2017
DOCENTE: Ing. Cusi Palomino Rosalio INTEGRANTES: 1.-Cordova Huaccaychu Huaccaychuco co Patricia Daniela 2.-Medina Chia Ernesto Kenyi 3.-Cahua Aquije Yesabell Teresa 4.-Gonzales Cortez Jose Moises 5.-Campumane Lopez Patricia Mirella 6.-Cabrera Flores Ricardo Daniel 7.-Olivares Espinoza Angella Isabel 8.-Huachallanqui Huarcaya Yomira Lizbeth
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL SAN LUIS
GONZAGA”
DE ICA FACULTAD DE INGENIERÍA QUÍMICA Y PETROQUÍMICA
ESCUELA ACADÉMICA PROFESIONAL DE INGENIERÍA QUIMICA
Asignatura: “INGENIERIA DE PROCESOS QUIMICOS INDUSTRIALES” V CICLO “B”
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
“Año del Buen Servicio a l
Ciudadano”
UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA FACULTAD DE INGENIERÍA QUÍMICA Y PETROQUÍMICA
ESCUELA ACADÉMICA PROFESIONAL DE INGENIERÍA QUIMICA
GRUPO N° 02
PROFESOR DE TEORÍA: Ing. Cusi Palomino Rosalio. ALUMNOS: 1. Cordova Huaccaychuco Patricia Daniela 2. Medina Chia Ernesto Kenyi 3. Cahua Aquije Yesabell Teresa 4. Gonzales Cortez Jose Moises 5. Campumane Lopez Patricia Mirella 6. Cabrera Flores Ricardo Daniel 7. Olivares Espinoza Angella Isabel 8. Huachallanqui Huarcaya Yomira Lizbeth
TURNO: TARDE
GRUPO: V CICLO “A”
FECHA DE EXPOSICION: 01 de Agosto de 2017. 2017. FECHA DE ENTREGA:
01 de Agosto de 2017.
ICA – PERU
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Esta monografía monografía va dirigido en primer lugar a Dios, el cual agradecemos por darnos un día más de vida. También al Ing. Cusi Palomino Rosalio, por darnos la oportunidad mediante este trabajo grupal acerca de este tema a tratar y a nuestros padres que nos apoyan en esta etapa importante de nuestra vida. En esta monografía hablaremos acerca del cemento, producción del cemento portland, operaciones y procesos, control de calidad, características generales de los cementos e impacto ambiental.
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1 Objetivos generales Conocer las características principales del cemento, sus tipos, para que sirva, así como su proceso de producción. pr oducción.
2 Objetivos específicos Conocer
las
propiedades
fundamentales
del
cemento,
como
el volumen, el volumen, densidad, densidad, peso peso específico, etc. Conocer y mostrar todos los usos que se le pueden dar al cemento Portland. Conocer los tipos de cemento que existen, y las empresas que la distribuyen a nivel nacional como también local.
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El cemento El cemento es un aglutinante que va mezclado con arena y agua, agua, material principal e indispensable para la construcción la construcción de todo tipo, existen varios tipos de cemento en el mercado el mercado peruano: Cemento Portland, Cemento portland
Puzolánico, Cemento Portland de escoria de alto horno, Cemento Tipo MS, Cemento Portland, Compuesto Tipo 1Co, Cemento de Alba de Albañilería. ñilería. Las principales empresas principales empresas productoras de cemento en el Perú son: Cemento
Andino S.A., Cementos Lima S.A., Cementos Pacasmayo S.A.A., Cementos S.A., Yura S.A. Selva S.A., Cemento Sur S.A., Yura En donde la donde la empresa que mayor participación tiene en el mercado es Cementos Lima S.A. En los años del 2003 al 2006 se presenta un incremento consecutivo de la oferta, por lo que el estado propuso planes para la edificación y construcción de viviendas, estableciendo precios estableciendo precios en aumento pero en menor proporción, por años. Por tanto esto determina la ley la ley de la demanda la demanda que a mayor precio, mayor precio, mayor será la cantidad ofertada. El Cemento Pórtland, uno de los componentes básicos para la elaboración del concreto, debe
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En el curso de esta reacción, denominada hidratación, el cemento se combina con el agua para formar una pasta, y cuando le son agregados arena y grava triturada, se forma lo que se conoce como el material más versátil utilizado para la construcción: el CONCRETO. El Clinker, la materia prima para producir el cemento, se alimenta a los molinos de cemento junto con mineral de yeso, el cual actúa como regulador del fraguado. La molienda conjunta de éstos materiales produce el cemento. Las variables a controlar y los porcentajes y tipos de
materiales
añadidos,
dependerán
del
tipo
de
cemento
quese requiera producir.El tipo de materias m aterias primas y sus proporciones se diseñ an en base al tipo de cemento deseado.La norma ASTM C 150 establece ocho diferentes tipos de cemento, de acuerdo a los usos y necesidades del mercado.
