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MODERN PLASTICS WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008 WWW.MODPLAS.COM
with
Buyer’s Guide www.modplas.com
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Chemtura. Value is our strongest additive.
™
Monomer
Polymerization
Finishing
Compounding
Naugard® Antioxidants
Axion™ Single-Site Catalysts Axion™ Stereomodifiers BOMAG® Z/N Catalyst Components Metal Alkyls Cocatalysts PETCAT – Antimony Catalyst
Anox™/Naugard®/Lowinox® Antioxidants Anox™ NDB® Non Dusting Additive Blends Ultranox® Antioxidants Weston® Antioxidants Genox® Antioxidants
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Naugard® Polymerization Inhibitors
Fabrication
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New Firemaster® 600 and 602 flame retardants for flexible polyurethane foam, with improved efficiency and an excellent environmental profile.
Visit us online at www.chemtura.com. Chemtura: The world’s largest manufacturer and marketer of plastics additives.
New nonylphenol-free liquid phosphite stabilizers to replace TNPP: Equivalent performance to TNPP; no nonylphenol impurities or degradation products. New Naugard® 300-E inhibitor, which improves efficiency and control of styrene processing.
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CONTENTS
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008 Features 48
ADDITIVES CHARTS 146
20
2008 Industry overview
22
Injection molding
24 27
Hot runners Injection molding machinery
28
Extrusion
29 32 34 36 39 42 44 46 48
Biaxial film Blown film Cast film Extrusion coating Extrusion dies Pipe and profile Screen changers Winders Wire and cable
50
Primary processing, other
Antioxidants
51 52 54 56 57 60
Blowmolding Melt pumps Reaction injection molding Rotomolding Screws and barrels Thermoforming
204
Antistatic agents
206
Flame retardants
208
Colorants
210
Plasticizers
61
Plastics
62 64 65 68 72 74 75
Acrylic Fluoropolymers Nylon Polycarbonate Polyethylene Polyethylene terephthalate Polypropylene
212
Lubricants (compounding)
212
Stabilizers
PRIMARY PROCESSING MACHINERY CHARTS
Polyurethane Polyvinyl chloride Styrenics Thermosets Thermoplastic elastomers
88
Additives
89 91 93 97 99 101 103 105 107 109
Antioxidants Colorants Compounding Conductive compounds Flame retardants Foaming agents Heat stabilizers Plasticizers Release agents UV stabilizers
111 Auxiliary equipment
IDES resin charts
204
77 78 80 83 85
112 114 118 121 124 127 128 130 132
Chillers Dosing equipment Dryers Material handling Pelletizing Robots Size reduction Testing equipment Weathering equipment
134 Plant management 135 Enterprise resource planning 137 Polymer transport
138 Secondary processing 139 Coatings for plastics 144 Welding 96
REFERENCE 7
Associations
18
Abbreviations
Extrusion
222
Product index
218
Blowmolding
224
Product listing
220
Thermoforming
287
Supplier listing
334
Trade names
214
Injection molding
216
In this edition 222
Buyer’s Guide
modplas.com
Customer service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Editor’s page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 MPWE reservation form . . . . . . . . .17
Classifieds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350 Advertiser index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
MODERN PLASTICS
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008 3
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Internationally electric. Reproducing, precise, fast and energy-efficient. With its fully-electric ALLROUNDER A, ARBURG has just the right solution for all production requirements. The fully-electric ALLDRIVE is available with clamping forces from 500 to 2,000 kN. Efficiency and preci-
ARBURG GmbH + Co KG Postfach 11 09 · 72286 Lossburg / Germany Tel.: +49 (0) 74 46 33-0 Fax: +49 (0) 74 46 33 33 65 e-mail:
[email protected] | (BR) Brasil: ARBURG Ltda. · Tel.: +55 (11) 5643 7007 ·
[email protected] | (CN) China: ARBURG (Shanghai) Co., Ltd. · Tel.: +86 (0) 21 5488 8866 ·
[email protected] | ARBURG Machine & Trading (Shenzhen) Co., Ltd. · Tel.: +86 (0) 755 8343 3750 ·
[email protected] | (HK) Hong Kong: ARBURG (HK) Ltd. · Tel.: +852 (2) 886 3007 ·
[email protected] | (MX) Mexico: ARBURG S.A. de C.V. · Tel.: +52 55 5363 7520 ·
[email protected] | (MY) ARBURG Sdn Bhd · Tel.: +60 (0) 3 5636 6213 ·
[email protected] | (SG) Singapore: ARBURG PTE LTD. · Tel.: +65 6778 8318 ·
[email protected] | (US) USA: ARBURG, Inc. · Tel.: +1 (860) 667 6500 ·
[email protected] |
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www.arburg.com
sion, suitable for international applications.
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MPWE 2008
www.modplas.com EDITORIAL 55 Madison St., Ste. 770 Denver, CO 80206 USA +1 303-321-2322 +1 303-321-3552 fax Releases:
[email protected] Sr. Group Publisher Patrick Lundy +1 973-808-0494
[email protected] Editor-in-Chief Matthew Defosse +49-69-90552-132
[email protected] Associate Editor Directory/Buyer’s Guide Manager Iris Topel +1 718-478-8104
[email protected] Project Manager Jamie Quanbeck +1 608-442-4467
[email protected] Senior Editor/Germany Robert Colvin +49-69-90552-130
[email protected] Managing Editor John Clark
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INTERNATIONAL SALES OFFICE Germany, Austria, Scandinavia, Benelux, Eastern Europe, U.K. Canon Communications Deutschland GmbH Goethestrasse 2 60313 Frankfurt, Germany +49 69-90552-108 +49 69-90552-104 fax
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MODERN PLASTICS WORLDWIDE (ISSN 0026-8275) is published monthly, with an additional issue in summer, by Canon Communications LLC, 11444 W Olympic Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90064-1549. Periodicals postage paid at Los Angeles, CA, and at additional mailing offices. Canada Post International Publications Mail Product Sales Agreement No. 40612608. Canada Post return address: BleuChip International, P.O.Box 25542, London, ON N6C 6B2. Modern Plastics Worldwide has no connection with any company of similar name. The name ‘Modern Plastics’ is Registered ® U.S. Patent Office. Copyright © 2004 Canon Communications LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A. Copying for other than personal or internal reference use without the express permission of Canon Communications LLC is prohibited. Requests for special permission, or bulk orders should be addressed to the publisher. SUBSCRIPTIONS: Please send all circulation correspondence, subscription orders, and change of address notices to Modern Plastics Worldwide, PO Box 3568, Northbrook, IL 60065 USA. For subscriber service call +1 847559-7590, or fax +1 847-291-4816, or email to
[email protected]. Basic subscription price in U.S.A. and possessions is 1yr. $59.00, 2 yrs. $99.00, 3 yrs. $139.00. Canada is 1 yr. $110.00, 2 yrs. $199.00, 3 yrs. $295.00. All other countries are 1 yr. $150.00, 2 yrs. $250.00, 3 yrs. $300.00. Please allow 6 to 8 weeks for shipment. Back issues (except for Encyclopedia issue) $25 each, plus S/H. POSTMASTER: Send all address changes to Modern Plastics Worldwide, PO Box 3568, Northbrook, IL 60065 USA.
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MODERN PLASTICS
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008 5
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To our readers
World Encyclopedia 2008 Welcome to the 2008 edition of the Modern Plastics World Encyclopedia. We’ve updated our editorial section to reflect developments in materials and machinery and have expanded he year in progress has been yet another one of great change for the plastics processing industry. Oil prices broke through the $100/bbl barrier and have kept on going, and as this work goes to print there has been a spate of recent, substantial price hike announcements from the industry’s leading plastics suppliers. After some years of relative calm, with PVC and phthalates taking the brunt of nongovernmental organization scorn, suddenly plastics are under attack from many sides. Thin plastic shopping bags have become taboo in some cities and even countries. Bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical building block that is used primarily to make polycarbonate and epoxy resin, has come under intense scrutiny, with mainstream media reports often so poorly researched as to lead consumers to believe all rigid plastics could be harmful. Sustainability is the watchword for this and other industries, with processors forced not only to compete on price and quality, but also on their efforts to promote sustainable manufacturing. The continuing low valuation of the U.S. dollar compared to other currencies has proven helpful to processors there who are able to engage in export markets, while proving a challenge to processors overseas who depended on the U.S. for their own exports. The banking crisis prompted by the downturn in the U.S. building and construction market has made it more difficult for processors, and
other companies, to obtain funding for investment, and, maybe more significantly, has taken some of the spark out of U.S. consumers’ willingness to spend, spend, and spend yet again. Viewed on a global level, there are enough developing markets, with newly developed middle classes, to offer other opportunities for many processors. All in all, 2008 was not a year to rest on one’s laurels, but plastics processors have also found plenty to please them. New machinery has been introduced that produces more and better parts, more quickly, and with less energy usage. Developments among plastics and additives suppliers and compounders continue apace, with new characteristics in some cases bringing enough added value to parts to help offset price increases. The articles contained in these pages highlight many of those new machinery and material developments. These features are organized by section to ease your searching. The Encyclopedia offers as well what we believe to be the most accurate listings available of worldwide plastics equipment and materials suppliers, organized by type of processing equipment, supplies and materials; an alphabetical list of suppliers to plastics processors; charts of material’s perform-
6
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
T
MODERN PLASTICS WORLDWIDE
our supplier data to better help with your sourcing needs.
ance data; and considerably more. You will also find information on the many useful organizations throughout the world that can be a valuable first port of call when considering business overseas or for obtaining local market data. Any reader with an Internet connection can access the buyer’s guide information in this Encyclopedia simply by visiting our website, www.modplas.com/ worldencyclopedia, and the feature articles are available through a link at our homepage, www.modplas.com. The first link enables you to search the database for a supplier, browse through product categories, or search by keyword or geographic region. We have made every effort to contact known suppliers—but count on them to update their listings. Suppliers to the industry who are not listed in our Encyclopedia can correct that shortfall by using the website to submit their company data. For this, simply click on “Add your listing.” Last but not least, we would like to thank the industry experts who offered their time and insight to author the feature articles of this Encyclopedia.
Matt Defosse, Editor-in-Chief
modplas.com
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Plastics associations
Australia Plastics and Chemicals Industries Assn. Inc. Level 1, Unit 7, Skipping Girl Place 651 Victoria St. Abbotsford, Vic. 3067 61-3-9429-0670 61-3-9429-0690 (fax)
[email protected] www.pacia.org.au
Austria Federation of Chemical Industries (FCIO) Wiedner Hauptstrasse 63 Vienna 1045 43-0590-900-3340 43-0590-900-280 (fax)
[email protected] www.kunststoffe.fcio.at KC Plastics Cluster Hafenstrasse 47-51 Linz 4020 43-732-79810-5115 43-732-79810-5110 (fax)
[email protected] www.kunststoff-cluster.at
Belgium Agoria Plastics & Composites Diamant Bldg., Blvd. A. Reyers Laan 80 Brussels 1030 32-2-706-7800 32-2-706-7801 (fax)
[email protected] www.agoria.be
The data are compiled from information supplied by the associations listed in this directory. Every effort has been made to be accurate. Canon Communications LLC cannot be held responsible in the event of errors or omissions of information.
modplas.com
Buildiplast Assn. of Belgian Manufacturers of Plastic Joinery Diamant Bldg., Blvd. A. Reyers Laan 80 Brussels 1030 32-2-706-7800 32-2-706-7801 (fax)
[email protected] www.agoria.be Essenscia Diamant Bldg., Blvd. A. Reyers Laan 80 Brussels 1030 32-2-238-97-11 32-2-231-13-01 (fax)
[email protected] www.essenscia.be European Assn. of Plastics Recycling and Recovery Organisations (EPRO) Rue du Commerce 31 Handelsstraat 31 Brussels 1000 32-2-456-8449 32-2-456-8339 (fax)
[email protected] www.epro-plasticsrecycling.org European Composites Industry Assn. (EuCIA) Ave. de Cortenbergh 66 Brussels 1030 32-2-732-4124 32-2-732-4218 (fax)
[email protected] www.eucia.org European Decorative and Stationery Plastic Foils Assn. (EDEFA) Ave. de Cortenbergh 66 Brussels 1000 32-2-732-41-24 32-2-732-42-18 (fax)
[email protected] www.edefa.org European Plastic Pipes and Fitting Assn. (TEPPFA) Ave. de Cortenbergh 66 Brussels 1000 32-2-736-2406 32-2-736-5882 (fax)
[email protected] www.teppfa.org
European Plastics Converters (EuPC) Ave. de Cortenbergh 66 PO Box 4 Brussels 1000 32-2-732-4124 32-2-732-4218 (fax)
[email protected] www.plasticsconverters.eu European Plastics Recyclers (EuPR) Ave. de Cortenbergh 66 PO Box 4 Brussels 1000 32-2-742-96-82 32-2-732-63-12 (fax)
[email protected] www.eupr.org European Unoriented PET Film Manufacturers Assn. (EuPET) Ave. de Cortenbergh 66 PO Box 4 Brussels 1000 32-2-732-41-24 32-2-732-42-18 (fax)
[email protected] www.eupc.org Europur Blvd. Reyers 80 Brussels 1030 32-2-238-97-42 32-2-230-19-89 (fax)
[email protected] www.europur.com
Federplast.be Diamant Bldg., Blvd. A. Reyers Laan 80 Brussels 1030 32-2-706-7960 32-2-707-7088 (fax)
[email protected] www.federplast.be Petcore Ave. E. Van Nieuwenhuyse 4/3 Brussels 1160
[email protected] www.petcore.org PlasticsEurope (Brussels) Ave. E. Van Nieuwenhuyse 4/3 Brussels 1160 32-2675-3297
MODERN PLASTICS
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008 7
Plastics
Argentine Chamber of the Plastics Industry Jeronimo Salguero 1939/41 Buenos Aires 1425 54-11-4821-9603 54-11-4826-5480 (fax)
[email protected] www.caip.org.ar
associations
Argentina
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Plastics
associations
Plastics associations 32-2675-3935 (fax)
[email protected] www.apme.org
905-678-0774 (fax)
[email protected] www.cpia.ca
86-10-6522-5254 (fax)
[email protected] www.cppia.com.cn
Reinforplast Assn. of Belgian Manufacturers of Reinforced Plastics/Composites Diamant Bldg., Blvd. A. Reyers Laan 80 Brussels 1030 32-2-706-7800 32-2-706-7801 (fax)
[email protected] www.agoria.be
Canadian Tooling & Machining Assn. 140 McGovern Dr., Unit 3 Cambridge, ON N3H 4R7 519-653-7265 519-653-6764 (fax)
[email protected] www.ctma.com
Federation of Hong Kong Industries Hankow Centre, 4th Fl., 5-15 Hankow Rd., TST Kowloon, Hong Kong 852-2732-3188 852-2721-3494 (fax)
[email protected] www.industryhk.org
Brazil ABPol Associacao Brasileira de Polimeros Rua Geminiano Costa 355 Sao Carlos (SP) 13560-970 55-16-3374-3949
[email protected] www.abpol.com.br Brazilian Packaging Assn. Rua Oscar Freire 379, 15 Andar, Cj. 152 Sao Paulo (SP) 01426-001 55-11-3082-9722 55-11-3081-9201 (fax)
[email protected] www.abre.org.br Brazilian Plastics Industry Assn., Abiplast Av. Paulista, 2439, 8 Andar, Cj. 81/82 Sao Paulo (SP) 01311-936 55-11-3060-9688 55-11-3060-9686 (fax)
[email protected] www.abiplast.org.br
Canada Canadian Assn. of Moldmakers St. Clair College (FCEM) 2000 Talbot Rd. W., PO Box 16 Windsor, ON N9A 6S4 519-255-7863 519-255-9446 (fax)
[email protected] www.camm.ca Canadian Plastics Industry Assn. 5915 Airport Rd., Suite 712 Mississauga, ON L4V 1T1 905-678-7748 8
MODERN PLASTICS
Environment & Plastics Industry Council 5915 Airport Rd., Suite 712 Mississauga, ON L4V 1T1 905-678-7748 905-678-0774 (fax)
[email protected] www.plastics.ca/epic
Hong Kong & Kowloon Plastic Products United Merchants 13/F, Prospect Bldg., 491 Nathan Rd. Kowloon, Hong Kong 852-384-0171 852-781-0107 (fax)
[email protected] www.hkkp.org
Chile Chilean Plastics Assn. (ASIPLA) Ave. Andres Bello 2777, Oficina 507 Las Condes, Santiago 14610 56-2-203-3342 56-2-203-3343 (fax)
[email protected] www.asipla.cl
China China Die & Mould Industry Assn. (CDMIA) Rm. 505-506, Guo Xing, Jia Yuan 20 S. Shouti Rd., Hai Dian Dist. Beijing 100044 86-10-8835-6462 86-10-8835-6461 (fax)
[email protected] www.cdmia.com.cn China Light Industry Mould + Die Assn. 6 Dong Changan St. Beijing 100740 86-10-68396613 86-10-68396264 (fax)
[email protected] www.clii.com.cn China Plastics Processing Industry Assn. 6 E. Chang An Ave. Beijing 100740 86-10-6512-2056
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
Hong Kong Plastic Material Suppliers Assn. Ltd. 12/F, Eader Centre, 39-41 Hankow Rd. Kowloon, Hong Kong 852-2375-2686 852-2317-1129 (fax) Hong Kong Plastics Manufacturers Assn. Ltd. Room 1003, 10F, Asia Standard Tower 59-65 Queen’s Rd. Central Hong Kong 852-2574-2230 852-2574-2843 (fax) Hong Kong Plastics Technology Centre Ltd. LG2, HKPC Bldg., 78 Tat Chee Ave. Kowloon, Hong Kong 852-2788-5552 852-2788-6169 (fax)
[email protected] www.hkpc.org/ptc
Colombia Acoplasticos Calle 69, No. 5-33 Bogota DC AA 29844 57-1-346-0655 57-1-249-6997 (fax)
[email protected] www.acoplasticos.org
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Federation de la Plasturgie 65, Rue de Prony Paris Cedex 75854 33-1-4401-1616 33-1-4401-1655 (fax)
[email protected] www.laplasturgie.fr
Society of Plastics and Rubber Engineers Ivana Lucica 5 Zagreb 10000 385-1-615-00-81 385-1-615-00-81 (fax)
[email protected]
Denmark Danish Plastics Federation 48 Noerre Voldgade Copenhagen K 1358 45-3330-8630 45-3330-8631 (fax)
[email protected] www.plast.dk
Ecuador Ecuadorian Plastics Assn. (Aseplas) ESPOL, Campus Prosperina, Edif. 18B Guayaquil 593-4-285-0683
[email protected] www.espol.edu.ec/aseplas
Estonia Estonian Plastics Assn. Ahtri 12 Tallinn 10151 372-626-1075 372-626-1075 (fax)
[email protected] www.plast.ee
Finland Finnish Plastics Industries Federation Etelaranta 10 PO Box 4 Helsinki 00131 358-9-172-841 358-9-171-164 (fax) www.plastics.fi
France Chambre Syndicale des Emballages en Matiere Plastique 5, rue de Chazelles Paris 75017 33-1-4622-3366 33-1-4622-0235 (fax)
modplas.com
European Pultrusion Technology Assn. c/o AVK, Am Hauptbahnhof 10 Frankfurt 60329 49-69-27-1077-0 49-69-27-1077-10 (fax)
[email protected] www.pultruders.com
Plasteuropac, European Assn. of Plastic Packaging Manufacturers Rue de Chazelles 5 Paris 75017 33-1-4622-3366 33-1-4622-0235 (fax) www.packplast.org
Germany Assn. of the Plastics Converting Industry (GKV) Am Hauptbahnhof 12 Franfurt am Main 60329 49-69-27-105-0
[email protected] www.gkv.de AVK Industrievereinigung Verstarkte Kunststoffe e.V. Am Hauptbahnhof 10 Frankfurt 60329 49-69-27-1077-0 49-69-27-1077-10 (fax)
[email protected] www.avk-tv.de Chemsite Paul-Baumann-Str. 1 Marl 45764 49-2365-49-2530 49-2365-49-6805 (fax)
[email protected] www.chemsite.de Euromap c/o VDMA, Postfach 71 08 84 Frankfurt 60498 49-69-6603-1832 49-69-6603-1840 (fax)
[email protected] www.euromap.org
European Rigid PVC Film Association e.V. (ERPA) Industriepark Hoechst, FB21 Frankfurt am Main 65926 49-69-305-7148 49-69-305-16039 (fax)
[email protected] www.pvc-films.org Fachverband Schaumkunststoffe e.V. (FSK) Am Hauptbahnhof 10 Frankfurt 60329 49-69-299-207-0 49-69-299-20711 (fax)
[email protected] www.fsk-vsv.de Fensterverbande Frankfurt Walter-Kolb-Str. 1-7 Frankfurt 60594 49-69-95-5054-0 49-69-95-5054-11 (fax)
[email protected] www.window.de Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology Joseph-von-Fraunhofer-Str. 7 Pfinztal 76327 49-721-4640-0 49-721-4640-111 (fax)
[email protected] www.ict.fraunhofer.de Fraunhofer Institute for Production Technology Steinbachstr. 17 Aachen 52074 49-241-8904-105 49-241-8904-6105 (fax)
[email protected] www.ipt.rwth-aachen.de
MODERN PLASTICS
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008 9
Plastics
[email protected] www.packplast.org
associations
Colombian Assn. of Plastics Industries. See Acoplasticos
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Plastics
associations
Plastics associations German Assn. of Plastics Manufacturers (VKE) Karlstr. 21 Frankfurt 60329 49-69-2556-1303 49-69-251060 (fax)
[email protected] www.vke.de
Industrieverband Kunstoffbahnen e.V. (IVK) Emil-von-Behring-Str. 4 Frankfurt 60439 49-69-95808-0 49-69-95808-126 (fax)
[email protected] www.ivk-frankfurt.de
German Plastics and Rubber Machinery Assn. (VDMA) PO Box 710864 Frankfurt 60498 49-69-6603-1832 49-69-6603-1840 (fax)
[email protected] www.kug.vdma.org
Industrieverband PolyurethanHartschaum e.V. (IVPU) Im Kaisemer Stuttgart 70191 49-711-29-1716 49-711-29-4902 (fax)
[email protected] www.ivpu.de
IK Industrievereinigung Kunststoffverpackungen e.V. (German Assn. of Plastics Packaging and Films) Kaiser-Friedrich-Promenade 43 Bad Homburg 61348 49-6172-92-6601 49-6172-92-6670 (fax)
[email protected] www.kunststoffverpackungen.de
Kunststoff-Institut Ludenscheid Karolinenstr. 8 Ludenscheid 58507 49-2351-1064-191 49-2351-1064-190 (fax)
[email protected] www.kunststoff-institut.de
IKV Institute of Plastics Processing Pontstr. 49 Aachen 52056 49-241-80-93806 49-241-80-92262 (fax)
[email protected] www.ikv-aachen.de Industrial Assn. of Plastics Packaging & Film Manufacturers Kaiser-Friedrich-Promenade 43 Bad Homburg 61348 49-6172-92-6601 49-6172-92-6670 (fax)
[email protected] www.kunststoffverpackungen.de Industrieverband Hartschaum e.V. (IVH) Kurpfalzring 100a Heidelberg 69123 49-6221-77-6071 49-6221-77-5106 (fax)
[email protected] www.styropor.de
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MODERN PLASTICS
Kunststoffrohrverband e.V.(KRV) Kennedyallee 1-5 Bonn 53175 49-228-91477-0 49-228-2113-09 (fax) www.krv.de Plastics and Rubber Machinery Assn. within VDMA PO Box 710864 Frankfurt 60498 49-69-6603-1832 49-69-6603-1840 (fax)
[email protected] www.kug.vdma.org TecPart Assn. of Technical Plastics Products Am Hauptbahnhof 12 Frankfurt 60329 49-69-27105-35 49-69-239836 (fax)
[email protected] www.tecpart.de Verband Kunststofferzeugende Industrie e.V. (VKE) Karlstr. 21 Frankfurt 60329
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
49-69-2556-1303 49-69-251060 (fax)
[email protected] www.vke.de
Greece Assn. of Hellenic Plastics Industries 64 Michalakopoulou St. Athens 11528 30-1-77-94-519 30-1-77-94-518 (fax)
[email protected] www.ahpi.gr
Hungary Assn. of Hungarian Plastics Industry Becsi ut 85 Budapest 1036 36-1-363-9083 36-1-460-9505 (fax)
[email protected] www.huplast.hu
India Gujarat State Plastics Manufacturers Assn. (GSPMA) 7th Fl., Span Trade Center Nr. Paldi Char Rasta, Ellisbridge Ahmedabad 380006 91-79-26578227 91-79-26579204 (fax)
[email protected] www.gspma.org Organization of Plastics Processors of India 404/405, Golden Chambers New Link Rd., Andheri (W) Mumbai, Maharashtra 400 053 91-22-6692-3131 91-22-2673-6736 (fax)
[email protected] www.oppindia.org Plastindia Foundation 401, Landmark B, Suren Rd., Off Andheri Kurla Rd., Andheri (E) Mumbai 400 093 91-22-26832911 91-22-26845861 (fax)
[email protected] www.plastindia.org
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Federazione Gomma Plastica Via San Vittore 36 Milan 20123 39-02-43-92-81 www.federazionegommaplastica.it
Malaysian Plastics Manufacturers Assn. 37 Jalan 20/14, Paramount Garden Petaling Jaya, Selangor 46300 60-3-7876-3027 60-3-7876-8352 (fax)
[email protected] www.mpma.org.my
Assn. of Plastic Industries Unit 4B, No. 5, 25th St., Khaled Estanboli (Vozara) Ave. Arjantin Square Tehran 98-21-88722633 98-21-88716314 (fax)
[email protected] www.assoplast.com
Japan
Mexico
Assn. of Japan Plastics Machinery 2-10-18 Ginza Chuo-ku Tokyo 104-0061 81-3-3542-0261 81-3-3543-0619 (fax)
[email protected] www.plastics.or.jp
Asociacion Nacional de Industrias del Plastico (Anipac) Ave. Parque Chapultepec 66, 3 Piso, Col. El Parque Naucalpan 53390 52-55-5576-5547 52-55-5576-5548 (fax)
[email protected] www.anipac.com
Israel
Council for PET Bottle Recycling Nikkei Bldg. 2F, 7-16 NihonbashiKodenmacho Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-0001 81-3-3662-7591 81-3-5623-2885 (fax) www.petbottle-rec.gr.jp
Iran
Manufacturers Assn. of Israel (MAI) 29 Hamered St. PO Box 50022 Tel Aviv 61500 972-2-625-2449 972-2-625-8464 (fax)
[email protected] www.industry.org.il
Italy Assocomaplast-Italian Plastics and Rubber Processing Machinery and Moulds Manufacturers’ Association PLAST ‘09 will take place in Milan, Italy, on March 24-28, 2009 Centro Direzionale Milanofiori, Palazzo F/3 PO Box 24 Assago (MI) 20090 39-02-8228371 39-02-57512490 (fax)
[email protected] www.assocomaplast.org Assogamma Foro Bonaparte 53 Milan 20121 39-02-89011289 Assoplast Via Accademia 33 Milan 20131 39-02-26810-1 modplas.com
Japan Die & Mold Industry Assn. 1F Kanagata Nenkin Bldg. 33-12 Yushima, 2-Chome, Bunkyo-ku Tokyo 113-0034
[email protected] www.jdma.net Japan Expanded Polystyrene Recycling Assn. 6F Shouwaakihabara Bldg., 2-20 Sakuma-cho, Kanda, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 101-0025 81-3-3861-9046 82-3-3861-0096 (fax) www.jepsra.gr.jp Japan Plastics Industry Federation 5-18-17, Roppongi, Minato-ku Tokyo 106-0032 81-3-3586-9761 81-3-3586-9760 (fax)
[email protected] www.jpif.gr.jp
Camara Nacional de la Industria de Transformacion Ave. San Antonio 256, Col. Ampliacion Napoles Mexico DF 03849 55-54-82-30-00
[email protected] www.canacintra.org.mx Instituto Mexicano del Plastico Industrial S.C. (IMPI) Adolfo Prieto 424, Col. Del Valle Mexico DF 03100 52-55-5669-3325 52-55-5687-4960 (fax)
[email protected] www.plastico.com.mx
Netherlands Dutch Assn. of Rubber and Plastic Manufacturers (NVR) Postbus 418 Leidschendam 2260 AK 31-70-444-0690 31-70-444-0691 (fax)
[email protected] www.vereniging-nvr.nl Dutch Plastic and Rubber Assn. (DPRA) Postbus 37705 Amsterdam 1030 BG 31-20-49-20-210 31-20-49-20-412 (fax)
MODERN PLASTICS
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008 11
Plastics
Malaysia
39-02-26810311 (fax)
[email protected] www.plastica.it
associations
Tool & Gauge Manufacturers Assn. A-33 NandJyot Industrial Estate Safed Pool, A.K. Rd. Mumbai 400072 91-22-28526876 91-22-28503273 (fax)
[email protected] www.tagmaindia.org
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Plastics
associations
Plastics associations
[email protected] www.dpra.nl
[email protected] www.apip.pt
[email protected] www.ascamm.net
Federatie Nederlandse Rubber- en Kunststofindustrie (NRK) PO Box 420 Leidschendam 2260 AK 31-70-4440660 31-70-4440661 (fax)
[email protected] www.nrk.nl
Romania
Producenten Vereniging Thermoplasten (PVT) Postbus 420 Leidschendam 2260 AK 31-70-444-0660 31-70-444-0661 (fax)
[email protected] www.pvt.nl
Saudi Arabia
Export Trade Assn. of Spanish Manufacturers C/Zubiberri 29, Edif. Ondarreta, 1 Planta, Local 5 Parque Empresarial Zuatzu San Sebastian 20018 34-943-213-763 34-943-217-164 (fax)
[email protected] www.amt.es
Romanian Plastics Assn. (Aspaplast) Blvd. 1 Mai, No. 51-55, District 6 Bucharest 061629 40-21-413-7681 40-21-413-1429 (fax)
[email protected] www.aspaplast.ro
Council of Saudi Chambers PO Box 16683 Riyadh 11474 966-1-405-3200 966-1-402-4747 (fax) www.saudichambers.org.sa
Singapore
New Zealand Composites Assn. of New Zealand PO Box 75345 Manurewa 64-9-2671106 64-9-2679075 (fax)
[email protected] www.composites.org.nz
Singapore Plastic Industry Assn. 15-B Lorong 4, Geylang Singapore 399272 65-6743-5571 65-6743-3309 (fax)
[email protected] www.spia.org.sg
South Korea Plastics New Zealand Inc. PO Box 76378 Manukau City 64-9-262-3773 64-9-262-3850 (fax)
[email protected] www.plastics.org.nz
Portugal
Korea Die & Mould Industry Cooperative 8F, Koami B/D, 13-31 Yeouido-dong, Yeongdeungpo-gu Seoul 150010 82-2-783-1711 82-2-784-5937 (fax)
[email protected] www.koreamold.com
Portuguese Assn. for the Mold Industry (Cefamol) Av. D. Dinis, 17, Apdo. 257 Marinha Grande 2431-903 351-244-575-150 351-244-575-159 (fax)
[email protected] www.cefamol.pt
Korea Federation of Plastic Industry Cooperatives (KFPIC) 146-2 Ssangnim-dong, Chung-ku Seoul 100-400 82-2-2280-8200 82-2-2277-3915 (fax) www.koreaplastic.org
Portuguese Assn. of the Plastics Industry R. S, Jose n 35, 2C Lisbon 1150-321 351-21-315-0633 351-21-314-7760 (fax)
12
MODERN PLASTICS
Spain ASCAMM Technology Centre Parc Tecnologic del Valles, Ave. Universitat Autonoma, 23 Cerdanyola del Valles 08290 34-93-594-47-00 34-93-580-11-02 (fax)
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
Spanish Assn. of Machine Tool Manufacturers Parque Technologico de San Sebastian, Paseo Mikeletegi, 59 San Sebastian 20009 34-943-309009 34-943-309191 (fax)
[email protected] www.afm.es Spanish Assn. of Machinery Manufacturers for Plastics and Rubber Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes 684, Pral Barcelona 08010 34-93-415-0422 34-93-416-0980 (fax)
[email protected] www.amec.es Spanish Confederation of Plastics Enterprises C/Coslada 18 Madrid 28028 34-902-281828 34-91-3565628 (fax)
[email protected] www.anaip.es
Sweden Swedish Plastics Industry Assn. Klara Norra Kyrkogata 31 PO Box 22307 Stockholm 10422 46-8-440-1170 46-8-440-1171 (fax)
[email protected] www.sinf.se
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Taiwan Plastics Industry Development Center (PIDC) No. 193 38th Rd., Taichung Industrial Park Taichung City 407 886-4-2359-5900 886-4-2359-5855 (fax)
[email protected] www.pidc.org.tw Taiwan Assn. of Machinery Industry (TAMI) 110 Hwai Ning St. Taipei 886-2-23494666 886-2-23813711 (fax)
[email protected] www.tami.org Taiwan Mold and Die Industry Assn. (TMDIA) Rm. 16, 6F, No. 12, Lane 609, Sec. 5, Chung Hsin Rd. San Chung City, Taipei Hsien 241 886-2-2999-5108 886-2-2999-5116 (fax)
[email protected] www.tmdia.org.tw Taiwan Plastics Industry Assn. 8F, 162 Chang-An East Rd., Sec. 2 Taipei 886-2-2771-9111 886-2-2731-5020 (fax)
[email protected] www.ttpia.com.tw
