ESCUELA UNIVERSITARIA UNIVE UNI VERS RSIDAD IDAD CATÓLI CATÓLICA CA
CICLO 2010 – 0
SANTO TORIBIO DE MOGROVEJO “AÑO DE LA CONSOLIDACIÓN ECONOMICA Y SOCIAL EN EL PERÚ” ESCUE ES CUELA LA DE INGENIER INGENIERÍÍA CIVI CIVIL Y AMBIENTAL TEMA: ONDAS SISMICAS
ASIGNATURA: FISICA II
AUTORES: QUEVEDO RIVAS,Jesus PEREZ VELASQUEZ, Carloman David SENMACHE FLORES, José Alberto
DOCENTE:
LIC FIS.CUMPA BARRIOS, Edwin
CHICLAYO – PERÚ 2010
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UNIVERSIDAD CATOLICA SANTO TORIBIO DE MOGROVEJO ESCUELA PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL Y AMBIENTAL JUSTIFICACION
Hoy en día nuestr nuestroo plane pl aneta ta está está pasando pasando por un momento mo mento devas devastador tador,, la reciente recient e catástrofe ocurrida en uno de los países más pobres del mundo “Haití”, nos hace recordar las viv vividas idas hace poco tiempo ti empo en nues nu estr troo país. país. Muchas veces nos preguntamos ¿Qué es un sismo?, ¿Cómo se localiza?, ¿Qué parte de nuestro país y del mundo es más propenso a este fenómeno natural? ¿Qué genera un sismo? Nuestro fin como estudiantes de Ingeniería Civil y Ambiental es analizar, comprender y saber definir un concepto adecuado de Ondas Sísmicas, esto nos será útil para las futuras obras a realizar y lo más importante evitar más víctimas en las diferentes partes de nuestro país y del mundo. Para ello es necesario realizar un estudio detallado sobre el tipo de ondas, la intensidad, magnitud y el riego que ocasionan dichas ondas; tener un conocimiento amplio de este fenómeno natural que se viene realizando a lo largo de nuestras vidas.
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INTRODUCCION Los terremotos fuertes causan catástrofes naturales terribles. El número de víctimas que han producido en todo el mundo desde 1755, año en que un sismo destruyó Lisboa se cifra en más de catorce millones de personas (Sarria1990). Durante este siglo se produjeron más de 1100 terremotos fuertes que ocasionaron la pérdida de más de un millón y medio de vidas humanas (Coburn et al. 1992). Ejemplos como los de Chile (1985), México (1985). Armenia (1988), Estados Unidos (1987, 1989, 1994), Colombia (1985, 1994 1994), ), Perú (1966, (1966, 197 1970. 0. 1974 1974)) o Japón' apón ' (1995) (1995) demuestran el gran gr an pot p otenci encial al des d estr truc uctitivo vo de los terremotos. Por todo ello, en el mundo entero se realizan investigaciones dedicadas a encontrar medidas que permitan reducir el efecto de los desastres sísmicos. Es comúnmente aceptado que los terremotos tienen como origen roturas bruscas de la corteza terrestre seguidas de la liberación casi instantánea de la energía acumulada en el interi in terior or de la Tierra. Los más fuertes fu ertes y frecuentes fr ecuentes terremotos terremo tos son son los lo s tectónico tectón icoss, que están están asociados a los movimientos de la litosfera terrestre (Barbat y Miquel Canet 1994; Canas et al. 1994). Los principales fenómenos que se producen durante un terremoto consisten, por una parte, en deformaciones tectónicas y, por otra, en la emisión y trasmisión de ondas a través de la Tierra. Los principales factores que afectan a las deformaciones tectónicas son las características geométricas de la fuente sísmica, el mecanismo focal del terremoto y las propiedades elásticas y anelásticas del material. Los factores que afectan a la emisión y transmisión de ondas son la radiación de la fuente sísmica, el mecanismo de propagación de dichas ondas y también la geometría y naturaleza del emplazamiento. Con el objeto de definir la severidad de los terremotos, nacen los conceptos de intensidad y magnitud sísmica, los cuales se describirán brevemente a continuación.