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Desde la antigüedad se emplearon pastas y morteros elaborados con arcilla con arcilla o greda, greda, yeso yeso y cal para unir mampuestos en las edificaciones. El cemento se empezó a utilizar en la Antigua la Antigua Grecia utilizando tobas volcánicas extraídas de la isla de Santorini, de Santorini, los los primeros cementos naturales. En el siglo I a. C. se empezó a utilizar en la Antigua la Antigua Roma, un Roma, un cemento natural, que ha resistido la inmersión en agua marina por milenios, los cementos Portland no duran más de los 60 años en esas condiciones; formaban parte de su composición cenizas volcánicas obtenidas en Pozzuoli, Pozzuoli, cerca del Vesubio. del Vesubio. La bóveda del Panteón del Panteón es un ejemplo de ello. En el siglo XVIII John Smeaton construye la cimentación de un faro un faro en el acantilado de Eddystone, en la costa Cornwall, Cornwall, empleando un mortero de cal calcinada. El siglo XIX, Joseph XIX, Joseph Aspdin y James Parker patentaron en 1824 el Portland el Portland Cement, denominado Cement, denominado así por su color gris verdoso oscuro similar a la piedra la piedra de Portland. Isaac Portland. Isaac Johnson, en 1845, obtiene el prototipo del cemento moderno, con una mezcla de caliza y arcilla calcinada a alta temperatura. En el siglo XX surge el auge de la industria del cemento, debido a los experimentos de los químicos franceses Vicat franceses Vicat y Le Chatelier y el alemán Michaélis, que logran cemento de calidad homogénea; la invención del horno rotatorio para calcinación y el molino tubular y los métodos de transportar hormigón fresco ideados por Juergen Heinrich Magens que patenta entre 1903
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Los usos industriales de la cal han proporcionado importantes contratos para los químicos e ingenieros desde años atrás cuando la cal y los cementos naturales fueron introducidos. En la actualidad solo se necesita mencionar las paredes y las vigas de concreto de concreto reforzado, túneles, diques y carreteras para imaginar la dependencia de la civilización actual con estos productos. La conveniencia, precio conveniencia, precio accesible, adaptabilidad, resistencia adaptabilidad, resistencia y durabilidad de ambos productos han sido fundamentales para estas aplicaciones. No obstante, de los modernos caminos de concreto y edificios alrededor de nosotros,
es
difícil
imaginar
el
tremendo
crecimiento
de
la industria la industria del del cemento cemento durante el siglo pasado. El hombre tuvo que ir descubriendo ciertas rocas ciertas rocas naturales, las cuales a través de una calcinación simple dan un producto que, al agregar agua, se agua, se endurece. El avance real no tomaba parte todavía en los estudios fisicoquímicos y de ingeniería de ingeniería química química de poner las bases para las plantas las plantas modernas y eficientes que
trabajaran
bajo
condiciones
controladas
en
una
variedad
de materiales de materiales crudos. Origen El cemento "Portland" tiene sus orígenes en la cal u óxido de calcio, a partir del
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En 1838, este cemento se utilizó por primera vez en una construcción de importancia en uno de los túneles construidos bajo el río Támesis en Londres. David Saylor, un técnico norteamericano, fue el primero en fabricar cemento en América, así nacía en 1850 la industria cementera en Norteamérica. El uso del cemento Portland continuó extendiéndose hasta convertirse en el material de construcción más utilizado en el mundo
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
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Su principal característica es la de fraguar y endurecerse al entrar en contacto con el agua. Como consecuencia de dicha reacción adquiriremos un inmejorable material con excelentes cualidades aglutinantes. Es de suma importancia seleccionar el hormigón idóneo y, por tanto, anteriormente, habremos elegido el cemento adecuado para una obra en cuestión.
Tipo 1 - Se trata de un cemento normal y se obtiene tras mezclar m ezclar el Clinker con el yeso. Se usa generalmente en las obras de ingeniería.
Tipo 2 - Nos encontramos ante un cemento modificado. Su acción es moderada a la resistencia de los sulfatos y es conveniente emplearlo cuando demandamos calor un tanto moderado de hidratación. Dicho cemento va adquiriendo resistencia con más lentitud que el nombrado anteriormente,
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Tipo 5 - Una de las características del cemento Portland tipo 5 es su resistencia a la acción de los sulfatos, por tanto, lo emplearemos en estructuras hidráulicas y plataformas marinas. ¿Cómo lograremos la resistencia al sulfato? Lógicamente al minimizar el contenido C3A, ya que dicho compuesto es muy susceptible a lo que se refiere al sulfato.