Thailand Plastic Industry Club, Federation of Thai Industries Zone C, Fl. 4, 60 New Rachadapisek Rd. Klongtoey, Bangkok 10110 66-2345-1000 66-2345-1281-3 (fax)
modplas.com
44-20-8487-0801 (fax)
[email protected] www.erma.org.uk
[email protected] www.ftiplastic.com Thai Plastic Industries Assn. 127/2 Phaya Mai Rd., Somdejchaophaya, Klongsan Bangkok 10600 66-2-438-9457-8 66-2-437-2850 (fax)
[email protected] www.tpia.org Thai Tool & Die Industry Assn. (TDIA) 86/6 1st BSID Bldg., Soi Trimitr, Rama IV Rd. Klongtoey, Bangkok 10110 66-2712-0162-3 66-2712-0164 (fax)
[email protected] www.chiangkong.com/ mouldanddiethailand.com
Turkey Turkish Plastics Industry Assn. Halkali Cad. 132/1, Tez-Is Ismerkezi Kat:4 Sefakoy-Istanbul 34620 90-212-425-1313 90-212-624-4926 (fax)
[email protected] www.pagev.org.tr
Gauge and Toolmakers Assn. (GTMA) 3 Forge House, Summerleys Rd. Princes Risborough Buckinghamshire, EN HP27 9DT 44-1844-274222 44-1844-274227 (fax)
[email protected] www.gtma.co.uk Manufacturing Technologies Assn. 62 Bayswater Rd. London, EN W2 3PS 44-20-7298-6400 44-20-7298-6430 (fax)
[email protected] www.mta.org.uk Polymer Machinery Manufacturers & Distributors Assn. Ltd. PO Box 2539 Rugby, Warwickshire, EN CV23 9YF 44-870-2411474 44-870-2411475 (fax)
[email protected] www.pmmda.org.uk
United States Alliance of Foam Packaging Recyclers 1298 Cronson Blvd., Suite 201 Crofton, MD 21114 410-451-8340 410-451-8343 (fax)
[email protected] www.epspackaging.org
United Kingdom British Plastics Federation 6 Bath Place, Rivington St. London, EN EC2A 3JE 44-20-7457-5000 44-20-7457-5045 (fax)
[email protected] www.bpf.co.uk European Quality Assurance (EQA) Navigation House, Millgate Newark, Nottinghamshire, EN NG24 4TS 44-1636-611226 44-1636-611704 (fax)
[email protected] www.eqa.co.uk European Resin Manufacturers’ Assn. (ERMA) 14 Castle Mews, High St., Hampton Middlesex, EN TW12 2NP 44-20-8487-0800
American Architectural Manufacturers Assn. 1827 Walden Office Square, Suite 550 Schaumburg, IL 60173 847-303-5664 847-303-5774 (fax) www.aamanet.org American Composites Manufacturers Assn. 1010 N. Glebe Rd., Suite 450 Arlington, VA 22201 703-525-0511 703-525-0743 (fax)
MODERN PLASTICS
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008 13
Plastics
Swiss Plastics Assn. Schachenallee 29C Aarau 5000 41-62-834-0060 41-62-834-0061 (fax)
[email protected] www.kvs.ch
associations
Switzerland
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Plastics
associations
Plastics associations
[email protected] www.acmanet.org
[email protected] www.aham.org
American Machine Tool Distributors Assn. 1445 Research Blvd., Suite 450 Rockville, MD 20850 301-738-1200 301-738-9499 (fax)
[email protected] www.amtda.org
Assn. of Machinery and Equipment Appraisers 315 S. Patrick St. Alexandria, VA 22314 703-836-7900 703-836-9303 (fax)
[email protected] www.amea.org
American Mold Builders Assm. 701 E. Irving Park Rd., Suite 207 Roselle, IL 60172 630-980-7667 630-980-9714 (fax)
[email protected] www.amba.org
Assn. of Postconsumer Plastic Recyclers 2000 L St. N.W., Suite 835 Washington, DC 20006 202-316-3046
[email protected] www.plasticsrecycling.org
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 1819 L St., N.W., 6th Fl. Washington, DC 20036 202-293-8020 202-293-9287 (fax) www.ansi.org
Assn. of Rotational Molders International 800 Roosevelt Rd., Suite C-312 Glen Ellyn, IL 60137 630-942-6589 630-790-3095 (fax)
[email protected] www.rotomolding.org
American Society for Plasticulture 174 Crestview Dr. Bellefonte, PA 16823 814-357-9198 814-355-2452 (fax)
[email protected] www.plasticulture.org American Society for Quality 600 N. Plankinton Ave. Milwaukee, WI 53203 414-272-8575 414-272-1734 (fax) www.asq.org American Welding Society 550 N.W. Lejeune Rd. Miami, FL 33126 305-443-9353
[email protected] www.aws.org Assn. of Home Appliance Manufacturers 1111 19th St. N.W., Suite 402 Washington, DC 20036 202-872-5955 14
MODERN PLASTICS
Assn. of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry (INDA) 1100 Crescent Green, Suite 115 Cary, NC 27518 919-233-1210 919-233-1282 (fax)
[email protected] www.inda.org ASTM International 100 Barr Harbor Dr. PO Box C700 West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959 610-832-9585 610-832-9555 (fax)
[email protected] www.astm.org California Film Extruders & Converters Assn. 2402 Vista Nobleza Newport Beach, CA 92660 949-640-9901 949-640-9911 (fax)
[email protected] www.cfeca.org
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
Center for the Polyurethanes Industry 1300 Wilson Blvd. Arlington, VA 22209 703-741-5656 703-741-5655 (fax)
[email protected] www.polyurethane.org Chemical Fabrics & Film Assn. Inc. 1300 Sumner Ave. Cleveland, OH 44115-2851 216-241-7333 216-241-0105 (fax)
[email protected] www.chemicalfabricsandfilm.com Copper Development Assn. 260 Madison Ave., 16th Fl. New York, NY 10016 212-251-7200 212-251-7234 (fax)
[email protected] www.copper.org EPS Molders Assn. 1298 Cronson Blvd., Suite 201 Crofton, MD 21114 410-451-8341 410-451-8343 (fax)
[email protected] www.epsmolders.org Film and Bag Federation 1667 K St. N.W., Suite 1000 Washington, DC 20006 202-974-5218 202-296-7675 (fax) www.plasticbag.com Flexible Packaging Assn. 971 Corporate Blvd., Suite 403 Linthicum, MD 21090 410-694-0800 410-694-0900 (fax)
[email protected] www.flexpack.org Industrial Designers Society of America (IDSA) 45195 Business Ct., Suite 250 Dulles, VA 20166-6717 703-707-6000
[email protected] www.idsa.org
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Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, Inc. (ISRI) 1615 L St. N.W., Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036-5610 202-662-8500 202-626-0900 (fax) www.isri.org
NACE International 1440 S. Creek Dr. Houston, TX 77084-4906 281-228-6200 281-228-6300 (fax)
[email protected] www.nace.org
International Assn. of Plastics Distributors 4707 College Blvd., Suite 105 Leawood, KS 66211-1667 913-345-1005 913-345-1006 (fax)
[email protected] www.iapd.org
National Assn. for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR) PO Box 1327 Sonoma, CA 95476 707-996-4207 707-935-1998 (fax)
[email protected] www.napcor.com
International Cast Polymer Alliance (ICPA) 1010 N. Glebe Rd., Suite 450 Arlington, VA 22201 703-525-0320 703-525-0743 (fax)
[email protected] www.icpa-hq.org
National Assn. of Manufacturers (NAM) 1331 Pennsylvania Ave., N.W. Washington, DC 20004-1790 202-637-3000 202-637-3182 (fax)
[email protected] www.nam.org
Italian Trade Commission - Division Plastic Machinery 401 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3030 Chicago, IL 60611-4257 312-670-4360 312-264-6209 (fax)
[email protected] www.italianplasticmachinery.com
National Assn. of Surface Finishing (NASF) 1155 Fifteenth St., N.W., Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005 202-457-8404 202-530-0659 (fax)
[email protected] www.namf.org
Machines Italia. See Italian Trade Commission
National Institute for Metalworking Skills 10565 Fairfax Blvd., Suite 203 Fairfax, VA 22030 703-352-4971 703-352-4991 (fax)
[email protected] www.nims-skills.org
Metals Service Center Institute (MSCI) 4201 Euclid Ave. Rolling Meadows, IL 60008 847-485-3000
[email protected] www.msci.org
modplas.com
National Plastics Center 210 Lancaster St. Leominster, MA 01453-4324 978-537-9529 978-537-3220 (fax)
[email protected] www.plasticscenter.org National Recycling Coalition, Inc. 805 Fifteenth St. N.W., Suite 425 Washington, DC 20005 202-789-1430 202-789-1431 (fax)
[email protected] www.nrc-recycle.org National Tooling & Machining Assn. 9300 Livingston Rd. Fort Washington, MD 20744 800-248-6862 301-248-7104 (fax)
[email protected] www.ntma.org. Plastics Institute of America, Inc. 1 University Ave. Lowell, MA 01854 978-934-3130 978-458-4141 (fax)
[email protected] www.plasticsinstitute.org Plastics Pipe Institute 105 Decker Ct., Suite 825 Irving, TX 75062 469-499-1044 469-499-1063 (fax)
[email protected] www.plasticpipe.org PolymerOhio, Inc. PO Box 2098 Westerville, OH 43082 614-776-5720
[email protected] www.polymerohio.org Polyurethane Foam Assn. 9724 Kingston Pike, Suite 503 Knoxville, TN 37922 865-690-4648 865-690-4649 (fax)
[email protected] www.pfa.org
MODERN PLASTICS
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008 15
Plastics
Mid-America Plastics Partners, Inc. (MAPP) 7321 Shadeland Station Way, Suite 285 Indianapolis, IN 46256 317-913-2440 317-913-2445 (fax)
[email protected] www.mappinc.com
associations
Industrial Fabrics Assn. International (IFAI) 1801 County Rd. B West Roseville, MN 55113 651-222-2508 651-631-9334 (fax)
[email protected] www.ifai.com
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Plastics
associations
Plastics associations Rapid Prototying Assn. SME One SME Dr. Dearborn, MI 48121 313-425-3000 313-425-3400 (fax)
[email protected] www.sme.org/rpa SAMPE 1161 Parkview Dr., Suite 200 Covina, CA 91724 626-331-0616 626-332-8929 (fax)
[email protected] www.sampe.org
Styrene Information & Research Center 1300 Wilson Blvd., Suite 1200 Arlington, VA 22209 703-741-5010 703-741-6010 (fax)
[email protected] www.styrene.org Underwriters Laboratories Inc. 333 Pfingsten Rd. Northbrook, IL 60062 847-272-8800 847-272-8129 (fax)
[email protected] www.ul.com
Society of Manufacturing Engineers One SME Dr. PO Box 930 Dearborn, MI 48121 313-425-3000 313-425-3400 (fax)
[email protected] www.sme.org
The Vinyl Institute 1300 Wilson Blvd. Arlington, VA 22209 703-741-5670 703-741-5672 (fax)
[email protected] www.vinylinfo.org
Venezuela Society of Plastics Engineers 14 Fairfield Dr. PO Box 403 Brookfield, CT 06804-0403 203-775-0471 203-775-8490 (fax)
[email protected] www.4spe.org
Venezuelan Bureau of Small and Medium Plastic Ave. Principal de la Cooperativa, Qta. Maria Elisa Maracay, Estado Aragua 2101 58-43-41-542 58-43-41-7063 (fax)
Yugoslavia
Society of the Plastics Industry 1667 K St., N.W., Suite 1000 Washington, DC 20006 202-974-5200 202-296-7005 (fax)
[email protected] www.socplas.org
Juplas Svetog Save 1, Hotel Slavija Belgrade 11000 381-11-244-6144 381-11-244-6144 (fax)
[email protected] www.juplas.org.yu
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MODERN PLASTICS
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
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Abbreviations
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Abbreviations The following is a list of often-used abbreviations for chemical, marketing, scientific, and technical terms frequently found in the Modern Plastics World Encyclopedia. Due to the changing standards of chemical nomenclature, certain items listed here may be seen in other formats with some variation in the name.
AAGR ABA
average annual growth rate acrylonitrile-budadieneacrylate ABS acrylonitrile-budadienestyrene copolymer AES acrylonitrile-ethylenepropylene-styrene AOX antioxidant APET amorphous polyethylene terephthalate APP atactic polypropylene ASA acrylic-styrene-acrylonitrile ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials ATH aluminum trihydrate AZ(O) azodicarbonamide BMC bulk molding compounds BO biaxially oriented (film) BOPA biaxially oriented nylon BOPET biaxially oriented PET BOPP biaxially oriented polypropylene BOPS biaxially oriented polystyrene C Celsius/centigrade CA cellulose acetate CAB cellulose acetate butyrate CaCO3 calcium carbonate CAD computer aided design CAE computer aided engineering CAM computer aided manufacturing CAP cellulose acetate propionate CAP controlled atmosphere packaging CBA chemical blowing agent CFA chemical foaming agent CFC chlorofluorocarbons CHDM cyclohexanedimethanol CIM computer integrated manufacturing CN cellulose nitrate COF coefficient of friction COPA copolyamide COPE copolyester
18
MODERN PLASTICS
Cp CPE CPET
process capability chlorinated polyethylene crystalline polyethylene terephthalate CpK process capability index CPP cast polypropylene CPVC chlorinated polyvinyl chloride CSD carbonated soft drink CVD chemical vapor deposition DEA dielectric analysis EAA ethylene acrylic acid EB electron beam EBA ethylene butyl acrylate EC ethyl cellulose ECTFE ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer EDM electrical discharge machining EEA ethylene-ethyl acrylate EG ethylene glycol EMA ethylene-methyl acrylate EMAA ethylene methacrylic acid EMAC ethylene-methyl acrylate copolymer EMC electromagnetic compatibility EMI electromagnetic interference EMPP elastomer modified polypropylene EnBA ethylene normal butyl acrylate EPA Environmental Protection Agency EPDM ethylene-propylene terpolymer rubber EPS expandable polystyrene ERP enterprise resource planning ESCR environmental stress crack resistance ETFE ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymer ETP engineering thermoplastics EVA(C) ethylene-vinyl acetate EVOH ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymers F Fahrenheit FCP fatigue crack propagation FDA U.S. Food and Drug Admin. FEA finite element analysis FEM finite element modeling FEP fluorinated ethylene propylene copolymer FFS form, fill, seal FR flame retardant
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
FRP GIM GIT GMT(P)
fiber-reinforced plastics gas injection molding gas injection technique glass-mat-reinforced thermoplastics GPPS general-purpose polystyrene GRP glass-fiber-reinforced plastics GTP group transfer polymerization HALS hindered amine light stabilizer HB Brinell hardness number HCFC hydrochlorofluorocarbon HDI hexamethylene diisocyanate HDPE high-density polyethylene HDT heat deflection temperature HFC hydofluorocarbon HIP high-impact polystyrene HMDI diisocyanate dicyclohexylmethane HMW high molecular weight HMW-PE high-molecular-weight polyethylene HNP high-nitrile polymer HRc Rockwell hardness HSC high-speed cutting ID inner diameter IM injection molding IMC inmold coating IMD inmold decoration IPI isophorone diisocyanate IR infrared ISO International Standardization Organization IV intrinsic viscosity JIT just in time K coefficient of thermal conductivity kN kilo Newton LCP liquid crystal polymers L/D length-to-diameter ratio LDPE low-density polyethylene LIM liquid injection molding LLDPE linear low-density polyethylene LP low-profile resin LSR liquid silicone rubber M melamine MABS methylmethacrylate ABS MAP modified atmosphere packaging MBS methacrylate-butadienestyrene MC methyl cellulose MD machine direction MDI methylene diphenylene diisocyanate
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MDO MDPE MEKP MF MFI MFR MI μm MIS MMA MPa MPE MPF MRP MVTR MW MWD NDI NDT nm OD ODP OEM OFS OPET OPP OPS OSA O-TPV Pa PA PAEK PAI PAN PB PB-1 PBA PBAN PBI PBN PBS PBT PC PCC PCD PCR
machine direction orientation medium density polyethylene methyl ethyl ketone peroxide melamine formaldehyde melt flow index melt flow rate melt index micron management information systems methyl methacrylate mega Pascal metallocene polyethylenes melamine-phenolformaldehyde manufacturing requirement planning moisture vapor transmission rate molecular weight molecular weight distribution naphthalene diisocyanate nondestructive testing nanometer outer diameter ozone depleting potential original equipment manufacturer organofunctional silanes oriented polyethylene terephthalate oriented polypropylene oriented polystyrene olefin-modified styrene-acrylonitrile olefinic thermoplastic vulcanizate Pascal polyamide [nylon] polyaryletherketone polyamide imide polyacrylonitrile polybutylene isotactic polybutene-1 resin physical blowing agent polybutadiene-acrylonitrile polybenzimidazole polybutylene naphthalate polybutadiene styrene polybutylene terephthalate polycarbonate precipitated calcium carbonate polycarbodiimide post-consumer recyclate
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PCT
polycyclohexylenedimethylene terephthalate PCTFE polychlorotrifluoroethylene PCTG glycol-modified PCT copolymer PE polyethylene PEBA polyether block polyamide PEC chlorinated polyethylene PEDT 3,4 polyethylene dioxithiophene PEEK polyetheretherketone PEI polyether imide PEN polyethylene naphthalate PES polyether sulfone PET polyethylene terephthalate PETG PET modified with glycol PF phenol formaldehyde PFA perfluoroalkoxy resin PI polyimide PID proportional, integral, derivative PIM powder injection molding PLA polylactic acid resin PLC programmable logic controller PMDI polymeric methylene diphenylene diisocyanate PMMA polymethyl methacrylate PMP polymethylpentene PO polyolefins POM polyacetal PP polypropylene PPA polyphthalamide PPC chlorinated polypropylene PPE polyphenylene ether, modified ppm parts per million PPO polyphenylene oxide PPS polyphenylene sulfide PPSU polyphenylene sulfone PS polystyrene psi pounds per square inch PSU polysulfone PTA purified terephthalic acid PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene PU, PUR polyurethane PVC polyvinyl chloride PVCA polyvinyl chloride acetate PVDA polyvinylidene acetate PVDC polyvinylidene chloride PVDF polyvinylidene fluoride PVF polyvinyl fluoride PVOH polyvinyl alcohol QMC quick mold change RACO random copolymer RFI radio frequency interference RFID radio frequency identification RIM reaction injection molding RM rapid manufacturing
rpm RT RTD RTM RTV SAN SB SBC SBR SEBS SI SMA SMC SMC-C SMC-D SMC-R SPC SQC SRIM TD TDI TEO Tg TGA TiO2 TLCP TMA TMC T/N TPA TPE TPO TPU TPV TWA UF UHMW ULDPE UP UR UV VA(C) VC VLDPE VOC WIT WVTR X-PE ZNC
MODERN PLASTICS
revolutions per minute rapid tooling resistance temperature detector resin transfer molding room-temperature vulcanizing styrene acrylonitrile copolymer styrene butadiene copolymer styrene block copolymer styrene butadiene rubber styrene-ethylene/butylenestyrene silicone plastic styrene maleic anhydride sheet molding compound SMC-continuous fibers SMC-directionally oriented SMC-randomly oriented statistical process control statistical quality control structural reaction injection molding transverse direction toluene diisocyanate thermoplastic elastomeric olefin glass transition temperature thermogravimetric analysis titanium dioxide thermoplastic liquid crystal polymer thermomechanical analysis thick molding compound terephthalate/naphthalate terephthalic acid thermoplastic elastomer thermoplastic olefins thermoplastic polyurethane thermoplastic vulcanizate time-weighted average urea formaldehyde ultrahigh molecular weight ultralow-density polyethylene unsaturated polyester resin urethane ultraviolet vinyl acetate vinyl chloride very low-density polyethylene volatile organic compounds water injection technique water vapor transmission rate crosslinked polyethylene Ziegler-Natta catalyst
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Abbreviations
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2008 Industry Overview
Higher plastics prices exacerbate market challenges A plastics’ surplus is coming, but that is of no help to processors facing higher prices today.
t the time of this writing—June 2008—the flavor of the month has been major price increases, with industry major Dow getting the most attention because its executives not only announced across-the-board price hikes of up to 20% on all of the company’s products, but also took jabs at the U.S. federal government for its energy policy, most specifically its subsidization of ethanol production. Dow’s price hikes are for plastics and for the precursor materials that it often markets to other plastics suppliers, which will only force those to also announce hikes. Many have. Huntsman announced double-digit price increases too, and significant plastics price increases were announced very recently by BASF, LyondellBasell, Borealis, and Ineos Nova. These increases are necessary to cover increasing costs for energy and transport, say the suppliers. One expert’s prediction, printed last year in this space, that prices would tumble by mid-2008 obviously did not hold true. Nevertheless, market watchers still predict that there will be massive surpluses for many thermoplastics in the next few years. If all announced plant construction comes to pass, at least 41 million tonnes more of polyethylene and polypropylene will be available in 2010 than there was in 2007. Consumption will not grow anywhere near fast enough to absorb that amount, and this fact must have suppliers losing sleep at night. Unfortunately for processors, impending oversupply tomorrow doesn’t translate into lower prices today, so processors must continue to optimize their operations and ensure they make every pellet count toward good product.
A
Challenging end-use markets Last year the automotive industry in the 20
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The ‘e-squared’ symbol on this injection molding machine stands for energy savings, which remains one of the key concerns among processors.
U.S. dragged down many processors’ businesses there, but at the same time processors in China, India, and those serving some of the more profitable carmakers in North America (read: Toyota) had business aplenty to keep their facilities running. This biggest challenge to the market in 2008 also sprung out of the U.S., but this time it was the building and construction industry that sparked the trouble. As anyone who has read a newspaper in the past year will know, bank loans to people with poor or zero credit first threw a hard brake on what had been a good long run for the North American construction business, and then these loan problems took down some of the world’s largest financial institutions. The end result is that manufacturers of all kinds now have an even tougher time obtaining credit for capital
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
purchases. Another result is that consumer spending has dropped in the U.S., which has affected not only processors there but also those in many Asian countries who have survived on exports to North America. China calling Though the pace may have tailed off a bit as loans there, too, have grown tougher to obtain, growth of the industry in China is still moving at a double-digit pace, with the injection molding industry an especially vigorous participant. Unlike extrusion, where output—pipes, sheet, or rolls of film—can pose some heady logistical costs when shipped long distances, injection molders’ output often can be conveniently boxed and shipped. Couple this logistical truth with the industry trends of miniaturization and increasingly complex parts (complexity modplas.com
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2008 Industry Overview
MPWE 2008 China’s processing industry remains a key one for OEMs, machinery manufacturers, and plastics suppliers. Recent changes there, especially in labor laws, could have long-term effects. result will be an increase in the use of automation among processors there, with a second outcome the shift of some work that must be labor-intensive to other countries, notably Vietnam.
oft realized with many low wage-rate hired hands) and it is easy to see why China’s impact in the molding industry remains huge. Well over half of the world’s injection molding machines are made in the country, and an even higher percentage are bought there. A shakeout is ongoing among processors in China, however, with weaker processors facing closure as they, too, discover that someone, somewhere, will always be the lower-cost producer. Price remains critical, but price alone is not enough for profitable processing. China also introduced sweeping workplace reforms at the beginning of 2008 in the form of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Employment Contracts. Among other changes, this mandates overtime payments at double normal rates for work performed beyond a 48-hour week, stipulates triple-time payment for holiday work, and requires unions to be formed. It also confers more basic rights such as to be paid on time and not to be required to perform dangerous tasks in violation of regulations. With China’s labor laws now more in synch with global standards, one likely modplas.com
Plastics place With so much of the processing industry shifting to China within the past decade, it is no surprise that plastics suppliers and compounders have followed suit. Sabic Innovative Plastics (formerly GE Plastics) announced plans to build a worldscale polycarbonate (PC) manufacturing site in China, and also added four compounding lines there in 2008 for engineering thermoplastics. The supplier also intends to open its own R&D facilities in China by 2010. It still has offices in the R&D facility of former parent GE, but wants to move these to a new, wholly owned facility. Officials at the supplier and many others highlight the increasing importance of China’s product design community as one powerful reason why plastics suppliers cannot afford to simply import material to the country. Other suppliers also have announced recent expansion plans for China. Thermoplastics supplier Ticona, for example, has made or is making three major investments at its facility in Nanjing, China, boosting capacity of ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMW-PE), adding 15,000-tonnes/yr of compounding capacity, and raising its capacity there for long-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic (LFT) compounds. The supplier also is planning to add capacity in China for its Vectra liquid crystal polymers (LCP) and for its polyoxymethylene (POM) grades. Domestic suppliers also are pushing into the fray, and not just for PVC and polyolefins, with Tianjin Haijing Polymerization Co. Ltd. announcing in June it will build a 365,000 tonnes/yr polyamide 6 plant in Tianjin, with that one expected to come onstream in 2009.
With massive petroleum reserves and oil firms’ keen to diversify their downstream operations, the Middle East is a fast-growing center for plastics supply. For the five major thermoplastics, the Middle Eastern (including Iran, but excluding Egypt) share of worldwide capacity was 7% last year, but by 2015 will have jumped to 12%. A lack of qualified construction personnel and increasing costs of building materials have hampered some projects, but all lights appear green for what may be the largest project of its kind ever. In early June the Saudi Kayan Petrochemical Company, an affiliate of plastics powerhouse Sabic (Riyadh), announced it would build “the world’s largest integrated petrochemical complex” with plastics a major portion of the investment. The Saudi Kayan complex, currently under construction, is expected to come onstream in the fourth quarter of 2010 with a total annual capacity of approximately 6 million tonnes per annum of a variety of petrochemical products including ethylene, propylene, polyethylene, polypropylene, and ethylene glycol. It will also include the first polycarbonate plant in the region. Plastics processing there is growing slowly but governments in the region have identified it as one of a handful of industries that they choose to support, as a means to lower unemployment rolls and also take advantage of the region’s natural petroleum resources. Processing evolution The past year brought a number of significant processing and machinery developments, with many of these focused on helping processors lower their energy bills. Energy savings and sustainability have become the watchwords of the industry, with the former often a more bottom-line benefit—direct reduction of energy costs in processing—and the latter often driven by a customers’ desire to meet the demands forced on it by bigbox retailers, who fancy the thought of cutting their costs while also polishing their good name. Processors need to understand, though, that sustainability can be the key factor in attracting new business if marketed correctly.
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Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection
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Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection Molding Injection
Injection Molding hange in the injection molding industry has been frequent and substantial in the past year. Many projects continue to shift to low-cost regions of the world, but at the same time many other projects have shifted back to North America or Western Europe, as processors there have been able to make a case for the business. No matter where projects are run, the level of automation is on the rise, and energy savings have become a major concern. There have been significant developments in machinery and materials, with many of them highlighted at the triennial K show in Düsseldorf in late 2007. Based simply on the machinery developments, efforts among injection molding machinery manufacturers clearly are continuing to introduce more steps into a molding machine cell as a means to help processors continue to take on even more of the tasks needed to produce a final good. Increasingly this includes not just molding, but also handling all necessary Q/A and documentation, labeling goods, packing them, and dealing with distribution and shipping. Work also continues to integrate other processes, such as compounding or reaction injection molding, into a processing cell. Leading experts on injection molding machinery and hot runners have offered their assistance in preparing the articles in this Encyclopedia for you.
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WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
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Hot runners
Art of runner selection is no black magic trick Many new students to tooling design are eventually confronted with the following question when designing their first multicavity injection mold: “What type of runner system do I use? Hot or cold?” oth runner types have their specific advantages, not withstanding the expected cost savings from reduced material waste while utilizing a hot runner system. However, some people fail to realize that hot runners are usually built to standards. This refers to standard thermal profiles of the hot manifold and associated nozzle system. Not every resin reacts in the same way. As the performance capability of the hot runner increases, often so does the cost to produce that hot runner system and the replacement components needed to service the tool. Producers of standard hot runners are usually forced to design hot runner manifold systems that meet the “middle of the road” performance characteristics, balancing performance with serviceability and cost.
B
Historical background Like many technologies, hot runner systems were created out of a need or desire to “do things better, faster, and at a lower cost.” Cold runner systems result in a wasted runner every time the mold opens. If the mold parts are very small, a “high-cavitation” cold runner tool can result in significant waste material costs, cutting deep into the bottom line for the molder. The cold runner is placed on the parting
Hot runner system cut-away view. 24
MODERN PLASTICS
line of a tool, and typical balanced systems are often up to 16 equal part cavities. If the number of balanced cavities exceeds 16, the main runner often becomes so large that it takes longer for the runner to cool than the parts (the runner controls the cycle time, and not the molded parts). There is also the problem of the need to manually separate the molded parts from the solidified runner, another labor-intensive operation. The solution to mechanical separation was to switch to a three-plate design, placing the runner between its own secondary parting line. This method is still very common today, and requires more “mold action” which in itself drives up cost. This method of runner ejection can be troublesome as the solidified runner often does not eject evenly, and springs are often required on the plates. In closure molds, 32 cavities or more, the 3-plate runner becomes large and can lead to an occasional mold crash condition as the plates try to close up on a hung runner. Flash around stripper pins can also lead to a hang-up. Some molders would rely on purposely banging the mold open in order to jar the runner loose from flash, which can cause shock to the plates and can break stripper bolts. Other considerations are necessary when choosing a runner system. The area and shape of the gate filling the molded part, as well as the gate land (length of travel through the gate), have significant effect on part filling. There is an entire science dedicated toward mold filling, and part and gate design, which is beyond the scope of this article. Some important rules apply, however. In general, larger gate size reduces flow restriction while worsening the quality of the gate. To counter this, valve pins may be used to close the gate at the end of each injection
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
cycle, which adds cost. Inversely, smaller gates produce better quality gates, but, in general, restrict flow, requiring greater pressure (greater flow rate) or time to fill a given part geometry. Increased pressure puts greater demand on the hot runner components and the mold itself (more cost), while a longer injection time equates to fewer parts molded/hr (less profit). One thing to keep in mind is that as the gate size diminishes, shear thinning increases at the gate as a result of the mass flow rate. Some material actually flows better with increased shear thinning, such as some unfilled nylon, while other materials (polycarbonate) are often adversely affected by shear thinning, requiring slower fill rates through small gates. Land length only adds to shear. Three-plate cold runner systems are best suited for cashew or sub-gates since those gate types self-detach the best. Fan gates depend on part geometry; if the part is large and rectangular, fan gates perform well with this runner. When choosing between a cold or hot runner system, it is important to consider jetting, particularly if the fan is too thin. Jetting can produce ribbon-like effects in the molded part. If the ribbon cools before the rest of the fan cools, the ribbon will become visible. To combat jetting, it is best to impinge the flow immediately on a pin or obstruction. A knit line may form as a result of the pin; another effect and consideration. Another choice is to fill a runner that is parallel to the part, and fan gate off the side of the runner. This forces the jetting to be retained inside of the final leg of the cold runner. Thus, if a complete cold runner is undesirable, gating a hot runner into a short cold runner (“hot to cold” runner) may be suitable. Eliminating the need for ejecting a large modplas.com
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• Advertisement •
COMPANY BRIEF
I N C O E ® C O R P O R AT I O N World Encyclopedia 2008
S
ince 1958, INCOE® has engineered productivity built hot runner systems for a wide range of molding applications. Our original patented design pioneered the development of the first commercial hot runner nozzle for the injection molding industry. This forward thinking approach paved the way for all who followed with design concepts consistent across all major hot runner system technology suppliers worldwide
Proven Technologies Today, INCOE® DF Gold series hot runners are engineered to assure excellence in performance, service and customer satisfaction. Coupled with our control technologies, customers can benefit from optimized hot runner productivity. Single nozzle, high-cavitation, unitized systems, stack molding, micro molding, sequence controls, valve gating (hy-
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Application Expertise for Your Products Technology solutions for both engineered resins and commodity material parts are supported by decades of application and installed system experience. Hot runner knowhow for multiple molding requirements is available to meet your business needs with support for your application in any size category in markets such as:
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Hot runners
secondary cold runner is important when simplifying mold action as well as reducing part waste. The key remains keeping the melt molten throughout the entire runner system via an insulated manifold so it doesn’t solidify until it hits the cool cavity walls. To accomplish this, an insulated manifold method was devised. Often used with two- or four-cavity molds, this method is best suited for materials that stay molten long enough and remain soft (amorphous materials that go through a glass transition, such as polystyrene or polyethylene). The runner must be very large, with large gates. Often, to make this system work, a large amount of resin flowing very fast is required, such as filling wash tubs. The plate system consists of two plates bolted together; this is problematic under high injection pressures. The benefit of a two-plate insulated runner is that color changes are relatively fast (split the plates and pull out the solidified runner). The downside is that if a molder loses the cycle (because the gate freezes), the large multipound runner must be pulled and discarded (usually because it’s difficult to regrind). Continuing history The next solution was to find a method to heat part of the runner system, allowing the cycle to stay in operation longer. One method was to use a heated sprue bushing. Standard sprue bushings are readily available on the market to directly replace unheated sprue bushings in industry-standard mold bases. This method is beneficial since a very large sprue may be the last resin to cool in a “high-cavitation” runner system. Another method was the use of a distributor tube. Major runner legs were heated with internally heated tubes (heated by cartridge heaters), and fed molten resin into unheated vertical legs (or “drops”) prior to passing through gates into the part cavity. Only the larger runner legs were heated, allowing the process to be better controlled and providing flexibility to the molder. A third method was to place cartridgeheated probes into each final “drop” leg, each fed by an unheated insulated runner. Since insulated runners were temperamental to keep running “on cycle” due to freezeoff at the gates, the key was to keep the resin molten while passing through gates. The main runner could still freeze off, but this 26
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could be compensated for by injection speed and machine nozzle temperature. It became apparent over time that all three methods (heated sprue bushing, internally heated distributor tubes and heated probes) needed to be combined to provide a true, internally-heated, hot runner system. For the first time, molders had the ability to control the thermal profile of the entire runner path, providing unprecedented processing flexibility. Compared to today’s externally heated hot runners, an internally heated hot runner system is relatively inexpensive, easy to operate, and well understood. Up to 32 balanced cavities can be easily attained, however, increasingly difficult to manage. Today, many molders prefer to use internally heated hot runners versus their externally heated counterparts. There are some limitations: The fundamental design of passing molten material through a thin annular tube (the space between the heated distributor tube and the plate steel) makes color change difficult while the increased complexity of the parts used in an internally heated hot runner does not lend well to disassembling the system in order to pull solidified sprues. Some molders and toolmakers also believe that an internally heated runner system does not work well with filled or even engineered resins. Internally heated systems can work with semicrystalline materials with a fast switchover rate (nylon). But experience is required. Differences of opinion aside, there are real benefits and drawbacks of the internally heated runner system: increased complexity = increased cost in comparison to an unheated insulated runner system; increased processing flexibility = more difficult resins may be processed; molten flow paths = reduced resin waste and reduced processing costs. Due to the annular geometry of the flow paths, internally heated hot runners work well with resins that are not overly sensitive. Amorphous materials also work well with this method, with the exception of materials that are residence-time sensitive, such as polycarbonate. Insulated runner systems are often available in both single- or split-plate designs where the distributor tube is placed on the parting line between two plates. The
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
latter method is not recommended since high injection pressures will often jack open the parting line of the two plates. Even high clamping forces or machine tonnage does always not help. It became increasingly important to create a heated runner system that reduced resin waste, could be evenly controlled thermally to enable the processing of difficult-to-run engineered resins, and could effectively execute rapid color changes without having to disassemble the tool. The externally heated hot runner came into existence in which a steel block is machined with an internal passageway to conduct molten resin. Heaters of various types are affixed to the outside perimeter of the steel block. Any heater will suffice, such as cartridge heaters, “tubular” heaters that are fitted into specially shaped heater groove paths along the manifold surface, or with common band heaters. All heating methods perform a similar task: to heat the manifold block from the outside-in, enabling an even heat along the inside of the block. Melt is distributed throughout the heated manifold block, and is fed into some form of heated nozzle “drop,” which in turn feeds into a final gate well or “bubble,” just prior to passing through the gates into the part cavities. The trade-off to this manifold design is that the manifold must be isolated from the relatively cool mold plates, most commonly by using stand-offs or support pads, usually of a material that is less thermally conductive than a heated manifold block. Sometimes, the machine injection nozzle is interfaced directly with the heated manifold; other times a heated sprue bushing is used to join the machine injection nozzle and the manifold, often when valve-gated nozzles are used and extra plate thickness behind the manifold is required to accommodate valve pin actuating hardware. The benefits of a hot runner system are clear. If designed properly, the molder will achieve maximum mold processing capability while effectively eliminating resin waste per injection cycle, an apparent “win-win” solution. Trevor Pruden, mechanical engineer, D-M-E Company, Madison Heights, MI, USA;
[email protected]; www.dme.net modplas.com
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MPWE 2008 Complexity and integration unite for greater economy The ongoing relocation of production to low-cost labor countries for inexpensive parts and simple products results in a large proportion of these contracts being lost in the high-cost labor countries. ecause of this development, market requirements are constantly changing in industrialized nations. In order to counter this trend and ensure economical production in high-wage countries, the complexity of parts must be increased and their production automated. In this manner, high-quality parts can be competitively mass produced.
B
Subsequent operations integration One way of integrating a higher degree of complexity into molded parts and thereby achieve further cost and quality benefits is the integration of subsequent operations that are required after the injection molding process itself. These include, for example, assembly and packaging, as well as the coating, painting and decorating of surfaces. In the future, these production steps will be more closely integrated downstream of the injection cycle, preventing damage and soiling due to intermediate transport as well as significantly reducing the time to availability. Shortening the throughput and storage times in this way results in an immediate reduction of capital commitment and therefore provides more scope for investment.
ing companies and are not regarded as being part of the core business. However, even high-speed production processes for which the injection cycle appears too slow at first sight can lead to significant simplifications, cost reductions, and quality improvements when the entire process is taken into consideration. Very promising initial steps have already been taken with regard to the encapsulation of sheet metal and stamped parts, often used in mobile phones and switches, as well as decorative parts for use in the automotive industry, for example. The advantages can be found in the reduction of delivery times and delivery quantities, which automatically result in cost savings and logistical reliability. This demonstrates that cost-effective production is not only achieved by means of low-cost machines, peripherals, or mate-
rials—a far greater role is played by a high overall production availability, reliable logistical processes, and a reduction of downtime. Functional LED light strip in a single production step At the K 2007 plastics show in Düsseldorf, Arburg, in collaboration with Oechsler, an innovation partner, demonstrated how complex functions can be integrated into the production cycle through the intelligent design of molds and processes. A fully functional LED light strip was produced in a single production step on a complex production [continued, p. 142]
Fully functional LED light strip is produced in a single production step on a complex production cell.
Integration of upstream production steps In addition to concentrating on subsequent operations, a future issue will increasingly involve taking a look in the other direction. Production steps upstream of the injection molding process will increasingly be taken into account. This includes, for example, stamping and bending processes as well as the feeding of parts for encapsulation. These processes are often given too little attention by the plastics injection moldmodplas.com
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Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion
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Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion
Extrusion ilm extrusion processors have seen their business hold up reasonably well, as the maxim that packaging will grow at GDP or better rates continues to hold true, and it is even seeing higher growth in some developing markets as the cost of packaging has proven negligible compared to the cost of food waste due to poor packaging. However, the rise of giant flexible-film processing plants in countries with low-cost labor, better access to distribution channels, government assistance, or all of those, has raised the global competition bar a few notches. The building and construction market’s plummet in the U.S. has been a tough blow for many processors there, but around the world infrastructure projects continue to provide plenty of opportunity for processors who offer the output and quality necessary. Whether flexible film, pipe or profile, the output and quality of output on top-line extrusion machinery has made big leaps in the past years. Clearly there also is an added emphasis on reducing extrusion lines’ energy usage. The extrusion section of this edition of the Modern Plastics World Encyclopedia includes articles that cover the breadth and depth of this segment of our industry, with experts sounding off on biaxial film extrusion, blown film, cast film, extrusion coating, extrusion dies, pipe and profile extrusion, screen changers, and winders.
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MPWE 2008 Film structures improved, resin costs cut with web orientation
From packaging to optical film for flexible print boards and displays, oriented films in either a single or double direction have a wide application field.
he oriented product today has turned from a niche to a mass-produced article. Such films and sheet are undoubtedly number one within the packaging material market and are progressively replacing paper, cardboard, aluminum foil, and other materials. Upon applying a particular process, mono- or biaxial orientation, the films attain a wealth of advantageous properties due to a change in the morphology of the film’s molecular structure to include: • Excellent mechanical properties, such as stiffness, tear-, shock-, or puncture resistance • Impermeability to moisture, steam, and oxygen • High resistance to oils, fats, and solvents, as well as to heat and cold • Dimensional stability and scratch resistance • Attractive glossy appearance thanks to brilliant surface quality and high transparency • Excellent convertibility, printability, and sealability
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Different methods Orientation methods applied to produce
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the blown film process. As the transverse direction (TD) orientation of the film is determined by the blow-up ratio of the bubble, the actual orientation into machine direction occurs on the MDO line by a system of individually driven heating and cooling rolls. This process allows easy modifications of the physical properties (e.g. stiffness, tear strength) to obtain desired characteristics (e.g. transparency, gloss, barrier properties) and/or gain processing efficiencies, while reducing total thickness. Within the tenter frame process, a cast film extruded from polymer granulate is stretched in longitudinal and transverse directions to attain the required film dimensions. This is processed to become a very thin, highrigidity end film, achieved either sequentially or simultaneously. Sequential lines first stretch the cast film in the machine direction through a system of rollers, whereby the stretching is achieved by different speeds between groups of rolls. Then the film enters the tenter, an oven-like device which uses two endless chains to grip and stretch the web in the transverse direction on diverting rails. Simultaneous systems stretch the film in both directions at the same time. This may be achieved with the Shrink sleeves produced from double-bubble process BOPP generate customer appeal wherein the film is and keep food containers tidy. stretched by a defined air pressure and by a mechanical system, using either a pantographic chain extension design or spindles combined with chain divergence angle.
such films are the bubble process and the tenter frame process. The bubble process is based on the principle of extruding a tube. Depending on the blow-up ratio (1.4–4.5) and the take-off speed, the final film thickness and properties are defined. Another possibility to apply stretch to a film is the Machine Direction Orientation (MDO) inline or offline to
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This leads to a greater demand for a variety of specialty films: • Co-extruded multilayer structures, up to seven layers for ultrahigh barrier properties • Shrink films and sleeves for trendy full-body-shape labels • Biodegradable films to support environmental protection and sustainability • White opaque films with high modulus for packing ice cream and snacks • Super high-gloss and transparent films for attractive packaging designs
The limited yield and inflexibility of mechanical solutions led to the development of the LISIM technology, using linear motors driving clips without chain connections. This drive principle, also used on Germany’s “Transrapid” high-speed magnetic levitation train, allows a new level of freedom when manufacturing high-quality film in fast and flexible production. Raw materials Different film types for a wide variety of packaging solutions are mainly made of polypropylene (PP), polyester (PET), nylon (PA), and polystyrene (PS), but also polyethylene (PE), vinyl (PVC), and polylactic acid polymer (PLA). In the last 25 years, biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) has flourished to become one of the leading flexible plastics packaging materials and is by far the mostused polymer for producing biaxially oriented films on tenter systems. Traditional applications are packaging for snacks, confectionery, pasta, and tobacco. New markets have been developed in areas such as labels or bakery wraps. Global film processors are continuously developing value-added products, such as specialty films for more demanding applications including: wraparound and shrinkable labels, very-high barrier films, synthetic paper, and lidding films. Today, an increasing interest in other substrates like PET, biodegradable PLA, nylon (PA), PS, and cyclic olefin copolymer (COC) for flexible packaging is 30
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Film exiting the MDO unit has been elongated before it enters the TD orientation section of a Brückner sequential stretching line.
under consideration. BOPET’s main benefits include stiffness as well as excellent temperature and puncture resistance. BOPLA is fast growing due to environmental reasons and high oil prices, a main driver for new product developments. BOPA offers best aroma and gas barrier, good tearing properties, and a wide temperature range from –40 to 140°C. Biaxially or monoaxially oriented PS film convinces through reduced brittleness, increased strength, high shrink values, and good stretching ratios. Trends in equipment The film and packaging markets are undergoing major changes: The specialties of today will inevitably be the commodities of tomorrow. And in the manufacturing of commodity films it is vital to lower production costs and to increase production efficiency. Thus, line widths greater than 10m, and speeds above 500 m/min with output up to 7000 kg/hr will become the state-of-the art standard in combination with better resin performance. On the other hand, the requirements for the films’ properties are rising. And packaging has become a key marketing tool at the point of sales. As a result, customers in supermarkets and stores are placing greater emphasis on attractive/appealing packaging.
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Further on, new technologies serve the vast, growing market for technical applications: • Films made of COC, COP, PC, TAC, PEN or PET for flexible print boards and displays within the optical film markets • Low-sealing film (with low seal-initiation temperature [SIT]) for innovative pouch applications • High-temperature films, used within the textile industry, for membranes in the medical sector and for flexible printed circuits (FPC) and insulation For the suppliers of film stretching lines this means offering: • Cost-efficient lines for economical commodity film production • More flexible lines to achieve high versatility of high-value-but-lower-quantity specialty films • Manufacturing management systems to achieve utmost productivity, via a transparent overview of the entire production process to perform an optimized and efficient production flow • High-yield and flexible simultaneous lines for value-added specialties using flexible and contact-free stretching technology • Cleanroom-suitable sequential and simultaneous technologies for the production of optical films mostly used for the fast growing flat-panel display market: polarizer film, retardation film, and protection film • Sequential concepts, based on profound research and development, for the processing of “new materials” for hightemperature applications, such as PTFE, PEEK, or PEI modplas.com
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Management systems • Reliable and proven components for utmost line uptime • Transparent and precise history recording for quality-control management • Line-condition monitoring for efficient maintenance • Advanced complaint management to support customer satisfaction and CIP (continuous improvement process)
Demand for wider tenter frames is a growing trend in the biaxially oriented web market.
Technology benefits Stretching-line manufacturers’ R&D activities are carried out in close cooperation with raw material suppliers, film producers, and converters. To optimize the cost factor, upscaling equipment for test runs is essential. This is exactly where those line manufacturers enter the picture who can offer advanced possibilities for raw material tests, film developments, and film analysis. Feedback coming from laboratory trials is transferred to pilot lines and later to production facilities. The clear goals are to achieve cost efficiency, flexibility and productivity, reliability, safety, and overall high quality. The means of achieving these goals are as follows: Cost efficiency • Twin-screw technology for main extrusion: no pre-drying needed, thus offering high melt quality and big cost savings • Multilayer T-die technology for enhanced layer distribution and a constant film quality over the whole width • Optimized film-handling systems for reduced waste • Reduced maintenance costs via such things as direct drives without gears, belts, or universal joints modplas.com
Flexibility and productivity • Advanced line configuration ensuring fast product changes due to a highly automated procedure • Direct drive technology for constant film quality • Fully automated resin handling and production control systems for an accurate reproducibility of various products and recipes • Proper thickness measurement and ultrafast thickness control systems for optimal film and mill roll conformity • Automated mill roll/slit roll handling for an efficient handling process • Advanced, flexible, simultaneous stretching technologies for constant highspeed performance in combination with a wide range of online, freely adjustable stretching patterns • Solutions for accurate winding quality, especially contact roll position, damping, and lay-on pressure control Safety • Automation for minimizing all manual operations, especially during start and service phases • Lines with fully integrated safety management • Integration of ergonomic aspects for user-friendly operation
Total energy management • Twin-screw technology saving energy: no resin pre-drying necessary • TDO heat recovery system saving up to 270 kWh of energy by reusing exhaust heat • Direct drives, including the extrusion motor, saving energy as gearboxes, flat belts, and other transmission devices are dropped • Regenerating energy for line drive systems • Water cooled motors, saving air conditioning power The future Besides the constant drive for cost optimization, film producers in traditional markets such as Western Europe and the U.S. are continuously seeking to develop value-added products, such as specialty films for more demanding applications. Moreover, markets such as China, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, Russia, India, Middle East, and Latin America are asking for high-quality film to satisfy backlog demands. Several evolutionary forces are at work on the flexible packaging field, and innovation is the key to sustainable growth. New developments in raw materials, stretching equipment, film processing, and converting technologies need to be aligned to achieve maximum benefits throughout the value chain. Christian Aigner, marketing manager, Brückner Maschinenbau GmbH & Co. KG, Siegsdorf, Germany;
[email protected]; www.brueckner.com
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Web quality, throughput are biggest issues for film processors today Increasingly in developing markets, film customers are expecting quality that only a few years ago would have been the norm in the most demanding markets such as Europe, Japan, and North America. igher throughput, additional coextruded layers, thinner gauge, and quick changes are all driving the blownfilm market today. Growing competitive pressures facing both film producers and the processing equipment industry are bound to speed developments. Here are some of the current trends:
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Productivity Apart from an extruder’s capacity, output achievable on blown-film lines is dependent upon bubble stability, which can be improved by fast, efficient melt cooling as it exits the die gap. The arrival of new technologies in this area over the last 30 years has led to quite remarkable increases in output. This trend will continue in the near future with new developments like One of the latest blown-film developments is this 9-layer Maxicone designed for high outputs while maintaining outstanding film quality.
extruders with lower melt temperature and improved melt cooling systems like the dual deck air ring. Flexibility In addition to output capacity, flexibility with product specifications has become increasingly important. The ongoing trend toward reduced order volumes and specialty products calls for equipment that is designed for high output, while at the same time providing short start-up and changeover times and minimum labor requirements. Modern blown-film die heads, especially for barrier films, therefore need a compact design with short flow paths, less resin in the die, and high flow rates to permit faster product changeovers. Tolerance While automatic gauge-profile control has become a standard feature, there are still blown-film lines in operation that
are operated without them. Frequently, when talking about the usefulness of gauge-profile controllers, some important advantages of the system are still ignored or neglected. Obviously, the ability to automatically reduce gauge tolerances by 50% or better is a significant result and worth considering. Equally important, however, is the fact that these tight tolerances are evenly distributed across the film width. In particular, when it comes to slitting at the winder for multiple roll production, consistent straight running of the individual webs is essential and is, in fact, a requirement for trouble-free processing on the downstream converting equipment. Film thickness is measured by capacitance thickness gauges, today a standard feature of blown-film lines, despite the fact that they contact the film bubble while measuring the thickness. Current R&D efforts are working to develop a non-contact capacitive system; this would offer obvious advantages when processing tubular film with tacky outer surfaces. Apart from these systems, non-contact radiometric thickness gauges used in castfilm production are increasingly being used on blown-film lines, downstream from the bubble-collapsing station. They provide definite advantages for barrier films. Special control algorithms are also available to ensure that optimum gauge tolerances are achieved quickly. Coextrusion The multilayer coextrusion market in Europe is characterized by rapid growth. A decade ago about 20- 25% of all blownfilm lines installed were for coextrusion; this figure has since doubled, and there is every indication that this trend will continue at a faster rate. As a result, coextrusion
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MPWE 2008 Some advantages of polyolefin 5-layer blown films. Rewards More flexibility of applications Better film properties Increased output Less downtime
Compact design of the Maxicone die permits easy access for inspection and maintenance. today accounts for as much as 80-90% of all new extrusion systems installed. The demand for more layers should also be the trend of the future. Monolayer products are increasingly disappearing. The recent trend is to replace three-layer products with five-layer films. The fivelayer structure allows the properties of polyolefin combinations to be improved in a specifically targeted manner, while at the same time allowing films to be produced at lower cost. Winding technology When it comes to winding film, surface and turret winders have been the primary choices. The quality of the film roll is undoubtedly the most important criterion; it is not so much influenced by the winding principle, but rather by the specific features of the winder. Today’s winders are still either surface or turret types, but can be specifically designed and equipped to meet the applications for which they are intended. Regional differences that influence winder type can be expected to vanish gradually. While the turret winder is predominantly used in North America, Europe and Asia seem to prefer the surface winder and would select the turret design only for specific or more sophisticated applications. Consequently, turret winders account for about 50% in the modplas.com
cast-film sector, but for only about 20% in blown-film extrusion. Another major step toward improved winding and roll quality, especially when using surface winders, is the ability to eliminate fold-back of the web tail when starting a new roll. The newly developed vacuum contact cutter drum is currently regarded as the only available system to offer this feature. The web tail is held on the contact drum until the very moment it is applied to the core and is therefore
Payback Targeted allocation of layer thicknesses and functions Reduced curling, improved sealing and peel properties Targeted utilization of extruder and resin capabilities Reduced build-up on the die elements as a result of specific outer layer properties prevented from folding back. The integrated knife of the vacuum cutter drum cuts the film web while lying on the drum surface, ensuring a clean, right-angled cut across the entire web width, eliminating fringy edges and incomplete cuts. Uwe Meyer, general manager extrusion equipment, Windmöller & Hölscher, Lengerich, Germany;
[email protected]; www.wuh-lengerich.de
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Economic, efficient output plays key roles Cast film producers are focused on high throughput and superior efficiency. Equipment up-time, flexibility, and energy savings are essential for today’s cast-film producers. ast film has long been utilized for pallet stretch film, bakery goods, hygiene applications, and cast polypropylene (CPP) production. It can also be used for producing barrier structures in the flexible food packaging sector as well as for medical, technical, and specialty films. Independent of the film structure to be produced, a typical configuration of a cast-film line is represented in the graphic (opposite page). The most important components are the extruder, the chill-roll unit, and the winder. Based on the application and complexity of the line, many other features and automation can be added. Gravimetric blending, gauge control, treaters, trim removal, and fluff refeed are common add-on requirements.
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share of the cast-film market, with more than 50% of the total cast film produced. Because of the competitive nature of this segment, processors have had to concentrate on automation and economies of scale to remain profitable. Although 3-layer lines are the standard for commodity applications, demand for 5-layer and especially 7-layer lines for the production of specialty and high-quality stretch film is increasing. Utilizing this multilayer approach is necessary for a product using less material, but achieving increased filled-pallet stability.
CPP production The second-largest demand in cast-film production is CPP web. This is an alternative to biaxial oriented polypropylene (BOPP). It has a 30% cast-film producStretch Films Pallet stretch film’s unparalleled growth tion market share and a projected and success has garnered the largest growth rate of 5-8%/yr: therefore, interest remains high. These films, mostly metalized, coated/laminated and/or twist films (candy wrappers) are manufactured on lines that run at very high line speeds. Daily production rates of 450 m/min (1476 ft/min) or higher are common. Operating line widths in excess of 4m (158 inches) can reach output capabilities above 2.5 tonnes/hr (5600 lb/hr). To be able to achieve these high outputs with superior film quality, the cooling capacity must be designed accordingly. First-class (high-end) Extruders outfitted with universal screws can process comchill-roll torque-drive techmon polyolefin and barrier resins materials, as well as specialty nology ensures consistent thermoplastics such as COC, PET, PLA, or TPU. film thickness. 34
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There is also a recent trend to shift from 3-layer to 5-layer film structures. This is being driven by demand for more flexible layer configurations, offering the possibility to split outer layers. Thus, allowing producers to reduce the outside layer, which is frequently blended with expensive additives, and manufacture a more cost-effective product. Barrier and/or multilayer Seven-layer configurations with nylon and EVOH barrier composition are the present standard for barrier films. But, there are already lines in the market that are producing symmetrical barrier films with up to 11 layers. As the established approach for food protection with aroma or gas barriers, these films are also used for lids/covers, laminating films, and multilayer flexible films whose asymmetrical configuration and layer distribution provide improved thermoformability. The production of asymmetrical cast-film structures is increasing because the cast-film (compared to blown film) process is resistant to certain unwanted effects, such as curling. Despite the highly complex nature of the films themselves, modern extrusion lines are designed to be extremely flexible and operator friendly. Uwe Meyer, business unit head-extrusion of processing equipment manufacturer Windmöller & Hölscher (Lengerich, Germany), says: “Today’s converters would like to produce a wide film spectrum of the broadest variety of raw materials. One of the newer developments in the barrier-film sector is microlayer technology. Using this technology, individual layers are positioned in multiple levels on top of each other, increasing the barrier characteristics and modplas.com
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A typical configuration of a cast-film line (source: W&H): 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Housing for electrical equipment Procontrol TS operator console Gravimetric metering Reclaim system for inline re-feeding of edge trim Cast-film extruder Screen changer Feedblock Automatic die Chill-roll system
improving the deep draw capabilities in forming webs. This results in symmetrical films with 17, 27, or more layers. This development could promote considerable interest and growth in the multilayer film sector for years to come.” Specialty Films New films are constantly being developed for all types of applications. Some promi-
The transparent edge of the film on the chill roll is clearly visible using edge encapsulation. This allows the processor the freedom to select the most optimum raw materials for the structure, yet minimize expensive trim waste.
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10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Thickness gauge Pre-trim removal system Film shredder Treater Chopper for edge trim waste Oscillation system Winder Edge-trim and center-cut waste-strip removal
nent specialty films include protection film for automotive, UV window films, monitor or terminal membranes, construction abatement, and flame retardant products. The raw materials used for these applications and the processing techniques are extremely critical. Therefore, the equipment used to produce these films needs to be especially flexible and competent. Products with very low gel formation are almost always a necessity: this is accomplished through use of a very fine micro filtration system (screen changers). High-efficiency and robust winders are also a necessity for required lay-on pressure, gap wind, and taper-tension control for soft-film products. Efficiency When processing cast film, taking edge trim is necessary, and re-feeding the trim inline saves raw material costs. This is particularly true when processing barrier films. Using features like edge encapsulation and optimizing process methodology drastically reduces waste ratio. The sooner that good production com-
mences, after starting up the equipment, the less waste will be generated. With the Winmöller & Hölscher Profile Booster module one can achieve optimum film tolerances, due to quick die control, resulting in marketable on-spec product in less time. The flexibility of a line using universal screws significantly reduces makeready times and spare parts costs. Centralized operator concepts and automated processes simplify equipment operation, increasing equipment up-time, and lowering conversion costs. “Many converters are not familiar with the increased efficiency potential and cost effectiveness that can be achieved with modern cast-film lines. We have experienced this quite frequently when running material trials for customers on our lab line or when developing new film recipes with our customers,” says Meyer. Alexander Lohmann, Windmöller & Hölscher KG, Lengerich, Germany;
[email protected]; www.wuh-lengerich.de
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To remain competitive, processors need to raise speed and output How fast an extrusion coating line operates has become a major factor among processors and this is driving equipment design today.
lobally branded products are under pressure as local and store brands fight for market share at greatly reduced prices. Processors have been forced to become more efficient. Some food producers have gone to an auction-style bid process to purchase converted products for their packaging. To be more competitive, the processors have looked at wider process webs and/or more speed. Substitute packaging is also challenging existing market share. For instance; PET bottles are getting much lighter and cheaper, vying for a larger share of the drink packaging market.
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Coating line In the extrusion coating process, speed increases require careful consideration, regardless of whether the converter is upgrading existing equipment or buying new. First and foremost, the web handling parts of the line must be able to handle it. Many processors find that they have to significantly upgrade their unwinding and winding, line drives, and PLC processors. The mechanism that spliced in a new roll of material at 300 m/min may struggle at speeds approaching 600 m/min. Time is the problem. The electrical sys-
tems need to be able to operate at very fast cycle times in order to maintain stability at the higher speeds. When running at 600 m/min, you no longer can see the splice. Service technicians require highspeed digital cameras to record the splices and transfers when troubleshooting. New drive systems are very accurate and can be tuned to respond as required. Dancer roll systems must be balanced to minimize the effects of the roller weight and ensure fast response to tension changes. Roll handling is also an issue. As the machine speed increases, the time between splices and transfers decreases. Processors often go to larger-diameter rolls to increase the cycle time. The larger rolls often require larger pallet systems, higher weight-capacity roll handling equipment, and larger aisles in a facility, for example. Since a lot of the packaging structures include printed webs, processors have to upgrade printing machines to produce the larger-diameter rolls to feed the extrusion laminators. If liquid primers are in use, the applicator roll diameter may need to be increased. Also, the drying tunnel will grow proportionately longer. The corona pre-treater power-supply capacity and number of electrodes in use will also increase. Conventional idler rollers often have difficulty turning at higher speeds. The bearings need to be selected for high speed with the appropriate lubrication applied. Depending on the substrate, grooved carbon-fiber idlers are often employed. If the converter must run varied widths at high speed with the increased Acrylic coated film provides high moisture and flavor barrier, which enables packaged cookies to keep their original freshness and crunchiness longer.
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Extrusion coating dies can cope with increasing production speeds.
diameters on the unwinding units and winder, attention needs to be given to the diameter of the air shaft or, ideally, a shaftless-design turret is installed. Concentricity of the roll on the shafts or chucks is of paramount concern. Calculation of incoming roll size is done by non-contact measuring devices that become inaccurate when a non-concentric rotation pattern is encountered. If edge trim systems are used, the trim exhaust system must be upgraded to handle the ribbons at the higher speeds. Many high-speed lines end up running below design speed just because the trim system cannot keep up. It is customary for operators to identify the position of defects or splices in a roll of laminate by manually inserting small pieces of web or “flags” as the roll is winding. With increased speeds, that operation can be very difficult and even unsafe. Automated flag inserters put a pressure sensitive tab on the edge of the roll. They can be triggered by pushbuttons along the line or be integrated with inspection equipment (camera, laser, infrared). Extrusion/lamination station For a given coating weight, if we double the line speed, we need to double the extruder throughput. This often requires adding coextrusion to the extruder station. Some will argue that if a new line is planned, a single, larger extruder is best. That is true in some cases, however the 38
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larger the extruder, the less flexible it is. OEMs would suggest that with coextrusion the converter will have the added feature of flexibility. If the line was originally designed with provisions to add coextruders later, then it is a simple exercise. If the extrusion station is only designed for one extruder, the challenge to install a coextruder may be quite difficult, often resulting in the purchase of a new carriage. With the increased output, the chill roller for the laminator will see much more thermal load. Straightforward calculations can determine whether it needs to be replaced with a larger diameter roller or one with a better heat-transfer rate. With the higher thermal load comes the need for more water through the roller and a larger pumping/chilled water system. To prevent condensation on the chill roller some processors install two systems; one at a low temperature for the nip roller and backing roller, and one with a higher temperature for the chill roller. To keep the overcoat from sticking to the chill roller surface, nipped and driven stripper rollers and a continuous release tape system to support the overcoat through the nip and around the chill roller can help greatly. Small, compressed-air powered cooling units are sometimes used at the edges. When the speed is increased, the layer of air that travels with the web must be dealt with. Grooved carbon-fiber idler rollers were mentioned earlier. In the laminating station, especially when running light webs, specialty rollers, such as bowed spreaders, need to be driven to avoid slippage. Also, the ability to run higher nip pressures to aid in the adhe-
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sion process is very desirable. A linear nip arrangement allows the laminator to deliver high nip pressure while keeping the nip roller diameter small and the footprint of the nip at the desired size. A large backing roller fully supports the nip roller across the face of the chill roller. Adhesion is usually enhanced by increasing melt temperature, increasing air gap, priming, or treating. There is a limit to how high the melt temperature can be set. As speed is increased the air gap needs to be adjusted to provide the same time in the gap at high speeds as there was at lower speeds. Limits to the air gap are the mechanical design of the carriage and the amount of neck-in that the process can tolerate. Another alternative employed in high-speed lines is the application of ozone directly into the nip area. Way to get there from here There is a great cost associated with the purchase of a new high-speed extrusion coating/laminating line. Some processors have pending business that needs to be run at high speeds to generate the required profit levels. Others need more production hours but do not have the resources to purchase a new line. Either way, if a new line is not possible; a strategy to increase speed must be created. OEMs will do audits of existing equipment (sometimes for a fee) to help the converter identify where the trouble spots are on his line. The OEM can identify which components can be upgraded and which must be replaced to reach the converter’s speed goals. A plan is created addressing the converter’s individual needs. Some scenarios include the purchase of replacement machine sections in the near future with the goal of using them as key parts of a new line in the more distant future. As the market continues to push for lower costs, processors will have to react. Ultimately, the choice will be to increase production speeds or lose the business to someone that did. Frank T. Orsini, director of key accounts and marketing for extrusion, Egan/Davis-Standard, Somerville, NJ, USA;
[email protected]; www.davis-standard.com modplas.com
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MPWE 2008 What’s the best for you in pipe dies— helix or spiral?
An emerging technolgoy that is increasingly penetrating applications such as the pipes and tubes, blown films, and blowmolded container markets are spiral mandrel distributor extrusion dies. or multilayer products this design principle offers outstanding advantages, and in many cases provides the only solution. Extrusion dies with up to nine concentric spiral mandrel manifolds have been produced. In addition to spiral distributors of cylindrical or conical shape, die systems were introduced for blown-film extrusion in the early 1990s with the melt distribution on a plane—so-called flat spiral, stack, or pancake dies. Such a design principle has also been adapted for pipe dies and is increasingly used for small pipe and tube extrusion. Since not only spirals but also pre-distribution channels are located in the same flat disk, we propose using the term Circular Distribution or in German: CircularVerteilung (CV).
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Spiral mandrels Conventional spiral mandrels are widely used for small multilayer pipes and tubes, such as automotive lines, medical tubing, and hydraulic and pneumatic ducts, as well as underfloor heating and hot and cold water plumbing. Figure 1 is an example for three-, four- or five-layer automotive tubes based on nylon with various functional layers such as barriers, adhesives, or conductive inner layer. Formation of the layer structure depends on the rheological flow behavior of the merging melt streams: symmetrically, at a single point, or sequentially one after the other.
Figure 1: Five-layer die with concentric spiral mandrel manifolds.
The working principle and layout basics are shown in Figure 2. Computeraided design tries to optimize uniform volume flow and low pressure drop with shear velocities, ensuring short material and color change times (lower limit) and, on the other hand, avoiding excessive heat generation and/or excessive
pressure buildup (upper limit). Circular melt-distribution technology offers ideal prerequisites for modular design. Melt feeding, predistribution, and radial distribution take place in one block (module). For multilayer products a multiple of modules can be stacked together. Components of the individual blocks are of the same or similar design. A central mandrel with passages for air flow or other fluids locates the flow channel assemblies using the inner holes of the disk blocks (Figure 3). Besides compact size and economy in manufacturing, the system has many more advantages: • Short flow passages and small melt volume (equaling short residence time) • Low shear rate at walls (thus low heat dissipation and temperature increase) • Low pressure drop (equals high
Figure 2: Working principle and layout basics of circular distributors.
Circular distributors Layout and design are supported by computer simulations, similar to the conventional spiral mandrel systems. Two-dimensional network models are common design tools. modplas.com
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• Ease of handling for cleaning and assembling There are, however, a few disadvantages: • Merging of layers is only possible sequentially, thus there are limitations with polymers having wide viscosity differences • Numerous contact (sealing) surfaces, thus specific requirements for manufacturing
Figure 3: Open block (module) with circular melt distribution channels and central mandrel.
Figure 4: Mono- and three-layer dies for micro-ducts (medical tubing).
Figure 6: Modular die with circular melt distribution for barrier films.
Figure 5: Coextrusion dies for multilayer nylon pipes with functional layers.
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throughput potential) • Great flexibility regarding layer structure (thick/thin, materials, throughput) and number of layers • Thermal insulation and individual temperature control for each block • Special design of individual modules (e.g. incorporation of corrosion resistance)
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In the end, the advantages predominate, especially in smaller dimensions. Single- or multilayer Some of the stated advantages have major importance when extruding very small medical tubes, specifically small melt volumes and quick purging. Also important is easy access to the die insert from the rear. Circular die systems have been built for mono- and multilayer medical tubes (Figure 4). Modular design and all the related advantages have also introduced CV systems for automotive fuel lines. In Figure 5 one can find special features like thermal insulation between modules and a heater/cooler unit for better temperature control, avoiding degradation and ensuring shorter purging time. CV die systems for small blown film, e.g. multilayer structures for long-shelflife food packaging, are similar to the pipe systems. In principle, unlimited numbers of modules can be stacked one above the other with limitless possibilities for introducing specific product properties: for example, meat casings based on nylon (Figure 6). Future trends Since blown-film dies with flat spiral disks have gained market acceptance, the initial question “helix or spiral?’ must now also be asked in other extrusion fields. The flat spiral distributor is now a viable option, especially for smaller dies and coextrusion systems. It now points the way forward. Robert Michels, project manager, ETA Kunststofftechnologie GmbH, Troisdorf, Germany; e-mail:
[email protected]; www.eta-gmbh.de modplas.com
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Pipe and profiles
Environmental concerns, energy costs create opportunities After unbiased presentation of the facts, it is generally found that not only are plastics not a detriment, in many cases they are an enhancement to total life-cycle cost and asset management.
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he U.S. pipe and profile industries find themselves in a unique position. As plastics processors and their end users are aware, plastics products have significant benefits for the environment and society. Unfortunately, through fear-mongering, assumptions, and inaccurate statements, all plastics products are currently under attack. Bans on plastic bags, plastic packaging, and restrictive use proposals are being instituted by municipalities and retailers almost on a daily basis. The U.S. construction industry is also marketing green building. A number of organizations have been developed to help determine environmentally sound building practices. Most of these have preconceived thoughts that plastics are a poor choice. After unbiased presentation of the facts, it is generally found that not only are plastics not a detriment, in many
world. All members of the plastics community must be vigilant to watch for and correct any of these misconceptions and misrepresentations. Though it may not be your product under attack today, all plastic materials and products are being grouped together and will feel the negative effects of these attacks. The plastics industry has recently been reevaluating resin choices and product design features that have ultimately helped everyone become more aware of our energy usage. The combinations of higher home heating costs and stringent resilience requirements due to natural disasters have spurred window product designers to evaluate all facets of glass and frame designs. The fenestration markets have responded by developing windows that meet homeowners’ energy and robust design demands, including meet-
cases, they are an enhancement to total life-cycle cost and asset management. Because of the unique capabilities of plastics for design, recycling, and reduced transportation costs, among other factors, plastics is a sound material choice for our
Equipment to process large-diameter pipe for drainage, mining, and pressure water systems is increasingly needed.
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ing the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Energy Star guidelines,
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thus reducing energy costs by 35%. According to the EPA, in 2005 alone, Americans saved enough energy with Energy Star products to avoid greenhouse emissions equivalent to that of 23 million cars while also saving $12 billion on their utility bills. PVC is increasingly becoming the material of choice for intricate design solutions in the fenestration market. The durability of the resin combined with the ease of attaining exact product design creates the optimum combination for the desired results. As these new designs are developed, profile extrusion processors and, by extension, their machine and tooling vendors, are rapidly developing new methods for producing these windows. These extrusion processes are being developed noting similar concerns as expressed by the homeowner. Processors and equipment manufacturers are continually increasing their focus on power conservation, resin utilization, and labor efficiency. Large-diameter pipe continues to show growth. Solid-wall and corrugated pipe with diameters exceeding 1000 mm are displacing traditional materials such as concrete and steel, offering an estimated work-life of 100 years. The applications range from drainage, irrigation, and mining to pressure water systems. Reduced weight, high joint integrity, safety, and improved hydraulic performance are some of the design features that are driving specifying engineers to select plastics pipe over traditional piping materials. As the U.S. infrastructure continues to deteriorate, the installation benefits of plastics pipe for revitalization are becoming increasingly important. On a daily basis, the U.S. loses more than 2.4 billion gallons of water to leakage, creating a modplas.com
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MPWE 2008 vicious circle of contamination in both infiltration and exfiltration. Installation techniques such as pipe bursting and no-dig trenchless minimize, or in some cases completely eliminate, traffic disruption and are being sought by municipalities to accommodate citizens and reduce the excess emission of fossil fuels. Documented evidence shows that plastics pipe can have significantly lower breakage rates. This is especially important for long service life, minimized maintenance costs, and reliability of systems. PVC and polyethylene pipe are also growing in wall thickness, and these increased walls (as high as 100 mm) allow design engineers the flexibility required to maximize the system efficiency for load and pressure applications. Continued growth is still prevalent in fence and natural-fiber composite profiles using reclaimed wood and plastic. Consumer and contractor acceptance of these products continues to grow as designs are being generated that enable complete deck and fence systems to be installed that reduce reliance on chemically treated lumber. Some of the early issues associated with this product have been satisfactorily resolved and new formulations are being developed to provide additional opportunities for homeowners and architects. Products with multiple layers of materials are being manufactured to allow use of different color combinations for aesthetic requirements. Formalized construction standards have been developed to ensure the product meets the requirements for product integrity and safety. After years of stable growth, the vinyl (PVC) siding market is resisting market-share erosion attacks from fiber cement. Homebuilders seeking to save labor costs on installation and future maintenance continue to choose vinyl siding. To minimize raw material resource consumption, nearly all of the scrap in the manufacturing process is recycled back into the process. To address market concerns, manufacturers are increasingly incorporating a siding product with foam backing. This product has earned the Energy Star rating. Additional energy conservation is realized because of vinyl siding’s comparable light weight, and considerably less energy is used in transportation. Energy costs continue to have an effect on resin availability. As energy costs remain high, petrochemical companies are looking to other parts of the globe to manufacture resin. These other geographic locations have lower feedstock costs and improved availability. Processors will need to be vigilant to monitor the availability and price of their raw materials. The pipe and profile industries are currently feeling the effects of the real estate/financial crisis facing the U.S. Housing starts are nearing a cyclical low and though construction spending is presently decreasing, product designs that allow maximum energy efficiency, installation ease, comfort, aesthetics, and minimal maintenance are being developed to address the concerns of environmental stewardship and energy conservation. The ultimate combination of design flexibility and proven performance allow plastics products to meet the stringent demands of architects, contractors, homeowners—and our Earth. Kurt Waldhauer, president/CEO, American Maplan Corp., McPherson, KS, USA;
[email protected]; www.maplan.com CLICK MPW a INFOLINK @ www.modplas.com
modplas.com
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Screen changers
Melt filtration when processing reclaim is a key to success With rising material costs, processors look at substituting some or even all of their virgin material with reclaim.
here is a range of products where this makes economic and environmental sense, including packaging, pipe, or strapping products. But using reclaim creates new challenges for the manufacturing process. Apart from the molecular weight, the specific viscosity and color/transparency of the reclaim material, foreign particles or contamination in the melt will have an effect on the product quality. Therefore, screen changers play an important role when processing reclaim and must be able to filter out the contamination, such as hard particles like sand, glass, aluminium, degraded material, foreign plastics, and sometimes also soft particles like gels. The screen changer needs to be able to handle and react quickly to a varying contamination load, which is very typical for reclaim material. At the same time, the influence on the manufacturing process should be minimal. If not,
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A fully automatic filtration system, the RSFgenius includes a hydraulic power pack and control system.
changes in the pressure consumption will lead to changes in the melt viscosity, which might affect product tolerances. Dead spots and long residence times will lead to degraded material, gelation, and thermally degraded melts. Variations in throughput will impact different factors (tolerances, tensile strength) of the final product’s quality. One screen changer suited for reclaim applications is the fully automatic filtration system, RSFgenius. This is a processconstant system and can exchange filtration area very rapidly. Fully automatic The main characteristic of the RSFgenius filtration system is the patented rotary technology, which is based on a filter disk rotating between two filter blocks. The filter disk—on which the screen cavities are located in a ring pattern—is completely encapsulated by the two filter blocks. Screens can be inserted into the cavities by opening a small hatch door giving access to the cavities. The production process is not disturbed by the screen change procedure.
When a pressure increase upstream of the filter is registered, the filter disk is indexed by means of a hydraulic drive. This guarantees that the active screen area is always kept constant. Just before the contaminated screen is reintroduced into the melt channel it is cleaned by a patented, integrated back-flush piston. Its unique advantages are: • It operates at constant pressure (even when exchanging filter elements): no process disturbances by pressure variations can occur. Pressure variations do not exceed ±30 psi (±0.21 MPa), so that the system can be used directly in front of the die without influencing the process. • Constant pressure means constant temperature and therefore constant viscosity, leading to very constant end-product tolerances. • The system operates automatically thanks to highly efficient self–cleaning of the filter elements. Filter element and cleaning costs are reduced to a minimum. • The exchange of used filter elements can be carried out without any disturbance to the process. • It can handle contamination swells and reacts immediately to changes in contamination load. Due to the rotation of the disk a very large amount of clean screen area can be provided in a given time unit while still working economically. • Melt residence time in the filtration system is short. Since the filter medium is exchanged automatically, the active filtration area can be optimized to the throughput rate. Economic/environmental aspects The filtration system also greatly enhances the cost efficiency of the production process. A benefit with this unit is keeping the manufacturing process sta-
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The layout of the RSFgenius indicates its means of operation.
RSFgenius operating on an extrusion line.
ble despite changing impurity levels when using recycled material. Thanks to its continuous and pressure-constant mode of operation, it does not lead to interruptions in the production or to the production of scrap or off-grade product. A significant trend is the reduction of production costs by processing sorted and cleaned reclaim material directly into end products, without the intermediate step of pelletizing. The obvious advantage of modplas.com
direct recycling is the elimination of extra capital equipment, but it also significantly reduces energy consumption. This further reduces the environmental impact of reprocessing reclaim. On the other hand, material and manpower consumption of the filtration step itself impact both the production profitability and the environment. Apart from the investment costs, it is important to consider the running costs, e.g. the waste back-flushing, energy consumption, and filter element (screen) costs. The patented back-flushing feature
reduces back-flushing losses. At the same time, due to the effective internal screen cleaning with high-pressure impulses, screens are automatically reused 100400 times (depending on the mesh/micron rating). The new generation of these units is additionally characterized by special insulation of the screen changer that results in a 40% reduction in energy required by the unit. Melt filtration plays an important role when processing reclaim, both in regard to the end quality that can be achieved and the cost efficiency and environmental impact of the recycling step. With a properly installed screen changer, the manufacturing process stays stable despite changing contamination levels of the recycled material with minimal running costs, energy consumption, and waste. It can be operated successfully in many reclaim applications in a variety of processes for direct recycling, such as PET thermoforming sheet, polyethylene pipe, or PET fiber. Monika Gneuss, VP sales/marketing manager, Gneuss Inc., Matthews, NC, USA;
[email protected]; www.gneuss.com
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Winders
Flexible web is only as good as its winder If all film rolls were perfect, the ability to produce perfect web wouldn’t be much of a challenge.
nfortunately, due to the natural variation in resins and additives and non-uniformities of the film formation processes, there is no such animal as a perfect film. The winding operation’s challenge is to wind film webs with slight imperfections while ensuring these imperfections do not stand out in appearance and are not amplified during the winding process. The winder operator’s challenge is to ensure the winding process does not produce additional variations in the product quality. In defining quality, film product customers want rolls that are the right shape (round and proper width); the right size (right diameter or length); the right consistency (proper roll density, not too hard or soft); and have a good appearance (no blemishes or visual defects). Roll density, or in-wound tension, is the most important factor in determining the difference between good-quality and poor-quality rolls of film products. Rolls that are
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Cast-film rolls can be produced using a center winder.
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wound too soft will go out of round while winding, or will go out of round while being handled or stored. Yet, rolls that are wound too tightly can cause roll blocking (a defect where the sheet layers fuse or adhere together) and exaggerate web defects. Roll density is developed in different ways on different types of winders, but the basic principles of how to build roll hardness are the same. To remember these principles, remember that to consistently wind “dynamite” rolls you need TNT: Tension: The winding web tension Nip: The nip of the pressure roll or drum Torque: From the center drive or torque drum
When winding elastic films, web tension is the dominant principle of winding to control roll hardness. The more tension pulled, the more stretch put on the web before winding, the harder the wound rolls will be. When winding inelastic films, nip is the dominant principle of winding to control roll hardness. The nip controls the roll hardness by removing the boundary layer of air following the web into the winding roll. The rolling nip also induces in-wound tension into the roll. The harder the nip, the harder the winding roll. The challenge for winding flexible packaging film is to have sufficient nip to remove the air and wind hard straight rolls without winding too much in-wound tension, and to prevent roll blocking or deformation of the web over the high caliper area.
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Gap winding is ideal for films that are relatively narrow, can be wound at higher tensions, and are wound at speeds generally less than 250 mpm (800 fpm). This method permits a small amount of air to be wound into the roll to prevent deforming webs that have high caliper band areas. For successfully controlling roll hardness when gap winding, the layon roll must follow the winding roll’s surface with a small and controlled gap. Roll density is controlled through torque, which is the web tension applied through the spindle drive. The drive torque produces a force that is transmitted through the web layers and tightens the inner wraps of film. This torque is used to produce the web tension on center winders. With these types of winders, tension and torque are the same winding principle. However, when the pressure roll is driven to control the web’s tension, the torque induced through the center of the roll can be independently controlled to manipulate the winding roll’s hardness profile. Three basic winding processes are used for winding film webs: center winding, surface winding, and combination center/surface winding. A center winder can gap wind where only tension is used to control the roll’s hardness. It can also incorporate a lay-on or pressure roll so both tension and nip can be used to control the roll hardness. Advantages of center winding include the capability to wind softer, smaller-diameter rolls; quick indexing and fast cycle times; capacity to wind films with high tack; dual direction winding capabilities; and adhesiveless transfers. Disadvantages include limitation of maximum roll diameter due to the torque applied through the layers of film and a higher probability of generatmodplas.com
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Winders
MPWE 2008 ing scrap during roll changes. Surface-type film winders use a driven winding drum. The winding rolls are loaded against the drum and are surface wound. When surface winding elastic films, the web tension is the dominant winding principle. When surface winding inelastic materials, nip is the dominant winding principle. This process has the best utilization of space and horsepower; is best for winding large diameter rolls; minimizes waste during transfers; and is generally less expensive and requires less equipment. Disadvantages include the fact that air cannot be wound into the roll to minimize gauge bands and blocking problems. A drum-type surface winder offers only single direction winding (unless on a turntable), and tape or glue on cores is normally required for automatic transfers. A center/surface winder uses both center winding and surface winding processes. In this process, the web tension is controlled by the surface drive connected to the lay-on or pressure roll to optimize the slitting and web spreading processes. Ideally the web wraps the lay-on roll 180 degrees with the resultant tension vector 90 degrees to the nip. This provides maximum tension isolation between web and winding tension and a configuration where the web tension does not affect the nip loading. The primary advantage of center/surface winding is that the winding tension can be independently controlled from the web tension. This winder is also best for winding high-slip films to larger diameters and for slitting and winding extensible films to larger diameters. It also has the capability to supply in-wound tension without stretching the web over caliper bands. The disadvantage is the winding equipment is more expensive and more complex to operate. Winding good rolls of flexible packaging film is the challenge that every operator faces. Consistently winding good rolls depends on the consistency of bringing good film to the winding operation. A winder operator’s job is not to camouflage poor-quality flexible packaging film products into shippable rolls. His or her responsibility is to handle modplas.com
Top: Here the principal of the nip of the winding roll into the drum is shown. Center: Torque winding is the force induced through the center of the winding roll, which is transmitted through the web layers and tightens the inner wraps of film, here shown as the nip from the lay-on roll. Bottom: Tension-Nip-Torque (TNT) principles on a center/surface winder.
films with slight imperfections and to produce quality rolls that will run without problems on your customer’s process and produce high quality products for their customers. Note: This is an abbreviated version of a technical paper, “Challenges of Winding Flexible Packaging Films,” presented at an ANTEC Conference. For a complete copy of this paper, please go to
www.bc-egan.com and look under the publications tab, company information, publications and technical documents.
R. Duane Smith, product manager-specialty winding, Black Clawson Converting Machinery, Davis-Standard LLC, Fulton, NY, USA;
[email protected]; www.davis-standard.com
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Wire and cable
Processing efficiency, increased throughput remain market drivers Although lubricants, metal dust, heavy equipment, heat, and noise are all found in wire and cable producing factories, the production itself requires special attention to handling and cleanliness of high-purity resins to ensure hus, this extrusion process often differs from those methods used in, for example, plastic pipe. Cables are composed of a huge variety of components, including separately insulated conductors, ground wires, metal shields, optical fibers, fillers, jelly, talc, and outer jacket. One or more extrusion steps are required, depending on the product to be made. Nearly all constructions require an extrusion process with a crosshead setup, where extrusion flow is perpendicular to the product flow. The wire or semifinished cable needs to be steadily paid out prior to entering the extrusion crosshead. At this point, the extruder(s), crosshead, and tooling configuration are determinant for layer characteristics (single or multiple, coloring, stripe, foaming, diameter, ovality, concentricity, etc.). Further downstream, one finds familiar cooling, measuring, and winding components. Typical cable constructions are discussed in this article, for example those that are of high interest to the market. Also trends for upcoming developments are revealed.
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Telecom The large range of conductor-based products for telecommunications include cables for telephone voice and data, local area networks (LAN), coaxial cable networks (CATV to RF), signal cable, and other specialty communication products. The twisted pair constructions typically go from four-pair constructions for LAN category cables to 2400-pair (or more) telephone cables. As for high-frequency coaxial cables, they are made of a conducting core and sheath separated by a foamed dielectric. The products range from micro-coax to large RF cables. 48
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end-product quality.
A wide variety of high-purity cable resin grades are tuned to high throughput on extrusion equipment.
Finally, the signal and specialty cables found in security systems, shipping, transportation, military, medical, aerospace, etc., vary in construction design. One cable type seeing noted development is the high-end LAN Category cable. With the communication technology for conductor-based cable moving forward, copper LAN Category cable remains a very cost-effective solution. Transmission rates are reaching gigabit performances once only available from fiber-optic (FO) cable. With IEEE’s 802.3an standard for 10 Gbit/sec Ethernet cabling underway, both Cat. 7 and Cat. 6a (augmented) cables provide the needed capacity. The most cost-effective package comes from the Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cat. 6a type. It is smaller in diameter, eliminates the complexity of shielded pairs,
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and requires less material to produce. It is, however, more exposed to alien crosstalk coming from adjacent cables. Of course, LAN Cat 7 with its shielded protection easily fits the 10 Gbit/sec Ethernet requirements. Surprisingly, the area of wireless communications is also translating into new cable opportunities. As handheld devices shrink in size, so do the cables of which they are made. Micro-coax cables are being used for supporting wireless functions like built-in antennas. An increase is expected for top-notch manufacturing equipment working with small diameters and thin wall thickness. The progress in standards brings new challenges to cable manufacturers and machine suppliers. High-speed extrusion lines for the production of LAN and telecom cables need to meet rigorous promodplas.com
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MPWE 2008 Built-in antennas need the breadth of micro-coax cables to support wireless functions.
LAN cable demand is directly connected to growth in the computer and Internet markets.
cessing and line control requirements. Multiple parameters have an influence on process stability. They include conductor elongation control and extrusion melt quality, as well as diameter and capacitance control. The equipment suppliers that provide leading extrusion technology are experiencing the developments generated by the market. Fiber-optic cable The jelly-filled stranded loose-tube FO cable is quite familiar in the long-haul telecom networks. In theory, the number of fibers vary widely, but we can typically see anywhere from 64 to 256 fibers in a medium-size construction. As the FO network branches out toward end-users with Fiber to the Home (FTTH), another construction type is making its appearance. Dry loose-tube FO cable is closing the gap from trunk lines to the home. The cables cover shorter runs, are cleaner to handle (no jelly), and are easier to connect. The fiber count drops to as low as one when reaching final destination. The FO cable business has been slowed by lack of investment, an overcapacity of bandwidth in the network, and much available production capacity worldwide. Signs are appearing that the slack has been taken up. But another aspect must be taken into consideration. The installed base of production equipment has been aging in spite of progress in technology. Moving away from jellyfilled to dry loose-tube constructions requires new solutions and process know-how. Upcoming investments are therefore inevitable. modplas.com
Renewed activity in the FO networks is expected in two areas. Regions like North America with a well-established network will see connections spread out with FTTH. Meanwhile, rapidly developing regions like the Middle East, India, Russia, and China are in different phases of deploying their long-haul infrastructures using cost-effective domestically produced cable. Capital equipment will be needed for the manufacturing of FO cable specific to each case. Energy Two types of market are served here—a mature and a developing one. The mature market, which suffered recent power failures much talked about in the media, is working on upgrading the power grid. The race is on to replace and to modernize it for supporting higher voltages and for providing guaranteed service to a growing energy market. In addition, the continuing trend to privatize in regions like Europe is also adding pressure for the upgrading projects. The requirement is essentially for higher voltage cable produced on efficient equipment that runs at higher speeds with larger diameters and with tight reductions on costly scrap. On the other hand, the developing markets are installing new capacity into regions that were little served up to now. Here the range of product needed is large, from 0 to 500 kV. It includes the high-voltage end but extends down into the low-voltage products too. Both types of demands are generating need for modern manufacturing solu-
tions, typically with Catenary CV lines. Optimum curing technology using online curing simulation and various heating techniques are applied at different points along the CV line. The result is boosted performance, throughput, and product quality. As cities grow and put more demand on electricity generation sources, highvoltage and extremely high-voltage underground lines are becoming increasingly important. Because of their proximity to human beings, such cables need to be highly insulated compared to bare wire rope that is suspended high on power-line pylons. This has had an impact on extrusion machinery producers like Maillefer, which has seen a worldwide trend in such things as CV line equipment to make vertical and catenary vulcanizing lines.
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As cities grow and put more demand on energy sources, high-voltage and extremely high-voltage underground lines are becoming increasingly important.
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Construction, automotive These are mature markets where the wire and cable products have become a commodity. Manufacturing solutions must be mean and lean. Several equipment manufacturers compete on product, price, performance, and quality. Over the years, wiring has become a safety issue after several disastrous fires. Use of insulating materials with flame-retardant and low-smoke characteristics (e.g. HFFR, FEP) is being required. In certain niches like these, solutions that include leading technology, support, and service are recognized as providing added value. Andre Gosselin, marketing manager, Maillefer SA, Ecublens, Switzerland;
[email protected]; www.mailleferextrusion.com
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Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary
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Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary Processing, Other Primary
Primary Processing, Other xtrusion and injection molding consume the largest volume of plastics, but there are a host of other processes, no less complex, that see use across markets and regions. We’ve included some of the major ones in this section of the Encyclopedia, with articles on blowmolding, reaction injection molding, rotational molding, and thermoforming, plus articles on screws and barrels and melt pumps. Blowmolding and rotational molding continue to find use in new markets and applications as processors devise new means to make these processes more efficient. The give-and-take among packaging thermoformers and injection molders shows little sign of abating as processors on both sides work to earn customers’ trust…or add the other process to ensure they are covering all of the bases. Both the blowmolding and rotomolding articles offer general introductions to these processes as well as highlight some recent developments. The thermoforming pages discuss general thermoforming topics and offer details on thermoforming of A-PET, one of the materials seeing the greatest demand growth. Screws, barrels, and melt pumps are critical parts of many processing lines and have tremendous influence on a line’s efficiency and a product’s quality.
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Blowmolding
MPWE 2008 Blowmolding’s variety offers plenty of options
Blowmolding offers processors plenty of choices to tackle ever-greater application challenges.
rocessors have their choice of seven primary machinery processes for blowmolded applications. These are commonly known as:
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Shuttles (continuous extrusion) Wheels (continuous extrusion) Injection Blow Injection Stretch Blow (1-step) Reheat Stretch Blow (2-step) Reciprocating screw (intermittent extrusion) Accumulator Head (intermittent extrusion) Shuttle machinery is the most popular type of machinery for blowmolding HDPE and PP containers. A shuttle machine consists of either single or dual clamps that shuttle (or slide) from under the die head to a blow pin assembly for blowing. These machines come in all sizes and configurations from single cavity to as many as 20-30, for containers sized big and small. Included in the shuttle group is the long stroke-type machine. Shuttle machines are relatively inexpensive for small-to-medium volume production requirements; can produce containers with calibrated necks; can incorporate downstream trimming and other processes; and are very suitable for multilayer processing. On the downside, the hydraulics and controls of these machines can be complex, and multiple parisons can be difficult to process consistently. One trend is the increasing demand for electrically powered machines, which will reduce issues with hydraulics. Wheel (rotary) machines often are the machines of choice in North America for very high volumes of containers for markets such a liquid detergent and juice. Elsewhere, long-stroke or high-cavity shuttle blowmolding machinery is more modplas.com
frequently chosen. Wheels are typically chosen over shuttles because of processing ease (and cost) due to single-parison technology, and lower cost per container for high-volume applications. Machines can be designed to handle a wide range of container sizes, but on the downside are typically committed to a narrow range of container variation after build, meaning an investment in these requires commitment to high-volume production situations. Wheels come in various configurations. Some can produce calibrated neck containers but most rely on downstream equipment to trim and finish containers. Injection blowmolding machinery injection molds a preform onto core rods and then indexes the core rods to a blow station to blow the containers. Machines have 3-4 stations to allow for conditioning and parts removal. They are utilized for small containers, can process a variety of materials, and produce high-quality packaging. Tooling cost per container, though, is as high as 40-50% of the machine cost, and it is difficult to process multilayer packaging with these. Injection stretch blowmolding is almost entirely dedicated to PET and, more recently, some PP applications. For this process, preforms are held by the neck finish and then, during the blowing process, rods stretch the preform prior to blowing to orient the material. Like injection blowmolding, it also is a noscrap process, and the biaxial orientation gives packaging strength and clarity. Tooling costs can be high, and the process is not suitable for lower-cost polyolefins or for handleware processing. Reheat stretch blowmolding is a twostage process; it, too, sees use most frequently in PET processing although it sees increasing use for blowmolding of PP and even biobased plastics. The
Rotary blowmolding machines such as this one are ideal for very high-volume applications.
process utilizes preforms made on a standalone injection molding machine, stored and then reheated and stretch blown similar to the 1-step process above. Here, however, the preforms are blown at a lower temperature, allowing the maximum amount of biaxial orientation and therefore the maximum strength-to-weight ratios. Reciprocating screw machinery is a popular and cost-effective method to produce lightweight dairy, juice, and water containers. In this process, the extruder feed screw reciprocates similar to an injection molding machine. The molds are stationary under a die head, and open and close, but do not shuttle. As the screw moves forward, the parison is pushed out into the molds for blowing. For lightweight containers, cycle times can be very fast, with some under 5 seconds. Recent developments include the first processing of multilayer bottles on reciprocating screw machines. Jeff Newman, VP sales & marketing, Wilmington Machinery, Wilmington, NC, USA; www.wilmingtonmachinery.com
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Melt pumps
Extrusion lines aided to pump up productivity Gear pumps need to be considered not only as necessary equipment in extrusion lines for high-quality end products, but also as instruments for improving overall efficiency and user-friendliness. ogether with different extruders, they constitute crucial components of a processing line in the quest to meet rising demands of quality and economics. The general term employed here is gearpump-assisted extrusion. Gear pumps are used both in new extrusion lines and for retrofitting existing ones. In both cases, the objective may be to step up production, achieve a more uniform product, enhance flexibility, improve product quality, or simply handle the polymer more gently in a wide number of applications. The materials processed range from commodity plastics and engineering thermoplastics to high-temperature-resistant polymers.
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How it works Gear pumps, for example a Maag extrex
unit shown below, are positive displacement pumps. In contrast to them, singlescrew and corotating twin-screw extruders operate on the drag flow principle. As the gears turn, the chambers formed by two of a given gear’s flanks and the housing wall are filled with melt. As the gears turn, the melt is conveyed in these chambers to the outlet side, where it is forced out of the chambers by the meshing teeth (displacement pump). This displacement process starts when the tip circles of the gears penetrate each other. Gear meshing fulfills three functions: • Melt displacement on the outlet side • Sealing off of the inlet and outlet sides from each other • Transmission of the shaft work from the driven shaft to the idling one
Cut-away of a melt gear pump, here an extrex-brand unit from Maag Pump Systems.
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The gear pump takes the function of delivering a constant flow of polymer to the die or pelletizer, widely independent of pressure requirements. Due to good pressure built in the gear pump, the compounder, mixer, or single-screw extruder can concentrate on its main function of mixing and melting the polymer. The gear pump’s positive displacement characteristics reduce specific energy input (SEI) into the polymer melt by lowering the average temperature of the melt stream. The same characteristic also decreases the variations of the pellets, or in case of film, sheet, or profile extrusion processes, allows maintainance of tighter tolerances in the end product. Additionally, less waste and off-spec improve profitability. Process integration The installation of a gear pump behind an extruder effectively separates the process steps of plasticizing and discharge. This opens the way to optimize both steps, and their respective equipment, to arrive at a clearly improved plasticizing system. The extruder still handles the functions of conveying the solids, plasticizing, and also mixing and homogenizing the melt. Thus it only builds up a small amount of pressure to make sure that the inlet pressure at the pump is high enough to fill it completely. The function of discharging the melt evenly against the resistance of downstream “pressure restrictions”—pipes, filters, and extrusion die—is handled by the extrusion gear pump. The throughputs of the extruder and gear pump have to be matched. If the extruder conveys less than the pump discharges, the pump will be only partially filled. This would lead to a changeable modplas.com
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MPWE 2008 output rate and to a fluctuating output pressure ending up in an inconsistent end product. Conversely, if the extruder conveys just a little bit more than the pump, the pump inlet pressure will increase to very high levels. So it is necessary to use a pressure/speed control system in which the pump’s inlet pressure serves as indicator for matching the throughput behavior of the two units. Raw material savings in the range of 2-4% are commonly reported feedback out of the retrofit business where existing extrusion lines are equipped with packages that include a gear pump, a drive-unit arrangement, and a control unit, e.g. the Maag expac systems. Using this as a calculation base, the payback time for retrofitting a gear pump to an extrusion line usually is less than one year. A gear pump conveys product against high pressures with good energy efficiency. The first source of energy savings is the reduced need for energy during pressure build-up. If one considers the entire energy balance of a plasticizing extruder, it is apparent that the highest possible ratio between the work done raising the pressure and the work done raising the melt’s enthalpy is about 1:10. Taking into account all of the relevant efficiencies, the energy savings achievable in the entire installation range from about 5% to a maximum of 10%. Anyone wishing to arrive at a true analysis of the energy input to an extrusion system has to take the plasticizing process into account. Merely the reduction of backpressure achieved with installation of the pump, which naturally cuts down the amount of product backflow, can lower the melt temperature.
Processors can compare the actual production and financial advantages of employing gear pumps and lines operating without these units.
Additionally, the reduced pressure at the screw tip makes it possible to achieve the same output with a lower screw speed. A review of all of the functions of an extrusion system comprising an extruder and gear pump shows that, apart from more efficient pressure build-up, a second opportunity for energy savings exists in a lowering of melt enthalpy and therefore of melt temperature. These savings are limited by the plasticizing behaviour of the polymer on the one hand and by the pump’s conveying characteristic on the other. Despite the lower melt temperature and higher melt viscosity, the user must be sure that the gear pump will still be able to overcome the resistance of the downstream pressure restrictions. Nonetheless, adding the possible lowering of melt enthalpy to the favourable energy consumption in building up pressure shows that total energy savings as high as about 30% are possible.
Trends Specially designed gear pumps are more and more finding their way into extrusion lines for elastomer and rubber processing, too. These gear pumps take into account the special needs of these applications in terms of flow characteristics, shear sensitivity, and crosslinking behaviour of the conveyed products. The growing market of specialty plastics sheet and films with more demanding applications, in terms of product and process flexibility, is expanding and gear pumps are cut out to handle this challenge. Handling a line including a gear pump, e.g. with specially designed clearance class, gives more freedom and stability to the whole system. With the gear pump the output to the downstream equipment like rolls and winders is stable and virtually linear to the gear pump speed, which in turn helps to start up extrusion lines three to four times faster than with no gear pump. In the area of the specialty plastics, we find many applications that have corrosive and/or abrasive behaviour. These applications require a high level of engineering knowledge in terms of construction material, available coatings, and overall design features to overcome the wear and lifetime issues. Thomas Roll, product manager extrusion and rubber, Maag Pump Systems Textron AG, CH-8154 Oberglatt/Zürich, Switzerland; www.maag.com
Finding the right supplier can be a real trip. Modern Plastics World Encyclopedia online is your best guide. www.modplas.com/worldencyclopedia Let Modern Plastics Worldwide be your guide.
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Reaction injection molding
Technology innovations help spur market Reaction process machinery (RPM) has grown in popularity as it enables processors to make lightweight parts with high flexural modulus on low-cost tooling. he process involves high-pressure mixing of two or more reactive liquid components for polyurethane (PUR), nylon, thermoset polyester, or epoxy. Applications can be reinforced with fillers or fibers such as chopped glass for parts with large surface areas like pickup truck beds. Large and thick parts can be molded with fast cycle times. This reaction injection molding (RIM) process uses very-low viscosity liquids (often combining polyol and isocyanate to produce PUR) ranging from 500-1500 cp (0.05-1.5 Pa•s), low processing temperatures, low mold temperatures of 90-105°F (32-41°C), and low internal molding pressure between 50150 psi (0.35-1.03 MPa). The size of the part that can be molded depends on the speed of the reactivity profile of the PUR formulation and the throughput of the metering unit. One advantage is that metal inserts can be completely encapsulated during molding. RIM offers flexibility in designing parts
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Fully automated production, including post-processing of this SkinForm part, was demonstrated at K 2007.
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with significant wall-thickness variations. A number of new technical developments have been developed by processing equipment maker KraussMaffei (Munich, Germany), including mixing heads, metering machines, and production systems for PUR. One of these is the company’s proprietary SkinForm process. SkinForm combines injection molding with RPM in a single production system. The process is similar to 2-component injection molding, a wellunderstood thermoplastic process, except that a PUR mixing head is docked onto the mold in place of a second injection unit. The mixing head is supplied with PUR by a high-pressure metering machine. The first step of the work cycle produces a thermoplastic substrate. In the second step, the substrate is partly or completely coated with PUR in the mold. Any of the methods familiar from 2component injection molding can be used to transfer the substrate within the mold—sliding table, rotary table, indexing platen, core-back, or spin platen. The best method will depend on part geometry, production volumes, and cost. KraussMaffei also offers a new InMold Painting process for producing long-fiber injection (LFI) parts with highgloss surfaces. A paint layer is sprayed directly onto the surface of the mold. A spray mixing head then applies a barrier coating on top of the part, the LFI layer is poured into the mold, then the mold is closed and clamped. The result is a highstrength, fiber-reinforced part with a high-gloss surface. A relatively new application is honeycomb-core molding, where a cardboard honeycomb layer is sandwiched between two reinforced PUR layers. A PUR/glass-
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fiber layer is first poured into the mold. The lightweight, honeycomb-structure cardboard insert is placed on top of this layer and covered by a second PUR/glassfiber layer. This process produces parts that combine low weight with high stiffness. If required, a laminated decorative fabric layer can be applied to both sides of the part in the mold. Assembly-ready automotive components, such as rear shelves or cargo mats for car trunks, can be produced in a single step. Another relatively new option is to combine the LFI process with In-Mold Graining (IMG). In IMG, decorative film is simultaneously thermoformed and given a fine surface graining. The film insert is positioned above the mold and heated. In the mold, it is held in place by a frame for thermoforming and IMG. Still in the mold, an LFI mixing head then sprays a PUR/glass-fiber mix onto the thermoformed film. This process can be used to produce door trim panels, glove box lids, or instrument panels. Outside the automotive industry, the LFI process is being used in other new applications. One interesting project is producing door panels from PUR reinforced with very high glass-fiber loads (up to 40%). The resulting door panels are tough and weather-resistant, making them ideal for use in regions with extreme climates. Unlike wooden doors, they do not rot; they have a high fracture strength, and are resistant to splintering. Ludwig Jung, product manager sales,
[email protected]; Josef Renkl, director application engineering and development,
[email protected]; both Reaction Process Machinery division, KraussMaffei Technologies GmbH, Munich, Germany modplas.com
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Rotational molding
MPWE 2008 Real spin on this method revolves around automated equipment
A special technology, rotational molding, also known as rotomolding or rotational casting, is used to produce simple to complex hollow plastic parts in a range of sizes that other technologies might not be able to produce. otomolding has the broadest size capability of any plastics process, ranging from small medical components weighing a few grams to 85,000L (22,500-gal) chemical storage tanks. While economical for short production runs from one to several thousand parts, it can equally be configured for large volume requirements of tens of thousands of parts. In many cases, unusually shaped parts with no seams or weld lines which are virtually impossible to fabricate in one piece by other processes can be produced by rotomolding. This flexibility gives designers and end users access to new opportunities to create innovative plastic moldings. In Europe rotational molding is, according the latest information from analysts at Applied Market Information (Bristol, England), one of the smaller processes for thermoplastics with just more than 300 companies involved. Today, European rotomolders consume nearly 250,000 tonnes of polymer/yr. The largest concentration of European rotational molders is in the UK (19%), followed by Italy (16%), France (13%), and Germany (11%).
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Basic principles Rotational molding differs from other molding methods in that melting, shaping, and cooling of the plastic all occur modplas.com
after it has been placed in the mold. Polyethylene is the most commonly molded material with around 95% of parts produced globally being made from one of the many grades available. Molds are relatively low-cost and of thin-walled construction; they are most often produced in sheet metal and either cast or machined aluminum. Machines are also relatively simple, employing forced hot-air heating systems using gas burners and large fans for mold cooling; they can be designed with multiple pro-
cessing stations to allow each stage of the process to occur simultaneously on multiple arms. The process depends heavily on operators for mold preparation and unloading and is typically only semi-automatic. It consists of four basic steps: • Loading: A predetermined amount of resin, either powder or liquid, is deposited in one half of a mold. The mold is then manually closed. • Heating: The mold is moved into an oven, where it is rotated simultaneously
The Leonardo rotomolding machine is an automatic unit that requires no operator, helps save power, and cuts cycle times.
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Rotational molding
in two perpendicular axes at relatively low speeds (4-10 rpm), and fans force hot air onto its external surface. Since pressure is typically not used inside the mold, the process of part formation depends on gravity for distribution of the material. High temperature and rotation combine to heat the mold and allow plastic material to build up uniformly in successive layers on the inner surface of the mold to form a part. • Cooling: After the part has been heated to the correct temperature, the mold is moved into a cooling station to reduce the mold and part temperature to an acceptable level for part removal. • Unloading: The mold stops rotating and is opened to allow the finished part to be manually removed. Parts produced retain low levels of molded-in stress, unlike some injection molded parts, and exhibit none of the thinning of external corners associated with blowmolded parts. In fact, external corners that are typically subjected to the highest levels of wear in finished parts tend to be thicker in rotationally molded parts resulting in greater durability. However, tolerances tend to be wider than other processes due to the fact that parts are in contact with the inner surface of the mold only and tend to pull away during the cooling process. Forced-air heating has many advantages in terms of ease of operation and generally uniform heat transfer. However, deep cores and shielded areas tend to be more difficult to heat and may result in thin areas; molders will often add extra material to compensate thus increasing overall part weight. Cycle times are relatively slow compared to other processes such as injection molding or blowmolding, but this is compensated by the fact that many different parts can typically be molded at the same time on a single machine. Process control is improving across the industry but many machines are controlled only by time and temperature during the heating cycle and are subject to variations in ambient temperature during cooling.
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Rotomolding advantages Some advantages of rotational molding include: • The ability to change colors easily and also to mold multiple colors simultaneously on the same machine • Adjusting the wall thickness of a part requires only a change in the weight of material added to the mold—no changes to the mold are required • Thickness can range from 1 mm to 25 mm or more • Multilayer parts with multiple colors or different materials can be produced • Graphics and inserts (metallic and non-metallic) can be incorporated into parts during molding Production alternative Equipment maker Persico SpA has introduced a new rotational molding approach which results in higher efficiency, improved process control, improved product quality, and reduced labor costs. The Leonardo system is the first fully automatic rotational molding machine that answers the need for more sophistication, technology, and consistent part quality. It consists of a single molding station with direct heating and cooling of molds using heat transfer fluid. Molds are constructed with integral piping, which allows hot and cold fluid to circulate alternately through the mold as it rotates. No heating ovens or cooling chambers are required, and the mold is not transferred between stations. Leonardo retains the important basic capabilities of the rotational molding process but has a number of additional advantages: • No operator is required—the machine is capable of carrying out all the functions of the molding process without human interaction around the clock, resulting in high productivity and consistency • Controlled heat is applied uniformly over the whole surface of the mold or adjusted in areas that require more or less heat. By improving heat transfer into deep cores, for example, more uniform wall thickness can be achieved in difficult-to-mold parts, which results in lower overall shot-weights.
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• Lower molding temperatures can be used so that the risk of material thermal degradation is reduced • Cycle times can be short because reservoirs of heating and cooling fluid are always available at the required molding and chilling temperatures; heat transfer rates via contact with the fluid are up to 50 times greater than via air. • Multilayer parts can be produced without interrupting the molding cycle. This allows molders to use thin barrier layers for fuel storage, for example, or to create a stiff or insulated cross-section using an internal foam layer. • Improved product quality results from reduced dependence on the operator and changes in the factory ambient temperature. Direct temperature control from inside the mold allows the machine to adjust molding parameters to maintain part quality continuously throughout the cycle. This allows proper cure to be achieved (and documented) for every part. • Venting is automatic, using a patented vent which prevents pressure build-up inside the mold that causes blow-holes at the parting line • Ancillary equipment such as ejector pins, extraction pins and internal cooling mechanisms can be used more easily as heat is only applied to the mold surface. • Efficient use of space and energy— Leonardo has a smaller footprint than traditional machines, can produce more parts per mold/24hr, and uses less energy as only the mold and material are heated and cooled, not a large surrounding oven. This invention is now used by rotomolders in Europe, the U.S., and Australia to manufacture a variety of products including water tanks, fire extinguisher cabinets, fenders, kayaks, toys, pallets, roofs, and other rotationally molded products. Each machine can be designed for flexibility in molding a variety of products with a simple interchange of molds. Pierino Persico, president, Persico SpA, Nembro, Italy;
[email protected]; www.persico.com
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Screws and barrels
MPWE 2008 Today’s designs allow more than just melting and mixing Without the right screw and barrel design, plastics processing can be a hit-or-miss proposition.
lasticating screws convey input materials (pellets, color, additives, reinforcements and fillers, etc.) through heated barrels to melt, mix, and deliver them to an injection mold or extrusion die located downstream. There are three zones (illustration, right) that make up the flighted length of a typical screw: • In the feed zone, polymer enters and is compacted and driven forward, beginning the melt process. • In the transition, or compression zone, the root diameter of the screw increases and the channel depth decreases, increasing compression and accelerating the melting process. • In the metering zone, the melt is conveyed forward at a constant depth as it reaches optimal temperature and viscosity for molding.
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Screw design basics As the range of resins, colorants, and other ingredients has expanded, screw designers have responded with an array of screw designs to meet varying processing requirements. However, these screws generally fall into three basic types: general purpose, barrier, and distributive mix-melt (DMM). All three types share most of the basic elements that are described below: • L/D, or length-to-diameter ratio: The ratio of the flighted length of the screw to its diameter. Most injection screws have L/D ratios ranging from 18:1 to 24:1, while extrusion and blow molding screws generally range from 24: 1 to 30: 1. • Screw profiles: Described by the length or number of flights associated with the three zones. For example, a 10-5-5 screw has an L/D of 20:1, with 10 diameters in the feed zone, and five each in the transition and metering zones. modplas.com
A conventionally flighted screw has three distinct zones: feeding, transition, and metering.
• Compression ratio: The ratio of channel depth in the feed zone to channel depth in the metering zone. This ratio ranges from 1.5:1 to 4:1 for most thermoplastic materials. Heat- and heat-and-shear-sensitive resins typically require a lower compression ratio, while high-melt-index polypropylene needs a higher-end ratio. • Compression rate: Correlates compression ratio and length of the compression or transition zone. A screw’s compression rate must be accurately correlated to the melting rate of a specific polymer. For example, if a sensitive material like rigid PVC is compressed and melted too rapidly, the final product is likely to be discolored. • Channel depths: In the different sections of the screw, these are determined by many different factors. Bulk density of the resin dictates the feed-zone depth while the output requirements of the screw determine the metering-zone depth. It is also important that these channel depths are properly matched. For instance, the feed zone must be able to supply enough plastic to keep the metering zone full. At the same time the melting zone needs to be able to handle the throughput. • Helix angle: Or “pitch,” is the angle of a screw flight relative to the plane that is perpendicular to the screw axis. The helix
angle of conventionally flighted, squarepitch screws is typically about 17.7 degrees. Changing helix angles changes the output and shear rates of a screw, and is typically done with barrier and DMM screws, but can occur with conventionally flighted screws. • Materials: Screws face many types of abrasive and corrosive wear, and this wear leads to increasing costs as screw/barrel efficiency is lost. For this reason, flame-hardened and nitrided steels are giving way to more exotic bimetallic and ceramic materials. These advanced materials, along with new process-wear-management programs, are keeping equipment running longer, minimizing maintenance costs, and optimizing energy and process efficiency. Different needs While general-purpose single-flighted screws continue to support many basic applications, they cannot handle them all. Because these screws melt material only by compressing and shearing it against the barrel, they are less suited to shear-sensitive materials, including many engineering resins. Melting capacity may also be limited as the melt pool forms an insulating layer around the unmelted plastic, preventing it from melting efficiently. The ability of conventional screws to blend colors and ingredients uniformly is also limited. To overcome these, alternative screws may provide the answer. A barrier screw, which introduces a secondary flight typically at the beginning of the compression
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Screws and barrels
As screw and barrel wear progresses, the radial clearance between screw and barrel reaches a point where energy costs soar and throughput declines dramatically.
A conventionally flighted screw melts material by compressing and shearing it against the barrel. The efficiency of this process is reduced as the melt pool forms an insulating layer around the unmelted plastic that can result in unmelted particles or gels.
Top: A barrier screw has a secondary flight, typically at the start of the compression zone. The barrier separates the melt pool and the unmelted pellets, preventing the insulating effect, and resulting in controlled melting. Bottom: In a distributive mix-melt (DMM) screw, the secondary flight forces the melt to mix with unmelted pellets so the melt’s heat energy can be re-used to finish the melting process.
zone, separates the melt and unmelted pellets, preventing the insulating effect from slowing the melting process. The second type often looks like a barrier screw but is actually quite different. DMM screws have a feeding zone and a short compression or melting zone, similar to a conventional screw, where 60-80% of the polymer is melted. Then a secondary flight is introduced in the DMM section. Unique characteristics relating to that flight and the corresponding channel depths force the melt pool to mix with the unmelted plastics as well as additives or colorants. The heat energy of the melt is reused to finish the melt process, while all ingredients are thoroughly blended but without high shear levels. Barrel strategy Compared to the screw that turns inside it, the extruder or injection unit barrel is quite a simple piece of equipment, essentially a pressure vessel. This metal sleeve (usually heated) confines polymer while it is melted and mixed by the screw. The bore of the barrel needs to be straight and have a consistent diameter but otherwise the most important issue when it comes to selecting a barrel is wear prevention. The main body of most barrels is usually made of ductile steel. But this material is quite susceptible to wear, so barrel makers normally harden the inner surface in different ways, depending on the materials being processed and the customer’s budget. Nitriding, which introduces nitrogen into the surface of the heated steel, is the simplest and least expensive approach. Bimetallic barrel liners are used for more challenging applications and are typically composed of a nickel/boron alloy or some variation of a tungsten alloy. For highly corrosive applications, various other alloys may be used. In certain circumstances, a screw and barrel supplier may also recommend ceramic or tool steel liners. Jon Kuhman, VP engineering & technology, Glycon Corp., Tecumseh, MI, USA;
[email protected]; www.glycon.com
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Progression and Progress The first bimetallic extrusion cylinder was shipped. Now, 70 years later, Xaloy is the leader in the design and manufacture of high performance barrels and screws. Molders and extruders worldwide reap the benefits of Xaloy screws and barrels in their operations.
Xaloy offers
redesign, replacement, and repair services for the
highest performance and output. We also offer training, process development, Our worldwide presence
production trials and installation and start-up services.
includes sales and service offices located in the United States, Europe, Thailand, Japan, China and India and a global network of agents geographically
positioned to serve customers throughout the world.
Call for your FREE screw performance analysis. Chances are good that we can improve on its output, melt quality and/or melt temperature profile.
w w w. x a l o y. c o m EXTRUSION • INJECTION • E U R O P E
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Thermoforming
Processing PET without pre-drying takes a step forward Daily life cannot be imagined without thermoformed sheets made from polystyrene, polypropylene, or polyester, as they are used for the most varied applications. owever, customer demands are changing and markets are in flux. Therefore, even successful line concepts require permanent revision and ongoing, innovative development to remain competitive. For example: PET bottles were introduced in Germany in 1990. Today, the number in circulation is about 800 million. That means a steadily increasing amount of post-consumer regrind (PCR) and bottle flakes is available for processing. This material, processed on innovative lines, offers an optimum basis for market-conforming thermoforming products. The focus here is on the following product properties: • High stiffness and transparency • Good cooling behavior • Suitability for microwaving, especially if C-PET is used • Good barrier properties for an extended shelf life
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There is also a wide range of applications, including: • Blister packs for presentation of consumer goods and cosmetic articles • Highly transparent PET sheets used as protective food packaging for such items
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as bakery goods, candy, meat, fruit, and vegetables • PET sheets from pigmented recyclate can be used for, among other things, plant pots in horticulture. Reifenhäuser lines are able to process raw materials such as A-PET, C-PET, GPET, PET regrind, and even PET/PE regrind, into multilayered thermoforming sheets in a single step, without precrystallization and drying. This is possible by using a twin-screw extruder with co-rotating screws, a Reitruder. The operating steps—pre-crystallization/predrying/extrusion—that are traditionally used on conventional machines are combined in this extruder in a single step requiring only one heating cycle. This limits the heat history of the polymer to more gently process the material. In addition, the PET can be processed without pre-drying. The moisture contained in it is simply sucked off using a vacuum pump on the extruder barrel. This results in considerably reduced energy costs and fewer intermediate steps in compounding as well as significantly higher flexibility in material changeover.
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A typical Reifenhäuser line configuration for production of three-layer thermoforming sheet from virgin PET or regrind is equipped with two extruders. For production of the core layer, an extruder with special screw geometry is used as the main plasticizing unit suitable for processing up to 100% PET and PET/PE regrind or PCR without pre-drying. The two outer layers are generally produced by the second extruder from virgin PET (7-10% per skin layers). The high amount of recycled material used in the core layer results in a considerable raw materials cost reduction. In this example of processing threelayer sheets, a REIcofeed II coextrusion block with patented REIcofeed adapter is used that enables layer distribution adjustment during production. Sheet dies with flexible lips at the die outlet can either be adjusted manually by means of pressure screws or automatically by thermo bolts. [continued, p. 142]
A Reifenhäuser high-output thermoforming sheet line can be used for processing PET, PP, PS, and PLA.
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Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics
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Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Plastics Pl
Plastics ergers and acquisitions continue to be the order of the day in the plastics supply chain. For every supplier who decides to exit the market, there is at least one buyer awaiting his chance to enter it. There also continues to be a slow-but-steady shift in supply to Asia, as it becomes the largest regional market for plastics consumption, and also to the Middle East, as consumption there rises but, more significantly, as oil suppliers there view plastics as a prime opportunity to diversify their downstream product lines. A number of compounding facilities are being established in India, which should help processors there to gain local access to more material options. If there is one long-term constant in this industry, it is that the price of plastics derived from petrochemicals will rise. Though many market watchers predict there will be significant overcapacity in upcoming years, to date there has been no sign of that on plastics prices. All the more reason to ensure a processor “makes every pellet count” by maximizing the efficiency of his process. This includes both ensuring the machinery and process are optimized, as well as knowing as much as possible about the materials purchased and those that offer possible lower-cost options. To that end, our section on plastics includes coverage on all of the major materials consumed. Later in the Encyclopedia you will find charts supplied by IDES that offer information on not only the many grades of plastics available, but also detail which suppliers offer each.
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Acrylic
Clear, smooth, glossy, bright: Acrylic offers glass-like properties Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), better know as acrylic, is considered an ideal material for many uses from roofing panels to point-of-sale displays.
t can also be used for wind barriers, car body parts, cell phone displays, structural components and conservatories. PMMA gives designers and engineers enormous creative scope for a range of applications. Acrylic plastics comprise a broad array of polymers and copolymers in which the major monomeric ingredients are from two ester families—acrylates and methacrylates. Used individually or in combination, often with other monomers, they produce products ranging from soft, flexible elastomers to rigid thermoplastics and thermosets. Resulting from many product innovations in recent years, PMMA offers a wide field of uses. Acrylic molding compounds are suited for optics, information technology, medical engineering, and the building and construction industries. They are presently benefiting from the boom in liquid crystal display (LCD)
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technologies. They also meet the challenges facing design and lightweight construction in the automotive sector and the stringent demands for modern lighting concepts. Coextrusion opens new applications Established material combinations that have proven their worth are composites of PMMA and PVC, or PMMA and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Co-extrudates of acrylic on PVC are widely used for manufacturing window profiles, eaves, gutters and downpipes, as well as facade elements. Coextrusion enables a good match between the properties of the base materials and the PMMA molding compounds. Acrylics offer resistance to UV light and weathering, excellent colorfastness, and have smooth and easy-care surfaces. Moreover, coextrusion is economical
because it upgrades the surface in just one operation, unlike subsequent coating or film lamination. LCD technology has long been stateof-the-art for small television screens, PC monitors, notebooks, displays for car radios and navigation systems, and cell phones. The brilliant colors of the displays are produced by the liquid crystals and several filter layers that transmit light of defined wavelengths when an electric current is applied, and build up an image pixel by pixel. Image quality depends on the interplay between the LCD unit and the backlight module. Typical backlight modules are composed of energy-saving, powerful LED segments or cold-cathode tubes, polarizing and reflective films, and a light-guide made from ultrahigh-purity, optical-grade molding compound, for example PLEXIGLAS. The light-guide plays a crucial role in this system and ensures that the light usually fed in via the edge (edge-light system) is uniformly distributed across the entire surface. The total of their optical and physical properties such as transparency, hardness, and mar resistance make PMMA molding compounds a mainstay of cell phone manufacture, where they are used in the backlight unit but also as display screens, photographic lenses, and decorative face-plates. The low weight, excellent mar resistance, color-fastness, and weather resistance of PMMA molding compounds, paired with their resistance to chemicals and fuels, have prompted designers and engineers to make increased use of them for non-transparent car body parts such as exterior mirror housings, roof eleThe Gelsenkirchen, Germany Zoo features Europe’s largest acrylic aquarium tunnel.
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MPWE 2008 ments, spoilers, or pillar panels. For many years, transparent acrylic has been used for diverse automotive lighting applications, from turn signal indicators and brake light to taillight clusters and special interior lamps. Taillights are an unmistakable and characteristic design feature employed by automotive manufacturers, but whatever the shape, safety comes first. Precisely defined standards are specified for brightness, distribution, and color of the radiated light. In addition, car light covers have to last for the vehicle's entire service life, resisting UV light, moisture, and gasoline. Leading car manufacturers are increasingly using light-emitting diodes (LEDs). These offer the potentially lifesaving advantage of reacting 70 milliseconds faster than conventional lighting systems. Further bonuses are the reduced consumption of electrical energy, and therefore fuel, and their superior light transmission through PMMA. The taillights of some luxury-class vehicles present an innovative alternative. In these, a light-guide made of PMMA molding compound creates similar optical effects to LED but the light source, a simple incandescent bulb, is invisible: all that glows is the end of the light-guide. Depending on surface design, this technology makes it possible to produce both spotlighting and surface lighting. Even after long-term exposure to extreme temperatures, PMMA compounds show virtually no signs of aging. The material can be processed on all conventional injection molding machines and therefore offers engineers and designers greater freedom than conventional glass for creating innovative lighting. Diffuser molding compounds, for instance, make it possible to achieve velvety surfaces with homogenous light distribution and high transmission. This makes them suitable for special lighting in offices that can be adjusted to various activities such as reading, writing, or work at the computer. Plastics product appearance and function are mainly determined by the surface. Depending on the application, the requirement may be for high-gloss Class A surfaces, finely textured or matte velvet surfaces, or ones with special optical modplas.com
Despite being highly transparent, PLEXIGLAS HEATSTOP Transparent multiskin sheets prevent heat build-up from solar radiation, yet also have heat-insulating properties.
structures. To achieve such effects, OEMs and processors exploit the interplay between suitable materials and the right processing technology. Finely textured or matte velvet surfaces offer interesting design aspects and pleasant haptic properties. These are important criteria for choosing materials in the furniture, sanitary, and construction industries, which PMMA fulfills. Crosslinked polymer beads embedded in a basic molding compound create the desired matte effect during extrusion. During injection molding, an etched mold surface helps to provide the required component surface texture. Textured surfaces offer the advantage of being even less sensitive to marring and showing no visible signs of use, such as fingerprints. In sanitary applications, acrylic specially designed by Evonik Industries for baths and spas also offers a special surface effect. These sheets are three to six times more slip-resistant than high-gloss acrylic. Neither water nor dirt particles adhere to the smooth surface of PLEXIGLAS SAFE. Apart from being easy-care and hygienic, this material opens up future growth prospects in the market for walk-in baths and sanitary equipment. Low-rise shower trays made of sanitary-grade acrylic with a matte surface ensure that people of any age can use them safely and without impediment. A new generation of transparent
acrylic sheets has been launched for greenhouses and conservatories. Despite being highly transparent, they prevent heat buildup due to solar radiation and also have a heat-insulating effect (multiskin variant). Both the quadruple-skin sheet and the corrugated sheet, with their low weight and high load-bearing capacity, enable supporting structures with wide support spacings. As roofing, acrylic resists weathering and UV light, is water-dispersing, and can include antifogging surface coatings. The PMMA employed for large aquariums has to contend with a very different type and size of construction. Within Europe's largest aquarium tunnel at Germany’s Gelsenkirchen Zoo—9m long and processed from PLEXIGLAS sheet— visitors view underwater wildlife. In a similarly spectacular fashion, Europe's highest motorway bridge near Millau, France incorporates 7320 semicircular PLEXIGLAS elements. They protect drivers from the crosswinds on the 300m-high bridge that extends 2.5 km across the river Tarn. Wind barriers made from mineral glass would have weighed more than twice as much as PMMA and would have required a different bridge construction. Nanotechnology also offers opportunities for innovative PMMA applications, such as conductive transparent layers on PMMA or sensitivity for laser-welding two transparent acrylic work-pieces. Ulrich Kläres, communications acrylic sheet,
[email protected]; Doris Hirsch, marketing services molding compounds,
[email protected]; Evonik Röhm, Darmstadt, Germany; www.plexiglas.de
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Resin family offers diverse field of applications Whether in automotive, building and construction, or in the IT branch, this family of plastics finds its way into a wealth of challenging products.
luoropolymers are a class of paraffinic polymers that have hydrogen atoms partially or fully replaced by fluorine. They exhibit exceptional chemical resistance and barrier properties, broad temperature resistance, good electrical properties, almost no moisture absorption, extremely low coefficients of friction, and resistance to weathering, among other positive attributes. These attributes make them ideal materials for chemically resistant liners, gaskets, heatresistant cabling, tubing, and filters, valve, pump, and electrical components, coatings and weather-resistant films, among other applications. Various types of fluoropolymers are commercially available, including ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) copolymer, perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) resin, polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), and polyvinyl fluoride. Fluoropolymers can be processed in a variety of manners such as extrusion, injection molding, compression molding, transfer molding and blow molding.
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Fuel, oil resistance Processors of fuel system components today face the dual challenges of engines running at increasingly higher temperatures and increased adoption of biodiesels, especially in Europe. A peroxide-curable fluoroelastomer from Dyneon, for example, is for coextruded fuel line applications that offer resistance to biodiesel, even at elevated temperatures. FPO 3741 has excellent resistance to biodiesel (rapeseed oil methyl ester) even at 150°C. A second new grade from Dyneon, E19789 fluoroelastomer, is a peroxide64
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curable, low-fluorine terpolymer for sealing applications in automotive fuel containment systems that also exhibits exceptional resistance to biodiesel. Even after 1000 hours at 150°C, both grades show a constant low swell and retention of physical properties. Fluoropolymers are also employed in turbo hoses connecting the turbo charger and the intercooler in diesel engines. Here they exhibit resistance to trace amounts of engine oil mist in the blow-by gas. Applicable materials include TFE-propylene dipolymer and TFE-propylene-VdF terpolymer from Asahi Glass. Fluoropolymers are also employed extensively in fuel cells, where they help to form key components such as end plates and bipolar plates in fuel cell stacks, methanol and hydrogen tubing, manifolds, and valves and meters. Construction profile rises Due to the low surface tension of fluoropolymers, films processed from them (typically ETFE) are virtually self-cleaning, needing only rain to wash away accumulated dirt. Films also exhibit very good tear and puncture strength and good hail resistance and moreover, and importantly, they are rated flame retardant non-burning drip. These attributes make them highly suitable materials for use in construction applications. Usually extruded in thickness of 100 to 250 μm, the films can be readily conjoined by heat-sealing. They have been used in roof structures for sports stadiums, swimming pools and botanical gardens, and extensively in greenhouses in Japan. ETFE film featured prominently at the 2006 World Cup in Germany. Asahi Glass supplied 150,000m2 of its Aflex film for the roof of the Allianz-Arena soc-
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Fluoropolymers present flexible options for a variety of applications. cer stadium in Munich, where the opening match was played. The stadium is the world’s largest structure made of ETFE film. ETFE enabled a structure where the side walls and roof are smooth and curved, yet are permeable to the ultraviolet light needed by the grass on the pitch and enables light shows that use the side walls and roof as monitor screens. IT support role Fluoropolymers are playing a key role in the IT revolution. Buildings in the United States that have cables incorporating flammable insulating materials, such as polyethylene and PVC, in the plenums inside the ceilings are required to route such cables through metal pipes in order to increase the flame resistance of the cables. If FEP is used as an insulating material, no metal pipes are required. Thus, FEP has come to be employed extensively as an insulating and jacketing material in limited combustible cables for LAN applications. FEP cables are now being used in over 70% of high-rise building networks. Stephen Moore, Sr. editor,
[email protected] modplas.com
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MPWE 2008 Work horse resin registers solid growth Two years ago, worldwide consumption of nylon grades polyamide 6 and 66 (PA6, PA66) topped about 2.2 million tonnes. The automotive, electrical/ electronics, and packaging sectors were, as in previous years, the major markets. Asia once again is the engine driving this phenomenal growth. or example polymer producer Lanxess is working on the basis that the global consumption of nylon 6 and 66 will rise at approximately 4%/yr to about 2.6 million tonnes in 2010. The market in Asia/Pacific is growing at a phenomenal rate of 7%/yr, with growth in China even higher. Consumption in Asia/Pacific of 680,000 tonnes last year should rise to well above 850,000 tonnes by 2010.
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Asian investment Against this background, it is clear why a large proportion of the increased capacity for PA 6 and 66 and their monomer precursors are concentrated in this area. In April 2006, Lanxess opened a compounding plant for PA6 and 66 and polyester at Wuxi, China that can produce about 20,000 tonnes/yr of these polymers. By the end of 2007, capacities should double. Rhodia Polyamide is building a production plant for PA66 at Onsan, South Korea that will come on stream at the end of 2007 with a capacity of 48,000 tonnes/yr. The company is also planning to build a plant to produce the PA 66 monomer hexamethylene diamine in China in 2009. Another key investment area is Europe, where, for example, Lanxess recently increased PA6 capacities at its Uerdingen, Germany plant by 20,000 tonnes through debottlenecking. In Russia, OAO KuibyshevAzot recently increased PA6 capacities by 50,000 tonnes at the Togliatti site at Samara on the Volga River. The compamodplas.com
ny is planning to set up a third production line by 2008, which will give it a capacity of 95,000 tonnes/yr. Nylons are melt-processable thermoplastics whose chain structure features repeating amide groups. As engineering polymers, they offer a combination of high strength, toughness, stiffness, wear, abrasion, and chemical resistance, as well as a low coefficient of friction. Vehicles: weight saving focus In the automotive industry, climate change means that a large proportion of development work is being concentrated on reducing CO2 emissions. PA6 and 66 play a major role in a variety of concepts such as lightweight construction. Here, plastic-metal composites, also known as hybrid technology, offer promising options as demonstrated by the first aluminum hybrid front-end used in the Audi TT.
The construction of the highly-integrated component using aluminum means that a clear weight saving of 15% over sheet steel can be achieved. The plastic used is a nylon 6 reinforced with 30% glass fiber. In the Citroën C4 Picasso, a completely new generation of injection-molded structural inserts with glass-fiberreinforced PA6 as the support yields a considerable weight saving of 12 kg per vehicle and at the same time improves safety for car occupants. The nine inserts are based on CBS (composite body solutions) technology developed by the French company CORE Products. They are installed specifically in crash-susceptible areas of the bodywork and are found, for example, in the lower part of the A-pillar and in the transverse member over the back axle. A general trend is toward free-flowing PA6 and 66 grades which reduce wall thickness, component weight, and, as a result, CO2 emissions. Lanxess offers glass-fiber-reinforced variations of PA6 and 66 under the brands Durethan EasyFlow and XtremeFlow. Without impacting mechanical properties, they provide up to 80% longer flow paths than comparable standard grades. Excellent-quality component surfaces
New generation of injection molded structural inserts with a carrier made of Durethan BKV 35 H2.0 glass-fiber-reinforced nylon 6 was developed on CBS-Technology (Composite Body Solutions) from CORE Products and deployed in the Citroën C4 Picasso model to achieve major weight savings and improved passenger protection in the event of an accident.
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can be obtained even with higher glassfiber contents. Because injection molding can be carried out at lower melt temperatures, less heat has to be removed and this shortens cycle times by up to 30%. Highly filled nylons, such as Durethan DP BKV 60 EF H2.0 reinforced with 60% glass fiber, open up completely new horizons in design and lightweight construction. Its tensile modulus at room temperature of about 19000 MPa is double that of a standard PA6 filled with 30% glass fiber, but despite the high fiber content it has similar free-flowing properties. One of the first applications is the coated external door handle on the Jaguar X-Type. The highly filled PA6 offers the opportunity to produce components that are cheaper and lighter than alternatives made of reinforced standard PA6 yet have the same mechanical performance. For example, if it is processed on an existing mold for Durethan BKV 30 H2.0, a component with twice the stiffness is produced. If the manufacturer makes the component weight-neutral, the stiffness is still up to 80% higher. There is great potential for using highly filled PA6 in parts made completely of plastic, particularly as a substitute for metal in applications under the hood, and it is suitable for valve covers, gear oil sumps, oil units, assembly supports, and inlet manifolds. The current trend is for supercharged engines that use less fuel and therefore emit less CO2. Equipment for this type of engine includes air charge ducts with integrated shock absorbers, which are mainly manufactured by sequential coextrusion of two polyamides of different hardness. But with new flexible PA6 grades it is in fact possible to manufacture air charge ducts as single-material solutions in suction-blowing processes with parison manipulation. This is considerably cheaper in terms of materials and processing. An example of a new non-reinforced PA6 for air charge ducts is Durethan BC600HTS, which has a modulus of elasticity of only approximately 500 MPa (conditioned). Water injection technique (WIT) has become established as an alternative to 66
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Three-point bending tests on an Erlangen beam: The hybrid support in the form of a composite sheet (2 mm, TEPEX) and Durethan BKV30 has almost twice the load-bearing capacity of a hybrid support consisting of sheet steel (0.7 mm) and Durethan BKV30.
Comparison of the tensile moduli of Durethan BKV 30 H2.0 and DP BKV 60 EF H2.0 (left) absolute; (right) as a function of volume-, weight- and cost-neutral substitution (test pieces).
the gas injection technique on the market for the production of polyamide mediacontaining hollow articles for the engine compartment. One of the first cooling water pipes manufactured using WIT consists of the free-flowing PA66 Durethan DP AKV 30 X HR EF especially developed for this application. Hollow articles for the engine compartment can also be manufactured with the new projectile injection technique (Röchling) derived from the gas injection
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technique, instead of using GIT or WIT. A projectile is passed through the plastic material in the mold by gas pressure, producing hollow articles with a consistent wall thickness and very smooth internal walls that can be produced with very short cycle times. Move to halogen-free FR Significant and, in some cases, interlocking trends are currently developing in the electrical engineering and electrical indusmodplas.com
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MPWE 2008 tries in the ecology, economy, safety, and technology sectors. The EU WEEE and RoHS guidelines apply in terms of ecology, the latter prohibiting certain brominated flame retardants (FR). According to WEEE, electrical and electronic equipment must be taken back and disposed of by the manufacturer. Parts containing halogen-containing FR have to be treated separately and involve additional effort and costs. This means that at present there is a very high demand for halogen-free FR thermoplastics, both in Europe and globally, because the requirements defined in the guidelines increasingly apply in Asia and the U.S. A particular requirement, and this also involves the safety aspect, is halogen-free FR thermoplastics that meet household appliance standard IEC 60335-1. This standard tightens the requirements regarding flammability of plastics in household appliances and specifies a glow wire ignition temperature (GWIT) of 775°C at current intensities above 0.2 amperes for insulating plastics in live parts of unsupervised equipment. This GWIT value and the corresponding entry in the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) ‘yellow card’ is a major hurdle for most nylon 6 and 66 formulations. The example of a massager demonstrates the fact that the requirements can be met with halogen-free, flame retardant packages. The chassis consists of a PA6 reinforced with 30% glass fiber which has a V-2 rating (UL 94) in all available wall thickness and colors. An example of a new halogen-free, FR PA66 is Durethan DP A30S FN30 which meets standard UL 94 even for 0.4-mm-thick test pieces with a very good V-0 rating. It is used to produce rotary switches, among other parts. Some electrical components also need high mechanical and thermal stability for electrical and fire safety, for example heavy-duty plugs for the construction industry where a nonreinforced PA6 is sufficient to meet the requirements. In electrical engineering, the demand for nylon grades with which a high stiffness with a delicate molding structure can be achieved is in fact increasing. Because of its very high stiffness and strength, the free-flowing PA6 highly filled with 60% glass fiber mentioned above opens up completely new possibilities. The electrical/electronics industry is also under tremendous economic pressure. There is a great demand for price/performance-optimized materials and for product formulations where the component weight and/or cycle times can be reduced, which is possible particularly with the new free-flowing polyamides mentioned above. One example of an application is the chassis of a vacuum cleaner, which has a highly complex and delicate internal geometry. It has been possible to manufacture the thin-wall component with outstanding surface quality particularly easily, quickly, and at the same time economically in short cycle times with the PA6 Durethan DP BKV30 XF. New technologies or those first used in other areas of application are being taken up by the electrical/electronics industry. Examples include the already mentioned GIT and WIT technologies for hollow handles. The incentive to use these two technologies is not just to produce lightweight components modplas.com
Thirty percent glass-fiber-reinforced XtremeFlow nylon 6 is used to make this vacuum cleaner chassis. with good haptics, but also because the cabling can be integrated into the resulting cavity. An example of a material tailormade for GIT is the PA6 Durethan BKV 130 GIT 900116 from which handles for power saws can be processed. Ralf Zimnol, head of application development, transportation; Eckhard Erlenkämper, head of application development—multi-industries; Ralph Ulrich, head of strategic marketing, Durethan; all with semi-crystalline products business unit, Lanxess AG, Dormagen, Germany; www.durethan.com; www.lanxess.com
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Can’t keep a good resin down— moderate growth continues The global polycarbonate (PC) market is seeing demand from a wide number of industries, yet current global growth is slower than previous years.
ales volumes are being affected by strong pricing pressure. Very high costs for PC raw materials—benzene, phenol, and acetone—as well as for energy are adversely affecting margins while the weak dollar is exacerbating the situation. Global PC consumption in 2007 was about 3.15 million tonnes, and is predicted to grow to around 3.30 million tonnes this year, meaning global PC demand for the next few years is 6-8%. Above-average growth is seen in Asia-Pacific, including China. The Chinese market alone consumed nearly 900,000 tonnes of PC, or 27% of global consumption, in 2007. PC manufacturers are therefore concentrating production investments in Asia, particularly in China. Japan’s Teijin, for example, intends to expand annual capacities at the Jiaxing , China from 100,000 to 160,000 tonnes/yr by next year. Formosa Idemitsu Petrochemical Corp. (FIPC) is raising capacity at its Taiwanese site by 75,000 tonnes. By the end of this year Bayer MaterialScience (BMS; Leverkusen, Germany) will have completed a plant expansion project of its Makrolon-brand PC capacities in Caojing near Shanghai from 100,000 to 200,000 tonnes/yr. Yet the launch of this additional capacity will depend on the market situation. Mitsubishi and Chi Mei also announced they will be constructing new PC plants in China in the next few years. Several companies plan to enter the PC market this year and beyond. Cheil and Honam in Korea, and Kazanorgintez in Tatarstan, Russia, each have capacities of 65,000 tonnes/yr as their targets. Saudi Kayan Petrochemical (Kayan, Saudi Arabia)/Sabic is constructing a 260,000 tonnes/yr polycarbonate unit at Al-Jubail, Saudi Arabia, set to come
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Global PC consumption including blends. onstream in 2010. [Editor’s Note: At press time, Mitsubishi Chemical and China’s Sinopec said they have agreed to form a joint venture to produce 60,000 tonnes/yr PC by 2010. The $300 million plant is to be constructed in Beijing.] Over the long term, the primary PC applications are set to change. The use of the Internet and direct downloading of music and films have caused a revolution in PC use. In 2007, optical data storage was PC’s most important application, accounting for 32% of total production. From 2000 to 2006 alone, the consumption of PC for CDs and DVDs enjoyed average annual growth rates of more than 15% and grew to around 930,000 tonnes. Yet the latest survey indicates PC demand for optical storage devices should peak in two years as other storage media and technologies gain ground.
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PC growth is coming from other areas such as automotive glazing, diffuser sheets for LCD monitors, new light sources such as LEDs, halogen-free flame-retardant PC blends for electronic and electrical applications, and customized PC blends for automotive interiors and bodywork. PC vehicle roof modules take off In 2007 automotive engineering accounted for about 9% of global PC consumption, particularly in automotive glazing for large panoramic roofs. Current examples on the market are the 1.1m2 rear roof module of the Mercedes-Benz GL and the panoramic roof of the Smart fortwo urban car are just two examples. A number of o<0}ther attractive potential applications are emerging in this sector, too. This is demonstrated by BMS’ modplas.com
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MPWE 2008 own concept for the automotive industry of a highly integrated, lightweight lamella roof based on Makrolon AG2677. Bayer MaterialScience’s idea differs from conventional sliding and folding roofs based on textile or vinyl above all through its almost complete transparency. It opens up new opportunities for value-added component design unattainable with glass. This concept incorporates transparency, sealing, opening, and closing in a single plastic component. Transparent and flexible materials that act as a folding hinge and seal are molded onto the individual polycarbonate lamellae. The prototype component has four flexible lamella sections that form four “roof windows” and can each be opened and closed separately at right angles to the direction of travel. Tracks are used to connect the sections to a solid, transparent polycarbonate roof skin. In the middle of the roof is a transparent binnacle that accommodates the folded package of lamellae when the “roof window” is opened. According to BMS estimates, the density difference between glass and PC yields weight savings up to 40%. Integration of functions opens up additional opportunities for both weight and cost reduction. This component incorporates a wind deflector, two indicator housings, and, at the end of the transparent central tube, a brake light housing. Processors of cable conduits are increasingly opting for chlorine- and bromine-free FR PC/ABS blends.
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Opening and closing of the PC lamella roof developed by Bayer MaterialScience is performed by an innovative mechanism that reduces the construction volume for the roof element by up to 50% compared to conventional solutions. Tailored PC blends are also becoming more important in automotive applications. PC/ABS grades can be used to process very thin trim panels. Such materials are often more heat-resistant than polypropylene or ABS alone and yield components that have better scratch resistance. Toughness at low temperatures makes them suitable for safety-related areas, such as around airbags or in headand knee-impact zones. Easy-flow PC/ABS grades, such as Bayblend T65XF and T85XF (XtremeFlow), have up to 15% better flow characteristics than standard PC/ABS and good aging resistance. PC blends are also becoming increasingly important in the automotive bodywork sector, for example as an alternative to nylon in large radiator grilles. Thermosets such as sheet molding compounds (SMC) are increasingly being replaced by mineral-filled PC/PET and PC/PBT blends as well as unfilled or glass-fiber-reinforced PC/ABS grades. Why? PC blends can be cheaper than SMC when produced in large quantities. Cycle times tend to be shorter since they are injection molded and, unlike SMCs, require no post-molding treatment. They also generate less waste and any waste that is produced can be recycled easily. The blends produce a Class A surface for
such items as horizontal body parts that can be directly coated. Other areas where PC/ABS blends are coming into use are electroplated interior door handles, instrument panel displays, and vehicle headlights requiring high-heatresistant bezels. These complement existing applications such as headlamp lenses where almost 95% are today made from PC. Electrical/electronics The second-largest area of PC application, electrical/electronics, accounted for more than 23% of the market in 2007. There is strong demand for halogen-free, flame-retardant thermoplastics in this sector. In Europe growth is fuelled by EU legislation such as WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment) and RohS (Restriction of the Use of Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment) guidelines, which oblige manufacturers to collect and dispose of electrical and electronic equipment without a charge. Plastics containing certain brominated flame retardants need to be disposed of separately. Manufacturers are therefore looking for alternative, halogen-free materials to avoid high disposal costs. Similar guidelines are now in force in China, Korea, and some U.S. states. As a result of this
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trend, halogenated HIPS and ABS materials are being replaced by halogen-free, flame-retardant PC blends. In Europe, the new standard IEC62368 should bring stricter requirements for flame retardancy of televisions and IT devices. Relatively new on the market are flame-retardant PC blends that are durable in warm and humid environments. These are used in white goods or appliances for extreme climatic regions. One example is Bayblend DP 3008HR, an extremely hydrolysis-resistant PC/ABS blend that has proved itself in accelerated aging tests. The yield stress of the blend (ISO527-1 and -2) remains virtually unaffected by being placed over a water bath at a temperature of 80°C for 60 days, despite being in permanent contact with steam. Cable ducts are nowadays being extruded or thermoformed from chlorine- and bromine-free flame-retardant PC/ABS blends due to their highly flameretardant properties. The growing use of diffuser sheets in LCD flatscreen monitors presents a promising PC market. These PC sheets form part of the backlight unit and are designed to convert light from very bright fluorescent tubes into diffused, uniform, and evenly distributed light, then transfer this to the image-creating LCD display without light loss. PC manufacturers say these sheets offer better optical and mechanical characteristics than competitive acrylic. High data-storage capacity The optical data-storage market is driven by a need for higher data-storage capacity. The CD and DVD market has witnessed the introduction of new formats. The successors of the DVD format operate with blue lasers and allow storage capacities of 15 to 25 GB per information layer, thus permitting the storage of a full-length video in high resolution. Improved UV protection PC extruded sheets for the building and construction industry accounted for 13% of global PC consumption last year. Raw materials manufacturers are currently focusing on the development of 70
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Bayblend DPT95MF is used together with Makrolon AG2677, a polycarbonate developed for automotive glazing, in the large roof module of the Smart fortwo urban vehicle.
improved UV concentrates for the coextrusion of multiwall sheets and solid sheets. Such products are based on a UV stabilizer with low volatility that exhibits a reduced tendency towards outgassing during coextrusion, making processing easier, while outperforming conventional products in terms of surface quality and greater cost-effectiveness. PC for LED focusing optics Lighting engineering makes use of PC’s application potential of transparency and translucency in housings, lamp covers, and lighting systems that use LEDs as a light source. Compared to glass, PC allows production of highly complex geometries. It is also better suited than acrylic to cope with the maximum operating temperatures of LEDs. Because of its higher refractive index, lenses can also be made thinner. For example, a collimator lens has been produced from Makrolon-brand PC in collaboration with Light Prescriptions Innovators (LPI; Altadena,
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CA). This kind of lens plays a key role in LED automotive headlamp designs. LPI’s “RXI” collimator lens, designed for this application, is compact and has a highly complex geometry, often with extreme changes in wall thickness that are very close together. To satisfy the high requirements, a two-cavity mold was used with double-layer injection molding in which a premolding is created in the first cavity and then overmolded in the second cavity to give the part its final shape. With this process and a sophisticated temperature control system, it is possible to produce the complex part with excellent surface quality in short cycle times and without sink marks. Medical technology Two years ago, PC consumption for medical equipment was about 80,000 tonnes. Rugged, break-resistant PC is expected to continue steady, above-average growth in years to come due to demographic changes (in developed regions this means people living longer, modplas.com
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MPWE 2008 self-medicating more with inhalers, for example, and reciving shorter hospitalizations to limit healthcare costs; in developing regions this means more affluence to afford better medical care). Primarily because of its high impact strength, PC is ideal as a robust, fractureresistant engineering material for compact precision components in inhalers that are subject to high stresses. Transparent PC also supports visual monitoring of certain functions. In the future, major surgery such as heart and cancer operations could make increasing use of video support for minimal invasive surgery using endoscopes and catheters. PC has a role here for connections and coupling elements—partly because it is highly resistant to disinfectants and cleansing agents and can be sterilized very effectively using current methods. Sales of PC grades that can be sterilized with high-energy radiation are outpacing the market. This method is more effective, gentler, and less complicated than ethylene oxide or superheated-steam sterilization. Water bottles still in demand The market for extrusion blowmolded 5-gal PC water bottles is still growing dynamically, mainly in developing markets. Worldwide, approximately 100,000 tonnes of PC were processed for this purpose last year. Growth is above average in Asia, but is also stimulated in developing and threshold countries, particularly where sparsely populated regions or areas with poor infrastructure need to be supplied with clean drinking water.
PC demand for optical storage devices is projected to peak in two years.
Polycarbonate roofs extruded from Makrolon-brand Multi UV3X25-25ES can withstand rain and snow loads of more than 3 kN/m2.
Klaus Horn, senior manager development polycarbonate; Frank Schnieders, senior manager market and competitive intelligence; Hans-Joachim Laue, director global industry management; all Bayer MaterialScience, Leverkusen, Germany;
[email protected]; www.plastics.bayer.com
The PC “RXI” collimator lens designed by LPI features free-form surfaces with non-symmetrical geometries to focus the entire LED light.
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Downgauging boosts resin’s popularity Polyethylene (PE) continues to retain its leading position as the largest family of resins processed worldwide.
ith 15 main PE producers worldwide (source: Borealis, CMAI) and global consumption in 2007 at about 75 million tonnes, PE accounts for approximately 30% of global plastics consumption according to the 2007 Maack SPF report. Depending on the PE product family (LDPE, LLDPE, mLLDPE, MDPE, HDPE), average annual PE consumption rose in the range of 3-11% during the last five years. This pattern looks set to continue as an increasing number of application sectors turn to PE’s versatility to meet current market requirements for a balance between cost efficiency, performance, and growing environmental considerations.
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Global growth All regions are forecast to show an increase in demand between now and 2012. Main PE conversion capacities are located in Asia, Europe, and North America, however Asia is expected to record the strongest growth at approximately 7%/yr to 2012 (source: Borealis, CMAI). Across the globe, the highest demand will be focused on the main PE user segments: infrastructure (pipe, wire and cable), and the advanced packaging sector (rigid/flexible packaging). On the PE supply side, the major capacity
High-density polyethylene pipes extruded from BorSafe HE3490LS-H are able to withstand demanding installation conditions in mountainous regions around Innsbruck, Austria. increase will take place in the Middle East, based on the easy access to hydrocarbon feedstock. A highly versatile material from a processing perspective, PE is used in film, extrusion coating, sheet, blowmolding, injection molding, pipe, wire and cable, rotomolding, and other extrusion methods. Film and sheet applications remain at the forefront, accounting for 50% of current global consumption (sourc: Maack SPF 2007). For Europe, the PTAI 2006 report breaks down sector consumption of approximately 17 kilotonnes in 2006 as follows: 51% film and coating; 16% blowmolding; 12% injection molding; 8% pipe and conduit; 3% wire and cable; 2% rotomolding; 1% sheet; 3% other, non-extrusion; 4% other, extrusion. Processors share largely the same ForForm polyethylene-based film is being used for industrial packaging of 5-20 kg blocks of frozen fish.
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principles whatever their production method—focusing on the need to use state-of-the-art, competitive solutions for their specific applications to meet their customers’ requirements. PE’s main properties of easy processing in the different conversion technologies, straightforward recycling, high value for money, good mechanical properties, good deep temperature resistance, downgauging potential, and high output rates explain its high popularity. The scope of these advantages outweighs the limited hightemperature resistance of standard noncrosslinked PE for some selected application areas. However, priorities continue to vary across the various processing areas and solutions coming to the market reflect this. Achieve more with less Advances in PE product performance through the introduction of proprietary polymerization technologies like modplas.com
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Crosslinkable Supercure LC8205 polyethylene is extruded for medium voltage cables that require superior electrical performance. A crosslinked polyethylene pitch heating system provides good playing conditions for stadia, including those used in the most recent World Cup. Borealis’ Borstar technology continue to help processors to tailor product performance. Bimodal PE products based on such polymerization technology are impacting PE’s various markets, with the advantage in that improvements in properties such as toughness/stiffness and environmental stress cracking resistance (ESCR) mean that processors can use less polymer to fulfill the same requirements. The use of higher alpha-olefin comonomers as well as advanced catalyst systems in combination with advanced polymerization technologies like Borstar is additionally boosting the PE product property profile. Downgauging potential is being explored across all segments. However its importance is increasing as a key way for processors and converters to improve their competitiveness by reducing costs and material volumes, tackle the need for lower energy use and less waste generation, and leave a smaller “environmental food print” across the value chain. In the molded bottle market, there is an increasing move towards the use of high ESCR-value PE material in order to downgauge material volumes. Pipe is another area where an increase in ESCR values and especially increased slow crack growth resistance in combination with high hydrostatic strength is allowing the extruded pipe market to use less material to achieve the strength and high pressure resistance required of today’s applications. Additionally, this new property profile of modplas.com
state-of-the-art PE pipe products allows new installation techniques, which result in major cost saving potential for all members in the value chain. Stretching capabilities Today’s film processors serve a broad range of application sectors, including food and non-food packaging, industrial and technical applications, agricultural films, and films for building and construction. Downgauging potential here is further enhancing processors’ abilities to improve margins and respond to environmental considerations. Significant emphasis is also placed on PE’s ability to improve the convenience, aesthetics, and food quality/shelf-life required by brand owners, packers, retailers, and the end-consumer. In the non-food packaging sector, the introduction of post-extrusion treatment of machine or monodirectional (MDO) PE film highlights the step changes in downgauging that are taking place. Heavy-duty MDO shipping sacks have been successfully downgauged from 130 μm to 80 μm, delivering significant benefits in terms of lighter-weight packaging with knock-on improvements for handling and storage logistics, reduced material and energy usage, and the associated cost advantages. Coextruded (COEX) films continue to open up new material combinations and therefore new performance and processing advantages for PE processors. Main machinery suppliers report that more than
75% of new blown-film extrusion lines are COEX lines having three layers or more. Looking ahead, PE suppliers will explore the full potential of new material combinations to create greater opportunities for PE in this sector. We can also expect to see more high-purity PE products, opening up further possibilities for PE in medical and food packaging applications. The increased use of COEX extruders is also driving the trend of material combinations of PE products with PP and other polymers such as ethylene vinyl alcohol and nylon in order to fulfill the increasing requirements. Competitive Edge With sustainability a key issue facing plastics processors, PE’s attractiveness as a recyclable, cost-efficient material will continue. We are seeing already the potential offered by the material’s downgauging capabilities in combination with state-of-the-art extrusion and conversion techniques, as exemplified by MDO film based on Borstar PE COEX film. As we move forward, the PE sector can expect to see more new catalyst systems, increasing use of higher alpha-olefins comonomers, multimodal PE products, and post-extrusion treatments providing new properties, which will not only open up greater potential for downgauging but influence the value PE can bring and the applications where it can be used. Albin Mariacher, application marketing manager, film and fiber, Borealis, Vienna, Austria;
[email protected]; www.borealisgroup.com
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Polyethylene terephthalate
PET remains the one to beat in transparent packaging Although some other materials are being marketed as polyethyelene terephthalate (PET) replacements, as yet there is no sign that these will be accepted on a grand scale by either brand owners or consumers. ecently a number of leading materials suppliers have tried to place clarified polypropylene, polystyrene, and even new grades of nearly transparent high-density polyethylene as potential substitutes for PET. So far, market acceptance of these appears to be very limited. PET remains a favorite among brand owners, who value its appearance, ease of processing and performance in packaging lines, and its positive environmental image. The possibility of taking part in this strong market has drawn the attention of machine manufacturers and packaging processors as well as beverage-filling/foodprocessing companies. The speed in the market’s development has caused many firms to reconsider their positions within the market’s supply chain, and either leave the chain or reinforce their own position. Major recent sales include M&G’s divesti-
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Brand owners such as Hansa-Heeman continue to pick PET for their applications. Shown is a line for the firm supplied by Sidel, which also supplied the blowmolding machinery.
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ture of its preform molding operations, and Amcor’s sale of its preform molding business in Europe to La Seda. For the beverage fillers the market has turned especially bitter, as ever more competitors enter the space, leading to competition often based solely on price. The willingness of these brand owners to pay for packaging has in turn decreased, though many firms also recognize that they need top-notch PET packaging to grab consumers’ attention. The goal is for products’ packaging to draw positive attention quickly, but at a palatable price point. Product protection is considered a given, and packaging function and design are grabbing a greater share of importance for their communication purpose and especially for their ability to impress on a consumer’s memory. The shape and design of a PET package are used to communicate a product’s character: PET packaging creates an image. For machine manufacturers supplying PET preform molding, stretch blowmolding, or filling machinery, the need to supply customer-specific solutions, more quickly than ever before and at the same or higher quality, has been a tough challenge. One positive result for processors has been a steady climb in production cells’ output, be they preform molding cells, now often outfitted with 144- or 192-cavity molds, or stretch blow-
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molding machinery that runs 48 or more blowmold cavities at 95+% efficiency. These higher outputs were necessary as preform molding and bottle blowmolding have become largely a commodity process, with associated pricing. However, there have also been a number of developments in lower-cavity machinery, for both preform molding and bottle blowing, in recognition that more niche markets are developing and also that smaller regional markets also offer opportunities. One result is that the PET packaging market, more than ever, requires processors to frequently check their strategies and product offerings, and transition these to meet current market requirements (and stay ahead of the fillers and beverage brand owners). Profitably making this transition typically can only be accomplished by introducing new and better products; this goes for the machine suppliers as well as the processors. The goal of bringing a better product to market at the right time only works through efficient product management and structured innovation management, and when these both are anchored in a firm’s strategy. There appear a few revolutionary steps on the horizon, especially those that manage to combine as-yet separate links of the supply chain. One concrete development is the Direct To Preform (DTP) technology that enables a processor to go directly from PET’s precursor materials to PET pellets without need for a separate polymerization plant. Although it’s still early in the development phase, the DTP process appears sure to save users at least 10%, a giant leap. Otto Appel, founder and director of tecPET innovation GmbH, Regensburg, Germany, a PET packaging consultant. www.tec-pet.com modplas.com
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Polypropylene
MPWE 2008 Polymer satisfies commodity as well as value-added market needs Be it molecular weight distribution, the selection of copolymers, or the
adjustment of the molecule structure, the properties of polypropylene (PP) can be affected by a variety of parameters. he wide range of performance characteristics and properties of PP enable its penetration into very diverse markets—automotive interior and exterior applications, packaging and housing, fibers, pipes, and medical devices, just to mention a few. Polypropylene is no longer regarded as an inexpensive material for making mass-produced articles at the lowest possible price. Now the material (in fiberreinforced form, for example) has begun to conquer new application areas in which engineering plastics are used, such as automotive bumpers (90% are made of PP). As a result, manufacturers such as LyondellBasell Industries, the world’s largest polyolefins producer, are not just suppliers of PP; they also serve as problem solvers, employing a material with an ideal cost-to-properties balance.
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Commodity driven Between 2003 and 2007, worldwide polypropylene consumption increased by nearly 5%/yr toward 45 million tonnes. At present, extensive new capacity is being created in the Middle East. Until recently, the PP market was mainly commodity-driven, primarily standard applications in which price counts. As a result, these resins can only be produced economically by worldscale plants. Although transport costs have to be added, it is possible to bring competitive products to the market, especially when a close link to the requisite raw material source is assured. This is the case in the Middle East, and also in backward-integrated companies. The worldwide PP capacity is currently close to 50 million tonnes/yr. The highest capacities are in Asia (20 million tonnes/yr), North America, including Mexico (10 million modplas.com
Polypropylene can offer some material advantages such as lower density in blowmolded containers and hot-fill capability that competitive resins such as PET, polystyrene, or vinyl don’t provide.
tonnes/yr) and Western Europe (10 million tonnes/yr). The Middle East currently has a capacity of 3.3 million tonnes (up from 2 million tonnes in 2003), but it will double existing capacities within the next two years. New processes Global development is mainly driven by Asia-Pacific—and especially China. Growth rates up to double digits are currently forecast for this region. More than 50% of global PP production is currently manufactured using LyondellBasell’s Spheripol process. The company’s Spherizone process technology has now been added to this, which facilitates the production of PP variants with selectively adjusted, multimodal molecular weight distributions through the use of multizone reactors. The Spherizone
process has already been installed in 10 facilities worldwide, corresponding to an output of about 3 million tonnes. Driver in packaging This trend has contributed toward increasing the market weight of PP specialties over the recent past. It includes an industry trend toward wall thickness reductions in packaging production. Thin-walled products help save raw material costs. One example of current new developments is LyondellBasell’s new Clyrell EC340R, which is characterized by a combination of rigidity and flowability, leading to a wall-thickness reduction of up to 10% in ice cream packaging. Another advantage of PP packaging grades is the density—the difference compared to PET is approximately 30% (compared to PS: 20%,
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LyondellBasell’s Spherizone PP process technology permits producing polymer varieties with selectively adjusted multi-modal molecular weight distributions. PVC: 25%)—and the higher production throughput of PP. All in all, this can lead to significant cost advantages for PP materials, shifting the balance more and more in favor of PP solutions, despite volatile raw material prices. In injection stretch blowmolding, new PP grades permit a broad processing window through a defined molecular mass distribution. One example is LyondellBasell’s Stretchene resin, a PP material characterized by advantages in terms of stiffness, transparency, impact strength, and production efficiency compared to conventional PP grades. Furthermore, the lightweight material (density: 0.9 g/cm3) is used in thin-walled bottles that are stacked on pallets and are hence not permitted to deform under load. Another argument in favor of PP is the temperature resistance compared to PET, which permits the largely germ-free filling of hot liquids. PET grades with comparable temperature resistance are more expensive. One example of an 76
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innovation in this field is Clyrell RC 514L: The resin provides not only a higher level of transparency but also the required stiffness and ease of processing in customer applications. Thus, this material can be used in the formfill-seal process, which has thus far been dominated by PS and (with some limitations) PET. Adstif HA740J has been the PP material of choice for customers producing preformed multilayer barrier food packaging. The new resin is a nucleated, high-crystalline PP material used in sheet extrusion and thermoforming applications, offering improved processing, high transparency, and stiffness without loss of impact resistance. In the states of South East Asia too, there is a trend toward higher-grade film packaging, even though the solutions do not need to be as sophisticated as in the West. It is expected that the packaging sector—and hence the PP used in this field—will experience above-average growth rates in the future. Growth in pipes PP also exhibits increasing demand in pipe systems. Already in use for more than four decades in this application, the highest development potential lies in waste water and drainage applications, where PP materials offer good physical properties for solid-wall and structuredwall pipes. Producers of PP pipes place emphasis on better stiffness and service life in order to provide an alternative to more traditional materials such as concrete or clay. One of the newest materials used by pipe producers is LyondellBasell’s Hostalen PP H2483 produced with the Spherizone technology. This grade is characterized by a high tensile modulus of elasticity (1750 MPa)
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and is used by customers especially in sewage- and drainage-pipe applications. Metallocene-based PP In addition to this, producers such as LyondellBasell, with its Metocene resins, are launching PP grades based on metallocene catalysts. Their narrow molecular weight distribution means they exhibit a high degree of purity, improved dimensional stability, and particularly high transparency. These resins are used by customers in nonwoven textiles that are required to have high strength, such as in nonwovens for respiratory masks, as well as in laboratory technology products. Medical devices Another key market segment increasing in significance is medical devices. PP is growing up to 6%/yr in Europe alone, i.e., faster than in the region in general— and not only as the basic material for one-way syringes. The market calls for materials that not only offer a high degree of purity but also specific quality assurances and customized service packages. Purell resins from LyondellBasell, for example, are not only replacing glass, which can readily fracture, but they can also meet users’ needs through the valuable quality assurances regarding the composition of the polymer. This helps the customers to recover the costs of the certification procedures through a long market presence and to avoid renewed tests on the applications in the event of changes to the material. Outlook PP still has significant potential to substitute other materials such as PVC and PS, as well as ABS and PET. Worldwide polypropylene consumption is therefore expected to continue to grow at a rate of about 5%/yr during the next five years. Dr. Mattis Gosmann, marketing manager polypropylene,
[email protected], Jochen Kunz, market research manager polypropylene;
[email protected]; LyondellBasell Industries, Polymers Division, Frankfurt, Germany; www.lyondellbasell.com modplas.com
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Polyurethane
MPWE 2008 One material has a variety of uses in soft and rigid applications
Celebrating its 70th anniversary last year, polyurethane (PUR) has come a long way since Otto Bayer first synthesized this versatile plastics material in the lab. Commercial production of PUR began in 1940. pplications range from flexible or rigid foams to coatings, adhesives, sealants, and elastomers, to thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU). And while the basic chemistry that makes a polyurethane a polyurethane—the combination of an isocyanate with a polyol—hasn’t really changed, the evolution of each component opens up new applications and markets for growth that should increase demand for PUR well into the future. Key PUR markets and applications include building and construction, appliances, transportation, composite wood, recreation equipment, furnishings, coatings, adhesives, sealants, elastomers, marine, medical, and apparel. Polyurethanes are well known for their durability. Mostly thermoset in origin, products made of polyurethane often withstand some of the toughest environments on the planet. Polyurethanes can be found in virtually any industry where performance is critical, whether it’s through safeguarding efforts of protective coatings, the insulating properties of rigid foams, or the strength of structural reaction injection molding (S-RIM). Polyurethane coatings and sealants protect bridges, cars, and airplanes, or concrete and wood. Polyurethanes can be found as foams throughout the home in furniture, bedding, major appliances, and carpet underlay. Advances in PUR material technology allow its performance and freedom of design to work together so that bold, new product trends can enter the market, such as walls with integral speakers or automotive instrument panels with integrated airbag components. Office chairs designed to reduce back fatigue, and mattresses that conform to the body for custom support are just a few other
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examples of these advances. Engineered for high strength, low weight, and durability, polyurethane is a cornerstone in the automotive/transportation sector. Replacing heavier metal parts in a car with those made of PUR often has multiple benefits: lighter weight enhances fuel efficiency; the addition of structural fibers and other composite materials means better strength; energy-absorbing foams help to protect passengers; and tougher coatings mean longer service life. Many PUR technology advances have been developed in response to such needs as the reduction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in coatings and elastomers, recyclability, energy conservation, and upgraded processing techniques. For example, in the U.S., architectural panels made using rigid polyurethane foamcore sandwich technology now use HCFC-free blowing agents. Similar advances in rigid polyurethane foam insulation in household appliances have helped manufacturers comply with stringent U.S. Dept. of Energy power consumption regulations. Future trends Polyurethanes should be the material of choice for applications needing design freedom and dependable performance. Evolving material technology coupled with new casting, molding, and spraying process advancements will result in more new products being made from PUR. Larger-dimension and custom-designed products using polyurethanes, such as counters and surrounds, will be found throughout the home, especially in the kitchen and bathroom. Outdoor and recreation applications
The Shadow easy chair by Gaetano Pesce owes its outer shape and comfort to Bayfit flexible PUR foam. During assembly, the textile covering is filled directly with the liquid PUR, which gives the seat its individual shape. will continue to benefit from polyurethane’s unique engineered characteristics. Innovative PUR applications will also be found globally in high-tech medical instruments, hospitals, and pharmaceutical labs, from treatment trolleys to operating microscopes. The global market for polyurethanes should be strong as demand in all sectors is healthy today. Performance characteristics that were formerly thought to be obtainable only in the realm of thermoplastics will be achieved with some new polyurethanes. Clear, light-stable products can now benefit from the durability and weatherability of polyurethane. Moreover, alternative sustainable feedstock sources are gaining ground, as witnessed by the development of biobased polyols and the use of sucrose as a basis for rigid foam polyols. Mary C. Schaub, polyurethanes marketing NAFTA, Bayer MaterialScience, Pittsburgh, PA, USA;
[email protected]; www.bayermaterialscience.com
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Good times for vinyl to continue through 2008 As expected at the end of 2006, global demand for PVC continued to rise gently in 2007 at the same annual rate of 4.5%. So far, for the year in progress, this rise has continued just as steadily. iven that 67% of worldwide vinyl production is destined for the construction markets, it is interesting to note that this steady rise is, in fact, due to a growing imbalance between, on the one hand, this sector’s markets in the United States and Western Europe, and, on the other, those of emerging markets. This means that the steady rise in worldwide growth has been driven, on the one hand, by an unprecedented rise in demand in Eastern Europe, South Asia, and the Middle East (+15% in Poland, India, Saudi Arabia, etc.) and, on the other hand, has been curbed by the greatest decline in demand that the U.S. has seen since the start of the housing sector crisis (-30% of housing starts in 2007). Whereas demand is continuing to grow by 10%/yr in China, it has seen a slight slowdown in Russia (+15% in 2007 compared with +26% in 2006). In Western Europe, where the construction
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index only rose by 1.7%, compared with 7.6% in Eastern Europe, demand for PVC only saw a low rate of growth in 2007 (+1% on 2006). In South America, and predominantly Brazil, the strongest growth came from the water-supply and sanitary-equipment sectors. The worldwide PVC market saw its production capacity rise by 15% between 2004 and 2007. It is currently estimated at 44 million tonnes/yr, and investments are continuing in most regions, including the U.S. and Western Europe. More than half of total production comes from Asia, which is also the main supplier to countries in the Near and Middle East. In 2008, the strongest growth is expected in the Persian Gulf (estimated +30% over the next four years). Whereas China alone is responsible for 83% of the worldwide growth in supply (+2 million tonnes/yr), Russia remained a net importer in 2007 (+65%
of imports on 2006). The planned investments in the United States, despite the depression in the construction sector, herald a production surplus. In 2008, the costs of raw materials and energy, along with China’s acetylenebased PVC production capacities, will continue to be decisive factors as regards the worldwide market trend. Materials under pressure Crude oil prices continued to soar in 2008, with the barrel price exceeding the $100 threshold. This situation represents a major challenge for ethylene-based PVC producers, who will face ever higher raw materials costs and ever narrower margins going forward. At the end of 2007, the price of ethylene recorded a record rise of approximately +50% on 2006 (+ €1000/ tonne), without this being fully passed on in the price of PVC. China, where 70% of PVC produc-
Left: Demand for wood/PVC composite siding, decking, and profiles continues to grow. Right: Coextruded vinyl window and door profiles provide attractive alternatives to metal and wood. 78
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MPWE 2008 tion is still acetylene based, finds itself in a similar position to regions in the West. With a market driven by a 50% rise in coal and electricity prices (due, among other reasons, to the liberalization of the Chinese coal market and a significant fall in the volumes available), Chinese PVC production costs rose by €100/tonne in 2007 alone, which is tending to make the acetylene-based process less and less competitive on the worldwide market. Alternative energy In 2007, the rise in oil, gas, and coal prices, and the levying of CO2 taxes on energy produced using fossil fuels, had a huge impact on electricity prices. In fact, electricity represents the most important cost factor in the production of chloralkali and its by-products (20% of PVC production costs). As a result, the impact of this rise was soon felt on the competitiveness and investment capacities of PVC producers. This is particularly true in Europe, where electricity prices have doubled, and where the trend is to increase production capacities in Asia. While the trend does not look set to reverse soon, in Brazil, ethanol production using sugar cane is becoming a major energy source. In 2007, Solvay Indupa, the country’s second largest PVC producer, signed an investment program intended to produce 60,000 tonnes/yr of bioethanol-based PVC (2010 forecast). For the time being, this alternative can only be contemplated in this region of the world, which enjoys the right climate conditions and amount of arable land to ensure the best yield per hectare, without affecting the balance of the food markets. New trends • Profiles (17% of the worldwide market): The highest rise in demand (+15%) is currently being recorded in Central and Eastern Europe (Poland), South Asia (India, Pakistan), and the Middle East. The reason for this is the boom in the new residential sector of the construction sector. The main trend is still for wood-PVC which, since 2004, has secured more than 20% of the U.S. and European market shares for wood-polymer composites, mainly in decking and siding applicamodplas.com
tions. It is also worth pointing out the emergence of PVC/long-glassfiber composites and, in window applications, new innovative sealed window frame solutions. • Pipes and fittings (37% of the worldwide market): A market which is growing slowly in Western Europe (1%), mainly in Italy, but which is expanding rapidly in Poland, South Africa, India, and especially Brazil. This acceleration in demand in these regions is attributable to local programs to develop the water-supply and public-sanitation sectors. In Brazil, it can also be explained that the mortgage interest rate has leveled off at 1.5%. Currently, in terms of innovation, the market is starting to see a new process for the continuous manufacture of bi-oriented PVC pipes, as well as new designs aiming either to improve sound insulation in sewerage systems, or to facilitate the integration of cable manufacture. • Flooring (6% of the worldwide market): The highest rate of growth is in the residential flooring market (+5% in 2007). The reason behind this figure is the significant rise in demand in Eastern Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Indeed, its design, insulating value, and ease of maintenance make it an extremely fashionable decorative product. • Wire and cable (7% of the worldwide market): There has been a 4% increase in demand due to the emergence of the telecommunications segment and the construction boom in South Asia, with PVC being increasingly appreciated for its specific properties and low cost. Recycled PVC In Europe, the figure for post-consumption PVC collected and recovered has just crossed the threshold of 100,000 tonnes/yr, marking an increase of almost 20% since the end of 2006. This result is due, among other reasons, to the new EU member states signing up to the Vinyl 2010 program and their contribution to the implementation of new collection systems. As a consequence of the rise in
Flexible PVC hoses and tubes provide good water management.
raw materials and energy prices, the demand for vinyl recyclate has doubled again, significantly outstripping current production capacities. To deal with this, the major challenge for the years ahead will continue to be to develop and finance new salvage and recycling schemes enabling the flow of waste PVC to be increased and regulated, on the one hand, and its recovery to be industrialized on the other. Plasticizers: safe and durable In 2007, consumption of plasticizers in Western Europe saw a further rise to 963,000 tonnes: 63% DINP/DIDP; 18% DEHP; 11% other phthalates; 8% other plasticizers, including the alternative Hexamoll DINCH for sensitive applications, with a capacity of 100,000 tonnes/yr. The commitment to replace 100% of lead stabilizers by 2015 has been extended to the EU 27 countries (32.5% at the end of 2007). Significant investments (€22 million) are planned by 2010 in research and development of alternatives to lead and phthalates. Richard Thommeret, marketing manager, SolVin, Solvay, Brussels, Belgium;
[email protected]; www.solvinpvc.com
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Styrenics
Polymer family popular with designers in wide range of unique applications Styrene-based resin, taken as a whole, remains the third most important plastics processed today following polyolefins and vinyl.
tyrenics cover a full range of materials from commodity grades including general-purpose and high-impact polystyrene (GPPS, HIPS), styrene acrylonitrile (SAN), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), to specialties such as acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA), blends such as ABS/nylon (ABS/PA), socalled transparent ABS, which is methylmethacrylate butadiene styrene (MABS), and styrene butadiene styrene (SBS).
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PS, ABS, SAN: the commodities GPPS is stiff and transparent but lacks impact resistance for some applications. This is overcome in HIPS, in which butadiene rubber is incorporated. The rubber phase in HIPS produces a milky appearance caused by the rubber’s light scattering effect. The chemical resistance of GPPS is greatly improved by copolymerization with acrylonitrile monomer to produce the transparent polymer SAN. In ABS, the addition of butadiene rubber particles increases impact strength, but at the same time, the transparency is lost. These four styrenics polymers are well-established products and are now large-tonnage commodities where competitive advantage is attained through economies of scale, acquisitions, mergers, and investment in worldscale production facilities. PS After several years of absolutely unsatisfactory margins and a lack of profitability, the margin situation slightly improved in 2007. However a big portion of the margin improvement was digested by higher energy, raw material, and transportation costs. The profitability of the industry is still far from target—at the current level, a re-investment in new, 80
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British motorcycle manufacturer Triumph uses BASF’s Terblend N (ABS/PA) for injection molded parts on its Daytona 675.
modern PS plants is unthinkable. As a result, industry consolidation is continuing: The former Polish PS-producer Dwory and the former Czech producer Kaucuk merged into the new company Synthos, and BASF has announced it will check all strategic options for its global business with PS, ABS, and SBS commodities. ABS Being rigid, hard, and tough at the same time, ABS offers better mechanical properties and chemical resistance than polystyrene. Over the last years, especially in Europe, a trend toward bright and consistent intrinsic color was observed. With the improvements made in this respect, self-coloring of ABS has become standard for an efficient and flexible coloring in Europe and is gaining momentum in other regions. Due to its property profile, ABS is today mainly used for electronic and electrical applications like computer or monitor housings, in the appliance industry, e.g. for vacuum cleaner hous-
WORLD ENCYCLOPEDIA 2008
ings, white goods like fridges or tumble dryers, in toys, and the automotive industry. Extrusion to pipes and sheets for a variety of applications opens further application fields for ABS. Figures available for the current global ABS demand (2007) showed a total of 6.4 million metric tonnes/yr. Asia accounted for more than two-thirds. European demand including Russia, the CIS countries, and Turkey was 900,000 tonnes last year. The global growth rate of ABS is about 6%/yr, while growth rate in Europe is generally about 2-3%. In 2006, however, Europe experienced quite an unexpected growth of almost 10%. In recent years, the European ABS market has changed from a pure specialty market to a commodity market that is mainly focused on standard grades produced in large volumes. Due to missing competitive production structures, some suppliers like Kaucuk, Repsol, and partially Sabic Innovative Plastics have left the market. The commoditization was mainly triggered by Dow and BASF, while Ineos ABS is focusing on the remaining specialty market. BASF, for example, is supplying from its three worldscale facilities in Mexico, Korea, and Belgium. This last plant, in Antwerp, makes just three standard product lines, covering virtually all sectors of the market. Taking the place of the pre-colored materials is a self-coloring service package, Colorflexx, in which processors do the coloring themselves using color masterbatch. Colorflexx (developed together with masterbatch suppliers Albis, Clariant, Schulman, and Ultrapolymers) provides quality solutions at lower costs and shorter delivery modplas.com
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Styrenics
MPWE 2008 times than pre-colored products. [Some other ABS suppliers provide similar selfcoloring services. –Ed.] This business model is transferable, and BASF is looking for opportunities outside Europe. SAN SAN is characterized by its resistance to oils, lipids, and many common chemicals, as well as by its high transparency and color brilliance. SAN shows dishwasher resistance, but can even be used for industrial batteries containing concentrated sulfuric acid. UV-stabilized SAN can compete with PMMA in numerous applications. Regarding light transmission in the visible range, SAN is a potential low-cost alternative to polycarbonate. Compared to PS, SAN not only offers high chemical resistance but is also much more resistant against temperature fluctuations, which opens new applications like washing machine doors. World market growth remains on a level of around 6%/yr. In 2006, the European market increased by some 5% over 2005, with a consolidation process taking place. In 2006, BASF took over the SAN business from Lanxess, and the ABS/SAN business from Polidux and Repsol, thus becoming the main producer in Europe. Other important players are Dow and Polimeri Europe. Specialties Specialty styrenic polymers have enjoyed double-digit growth in recent years and this is expected to continue in the near future. This has been achieved by offering a comprehensive package including joint development projects, system solutions, effective logistics, and services such as the capability to supply relatively small quantities and custom colors. These are smaller-tonnage, more costly materials that provide value to the processor, for example, by increasing the product’s quality or by reducing system costs through specialty plastics that allow aesthetic parts to be made without painting. MABS MABS can be thought of as a transparent ABS as it has similar mechanical properties, chemical resistance, and processabilimodplas.com
ty to ABS. Tuning of the refractive indices of the rubber and matrix gives a material that combines the advantages of ABS with the transparency of GPPS, SAN, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), and polycarbonate (PC). MABS is more readily colorable than PC while providing good resistance to environmental stress-cracking. It is an amorphous plastic meaning that the shrinkage of MABS is similar to ABS and PC so it can be processed in molds made for those polymers. ASA Butadiene rubber is added to ABS, which helps impact strength but can yellow noticeably over time, especially under the influence of heat and/or UV light. The rubber can degrade and leave the material brittle. In applications where excellent outdoor resistance is needed, or where the customer wants to focus on high-quality products, ASA is a natural choice. It can survive extreme conditions without any change in gloss, color, or mechanical properties. For this reason it is widely used for exterior automotive parts such as grills and mirror housings. ASA is also well suited to the building and construction industry and is widely used as a capstock for PVC. Chemical resistance is better than for ABS. Where extra impact resistance is needed, commercial ASA/PC blends are available. PC/ABS blends These are widely used due to the good processability given by the ABS and the good impact strength due to the PC component. Typical applications include mobile telephone housings and other electronics applications. While the mechanical properties are good, polycarbonate is susceptible to environmental stress cracking, so PC/ABS may not be suitable for applications where contact with cleaning agents and solvents is expected. ABS/PA blends Nylon blended with ABS is substantially similar to ABS/PC and both compete in many applications. They offer high flow and display substantially higher environmental stress-cracking resistance compared to ABS/PC. For good mechanical
properties, ABS/PA needs to be made using a special compatibilizer that creates a cocontinuous network of the two polymer phases. This gives good impact strength, as well as “no-squeak” behavior, and excellent mold filling so that matte mold surface textures are faithfully reproduced. This latter property has led to widespread use of ABS/PA for interior automotive parts where the part is matte with no need for an expensive painting step. SBS Styrene and butadiene can be combined to create block copolymers SBS or SBC. These are tough materials with modifiable properties depending on the ratio of monomers and the morphology of the phases. The high toughness, transparency, and good miscibility with standard polystyrene mean that these materials are favored by the packaging industry where SBS variants are extruded or co-extruded to produce films or thermoformed sheets. SBS that contains a higher level of butadiene can be used as an additive with other styrenic resins to improve impact strength, as well as in other polymers, including polyolefins, where even low levels of SBS can give substantial improvements in toughness and elongation to break. The styrenic polymer family is well established and one of the most important among thermoplastics. The stability of styrenic plastics and their recyclability are positive attributes that ensure that styrenic polymers will continue to play an important role. The big volume products—GPPS, HIPS, SAN, and ABS—are sold using a commodity approach of high efficiency and large tonnages combined with careful rationalization of the product range. In contrast, the specialty styrenics provide enhanced performance tuned to the specific needs of different applications. The success of these products is driven by innovation. Sabine Philipp, market communication plastics, BASF AG; Ludwigshafen, Germany;
[email protected]; www.basf.de/plastics;
[email protected]
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MPWE 2008 Composites offer designers real application advantages
Thermosets
Due to the intrinsic limitations of metals and thermoplastics, many industrial designers have turned to high-performance thermoset composites for solutions. hermoset composites often provide more strength, dimensional stability, and corrosion resistance than other commonly used materials, while also increasing design flexibility and manufacturing efficiency. In addition, thermoset composites utilize strong molecular bonds that help the materials maintain excellent properties during prolonged exposure to chemicals and temperature. Composite materials consist of fiber reinforcement in a polymer resin. The fiber provides strength and stiffness, while the resin protects the fibers and gives the material its shape. Composite reinforcement is typically fiberglass, but high-strength fibers such as aramid and carbon are used to meet demanding performance requirements. The properties of a composite can be changed by varying the type and quantity of its ingredients. Fiber type, length, and mix proportion help determine properties such as strength and rigidity. In addition, resin characteristics can be changed to provide the desired processability, durability, heat resistance, and corrosion resistance. Exposure to thermal energy causes the formation of 3D covalent bonds between the polymer molecules. This process, known as crosslinking, is irreversible. This means that crosslinked materials cannot be remelted and reshaped. Users might choose vinylester resin for corrosion-resistant products, epoxy for high-strength applications, or polyester when overall performance and cost are the driving factors. As for reinforcement, many types of glass fiber can be used in thermosets, depending on the molding process and the product’s strength requirements.
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Glass reinforcement options include chopped strand, mat with random fiber orientation, light textile fabrics, heavy woven materials, knitted materials, and unidirectional fabrics.
strength than its thermoplastic counterpart. SMC normally includes 10-65% reinforcement, consisting of choppedstrand glass fibers measuring ½-2 inches (12.7–50.8 mm) long. SMC manufacturing is a continuous process that combines a viscous paste and glass fiber on a specialized machine. The paste and glass are put together between a top and bottom layer, producing a thin “sandwich” that is run through a series of serpentine rollers. The serpentine action and resulting pressure allows the paste to wet out the glass fibers. Finally, the SMC sheet is matured for a specific time (typically two days) before it is shipped to the customer. The maturation step is critical since the material increases in viscosity over time. This allows for easy peeling of the product from the carrier film and handling at the customer site. Though it can be used in transfer and injection molding processes, SMC is best suited for compression molding. SMC can be molded into complex shapes in processes that generate little scrap. With
BMC and SMC A significant portion of the world’s thermoset production comes in the form of BMC and SMC. In BMC (bulk molding compound), a resin, fiber reinforcement, and several other ingredients blend to form a viscous, putty-like material. By weight, BMC normally includes 5-25% reinforcement, which typically consists of chopped-strand glass fibers measuring 1/32-½ inch (0.75-12.7 mm) in length. BMC is suitable for compression, transfer, or injection molding. When BMC is injection molded, cycles can be as fast as 10 sec/mm of part thickness. Depending on the application, BMC variations can provide tight dimensional control, flame and crack resistance, superior dielectric strength, corrosion and stain resistance, excellent mechanical properties, minimal shrink, and color stability. Available in numerous colors, BMC also provides surfaces receptive to powder coating, paint, and other coating technologies. SMC (sheet molding compound), while similar in chemistry to BMC, is manufactured by a much different process. SMC is produced in sheets that can be handled more easily for many applications, and typically offers BMC can be molded in a wide variety of colors. much higher mechanical MODERN PLASTICS
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Thermosets
its good surface appearance and mechanical properties that top those of BMC, SMC is used for automotive body panels, high-strength electrical components, equipment cabinets, watercraft, and a variety of structural parts. Due to its ease of handling and sheet size, SMC is often the only choice for larger parts. SMC sheets are typically 12-60 inches (30-152 cm) wide and can be put in boxes that hold more than 1000 lb (454 kg). Presently, the main BMC and SMC markets are automotive, electrical, and appliance. Others include lighting, food service, energy, and transit. By evaluating the attributes of BMC and SMC early in the design process, custom formulations of the material can be created that take advantage of key material properties for a specific application. Core advantages are discussed below. Strength BMC and SMC offer higher strength per unit weight than most metals. Thermoset composites can be made of many different resin and reinforcement combinations. Therefore, unlike other materials, they can be custom designed to meet the strength requirements of a particular application. The formulator can increase the size or amount of reinforcement or change the base chemistry to increase mechanical strength. Unlike metals, which have equal strength in all directions, thermosets are anisotropic and can be custom tailored to provide extra strength in a specific direction. If a thermoset part has to resist bending in one direction, most of the fiber can be oriented at 90 degrees to the bending force to produce a stiff structure in the desired direction. Thanks to their crosslinked molecules that result from covalent bonds, thermosets maintain strength and other physical properties during prolonged exposure to high and low temperatures. By contrast, metals and thermoplastics that are heated to high temperatures may bend under the weight of applied loads. Dimensional stability Besides strength, the crosslinked molecules in BMC and SMC provide dimen84
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sional stability at elevated temperatures. In high-temperature environments, a thermoset part is far less susceptible to relaxation or creep failure than one made of thermoplastic. The difference can be seen during tensile tests at elevated temperatures. In these tests, thermoplastics may stretch several inches, while thermoset composites stretch just thousandths of an inch. In addition, tensile loads applied in high-temperature environments cause molded holes in thermoplastic parts to elongate over time. Under the same circumstances, however, holes in thermoset composites retain their original shape. Thermosets also shrink significantly less than thermoplastics. Thermoset shrinkage ranges from 0.2% down to zero or even negative expansion values. Minimal shrinkage helps to ensure close tolerances in molded parts, which often eliminates the need for secondary operations, such as drilling or welding. Thermosets can also expand beyond the tool dimension. For many applications, thermoset composites mimic the coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE) of metals, allowing for many types of materials to work together in an application. Corrosion resistance Thermoplastics can be weakened by corrosive substances and environments. In addition, metals are notoriously susceptible to corrosion caused by exposure to water and chemicals. Metals selected for corrosive-environment applications must be coated or expensive corrosion-resistant alloys must be used. Unlike common metals, BMC and SMC won’t rust or corrode when used outdoors or in harsh environments. The materials provide long-term resistance to both chemicals and extreme temperatures. A good example of this can be found in some chemical manufacturing plants, where thermoset ductwork has been in service for more than 25 years despite continuous exposure to corrosive chemicals. Thermosets have also seen long service life in underground chemical storage systems. The corrosion-resistant properties of BMC and SMC are ideal for applications subject to strict sanitary requirements. Frequent exposure to harsh clean-
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ing chemicals will not corrode the material, promoting sanitary operation. UV Stability Constant and prolonged exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from direct sunlight can cause a number of problems for thermoplastic parts. These include fading pigmentation, discoloration, and uneven coloration, as well as chalking (a scaly white surface), and reduced material strength. To prevent these problems, many manufacturers turn to thermoset composites specially designed for outdoor use. These composites maintain their pigmentation and structural integrity during intense and UV exposure. They also eliminate the trouble and expense of painting to protect outdoor surfaces and maintain their appearance. Thermoset composite structures have very long life spans. Many composite structures built in the 1950s are still in use. In addition, composite materials feature low maintenance requirements. Composites cut actual manufacturing costs by allowing part consolidation. In metal manufacturing, complex designs may require multipiece parts. The pieces of such a part are made in a series of progressive dies or costly stamping stations, then assembled to create the final product. But by using SMC or BMC, complex parts can be made as a single piece and in a single step. A simpler process translates into faster and less expensive production, with fewer secondary operations. Thermoset composites give designers more freedom than they have when working with metals. Normal composite molding processes allow for the creation of complex shapes and intricate details that are impractical or even impossible to produce from metals. And unlike metals, composites enable the use of a wide range of material combinations. Various resin and reinforcement options can be combined to give unique properties to specific products, such as high flame resistance. Larry Landis, Gary Littel, and Ron Parshall, IDI Composites International, Noblesville, IN, USA;
[email protected] www.idicomposites.com modplas.com
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Thermoplastic elastomers
MPWE 2008 Material adds value with a soft touch to applications
Soft and supple, yet tough when they need to be, thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) have changed the face—and touch—of global products in recent years. They have revitalized many plastics products. ses range from toothbrush and razor grips to hydrocarbon-, heat-, and weather-resistant seals on automobiles and aircraft. Thanks to the ease and speed of processing TPEs on conventional thermoplastic processing equipment, adoption has spread rapidly—and shown consistent growth—across a variety of markets. Global TPE demand is forecast to rise more than 6%/yr to 3.1 million metric tonnes by next year, with a market value of $11.4 billion. Drivers include direct displacement of thermoset rubbers and other traditional materials, as well as overmolding onto rigid plastics and metal. Growth will be the strongest in China and India, while the highest volume of sales will remain concentrated in the developed markets of the U.S., Western Europe, and Japan. Through 2009, China’s TPE market (the world’s largest market in metric tonnes) should expand and diversify rapidly, based on the country’s significant production levels for many of the key products manufactured with TPE parts and components; these include motor vehicles, housewares, appliances, sporting goods, hand and power tools, and industrial machinery. Motor vehicles are the largest TPE market segment, followed by consumer and sporting goods. The automotive segment consumes the broadest range of materials from commodity to high end, with applications that likewise range from purely aesthetic to highly demanding. Furthermore, in automotive segments as well, TPEs continue to supplant thermoset rubbers for an increasing range of components. In addition, GLS Corp. predictions suggest increased activity in the medical device segment, as well as increasing
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demand for innovative overmolding solutions that require more functionality. As engineering thermoplastics continue to displace metals and require differentiation, the number of overmolded and comolded TPE applications should expand rapidly. Parts consolidation plays a strong role—where a design might formerly use several metal components that required assembly with gaskets, the same functionality might now be met with a single component made of a highstrength substrate overmolded with a TPE seal. The nature of TPE It is the chemistry behind TPEs that separates its uniqueness from thermoset rubbers. Unlike thermoset rubbers that are chemically crosslinked (vulcanized), thermoplastic elastomers are physically crosslinked. These physical crosslinks, when exposed to heat and shear, allow the TPE to flow. This process is repeatable, allowing the TPE to be remeltable and reprocessable. This is making TPEs ideal considerations for recyclable applications. This is very different from thermoset rubber, which is chemically crosslinked. Once a thermoset rubber is chemically crosslinked, its molecular state is irreversible, making it unable to be remelted or reprocessed. Because of this, recycling is often difficult or impossible. TPEs are composed of soft amorphous sections used in combination with hard crystalline sections. These soft sections provide the elastomeric nature of the TPE (softness and resiliency) while the hard sections provide the strength and performance properties (tensile strength, chemical resistance, and temperature resistance). TPEs differ from conventional, rigid thermoplastics in that
TPEs exhibit much greater elastic properties. TPEs remain flexible, where conventional thermoplastics possess a relatively sharp glass-transition temperature below which there is a significant and rapid rise in modulus or stiffness. Thermoplastic elastomers provide processing efficiencies that are difficult to match with thermoset rubbers. Thermosets generally developed in a relatively long vulcanization cycle. Because TPEs do not require chemicals, heat, or time to vulcanize, processing is rapid and relatively straightforward. TPEs can be injection molded, extruded, blowmolded, and thermoformed, a processing flexibility that enables a wide range of design approaches. And because TPEs are recyclable, they can be reground and reused during processing to cut down scrap. Many TPEs are based on block
GLS developed a TPE grade meeting the bond performance, tactile feel, and dishwasher requirements set for use on the Flavour Shaker.
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Thermoplastic elastomers
copolymers in which molecules of a relatively stiff monomer (hard segment) serve as physical crosslinks for molecules of relatively soft monomer (soft segment). For example, SEBS, a styrenic block copolymer, is made up of a styrene hard phase, serving as crosslink nodes, and a butadiene elastomer phase, provid-
ing elastic properties. There is also a growing range of more complex TPEs, including metallocene-catalyzed polyolefin plastomers and elastomers, and reactor-made thermoplastic polyolefin elastomers. The final characteristics of a TPE can be tailored through formulation, not just
TPE
Advantages
Disadvantages
SBC
Excellent processability and moldability Elasticity Soft, warm feel Colorability Tear strength Excellent bondability to many thermoplastics
Limited chemical resistance (except SEPS) Limited abrasion resistance Relatively low resistance to high temperature
TPU
Excellent chemical resistance Excellent oil resistance High tensile strength Abrasion resistant Good bondability to ABS, PA, PBT, PC
Limited bondability to polyolefins High perceived hardness Long injection molding cycles
TPV
Good abrasion resistance Good oil resistance Good heat aging to 275F continuous use temperature Matte finish
Low tear strength Poor colorability Relatively high perceived hardness, even at low Shore A values Must dry prior to processing
Super TPV Excellent heat resistance in presence of oil Good abrasion resistance Good compression set resistance Good weatherability
Relatively high perceived hardness High cost
COPE
Good processability Fast molding cycles Good UV resistance
High perceived hardness Limited range of bondability Must dry prior to processing
COPA
Ultra-high service temperature Flat modulus over extended temperature ranges
High perceived hardness
Excellent toughness even at low temperature Heat resistance Good bondability, especially to other polyolefins
Hardest of TPEs Not true elastomers
Good heat resistance Good compression set resistance Good abrasion resistance Flexibility/elasticity
New to market Less elastic than SEBS
POE POP
OBC
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for intuitive results (e.g., high tensile and stiffer; or more rubbery and low modulus) but increasingly for non-intuitive results as well (e.g., high-clarity, abrasion-resistant, soft gels). Not all TPEs are alike, and some chemistries simply do not work for a given application. For that reason, it is important to work with a comprehensive TPE supplier that offers as many types of TPEs as possible. In the TPE world, custom alloying and compounding is very prevalent, since such formulation can offer pinpoint matches for both molding efficiencies and end use requirements. Different TPE types There are seven major TPE families: • Styrenic block copolymers (SBCs) that include SEBS (styrene ethylene/butylene styrene), SEPS (styrene ethylene/propylene styrene, and SBS (styrene butadiene styrene) polymers to name a few • Thermoplastic urethanes (TPUs) • Thermoplastic vulcanizates (TPVs) and the property-enhanced super TPVs • Copolyesters (COPE), including copolyamide (COPA); also known as thermoplastic polyester elastomers (TPE-E) • Thermoplastic polyolefin elastomers (POEs) and polyolefin plastomers (POPs) • Olefin block copolymers (OBC) • Melt-processable rubbers (MPRs): good oil resistance, relatively high compression set (not in chart). R&D efforts continue to expand TPE material behavior and fitness for applications in all types and grades. New formulations and types have expanded the envelope with greater softness, higher heat and chemical resistance, better toughness, and abrasion resistance combined with perceived soft touch, expansion of substrates for bonding and adhesion, and numerous processing improvements. New commercially available specialty types continue to address specific markets. For example, in medmodplas.com
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Thermoplastic elastomers
MPWE 2008 ical applications, recent proprietary formulations have been engineered in answer to application, process, and regulatory needs, including: • TPE substitutes for latex that provide rubber properties without triggering allergic reaction or irritation • Silicone substitutes that allow overmolding and expanded design freedom • Substitutes for phthalate plasticized materials. Design freedom The primary advantages of TPEs over conventional thermoplastics and rubbers include: • Lower overall fabrication costs with a full range of production options, including injection molding, extrusion, blowmolding, and thermoforming • Shorter processing times • Full recyclability of both in-process scrap and end products • High-speed fabrication and assembly—overmolding can eliminate assembly entirely through part consolidation • Environmentally friendly alternatives Possible disadvantages of TPEs compared to other rubbers include: • New technology and equipment learning curves for fabricators as yet unfamiliar with them • High volume may be required to achieve low piece-part economics. Design considerations TPEs have a good, tailorable range of aesthetics, including touch, color effects, even scent, and a tailorable range of functionality, including living hinge, vibration/noise damping, wet/safety grip, sealing/gasketing and tailorable gas/liquid barrier properties. SBC TPEs color well and can be compounded as a clear material, permitting special effects rivaling those of any transparent thermoplastic. Many other TPEs, while generally opaque, are colorable— even TPVs. Generally speaking, surface effects range from the appearance of supple leather to elegant mattes and high shine. As with most thermoplastics, TPEs can take any geometry, from pillowed sculpted forms to angular complex shapes. modplas.com
Overhangs and undercuts can often be molded with simple tooling thanks to the flexibility of the finished piece. At one time, either specialized adhesives or mechanical interlocking were required to make a long-lasting, soft-touch surface on a hard substrate. In the last five years, a growing range of TPEs have been developed specifically for adhesion and for overmolding. The bonds to these engineering plastics are so strong that they defy peeling or separation even after years of normal use. One example, the Versaflex OM6200 series, was developed to provide an excellent bond across most polyamide (PA) and modified PA substrates, including PA6, 6.6, and 6/6.6. This grade was formulated to minimize adhesion problems due to colorants, lubricants, impact modifiers like glass, or other common modifiers. At the same time, it is designed for processing in both insert molding and twoshot molding, and the new grades do not require drying the TPE or the nylon substrate prior to overmolding. Another recent breakthrough, Versaflex OM3000 TPE series from GLS, offers both water clarity and dependable overmold bond strength to PC, ABS, PC/PETG, and PC/PBT, among other substrates, for insert or two-shot injection molded applications. Because of the OM3000 series’ clarity and adhesion, this product offers designers and manufacturers an exciting new material option to upgrade or otherwise enhance their products. Trends in many consumer products have recently involved product safety. Compliance with FDA and EU legislation is forcing formulators to meet stringent guidelines as well as investigate alternative value-added formulating technologies. GLS recently launched a plasticizer-free TPE technology (Versaflex CL E95) to help address concerns with migration of components from elastomers that could be in contact with foods or liquids. Development of such products like the CL E95 to meet a specific customer/market need is lowering the risk seen with the leaching and migration of TPE components. TPEs can be fine-tuned to a growing list of attributes. Touch, abrasion-resistance, compression set, heat resistance,
TPEs allow the application of unique designs for medical devices that were once considered not possible with thermoset elastomers. strength—all these and more can be custom formulated for nearly any purpose. The result is highly tailored grades that offer long-term savings through processing economies and trouble-free, application-specific attributes. Keep in mind that TPEs are typically blends or alloys; so controlling the mix for optimized engineering properties requires experience and knowledge. Because off-the-shelf compounds run the risk of property compromises, the best TPE source is a provider of material customization combined with multiple TPE chemistries as the core of their business. A critically important attribute as well of such a supplier is to know whether they have developed internal practices to assist in the efficiency and speed of the development process. Tool design support, onsite technical assistance, and training are some of the characteristics that meet this requirement. Walter Ripple, director global sales/marketing,
[email protected]; Joe Kutka, technology launch manager,
[email protected]: GLS Corp., McHenry, IL, USA; www.glscorp.com
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Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives
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Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives Additives
Additives he first three letters are key in defining how important these materials are to processors. Add value to products with the judicial use of additives; processing of neat resin is almost unheard of in many markets, as aesthetic requirements or demands (colors, tactility, and more) force the use of additives, or mechanical requirements—for heat sinks or conductivity, for instance—dictate it. The importance of color is highlighted in our article on those additives, and the text also includes a solid checklist of points to consider when choosing a colorant. Of course, the value of an additive is closely tied to how effectively it has been mixed within a matrix material, and our article on compounding makes clear how to do so. Processors also need to keep abreast of the legislation that can affect additives’ use. To do so, just sign up for our free e-Weekly newsletters, and keep abreast of legal changes in the market as well as new additives and supplier news.
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MPWE 2008 Additive makes durable plastic goods feasible
Antioxidants
Oxidation can occur at every stage of the life cycle of a polymer. While this degradation cannot be completely eliminated, it can be significantly inhibited.
lastics commonly consist of polymers, pigments, fillers, and additives. These ingredients all strongly influence the properties of the final article. Polymers play the crucial role of the “backbone”: They are the binders that keep the plastic material together, chemical entities consisting of chain-like molecules formed from smaller, repetitive units (monomers). Typically, the chain is very long relative to the diameter, and the chains are preferably coiled or spherical, but not stretched. The molecular weight ranges from about 8,000-6,000,000 g/mol for synthetic polymers. Organic polymers, like other organic molecules, can readily undergo chemical reactions. These can lead to degradation during manufacture and processing of the polymers (e.g. initiated by thermal/mechanical stress or catalyst
Antioxidants ensure the necessary long-term durability of pipes (left). Proper stabilization is essential to the attractive appearance of processed goods (below).
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residues), as well as to deterioration, often called “aging,” of the plastic during its usable life (initiated by heat, UV light, oxygen, water, etc.). In all these cases, plastics may lose their favorable mechanical properties, e.g. impact and tensile strength, and a rougher surface appearance and discoloration of the article may result. Decreased or increased molecular weight of the polymer (caused by chain scission or crosslinking respectively) is also a direct consequence of these chemical processes. The most common and frequent degradation reactions are based on oxidative free radical reactions. Oxidation can occur at every stage of the lifecycle of a polymer: during manufacture and
storage of the polymer resin, as well as during the processing and end use of the plastic article produced. The possibility of multiple recycling operations also needs to be anticipated. Thermoplastic polymers are very different from each other in terms of their inherent sensitivity to oxidation. For example, the oxidative sensitivity of polypropylene is apparent at room temperature, while polystyrene and acrylic are quite stable even at processing temperatures. On the other hand, highly unsaturated polymers, such as rubbers or copolymers derived from butadiene or isoprene, are extremely sensitive to oxidation. Oxidation cannot be completely inhibited, but it can at least be significantly retarded by stabilizing additives, specifically antioxidants that are active under thermo-mechanical (processing of polymer melt) as well as thermo-oxidative (long-term stability during end use) conditions. The oxidation of polymers proceeds in the form of a cycle, starting from a free radical, during which degradation products are formed, as well as further new radicals that continuously fuel the degradation cycle. Therefore, the key to effective stabilization is different types of stabilizers that can intercept radicals and degradation products at different stages of the cycle in order to bring it to a halt. So-called “primary antioxidants,” predominantly hindered phenols, and, in cer-
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tain applications (elastomers, polyol) aromatic amines (Ciba IRGANOX series), are hydrogen donors that react with oxygenbased radicals, transforming them into hydroperoxides. In the absence of primary antioxidants, the oxygen-based radicals would attack the polymer, resulting in further degradation. However, since hydroperoxides are inherently unstable, and can also decay into free radicals, “secondary antioxidants,” phosphites/phosphonites (Ciba IRGAFOS series), and/or thiosynergists (Ciba IRGANOX PS series) are needed to transform them into stable non-radical products. In addition, alkyl radical scavengers, e.g. those based on hydroxylamines (Ciba IRGASTAB FS series) or hindered amine stabilizers (Ciba TINUVIN and Ciba CHIMASSORB series), are capable of intercepting polymer radicals that have not, or not yet, reacted with oxygen. In addition, metal deactivators (Ciba IRGANOX MD series) and acid scavengers (HYCITE) can enhance the stabilization effect by scavenging metal salts (catalyst residues) and acidic degradation products. Hindered phenols are active from ambient temperature up to about 300°C. Therefore, they can be used in the processing of polymers (short exposure to high temperatures), while also conferring long-term thermal stability (extended exposure to moderate temperatures), and aging resistance during the lifetime of the plastic material. Phosphites/phosphonites and hydroxylamines, which are effective at high temperatures (150-300°C), are useful as processing stabilizers during compounding and processing (molding, extrusion, etc.). Thiosynergists and hindered amines, on the other hand, are only effective below 150°C and only provide long-term thermal and aging stability. Antioxidants differ greatly from each other in terms of reactivity and efficiency. But equally important for selection of the most suitable product are volatility, compatibility in the polymer matrix—influencing migration and blooming behavior—color stability, physical form, absence of transformation products that lead to taste or odor nuisance, regulatory issues associated with food contact appli90
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The correct combination of pigments and stabilizers enhances service life in many outdoor applications. cations, and, increasingly important, performance vs. cost. It is rare that a single product can provide complete polymer stability in a variety of high-performance applications; consequently, synergistic or additive combinations of two or more antioxidants are most frequently used. However, caution is advisable because some mixtures of stabilizers, e.g. hindered amines with thiosynergists, can also show antagonistic effects. Stabilizers are often added before, during, or just after polymerization, and/or during processing, as solids, liquids, or aqueous emulsions or suspensions. Polyolefins, numerous engineering polymers (nylon, polycarbonate, polyesters, etc.), and styrenics (in processing) are efficiently stabilized by mostly solid blends of hindered phenols, phosphites, thiosynergists, and, in certain applications, hydroxylamines. Acetal, a highly acid-sensitive polymer, is stabilized by hindered phenols alone. Liquid polyols for flexible polyurethane foams are preferably additivated by liquid antioxidant blends comprising hindered phenols and aromatic amines. In more recent product develop-
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ments (Ciba IRGASTAB PUR 68), the aromatic amines are replaced by other, less volatile ingredients that still have to ensure the same level of thermal stability during the foaming process. ABS, MBS, and vinyl, during polymerization (in emulsion or suspension), are most efficiently stabilized by antioxidant emulsions, mostly containing hindered phenols and thiosynergists. The stabilization of elastomers, for many years based on hindered phenols and a liquid phosphite (TNPP), relies now mainly on a newer concept with a stabilizer containing a hindered phenol and thioether groups in the same molecule (Ciba IRGANOX 1520). Open and dedicated cooperation between the polymer industries and stabilizer suppliers led in the past to a dramatic improvement of plastics, so they could be used in broader and more demanding applications. We can expect that in the future such fruitful cooperation will enable further improved stabilization concepts, with better cost vs. performance, and assurance of health and safety, as well as easier handling and dosing. Alex Wegmann, senior technical fellow, plastic additives segment, Ciba Inc., Basel, Switzerland;
[email protected]; www.ciba.com modplas.com
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MPWE 2008 Plastics take on new dimensions with an array of hues Colorants are used to reinforce brand images, stir emotions, and create consumer associations.
olor choices, therefore, are as much about finding the right formulation as about finding the ideal shade of green or blue. Which colors will appeal to buyers in a given market? The answer is as complex as the world we live in. Fashion designers and product developers put a great deal of time, energy, and money into finding the exact color and effect that conveys the brand product’s story. Consumer lifestyles and preferences and their impact on color choices are key elements in the decision-making process. Some color trends are evolutionary. By examining current and emerging culture trends and recent color preferences, it is possible to extrapolate evolutionary paths to future color trends. At the same time, mass cultural events, such as the Olympics or growing environmental consciousness, can trigger the rise of what are called breakout colors. These are colors that do not evolve from past color preferences but rather they appear in response to something more immediate. A successful color choice comes from a solid understanding of the marketplace, established brand equity, and a host of technical realities, including how certain polymers respond to color and which form best suits the user’s production needs. An experienced color supplier can help balance the many disparate elements that come into
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play and help strengthen a brand product’s significance to the consumer. Down to basics Basic color chemistry is well-established. Colorists have a choice of using dyes, which are soluble and become a part of the plastics they are mixed with, and pigments, which are insoluble and must be dispersed in the polymer matrix. Dyes can make it easier to achieve bright, clear transparent colors, while pigments, being solids, are better for deep, saturated opaque or translucent colors. In recent years, there has been a dramatic move towards the use of organic colorants (dyes or pigments) and away from inorganic materials, especially those that rely on heavy metals like cadmium or lead chromates. In addition, special-effect color systems, green technology, and new additive solutions, along with cuttingedge process and mold design, continue to provide the market with an expanding array of options for color solutions. However, most of today’s really exciting developments are coming as color experts and processors collaborate to achieve appearance effects in fabricated products that simply don’t happen in the colorant itself. Innovative combinations of colors, additives, and plastics can produce effects that convey a full range of creative visuals from texture, reflectivity, luster, gloss, frost, and softness to natural looks such as wood grain and marble. Early planning and collaboration with a color supplier allow a full exploration of design possibilities that meet time, budget, process, and appearance expectations. Choices and forms Technological advances have given today’s processors a seemingly endless range of
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color choices and forms. Following are brief descriptions of types of colorants and common coloring methods: Masterbatches Of all the choices available to processors today for coloring polymers, masterbatches, or color concentrates, are overwhelmingly preferred. Masterbatches are pelletized colorants, comprised of high concentrations of pigments and/or dyes that have been pre-dispersed in a polymer vehicle. They offer processors numerous benefits, including: • • • • • •
Competitive operating costs Maximum equipment utilization Optimal process flexibility Reduced inventory costs Decreased lead times Lot-to-lot consistency
Pre-Colored Material or Compound With this product, the molder or extruder need not
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convey about the finished product? • What market dynamics (including competitive products) apply? • What is the project time line and launch scope—global, regional? • What plastic material will it be made of? • How opaque or translucent should it be? • How and where will the product be used? • What tooling and production equipment will be used? • Will process-scrap regrind or postconsumer resin be incorporated? • What cost limitations need to be accommodated? • What are the required quality standards? • What regulatory requirements, industry standards, or other customer commitments must it meet?
Bright, whimsical colors complement playful names like Bungee and Taffy, and help these salon formulas command the attention of stylists and their customers. blend, disperse, or distribute the color. Instead, the resin itself is custom colored by either a resin producer or a specialty compounder. For certain markets where additive and physical property requirements are unique, or where regulatory testing and documentation are very complex, compounds can be a good option. Dry Color Adding a mixture of dry, powdered colorants to the molding process can be one of the least expensive and most flexible coloring methods. Dry color, a fine powder product, requires the molder to address additional processing requirements and additive needs such as waxes and lubricants. In addition, strong housekeeping, dust control, waste management, and regulatory controls must be managed. To avoid some dusting issues, opt for dustless dry color, which pre-disperses pigments in a wax for easier, neater handling. Liquid Color Pumped directly from a storage container into the process stream, liquid color can be a cost-effective, multipurpose alternative, particularly when low levels of colorants and low addition rates 92
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Color selection Finding the right color for a given product is a function of utility and purpose, and should be completed in consultation with a competent color supplier. Discussion should cover the following:
Often, there will be a color reference. This may include scraps of metal, glass, wood, paper, or any other material that embodies what the designer or marketing specialist has in mind. The reference can be matched to physical color samples or it may be scanned and computer matched. A 3D product sample may be created using advanced simulation software or physical rapid-prototyping technology so that designers can better see how the finished product will look. Next, a material flow simulation may be used to determine how various colorants and color forms affect the processing of the plastics material. Gradually the color expert will narrow down the list of options for achieving the best combination of aesthetics, processability, and cost. Leaving color decisions until the end of the product development process— sometimes until after expensive tooling is manufactured—can be costly. By tackling subjects like color, special effects, product appearance, and processing issues early in the development process, designers and processors can get new innovative products to market faster, cut costs, and increase the likelihood of market success.
• What is the mold design of the finished product? • What is the molding process used? • What is the message the color is to
Carolyn Sedgwick, ColorWorks business manager, Clariant Masterbatches, Muttenz, Switzerland;
[email protected]; www.clariant.masterbatches.com
are required. Color changes are made easily and, because there’s no compounding step required, this form is good for heatsensitive colors. However, liquid color has a relatively short shelf life, and disposal can be both difficult and expensive. Single Pigment Concentrates (SPCs) As the name implies, SPCs contain only one pigment, highly loaded and fully dispersed in a carrier resin. To produce a custom color, several SPCs may be blended together. With an average let-down ratio of 1%, they offer a processor the following advantages: • Maximum color strength • Critical dispersion • Lower coloring costs • Lot-to-lot consistency • Reproducibility from lab trial to production
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MPWE 2008 Advances escalate compounding output, make better use of power
Close consideration of equipment choices for compounding, devolatilization, and reactive extrusion will permit compounders to offer a better product to their customers. istorically, twin-screw extruders have been used to produce granules to facilitate accurate/consistent feeding into a secondary processing device, such as an injection molding machine or single-screw extruder. There is a growing trend to bypass the pelletization step (referred to as direct extrusion) to produce film/fiber/sheet/profile directly from the twin-screw extruder. Regardless of the end product, the unit operations performed in the twin-screw extruder are identical. There are two distinct families of twin-screw extruders, typically defined as low-speed, late-fusion (LSLF) twinscrew extruders (run up to 50 rpm), and high-speed, energy-input (HSEI) twinscrew extruders (run up to 1200-plus rpm). HSEI twin-screw extruders are primarily used for compounding, reactive processing, and/or devolatilization. By
H
contrast, LSLF counter-rotating twinscrew extruders are designed to mix at low shear and pump at uniform pressures for PVC and similar processes. These devices are often inadequate for energy-intensive processes. Here, we are considering the HSEI type of twin-screw extruder. The co-rotating, intermeshing twin-screw extruder dominates this market. However, counterrotating, intermeshing and non-intermeshing twin-screw extruders are also used for specialty applications. HSEI twin-screw extruders process materials bounded by screw flights and barrel walls. Screws are segmented and assembled on high-torque splined shafts that allow the maximum torque to be applied to the process. Screw speeds are available to 1200plus rpm. A typical, process length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) is 32:1 to 48:1 L/D, with up
to 72:1 L/D (or more) being possible. Barrels are modular and utilize liquid cooling. The motor inputs energy into the process via rotating screws that impart shear into the materials. Control parameters include screw speed (rpm,), feed rate, process-section temperatures, and vacuum level (for venting). Typical readouts are melt pressure, melt temperature, and motor amperage (torque). Segmented screws/barrels, in combination with the controlled pumping and wiping characteristics of the HSEI twinscrew extruder, allow screw/barrel geometries to be matched to the process tasks. Solids conveying and plastication occurs early in the process section. Screw elements for mixing and devolatilization are applied as dictated by the process. Discharge elements finally build and stabilize pressure to a die. Screw designs can be shear intensive or passive.
The ZSE50 MAXX is typical of high-speed, energy-input, co-rotating intermeshing twin-screw extruders used today for compounding. It offers an OD/ID ratio of 1.66/1.
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Compounding The process section with modular barrels and screws of an HSEI twin-screw extruder
)NTELLIGENT !DDITIVE 3OLUTIONS FOR 4ODAYS 0LASTIC )NDUSTRY
2EALIZE -ORE WITH 3TRUKTOL *OIN THE WORLDS FASTEST GROWING NAME IN PERFORMANCE PLASTIC ADDITIVES AND STAY AHEAD OF YOUR COMPETITION 2EALIZE INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY AND ENHANCED PART QUALITY AND COMPOUNDS ALL AT A TOTAL LOWER COST &OR