its >"$i!ia !&nstr"!ti&n.H &5ns&n v. First Nat Ban:6 321 USCA1 04# 032 F.?$ ?046 ?00 <1t5 Cir.321=. &(1# P+,./0 : P+&/, A R,=&>

F"n$amenta t& t5e r"e &% a9 is t5e n&ti&n t5at /&vernment a!ts is in a rati&na rat5er t5an an ar'itrar8 manner. T5e !&nstit"ti&na State is t5e n&ti&n t5at /&vernment a!ts is in a rati&na rat5er t5an an ar'itrar8 manner. T5e C&nstit"ti&n State is e,(e!te$ t& a!t in a rati&na manner. It s5&"$ n&t re/"ate in an ar'itrar8 manner &r mani%est Jna:e$ (re%eren!esK t5at serve n& e/itimate /&vernmenta ("r(&se6 %&r 95at 9&"$ 'e in!&nsistent 9it5 t5e r"e &% a9 an$ t5e %"n$amenta (remises &% t5e !&nstit"ti&na State. T5is 5as 'een sai$ t& (r&m&te t5e nee$ %&r t5e /&vernmenta a!ti&n t& reate t& a $e%ensi'e visi&n &% t5e ("'i! /&&$6 as 9e as t& en5an!e t5e !&5eren!e an$ inte/rit8 &% e/isati&n. T5e !&nstit"ti&na &r$er !&nstit"tes a 'ri$/e a9a8 %r&m a !"t"re &% a"t5&rit8 t& a !"t"re &%   >"sti%i!ati&n. O"r C&nstit"ti&n a!!&r$in/8 re7"ires t5at a e/isati&n 'e rati&na8 reate$ t& a e/itimate /&vernment ("r(&se. I% n&t6 it is in!&nsistent 9it5 t5e r"e &% a9 an$ invai$.

0#

&le Case'

Matatie M"ni!i(ait8 an$ Ot5ers v Presi$ent &% t5e Re("'i! &% t5e S&"t5  A%ri!a an$ Ot5ers <3= e!t t& t5e (&9er &% Pariament t& re$e%ine (r&vin!ia '&"n$aries. T5"s !&nstr"e$6 t5ere is n& !&n%i!t 'et9een se!ti&n 34<= &% t5e T9e%t5  Amen$ment an$ se!ti&n 3))<=<'= &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n. *&9ever6 t5at is n&t t5e en$ &% t5e matter. T5ere is a s"'stantia 7"esti&n as t& 95et5er  t5e !&rre!t (r&!e$"re 9as %&&9e$ in t5e ena!tment &% t5e T9e%t5  Amen$ment. It is im(&rtant t& 'ear in min$ t5at it 9as Pariament itse%  95i!5 in %"%iment &% its res(&nsi'iit8 "n$er se!ti&n 3)) <= <'= &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n esta'is5e$ t5e Demar!ati&n B&ar$ as an in$e(en$ent '&$8. It 9as Pariament 95i!5 !are%"8 set &"t t5e 7"ai%i!ati&ns &% B&ar$ mem'ers s& as t& ens"re e,(ertise an$ in$e(en$en!e. M&re&ver6

0)

Pariament meti!"&"s8 ai$ $&9n t5e !riteria t& 'e %&&9e$ '8 t5e B&ar$ in ma:in/ its $eterminati&ns. T5e t9eve stat"t&r8 !riteria are iste$ in  >"$/ment an$ nee$ n&t 'e re(eate$. 5at 5as t& 'e "n$erine$ is t5at Pariament $ei'erate8 !5&se6 in :ee(in/ 9it5 t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 t& esta'is5 an in$e(en$ent a"t5&rit8 t& (revent m"ni!i(aities %r&m 'ein/ $emar!ate$ a&n/ (art8 (&iti!a ines &r in res(&nse t& !&nstraints im(&se$ '8 nati&na &r (r&vin!ia /&vernments. One 9&"$ e,(e!t6 t5en6 t5at /&vernment 9&"$ /ive an e,(anati&n 9586 &n t5e ver8 s(e!i%i! %a!ts &% t5is !ase6 it 9as a$&(tin/ e/isati&n 95i!5 in res(e!t &% Matatiee M"ni!i(ait8 ran !&"nter t& t5e e,(ress $eterminati&n &% t5e B&ar$. T5is C&"rt 5as %re7"ent8 a!:n&9e$/e$ t5e 9i$e e/isative man$ate /iven '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n t& Pariament. Dem&!rati!a8 ee!te$ '8 t5e nati&n6 Pariament is t5e en/ine-5&"se &% &"r $em&!ra!8. One !ann&t '"t 'e min$%" &% t5e intense time-ta'in/ (ress"res t& 95i!5 it is s"'>e!te$ in a (eri&$ &% instit"ti&n-'"i$in/ an$ trans%&rmati&n. Yet t5e m&re si/ni%i!ant t5e 9&r: t5at Pariament "n$erta:es an$ t5e /reater t5e (ress"res "n$er  95i!5 it &(erates6 t5e str&n/er t5e nee$ %&r /&vernment t& (r&vi$e an e,(anati&n %&r t5e intr&$"!ti&n &% e/isati&n r&'"stness nee$ n&t 'e e7"ate$ 9it5 &(a7"eness.  As t5is !ase $em&nstrates6 %ar %r&m t5e %&"n$ati&na va"es &% t5e r"e &%  a9 an$ &% a!!&"nta'e /&vernment e,istin/ in $is!reet !ate/&ries6 t5e8 &vera( an$ rein%&r!e ea!5 &t5er. O(enness &% /&vernment (r&m&tes '&t5 t5e rati&nait8 t5at t5e r"e &% a9 re7"ires6 an$ t5e a!!&"nta'iit8 t5at m"ti- (art8 $em&!ra!8 $eman$s. In &"r !&nstit"ti&na &r$er6 t5e e/itima!8 &% a9s ma$e '8 Pariament !&mes n&t %r&m a9e6 '"t %r&m &(enness. &(11 P+,./0  I,@ 9:   ?,,

It is (res"me$ t5at t5e intenti&n t5at is Jm&st in a!!&r$ 9it5 !&nvenien!e6 reas&n6 >"sti!e an$ e/a (rin!i(es s5&"$6 in a !ases &% $&"'t%" si/ni%i!an!e6 'e (res"me$ t& 'e t5e tr"e &neK
0

&(12 L9   +,+?,

T& t5e e,tent t5at a a9 is am'i/"&"s an$ /ives rise t& t9& (&ssi'e inter(retati&ns6 9e %av&r an inter(retati&n &% t5e a9 is n&t retr&a!tive F&r$ v. "e'e!
 A stat"te ma8'e sai$ t& 'e retr&a!tive an$ retr&s(e!tive. A Stat"te !&"$ 'e retr&a!tive '"t n&t retr&s(e!tive6 retr&s(e!tive '"t n&t retr&a!tive6 &r  '&t5 retr&a!tive an$ retr&s(e!tive. Stat"tes t5at are '&t5 retr&a!tive an$ retr&s(e!tive !&"$ 'e an$ "s"a8 are (r&s(e!tive in !5ara!ter. T5ere is a $istin!t $i%%eren!e 'et9een t5e t9& terms 3 Retr&a!tive6 an$ ?.Retr&s(e!tive  As t5e terms Jretr&a!tiveKan$ Jretr&s(e!tiveK 5ave 'een "se$ inter!5an/ea'8 an$ 5ave !a"se$ s&me !&n%"si&n6 it is "se%" t& $is!"ss termin&&/8 'e%&re em'ar:in/ &n a !&nsi$erati&n &% t5e reevant iss"es in t5is !ase. T5e %&&9in/ 'rin/s &"t a !ear $i%%eren!e. T5e Le/isat"re ma8 ena!t e/isati&n 95i!5 5as retr&a!tive &r  (r&s(e!tive e%%e!t. In!"$e$ in t5e !ate/&r8 &% (r&s(e!tive a((i!ati&n is e/isati&n t5at is sai$ t& 'e Jretr&s(e!tiveK. M"!5 5as 'een 9ritten '8 a"t5&rs an$ !&"rts &n t5is s"'>e!t6 an$ a((i!a'e r"es !&ntin"e t& ev&ve. As t5e terms Jretr&a!tiveKan$ Jretr&s(e!tiveK 5ave 'een "se$ inter!5an/ea'8 an$ 5ave !a"se$ s&me !&n%"si&n6 it is "se%" t& $is!"ss termin&&/8 'e%&re em'ar:in/ &n a !&nsi$erati&n &% t5e reevant iss"es in t5is !ase. T5e S"(reme C&"rt &% Cana$a6 in Denner  v. 6anada (*eretar'  of *tate *61997 CanLII 376 (S.C.C.) 6 3220 3 S.C.R. )1 at (ara. 26 a$&(te$ t5e $e%initi&ns set &"t '8 E.A. Drie$/er6 in JStat"tes Retr&a!tive Retr&s(e!tive Re%e!ti&nsK <3201=6 ) 6an. Dar ev. ?#6 at ?1-2  A retr&a!tive stat"te is &ne t5at &(erates as &% a time (ri&r t& its ena!tment. A retr&s(e!tive stat"te is &ne t5at &(erates %&r t5e %"t"re &n8. It is (r&s(e!tive6 '"t it im(&ses ne9 res"ts in res(e!t &% a (ast event. A retr&a!tive stat"te operates %a0wards. A retr&s(e!tive stat"te operates forwards 6 '"t it &&:s 'a!:9ar$s in t5at it atta!5es ne9 !&nse7"en!es for  the future t& an event t5at t&&: (a!e 'e%&re t5e stat"te 9as ena!te$. A retr&a!tive stat"te !5an/es t5e a9 %r&m 95at it 9as a retr&s(e!tive 00

stat"te !5an/es t5e a9 %r&m 95at it &t5er9ise 9&"$ 'e 9it5 res(e!t t& a (ri&r event. In >orn%' ;sland Trust 6ommittee v. *tormwell 3211 CanLII 3#
T5e /enera r"e is t5at stat"tes are n&t t& 'e !&nstr"e$ as 5avin/ retr&s(e!tive retr&a!tive &(erati&n "ness s"!5 a !&nstr"!ti&n is e,(ress8 &r '8 ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n re7"ire$ '8 t5e an/"a/e &% t5e A!t.  An amen$in/ ena!tment ma8 (r&vi$e t5at it s5a 'e $eeme$ t& 5 ave !&me int& %&r!e &n a $ate (ri&r t& its ena!tment &r it ma8 (r&vi$e t5at it is t& 'e &(erative 9it5 res(e!t t& transa!ti&ns &!!"rrin/ (ri&r t& its ena!tment. In t5&se instan!es t5e stat"te &(erates retr&a!tive8. < +ustavson /rilling (14)$" 7td. v. :.N..6 3200 S.C.R. ?03= &   As retr&a!tive e/isati&n %re7"ent8 inter%eres 9it5 veste$ ri/5ts6 t5e !&"rt (res"mes t5at6 i% t5e Le/isat"re inten$e$ t& inter%ere6 it 9&"$ 5ave sai$ s& !ear8. A stat"te 9i n&t 'e /iven retr&a!tive !&nstr"!ti&n "ness it is !ear t5at t5e Le/isat"re inten$e$ s"!5 a !&nstr"!ti&n *&rn'8 Isan$ Tr"st6 3211 CanLII 3#
T5e (res"m(ti&n a/ainst t5e retr&a!tive &(erati&n &% stat"tes6 t5ere%&re6 ma8 &n8 'e re'"tte$ '8 !ear an/"a/e in t5e stat"te. I% t5e 9&r$in/ &% an ena!tment is s"!5 t5at t5e Le/isat"re m"st 5ave inten$e$ t& (res!ri'e a ne9 e/a re/ime t& a set &% %a!ts entire8 !&n!"$e$ (ri&r t& t5e !&min/ int& %&r!e &% t5e ena!tment6 t5e ena!tment is retr&a!tive an$ t5e (res"m(ti&n a/ainst retr&a!tive &(erati&n is re'"tte$. T5ere is a !&mm&n a9 (res"m(ti&n t5at e/isative ena!tments $& n&t &(erate retr&a!tive8. T5ere is as&6 5&9ever6 an e,!e(ti&n t& t5at (res"m(ti&n 95en t5e ena!tments are mere8 (r&!e$"ra &r evi$entiar8 in nat"re.