Componentes del cemento Pórtland
En estos compuestos el magnesio puede reemplazar al calcio, existen también silicatos y ferroaluminatos de sodio y potasio. Para expresar la composición de un determinado cemento, generalmente se determinan en conjunto los óxidos
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En forma simplificada podemos decir que en los distintos tipos de cemento su composición varía entre: 55 – 65% de CaO + MgO 20 - 25% de SiO2 + SO3 8 15% de Al2O3 + Fe2O3 se denominan componentes ácidos al SiO2 , SO3 , Fe2O3, y Al2O3 y básicos al CaO, MgO, K2O, Na2O; se denomina índice de hidraulicidad a la relación entre éstos componentes: I= ( SiO2 + SO3 + Fe2O3+ Al2O3 )/ (CaO+ MgO+ K2O+ Na2O) De acuerdo al valor de éste índice los cementos se clasifican en: Cementos rápidos: 0.65 I 1.20 fraguan en un tiempo menor a 1 hora Cementos lentos: : 0.50 I 0.65 fraguan en un tiempo mayor a 8 horas.
Fraguado: proceso que dura de minutos a 15 horas, en que la masa plástica adquiere rigidez. Endurecimiento: proceso en que la masa rígida aumenta su dureza y resistencia mecánica que demanda de 28 días a varios años.
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La primera etapa en la fabricación del cemento la constituye la extracción, de las canteras, de las materias primas y su mezclado con agua para asegurar su mezcla íntima. Hay una diferencia en el proceso según se utilice piedra caliza o greda, lo cual puede ocurrir, dependiendo de cuál material esté disponible o sea más barato. Ambas sustancias son químicamente iguales (carbonatos de
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Los cambios químicos que tienen lugar son muy complejos y no del todo comprendidos aún. Parece probable que cuando la arcilla, que es un silicato de aluminio, es calentada, primero se deshidrata al tiempo que el carbonato de calcio del yeso o de la caliza pierde bióxido de carbono para dar cal viva, exactamente igual a lo que ocurre en un horno de cal. A medida que estas sustancias se aproximan al extremo del horno se ponen al rojo blanco (su temperatura es de unos 2.500° G.) y entran en nuevas combinaciones químicas que dan por resultado el Clinker, sustancia vitrificada
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Antes de que abandone el horno el Clinker incandescente es enfriado, lo que puede hacerse mediante aire frío, mientras cadenas de acero colgadas en su interior ayudan a extraer el calor. Al igual que en todas las otras etapas, se hacen periódicamente ensayos para, comprobar la calidad del producto final.
DEL CLINKER AL CEMENTO A continuación el Clinker es almacenado hasta que se lo necesite para molerlo. Antes y durante la molienda se agrega una determinada cantidad de yeso (sulfato de calcio), el cual sirve para ajustar la velocidad de fraguado del cemento después que se le agrega agua. En los molinos las piedras de clinker son finamente pulverizadas. Luego el polvo es llevado mediante bombas neumáticas a grandes silos, listo para ser retirado.
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De acuerdo con el tiempo de fraguado, dos son los tipos de cemento más usuales. Son los cementos de fraguado lento y los de fraguado rápido. Los de fraguado lento son los empleados normalmente por su resistencia mayor y su mejor manuabilidad. El yeso retarda el proceso de fraguado. Los cementos de fraguado rápido son utilizados en obras hidráulicas.
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El frío y el calor hacen variar muy poco el volumen del cemento portland pero existe un excedente en las proporciones de contenido de cal o yeso o, si la mezcla es defectuosa, se produce una variación de volumen fuera de lo normal que se manifiesta mediante grietas de expansión. Un factor que incide preponderantemente sobre la resistencia es el tamaño de las partículas que lo constituyen. Al disminuir el tamaño de las partículas crece la resistencia. Cuando las partículas son excesivamente pequeñas el efecto se invierte, disminuyendo la resistencia. Por estas razones se determina la composición granulométrica de los cementos mediante tamices que responden a normas establecidas por institutos y sociedades especializadas en investigaciones sobre cemento.
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TECNOLOGIAS QUE SE UTILIZA PARA LA OBTENCION DEL CEMENTO PORTLAND: Los métodos comerciales que se usan en la fabricación del clinker de cemento
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reciente, del proceso por vía seca, ha sido colocar un precalcinador en la base de la torre del intercambiador de calor, como se muestra en la figura 1.3, en el cual se quema parte del combustible (50 - 65 % del total) usando como comburente aire del enfriador. Esto permite que el crudo entre en el horno rotatorio con un grado de calcinación superior al 90 % (SISTEMA SF).