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O BJE BJETIVO TIVO GENERAL: GENERAL: Dar a conocer al estudiante los tipos de ondas que originan un sismo, incluyendo las causas y efectos que este origina. OBJETIVOS ESPECIFICOS Determi Determi nar los l os princi pri ncipales pales factores que intervienen int ervienen en un sismo. Determi Determi nar la l a cant cantidad idad de energ energía ía que libera li bera un sismo sismo Analizar la intensidad y magnitud que puede producir un sismo.
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IN D IC E CAPITULO I.............................. ............................................. .............................. ............................... ............................... ................................. .................... .. 6
1.
2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
Ond a.............. a................................ ................................ ................................ .................................... .................................... ................................ .............. 6 Eleme lementos ntos de una Onda.............................. ................................................ ................................. .............................. .................... ..... 6 Carac racterís terístic tica as.............................. ............................................. .............................. ................................. ................................. .................... ..... 7 Clasificación ............................. ................................................ .................................. .............................. .............................. ....................... ........ 7 Ti pos............................ ........................................... .............................. .............................. .............................. ............................... ......................... ......... 9 Velocida locidade des s de una Onda.............................. ............................................. ............................... ............................... .................. ... 12
CAPITULO II ................................ ............................................. ........................... ................................ ..................................... .............................. ........... 14
1.
Sismo Sismo ............................ ........................................... ................................. ................................ ............................. .............................. .................... ..... 14 2. Clas lasifica ificación .............................. ............................................. ............................... ............................... ............................... ....................... ....... 14 3. Causas.............................. .............................................. ............................... ............................... ............................... ............................... .................. 15 4. Localiza lización ión............................. ............................................. ............................... ............................... ............................... ........................ ......... 15 5. Sism ismicid icida ad .............................. ............................................. .............................. .............................. ............................... ........................... ........... 16 6. Magni tu tud .............................. .............................................. ............................... ............................... ............................... ........................... ............ 17 7. Inte Inten nsida idad .............................. ............................................. .............................. .............................. ............................... ........................... ........... 18 8. Fenóme nómeno nos s sísmic ísmicos os.............................. .............................................. ............................... ............................... ......................... ......... 22 9. Durac uración efe efec cti va de un sis sismo mo................................ .............................................. ................................ ......................... ....... 23 10. Peligrosidad eligrosidad sísmica ísmica .............................. .............................................. ............................... ............................... ......................... ......... 24 11. Vulnera ulnerabili bili dad dad sísmic ísmica a ............................. ............................................. ............................... ............................... ...................... ...... 25
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CAPITULO I
1. Onda Una onda es una propagación de una perturbación de alguna propiedad de
un medio, por ejemplo, densidad, presión, campo eléctrico o campo magnético, que se propaga a través del espacio transportando energía. El medio perturbado puede ser de naturaleza diversa como aire, agua, un troz tr ozoo de metal, metal , el espacio espacio o el vacio. vacio .
2. El ementos ment os de una Onda Onda Los elementos element os de una onda on da son son l os sigui siguientes entes:: •
Cresta: La cresta es el punto más alto de dicha amplitud o punto máximo máxim o de satur saturación ación de la onda.
•
Periodo o Desplazamiento horizontal: El periodo consiste en el tiempo de duración o intervalo de tiempo que este presenta entre dos crestas.
•
Amplitud: La amplitud es la distancia vertical entre una cresta y el punto medio de la onda. Nótese que pueden existir ondas cuya amplitud sea variable, es decir, crezca o decrezca con el paso del tiempo.
•
Frecuencia: Número de veces que es repetida dicha vibración en otras palabras es una simple repetición de valores por un periodo de tiempo dete determi rmi nado.
•
Valle: Es el punto más bajo de una onda.
•
Longitud de Onda: Distancia que hay entre dos crestas consecutivas.
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3. Car act act er íst íst i cas Todas las ondas tienen un comportamiento común bajo un número de
si tuaciones tuaci ones estándar estándar y pueden pueden experimentar experi mentar lo siguiente: igui ente: •
Difracción: Ocurre cuando una onda al topar con el borde de un obstáculo obstáculo deja de ir en línea lín ea recta recta para rodearlo.
•
Efecto Doppler: Efecto debido al movimiento relativo entre la fuente emisora de las ondas y el receptor de las mismas.
•
•
Interferenci In terferencia: a: Ocurre Ocurr e cuando dos do s ondas se combinan combi nan al encontrars encont rarsee en en el mismo punto del espacio. Reflexión: Ocurre cuando una onda, al encontrarse con un nuevo medio medi o que no puede atravesar, atravesar, cambia de direcc dir ecció ión. n.
