MINERAL DAN KERACUNAN MINERAL
(Disusun Guna Memenuhi Tugas Mata Kuliah Farmakologi Sosial dan Pengelolaan Obat)
Disusun Oleh:
Abdul Latif
(102110101001) (102110101001)
Luky Diah Anggraeni
(102110101111) (102110101111)
Rani Romadaniyati
(122110101009) (122110101009)
Ulfa Mawaddaturrokhmah
(122110101028) (122110101028)
Putri Suci W
(122110101053) (122110101053)
Siti Fatimatun Navisah
(122110101076) (122110101076)
Aminatul Laila
(122110101089) (122110101089)
Dian Kusuma Wardani
(122110101114) (122110101114)
Mohammad Thomi F.
(122110101161) (122110101161)
Anggi Aditama
(122110101196) (122110101196)
Kelas:
Farmakologi Sosial dan Pengelolaan Obat A
FAKULTAS KESEHATAN MASYARAKAT UNIVERSITAS JEMBER 2014
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KATA PENGANTAR
Dengan menyebut nama Allah Yang Maha Pengasih lagi Maha Penyayang, segala puji hanya bagi-Nya. Semoga sholawat beserta salam sal am senantiasa tercurahkan kepada Nabi Muhammad SAW serta keluarga, sahabat, dan para pengikutnya. Puji syukur alhamdulilah kami panjatkan kehadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa yang telah melimpahkan segala rahmat, hidayah, serta inayah-Nya. Sehingga, kami dapat menyelesaikan makalah yang berjudul “Mineral “ Mineral dan Keracunan Mineral” Mineral” ini dengan baik dan lancar. Kami mengucapkan terima kasih kepada: 1. Bapak Drs. Husni Abdul Gani, M.S. selaku Dekan Fakultas Kesehatan Masyarakat Universitas Jember 2. Ibu Fifteen Aprila Fajrin, S.Farm., M.Farm., Apt selaku dosen mata kuliah Farmakologi Sosial dan Pengelolaan Obat, serta 3. Semua teman-teman yang telah bekerjasama dalam menyelesaikan makalah ini. Makalah ini disusun untuk memenuhi tugas mata kuliah Farmakologi Sosial dan Pengelolaan Obat. Kami berharap makalah ini dapat bermanfaat bagi pembaca. Kami menyadari bahwa dalam penulisan ini pasti terdapat kekurangan. Oleh karena itu, kami menerima kritik dan saran yang bersifat membangun untuk meyempurnakan makalah ini.
Jember, 17 Maret 2014
Penyusun
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DAFTAR ISI
................................................................. ............................................ ........................................ .................. i Kata Pengantar ........................................... Daftar Isi ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ............................. ....... ii
................................................................... ............................................. ................................ .......... 1 Bab 1 Pendahuluan ............................................ 1.1 Latar Belakang ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ .................................... .............. 1 1.2 Rumusan Masalah Masala h .......................................... ................................................................. ............................................. ................................ .......... 2 1.3 Tujuan ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ............................. ....... 2
Bab 2 Tinjauan Pustaka ......................................... ............................................................... ............................................ ............................. ....... 3
2.1 Definisi Mineral ............................................. .................................................................... ............................................. ................................ .......... 3 2.2 Pembagian Mineral ......................................... ............................................................... ............................................. ................................. .......... 4 2.2.1 Natrium dan Kalium............................................ .................................................................. .................................... .............. 6 Fungsi dan Hubungan Hubungan dengan Transmisi Transmisi Sinyal .................................... .................................... 6 Sumber Natrium Natri um dan Kalium ............................................. .................................................................. ..................... 7 Kebutuhan Natrium dan Kalium ........................................... ............................................................. .................. 8 Pengaruh Pemrosesan Makanan pada Kadar Natrium.......................... .......................... 8 Hubungan Natrium dengan dengan Hipertensi Hipertensi ................................................... .................................................. 9 2.2.2