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Figura 1.3.- Esquema de fabricación de CLINKER por vía seca con sistema de precalcinación. En el proceso por vía semi-seca o proceso LEPOL (Figura 1.4 ) el crudo se noduliza en un plato granulador. Los nódulos formados tienen un contenido en agua del 10 - 12 % y un diámetro de aproximadamente 15 Mm. y se alimentan a una parrilla donde se secan, precalientan y se calcinan parcialmente, haciendo uso de los gases de salida del horno rotatorio. Un grado
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
Sin embargo, en zonas o países donde las materias primas tienen un alto
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
componentes de los cementos comunes se especifican en las Tablas 12 y 13, según su clasificación por tipo, denominación y designación. Como novedad importante de la EN 197-1:2011 en comparación con la EN 197-1:2000, hay que mencionar que se incorpora un nuevo requisito que deben cumplir los clínkeres con los que se van a fabricar los cementos resistentes a los sulfatos, se trata del límite superior del contenido de C3A que se define en el capítulo 7.4 «Requisitos de durabilidad». De esta forma, la norma europea UNE-EN 197-1:2011 culminó el trabajo normativo sobre especificaciones de los cementos comunes realizado en Europa a comienzos de este siglo. Asimismo, con la normalización de los cementos comunes resistentes a los sulfatos se completa un aspecto fundamental del Mandato M/114 de la Comisión Europea al Comité Europeo de Normalización (CEN). Los cementos portland comunes resistentes a los sulfa tos y los cementos puzolánicos resistentes a los sulfatos se elaboran con clínker de cemento portland resistente a los sulfatos (SR) en el cual el contenido de C3A no excede: Para el CEM I: 0%, 3 % ó 5 %, según corresponda. corresponda. Para el CEM IV/A y CEM IV/B: 9 %. El contenido de aluminato tricálcico (C3A) en el clínker conforme con la norma europea se calculará con la expresión: C3A (%) = 2,65 · A – 1,69 · F En donde A es el porcentaje en masa del óxido de aluminio ( Al2O3) del clínker y F es el porcentaje en masa del óxido de hierro (III) (Fe2O3) del clínker ambos determinados de acuerdo con la UNE-EN 196-2. Puede suceder que se obtenga un valor negativo de C3A en el cálculo, en este caso, se registrará el valor del 0 %. En la norma española UNE 80304:2006 el contenido de aluminato tricálcico (C3A) en el clínker se calcula con la misma fórmula de la norma europea y el contenido de ferrito-aluminato tetracálcico (C4AF) en el clínker se calcula con la fórmula siguiente: C4AF (%) = 3,04 · F La frecuencia mínima de ensayo y la utilización de métodos alternativos para la evaluación directa o indirecta del C3A debería de incluirse en el control de producción de fábrica, aunque una frecuencia de ensayo habitual es de dos al
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
resistentes a los sulfatos en comparación con la composición de los cementos comunes: – Los cementos CEM IV/A-SR deben contener del 65% al 79% de clínker, por lo
que el límite superior es diez puntos porcentuales menor que el clínker (K=6589%) de los CEM IV/A que no son resistentes a los sulfatos. – Las únicas adiciones permitidas son la escoria de horno alto, la puzolana
natural y la ceniza volante silícea. La norma UNE-EN 197-1:2011 recoge un anejo A (informativo) que cita a la norma nacional española de los cementos resistentes a los sulfatos no incluidos en la norma europea. Con relación a las especificaciones químicas de los cementos comunes resistentes a los sulfatos hay que mencionar que se les exige un nuevo requisito (límite superior en el contenido de C3A), como ya se ha adelantado en los apartados anteriores, y dos requisitos que también se piden al resto de los cementos comunes (contenido de sulfatos –SO3 – y puzolanicidad – sólo en los CEM IV –) pero con un nivel de exigencia superior; es decir, el contenido de sulfatos debe ser medio punto porcentual inferior que para el resto de los cementos comunes y el ensayo de puzolanicidad, en el caso de los cementos CEM IV/A-SR y CEM IV/B-SR debe ser positivo a los 8 días. La Figura 22 recoge las exigencias adicionales de los cementos comunes resistentes a los sulfatos: – Nuevo requisito del contenido de C3A (Límite superior). – Requisito más
exigente del contenido de SO3 (Límite superior). El contenido de SO3 para los cementos 32,5 N, 32,5 R y 42,5 N debe ser inferior o igual al 3,0 %, mi entras que para los 42,5 R, 52,5 N y 52,5 R debe ser inferior o igual al 3,5 %. – Requisito más exigente de la puzolanicidad en los CEM IV/A-SR y CEM IV/ B-SR: cumplimiento del ensayo a 8 días. Finalmente, conviene remarcar de nuevo que el límite inferior del contenido de P+V de los cementos comunes puzolánicos CEM IV/A-SR resistentes a los sulfatos es de 21% en vez del 11% especificado para el resto de los cementos