•
Refracción: Ocurre cuando una onda cambia de dirección al entrar en un nuevo medio en el que viaja a disti distinta nta velocidad.
•
Onda de Choque: Ocurre cuando varias ondas que viajan en un medio se superponen formando un cono.
4. Clasificación En función del medio en el que se propagan •
Ondas Mecánicas: Las ondas mecánicas necesitan un medio elástico (solido, liquido o gaseoso) para propagarse. Las partículas del medio oscilan alrededor de un punto fijo, por lo que no existe transporte neto de
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por las oscilaciones de un campo eléctrico, en relación con un campo magnético
asociado.
Las
ondas
electromagnéticas
viajan
aproximadamente aproxi madamente a una velocidad velo cidad de d e 300 30000 0000 km por segundo, de acuerdo a la velocidad puede ser agrupado en rango de frecuencia. Este ordenamiento es conocido como Espectro Electromagnético, objeto que mide la frecuencia de las ondas. •
Ondas Gravitacionales: Las ondas gravitacionales son perturbaciones que alteran la geometría misma del espacio-tiempo y aunque es común representarlas representarlas viajando vi ajando en el vacío, técnicamente no podemos afirmar afir mar que se desplacen por ningún espacio, sino que en sí mismas son alteraciones del espacio-tiempo.
En función de su propagación o frente a la onda •
Ondas Unidimensionales: Las ondas unidimensionales son aquellas que se propagan a lo largo de una sola dirección del espacio, como las ondas en los lo s muelles mu elles o en las cuerdas. cuerdas. Si Si la onda o nda se se propa prop aga en en una u na dirección di rección única, úni ca, sus frentes de onda son planos y paralelos.
•
Ondas bidimensionales o superficiales: Son ondas que se propagan en dos direcciones. Pueden propagarse, en cualquiera de las direcciones de una superfici uperf icie, e, por ello, ell o, se se denom denomii nan también ondas superficial uperfi ciales es.. Un ejemplo son las ondas que se producen en una superficie líquida en reposo cuando,
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En funció fu nciónn de la dirección de la perturbación •
Ondas Longitudinales: Son aquellas que se caracterizan porque las partículas del medio se mueven (ó vibran) paralelamente a la dirección de propagación de la onda. Por Por ejemplo, ejempl o, un muell m uellee que se compri com prime me da lugar a una onda longitudi nal.
•
Ondas Transversales: Son aquellas que se caracterizan porque las partículas del medio vibran perpendicularmente a la dirección de propagación de la onda.
En función fu nción de su su periodici peri odicida dadd •
Ondas periódicas: La perturbación local que las origina se produce en ciclos repetitivos por ejemplo una onda senoidal.
•
Ondas no periódi peri ódicas cas:: la perturba pertur baci ción ón que las l as ori gi na se se da aisladamente aisladamente o, en el caso de que se repita, las perturbaciones sucesivas tienen caracterís caracterí sti cas diferent di ferentes es.. Las ondas on das aisladas también tambi én se deno denomi minan nan puls pul sos. os.
5. Tipos Con respecto a ondas sísmicas existen tres tipos de ondas que son los
siguientes: ondas primarias o longitudinales, ondas secundarias o transversales y por po r ult u ltim imoo ondas on das superfici uperfi ciales ales o larga l argass. •
Ondas Pri Primari marias as o Longitu Longi tudi dinales nales::
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Donde k es el modulo modul o de incompresibil incompresibil idad, u es el modulo modul o de corte o rigidez ri gidez y þ la l a dens densii dad del del material materi al y a través del cual se se propaga l a onda mecánica.
•
Ondas Secundaria: Las ondas S o transversales, son ondas en las cuales el desplazamiento es transversal a la dirección de propagación. Su velocidad es menor que la de las ondas primarias. Debido a ello, está aparecen en el terreno algo después que las l as pri pr i meras. meras. Estas Estas ondas on das son las que generan generan l as oscilacio oscil aciones nes durante dur ante el movim mov imient ientoo sís sísmi mico co y las que producen produ cen la mayor parte de los lo s daños. daños. Sólo Sólo se trasladan a través de elementos sólidos.
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•
Ondas Love: Son ondas superficiales que producen un movimiento horizontal de corte en superfi cie. Se Se denom denomin inan an así así en honor ho nor al mate m atemáti máti co neocelandés neocelandés Augustus Augustus Edward Hough Love, Love, quien des desarrol arro l ló un modelo m odelo mate m atemáti mático co de estas estas ondas on das en 1911 1911.. La veloci velo cidad dad de las ondas on das Love es un 90% de la l a veloci velo cidad dad de las l as ondas S y es ligeramente superior a la velocidad de las ondas Rayleigh.
•
Ondas Rayleigh:
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•
Ondas Sonoras:
Una onda sonora es una onda longitudinal perceptible como sonido. Si se propaga en un medio elástico y continuo genera una variación local de presión o densidad, que se transmite en forma de onda esférica periódica o cuasiperiódica.
•
Ondas On das Sísmi Sísmicas cas::
Las ondas ond as sísmi ísmi cas son ti t i po de onda elásti elásti ca cons con si ste en en la l a propagación pro pagación de de
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La velocidad de las ondas sísmicas varían de acuerdo al medio por donde avanzan, avanzan, y se se conoce que, que, tant tantoo la densi densi dad com comoo la l a elas elastitici cidad dad del del medio, medi o, son las dos propiedades físicas determinantes de esta particularidad. En zonas superficiales de la corteza, las ondas “p” viajan a velocidades de 5.4 a 6.3 km/seg, y las ondas “s” lo hacen de 3.3 km/seg a 3.7 km/seg. Al llegar al límite corteza - manto las ondas “p” han aumentado bruscamente a velocidades que llegan a 8 km/seg, y las ondas “s” a 4.5 km/seg. En el manto, luego de una brusca disminución a los 100 km de profundidad, las ondas sísmicas aumentan lenta y progresivamente sus velocidades, hasta alcanzar las ondas “p” 13.7 km/seg, y las ondas “s” 7.3 km/seg, al llegar al núcleo.
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CAPITULO II
1. Sismo Los sismos ya sean terremotos o maremotos son movimientos vibratorios que
sufren la corteza terrestre sobre un área determinada, el sismo es un fenómeno natural, que más impres im presio iona na al hombre hom bre por las pérdidas humana hum anass y materiales. Es por esto que han sido calificados por la población como uno de los fenómenos naturales más terribles, debido principalmente a que ocurren en una form f ormaa repenti repenti na e inesperada inesperada y por su capacidad de destr destrucci ucción. ón.
2. Clasificación Según su origen los sismos pueden ser: •
Si sm os tectóni tectó nicos cos:: P Pro rodu ducen cen el el 90 % de los terr terremo emoto toss y dejan senti sentirr su su s
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•
Sismos locales: Afectan a una región muy pequeña y se deben a hundimientos de cavernas y cavidades subterráneas; trastornos causados por disoluciones de estratos de yeso, sal u otras sustancias, o a deslizamientos de terrenos que reposan sobre capas arcillosas. Otro Otr o sismo sismo loca l ocall es el provocado pro vocado por el hombre orig ori ginado in ado por explosi explosi ones o bien por colapso de galerías en grandes explotaciones mineras. También se ha supuesto que experimentos nucleares, o la fuerza de millones de toneladas de agua acumulada en represas o lagos artificiales podría producir tal fenómeno.
3. Causas La litosfera no es continua en la superficie de la tierra sino que está formada
por diferentes placas que hacen contacto entre sí, estas placas sufren movimientos relativos debido a las fuerzas de tensión y comprensión que producen en algunas de sus márgenes la subducción de una placa sobre otra,
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intervalo entre la llegada de las primeras (p) y la llegada de las segundas (s), será en función funci ón de la dis di stancia entre la l a es estación tació n y el epicentro. epi centro. Los dis di stintos ti ntos gru grupos pos de de ondas de un sismo sismo determinado determi nado y de fuente conocida, cono cida, se identifican en los sismogramas de numerosas estaciones (el sismograma es el registro de los movimientos sísmicos captados por el sismógrafo de la estación sismológica). Luego, los tiempos recorridos por las ondas p y s se tabula y se construyen gráficos de tiempo - distancia, que pueden ser usados para determinar la dis di stancia de la estació estaciónn al epice epi cent ntro ro de nuevos nuevos terremotos terremot os.. Finalmente, para determinar la localización exacta del epicentro del sismo, se requiere de la información de tres estaciones sísmicas que hayan registrado ese sismo.
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confeccionado catálogos cada vez más completos, que incluyen datos como magnitud, duración, coordenadas exactas del foco, dirección de propagación, profundidad, profun didad, etc. etc. En los nuevos estudios de sismicidad se relaciona la actividad sísmica con su distribución espacial y temporal, e incluso se correlaciona con las caracterís caracter ístiticas cas fis fi si ográfi ográf i cas y geol geológic ógicas as de cada reg r egii ón (Udías y Mézcua ézcua 1986 1986). Como ejemplo, en la figura 1.1 puede observarse la distribución de la sismicidad del área Ibero-Magrebí (Udías y Mézcua 1986), mientras que en la figura fi gura 1.2 se mues mu estr traa la si si smici mi cidad dad en en América Améri ca Centr Central al y Améri América ca del Sur (Bol (Boltt
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magnitud caracteriza la energía total de los terremotos, calculada a partir de registros sísmicos. Por este motivo, Richter considera que la amplitud de las ondas sísmicas es prácticamente una medida de la energía total y establece para la magnitu magnitudd local M L la siguiente relación: …………(1.1) En esta ecuación, A es la amplitud máxima registrada en un sismógrafo de torsión torsión Wood-A Wood-Ande nders rson on a una distanc distancia ia da dada y
es una función de
atenuación atenuación corres cor respondiente pondiente a un terremoto tomado como com o patrón (M L = 0). La
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a) Intensidad Intensidad macrosís macrosísmi mica ca.. P Procedim rocedimiento iento subje subjetitivo vo Los métodos subjetivos evalúan los efectos dé los terremotos a través del daño que producen en las construcciones y en el entorno físico. La intensidad macrosísmica proporciona una clasificación de la severidad del movimiento del terreno a través de dichos efectos. Es un parámetro descriptivo, cuya importancia radica en que aprovecha la información sísmica anterior a la aparición de los instrumentos de registro o en zonas donde no existen instrumentos (Grünthal 1993). Debido a su propia definición, la intensidad no proporciona una idea precisa acerca de la
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b) Parámetros arámetros obtenidos obtenidos a parti partirr de reg registros istros.. Procedimi Procedimiento ento analít analítico ico Los métodos analíticos se basan en medidas instrumentales, para cuantificar la intensidad de los terremotos. Una de éstas es la intensidad espectral de Housner, en la que la severidad de las vibraciones inducidas en un oscilador lineal con un solo grado de libertad puede evaluarse a partir del espectro de respuesta en velocidades correspondiente a dicho oscilador. Un promedio de la severidad del movimiento sísmico puede obteners obtener se mediante medi ante la l a expresi expresi ón (Housner (Housner 1970 1970). ). …………(1.2)
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8. Fenómenos sísmicos La deformación de los materiales rocosos produce distintos tipos de ondas
sísmi ísmicas cas.. Un des desl izami izamiento ento súbito úbi to a lo l o largo l argo de una fal fal la, por ejemplo ejemp lo,, produce pro duce ondas longitudinales de empuje-tiro (P) y transversales de cizalla (S). Los
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Además de las ondas P y S ondas de volumen o cuerpo, hay dos ondas de superficie, ondas Love, llamadas así por el geofísico británico Augustus E. H. Love, que producen movimientos horizontales del suelo y las ondas Rayleigh, por el físico británico John Rayleigh, que producen movimientos verticales y
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energía del movimiento, y definen el concepto de duración efectiva como el tiempo transcurrido para que la función de intensidad de Arias, definida por la ecuación (1.4), supere el 5%y alcance el 95%de su valor. A partir del estudio de más de 84 acelerogramas registrados en la parte occidental de los Estados
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interacción suelo-estructura, descrito por una función de transferencia I, la señal sufrirá nuevos cambios hasta obtenerse la señal X 3 que será la excitación en la base del edificio. La respuesta de la estructura X 4 es el resultado de la convolución de la señal X por la función de transferencia D de la estructura.
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b) No estructural: Que ocurre en los elementos que no forman parte del sistema resistente principal, incluyendo el daño arquitectónico o en los sistemas mecánicos, eléctricos, sanitarios así como en su contenido. El daño estructural depende del comportamiento de los elementos del esquema
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