Kalsium ............................................ ................................................................... ............................................. ................................ .......... 11 Fungsi Kalsium dalam Tubuh Tubuh ............................................ ................................................................. ..................... 11 Hubungan dengan dengan Pengaturan Hormon Tiroid dan Paratiroid ............. 13 Sumber Kalsium ........................................... ................................................................. ........................................... ..................... 14 Kebutuhan Kalsium ......................................... ............................................................... ........................................ .................. 14 Defisiensi Kalsium ................................... ......................................................... ............................................ ......................... ... 14
2.2.3
Besi............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ ........................................ .................. 16 Absorbsi Besi dan Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Mempengaruhi........................... ........................... 16 Fungsi Besi ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................. ....... 21 Sumber Besi......................................................... ............................................................................... .................................... .............. 22 Kebutuhan Besi ........................................... .................................................................. ............................................ ..................... 23 Defisiensi Besi .......................................... ................................................................ ............................................ ......................... ... 24
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Kebutuhan Iodium ........................................... ................................................................. ........................................ .................. 27 Defisiensi Iodium ................................. ....................................................... ............................................ ............................. ....... 27 Kelebihan Iodium ............................................ .................................................................. ........................................ .................. 28
Bab 3 Pembahasan ............................... ...................................................... ............................................. ............................................. ......................... .. 29
3.1 Kasus Keracuan Arsen ............................................... ...................................................................... ............................................ ..................... 29 3.2 Kasus Keracunan Merkuri........................ Merkuri.............................................. ............................................ ........................................ .................. 32 3.3 Kasus Keracunan Timbal ............................................... ..................................................................... ........................................ .................. 35
Bab 4 Penutup ......................................................... ............................................................................... ............................................ ............................. ....... 37
4.1 Kesimpulan .......................................... ................................................................. ............................................. ........................................... ..................... 37 4.2 Saran.......................................... ................................................................ ............................................ ............................................. ................................. .......... 38
Daftar Pustaka.............................. ..................................................... .............................................. ............................................. ................................ .......... 39
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BAB 1 PENDAHULUAN
1.1 Latar Belakang