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
Las prescripciones relativas a las características mecánicas y físicas que deben cumplir los cementos comunes según sus clases de resistencia figuran en la Tabla 14 mientras que las prescripciones relativas a las características químicas que deben cumplir los cementos comunes figuran en la Tabla 15. El cemento portland se designará con las siglas CEM I, seguidas de la clase de resistencia (32,5 – 42,5 – 52,5), se añadirá un espacio en blanco y la letra (R) si es de alta resistencia inicial o la letra (N) si es de resistencia inicial normal. En estos cementos, la designación comenzará con la referencia a la norma EN 197-1 seguida de un guión. Los cementos portland con adiciones se designarán con las siglas CEM II seguidas de una barra (/) y de la letra que indica el subtipo (A ó B) separada por un guión ( –) de la letra que identificativa del componente principal empleado como adición del cemento, es decir: S: escoria granulada de horno alto; D: humo de sílice; P: puzolana natural; Q: puzolana natural calcinada; V: ceniza volante silícea; W: ceniza volante calcárea; T: esquistos calcinados; L: caliza con un contenido en carbono orgánico total menor o igual a 0,5% en masa. LL: caliza con un contenido en carbono orgánico total menor o igual a 0,2% en masa. En el caso de que se utilice una combinación de los componentes anteriores se designará con la letra M, indicando además entre paréntesis las letras identificativas de los componentes principales empleados como adición. A continuación se indicará la clase de resistencia (32,5 – 42,5 – 52,5), se añadirá un espacio en blanco y la letra R si es de alta resistencia inicial o la letra N si es de resistencia inicial normal. En estos cementos, la designación comenzará con la referencia a la norma EN 197-1 seguida de un guión. 1) Los valores de la tabla se refieren a la suma de los componentes principales y minoritarios (núcleo de cemento). 2) El porcentaje de humo de sílice está limitado al 10%. 3) En cementos pórtland compuestos, CEM II/A-M y CEM II/B-M, en cementos puzolánicos, CEM IV/A y CEM IV/B, y en cementos compuestos, CEM V/A y CEM V/B, los componentes
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
(TOC), determinado conforme al UNE EN 13639, será inferior al 0,20% en masa para calizas LL, o inferior al 0,50% en masa para calizas L. Los cementos de horno alto, los cementos puzolánicos y los cementos compuestos se designarán con las siglas CEM III, CEM IV y CEM V, respectivamente, seguidas de una barra (/) y de la letra que indica el subtipo (A, B ó C), en su caso. Cuando se trate de cementos puzolánicos tipo IV o cementos compuestos tipo V, se indicará además, entre paréntesis, las letras identificativas de los componentes principales empleados como adición. A continuación, se reflejará la clase de resistencia r esistencia (32,5 – 42,5 – 52,5) y, seguidamente, un espacio en blanco y la letra R si se trata de un cemento de alta resistencia inicial o la letra N en el caso de ser de resistencia inicial normal y la letra L si es de baja resistencia inicial. Este último caso se contempla exclusivamente para los cementos de horno alto. En estos cementos, la designación comenzará con la referencia a la norma EN 197-1 seguida de un guión. En el caso de los cementos comunes de bajo calor de hidratación se debe añadir las letras LH precedidas por un guión al final de la designación correspondiente. En el caso de los cementos comunes resistentes a los sulfatos se debe añadir las letras SR precedidas por un guión al final de la designación correspondiente. En el caso del CEM I, a las letras SR se añadirá un espacio en blanco y el número 0, 3 ó 5, según sea su contenido de C3A en el clínker del 0%, ≤3% ó ≤5%,
respectivamente. En el caso de los cementos comunes resistentes a los sulfatos y que además sean de bajo calor de hidratación se debe añadir las l etras LH/SR, precedidas por un guión al final de la designación correspondiente.
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
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Los emprendimientos de extracción y procesamiento de minerales comprenden una serie de acciones que producen significativos impactos ambientales, que perduran en el tiempo, más allá de la duración de las operaciones de extracción de minerales. Los proyectos de este sector se relacionan con la extracción, transporte y procesamiento de minerales y materiales de construcción.