01

T5ese (rin!i(es are arti!"ate$ in man8 !ases6 s"!5 as . v. Di0ford 6 3212 O.. N&. 1) at (ara/ra(5 2  As a matter &% %"n$amenta (rin!i(e6 a stat"te is n&t t& 'e !&nstr"e$ as 5avin/ a retr&s(e!tive &(erati&n "ness s"!5 a !&nstr"!ti&n is ma$e evi$ent '8 its terms &r arises '8 ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n. *&9ever6 t5e (res"m(ti&n a/ainst retr&s(e!tive !&nstr"!ti&n 5as n& a((i!ati&n t& ena!tments 95i!5 reate &n8 t& (r&!e$"ra &r evi$entia matters. Simiar86 in . v. ?ngum ?44? B.C.. N&. 336 t5e Britis5 C&"m'ia S"(reme C&"rt state$ at (ara/ra(5 )) One (rin!i(e 95i!5 is %"n$amenta t& &"r e/a s8stem is t5e /enera r"e &% stat"t&r8 inter(retati&n a/ainst retr&a!tive inter%eren!e 9it5 veste$ ri/5ts. A si/ni%i!ant e,!e(ti&n t& t5is (rin!i(e is t5at /enera8 it $&es n&t a((8 t& (r&!e$"re &r evi$en!e. T5ese (rin!i(es are $ee(8 r&&te$ in &"r  e/a s8stem. T5e a96 t5ere%&re6 states t5at i% an ena!tment is s&e8 (r&!e$"ra6 it ma8 'e a((ie$ retr&a!tive8. *&9ever6 i% an ena!tment !&ntains s"'stantive eements6 t5e %"n$amenta (rin!i(e a/ainst retr&-a!tivit8 a((ies. F&r e,am(e6 in Di0ford 6 t5e Ontari& C&"rt &% A((ea 5e$ t5at t5e amen$ment t& H!&rr&'&ratin/ evi$en!eH 9as mere8 (r&!e$"ra an$ evi$entia6 an$ t5ere%&re &(erate$ retr&a!tive8. In t5at !ase6 t5e 6anada ?videne -t 9as amen$e$ t& a&9 a !5i$ vi!tim t& testi%8 9it5&"t t5e nee$ %&r !&rr&'&ratin/ evi$en!e. T5e !&"rt in Di0ford   !ite$ /ixie v. o'al 6olum%ian >ospital   32#3 ? D.L.R. 316 95i!5 9as a$&(te$ '8 t5e Britis5 C&"m'ia C&"rt &% A((ea in . v.
02

& (15 P+,./0  R,+0,?, O0,+ 8 &9 

 As a /enera r"e6 !&n/ress !an n&t ena!t a a9 t5at 9i &(erate retr&a!tive8. T5e e,!e(ti&n t& t5is r"e6 is 95en !&n/ress e,(ress8 (r&vi$es %&r its retr&a!tive e%%e!t6 an$ t5e &t5er e,!e(ti&ns "n$er Art # &%  t5e Civi C&$e. 5en ena!tin/ a a96 it is (res"me$ t5at C&n/ress a9a8s &&:s %&r9ar$ t& t5e %"t"re an$ n&t t& t5e (ast. T5is (res"m(ti&n is in ine 9it5 t5e e/a ma,im Le, Pr&s(i!it6 N&n Res(i!it an$ Le, De F"t"r&6 "$e, De Praterit&. &(16 P+,./0  R,+0,?, O0,+ E<,0

T5e $i!t"m ma$e '8 "$/e ri/5t in In re At5"mne86 3121 ? B )#06 (. ))3-))?6 8et (er%e!t8 re%e!ts t5e a9 a/ainst retr&s(e!tive &(erati&n &%  a9. T5e e,a!t !itati&n (r&vi$e$ 5ere (r&ves t5e (&int !ear8. Per5a(s n& r"e &% !&nstr"!ti&n is m&re %irm8 esta'is5e$ t5an t5is a retr&s(e!tive e%%e!t s5&"$ n&t 'e /iven t& a stat"te s& as t& im(air an e,istin/ ri/5t &r &'i/ati&n6 e,!e(t &n (r&!e$"ra matters6 "ness t5e &"t!&me !ann&t 'e av&i$e$ 9it5&"t $&in/ vi&en!e t& t5e te,t. I% t5e 9ritin/ &% t5e te,t ma8 /ive rise t& severa inter(retati&ns6 9e m"st inter(ret it as 5avin/ t& ta:e (r&s(e!tive e%%e!t &n8. T5e (res"m(ti&n t5at t5e e/isative $&es n&t inten$ an A!t t& a((8 retr&s(e!tive8 9as state$ in *amit&n v *amit&n. *en!58  sai$ H5en an A!t !5an/es t5e s"'stantive6 as $istin!t %r&m (r&!e$"ra a9 t5en6 re/ar$ess &% 95et5er t5e A!t is &t5er9ise (r&s(e!tive &r  retr&s(e!tive in its &(erati&n6 it is n&t t& 'e $eeme$ t& a%%e!t (r&!ee$in/s 'r&"/5t "n$er t5e (re-A!t a9 an$ (en$in/ at t5e $ate &% t5e !&min/ int& &(erati&n &% t5e A!t6 "ness t5e A!t e,(ress8 &r '8 ne!essar8 inten$ment (r&vi$es t& t5e !&ntrar8.H *en!58  !5ara!teri@e$ t5e r"e as a "niversa &ne6 an$ em(5asi@e$ t5at
14

&(17 P+,./0 : L,&.+, , C.&&> V&@ S.,

Ever8 stat"te is (res"me$ vai$. T5e (res"m(ti&n is t5at t5e e/isat"re inten$e$ t& ena!t a vai$6 sensi'e an$ >"st a9 an$ &ne 95i!5 &(erates n& %"rt5er t5an ma8 'e ne!essar8 t& e%%e!t"ate t5e s(e!i%i! ("r(&se &% t5e a9. Ever8 (res"m(ti&n s5&"$ 'e in$"/e$ in %av&r &% t5e !&nstit"ti&nait8 an$ t5e '"r$en &% (r&&% is &n t5e (art8 ae/in/ t5at t5ere is a !ear an$ "ne7"iv&!a 'rea!5 &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n. T5is (res"m(ti&n &% !&nstit"ti&nait8 !an 'e &ver!&me &n8 '8 t5e !earest s5&9in/ t5at t5ere 9as in$ee$ an in%ra!ti&n &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 an$ &n8 95en s"!5 a !&n!"si&n is rea!5e$ '8 t5e re7"ire$ ma>&rit8 ma8 t5e C&"rt (r&n&"n!e6 in t5e $is!5ar/e &% t5e $"t8 it !ann&t es!a(e6 t5at t5e !5aen/e$ a!t m"st 'e str"!: $&9n.< LAYERS AGAINST MONOPOLY VS. AND POVERTY "sti!e6 (&i!86 &r e,(e$ien!8 &% a stat"te an$ t5at a i'era inter(retati&n &% t5e !&nstit"ti&n in %av&r &% t5e !&nstit"ti&nait8 &% e/isati&n s5&"$ 'e a$&(te$.K &(1 P+,./0  I,+8,+,, 9: P,@ L

I% an ena!tment &(erates retr&a!tive86 as it $&es in t5is !ase t5en6 '8 $e%initi&n6 it a((ies t& (en$in/ iti/ati&n. It 9&"$ 'e i"strate$ 9it5 t5e %&&9in/ Citati&n. In T5e Inter(retati&n &% Le/isati&n in Cana$a6 ?n$ e$. "$i!ia (r&!ess is /enera8 $e!arat&r8 &% ri/5ts6 t5e >"$/e $e!ares t5e ri/5ts &% t5e (arties as t5e8 e,iste$ 95en t5e !a"se &% a!ti&n ar&se t5e $a8 &% t5e t&rt6 t5e !&n!"si&n &% t5e !&ntra!t6 t5e !&mmissi&n &% t5e !rime6 et!. A ne9 stat"te 13

t5at is s"'stantive 9i n&t a((8 t& (en$in/ !ases6 "ness it is retr&a!tive in t5e tr"e sense &% t5e 9&r$6 t5at is6 "ness it &(erates in t5e (ast an$ m&$i%ies t5e a9 in e%%e!t &n t5e $a8 &% t5e t&rt6 t5e !rime6 t5e !&ntra!t6 et!. A (en$in/ !ase6 even &ne "n$er a((ea6 !an 'e a%%e!te$ '8 a retr&a!tive stat"te6 even &ne ena!te$ (en$in/ a((ea. &(1! P+,./0 8 C++,,

Pres"m(ti&n &% C&rre!tness is a $eterminati&n &% a %a!t"a iss"e ma$e '8 a State !&"rt s5a 'e (res"me$ t& 'e !&rre!t. T5e a((i!ant s5a 5ave t5e '"r$en &% re'"ttin/ t5e (res"m(ti&n &% !&rre!tness '8 !ear an$ !&nvin!in/ evi$en!e. Ta, $e%i!ien!8 assessments $etermine$ '8 t5e C&mmissi&ner &% Interna Reven"e !arr8 a (res"m(ti&n &% !&rre!tness6 an$ t5is (res"m(ti&n im(&ses "(&n t5e ta,(a8er t5e '"r$en &% (r&vin/ t5at t5e assessment is err&ne&"s. See6 Unite$ States v. anis6 #?1 U.S. #6 ##4 <320=
Unite$ States &% Ameri!a6 Painti%% v. Dennis L. C&!5ran6 San$ra G. C&!5ran6 an$ GMAC M&rt/a/e Gr&"(6 De%en$ants. U.S. Distri!t C&"rt6 S&. Dist. In$.6 Ne9 A'an8 Div. #4-!v-44#3-DF*G*6 "8 336 ?441. Ta, assessments.

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T5e IRSs ta, assessments 9it5 res(e!t t& a !&"(es "n(ai$ ta,es6 interest an$ (enaties 9ere (res"m(tive8 !&rre!t 'e!a"se t5e8 9ere 'ase$ &n re!&r$s %r&m an&t5er 8ear an$ 9ere n&t6 t5ere%&re6 ar'itrar8. T5e !&"(e 5a$ n&t %ie$ t5eir ret"rns %&r t5ree &% t5e %&"r ta, 8ears t5e8 &9ne$ an$ &(erate$ a resta"rant6 an$ $i$ n&t (r&vi$e an8 %inan!ia re!&r$s %&r t5&se 8ears. A!!&r$in/86 t5e IRS 9as entite$ t& ma:e its assessments %&r t5&se 8ears 'ase$ &n t5e in!&me re(&rte$ &n t5e &ne ret"rn t5at t5e !&"(e $i$ %ie. 1?

&(2# P+,./0 8 C.& V&@> 8 S.,

T5e A!t m"st 'e inter(rete$ Q in a manner t5at is !&nsistent 9it5 t5e C&nstit"ti&n;. T5at /&verns t5e entire A!t an$ ea!5 &% its (r&visi&ns. It is a (rin!i(e &% stat"t&r8 inter(retati&n 6 n&t &n8 t5at a e/isati&n m"st 'e inter(rete$ in t5e i/5t &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 '"t t5at e/itimate inter(retive ai$s; m"st6 95ere (&ssi'e6 'e em(&8e$ t& av&i$ a %in$in/ &%  "n!&nstit"ti&nait8. On8 i% t5is is n&t (&ssi'e s5&"$ a stat"t&r8 (r&visi&n 'e %&"n$ "n!&nstit"ti&na. &rit8 &% t5e C&"rt &% A((ea6 in $is!"ssin/ se!ti&n  &% t5e Bi &% Ri/5ts A!t an$ its im(a!t &n retr&s(e!tive (ena e/isati&n6 sai$ t5at KT5e meanin/ t& 'e (re%erre$ is t5at 95i!5 is !&nsistent <&r  m&re !&nsistent= 9it5 t5e ri/5ts an$ %ree$&ms in t5e Bi &% Ri/5ts. It is n&t a matter &% 95at t5e e/isat"re <&r an in$ivi$"a mem'er= mi/5t 5ave inten$e$. T5e $ire!ti&n is t5at 95enever a meanin/ !&nsistent 9it5 t5e Bi &% Ri/5ts !an 'e /iven6 it is t& 'e (re%erre$.K ALS*  in t5e !&"rse &% 5is >"$/ment in East D&ne/a C&-O(erative Livest&!: Mart Limite$ an$ Ors v T5e Att&rne8 Genera are reevant. At (a/e #3 &% t5e Re(&rt 5e state$ C;n see0ing to reah an interpretation or onstrution in aordane with the 6onstitution a statutor' provision whih is lear and unam%iguous annot %e given an opposite meaning. -t the same time however the  presumption of onstitutionalit' arries with it not onl' the presumption that  the onstitutional interpretation or onstrution is the one intended %' the legislature %ut also that the legislature intended that the proeedings  proedures disretions and ad,udiations whih are permitted provided  for or presri%ed %' an -t of the legislature are to %e onduted in aordane with the priniples of onstitutional ,ustie.C While the ,udiial 