Setiap manusia pasti membutuhkan mineral di dalam tubuhnya. Mineral merupakan zat makanan yang tidak dapat diproduksi sendiri oleh tubuh, oleh karena itu dibutuhkan asupan dari luar. Mineral memainkan peranan penting dalam berbagai fungsi tubuh dan diperlukan untuk mempertahankan kehidupan dan menjaga kesehatan optimal, dan karena menjadi gizi-gizi yang essensial. Sebagian besar mineral di dalam tubuh manusia itu secara langsung berasal dari tanaman dan air, atau secara tidak langsung dari makanan-makanan hewani. Namun, kandungan mineral dari air dan makanan-makanan yang berasal dari tanaman itu bervariasi menurut letak geografiknya, karena bervariasinya kandungan mineral di dalam tanah dari satu wilayah ke wilayah lain. Suatu penelitian menemukan bahwa sekitar 10% dari populasi di dunia memiliki resiko mengalami kekurangan yodium karena tinggal di wilayah dataran tinggi, dimana air minum hanya sedikit mengandung yodium. Jumlah mineral yang ada di dalam tubuh seta peranan-peranannya dalam proses metabolisme tubuh itu sangat bervariasi. Mineral berperan pada tulang dan gigi serta dalam produksi energi, pembangungan protein, pembentukan darah dan beberapa proses lainnya. Sebagian proses di dalam tubuh membutuhkan beberapa mineral sekaligus untuk dapat bekerja sama. Seperti kalsium, magnesium dan fosfor yang sangat berperan penting dalam pembentukan dan pemeliharaan kesehatan tulang. Beberapa mineral juga saling bersaing satu sama lain dalam hal penyerapannya, dan mereka
juga
berinteraksi
dengan
gizi-gizi
lain,
yang
bisa
mempengaruhi
ketersediannya mereka. Kebutuhan tubuh tehadap mineral memang dalam jumlah yang relatif kecil namun manfaatnya cukup besar. Contoh mineral diantaranya sodium, mangan, zat besi, kalsium, seng, selenium, tembaga, arsen, dan lainnya. Namun demikian, ada beberapa jenis mineral yang berbahaya bagi tubuh terutama kalau dikonsumsi secara
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tanah, dan lainnya. Arsen, merkuri, timbal merupakan beberapa mineral yang harus diwaspadai. Dalam makalah ini akan dibahas permasalahan mengenai mineral serta kejadian keracunan mineral yang diakibatkan oleh arsen, merkuri dan timbal. Seperti telah kita ketahui bersama bahwa zat-zat tersebut berbahaya bagi tubuh. Contohnya potensi bahaya akibat kelebihan asupan arsenic antara lain : keracunan dengan gejala mulai dari sakit kepala, kebingungan, dan rasa kantuk. Ketika keracunan tersebut menjadi akut, gejala dapat mencakup hingga muntah dan keberlanjutan dari keracunan tersebut apabila tidak segera ditindak lanjuti adalah koma bahkan sampai kematian. Oleh karena itu, kami menyusun makalah yang berjudul “Mineral dan Keracunan Mineral” yang selengkapnya akan dibahas pada bab-bab bab -bab selanjutnya. 1.2 Rumusan Masalah
Berdasarkan latar belakang di atas dapat dirumuskan permasalahan sebagai berikut: 1. Apakah yang dimaksud dengan mineral? 2. Bagaimana pembagian mineral? 3. Bagaimana fungsi, sumber, kebutuhan, serta keterkaitan mineral dengan proses metabolisme tubuh? 4. Bagaimana contoh kasus terjadinya keracunan mineral arsen, merkuri, dan t imbal?
1.3 Tujuan
Berdasarkan rumusan masalah yang ada pembuatan makalah ini bertujuan untuk: 1. Mengetahui definisi mineral. 2. Mengetahui pembagian dan macam-macam mineral. 3. Mengetahui fungsi, sumber, kebutuhan, serta keterkaitan mineral dengan proses metabolisme tubuh. 4. Mengetahui contoh kasus terjadinya keracunan mineral arsen, merkuri, dan timbal.
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BAB 2 TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
2.1 Definisi Mineral
Mineral adalah padatan senyawa kimia homogen, non-organik, yang memiliki bentuk teratur (sistem kristal) dan terbentuk secara alami. Istilah mineral termasuk tidak hanya bahan komposisi kimia tetapi juga struktur mineral. Mineral termasuk dalam komposisi unsur murni dan garam sederhana sampai silikat yang sangat kompleks dengan ribuan bentuk yang diketahui (senyawaan organik biasanya tidak termasuk). Ilmu yang mempelajari mineral disebut mineralogi. (Wikipedia) Menurut The International Mineralogical Association tahun 1995 telah mengajukan definisi baru tentang definisi material “Mineral adalah suatu unsur atau senyawa yang dalam keadaan normalnya memiliki unsur kristal dan terbentuk dari hasil proses geologi”. geologi”. Ilmu yang mempelajari mineral disebut mineralogi. Dalam mendefinisikan mineral, hingga saat ini masih belum didapatkan kepastian untuk menerangkan pengertian dari mineral tersebut. Karena memang belum didapatkan kesamaan pendapat oleh para ahli tentang hal ini. Namun pada umumnya dikenal dua defenisi mineral, defenisi klasik yang disimpulkan sebelum tahun 1977 dan defenisi kompilasi yang disimpulkan setelah tahun 1977. Menurut defenisi klasik, mineral adalah suatu benda padat anorganik yang terbentuk secara alami, bersifat homogen, yang mempunyai bentuk kristal dan rumus kimia yang tetap. Dan menurut defenisi kompilasi, mineral adalah suatu zat yang terdapat dialam dengan komposisi kimia yang khas, bersifat homogen, memiliki sifat-sifat fisik dan umumnya berbentuk