Actividades de extracción Operaciones en la superficie y subterráneas, para la producción de minerales metálicos, no metálicos e industriales, materiales de construcción y fertilizantes; Extracción en situación de los minerales, fundibles o solubles (notablemente, azufre y más recientemente, cobre), dragado y extracción hidráulica, junto a los ríos y aguas costeras, lixiviación de las pilas de desechos en las minas (principalmente oro y cobre).
Transporte de material Para transportar los materiales dentro del área de la mina y a la planta de procesamiento, se requieren flotas de equipos de extracción y transporte (camiones, cuchillas, palas, dragas, ruedas de cangilones y rapadoras), bandas, poliductos o rieles. Las instalaciones de procesamiento en el sitio de la mina incluyen las plantas de preparación, lavado de carbón, material de construcción, construcción, concentrador, lixiviación dependiendo del grado de alteración de la superficie y los estratos subyacentes, así como los acuíferos.
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
Polvo atmosférico proveniente del tráfico, perforación, excavación, y desbroce del sitio; Ruido y emisiones de la operación de los l os equipos a diésel; Alteración del suelo y la vegetación, ríos, drenajes, humedales, recursos culturales o históricos, acuíferos de agua freática, f reática, conflictos con los otros usos de la tierra.
Extracción superficial y subterránea Drenaje del área de la mina y descarga del agua de la misma; Remoción y almacenamiento/eliminación de grandes volúmenes de desechos; Traslado y procesamiento de los minerales o materiales de construcción.
Extracción subterránea Incluyen el trabajo de anchurón y pilar, grada al revés, socavación y derrumbe y frente corrido. Esto trae consigo la formación de grandes vacíos debajo de la superficie de la tierra y montones de piedra de desecho sobre la misma; en muchos casos, se rellenan porciones de los espacios subterráneos durante la extracción. La mayor parte de la excavación ocurre debajo de la tierra y requiere el uso de equipos de voladura, se realizan también operaciones en la superficie. Los posibles impactos de la extracción subterránea incluyen el retiro del suelo y la vegetación, creación de polvo, emisiones de los equipos a diésel que trabajan en la superficie, ruido, vibraciones causadas por la voladura, gases desfogados (voladura, operaciones a diésel), descargas de agua contaminada de la mina
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
y equipos de procesamiento de primera etapa a bordo; con dragas a diésel instaladas en la orilla, transportadores, planta de procesamiento o monitores hidráulicos (p.ej., poderosos chorros de agua que lavan el material de la orilla); o con esclusas que recolectan y dirigen el escurrimiento, y equipos de separación. Estas operaciones alteran, totalmente, los estratos extractados y modifican la topografía local.
Extracción por dragado Durante el dragado, el material extraído se levanta del fondo mediante succión o excavadores mecánicos y luego se procesa; los desechos se vierten al agua o al suelo. Se barre el fondo sistemáticamente, durante la extracción con la draga; ésta se desplaza por el río o la orilla del mar; se profundizan o se modifican los canales del río, además, se ahondan los humedales y las áreas costaneras, dejando grandes montones de desechos. En las operaciones de arena y ripio, el material recuperado es llevado a la orilla por poliducto, transportador o barcaza y se concentran los minerales a bordo (mecánica o químicamente, o mediante amalgamación) se envían los productos de esta concentración o amalgama a la orilla para mejoramiento o procesamiento. El mercurio, que es el agente de amalgamación para el oro y la plata, provoca problemas ambientales muy especiales, y deberá ser manejado como corresponde. En la explotación de placeres, puede haber intensiva extracción de los antiguos bancos fluviales, muy arriba del nivel actual de lecho del río.
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
Los impactos incluyen la alteración del suelo, vegetación, recursos culturales e históricos, degradación de la calidad del aire debido a las partículas, las emisiones de los equipos a diésel, contaminación de las aguas freáticas con el lixiviador, de las aguas superficiales con los derrames y el ruido de las operaciones (taladros, tráfico, bombas). La lixiviación l ixiviación in situ necesita una amplia red local de transporte, y fuerza laboral calificada, equipos (taladros, camiones, grúas, generadores a diésel, bombas eléctricas), agua, fuente de energía eléctrica, instalaciones de apoyo (oficina, taller, almacenamiento y vivienda), campo de aviación, y caminos de acceso. La lixiviación de las pilas de desechos puede involucrar la extracción de pilas de desperdicios y minas antiguas, o recuperación secundaria de una operación permanente, o, lo que es muy común, actualmente, en los depósitos de oro diseminados y pobres, lixiviación del material recién extraído en grandes montones, sea en la superficie, o en las l as fosas antiguas. Se prepara la superficie de la tierra o el fondo de la fosa, colocando forros y ripio; se instalan tuberías y se amontona el material mineral encima (el mineral proviene, usualmente, de las minas superficiales). El lixiviador (principalmente ácido sulfúrico para cobre y sodio, y cianuro para oro) se rocía o se vierte encima de las pilas, luego se recoge para recuperar los metales.