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arm of +overnment is not entitled to interfere with the right of the people to ast their votes at a referendum or with the results of the eferendum it is entitled to intervene in order to protet the rights of the itiHens to exerise freel' their onstitutional right to vote if the onstitutional rights of the itiHens in regard thereto are violated %' an'%od' or individual. What are onstitutional rights have %een explained in the ourse of his ,udgment in :es0ell v 6oras ;ompair ?ireann K&L W-7*> A stated at page 1#21## of  the eport that= Cit has %een said on a num%er of oasions in this 6ourt and most nota%l' in the deision of D'rne v ;reland that a right guaranteed  %' the 6onstitution or granted %' the 6onstitution an %e proteted %'  ation or enfored %' ation even though suh ation ma' not fit into an'  of the ordinar' forms of ation in either ommon law or euit' and that the onstitutional right arries within it its own right to a remed' or for the enforement of it. Therefore if a person has suffered damage %' virtue of  a %reah of a onstitutional right or the infringement of a onstitutional  right that person is entitled to see0 redress against the person or persons who have infringed that right. -s was pointed out %' :r A9*T;6? D9// in ?duational 6ompan' of ;reland 7td v e went on to sa' that the ourts would at so as not to permit a person to %e deprived of his onstitutional rights and would see to it that those rights were proteted.C 

S"!5 (res"m(ti&n is as& tr"e &n its a((i!ati&n t& t5e P5ii((ine !&nte,t. T5e 3210 C&nstit"ti&n6 as t5e s"(reme a9 &% t5e an$6 is t5e 'asis &% a e/isati&n. An8 a9 (asse$ '8 t5e C&n/ress t5at ten$ t& $eviate t5e ver8 $&!trine esta'is5e$ '8 t5e sai$ s"(reme a9 m"st 'e !&m(r&mise as t& a!!&mm&$ate t5e &ne (r&vi$e$ '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n. T5e C&n/ress are i:e9ise (res"me t& :n&9 t5e ten&r &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n t5at 95en t5e8 !&me "( 9it5 a a96 t5e8 are e,(e!te$ t5at t5e8 5ave !&nsi$ere$ t5e !&ntent &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n. &(21 P+,./0 8 C.& V&@>-V+-C+. C.+ &(22 C.& V&@> 8 S.,-A.+& P

In!&nsisten!8 9it5 C&nstit"ti&n ' T5ere is a (reiminar8 7"esti&n !&n!ernin/ t5e (r&(er a((r&a!5 t& 'e a$&(te$ in $eterminin/ t5e vai$it8 &% a a9 sai$ t& 'e in!&nsistent 9it5

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t5e re7"irements &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n. T5e %irst ste( is t& !&nstr"e t5e a9 itse%. Lan/"a/e &% C&nstit"ti&n T5is is s&6 95et5er t5e a9 in 7"esti&n is a %e$era6 State &r Territ&r8 a9. It is s&6 95et5er t5e !&nstit"ti&na r"e is &ne e,(ress8 state$ &r im(ie$ %r&m t5e an/"a/e an$ str"!t"re &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n. A$&(tin/ t5is a((r&a!5 !&n%&rms t& t5e &n/stan$in/ instr"!ti&n &% t5is C&"rt in !ases &% s"//este$ !&nstit"ti&na invai$it8. It is an a((r&a!5 re/"ar8 ta:en 95ere t5ere is an8 (&ssi'iit8 &% $&"'t !&n!ernin/ t5e meanin/ an$ &(erati&n &% t5e im("/ne$ a9. In R v *"/5es it 9as e,(aine$ 958 t5is a((r&a!5 is ta:en.  A((r&a!5 t& 'e %&&9e$ HIn !&nsi$erin/ t5e vai$it8 &r &t5er9ise &% t5e e/isati&n ... sai$ t& 'e invai$6 it is ne!essar86 at t5e t5res5&$6 t& e"!i$ate t5e meanin/ an$ &(erati&n &% t5e (r&visi&ns in 7"esti&n. T5is is an eementar8 (&int. *&9ever it is im(&rtant in t5e (resent !ase. I% (arti!"ar (r&visi&ns !aime$ t& 'e "n!&nstit"ti&na 5ave n& &(erati&n in t5e !ir!"mstan!es &%  t5e matter 'e%&re t5e C&"rt6 it is irreevant6 an$ t5ere%&re "nne!essar86 t& $etermine t5eir vai$it8. C&nstit"ti&nait8 is n&t n&rma8 $e!i$e$ &n a 58(&t5esis ina((i!a'e t& t5e res&"ti&n &% a (arti!"ar $is("te. I%6 "(&n a tr"e !&nstr"!ti&n &% t5e e/isati&n6 it &(erates in a 9a8 t5at $&es n& &%%ense t& t5e an/"a/e an$ str"!t"re &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 it is irreevant t5at6 5a$ it 'een !&nstr"e$ in a $i%%erent 9a86 it mi/5t 5ave $&ne s&. T5is C&"rt 9i n&t ans9er !&nstit"ti&na 7"esti&ns &n t5e 'asis &% ass"m(ti&ns t5at 5ave n& (ra!ti!a &r e/a !&nse7"en!e %&r t5e !ase in 5an$.H JT5e a!!e(te$ $&!trine in t5is !&"ntr8 is t5at 95ere a stat"te is %&"n$ t& 'e !&nstit"ti&na8 invai$6 s"!5 invai$it8 &(erates %r&m t5e m&ment t5at t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n ("r(&rte$8 !ame int& %&r!e. It is t5"s invai$ a' initi&. In S&"t5 A"straia v T5e C&mm&n9eat5 Lat5am C e,(resse$ t5e r"e in t5ese terms HC&mm&n e,(ressi&ns6 s"!5 as T5e !&"rts 5ave $e!are$ a stat"te invai$6 s&metimes ea$ t& mis"n$erstan$in/. A (reten$e$ a9 ma$e in e,!ess &% (&9er is n&t an$ never 5as 'een a a9 at a. An8'&$8 in t5e !&"ntr8 is entite$ t& $isre/ar$ it. Nat"ra8 5e 9i %ee sa%er i% 5e 5as a $e!isi&n &% a !&"rt in 5is %av&"r - '"t s"!5 a $e!isi&n is n&t an eement

1)

95i!5 (r&$"!es invai$it8 in an8 a9. T5e a9 is n&t vai$ "nti a !&"rt (r&n&"n!es a/ainst it - an$ t5erea%ter invai$. I% it is 'e8&n$ (&9er it is invai$ a' initi&.H T5ere are man8 simiar e,(ressi&ns '&t5 in t5e reas&ns &% t5is C&"rt an$ &% t5e Priv8 C&"n!i $eain/ 9it5 t5e e%%e!t &% invai$it8 "n$er t5e C&nstit"ti&n. As &n/ a/& as 311 t5e S"(reme C&"rt &% t5e Unite$ States in N&rt&n v S5e'8 C&"nt8 sai$6 in i:e terms6 t5at "n!&nstit"ti&na e/isati&n H!&n%ers n& ri/5ts it im(&ses n& $"ties it a%%&r$s n& (r&te!ti&n it !reates n& &%%i!e it is6 in e/a !&ntem(ati&n6 as in&(erative as t5&"/5 it 5a$ never 'een (asse$H. It is tr"e t5at m&re re!ent8 t5e S"(reme C&"rts &% t5e Unite$ States an$ Cana$a 5ave 5e$ 'a!: %r&m a!!e(tin/ t5e %" ri/&r &% t5e n"i%i!ati&n &%   >"$i!ia (r&!ee$in/s an$ &r$ers %&&9in/ a 5&$in/ t5at e/isati&n6 "(&n 95i!5 t5e8 $e(en$e$6 9as !&nstit"ti&na8 invai$. *&9ever6 s"!5 a((r&a!5es 9ere6 it 9as s"'mitte$6 %"n$amenta8 in!&m(ati'e 9it5 esta'is5e$ A"straian !&nstit"ti&na $&!trine. T5"s6 in A"straia6 it 5as never 'een a!!e(te$ t5at a !&"rt e,er!isin/ t5e >"$i!ia (&9er ma8 ma:e &r$ers 5avin/ (r&s(e!tive e%%e!t &n8 . N&r 5as t5is C&"rt ever em'ra!e$ t5e s"//esti&n t5at a stat"te %&"n$ t& 'e "n!&nstit"ti&na ma8 n&net5eess 'e a!!&r$e$ tem(&rar8 vai$it8 "nti reme$ia arran/ements !an 'e ("t in (a!e. In t5e C&"rt &% A((ea &% Ne9 S&"t5 aes6 M!*"/5 A s"//este$ t5at HEven "n$er t5e v&i$ a' initi& $&!trine ... a >"$/ment &% a !&"rt &%  re!&r$ 9&"$ seem t& 'e 'in$in/ "(&n (rivate (arties "nti set asi$e &n a((ea &r >"$i!ia revie9 even t5&"/5 t5e >"$/ment 9as 'ase$ &n an "n!&nstit"ti&na stat"teH. *&9ever6 m&re re!ent86 in t5is C&"rt an$ in Re a:im itse%6 M!*"/5  5as e,(resse$ vie9s a((arent8 %av&ra'e t& a's&"te n"i%i!ati&n a' initi&. A$$ressin/ t5e &r$ers &% t5is C&"rt 95i!5 %&&9e$ its $e!isi&n in G&"$ v Br&9n 6 5is *&n&r sai$ CThe orders made in +ould v Drown have no onstitutional effet.
T5is &(ini&n 9as /r&"n$e$ &n t5e (rin!i(e t5at !&mm&n a9 $&!trines s"!5 as res >"$i!ata &r iss"e est&((e !ann&t 'e at &$$s 9it5 t5e 9ritten C&nstit"ti&n '"t m"st !&n%&rm t& it .

1

In s"((&rt &% reas&nin/ &% t5is :in$6 t9& !&nsi$erati&ns ma8 'e inv&:e$. T5e %irst is !&n!erne$ 9it5 t5e &ri/ins &% t5e $&!trine6 reie$ &n '8 t5e (arties6 95i!5 t5e &r$ers &% a s"(eri&r !&"rt6 ma$e in e,!ess &%   >"ris$i!ti&n6 are v&i$a'e an$ n&t v&i$. T5at $&!trine $erives "timate8 %r&m t5e a9s &% En/an$. A!!&r$in/ t& s&me ana8sts 316 its %&"n$ati&n a8 in t5e H/enera >"ris$i!ti&nH en>&8e$ '8 t5e s"(eri&r !&"rts &% t5at !&"ntr8 95i!5 !aime$ t5e (&9er t& $etermine t5e imits &% t5eir &9n  >"ris$i!ti&n. Fe$era !&"rts6 &(eratin/ in A"straia 9it5in t5e '&"n$aries esta'is5e$ '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n6 $e(en$ %&r t5eir >"ris$i!ti&n "(&n t5e e,isten!e. In t5is sense6 at5&"/5 s"!5 %e$era !&"rts ma8 'e $es!ri'e$ as Hs"(eri&r  !&"rts &% re!&r$H in t5e e/isati&n !&nstit"tin/ t5em6 s"!5 e/isati&n !ann&t ren$er t5em6 in a96 !&"rts &% /enera >"ris$i!ti&n. T5e &n8  >"ris$i!ti&n 95i!5 s"!5 e/isati&n !an vai$8 !&n%er "(&n a %e$era !&"rt is t5at 95i!5 $erives %r&m t5e C&nstit"ti&n. In t5is sense6 a %e$era nati&n (resents a (r&'em $i%%erent %r&m t5at arisin/ in t5e tra$iti&na s"(eri&r  !&"rts &% En/an$. Se!&n$86 even i% s&me !ir!"mstan!es mi/5t 'e ima/ine$ 95ere a  >"$/ment &% a %e$era !&"rt6 %&"n$e$ "timate8 "(&n a stat"te $e!are$ "n!&nstit"ti&na6 ma8 'e 'in$in/ <%&r e,am(e6 as 'et9een t5e (arties t& it=6 s"!5 e%%e!tiveness !&"$ n&t 'e s"staine$ 95ere t5e stat"te in 7"esti&n 9as %&"n$ t& !&nstit"te a 'rea!5 &% a %"n$amenta imitati&n &n t5e e,er!ise &% %e$era e/isative (&9er &r &% a (r&5i'iti&n &n s"!5 e,er!ise esta'is5e$ '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n. T5"s Sir O9en Di,&n6 in (r&(&"n$in/ a r&e %&r t5e $e %a!t& &%%i!ers $&!trine in t5e !&nte,t &%   A"straian !&nstit"ti&na a96 $i$ s& &n t5e %&&tin/ t5at6 i:e t5e $&!trine &%  t5e v&i$a'e nat"re &% t5e &r$ers &% s"(eri&r !&"rts6 t5e $e %a!t& &%%i!ers $&!trine H&(erates t& !"r' t5e $rasti! &/i!a im(i!ati&ns &% t5e tra$iti&na vie9 t5at an "n!&nstit"ti&na stat"te is a !&m(ete n"it8H . Yet ass"min/ t5is t& 'e (&ssi'e Ht5ere ma8 'e sit"ati&ns in 95i!5 ("'i! in!&nvenien!e an$ t5e %r"strati&n &% e/itimate reian!eH &n an a((arent '"t "n!&nstit"ti&na a9 Hm"st /ive 9a8 t& t5e retr&a!tive invai$ati&n &%  &%%i!ia a!ts in &r$er t& vin$i!ate a !&nstit"ti&na '&"n$ar86 &r t& /"arantee a !&nstit"ti&na ri/5tH. It is at t5is (&int t5at t5e %"n$amenta 'asis &% t5e r"in/ in Re a:im m"st 'e remem'ere$. N& &ne $is("te$ t5e !&nvenien!e &% t5e !r&ssvestin/ e/isati&n. 5at m&ve$ t5e ma>&rit8 &% t5is C&"rt t& $e!are t5at (arts &% it 9ere "n!&nstit"ti&na 9as a 'eie% t5at t5&se (arts inv&ve$ an

10

im(ermissi'e intr"si&n &% State e/isati&n an$ State >"$i!ia (&9er int& t5e %e$era "$i!at"re esta'is5e$ 9it5in C5 III &% t5e C&nstit"ti&n. It t5"s !r&sse$ a %&r'i$$en !&nstit"ti&na '&"n$ar8. It inter%ere$ 9it5 t5e e,er!ise &% %e$era >"$i!ia (&9er. T& t5at e,tent it 9as (r&5i'ite$ '8 t5e C&nstit"ti&n. In (art6 t5is 9as 'e!a"se &% t5e s(e!ia im(&rtan!e assi/ne$ t& t5e %e$era >"$i!iar8 "n$er t5e C&nstit"ti&n as an ar'iter an$ "m(ire &%  !&nstit"ti&na $is("tes . In s"!5 a !&nte,t6 t5e !r&ss-vestin/ e/isati&n6 s& %ar as it ("r(&rte$ t& !&n%er State >"$i!ia (&9er &n %e$era !&"rts6 9as ena!te$ in 'rea!5 &% a %"n$amenta imitati&n &n t5e e,er!ise &%  e/isative (&9er. T5at imitati&n /&verne$ '&t5 t5e C&mm&n9eat5 an$ t5e States "$/mentH &r Hreevant &r$erH6 &r an8 &t5er a!ti&n &% t5e Fe$era C&"rt in (reten$e$ ("rs"an!e &% t5e >"ris$i!ti&n6 ("r(&rte$8 !&n%erre$ &n t5at C&"rt '8 t5e invai$ (arts &% t5e !r&ss-vestin/ e/isati&n6 5a$ an8 !&nstit"ti&na e%%i!a!8 95ats&ever. N& %e$era A!t !&"$ vai$8 !&n%er s"!5 e%%i!a!8. N& /enera $&!trine &% t5e !&mm&n a9 im("te$ t& a Hs"(eri&r !&"rt &%  re!&r$H &r &t5er9ise !&"$ $& s& in t5e %a!e &% t5e !&nstit"ti&na (r&5i'iti&n. T5ere 9as t5"s n& reevant >"ris$i!ti&n &% t5e Fe$era C&"rt 95i!5 t5e State A!t im(ermissi'8 inva$e$. N&r 9as t5ere an8 vai$ %e$era a9 9it5 95i!5 t5e State A!t 9as in!&nsistent in t5e !&nstit"ti&na sense. T5is 'ein/ s&6 t5e !&ntestin/ $e%en$ants &'>e!ti&n t& s 33 &% t5e State A!t 5a$ n& %&r!e. In ena!tin/ t5at A!t6 t5e State Pariament 9as entite$ t& $isre/ar$
11

&(23 C.& V&@> 8 S., W,,-US C.+

 A !entra tenet &% !&nstit"ti&na a9 is t5at t5e >"$i!ia (&9er t& $e!are a stat"te "n!&nstit"ti&na is an e,!e(ti&na &ne6 95i!5 s5&"$ 'e "se$ &n8 95en J"nav&i$a'e.K It is t5ere%&re 5ar$8 s"r(risin/ t5at %e$era !&"rts 5ave (a!e$ imits &n t5eir (&9er &% >"$i!ia revie9. One &% t5e (rin!i(a imitati&ns is t5e (res"m(ti&n &% !&nstit"ti&nait8. Un$er t5at (res"m(ti&n6 !&"rts ass"me %a!ts ne!essar8 t& satis%8 !&nstit"ti&na tests $eve&(e$ '8 t5e !&"rts. T5"s6 %&r e,am(e695en a !&"rt revie9s e/isati&n %&r reas&na'eness6 t5e (res"m(ti&n &%  !&nstit"ti&nait8 re7"ires t5e !&"rt t& ass"me %a!ts ne!essar8 t& esta'is5 t5e reas&na'eness &% t5e a9. T5e (res"m(ti&n6 in &t5er 9&r$s6 inv&ves a %&rm &% %a!t"a $e%eren!e. T5e '"r$en &% (r&&% is &n t5e &ne atta!:in/ t5e !&nstit"ti&nait8 &% a stat"te6 a !ertain (res"m(ti&n &% !&nstit"ti&nait8 is t& 'e atta!5e$ t& e/isative a!ti&n. %&rm"ati&n &% t5is $&!trine !an 'e tra!e$ 'a!: t& t5e ear8 (art &% t5e nineteent5 !ent"r8.  As a((ie$ t& t5e /enera %ie$ &% t5e a9 &% evi$en!e6 t5e !&n!e(ts &%  '"r$en &% (r&&% an$ (res"m(ti&ns are t& 'e $istin/"is5e$. t5e %&rmer  re%ers t& t5e $"t8 &% /&in/ %&r9ar$ 9it5 t5e evi$en!e6 an$ t5e ris: &% n&n(ers"asi&n &% t5e >"$/e &r >"r8. &(24 P+,./0 8 C/0=&> 9: E.+0, L9

E"r&(ean $ire!tives an$ re/"ati&ns6 an$ ass&!iate$ e/isati&n6 9i 'e inter(rete$ '8 t5e !&"rts in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 C&mm"nit8 a9. In D&9in/ v Irean$ M"r(58  a!!e(te$ t5is (rin!i(e &% inter(retati&n6 at5&"/5 5e $i$ n&t a((8 it in t5at !ase. D&9in/ v Irean$ !&n!erne$ t5e a((i!ati&n &% C&"n!i Re/"ati&n 1)01# in re/ar$ t& t5e (a8ment &% mi: 7"&tas. T5e (ainti%% !aime$ t5at6 &n t5eir itera inter(retati&n6 t5e re/"ati&ns $is!riminate$ a/ainst %armers s"!5 as 5imse% 95& 5a$ tem(&rari8 !ease$ an$ t5en res"me$ mi: (r&$"!ti&n. It 9as t5ere%&re ar/"e$ t5at t5e re/"ati&ns s5&"$ 'e inter(rete$ in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5e (rin!i(e &% e7"a treatment ens5rine$ in EC a9. M"r(58  5e$6 5&9ever6 t5at t5e terms &% t5e re/"ati&ns 9ere s& !ear t5at %&r t5e !&"rt t& ater  t5em s& as t& ens"re e7"a treatment %&r t5e (ainti%% 9&"$ am&"nt t& amen$ment &% t5e re/"ati&ns6 s&met5in/ 95i!5 t5e !&"rt 9as n&t !&m(etent t& $&. *e ma$e an ana&/8 9it5 t5e (res"m(ti&n &%  !&nstit"ti&nait8 in t5e inter(retati&n &% Iris5 e/isati&n as set &"t in East D&ne/a C&-&(erative Livest&!: Mart v Att&rne8 Genera 6 t& t5e e%%e!t

12

t5at a (r&visi&n !&"$ &n8 'e /iven a !&nstit"ti&na as &((&se$ t& an "n!&nstit"ti&na inter(retati&n i% '&t5 9ere &(en t& t5e !&"rt &n t5e 9&r$in/6 an$ t5at an8 strainin/ &% t5e terms &% a stat"te s& as t& e%%e!tive8 s"'stit"te &ne (r&visi&n %&r an&t5er 9&"$ 'e t& "s"r( t5e %"n!ti&n &% t5e e/isat"re.< Iris5 La9 Re%&rm C&mmissi&n= T5e !ase 9as s"'se7"ent8 a((eae$ t& t5e S"(reme C&"rt 95i!5 re%erre$ t5e 7"esti&n &% t5e a((i!ati&n &% Arti!e  a <3= t& t5e E"r&(ean C&"rt &% "sti!e. T5e C&"rt arrive$ at a simiar !&n!"si&n t& M"r(58  in t5e *i/5 C&"rt6 an$ i$enti%ie$ restri!ti&ns &n t5e !&nstr"!ti&n &% e/isative (r&visi&ns in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5e (rin!i(es &% t5e Treat8 &% R&me .T5e !&"rt 9as n&t6 it 5e$6 !&m(etent t& !&nstr"e a (r&visi&n in a!!&r$an!e 9it5 t5e (rin!i(e &% e7"ait86 95ere t5at inv&ve$ an inter(retati&n &% t5e (r&visi&n 95i!5 9as !&ntrar8 t& its !ear ("r(&se as e,(resse$ in its terms. 5ere t5e aim an$ ("r(&se &% t5e (r&visi&n 9as !ear8 !&ntrar8 t& t5e (rin!i(e &% e7"ait86 t5e &n8 &(ti&n &(en t& t5e !&"rt 9as t& $e!are t5e (r&visi&n invai$. T5"s 95ist treat8 (rin!i(es !&"$ 'e "se$ t& %i in /a(s in EU e/isati&n6 t5e8 !&"$ n&t ater its e,(ress ("r(&se. T5e C&"rt state$ CThere is no dou%t that 6ommunit' legislation is to %e interpreted so far  as possi%le in suh a wa' that it is in onformit' with general priniples of  6ommunit' law inluding in partiular the priniple of eual treatment  (whih in the sphere of agriulture is also laid down %' -rtile $5(#" ??6" and the priniple of the protetion of legitimate expetations. Thus in interpreting 6ommunit' legislation the 6ourt must presume that the legislator did not intend to flout suh overriding priniples of 6ommunit'  law. There are however limits as to how muh interpretation an ahieve. De'ond those limits the 6ourt has no hoie %ut to delare the legislation invalid for %reah of 6ommunit' lawE for the 6ourt does not have an'  general power to amend or supplement legislation whih would otherwise %e invalid.C  &(25 P+,./0 8 C/0=&> 9: I,+& O=&

T5e (res"m(ti&n &% !&m(ati'iit8 9it5 internati&na &'i/ati&ns 9as state$ '8 *en!58  %&r t5e ma>&rit8 as %&&9s H&ne m"st ass"me t5at t5e stat"te 9as ena!te$ e!t t& t5e (&st"ate t5at it 9&"$ 'e !&nstr"e$ an$ a((ie$ in !&ns&nan!e 9it5 t5e States &'i/ati&ns "n$er internati&na a96 in!"$in/ an8 reevant treat8 &'i/ati&ns.H

24

T5is 9as raise$ in O D&m5nai v Merri!: 95ere it is !&n!erne$ 9it5 t5e inter(retati&n &% se!ti&ns &% t5e Stat"te Limitati&ns. In t5is !ase6 t5e S"(reme C&"rt !&nsi$ere$ 95et5er t5e sti("ati&n &% Arti!e  <3= &% t5e E"r&(ean C&nventi&n &n *"man Ri/5ts an$ F"n$amenta Free$&ms t5at !ases s5&"$ 'e 5ear$ H9it5in a reas&na'e timeH a%%e!te$ t5e meanin/ &%  t5e Stat"te M!Cart58  in a $issentin/ >"$/ment in t5e same !ase as& a%%irme$ t5e /enera (rin!i(e t5at6 Ha stat"te m"st 'e !&nstr"e$6 s& %ar as (&ssi'e6 s& as n&t t& 'e in!&nsistent 9it5 esta'is5e$ r"es &% internati&na a9 an$ ... &ne s5&"$ av&i$ a !&nstr"!ti&n 95i!5 9i ea$ t& a !&n%i!t 'et9een $&mesti! an$ internati&na a9.H F"rt5erm&re6 &"r 3210 C&nstit"ti&n "sti!e6 %ree$&m6 !&&(erati&n6 an$ amit8 9it5 a nati&ns.K T5is s5&9s t5at even &"r !&"ntr8 %&&9s t5e internati&na a9 an$ %r&m time t& time6 as& a$&(ts a9s an$ (rin!i(es t5at are internati&na8 a!!e(te$. & (26 P+,./0 8 C/0=&> 9: I,+& L9 The %asi rule is that Parliament is to %e presumed to intend to legislate in onformit' and not in onflit with international law. K*ee Polites v The 6ommonwealth (14$&" 35 67 )5 at )8)4 338581E Bahariassen v The 6ommonwealth (1413" 2$ 67 1)) at 181E :a%o v Jueensland (No 2" (1442" 13& 67 1 at $2E :inister for &9 :  /,

Mi:5ai Ba:"nin sai$ HA a9 5as %&r its &'>e!t t& !&n%irm an$ e,at int& a s8stem t5e e,(&itati&n &% t5e 9&r:ers '8 a r"in/ !assH. Ci!er& sai$ Hm&re a96 ess >"sti!eH. Mar,ist $&!trine asserts t5at a9 9i n&t 'e re7"ire$ &n!e t5e state 5as 9it5ere$ a9a8.

23

5et5er it is (&ssi'e &r $esira'e t& $e%ine a9. T5ere 5ave 'een man8 attem(ts t& (r&$"!e Ha "niversa8 a!!e(ta'e $e%initi&n &% a9H. B8 320?6 n& s"!5 $e%initi&n 5a$ 'een (r&$"!e$. M!C&"'re8 an$ 5ite sai$ t5at t5e 7"esti&n H95at is a9H 5as n& sim(e ans9er. Ganvie iiams sai$ t5at t5e meanin/ &% t5e 9&r$ Ha9H $e(en$s &n t5e !&nte,t in 95i!5 t5at 9&r$ is "se$. *e sai$ t5at6 %&r  e,am(e6 Hear8 !"st&mar8 a9H an$ Hm"ni!i(a a9H 9ere !&nte,ts 95ere t5e 9&r$ Ha9H 5a$ t9& $i%%erent an$ irre!&n!ia'e meanin/s. T5"rman  Arn&$ sai$ t5at it is &'vi&"s t5at it is im(&ssi'e t& $e%ine t5e 9&r$ Ha9H an$ t5at it is as& e7"a8 &'vi&"s t5at t5e str"//e t& $e%ine t5at 9&r$ s5&"$ n&t ever 'e a'an$&ne$. It is (&ssi'e t& ta:e t5e vie9 t5at t5ere is n& nee$ t& $e%ine t5e 9&r$ Ha9H e!t t& t5e a96 in!"$in/ a9 ma:ers t5emseves. In t5is sense6 it stan$s in !&ntrast t& an a"t&!ra!86 !&e!tive ea$ers5i(6 $i!tat&rs5i(6 &r &i/ar!58 95ere t5e r"ers are 5e$ a'&ve t5e a9 <95i!5 is n&t ne!essar8 '8 $e%initi&n '"t 95i!5 is t8(i!a=. La!: &% t5e r"e &% a9 !an 'e %&"n$ in $em&!ra!ies an$ $i!tat&rs5i(s6 an$ !an 5a((en 'e!a"se &% ne/e!t &r i/n&ran!e &% t5e a96 !&rr"(ti&n6 &r a!: &% !&rre!tive me!5anisms %&r a$ministrative a'"se6 s"!5 as an in$e(en$ent >"$i!iar8 9it5 a r"e-&%-a9 !"t"re6 a (ra!ti!a ri/5t t& (etiti&n %&r re$ress &% /rievan!es6 &r ee!ti&ns. &(2 P+,./0 : U0@,@ &9 9.&@ =, 00&=&,

T5is (res"m(ti&n $erives %r&m t5e (rin!i(e t5at a stat"te s5&"$ 'e !&nstr"e$ as a9a8s s(ea:in/. T5e !&"rts 9i (res"me t5at a stat"te s5&"$ 'e rea$ in t5e i/5t &% !&n$iti&ns (revaiin/ t&$a8 an$ t5at s&!ia an$ te!5n&&/i!a $eve&(ments 9i 'e ta:en int& a!!&"nt. T5e inter(retati&n &% &$er e/isati&n in t5e !&nte,t &% ne9 te!5n&&/ies is an in!reasin/8 im(&rtant as(e!t &% t5e r"e. In T5e State
 A !a"ti&"s a((r&a!5 t& t5e a$a(tati&n &% e/isati&n t& ne9 $eve&(ments 9as a$v&!ate$ '8 M"r(58  in eane v An B&r$ Peana . T5e !ase !&n!erne$ t5e inter(retati&n &% t5e Mer!5ant S5i((in/ A!t6 312# 6 an$ t5e

2?

a((i!ati&n &% its $e%initi&n &% H'ea!&nH t& m&re m&$ern navi/ati&na ai$s. M"r(58  state$ t5at CWhere terminolog' used in legislation is wide enough to apture a su%seuent invention there is no reason to exlude it from the am%it of  the legislation. Dut a distintion must %e made %etween giving an updated onstrution to the general sheme of the legislation and  altering the meaning of partiular words used therein.C 

M"r(58  %&"n$ t5at t5e HL&ran-CH a m&$ern navi/ati&na s8stem6 $i$ n&t !&me 9it5in t5e 312# A!t6 sin!e t5e A!t re%erre$ t& (re!ise e7"i(ment rat5er t5an t& navi/ati&na ai$s in /enera terms. *e state$ t5at t5e terms &% t5e A!t $i$ n&t (ermit t5e C&mmissi&ners Cto engage in the onstrution maintenane or operation of a navigational aid s'stem %ased on the transmission and reeption (%'  and on euipment whih had not %een invented" of a wave motion or  impulse whih had not then %een identified.C 

Universa Cit8 St"$i&s In!&r(&rate$ v M"i/an t"rne$ &n t5e 7"esti&n &%  95et5er a vi$e&ta(e !ame 9it5in t5e $e%initi&n &% a !inemat&/ra(58 "n$er  t5e C&(8ri/5t A!t6 32 . La%%&8 6 $es(ite re%errin/ t& t5e $e!isi&n in eane v An B&r$ Peana 6 %&"n$ t5at vi$e&ta(e !&"$ 'e 'r&"/5t 9it5in t5e terms &% t5e 32 A!t6 t5&"/5 s5e a!:n&9e$/e$ t5at t5ere !&"$ 'e s&me %&rms &% in%&rmati&n te!5n&&/8 95i!5 mi/5t n&t 'e 9it5in its am'it. In Man$arim Re!&r$s v Me!5ani!a C&(8ri/5t Pr&te!ti&n S&!iet8
T5ere is a (res"m(ti&n6 95i!5 $erives %r&m t5e era 95en t5e (rima!8 &%  2

t5e !&mm&n a9 9as &n8 mar/ina8 im(in/e$ "(&n '8 stat"te a96 t5at a (r&visi&n 95i!5 is am'i/"&"s as t& 95et5er &r n&t it e%%e!ts a !5an/e in t5e a9 s5a 'e re/ar$e$ as n&t e%%e!tin/ an8 s"!5 !5an/e. In Minister %&r  In$"str8 an$ C&mmer!e v *aes6 *en!58  en$&rse$ t5is (res"m(ti&n6 !itin/ Ma,9e. Stat"t&r8 Dra%tin/ an$ Inter(retati&n6 C&ns"tati&n Pa(er &n Pain Lan/"a/e an$ t5e La9
In!.6 ?0 Va. 4)6 ## S.E.?$ 0?
La9 (res"mes t5at e/isati&n 5as e%%e!t &n8 9it5in t5e territ&r8 &% t5e State. T5e (res"m(ti&n 9as a((ie$ in C5emi!a Ban: v M!C&rma!: 95i!5 !&n!erne$ t5e ma:in/ &% &r$ers6 95i!5 ("r(&rte$ t& 5ave e,traterrit&ria e%%e!t6 "n$er t5e Ban:ers B&&:s "ris$i!ti&n. T5e (res"m(ti&n a/ainst e,tra-territ&ria e%%e!t 9as as& at iss"e in eane v An B&r$ Peana6 95i!5 (&ints &"t s&me &% t5e imits t& t5e (res"m(ti&n. T5e !ase !&n!erne$ t5e inter(retati&n &% t5e Pannin/  A!ts. It 9as ar/"e$ 'e%&re t5e *i/5 C&"rt t5at sin!e t5e Pannin/ A!ts $i$ n&t 5ave an8 e,(ress e,tra-territ&ria e%%e!t6 t5e e%%e!ts 95i!5 a $eve&(ment 5a$ 'e8&n$ t5e imits &% t5e territ&ria seas !&"$ n&t 'e ta:en int& a!!&"nt in t5e /rantin/ &% (annin/ (ermissi&n. T5is ar/"ment 9as re>e!te$ '8 Carr&  in t5e *i/5 C&"rt. S5e 5e$ t5at t5e !&n!e(t &%  t5e H!&mm&n /&&$H 95i!5 9as re%erre$ t& in t5e &n/ tite &% t5e 32 A!t 9as a 'r&a$ &ne6 an$ in!"$e$ t5e e%%e!ts 95i!5 t5e $eve&(ment 9&"$ 5ave &"tsi$e t5e nati&na territ&r8. S5e /ave t5e e,am(e &% sea (&"ti&n 95i!5 mi/5t arise %r&m a /rant &% (annin/ (ermissi&n. S"!5 (&"ti&n 9&"$ 5ave an e%%e!t &n t5e !&mm&n /&&$ an$ 9&"$ t5ere%&re 5ave t& 'e ta:en int& a!!&"nt in as!ertainin/ 95et5er &r n&t t& /rant (annin/ (ermissi&n. In t5e instant !ase6 t5e B&ar$ !&"$ ta:e int& a!!&"nt t5e 'ene%its &% t5e $eve&(ment &"tsi$e territ&ria 9aters6 an$ t5is s5&"$ n&t 'e e7"ate$ 9it5 e,ten$in/ t5e &(erati&n &% a stat"te 'e8&n$ t5e  >"ris$i!ti&n. T5e same 9as &'serve$ '8 t5e Cir!"it C&"rt &% Vir/inia. T5e %&&9in/ 9as &'serve$ in t5is !&nne!ti&n HT5e >"ris$i!ti&n &% t5e e/isat"re &% an8 state6 5&9ever6 /enera8 is imite$ t& t5e /e&/ra(5i!a area /&verne$ '8 t5at state. T5ere%&re6 He/isative ena!tments a((8 &n8 t& (ers&ns &r t5in/s 9it5in t5e territ&r8 &ver 95i!5 t5e ena!tin/ e/isat"re e,er!ises >"ris$i!ti&n.H2 F"rt5erm&re6 as a /enera r"e6 t5e stat"t&r8 a9 &% a state !an 5ave n& e%%e!t &"tsi$e t5e territ&ria imits &% t5at state6 "ness it is /iven e%%e!t in a %&rei/n >"ris$i!ti&n '8 !&"rtes8 &r !&mit8. T5e S"(reme C&"rt &%  Vir/inia n&tes t5at Hstat"tes $erive t5eir %&r!e %r&m t5e a"t5&rit8 &% t5e Le/isat"re6 an$ as a ne!essar8 !&nse7"en!e t5eir e%%e!t 9i 'e imite$ t& t5e '&"n$aries &% t5e State.H 2)

it 9i 'e (res"me$ ...t5at a e/isative '&$8... $i$ n&t inten$ t& /ive its ena!tments an im(ermissi'e e,traterrit&ria &(erati&n. 1? C..S. Stat"tes Z 34 <3222=. Ena!tin/ a stat"te 9it5 an im(ermissi'e e,traterrit&ria e%%e!t 9&"$ vi&ate $"e (r&!ess.  Astate Ins. C&. v. *a/"e6 ##2 U.S. 4? <3213=. Benn&ins Vie9 In Benni&ns Stat"t&r8 Inter(retati&n  F&"rt5 E$iti&n6 a $istin!ti&n is $ra9n 'et9een t5e territ&ria e,tent &% an ena!tment an$ t5e territ&ria a((i!ati&n &% an ena!tment. At Pa/e 4 &% Benni&n6 it states t5at an A!t $&es n&t "s"a8 a((8 t& a!ts &r &missi&ns ta:in/ (a!e &"tsi$e its territ&r8. T5e 'asi! (rin!i(e is t5at 9&r$s &% 9ritten &r "n9ritten a9 e,(resse$ in /enera terms are ta:en t& 'e s"'>e!t t& an im(ie$ imitati&n 95i!5 !&n%ines t5eir e%%e!t t& t5e territ&ria >"ris$i!ti&n At Pa/e 416 Benni&n states simiar8 t5e territ&r8 &% a s&verei/n state ma8 'e $ivi$e$ int& areas ea!5 5avin/ a $i%%erent s8stem &% a9. T5is (rin!i(e is as& state$ in *as'"r8s #t5 E$iti&n V&"me ##<3= at Para/ra(5 332 95i!5 states HT5e (ers&n &n 95&m a (arti!"ar A!t is inten$e$ t& &(erate are $es!ri'e$ as t5e (ers&ns t& 95&m it a((ies. 5& t5ese are is t& 'e /at5ere$ %r&m t5e an/"a/e an$ ("rvie9 &% t5e  A!t6 '"t t5e (res"m(ti&n
T5is (arti!"ar (res"m(ti&n %as "n$er t5e !ate/&r8 &% t5e (res"m(ti&n &%  !&rre!tness &% a stat"te. It is a str&n/ (res"m(ti&n t5at t5e e/isat"re is a9are &% t5e a9s. It is m&re &% a !&mm&n-sense a((r&a!5 t&

2

(res"m(ti&n. B"t it 5as its si/ni%i!an!e i% t5ere are t9& stat"tes &n t5e same s"'>e!t &r i% t5ere are (r&visi&ns &% t5e stat"tes t5at are in !&n%i!t. Tensi&n is t5en res&ve$ '8 re%errin/ t& t5is (res"m(ti&n. *en!e it is t5e "n$er8in/ reas&n %&r t5e /enera r"e in stat"t&r8 !&nstr"!ti&n t5at t5e !&"rts m"st %irst 5arm&ni@e t5e stat"tes e,istin/ sin!e t5e8 are '&t5 $eeme$ t& 'e !&rre!t '8 t5e e/isat"re. CThe legislature is presumed to 0now the law when enating  legislation. K6harles v. 6ommonwealth 235 @a. 1$ 14 )1# *.?.2d $#2 $#$ (255&"L We must therefore presume that the legislature 0new that  %oth a preliminar' hearing and a grand ,ur' inditment operate as sreening proedures for pro%a%le ause determination when the legislature enated 6ode O 14.2218. Nevertheless the legislature dereed that Cno inditment shall %e returned in a ourt of reord  against an' suh person prior to suh hearing . . . .C

B8 t5e (ain an/"a/e &% t5e stat"te6 t5e vai$it8 &% an8 in$i!tment a/ainst a (ers&n 95& 5as 'een arreste$ (ri&r t& t5e in$i!tment $e(en$s &n t5e &!!"rren!e &% a (reiminar8 5earin/ &r a vai$ 9aiver. T& $e!i$e t5at a s"'se7"ent in$i!tment !"res an8 vi&ati&n &% C&$e Z 32.?-?31 9&"$ 'e t& i/n&re t5e !&mman$ &% t5e e/isat"re.H Un$er it6 t5ere are severa (&ssi'e inter(retati&ns in!"$in/ t5e Pres"m(ti&n t5at t5e e/isat"re is a9are &% t5e e,istin/ >"$i!ia inter(retati&n /iven t& 9&r$s an$ (r&visi&ns. 5ere t5e !&"rts 5ave !&nstr"e$ t5e an/"a/e in a stat"te6 t5e e/isat"re is (res"me$ t& inten$ t5at t5e same !&nstr"!ti&n is t& 'e (a!e$ "(&n s"!5 an/"a/e in s"'se7"ent stat"tes &n t5e same s"'>e!t matter. See enne$8 v enne$8 3201 RLR )1. &(32 P+,./0 : A/,@ A :?, /,

T5ere is a /enera (res"m(ti&n t5at amen$ments are !arrie$ &"t %&r s&me ("r(&se an$ ever8 stat"te 5as an &'>e!t. T5e same is state$ as %&&9s H*&9ever6 95en !"rrent an$ (ri&r versi&ns &% a stat"te are at iss"e6 t5ere is a (res"m(ti&n t5at t5e Genera Assem'86 in amen$in/ a stat"te6 inten$e$ t& e%%e!t a s"'stantive !5an/e in t5e a9.H Vir/inia-Ameri!an ater C&. v. Prin!e iiam C&"nt8 Serv. A"t5.6 ?# Va. )426 )306 # S.E.?$ 316 ??-? <322= Dae v. Cit8 &% Ne9(&rt Ne9s6 ?# Va. #16 )36 #3? S.E.?$ 0436 04? <322?=. HF"rt5er6 9e ass"me t5at t5e Genera  Assem'8s amen$ments t& a stat"te are ("r(&se%"6 rat5er t5an "nne!essar8. AAA Dis(&sa Servs. v. E!:ert6 ?0 Va. ##?6 ##6 )2 S.E.?$ ?46 ?
)26 446 3 S.E.?$ #06 #02 <321)=.H est Le9insvie *ei/5ts Citi@ens  Ass&!iati&n et. a v. B&ar$ &% S"(ervis&rs &% Fair%a, C&"nt86 ?04 Va. ?)26 31 S.E.?$. 33
P+,./0 =. S0,& S., @ G,,+& S.,

&  HT5e S"(reme C&"rt re(eate$8 5as a%%irme$ t5at it is a (res"m(ti&n &% stat"t&r8 !&nstr"!ti&n t5at6 95ere '&t5 /enera an$ s(e!i%i! stat"tes a((ear t& a$$ress a matter6 t5e Genera Assem'8 inten$s t5e s(e!i%i! stat"te t& !&ntr& t5e s"'>e!t.H K*ee /odson v. Potoma :a0 *ales F *ervie 2$1 @a. 84 $55 *.?.2d 138 (1441"E Darr v. Town F 6ountr' Properties 2$5 @a. 242 #4) *.?.2d )32 (1445"E @a. National Dan0 v. >arris 225 @a. ##) 2&3 *.?.2d 8)3 (1434"L  &(34 P+,./0 : L,+ ,/, ?,++@, E+&,+

HAn&t5er r"e &% stat"t&r8 !&nstr"!ti&n re7"ires t5e (res"m(ti&n t5at6 in ena!tin/ stat"tes6 t5e Genera Assem'8 5as %" :n&9e$/e &% e,istin/ a9 an$ inter(retati&ns t5ere&% .  At5&"/5 t5e re(ea &% stat"tes '8 im(i!ati&n is n&t %av&re$6 i% t9& stat"tes are in (ari materia6 t5en t& t5e e,tent t5at t5eir (r&visi&ns are irre!&n!ia'8 in!&nsistent an$ re("/nant6 t5e atter ena!tment re(eas &r  amen$s t5e earier ena!te$ stat"te. <3? -O(. Va. Att8 Gen. O(. N&. 44?6 Se(t.
 At5&"/5 t5e re(ea &% stat"tes '8 im(i!ati&ns is n&t %av&re$6 i% t9& stat"tes are in (ari materia6 t5en t& t5e e,tent t5at t5eir (r&visi&ns are irre!&n!ia'8 in!&nsistent an$ re("/nant6 t5e atter ena!tment re(eas &r  amen$s t5e earier ena!te$ stat"te. Re(ea 5as 'een $e%ine$ as an a'r&/ati&n &% an e,istin/ a9 '8 e/isative a!t. Re(ea 5as 'een $ivi$e$ int& t9& '8 eminent >"rists as e,(resse$ re(ea an$ im(ie$ re(ea. T5e %&rmer is a re(ea a%%e!te$ '8 s(e!i%i! $e!arati&n in a ne9 stat"te. 5ie atter6 is re(ea a%%e!te$ '8 irre!&n!ia'e !&n%i!t 'et9een an &$ a9 an$ a ne9 a9. T5is is as& terme$ as re(ea '8 im(i!ati&n. T5e $&!trine &% im(ie$ re(ea is 'ase$ &n t5e t5e&r8 t5at t5e e/isat"re6 95i!5 is (res"me$ t& :n&9 t5e e,istin/ a96 $i$ n&t inten$ t& !reate an8 21

!&n%"si&n '8 retainin/ !&n%i!tin/ Pr&visi&ns an$6 t5ere%&re6 95en t5e !&"rts a((ies t5e $&!trine6 it $&es n& m&re t5an /ive e%%e!t t& t5e intenti&n &% t5e e/isat"re '8 e,aminin/ t5e s!&(e an$ t5e &'>e!t &% t5eir  (r&visi&ns. &(36 P+,./0  S.=& A&,+ 8 L9 A/,@ S.,

5en amen$ments are ena!te$ s&&n a%ter !&ntr&versies arise Has t& t5e inter(retati&n &% t5e &ri/ina a!t6 it is &/i!a t& re/ar$ t5e amen$ment as a e/isative inter(retati&n &% t5e &ri/ina a!t6 a %&rma !5an/e-re'"ttin/ t5e (res"m(ti&n &% s"'stantia !5an/e.H
HT5e !&nstr"!ti&n &% stat"tes '8 a/en!ies !5ar/e$ 9it5 a$ministrati&n &%  t5&se stat"tes is entite$ t& /reat 9ei/5t.K  A $e!isi&n &% an a/en!8 !5ar/e$ '8 t5e Genera Assem'8 9it5 state9i$e a$ministrati&n6 "ness it is !ear8 9r&n/6 !arries /reat 9ei/5t an$ is entite$ t& $e%eren!e. T5e /rant &% re/"at&r8 a"t5&rit8 e,ten$s &n8 t& $"ties &r (&9ers !&n%erre$ '8 a9. As s"!56 Hre/"ati&ns6 (r&m"/ate$ ("rs"ant t& $e%initive stat"t&r8 a"t5&rit86 5ave t5e %&r!e an$ e%%e!t &% a9. M&re&ver6 t5&se re/"ati&ns 95i!5 H!ear8 an$ e,(i!it8 mirr&rH stat"t&r8 a"t5&rit8 are i:eiest t& 'e s"staine$.  An8 re/"ati&n &% t5e De(artment m"st 'e reas&na'8 /r&"n$e$ in an i$enti%ia'e an$ $e%initive stat"t&r8 %&"n$ati&n.H
22

Pr&vi$e$ t5e inter(retati&n H$&es n&t vi&ate t5e C&nstit"ti&n &r a %e$era stat"te6 it m"st 'e /iven !&ntr&in/ 9ei/5t "ness it is (ain8 err&ne&"s &r  in!&nsistent 9it5 t5e re/"ati&n. KC*tinson v. 9nited *tates &58 9.*. #) $& (144#" (uoting Dowles v. *eminole o0 F *and 6o. #2& 9.*. $15 $1$ (14$&"".L  &(3 P+,./0 8 @,8,+,, @ ,<,

HT5e !ir!"it !&"rt n&net5eess $e%erre$ t& t5e Te!5ni!a Revie9 B&ar$s reas&nin/6 !&rre!t8 n&tin/ t5at !&"rts /ive H/reat $e%eren!eH t& an a/en!8s inter(retati&n &% its &9n re/"ati&ns. T5is $e%eren!e stems %r&m C&$e Z ?.?-#4?06 95i!5 re7"ires t5at revie9in/ !&"rts Hta:e $"e a!!&"ntH &% t5e He,(erien!e an$ s(e!iai@e$ !&m(eten!e &% t5e a/en!8H (r&m"/atin/ t5e re/"ati&n. Even s&6 H$e%eren!e is n&t a'$i!ati&n6 an$ it re7"ires "s t& a!!e(t &n8 t5&se a/en!8 inter(retati&ns t5at are reas&na'e in i/5t &% t5e (rin!i(es &% !&nstr"!ti&n !&"rts n&rma8 em(&8.H (??6 v. -ra%ian -merian il  6o. $44 9.*. 2$$ 2)5 (1441" (*alia A. onurring"."

N& matter 5&9 &ne !ai'rates >"$i!ia $e%eren!e6 t5e a$ministrative (&9er  t& inter(ret a re/"ati&n $&es n&t in!"$e t5e (&9er t& re9rite it. 5en a re/"ati&n is Hn&t am'i/"&"s6H >"$i!ia $e%eren!e Ht& t5e a/en!8s (&siti&n 9&"$ 'e t& (ermit t5e a/en!86 "n$er t5e /"ise &% inter(retin/ a re/"ati&n6 t& !reate de fato  a ne9 re/"ati&n.H It ma8 'e n&te$ t5at t5is is as& i:e t5e (revaiin/ (ra!ti!e in &t5er  !&"ntries 95ere &n8 t5e !&"rts inter(ret t5e stat"te "ni:e t5e US e/a s8stem. In t5&se !ir!"mstan!es t5e >"$i!iar8 is /enera8 re"!tant t& a$$s"'tra!t 9&r$s6 rea$ in 6 rea$ $&9n et!6 9&r$s in %r&m t5e stat"te <6hristensen v. >arris 6ount' &24 9.*. &3) &88 (2555". " T5&"/5 a/en!ies ma8 'e tem(te$ t& a$>"$i!ate t5eir 9a8 ar&"n$ "n9ante$ re/"ati&ns6 s"!5 &verrea!5in/ "n$ermines t5e n&ti!e an$ ("'i! 5earin/ (r&!e$"res &% t5e r"e ma:in/ (r&!ess H t5ere'8 ("ttin/ in  >e&(ar$8 t5e Hen5an!e$ (&iti!a a!!&"nta'iit8 &% a/en!8 (&i!8 $e!isi&ns a$&(te$ t5r&"/5 t5e r"e ma:in/ (r&!essH an$ t5e $em&!rati! virt"e &%  a&9in/ Ha (&tentia8 a%%e!te$ mem'ers &% t5e ("'i! an &((&rt"nit8 t& (arti!i(ate in t5e (r&!ess &% $eterminin/ t5e r"es t5at a%%e!t t5em.H

344

&(3! P+,./0 : S.+> C+.  C+,  $.@+>

T5e !&re inter(retive !&n!e(ts &n 95i!5 (rin!i(es &% e/isative inter(retati&n are 'ase$ are n&t6 &% !&"rse6 "ni7"e. N&r are t5e8 imite$ t& t5e inter(retati&n &% e/a $&!"ments. Ee!tr&ni! resear!5 t&&s ma:e 9ritin/ a'&"t stat"t&r8 inter(retati&n '&t5 e,!itin/ an$ a itte $a"ntin/. I% m&st !ases $e!i$e$ '8 A"straian !&"rts in re!ent 8ears 5ave inv&ve$ t5e a((i!ati&n &% e/isati&n6 a &% t5&se !ases are 9&rt58 &% investi/ati&n. T5e (r&!ess &% see!tin/ !ases &n 95i!5 t& !&n!entrate is t5ere%&re n&t 9it5&"t ris:. B"t t5e tas: is 9&rt595ie. S(i/eman C &% t5e S"(reme C&"rt &% Ne9 S&"t5 aes 5as !&mmente$ t5at JThe law of statutor' interpretation has %eome the most important  single aspet of legal pratie. *ignifiant areas of the law are determined entirel' %' statute. No area of the law has esaped  statutor' modifiation .K

T5e C&mm&n9eat5 Pariament ena!te$ s 3)AA &% t5e A!ts Inter(retati&n  A!t 32436 95i!5 (r&vi$es J;n the interpretation of a provision of an -t a onstrution that would   promote the purpose or o%,et underl'ing the -t (whether that   purpose or o%,et is expressl' stated in the -t or not" shall %e  preferred to a onstrution that would not promote that purpose or  o%,et .K /tare decisis is t5e e/a (rin!i(e '8 95i!5 >"$/es are &'i/e$ t& res(e!t

t5e (re!e$ents esta'is5e$ '8 (ri&r $e!isi&ns. T5e 9&r$s &ri/inate %r&m t5e Latin (5rase Stare $e!isis et n&n 7"ieta m&vere stan$ '8 $e!isi&ns an$ $& n&t $ist"r' t5e "n$ist"r'e$. In a e/a !&nte,t6 t5is is "n$erst&&$ t& mean t5at !&"rts s5&"$ /enera8 a'i$e '8 (re!e$ents an$ n&t $ist"r' sette$ matters. & (4# P+,./0 =. G,,+& A9+,, 8 L,&.+,

 Asi$e %r&m t5e (res"m(ti&n t5at !&n/ress :n&9s t5e r"es &% stat"t&r8 !&nstr"!ti&n6 an$ t5at !&n/ress :n&9s t5e &$ a9s. It is as& (res"me$ t5at t5e !&n/ress :n&9s t5e vai$ !"st&ms6tra$iti&ns6 an$ it is as& (res"me$ t5at !&n/ress :n&9s t5e nee$s &% t5e ("'i!.

343

&(41 P+,./0 8 M, R, 2 S,,+(US 3(US 4

T5e (res"m(ti&n is ver8 a(t8 s"mme$ "( in t5e !ase &% S9eet.v. Pare8.S&me e,tar!ts &% t5is 9&"$ s"%%i!e t5e (res"m(ti&n &% Mens rea in !rimina &%%enses. "&te$ 'e&9 is t5e e,tra!ts &% t5e same. It 5as %re7"ent8 'een a%%irme$ an$ s5&"$ "n5esitatin/8 'e re!&/ni@e$ t5at it is a !ar$ina (rin!i(e &% &"r a9 t5at mens rea6 an evi intenti&n &r  :n&9e$/e &% t5e 9r&n/%"ness &% t5e a!t6 is in a &r$inar8 !ases an essentia in/re$ient &% /"it &% a !rimina &%%ense. It %&&9s %r&m t5is t5at t5ere 9i n&t 'e /"it &% an &%%ense !reate$ '8 stat"te "ness t5ere is mens rea &r "ness Pariament 5as '8 t5e stat"te ena!te$ t5at /"it ma8 'e esta'is5e$ in !ases 95ere t5ere is n& mens rea. T& t5is e%%e!t 9ere t5e 9&r$s &% ri/5t . in S5erras v. De R"t@en 312) 3 .B.D. 231 an$ in Der'8s5ire v. *&"st&n in 3120 < L.. .B.)2=. In t5e >"$/ment &% t5e Priv8 C&"n!i in Lim C5in Ai: v. T5e "een 32  A.C. 34 t5e (rin!i(e 9as am(8 e,(resse$. At (a/e 30? it 9as sai$ HT5at (r&&% &% t5e e,isten!e &% a /"it8 min$ is an essentia in/re$ient &% a !rime at !&mm&n a9 is n&t at a in $&"'t.H B"t as Pariament is s"(reme it is &(en t& Pariament t& e/isate in s"!5 a 9a8 t5at an &%%ense ma8 'e !reate$ &% 95i!5 s&me&ne ma8 'e %&"n$ /"it8 t5&"/5 mens rea is a!:in/. T5ere ma8 'e !ases in 95i!56 as C5anne . sai$
T5"s in $iverse sit"ati&ns an$ !ir!"mstan!es an$ %&r an8 &ne &% a variet8 &% reas&ns Pariament ma8 see %it t& !reate &%%enses an$ ma:e (e&(e res(&nsi'e 'e%&re !rimina !&"rts at5&"/5 t5ere is an a'sen!e &% mens rea. In t5e 9&r$s &% L&r$ G&$$ar$ C..6 in Bren$ v. &&$ 32# <30) L.T. 4=6 it 9as state$ t5at
34?

onstituent part of a rime the 6ourt should not find a man guilt' of an offene against the riminal law unless he has a guilt' mind.C 

T5e intenti&n &% Pariament is e,(resse$ in t5e 9&r$s &% an ena!tment. T5e 9&r$s m"st 'e &&:e$ at in &r$er t& see 95et5er eit5er e,(ress8 &r  '8 ne!essar8 im(i!ati&n t5e8 $is(a!e t5e /enera r"e &r (res"m(ti&n t5at mens rea is a ne!essar8 (rere7"isite 'e%&re /"it &% an &%%en!e !an 'e %&"n$. Parti!"ar 9&r$s in a stat"te m"st 'e !&nsi$ere$ in t5eir settin/ in t5e stat"te an$ 5avin/ re/ar$ t& a t5e (r&visi&ns &% t5e stat"te an$ t& its $e!are$ &r &'vi&"s ("r(&se. In 31#1 in Att&rne8-Genera v. L&!:9&&$ 2 M. [ . 01 A$ers&n B. at (a/e 21 sai$ “The rule of law ; ta0e it upon the onstrution of all statutes . . . . is whether the' %e penal or remedial to onstrue them aording to the  plain literal and grammatial meaning of the words in whih the' are expre xpress ssed ed unle unless ss that hat ons onsttrut rutiion leads eads to a plai lain and and lea lear  r  ontraditi ontradition on of the apparent purpose of the -t or to some palpa%le and  evident a%surdit'.C  a%surdit'.C 

It m"st 'e !&nsi$ere$6 t5ere%&re6 95et5er 95et5er '8 t5e 9&r$s &% a (ena stat"te it is eit5er e,(ress &r im(ie$ t5at t5ere ma8 'e a !&nvi!ti&n 9it5&"t mens rea &r6 in &t5er 9&r$s6 95et5er 95at is !ae$ an a's&"te &%%en!e is !reate$. In D8:e v. Ei&tt6 T5e JGa"ntetH L.R.# P.C. A((. 31# it 9as sai$ at (a/e 323 “No dou%t all penal statutes are to %e onstrued stritl' that is to sa' the 6ourt must see that the thing harged as an offene is within the  plain meaning of the words used and must not no t strain the words on an'  notion that there has %een a slip that there has %een a asus omissus that the thing is so learl' within the mishief that it must have %een intended to %e inluded and would have %een inluded if thought of. n the other hand the person harged has a right to sa' that the thing  harge harged d alth althoug ough h with within in the the words words is not not with within in the spir spirit it of the the enatment. Dut where the thing is %rought within the words and within the spirit there a penal enatment is to %e onstrued li0e an' other  inst instrum rument ent aord aordin ing g to the the fair fair ommo ommon n sense sense meani meaning ng of the the language used and the 6ourt is not to find or ma0e an' dou%t or  am%iguit' in the language of a penal statute where suh dou%t or 

34

am%iguit' am%iguit' would would learl' not %e found or made in the same language in an' other instrument.C 

T5e in7"ir8 m"st 'e ma$e6 t5ere%&re6 95et5er Pariament 5as "se$ 9&r$s 95i!5 e,(ress8 ena!t &r im(ie$8 inv&ve t5at an a's&"te &%%ense is !reate$. T5&"/5 s&metimes 5e( in !&nstr"!ti&n is $erive$ %r&m n&tin/ t5e (resen!e &r t5e a'sen!e &% t5e 9&r$ J:n&9in/8H n& !&n!"sive test !an 'e ai$ $&9n as a /"i$e in %in$in/ t5e %air6 reas&na'e an$ !&mm&nsense meanin/ &% an/"a/e. B"t in !&nsi$erin/ 95et5er Pariament 5as $e!i$e$ t& $is(a!e 95at is a /enera an$ s&me95at %"n$amenta r"e it 9&"$ n&t 'e reas&na'e i/5t8 t& im("te t& Pariament an intenti&n t& !reate an &%%ense in s"!5 a 9a8 t5at s&me&ne !&"$ 'e !&nvi!te$ &% it 95& '8 a reas&na'e an$ sensi'e stan$ar$s is 9it5&"t %a"t. T5ere 5ave 'een man8 !ases in re!ent (eri&$s in 95i!5 in re%eren!e t& a variet8 &%  $i%%e $i%%eren rentt stat stat"t& "t&r8 r8 ena!t ena!tme ment ntss 7"esti 7"esti&ns &ns 5ave 5ave 'een 'een raise$ raise$ 95et 95et5er  5er  a's&"te &%%enses 5ave 'een !reate$. S&me &% t5ese !ases i"strate t5e $i%%i!"ties t5at are !reate$ i% Pariament "ses an/"a/e &r (5rases as t& t5e meanin/ &% 95i!5 e/itimate $i%%eren!es $i%%eren!es &% &(ini&n !an arise. I $& n&t (r&( (r&(&s &se e t& re!i re!ite te &r s"rv s"rve8 e8 t5es t5ese e !ase !asess 'e!a 'e!a"s "se6 e6 in m8 vie9 vie966 t5e t5e (rin!i(es 95i!5 s5&"$ /"i$e !&nstr"!ti&n are !ear an$6 save t& t5e e,tent t5at (rin!i(es are ai$ $&9n6 t5e !ases mere8 (&ssess t5e interest 95i!5 5i!5 is 8ie 8ie$e $e$ $ '8 seei seein/ n/ 5&9 5&9 $i% $i%%ere %erent nt 7"es 7"estiti&n &nss 5ave 5ave66 95et 95et5e 5er  r  !&rre!t8 &r in- !&rre!t86 'een $e!i$e$ in re%eren!e t& var8in/ sets &%  9&r$s in vari&"s $i%%erent stat"tes. (er L&r$ M&rris &% B&rt5-8-Gest Be%&re t5e C&"rt 9i $is(ense 9it5 t5e ne!essit8 %&r mens rea it 5as t& 'e satis%ie$ t5at Pariament s& inten$e$. T5e mere a'sen!e &% t5e 9&r$ J:n&9in/8H is n&t en&"/5. B"t t5e nat"re &% t5e !rime6 t5e ("nis5ment6 t5e a'sen!e &% s&!ia &'&7"86 t5e (arti!"ar mis!5ie% an$ t5e %ie$ &%  a!tivit8 in 95i!5 it &!!"rs6 an$ t5e 9&r$in/ &% t5e (arti!"ar se!ti&n an$ its !&nte !&nte,t ,t66 ma8 ma8 s5&9 s5&9 t5at t5at Pari Pariam ament ent inten inten$e$ $e$ t5at t5at t5e t5e a!t s5&"$ s5&"$ 'e (reve (revente nte$ $ '8 ("nis ("nis5m 5ment ent re/ar$ re/ar$es esss &% intent intent &r :n&9 :n&9e$ e$/e. /e. L&r$ L&r$ Pear!e L&r$ Di(&!: as& state$ as %&&9s  A m&re 5e(%" 5e (%" e,(&siti&n &% t5e nat"re &% mens rea r ea in '&t5 !&mm&n a9 an$ stat"t&r8 &%%en!es is t& 'e %&"n$ in t5e >"$/ment &% Sir ames Fit@>ames Ste(5en in R. v. T&s&n <3112= ? .B.D. 31.

34#

CThe full definition of ever' rime he said (at page 183"C ontains expr expres essl sl' ' or %' impl impli iat atio ion n a prop propos osit itio ion n as to a stat state e of mind mind.. Therefore if the mental element of an' ondut alleged to %e a rime is  proved to have %een a%sent in an' given ase the rime so denned  has not %een ommitted E or again if a rime is full' defined nothing  amounts to that rime whih does not satisf' that Cdefinition.C 

5ere t5e !rime !rime !&nsists !&nsists &% $&in/ &n a!t 95i!5 95i!5 is (r&5i'ite$ (r&5i'ite$ '8 stat"te stat"te t5e (r&(&siti&n as t& t5e state &% min$ &% t5e $&er 95i!5 is !&ntaine$ in t5e %" $e%initi&n &% t5e !rime m"st 'e as!ertaine$ %r&m t5e 9&r$s an$ s"'>e!ts"'>e!t- matter &% t5e stat"te. stat"te. T5e (r&(&siti&n6 as Ste(5en Ste(5en . (&inte$ &"t6 ma8 'e stat state$ e$ e,(i e,(i!i !itt88 '8 t5e t5e "se "se &% s"!5 s"!5 7"a 7"ai%i%8i 8in/ n/ a$ve a$ver' r'ss as Jmai!i&"s8K H%ra"$"ent8 H6 H ne/i/ent8 H &r H :n&9in/8 He,(ressi&ns 95i!5 5i!5 in rea reatiti&n &n t& $i% $i%%eren erentt :in$ :in$ss &% !&n$ !&n$"! "!tt ma8 ma8 !a !a %&r %&r >"$i >"$i!i !ia a e,e/esis. An$ even 9it5&"t s"!5 a$ver's t5e 9&r$s $es!ri(tive &% t5e (r&5i' (r&5i'itite$ e$ a!t a!t ma8 ma8 t5em t5emse seve vess !&nn& !&nn&te te t5e t5e (resen (resen!e !e &% a (arti (arti!" !"ar  ar  menta eement. T5"s6 95ere t5e (r&5i'ite$ !&n$"!t !&nsists in (ermittin/ a (arti!"ar t5in/ t& 'e $&ne t5e 9&r$ H (ermit H !&nn&tes at east :n&9e$/e :n&9e$/e &r reas&na'e /r&"n$s %&r s"s(i!i&n &n t5e (art &% t5e (ermitt&r t&r t5at t5at t5e t5e t5in t5in/ / 9i 9i 'e $&ne $&ne an$ an$ an "n9i "n9iin in/n /nes esss t& "se "se mean meanss avaia'e t& 5im t& (revent it an$6 t& ta:e a re!ent e,am(e6 t& 5ave in &nes H (&ssessi&n H a (r&5i'ite$ s"'stan!e !&n- n&tes s&me $e/ree &%  a9aren a9areness ess &% t5at 95i!5 9as 9as 9it5in 9it5in t5e (&ssess& (&ssess&rs rs (58si!a (58si!a !&ntr& !&ntr& <arner v. Metr&(&itan P&i!e C&mmissi&ner 321 ? A E.R. )=. 5ere (ena (r&visi&ns are &% /enera a((i!ati&n t& t5e !&n$"!t &%  &r$inar8 !iti@ens in t5e !&"rse &% t5eir ever8$a8 i%e t5e (res"m(ti&n is t5at t5e stan$ar$ &% !are re7"ire$ &% t5em in in%&rmin/ t5emseves &% %a!ts 95i!5 9&"$ ma:e t5eir !&n$"!t "na9%"6 is t5at &% t5e %amiiar !&mm&n a9 a9 $"t8 $"t8 &% !are !are.. B"t B"t 95er 95ere e t5e t5e s"'> s"'>e! e!tt matt matter er &% a stat stat"t "te e is t5e t5e re/"ati&n &% a (arti!"ar a!tivit8 inv&vin/ (&tentia $an/er t& ("'i! 5eat56 sa%et8 &r m&ras in 95i!5 !iti@ens 5ave a !5&i!e as t& 95et5er  t5e8 (arti!i(ate &r n&t6 t5e C&"rt ma8 %ee $riven t& in%er an intenti&n &%  Pariament t& im(&se '8 (ena san!ti&ns a 5i/5er $"t8 &% !are &n t5&se 95& !5&&se t& (arti!i(ate an$ t& (a!e "(&n t5em an &'i/ati&n t& ta:e 95at 95atev ever er meas meas"re "ress ma8 ma8 'e ne!ess ne!essar8 ar8 t& (reve (revent nt t5e t5e (r&5i (r&5i'it 'ite$ e$ a!t 9it5&"t re/ar$ t& t5&se !&nsi$erati&ns &% !&st &r '"siness (ra!ti!a'iit8 95i!5 (a8 a (art in t5e $eterminati&n &% 95at 9&"$ 'e re7"ire$ &% t5em in &r$er t& %"%i t5e &r$inar8 !&mm&n a9 $"t8 &% !are. B"t s"!5 an in%eren!e is n&t i/5t8 t& 'e $ra9n6 n&r is t5ere an8 r&&m %&r it "ness t5ere is s&met5in/ t5at t5e (ers&n &n 95&m t5e &'i/ati&n is im(&se$ !an $& $ire!t8 &r in$ire!t86 '8 s"(ervisi&n &r ins(e!ti&n6 '8 im(r&vement &%  34)

5is '"siness met5&$s &r '8 e,5&rtin/ t5&se 95&m 5e ma8 'e e,(e!te$ t& in%"en!e &r !&ntr&6 95i!5 9i (r&m&te t5e &'servan!e &% t5e &'i/ati&n &rit8 &% t5e *i/5 C&"rt &% A"straia in T5&mas v. T5e in/ 32)0 )2 C.L.R. ?02. It is n&9 re/"ar8 a$&(te$ in A"straia as a /enera (rin!i(e &% !&nstr"!ti&n &% stat"t&r8 (r&visi&ns &% t5is :in$.L&r$ Di(&!: &(42 P+,./0 : G+,,+ P9,+ &.@, L,,+ P9,+

T5e (rin!i(e t5at t5e /rant &% a /reater (&9er in!"$es t5e /rant &% a esser (&9er is a 'it &% !&mm&n sense t5at 5as 'een re!&/ni@e$ in virt"a8 ever8 e/a !&$e %r&m time immem&ria. It 5as %&"n$ m&$ern e,(ressi&n (rimari8 in t5e ream &% !&nstit"ti&na a9. See6 e./.6 Cit8 &%  La:e9&&$ v. Pain Deaer P"'is5in/ C&.6 3211 USSC 3? #1 U.S. 0)46 03211 USSC 3? 6 341 S.Ct. ?316 ?3#03211 USSC 3? 6 344 L.E$.?$ 003 <3211=
im(ris&nment.H U.S.S.G. Se!. )*3.#6 (.s.

Pres"m(ti&n t5at Dee/ate$ P&9er 9&"$ 'e em(&8e$ rati&na8 T5e C&"rt 5as 5ist&ri!a8 'een re"!tant t& entertain %a!ia atta!:s &n stat"tes6 i.e.6 !aims t5at a stat"te is invai$ in a &% its a((i!ati&ns. O"r n&rma a((r&a!5 5as 'een t& $etermine 95et5er a a9 is "n!&nstit"ti&na as a((ie$ in t5e (arti!"ar !ase 'e%&re t5e C&"rt. T5is r"e is as& t5e "s"a a((r&a!5 9e %&&9 95en revie9in/ a9s t5at re7"ire i!enses &r (ermits t& en/a/e in '"siness &r &t5er a!tivities. In Ne9 Y&r: e, re. Lie'erman v. Van De Carr6 am(e6 (ainti%% in err&r 9as !&nvi!te$ &% sein/ mi: in Ne9 Y&r: Cit8 9it5&"t a (ermit. Painti%% in err&r !aime$ 'e%&re t5is C&"rt t5at t5e i!ensin/ a9 veste$ ar'itrar8 (&9er in an a$ministrative '&ar$ t& see!t t5&se 95& 9&"$ 'e (ermitte$ t& se mi:. T5is C&"rts res(&nse 9as HPri&r !ases eave in n& $&"'t t5e (r&(&siti&n t5at t5e !&n%errin/ &% $is!reti&nar8 (&9er "(&n a$ministrative '&ar$s t& /rant &r 9it55&$ (ermissi&n t& !arr8 &n a tra$e &r '"siness 95i!5 is t5e (r&(er s"'>e!t &% re/"ati&n 9it5in t5e (&i!e (&9er &% t5e state is n&t vi&ative &% ri/5ts se!"re$ '8 t5e F&"rteeent5 Ammen$ment.  T5ere is n& (res"m(ti&n t5at t5e (&9er 9i 'e ar'itrari8 e,er!ise$6 an$ 95en it is s5&9n t& 'e t5"s e,er!ise$ a/ainst t5e in$ivi$"a6 "n$er san!ti&n &% state a"t5&rit8 t5is !&"rt 5as n&t 5esitate$ t& inter%ere %&r 5is (r&te!ti&n6 95en t5e !ase 5as !&me 'e%&re it in s"!5 manner as t& a"t5&ri@e t5e inter%eren!e &% a Fe$era !&"rt.H I$.6 at )?6 ? S.Ct.6 at 3#. T5ere 'ein/ n& s5&9in/ t5at t5e a9 5a$ 'een "n!&nstit"ti&na8 a((ie$

340

t& (ainti%% in err&r6 5is !&nvi!ti&n 9as a%%irme$. HOne 95& is re7"ire$ t& ta:e &"t a i!ense 9i n&t 'e 5ear$ t& !&m(ain6 in a$van!e &% a((i!ati&n6 t5at t5ere is a $an/er &% re%"sa. *e s5&"$ a((8 an$ see 95at 5a((ens.H *i/5an$ Farms Dair86 In!. v. A/ne96 320 USSC ) 44 U.S. 416 3-30320 USSC ) 6 )0 S.Ct. )#26 ))320 USSC ) 6 13 L.E$. 1) <320= e!t &% re/"ati&n 9it5in t5e (&i!e (&9er &% t5e state is n&t vi&ative &% ri/5ts se!"re$ '8 t5e F&"rteeent5 Ammen$ment.  T5ere is n& (res"m(ti&n t5at t5e (&9er 9i 'e ar'itrari8 e,er!ise$6 an$ 95en it is s5&9n t& 'e t5"s e,er!ise$ a/ainst t5e in$ivi$"a6 "n$er san!ti&n &% state a"t5&rit8 t5is !&"rt 5as n&t 5esitate$ t& inter%ere %&r 5is (r&te!ti&n6 95en t5e !ase 5as !&me 'e%&re it in s"!5 manner as t& a"t5&ri@e t5e inter%eren!e &% a Fe$era !&"rt.H I$.6 at )?6 ? S.Ct.6 at 3#. T5ere 'ein/ n& s5&9in/ t5at t5e a9 5a$ 'een "n!&nstit"ti&na8 a((ie$ t& (ainti%% in err&r6 5is !&nvi!ti&n 9as a%%irme$. HOne 95& is re7"ire$ t& ta:e &"t a i!ense 9i n&t 'e 5ear$ t& !&m(ain6 in a$van!e &% a((i!ati&n6 341

t5at t5ere is a $an/er &% re%"sa. *e s5&"$ a((8 an$ see 95at 5a((ens.H *i/5an$ Farms Dair86 In!. v. A/ne96 320 USSC ) 44 U.S. 416 3-30320 USSC ) 6 )0 S.Ct. )#26 ))320 USSC ) 6 13 L.E$. 1) <320=
"$i!iar8 5as n& a"t5&rit8 t& &&: int& Pariamentar8 (r&!ee$in/s %&r t5e ("r(&se &% ena!tment an$ (r&!ess. C&"rts 5ave n& (&9ers 95et5er  e,(i!it &r im(i!it in t5is re/ar$. < LORD BING*AM OF CORN*ILL= In Pi!:in v Britis5 Rai9a8s B&ar$ 320# AC 0) it 9as $e!i$e$ t5at ' Cthe ourts in this ountr' have no power to delare enated law to %e invalidC 

In Pi!:in6 "ni:e t5e (resent !ase6 it 9as s&"/5t t& investi/ate t5e interna 9&r:in/s an$ (r&!e$"res &% Pariament t& $em&nstrate t5at it 5a$ 'een mise$ an$ s& 5a$ (r&!ee$e$ &n a %ase 'asis. T5is 9as 5e$ t& 'e ie/itimate 95ere it 9as sai$ C-ll that a 6ourt of Austie an do is to loo0 to the Parliamentar' roll= if  from that it should appear that a %ill has passed %oth >ouses and  reeived the o'al assent no 6ourt of Austie an inuire into the mode in whih it was introdued into Parliament nor into what was done  previous to its introdution or what passed in Parliament during its various stages through %oth >ouses.C 

*ere6 t5e !&"rt &&:s t& t5e (ariamentar8 r& an$ sees 'is e!t &% (ariamentar8 in7"ir86 '"t a 7"esti&n 95et5er6 in L&r$ Sim&ns an/"a/e6 t5ese A!ts are Hena!te$ a9.H 342