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silikat yang sangat kompleks dengan ribuan bentuk yang diketahui (senyawaan organik biasanya tidak termasuk). Berbagai unsur anorganik (mineral) terdapat dalam bahan biologi, tetapi tidak atau belum semua mineral tersebut terbukti esensial, sehingga ada mineral esensial dan non esensial. Mineral esensial yaitu mineral yang sangat diperlukan dalam proses fisiologis makhluk hidup untuk membantu kerja enzim atau pembentukan organ. Unsur-unsur mineral esensial dalam tubuh terdiri atas dua golongan, yaitu mineral makro dan mineral mikro. Mineral makro (>100 mg per hari) diperlukan untuk membentuk komponen organ di dalam tubuh. Mineral mikro yaitu mineral yang diperlukan dalam jumlah sangat sedikit (< 100mg per hari) dan umumnya terdapat dalam jaringan dengan konsentrasi sangat kecil. Mineral non esensial adalah logam yang perannya dalam tubuh makhluk hidup belum diketahui dan kandungannya dalam jaringan sangat kecil. Bila kandungannya tinggi dapat merusak organ tubuh makhluk hidup yang bersangkutan. 2.2 Pembagian / Klasifikasi Mineral
Menurut jenis dan fungsinya, klasifikasi mineral dibedakan dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu : a) Mineral Organik (esensial) Mineral organik adalah mineral yang dibutuhkan serta berguna bagi tubuh kita, yang dapat kita peroleh melalui makanan yang kita konsumsi setiap hari seperti nasi, ayam, ikan, telur, sayur-sayuran serta buah-buahan, atau vitamin tambahan. Dalam proses metabolisme energi tubuh, mineral-mineral yang diperoleh melalui konsumsi bahan pangan dalam keseharian ini akan terlibat dalam
proses
pengambilan
energi
dari
simpanan
glukosa
(glycolysis),
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mangan (Mn), kobalt (Co), iodin (I), dan selenium (Se). Selanjutnya, mineral esensial ini dibedakan menjadi dua yaitu, makromineral (makro) dan trace mineral (mikro). b) Mineral Anorganik (non-esensial) Mineral nonesensial adalah golongan mineral yang tidak berguna, atau belum diketahui kegunaannya dalam tubuh, sehingga hadirnya unsur tersebut lebih dari normal dapat menyebabkan keracunan. Mineral tersebut bahkan sangat berbahaya bagi makhluk hidup, seperti timbal (Pb), merkuri (Hg), arsenik (As), kadmium (Cd), aluminium (Al), iron oxide (Besi Teroksidasi), magnesium (Mg), atau bahan-bahan kimia hasil dari resapan tanah dan lain nya.
Menurut bentuk dan jumlah kebutuhannya, klasifikasi mineral dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu : a) Mineral Makro Mineral makro atau mineral utama adalah mineral yang kita perlukan lebih dari 100mg sehari. Makromineral berfungsi sebagai bagian penting dalam struktur sel dan jaringan keseimbangan cairan dan elektrolit serta berfungsi di dalam cairan tubuh baik interseluler maupun ekstraseluler. Contoh : Kalsium (Ca), Fosfor (P), Magnesium (Mg), Natrium (Na), Klorida (Cl), Kalium (K), dan Sulfur (S). b) Mineral Mikro Mineral runutan atau trace mineral merupakan mineral yang jumlah kebutuhannya kurang dari (<100 mg per hari) atau lebih sedikit di bandingkan
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Berdasarkan bentuk dan jumlah kebutuhannya, klasifikasi mineral dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu mineral makro dan mikro. Kelompok makro terdiri dari unsur – unsur unsur Ca, P, K, Na, Mg dan S. kelompok mikro terdiri dari Fe, I, Cu, Zn, Mn, Co dan Se, sedangkan kelompok renik terdiri dari unsur F, Mo, As, Cr, Si dan lain – lain. lain. Beberapa unsur mineral ini ada yang termasuk golongan racun dan biasanya masih terdapat di dalam sel hayati meskipun jumlahnya sangat kecil sekali, contoh unsure tersebut adalah Ag, Hg dan Pb. 2.2.1
Natrium (Sodium) dan Kalium (Potasium)
a. F ungsi ungsi Natri um dan Kali um serta serta H ubungan ubungan dengan dengan Tr ansmisi ansmisi Sin Sin yal yal
Natrium dan kalium termasuk dalam jenis mineral makro. Mineral makro adalah mineral-mineral yang diperlukan tubuh dalam jumlah yang cukup besar (>100mg/hari). Sebutan lain untuk natrium ialah sodium, sedangkan kalium ialah potassium. Natrium merupakan kation utama dalam cairan ekstraseluler, 35-40 % terdapat dalam kerangka tubuh. Adapun fungsi dari natrium ialah : a) Memelihara volume darah b) Mejaga keseimbangan asam basa di dalam tubuh c) Mengatur keseimbangan cairan dalam sel d) Menjaga fungsi saraf e) Berperan dalam pengaturan kepekaan otot dan saraf f) Berperan dalam transmisi saraf yang menghasilkan terjadinya kontraksi otot g) Berperan dalam absorpsi glukosa Absorpsi dan metabolisme : natrium diabsorpsi di usus halus lalu dibawa oleh aliran darah ke ginjal untuk disaring kemudian dikembalikan ke aliran darah.
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f)
Bersama kalsium => berperan dalam transmisi saraf dan relaksasi otot
g) Dalam sel => katalisator dalam banyak reaksi biologik (metabolisme
energi, sintesis glikogen, dan protein). Absorpsi & Ekskresi : kalium diabsorpsi di dalam usus halus. Kalium dieksresi melalui urin, feses, keringat dan cairan lambung. Kalium dikeluarkan dalam bentuk ion dengan menggantikan ion natrium melalui mekanisme pertukaran di dalam tubula ginjal. Sistem saraf manusia adalah suatu jalinan jaringan saraf yang kompleks, sangat khusus dan saling berhubungan satu dengan yang lain. Sistem saraf mengkoordinasi, menafsirkan dan mengontrol interaksi antara individu dengan lingkungan sekitarnya. Sistem tubuh yang penting ini juga mengatur kebanyakan aktivitas sistem-sistem tubuh lainnya. Karena pengaturan saraf tersebut maka terjalin komunikasi antara berbagai sistem tubuh hingga menyebabkan tubuh berfungsi sebagai unit yang dinamis. Saraf berfungsi dengan mekanisme depolarisasi dan repolarisasi. Depolarisasi adalah perubahan muatan ion didalam sel dari negatif menjadi positif. Perubahan ion tersebut akibat peningkatan Na yang masuk ke dalam sel akibat rangsangan listrik dan zat kimia. Sedangkan repolarisasi adalah proses polarisasi kembali dr membran, sel atau serabut, dengan muatan positif di permukaan luar dan muatan negatif di dalam. dal am. Kedua mekanisme mekanism e tersebut berkaitan dengan transportasi ion menembus membran (transmembran). Trans-portasi transmembran tersebut terkait dengan ion natrium dan kalium sehingga kedua jenis ion ini termasuk jenis ion yang esensial bagi mekanisme dalam saraf. Mekanisme tersebut memunculkan gelombang gelombang depolarisasi. Neuron, seperti sel-sel lainnya, selalu menciptakan gradien ionik antara kedua sisi membran plasmanya melalui proses pemompaan ion-ion tertentu. Pemompaan yang
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kadar natrium dalam makanan ialah dengan penambahan garam untuk menambah rasa asin pada makanan atau pengawetan makanan dengan garam (contoh: ikan asin). Beberapa jenis sayuran yang banyak mengandung kalium antara lain : ubi jalar, sayuran berwarna hijau/gelap, kacang-kacangan, dan kentang. Buah-buahan yang kaya kalium ialah : buah pisang (merupakan penghasil kalium terbesar), mampu menghasilkan kalium sekitar 420 mg, jeruk, dan melon. Produk hewani yang tinggi kalsium ialah : salmon, sarden, tuna, dan daging. Makanan tinggi kalsium yang lain adalah tepung dan biji bunga matahari.
c. Kebutuhan Kebutuhan Asupa Asupan n N atriu m dan Kali um
Makanan sehari-hari biasanya cukup mengandung m engandung natrium yang dibutuhkan tubuh. Oleh karena itu, tidak ada penetapan kebutuhan natrium sehari. Taksiran kebutuhan natrium untuk orang dewasa di Indonesia menurut AKG 2012 ialah 500 mg. kebutuhan natrium didasarkan pada kebutuhan untuk pertumbuhan, kehilangan natrium melalui keringat dan sekresi lain. Penduduk di negera yang panas membutuhkan lebih banyak natrium daripada penduduk di Negara yang dingin. WHO (1990) menganjurkan pembatasan konsumsi garam dapur hingga 6 gram sehari (ekivalen dengan 2400 mg natrium). Pembatasan ini dilakukan mengingat peranan potensial natrium dalam menimbulkan tekanan darah tinggi (hipertensi).
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rasa yang enak jika tidak dikombinasikan dengan bau gurih yang sesuai sehingga terjadi penambahan zat-zat kimia. Sebagai pemberi cita rasa dalam jumlah yang tepat, MSG memiliki kemampuan untuk memperkuat senyawa aktif rasa lainnya, menyeimbangkan, dan menyempurnakan rasa keseluruhan pada masakan tertentu. MSG tercampur dengan baik dengan daging, ikan, daging unggas, berbagai sayuran, saus, sup serta meningkatkan kesukaan umum akan makanan tertentu. Rasa makanan rendah garam akan menjadi lebih baik dengan penambahan MSG, bahkan dengan pengurangan garam hingga 30%. Kandungan sodium (dalam persen massa) dalam massa) dalam MSG adalah sekitar 3 kali lebih rendah (12%) daripada dalam natrium klorida (39%). MSG yang berlebihan akan dengan cepat merusak rasa masakan dan menimbulkan bahaya bagi kesehatan. Dengan sifat-sifat ini, MSG dapat digunakan untuk mengurangi asupan garam
(sodium), (sodium), yang ikut
menyebabkan timbulnya hipertensi, penyakit jantung, stroke bahkan dalam penggunaan berlebih jangka panjang juga dapat menyebabkan kerusakan sel-sel otak dan memicu timbulnya kanker.
e. H ubungan ubungan N atri um denga dengan n H ipertens ipertensii
Seiiring dengan pertambahan usia, metabolisme dan fungsi organ-organ tubuh seseorang akan semakin menurun. Berbagai penyakit yang berhubungan
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peningkatan kecepatan denyut jantung, peningkatan resistensi (tahanan) dari pembuluh darah dari tepi dan peningkatan peningkatan volume aliran darah (Kurniawan, 2002). 2002). Dari definisi-definisi diatas dapat diperoleh kesimpulan bahwa hipertensi adalah suatu keadaan di mana tekanan darah menjadi naik karena gangguan pada pembuluh darah yang mengakibatkan suplai s uplai oksigen dan nutrisi yang dibawa oleh darah terhambat sampai ke jaringan tubuh yang membutuhkannya. Berdasarkan Riskesdas Nasional tahun 2007, hipertensi merupakan pola penyebab kematian semua umur ketiga, setelah stroke dan TB, dengan proporsi kematian sebesar 6,8%. Berkembangnya hipertensi sangat dipengaruhi oleh banyak faktor. Faktorfaktor tersebut diantaranya karena mengkonsumsi makanan tinggi lemak hewani, kurangnya serat, tinggi natrium dan rendah kalium (Lipoeto, 2002). Adapun hubungan konsumsi garam dengan hipertensi, dan manfaat kalium pada penderita hipertensi digambarkan dalam diagram berikut : Stimulasi sekresi aldosteron dari korteks adrenal. ↓ Aldosteron merupakan hormon steroid yang memiliki peranan penting pada ginjal. ↓ Untuk mengatur volume cairan ekstraseluler
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Oleh sebab itu, penderita hipertensi diharapkan dapat mengontrol tekanan darah secara rutin, mengurangi konsumsi makanan sumber natrium, meningkatkan konsumsi makanan sumber kalium dan menurunkan berat badan bagi yang obesitas untuk menghindari terjadinya peningkatan tekanan darah dan mengupayakan untuk kembali ke tekanan darah yang normal
2.2.2
Kalsium
a. F ungsi ungsi K alsium alsium dalam dalam Tubuh
Kalsium
mempunyai
berbagai
fungsi
dalam
tubuh
diantaranya
pembentukan tulang dan gigi. gigi. a) Pembentukan Tulang Kalsium di dalam tulang mempunyai dua fungsi : sebagai bagian integral dari struktur tulang dan sebagai tempat penyimpanan kalsium. Pada tahap pertumbuhan janin dibentuk matriks sebagai cikal bakal tulang tubuh. Bentuknya sama dengan tulang tetapi masih lunak dan lentur hingga set elah lahir. Matriks yang merupakan sepertiga bagian dari tulang berdiri atas serabut yang terbuat dari protein kolagen yang diselubungi oleh bahan gelatin.Segera setelah lahir, matriks mulai menguat melalui proses
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dalam dentin adalah kolagen. Berbeda dengan tulang, gigi sedikit sekali mengalami perubahan setelah muncul dalam rongga mulut. Pertukaran antara kalsium gigi dan kalsium tubuh berlangsung lambat dan terbatas pada kalsium yang terdapat didalam lapisan dentin. Sedikit pertukaran kalsium mungkin juga terjadi di antara lapisan email dan ludah. Kalsifikasi gigi susu terjadi pada minggu ke dua puluh tahap janin dan selesai sebelum gigi keluar. Gigi permanen mulai mengalami kalsifikasi ketika anak berumur delapan tahun hingga sepuluh tahun. Gigi lengkap pada usia dewasa hanya mengandung 1% jumlah kalsium tubuh. Gigi boleh dikatakan tidak mampu memperbaiki diri setelah keluar dari rongga mulut. Kekurangan kalsium selama masa pembentukan gigi dapat menyebabkan kerentanan terhadap kerusakan gigi. c) Mengatur Pembekuan Darah Bila pembebasan
terjadi
luka,
fosfolipida
ion
kalsium
tromboplastin
didalam dari
darah
platelet
merangsang darah
yang
terluka.Tromboplastin ini mengkatalisis perubahan protrombin, bagian darah normal,menjadi trombin.Trombin kemudian membantu perubahan fibrinogen, bagian lain dari darah, menjadi fibrin yang merupakan gumpalan darah.
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b. H ubungan ubungan K alsium alsium denga dengan n Pengat Pengatur ur an H ormon Ti r oid dan dan Paratir oid
Kalsium di dalam serum berada dalam tiga bentuk yaitu bentuk ion bebas (50%),bentuk anion kompleks terikat dengan fosfat,bikarbonat atau sitrat (5%),dan bentuk terikat dengan protein terutama dengan albumin atau glubulin (45%). Jumlah kalsium didalam serum dijaga agar berada pada konsentrasi 9-10,4 mg/dl. Yang mengatur konsentrasi kalsium dalam cairan tubuh ini adalah hormon-hormon paratiroid (PTH) dan tirokalsitonindari kelenjar tiroid serta vitamin D. Hormon paratiroid dan vitamin vitami n D meningkatkan kalsium kalsi um darah dengan cara sebagai berikut : Vitamin D merangsang absorbsi kalsium oleh saluran cerna. Vitamin D dan hormon paratiroid merangsang pelepasan kalsium dari tulang ke dalam darah. Vitamin D dan hormon paratiroid menunjang reabsorbsi kalsium di dalam ginjal
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c. Sumber umber Kal siu m
Kalsium banyak terdapat pada makanan berikut, kacang almond, sayuran yang berwarna hijau gelap, kacang brazil, tofu, susu dan produk susu (keju, yoghurt, dll), biji wijen, dan ikan laut.
d. Kebutuhan Kebutuhan Kalsium
Tentunya kebutuhan kalsium seseorang berbeda-beda sesuai angka kecukupan gizi yang telah ditentukan. Ketika kalsium yang diasup setiap hari kurang dari kebutuhan, kalsium dari tulang akan dilepaskan sesuai dengan kekurangan kalsium hari itu. Bila itu terjadi terus menerus, beresiko terkena osteoporosis. Berikut ini kebutuhan kalsium manusia. 800 mg untuk dewasa di atas 25 tahun, 1.000 mg setelah usia 50 tahun, ibu hamil dan menyusui harus mengkonsumsi 1.200 mg kalsium per hari, bayi berumur s.d. 5 bulan : 400 mg,
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2. Kram otot Kekurangan kalsium dapat memicu kontraksi otot yang tidak stabil sehingga mengakibatkan kram otot. Salah satu kejadian yang sering ditemukan adalah pada wanita hamil. Selain dipicu aliran darah balik yang tidak lancar akibat tekanan dari rahim yang bertambah berat, kram pada wanita hamil juga dipicu oleh kekurangan kalsium. 3. Palpitasi Kendati dapat diakibatkan oleh banyak hal, Nanny mengatakan, palpitasi atau jantung berdebar bisa juga dialami akibat kekurangan kalsium. Hal ini berhubungan dengan fungsi kalsium sebagai salah satu penjaga irama jantung. 4. Hipertensi Sebuah penelitian baru menunjukkan, orang yang mengalami
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2.2.3 Besi a. Absorbs Absorbsii Besi Besi dan F aktor – f aktor aktor yang yang M empenga mpengarr uhi
Pada umumnya besi yang diserap berasal dari heme dalam hemoglobin dan myoglobin yang sudah dipecah dari proteinnya di dalam lumen. Penyerapan besi terjadi dalam duodenum dan jejunum. Absorpsi zat besi dipengaruhi oleh bahan makanan sumber zat besi, dimana tingkat absorbsi zat besi pada protein nabati lebih rendah (1-6%) bila dibandingkan dengan bahan makanan hewani (7-22%). Di negara maju absorpsi besi dari makanan yang dikonsumsi berkisar 10 – 20 20 %, sedangkan di negara berkembang berkisar 5 % - 10 % atas dasar tersebut maka makanan sehari hari diklasifikasikan menjadi 3 yaitu : (Muhilal dalam Widya Karya Pangan dan Gizi, 1998) a. Absorpsi besi rendah (5%) b. Absorpsi besi sedang (10%)
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masuk dalam sitiplasma, sebagian disimpan dalam bentuk feritin, sebagian diloloskan melalui basolateral transporter ke dalam kapiler usus. Pada proses ini terjadi konversi dari feri ke fero oleh enzim ferooksidase (antara lain oleh hephaestin). hephaestin). Kemudian besi bentuk feri diikat oleh apotransferin dalam kapile usus. Sementara besi non-heme non-heme di lumen usus akan berikatan dengan apotransferin membentuk kompleks transferin besi yang kemudian akan masuk ke dalam sel mukosa dibantu oleh DMT 1. Besi non-heme non-heme akan dilepaskan dan apotransferin akan kembali ke usus (Zulaicha, 2009).
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walaupun dalam jumlah yang sedikit akan meningkatkan zat besi non heme yang berasal dari serealia dan tumbuh – tumbuhan. Jadi apabila dalam konsumsi makanan sehari – sehari – hari hari tidak ada bahan makanan tersebut di atas, maka absorbsi zat besi dari makanan sangat rendah. Perlu diketahui bahwa susu, keju dan telur tidak meningktkan absorbsi zat besi (Yanni, 2003) 2. Zat penghambat (inhibitors) Fe
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b. F ungsi Bes Besi
Mineral besi memiliki berbagai macam fungsi. Berikut merupakan fungsi dari mineral besi : a) Membawa Oksigen Zat besi berfungsi sebagai pembawa oksigen dan berperan dalam mentransfer oksigen antara sel sehingga oksigen dapat didistribusikan ke seluruh tubuh
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h) Membantu Metabolisme Zat besi berperan dalam metabolisme energi dalam tubuh, dimana energi yang diekstrak dari makanan yang dikonsumsi akan didistribusikan ke seluruh tubuh i) Membantu Pembentukan Enzim Zat besi merupakan komponen penting penyusun beberapa jenis enzim dan bahan penting lainnya dalam tubuh seperti myoglobin, cytochrome dan
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Tabel nilai gizi berbagai bahan makanan (mg/100 gram)
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peningkatan ini dapat dipenuhi oleh simpanan zat besi dan peningkatan adaptif
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Tabel Diagnosa Anemia Defisiensi Besi
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hormon tiroid. Metabolisme yodium dikendalikan oleh tiroid. Yodium sangat
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Sayuran tertentu seperti kubis, kembang kol dan lobak mengandung
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