Problemas operativos de una extracción Los problemas operativos incluyen la falta de estabilidad de la pila, control del lixiviado, erosión eólica e erosión hídrica, fugas/filtración hacia el agua superficial y freática, problemas con la tubería, y lavado, neutralización o reclamación incompleto. Aparte de los efectos de la extracción superficial, los impactos
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
Equipo de procesamiento en una extracción Los equipos de procesamiento incluyen las plantas de preparación y lavado, de separación/concentración (separación por gravedad, lixiviación, amalgamación, intercambio iónico, flotación, etc.), refinerías y fundiciones. Las instalaciones de procesamiento de los minerales producen grandes cantidades de desechos (relaves, lamas, escorias) que deberán ser eliminados en el sitio o cerca del mismo; a veces estos materiales pueden ser devueltos a las áreas donde la extracción ha terminado.
Alteraciones ambientales en una extracción Las preocupaciones ambientales incluyen la alteración del suelo, vegetación y ríos locales durante la preparación del sitio la contaminación atmosférica proveniente de la separación, concentración y procesamiento (polvo fugitivo y emisiones de la chimenea); ruido del transporte, transferencia, trituración y molienda del mineral; contaminación de las aguas superficiales por los derrames de los molinos y plantas de lavado; contaminación de las aguas freáticas debido a las fugas de las pilas de relaves y piscinas de lama; contaminación de los suelos, vegetación y aguas superficiales locales debido a la erosión eólica e hídrica de las pilas de desechos; eliminación de los desechos; impactos visuales; y conflictos en cuanto al uso de la tierra. A menudo, las plantas de procesamiento de las regiones montañosas tienen dificultades para encontrar las áreas adecuadas para represar los relaves del concentrador, y, por consiguiente, descargan estos finos inertes a los ríos torrentosos aguas abajo, se asientan estos materiales en las curvas del río, canales anchos, planicies de inundación y aguas costeras de poca profundidad.
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
adecuadamente, el efluente del proceso de eliminación de agua de las minas superficiales o subterráneas, puede ser muy ácido, y contaminará las aguas superficiales locales y las aguas freáticas de poca profundidad, con nitratos, metales pesados o aceite de los equipos, reduciendo las existencias locales de agua, o causando erosión en los ríos y canales. La remoción de estratos de piedra puede interrumpir la continuidad del acuífero local, y producir interconexiones y contaminación entre las aguas subterráneas; el material de relleno puede alterar las características hídricas y calidad del agua. El dragado y la extracción de materiales, degradan la calidad del agua superficial, al aumentar su volumen de sólidos suspendidos, considerablemente, reducir la transmisión de luz, y recircular cualquier contaminante que se encuentra en los sedimentos del fondo. La extracción in situ puede contaminar el acuífero si se pierde el control del lixiviador o se deja de neutralizar adecuadamente la región lixiviada al finalizar las operaciones.
Aire Las partículas atmosféricas provienen de la voladura, excavación y movimiento de tierras, transporte, transferencia de materiales, erosión eólica de la tierra floja f loja durante la extracción superficial, o cualquier operación que ocurre en la
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
Tierra Durante el proceso de extracción superficial, el movimiento y almacenamiento de la sobre capa, la construcción de las instalaciones auxiliares, significa la eliminación o cubierta de los suelos o vegetación, alterando o represando los ríos, drenajes, humedales o áreas costaneras, y modificando la topografía de toda el área de la mina. Durante el dragado o extracción de placeres, se concentran estos efectos en las áreas hídricas: se desvían los canales de los ríos, se crean lagunas residuales, se eliminan las playas; se utilizan las orillas para depositar los desechos y construir las instalaciones auxiliares. La extracción subterránea requiere terreno para la eliminación de los desechos de piedra, almacenamiento de los minerales y materiales pobres, la construcción de las instalaciones auxiliares, cuyos efectos serán similares a los que se enumeraron, anteriormente, en el caso de la extracción superficial. La tierra en la superficie de las minas será inestable, se producirá fracturación y hundimiento, modificación de los suelos, vegetación, hábitat de la fauna, ríos, humedales, recursos culturales e históricos, hitos topográficos, pérdida temporal o permanente de la productividad de la tierra, y contaminación de los suelos debido
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
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de la geología, profundidad del mineral y método de extracción. La posibilidad de utilizar la tierra después de que se terminen los trabajos de extracción dependerá del tipo, grado y éxito de la producción.
Los nuevos caminos de acceso, servicios públicos y ciudades no sólo animan la afluencia de pobladores y el desarrollo secundario, relacionado o no a las actividades mineras, sino que pueden, también, estimular el desarrollo espontáneo y modificación o degradación de las áreas remotas; esto puede continuar después de la terminación del proyecto minero.
Recursos culturales La alteración de la superficie a causa de las operaciones de extracción y construcción, puede degradar o destruir los recursos culturales, lugares históricos y sitios religiosos indígenas. La mayor presencia humana en el área puede conducir al vandalismo de los sitios no protegidos. Gente
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Es recomendable emplear el cemento en el orden cronológico de su recibo en la obra para evitar envejecimiento, apelmazamiento o fraguado superficial. El cemento a granel se almacenará en tanques herméticos y se tendrá especial cuidado en su almacenamiento y manipuleo para prevenir su contaminación. El cemento de diversas procedencias se almacenará separadamente para evitar el uso indiscriminado en la preparación de las mezclas. Agregados. El almacenamiento de agregados se hará en áreas diferentes para cada tipo, bien drenadas y que permitan conservar los materiales libres de tierra o elementos extraños. Aditivos. Sus principales usos son: Para Estructuras en General. Se utilizarán siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante cuando lo indiquen expresamente los planos, en casos especiales y con autorización de la Interventoría. No se permitirá el uso de aditivos que afecten la resistencia de la mezcla, o las propiedades del acero; por esto siempre se exigirá los mayores cuidados para emplearlos siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante f abricante y de acuerdo con un diseño de mezclas específico, ensayado por medio de cilindros de
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
Al haber concluido este trabajo monográfico, estaremos en la capacidad de conocer que es el cemento y cuáles son sus propiedades de acuerdo a sus t ipos, ya
sean
cementos
Pórtland
o
especiales.
También
tendremos
el conocimiento el conocimiento de la historia del cemento en el mundo y en el Perú, así como también las principales fábricas de cemento del mundo, y las fábricas de cemento en el Perú. Así también se ha conocido acerca de las últimas tecnologías acerca del cemento como es el caso de las carpas de concreto.
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
INTRODUCCION DEL CEMENTO PORTLAND http://www.monografias.com/trabajos52/cemento-peru/cementoperu.shtml#ixzz4nh1f4Etl ANTECEDENTES DEL CEMENTO CEMENTO PORTLAND J. CALLEJA: "Las nuevas normas españolas para cemento" Materiales de Construcción, n.° 164, 4.*» trim. 1976. P. K. MEHTA : "Cement Standards. Evolution and Trends". Amer. Soc. Test. Mat. STP 993. 1978.
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
http://www6.uniovi.es/usr/fblanco/Leccion8.CEMENTOS.FabricacionIntro duccion.pdf OBTENCION DEL CEMENTO https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemento_Portland http://www.academia.edu/8816000/FABRICACI%C3%93N_ http://www.academia.edu/8816 000/FABRICACI%C3%93N_DEL_CEME DEL_CEME NTO_PORTLAND https://es.slideshare.net/14019510/fabricacion-de-cemento
DIAGRAMA DE FLUJO Y DE BLOQUE E INSTRUMENTAL CONTROL DE CALIDAD DEL CEMENTO
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
UNIVERSIDAD SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA…………………………….pág. 1 PRESENTACIÓN……….………………………………….…………………..pág. 2 CARATULA…..………………………………….………………………… .…..pág. 3 DEDICATORIA………………………………….………………………… .…..pág. 3 CAPITULO I: 1.1.-OBJETIVOS DEL CEMENTO PORTLAND… PORTLAND…….…………… ….…………………..…..pág. ……..…..pág. 5 1.2.-INTRODUCCION DEL CEMENTO PORTLAND…….……………..…..pág. PORTLAND…….……………..…..pág. 6
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL “SAN LUIS GONZAGA DE ICA”
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA QUIMICA Y PETROQUIMICA Escuela Profesional De Ingeniería Química Química
CAPITULO VI: 6.1.-CONTROL DE CALIDAD DEL CEMENTO…………………………….pág. 54 6.2.-CONTROL DE EMPAQUE DEL CEMENTO……….………………….pág. 56 6.3.-NORMATIVA…………….……………………………………………….. pág. 58
CAPITULO VII: 7.1.-IMPACTO AMBIENTAL………………………………………………….pág. 66
CAPITULO VIII: