Peak Performance 1 Prelim PDHPE

Peak Performance Preliminary PDHPE

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Peak Performance Preliminary PDHPE

Darryl Buchanan Wayne Cotton Karen Ingram Jo McLean Donna O’Connor Peter Sinclair

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First published 2010 by MACMILLAN EDUCATION AUSTRALIA PTY LTD

15–19 Claremont Street, South Yarra 3141 Visit our website at www.macmillan.com.au Associated companies and representatives throughout the world. Copyright © D. Buchanan, D. O’Connor, K. Ingram, J. McLean and Macmillan Education Australia 2010 All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Copyright Act 1968 of Australia (the Act) and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Educational institutions copying any part of this book for educational purposes under the Act must be covered by a Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) licence for educational institutions and must have given a remuneration notice to CAL. Licence restrictions must be adhered to. For details of the CAL licence contact: Copyright Agency Limited, Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street, Sydney, NSW 2 . Telephone: (02) 9394 76 . Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601. Email: [email protected] National Library of Australia cataloguing in publication data Title: Peak performance 1 : preliminary PDHPE / Darryl Buchanan ... [et al.]. ISBN: 9781420228816 (pbk. + CD-ROM) Notes: Includes index. Target Audience: For secondary school age. Subjects: Health–Textbooks. Physical fitness–Textbooks. Other Authors/Contributors: Buchanan, Darryl. Dewey Number: 613 Publisher: Ben Dawe Project editor: Hannah Koelmeyer Editor: Kate McGregor Illustrators: Paul Lennon and Guy Holt Cover designer: Polar Design Pty Ltd Text designer: Polar Design Pty Ltd Photo research and permissions clearance: Jan Calderwood Typeset in Melior 10pt by Polar Design Pty Ltd Cover image: Getty Images/Jonathan Wood Indexer: Martin Lindsay Printed in Malaysia Internet addresses At the time of printing, the internet addresses appearing in this book were correct. Owing to the dynamic nature of the internet, however, we cannot guarantee that all these addresses will remain correct.

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Contents Preface About the authors

x xi

Preliminary Core 1 Better health for individuals chapter

chapter

chapter

1

2 3

Health and individuals

3

Meanings of health Definitions of health Dimensions of health Relative and dynamic nature of health

3 3 4 6

Perceptions of health Perceptions of individual health Perceptions of the health of others Implications of different perceptions of health Perceptions of health as social constructs Impact of the media, peers and family

8 8 9 9 10 11

Health behaviours of young people The positive health status of young people Protective behaviours and risk behaviours

12 12 18

Chapter review

31

Influences on the health of individuals

34

The determinants of health Individual factors Sociocultural factors Socioeconomic factors Environmental factors

34 34 36 40 43

The degree of control individuals can exert over their health Modifiable and non-modifiable health determinants Changing influence of determinants through different life stages

44 45 46

Health as a social construct Recognising the interrelationship of determinants Challenging the notion that health is solely an individual’s responsibility

48 48 50

Chapter review

51

Strategies for promoting health

53

What is health promotion? Settings for health promotion

53 55

Responsibilities for health promotion Individuals Community groups/schools Non-government organisations Government International organisations

56 57 58 60 62 66

v

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Health promotion approaches and strategies Lifestyle/behavioural approaches Preventative medical approaches Public health approaches

68 68 71 75

The Ottawa Charter Developing personal skills Creating supportive environments Strengthening community action Reorienting health services Building healthy public policy

78 79 79 80 81 81

Principles of social justice Equity Diversity Supportive environments

85 86 86 86

Chapter review

87

Preliminary Core 2 The body in motion chapter

chapter

4

5

Musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems

91

Skeletal system Major bones involved in movement Structure and function of joints Joint actions

92 94 97 100

The muscular system Major muscles involved in movement Muscle fibres Muscle relationships Types of muscle contraction

104 104 108 108 109

Respiratory system Structure and functions Lung function Exchange of gases

110 110 112 112

Circulatory system Components of blood Structure and function of the heart Structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries Pulmonary and systemic circulation Blood pressure

114 114 115 116 116 118

Chapter review

120

Physical fitness, training and movement Health-related components of physical fitness Cardiorespiratory endurance Muscular strength Muscular endurance Flexibility Body composition

122 122 122 128 130 132 134

vi

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chapter

6

Skill-related components of physical fitness Power Speed Agility Coordination Balance Reaction time

138 138 140 140 141 142 143

Aerobic and anaerobic training FITT principle

145 145

Immediate physiological responses to training Heart rate Ventilation rate Stroke volume Cardiac output Lactate levels

148 148 149 149 150 151

Chapter review

152

Biomechanical principles and movement

155

Motion The application of linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration and momentum in movement and performance contexts

155

Balance and stability Centre of gravity Line of gravity Base of support

162 162 164 164

Fluid mechanics Flotation Centre of buoyancy Fluid resistance

166 166 169

Force How the body applies force How the body absorbs force Applying force to an object

173 173 175 177

Chapter review

181

155

Preliminary Options chapter

7

First aid

185

What are the main priorities for assessment and management of first aid patients? Setting priorities for managing a first aid situation and assessing the casualty Crisis management

185 185 190

How should the major types of injuries and medical conditions be managed in first aid situations? Management of injuries Management of medical conditions

196 196 204

vii

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chapter

chapter

chapter

8

9 10

What does the individual need to consider in administering first aid? Physical environment Infection control and protection Legal and moral dilemmas Support following first aid situations

211 212 213 214 216

Chapter review

218

Composition and performance

220

How do the elements of composition apply to different movement mediums? Space Dynamics Time and rhythm Relationships

220 220 228 230 234

How are the elements used to compose movement? The process of creating movement The process of combining and arranging movement

237 238 242

What is the role of appraisal in the process of composing and performing? Ways of appraising Aspects for appraisal Establishing and applying criteria

247 247 250 252

Chapter review

255

Fitness choices

257

What does exercise mean to different people? Meanings of exercise The value that people place on exercise and fitness

257 257 260

What are the ways people choose to exercise for fitness? Individual fitness activities Group fitness activities

263 264 267

What influences people’s choice of fitness activities? Settings for exercise Advertising and promotion Motivators and barriers to participation

272 272 277 281

Chapter review

284

Outdoor recreation

286

What is the value of outdoor recreation? Reasons for participation in outdoor recreation

286 287

What are the technical skills and understanding needed for safe participation in outdoor recreation? Planning skills Campsite selection Conservation skills Navigation skills Emergency management skills Skills needed for other outdoor activities—relevant to the experience

289 289 293 294 298 307 310

viii

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What impact does group dynamics have on the outdoor experience? Leadership styles Understanding group dynamics Facilitation skills Understanding strengths and weaknesses

310 311 312 314 315

Chapter review

317

Suggested answers Glossary Acknowledgments Index

320 331 339 341

ix

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Preface Peak Performance 1 is an exciting new text written expressly for the recently revised Stage 6 Personal Development, Health and Physical Education syllabus in NSW. Written by a team of leading educators, everything a Preliminary student needs to perform at their ‘peak’ is included here. Peak Performance 1: • Covers all core and option topics in an accessible, well illustrated way • Addresses every syllabus dot point comprehensively, clearly and succinctly • Strikes the ideal balance of covering the breadth of syllabus content in the appropriate depth. This approach supports all students to access the material while ensuring great scope for deeper learning. • Maintains a clear focus on what students specifically need to know and be able to do in Stage 6 PDHPE • Provides ample opportunities for critical thinking and analysis, including a broad range of relevant and specific examples to support practical application The use of Peak Performance 1 will help teachers deliver the Preliminary Personal Development, Health and Physical Education course with confidence. Collecting together the best teaching and learning practice available, Peak Performance 1 will make Personal Development, Health and Physical Education enjoyable and relevant for a new generation of students.

About Visualcoaching® Pro Visualcoaching® Pro is a world-leading exercise software system, created by a team of experts in the fields of sport science, education, information technology and international business. Screenshots and video provided courtesy of Visualcoaching® Pro appear in this book/CD package as part of a professional association between Visualcoaching® Pro and Macmillan. Visit for information about trialling and using Visualcoaching® Pro.

About the CD 978 1 4202 2881 6 © Darryl Buchanan, Donna O’Connor, Jo McLean and Karen Ingram 2010

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Video exercises

Peak Performance 1 includes an interactive PDF with embedded video files (courtesy of Visualcoaching® Pro software). The following icon indicates that video is viewable on the CD accompanying this book. Open the CD menus to navigate the video items, or follow the live links in the PDF.

x

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About the authors Darryl Buchanan has over 20 years professional experience in education. He has been a PDHPE teacher, Head of Department, Year Coordinator and has authored and co-authored eleven PDHPE and PASS books as well as several other resources. Darryl has been involved in syllabus writing teams for PDHPE and PASS and has extensive experience as a Senior Marker in HSC PDHPE. Darryl is employed by the Association of Independent Schools where he provides professional development support for schools and teachers. Karen Ingram is an experienced PDHPE teacher, having been a classroom teacher, Year Coordinator and Head of Department. She has been a HSC Marker and has been part of BOS Stage 6 PDHPE Syllabus Projects. She has a keen interest in implementing ICT into the PDHPE curriculum. Karen is a board member for ACHPER NSW and has been involved in the development and presentation of PDHPE resources and programs for ACHPER and the Association of Independent Schools. Karen is a lecturer for undergraduate PDHPE students at various universities and has worked as an international Physical Education consultant in the Middle East. Jo McLean has over 20 years professional experience in education at secondary, primary and tertiary levels. She has been Head of PDHPE and Dean of Students, has lectured to students studying pre-service PDHPE and the Graduate Diploma in Education, and has also worked in Outdoor Education. Jo has had extensive experience in HSC marking including three years as a Senior Marker of PDHPE and has been involved in the amendments to the Stage 6 PDHPE syllabus for 2010. She is the Vice President of the NSW branch of ACHPER and is a board member of the NSW PDHPE Teachers’ Association. Jo currently works as an education consultant supporting the professional development of teachers in independent schools. Donna O’Connor is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney. She lectures in the Human Movement and Health Education program (exercise physiology, fitness training: theory and practice; sports medicine) and is the course coordinator of the graduate program in Coach Education. Donna has received a number of teaching awards including a Carrick Citation for Outstanding Contribution to Student Learning and the University’s Vice Chancellor’s award for outstanding teaching. Donna has worked with the Wallabies and Waratahs coaching staff, Australian Touch teams, North Queensland Cowboys and national league teams in basketball and netball. She has been the strength and conditioner trainer with the Opals (Australian Women’s Basketball team) since 2003. Wayne Cotton is a lecturer in Human Movement and Health Education at the University of Sydney. He has extensive experience in teaching Outdoor Education in both New South Wales and Victorian schools. He regularly presents at national and international conferences and still leads adventure expeditions to remote locations around the globe. Wayne also provides risk management consultancy to local and international adventure programs. Peter Sinclair is a senior lecturer in Exercise and Sport Science at The University of Sydney. He has particular interest in the biomechanics of human movement and has extensive scientific publications applied to the fields of sport science and rehabilitation. Peter conducts research projects with both the Australian and NSW Institutes of Sport and serves on committees advising on curriculum for the Australian Association of Exercise and Sport Science.

xi

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Preliminary Core

Better health for individuals

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What does health mean to individuals?

Health is a changeable concept that can mean many different things to different people. It is made up of a number of components that interact with each other to impact upon an individual’s level of health. The meaning of health to an individual may change over time depending on their circumstances and is shaped by a variety of factors, including the perceptions of the person about their own heath and that of others, other people’s perceptions of health and the influence of such things as the media, a person’s family and their peers. Young people form their own meanings of health and these meanings have a direct correlation to their health behaviours and whether they are health enhancing or health compromising.

Meanings of health Definitions of health The question of health and how is it defined is the source of much debate. The concept of health has been around for thousands of years and it is often seen as something that people aspire to. Health has frequently been equated purely with physical aspects of the body and whether or not a person is well or unwell. However, more holistic views of health take into consideration other components of a person’s life and make up. The term ‘health’ means different things to different people and this fluidity makes it difficult to come up with one definitive explanation. Pericles (495–429 BC) an Athenian statesman and general believed health to be ‘… that state of moral, mental and physical well-being, which enables a man to face any crisis in life with the utmost facility and grace’. While New Zealand poet and author Katherine Mansfield (1888–1923) stated that, ‘by health I mean the power to live a full, adult, living, breathing life in close contact with what I love … I want to be all that I am capable of becoming’.


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Peak Performance 1 Preliminary PDHPE

In 1946, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as: ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’. This definition has become the international foundation explanation of health on which all health organisations base their policies and procedures. However, even this definition is seen by some as not truly reflecting all facets of health or the capacity of people to be healthy. In 1986, the WHO added to the discussion around the meaning of health by suggesting, in the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, that: ‘To reach a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, an individual or group must be able to identify and to realise aspirations, to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is, therefore, seen as a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasising social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities.’

While having set definitions of health gives us a starting point in understanding what health is and is not, there are a number of other aspects that need to be taken into consideration before forming our own beliefs about the nature of health.

Dimensions of health Close examination of the various definitions of health reveal that health is not made up of just one component but rather is a complex balance between many different dimensions. These dimensions relate to all parts of a person’s being and continually interact with each other. These complex interactions determine the health of the person; they can differ on a daily basis from person to person and in different contexts. The five commonly regarded dimensions of health are as follows: 1 Physical—the physical dimension of health refers to the functioning of the body and the things that relate to this, such as physical activity, good nutrition, fitness and absence of disease. 2 Social—the social dimension of health relates to one’s ability to interact with other individuals. It involves building healthy relationships, fostering a positive self-image, improving interpersonal social skills and accepting diversity. It includes one’s interactions with family, friends and the community. 3 Emotional—the emotional or mental dimension of health refers to a person’s capacity to cope, adjust, and adapt to challenges and changes. It also includes a knowledge and acceptance of one’s feelings and emotions, the ability to manage stress in an appropriate manner, the ability to be resilient in tough times and having a well-developed sense of self. 4 Cognitive—the cognitive, or intellectual, dimension of health includes being able to access, process and use knowledge to assist in decision making, reasoning, weighing up the consequences of actions, life planning and career development.


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5 Spiritual—the spiritual dimension of health involves finding purpose and meaning to life. While it can include a belief in a higher being, it can simply mean having a sense of one’s self as part of a bigger picture and is closely related to one’s personal value system. It often involves finding a sense of inner peace or strength, a connection with nature, or optimism for the future. Figure 1.1

Health is made up of a number of interacting dimensions

Physical

Cognitive/intellectual

Physical Spiritual Dimensions of health

Social Emotional/mental

The key to good health is exercising each of the dimensions and maintaining a balance between them. This skill often requires practice. Balancing the different dimensions of one’s health may not necessarily mean devoting equal time and energy to each dimension but rather combining them in such a way that a person gains an overall sense of wellbeing. As the dimensions are interrelated, a person may find that prioritising one dimension may see a flow-on of beneficial effects in other areas. For example, a focus on the physical dimension of health may help a person reach a desired level of fitness and lower their blood pressure and cholesterol. They may do this through involvement in team sports, which in turn will have positive outcomes in the social and emotional dimensions of their health. The opposite can also be true. Prioritising one dimension of health may be detrimental to other aspects of a person’s health. A person who spends all their spare time at the gym, excluding time for social activities, family and friends, may find they are stressed, experience recurring injuries, are unable to see the consequences of their actions and may not be able to relate to anyone outside the gym scene. Many health-enhancing behaviours that a person can incorporate into their lifestyle fall into each of the dimensions of health.


Wellbeing a person’s experience of feelings of happiness, contentment and satisfaction.

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Table 1.1 Health-enhancing behaviours

Dimension

Health-enhancing behaviours

Physical

• • • •

Consider the Dietary Guidelines for Australians and seek advice on nutrition Adhere to the National Guidelines for Physical Activity Adhere to the Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol Have regular health checks e.g. pap smears, cholesterol checks

Social

• • • •

Spend time with family and friends Join recreational, sporting and/or leisure groups Practice good communication skills such as listening, complementary body language and conflict resolution Be a positive thinker

Emotional/ mental

• • • •

Learn and adopt a variety of stress management techniques Recognise positive and negative emotions and respond to them accordingly Have strategies in place to cope with anger and disappointment Identify people and/or agencies that can help in difficult times

Cognitive/ intellectual

• • • • •

Learn and practise effective decision making skills Set goals to work towards Regularly challenge yourself Stimulate yourself through courses, further study and reading Make informed decisions based on factual information and after weighing up the consequences of various choices

Spiritual

• Volunteer for community service or charity work • Become involved in a church or religious group • Find time for meditating and/or quiet thinking

• Practise yoga • Read inspirational books • Take nature walks

Relative and dynamic nature of health

Dynamic characterised by energy or effective action, active, forceful; the opposite to static.

As can be seen from the health definitions and dimensions discussed, health is not something that remains static. Our health can alter almost daily according to our circumstances, age, environment and interactions. A person may rate their health highly on a particular day as they are employed, have a number of friends, are involved in various social and sporting activities and, as a result, have a positive self-image and high self-esteem. However, they may arrive at work one day to discover they have been made redundant. This can result in a change in economic circumstances, an inability to participate in social activities due to a lack of funds, which in turn leads to a decrease in their feelings of self-worth. This person would then rate their health very differently. Health is seen as dynamic in nature as it is constantly changing. It is not something that we achieve and then do not have to worry about any more. If we were to rate our health on a continuum ranging from extremely good

Figure 1.2

A person’s health is constantly changing depending upon their circumstances, age, environment and interactions with others


Last week A month ago

EXTREMELY POOR HEALTH

Today A year ago

EXTREMELY GOOD HEALTH

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health to extremely poor health, the placement of our rating would move continually, as we shift from being well to unwell to well again, happy to unhappy or productive in our work or study to struggling with workplace demands. Our health will also change, reflecting its dynamic nature, as we mature, develop, interact with others and take on new life experiences. Health is also seen as relative, that is, it tends to be defined in relation to something else. We see our health in relation to our previous health, the health of others, our current circumstances and our potential for health. A 22-year-old professional athlete with a persistent injury may consider themself unhealthy in relation to their health when they are at peak fitness and performance. Alternatively, a 70-year-old man who is recovering rapidly from major surgery, which has increased his life expectancy, may consider his health excellent in relation to what it was before the operation. A child in Iraq may equate health to whether or not they can attend school without being in constant fear for their life, whereas a child in Australia may see health as being able to participate in sports and games at school. Our health may also change in relation to the different contexts we may find ourselves in. For example, a social runner may rate their health highly when they are with family and friends but if they join a serious running group with people who are training for an event, the social runner may rate their health differently compared to the other people in this context. We all have a maximum health potential, which changes throughout our lifetime. Our health potential can be at a high level when all five dimensions of health are interacting smoothly, however, we may suddenly be subject to an illness or injury, such as diabetes or chronic back pain. We can still lead a healthy lifestyle and function well in the circumstances but our level of health and our health potential has changed in relation to others and ourselves. Health is also relative according to the stage of a person’s life. Younger people may relate their feelings of health and wellbeing to fitness, energy, wellness or physical strength whereas older people may equate health to wholeness, an ability to cope and inner strength. Each will rate their level of health accordingly and this does not mean that one is more or less healthy than the other is.

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Relative something that exists in comparison to something else; it has some relation to something else. Potential the possibility of something occurring, a yet to be reached capacity.

Understand and apply


1

Discuss the different definitions of health, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses.

2

Synthesise your understandings of the dimensions of health and write your own definition of health.

3

Draw up your own continuum of health and place yourself on it, based on how you rate your health now. Be sure to take into account all five dimensions of health. Do the same for a week ago, a month ago and a year ago. Compare your ratings with a friend’s and explain why you placed yourselves where you did.

4

Outline which of the dimensions of health you feel you could improve upon, if any. Propose realistic strategies that you could employ to include more health-enhancing behaviours in these areas.

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Perceptions of health When we talk about health and what it means to individuals, it is important to consider how and why people form their varying views. Through our life experiences and interacting with others, we gain and use knowledge to form understandings and beliefs about different things. An individual’s picture of what health means, how it looks, and what they recognise as good or poor health can be referred to as their perceptions of health.

Perceptions of their health

Criteria standards or principles by which something can be judged or decided.

Table 1.2 Self-assessed health status of young people aged 15–24 years, sex and age group, 2004–05 (per cent)

Health status

A variety of factors shape an individual’s perceptions of health, including their education, family, culture and personal experiences along with their values and opinions. Individual perceptions of health are also related to widely held beliefs or understandings within society. If a particular society or group has a certain way of seeing, talking and thinking about things, then these ideas tend to shape the way we perceive the world and ourselves within that world. It is often difficult to judge one’s own health, as everyone has different perceptions about what is normal. When asking the questions ‘How healthy am I?’ and ‘How healthy do other people think I am?’, an individual needs to take into account a number of factors. It is very important to consider who sets the criteria that determine whether an individual is healthy or not. Very often, perceptions of our own health are based on appearances and physical health measures. An individual may establish their judgments of individual health on narrow ideals, such as the idea that someone can only be healthy if they are slim and tanned or tall and muscular. As an individual moves through life, they tend to become more informed and gain a wider range of knowledge about what makes up health, which can then assist them in evaluating how realistic their perceptions of health are. When making judgments about health, an individual should also remember the relative nature of health and be careful in comparing their health to that of others, who may have different circumstances or contexts. Studies have shown that a person’s own perceptions and self-assessment of their health are good indicators of their actual health and wellbeing, and a valid predictor of their future health. In the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare’s (AIHW) 2007 report, Young Australians: Their health and wellbeing, more than 90 per cent of young people rated their health as excellent, very good or good. 15–17 years Males Females

18–24 years Males Females

Males

15–24 years Females

Persons

Excellent or very good

85.1

79.3

64.7

64.1

70.9

68.5

69.7

Good

11.3

15.7

28.0

27.9

22.9

24.4

23.6

3.6

5.0

7.3

8.0

6.2

7.1

6.7

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Fair or poor Total

Note: parents responded for young people aged 15–17 years. AIHW analysis of the ABS 2004–05 National Health Survey confidentialised unit record file


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Perceptions of the health of others When an individual makes judgments about their own health based on their values, attitudes and beliefs, it is easy to use those same measures to judge the health of others. Generally, one’s perceptions of the health of other people are based on their experiences when interacting with others. These experiences can be positive or negative. Individuals will use these experiences to make comparisons and/or judgments about the health of that group of people. For example, older people may perceive young people to be lazy, self-centred and not concerned about their health and may base their perceptions on a combination of media messages, a possible negative altercation with a young person and by watching young people in their local community. Based on these experiences they may have a tendency to generalise about the health of all young people. The meanings different people give to health will also be a contributing factor to their perceptions of whether they believe others to be healthy or not. A person who equates health to socialising, enjoyment and fun may perceive someone who works long days and weekends as unhealthy. However, that person may consider themself healthy, as they are able to work everyday and provide for their family. Due to stereotyping, many people would perceive a homeless person as unhealthy, based on our beliefs of the prerequisites for health. On the other hand, that homeless person may see themself to be healthy, as they may have removed themself from an abusive situation, their homelessness may be only temporary and they consider they now have some control over their life. An elderly person may evaluate their health based upon the presence or absence of chronic disease, while someone else may automatically judge them as unhealthy because they are less able to do the things they could once do. Children tend to use social measures to judge their health, for example, they may feel they are healthy when playing with their friends and, therefore, perceive their parents or other older people as unhealthy because they do not partake in the same activities. Mental health is an area where perceptions may skew our judgments about the health of others. Many people are not well informed about mental illnesses and there is some stigma associated with them. Someone who does not have a mental illness and has a lack of understanding about this area may perceive a person with a mental illness to be very unhealthy. However, if a person’s mental disorder has been diagnosed and they are taking medication, that person may well rate themself at the extremely healthy end of the continuum, as they will be functioning at an optimum level.

Implications of different perceptions of health We have highlighted how different people have different perceptions of health and how these perceptions can form the basis of our decisions about whether or not we, or others, are healthy. A number of implications may arise from these different perceptions of health. A person’s beliefs about health may influence their perceptions of the costs and/or benefits of engaging in various health-compromising behaviours. For example, a young person’s perception of parental disapproval about a particular behaviour they are considering may serve as a deterrent to them making a poor health choice. Young people can become stigmatised by the behaviour of a minority of youth. This behaviour is reported in the media and informs society’s


Implication what might happen as a result of something else.

Stigmatise to disapprove of a person or group because they are perceived as being different; making it clear that something is socially unacceptable.

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perceptions about young people’s health and wellbeing. Young people may then miss opportunities that would otherwise be available to them because of these stereotypical perceptions. In addition, we may treat people differently based on our perceptions of health. For example, we may automatically assume that a person in a wheelchair is unhealthy and not involve them in activities we are planning, as they do not conform to our perceptions of what it means to be healthy. We could also miss warnings signs that someone is depressed, which affects their health. The person may satisfy society’s general criteria for being physically healthy but many people do not perceive health to be made up of other dimensions. Figure 1.3

Wheelchair sports help promote positive perceptions of health for groups with special needs

A construct is something that is formed or put together as a result of various ideas or influences.

Figure 1.4

Cars play a role in peer approval for young men


Perceptions of health as social constructs As discussed, health is much more than a matter of being sick or well. Our perceptions of health are recognised as being based on social constructs, that is, formed or put together because of social influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, family and friends. The degree to which perceptions of health are socially constructed can be illustrated by looking at young people and their health behaviours around cars. Cars and driving are extremely important to young people and can mean independence, status, credibility and a social avenue. Individuals may decide to engage in many health-compromising behaviours while driving such as speeding, drink driving, overcrowding, driving without a seat belt, text messaging and drag racing. While a young driver may realise the health risks associated with these behaviours, many other sociocultural and socioeconomic factors influence their decision to sometimes take these risks. These include the value placed on peer acceptance, approval and connectedness; the gender messages they receive from society about expected driving behaviour for males and females; the role models they see around them; and the norms and rituals associated with independence. The extent to which sociocultural factors play a role in constructing health perceptions can vary. Most people are well aware of the dangers associated with smoking, binge drinking, eating foods high in fat and speeding while driving but many still choose these behaviours. This may be because the other factors influencing their health behaviours are stronger than the knowledge of what is ‘good’ for their health. For example, body image is an important issue for young women. Some girls smoke as a weight-control measure. Although they know the health risks associated

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11

with smoking, the sociocultural pressure of body image is a far stronger influence on their health perceptions and their health behaviours than the fact that if they smoke they may reduce their life expectancy.

Impact of the media, peers and family The media, along with a person’s family and peers, can have both positive and negative impacts upon our perceptions of health. We are subjected to media messages about health and how to be healthy every day. These messages emphasise particular ideas or meanings about health, which are not necessarily accurate. For example, the media very often promotes a slim body as an ideal for women and a muscular body as an ideal for men. Unrealistic images of this perceived health norm can be detrimental to an individual’s beliefs about their health, and many individuals go to damaging lengths to mimic them. The media can also structure its coverage to support certain stereotypes about health and the health of subgroups within society, such as young people. For example, the media often depicts young people as an unhealthy group highlighting incidents of extreme risk taking, a propensity to abuse alcohol and other drugs, and a sedentary lifestyle coupled with poor eating habits. If this negative picture of young people is all that is shown in the media, eventually young people will believe that they all fit into this picture, regardless of whether their health behaviours are different to the ones portrayed. The mass media’s perpetuation of negative stereotypes can damage the self-esteem of young people and possibly lead to decreased opportunities. The media can also have a positive impact upon our perceptions of health. For example, a concerted media campaign designed to de-stigmatise mental illness has led to greater awareness and a changed community perception of the health status of people who suffer from illnesses such as depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Families can have a tremendous impact on an individual’s perception of health and the meanings they give to health. If a person’s family perceives physical activity as a healthy pursuit and a fun way to spend time with friends, then the individual is more likely to participate in physical activity and value the health benefits it brings. If a person is surrounded by active people, they are more likely to be active themself. Conversely, families who perceive physical activity as boring or difficult tend to be more sedentary and would judge their health according to other measures. Families influence the health perceptions of their members by the values they hold and the lifestyles they espouse. A young person’s peer group can also have an impact on their perception of health concerning health-compromising behaviours such as binge drinking. If the peer group perceives binge drinking to be an important part of their social agenda, those who do not participate may be ostracised from the group and, therefore, rate their health as poor. Alternatively, the peer group can view binge drinking as a health risk, which in turn will affect an individual’s health choices and what they perceive to be healthy behaviours.


Figure 1.5

Family and friends can have an impact on our perceptions of health and on the way we value health.

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12

Understand and apply 1

Explain why people have different perceptions of health and how these perceptions are formed.

2

Consider whether the health status of your group of friends would be different from another group of Year 11 students who may have had different experiences. Justify your answer.

3

Critically analyse whether media images and newspaper stories challenge or reinforce people’s perceptions of the health of young people.

4

Examine how people’s perceptions of the health of others can influence the way they relate to them.

5

Discuss how an individual’s perceptions of health may affect their behaviours and wellbeing.

Health behaviours of young people The media constantly highlights the health status and health behaviours of young people, provoking much discussion and debate.

The positive health status of young people

Socioeconomic status (SES) individual’s or a family’s income, education, occupation and standing in the community.

Homogenous alike or all the same.


In order to discuss the health status of young people, it is important to first define who young people actually are. According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), young people range from 12 to 24-years-old and make up 18 per cent of the total Australian population. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people account for less than 1 per cent of young Australians. Young people in Australia are an eclectic group made up of those born in Australia, those born overseas, those living in cities, those living in rural, regional and remote areas, a relatively equal mix of males and females, varying religions, different socioeconomic status (SES) and a diversity of family types. Young people certainly are not a homogeneous group and this should be considered when exploring their health status. The authors Strauss and Howe said in 1991, ‘If you believe what you see and read, you would think our schools are full of kids who can’t read in the classroom, shoot one another in the hallways, spend their loose change on tongue rings, and couldn’t care less who runs the country’. This is an interesting quote, as it refers to the broad generalisations that are very often made about young people in society. Commonly, the media and other groups of people like to clump all young people into one group and make statements about their health and wellbeing. More often than not, these statements highlight negative features or behaviours and would have you believe that all young people act, feel, relate and behave in this manner. For example, articles about illicit drug use often imply that all young people are using drugs, stories about teenage pregnancy would have you believe that all young people are engaging in unprotected sex, and stories about the ‘obesity epidemic’ suggest that all young people lead a sedentary lifestyle and have poor nutritional habits. Are these accurate societal perceptions or is there another side to the story of the health status of young people? According to recent studies into the health and wellbeing of young people, there is a lot of good news regarding their health status.

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The AIHW’s 2007 report, Young Australians: Their health and wellbeing, gives the key message that most young Australians’ health and wellbeing is faring quite well. While the report emphasises some areas for concern, the overall health status of young Australians is positive and many young people are engaging in health-enhancing behaviours. This is highlighted by the following findings: Over 90 per cent of young people rate their health as excellent, very good or good. The life expectancy of young Australians has improved. Mortality rates have halved since the late 1980s. Mortality rates for motor vehicle accidents and suicide have decreased. The rate of melanoma has decreased. Asthma prevalence rates have declined and the number of asthma hospitalisations have halved since the 1990s. The incidence of vaccine-preventable illness such as measles, rubella and meningococcal disease is low. There has been a decline in the notification rates for communicable diseases such as Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B and HIV. A large number of young people are free of tooth decay. Most young people live in two-parent families. Most Year 7 students meet the benchmarks for literacy and numeracy.

Mortality rates death rates. Melanoma a malignant cancer of the skin. Melanoma is the fourth most common cancer.

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

Deaths per 100,000 young people

Figure 1.6 Trends in injury and poisoning deaths for young people aged 12–24 years, 1985–2004 90

Notes

Male Female

80 70 60

2 Includes deaths registered during 2004 for which an ‘external cause’ was coded as the underlying cause of death (ICD-9 codes E800–E999 and ICD-10 codes V01–Y98).

50 40 30 20 10 0

1 Age-standardised to the Australian population as at 30 June 2001.

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Year AIHW National Mortality Database

Figure 1.7 Death rates for young people aged 12–24 years 1980–2004

Deaths per 100,000 young people

140 Male Female Persons

120 100

Note: age-standardised to the young Australian population as at 30 June 2001.v

80 60 40 20 0 1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992 Year

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002 2004

AIHW National Mortality Database


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14

Notes 1 Age-standardised to the Australian population as at 30 June 2001. 2 ICD-9-CM code 493 (1996–97 to 1997–98) and ICD-10-AM codes J45 & J46 (1998–99 to 2004–05).

Hospital separations per 100,000 young people

Figure 1.8 Asthma hospital separation rates for young people aged 12–24 years, 1996–97 to 2004–05

350 Male

300

Female

250 200 150 100 50 0 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 Year

AIHW National Mortality Database

Figure 1.9

Proportion of students spending at least an hour a day on moderate to vigorous activity, by gender and school year (summer) for 1997 and 2004

Other major studies also point towards the many positive aspects of the health status of young people. The NSW Schools Physical Activity and Nutrition Survey 2004 (SPANS) found that almost three quarters of the boys and girls in the survey met the recommendation of at least one hour of moderate to vigorous physical activity daily, and that physical activity levels had increased for both males and females since the last similar survey. They also found that the performance of fundamental movement skills such as running, throwing, catching, jumping and kicking had improved markedly. Research indicates that young people who have better fundamental movement skills are more likely to be more active, fitter and have better self-esteem than those who have poor skills in these areas.

Prevalence of 1 hour/day of MVPA

100

Year 8 boys Year 8 girls Year 10 boys Year 10 girls

80 60 40 20 0

NSW Centre for Overweight and Obesity (2006). NSW Schools Physical activity and Nutrition Survey (SPANS) 2004: Short Report, Sydney,


1997

Year

2004

Data from the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) shows a decline in road deaths across the population and in particular for young people. The national road toll in 2008 was 395, which is the lowest since 1944 despite Australia having twice the population, eleven times as many drivers and fifteen times more vehicles on the road.

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15

Figure 1.10

Road traffic injuries per 100 000 population, 0–18-year-olds, all ages, 1976–2007

Injuries per 100 000 population

900 0 to 18 All ages

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1976

1980

1984

1988

1992

1996

2000

2004

2008

Year

Figure 1.11 Fatalities per 100 000 population

30

Road traffic fatalities per 100 000 population 0–18-year-olds, all ages 1976–2008

0 to 18 All ages

25 20 15 10 5 0 1976

1980

1984

1988

1992

1996

2000

2004

2008

Year

Figure 1.12 600

Total road deaths Speed related deaths Speed related crashes involving young drivers or riders

500 400

Road-related deaths 2002–2007

300 200 100 0

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Year

NSW Centre for Road Safety

The 2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (conducted by AIHW every three years) looks at the use of non-illicit and illicit drugs across the Australian population. A comparison of the use of these drugs from survey results since 1998 shows a decline in the use of almost all categories of drugs. In particular, there has been a decrease in the number of females and males in the 14–19 year age group who report recently using cannabis. Information about the age of initiation for tobacco and alcohol use varies depending on the source, but generally appears to be at about 14 years for both drugs.


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16

Figure 1.13 100

Recent use of cannabis: males 1995 to 2007

1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

90 80

Percentage

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 14–19

20–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

60+

Age

Figure 1.14

100

Recent use of cannabis: females 1995 to 2007

1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

90 80

Percentage

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 14–19

20–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

60+

Age

2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey

Table 1.3 National Drug Strategy Household Survey 1998—2007, summary of drug use: proportion of the population aged 14 and over

Lifetime Use

Recent Use*

Drug 1998

2001

2004

2007

1998

2001

2004

2007

Tobacco

50.8

49.4

47.4

44.6

24.9

23.2

20.7

19.4

Alcohol

86.9

90.4

90.7

89.9

80.7

82.4

83.6

82.9

Cannabis

39.1

33.6

33.6

33.5

17.9

12.9

11.3

9.1

Inhalants

3.9

2.6

2.5

3.1

0.9

0.4

0.4

0.4

Heroin

2.2

1.6

1.4

1.6

0.8

0.2

0.2

0.2

Methamphetamine

8.8

8.9

9.1

6.3

3.7

3.4

3.2

2.3

Cocaine

4.3

4.4

4.7

5.9

1.4

1.3

1.0

1.6

Hallucinogens

9.9

7.6

7.5

6.7

3.0

1.1

0.7

0.6

Ecstasy

4.8

6.1

7.5

8.9

2.4

2.9

3.4

3.5

* Recent use means used in the last 12 months. * For tobacco and alcohol recent use means daily, weekly


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These surveys tend to report on the amount of people who have used drugs, which means looking at drug usage from a deficit model. If we are to focus on the positive health status of young people and break down the common perception that all adolescents use drugs, it is a valuable exercise to view the statistics from a non-usage perspective. Figure 1.15 100

Recent non-use of all drugs: 14 years and over

90 80

Percentage

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Cocaine

Heroin

Ecstasy

Hallucin- Meth/amp- Inhalants Cannabis ogens hetamine

Tobacco

Alcohol

2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey

Regarding sexual health, the 2008 National Survey of Secondary Students and Sexual Health reports that young people have high levels of confidence when talking to their parents about sex and sexual health-related matters. A large percentage of students surveyed have sought information from a variety of sources in relation to sexual health and there has been a marked improvement since the previous similar survey in 2002 in the knowledge levels of young people around sexually transmitted infections. Of those students surveyed who are sexually active, 69 per cent reported using a condom the last time they had sexual intercourse and half of the sexually active students reported always using a condom. This data, from a variety of sources, serves to provide a pleasing and positive picture of the health status of young people and certainly challenges some of the widely held societal perceptions, which are often sensationalised by the media. However, while not losing sight of the positives, it is important to acknowledge that there are still areas of concern about the health status of young people. Identifying ways to achieve further gains in adolescent health and wellbeing is very important. In particular, there are a number of inequities between the health status of young Indigenous Australians, youth from low SES backgrounds and young people living in rural and remote areas, when compared with the health of other young people throughout Australia. We will discuss other areas of concern later in this chapter, in relation to protective and risk behaviours.


Figure 1.16

Recent surveys suggest that a large percentage of young people are confident and well-informed about sexual health matters.

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18


According to the information provided on the previous pages, there appears to be many positive trends relating to the health status of young people. Explain why you think the picture that many people have of the health of young people is different to this.

2

Outline the benefits of presenting statistics about young people and drug usage from the point of view of how many people have not used particular drugs as opposed to how many people have taken a particular drug.

Protective behaviours and risk behaviours

Modifiable able to be changed or altered.

Reinforce to strengthen.

Detrimental damaging or making something worse.


Adolescence is an important stage of development not just physically but also socially and emotionally. It is a period when young people begin to form their values and attitudes and is a critical time for the development of health behaviours. Health behaviours are modifiable actions taken by a young person that have the potential to enhance or compromise their health. Studies have shown that the health patterns young people develop in their adolescent years will often continue into adulthood. These health behaviours are an important determinant of both current and future health status. As our health-related behaviours affect our short and long-term health, adolescence is the perfect time to establish and reinforce positive health and social behaviours. Protective behaviours are those actions a young person engages in that support good health, for example regular physical activity, not smoking, being actively involved in leisure and community activities, having a range of friends and having people to talk to when feeling anxious or sad. Protective behaviours also include skills such as effective communication, decision making and conflict resolution. Most protective behaviours need to be learned, developed and practised and, often, may not be the most popular or easiest choice, particularly when a young person is interacting with their peer group. Risk behaviours are those that a young person engages in that may be detrimental to their health, for example speeding, having unsafe sex, excessive dieting, substance use, deliberate self-harm or binge drinking. Everything we do has a degree of risk associated with it, however, for young people, engaging in high risk behaviours may seem part of growing up and establishing their sense of identity. They may be prompted by a need to connect with other people, to push boundaries, to influence others or to fit in with their peers. A young person’s perception of what is and is not risky behaviour may be clouded and may differ from what an older person believes is risky. Current research around brain development indicates that a person’s brain may not be fully developed until they reach their early to mid-20s. The front parts of the brain, which control judgment and caution, are shown to be the last to develop. Therefore, a young person may not be aware of the potential risks of a situation and may not consider the resulting consequences of a particular behaviour. This, coupled with inexperience and possible peer pressure, can mean that young people may engage in much more high-risk behaviour than other people do. A further issue related to the health behaviours of young people is that they tend to engage in a number of risky behaviours at the same time and this can increase the risk, along with any negative consequences. For example, young

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people who choose to binge drink may then put themselves in danger from other risk behaviours, such as engaging in unprotected sexual activity, being a passenger or driver in a vehicle while under the influence of drugs or alcohol or becoming involved in a violent altercation. Not all risk behaviours are harmful and there are both positive and negative outcomes of risk taking. Adolescence is a time of opportunity, creativity and learning. Taking risks can result in a person learning about themself and others, developing skills such as conflict resolution and problem solving and, perhaps, finding a flair or ability for something. However, it all depends on what type of risk behaviours a person is involved in. There is a difference between the controlled risks of playing extreme sports or challenging yourself to do something you have not done before and uncontrolled risks such as train surfing, drug use or drink driving. A young person’s practice of protective and risk behaviours tends to occur in key contexts, and these may influence the type of behaviour a person engages in and the degree of risk associated with it. For example, in the school and home environment protective behaviours are often taught and modelled and there is more opportunity to participate in safe and controlled risk taking. However, a young person’s peer group may discourage certain protective behaviours and encourage risk taking in various forms; this means the degree of risk is increased, as the safety of the situation may be decreased. For young people to stay safe and healthy, while at the same time enjoying new experiences and taking on challenges and adventures, it is important to be able to recognise risk behaviours associated with health issues relevant to them. Once these behaviours are recognised, a young person can then reduce the potential for harm around these health issues by developing a suite of protective behaviours that allow them to plan for the safety of themselves and others; to seek help if required and, in doing so, enhance their health and wellbeing. A number of health issues are relevant to young people and it is worthwhile to explore the protective and risk behaviours that are associated with these. Some of these health issues are more significant to some groups than others. Many protective factors are protective for general health and wellbeing and can be employed in a variety of situations, while others are specific to a particular health issue.

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19

Context the circumstances surrounding a particular situation, the setting in which something occurs.

Mental health As discussed earlier in this chapter, one of the dimensions of health is our emotional or mental health, which refers to the way we think, act and feel, and to our ability to cope with challenges. While many young people rate their health highly, recent studies indicate that just over 25 per cent of young people, aged 18 to 24 have been diagnosed with a mental disorder. Mental disorders are the leading contributor to the burden of disease for young people, with anxiety and depression being the most common problems. Mental disorders can affect almost every aspect of a young person’s life and, if untreated, can be a risk factor for self-harm and suicide. While many young people experience mental disorders, very few seek help and, therefore, they may suffer unnecessarily. Diagnosis, treatment and appropriate management can greatly reduce a person’s suffering and allow them to increase their level of health and wellbeing. Life is a rollercoaster for young people and having a broad repertoire of skills and strategies to help deal with all the things life throws in their direction can be extremely empowering.


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20

Table 1.4 Protective and risk behaviours for mental health

Protective behaviours

Risk behaviours

• Acknowledging that ordinary people can suffer from mental health issues and that everyone is different

• Blocking feelings and emotions

• Understanding the mental health issues can be treated and managed

• Believing that you can solve all your problems yourself

• Believing that mental problems are a sign of weakness

• Being able to put things in perspective

• Thinking you are the only person in this situation and that others will not understand

• Making connections with a supportive and caring adult in your life e.g. teacher, coach, church leader

• Not seeking help from friends, family or qualified professionals

• Learning and practising stress management skills

• Catastrophising

• Regularly expressing feelings through keeping a journal or blog, talking to someone or writing a letter

• Overgeneralising

• Knowing where you can go for help e.g. the internet, youth centres, school counsellor

• Taking drugs

• Self-harming

• Developing social networks with a variety of people

• Binge drinking

• Participating in community, volunteer or service activities

• Isolating yourself and not being involved in social events or activities

• Taking some time out • Avoiding the use of drugs and alcohol

• Seeking out opportunities to engage in high risk and unsafe activities

• Exercising and eating well • Developing and practising coping skills such as goal setting, problem solving and assertive behaviour • Knowing it is okay to say ‘no’ sometimes • Having a positive family environment


A protective behaviour for mental health is being involved in community, volunteer or service activities. Visit the ActNow website at and explore some of the ways this site can assist you to become more community minded. a Go to Health >Actions. Select two of the action topics (such as Body Image Action and Depression Awareness Action) and as a class, choose one of the actions they suggest e.g. writing letters to your member of parliament about different issues or holding a seminar at school to undertake as an activity. b Go to My Community >Organisations >Centre for Volunteering. Investigate the Student Community Involvement Program that this organisation runs to discover ways your class can get involved in your local community. c In a small class group, select an issue you feel strongly about and contribute an opinion, story, interview, blog comment or discussion post to the ActNow site.

2

Investigate what services are available to young people in your local community to assist them with a mental health issue or concern. Using this information, compile a directory that could possibly be included in your school diary. Include the name of the organisation, contact details and a short summary of the services they offer. Do not forget to include internet sites as well as physical organisations.


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Food habits Waistlines are increasing in Australia society and the results of SPANS support this with the finding that 25 per cent of young people are overweight or obese. Other findings from the survey showed that a large proportion of young people exhibit poor eating habits. Less than a quarter of young people eat the recommended amount of vegetables per day (4 serves). 55 per cent of boys and 4 per cent of girls drink more than one glass of soft drink per day. Less than a quarter of young people drink low fat milk. 80 per cent of young people eat at fast-food outlets at least once a week. Many young people skip breakfast. Around 30 per cent of young people eat their evening meal in front of the television. Being overweight or obese can have a significant impact on the lives of young people. It can seriously affect their self-esteem and may subject them to bullying and negative stereotypes. Poor eating habits, which lead to being overweight or obese, can increase the likelihood that a young person will suffer from asthma, diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, fatty liver disease and a range of other social, emotional and physical problems in both the short and long term. The incidence of type 2 diabetes, which was normally associated with older people, is increasing among young people. Poor eating habits are also associated with being under weight and disordered eating in young people, and these factors can also lead to health problems. Many factors influence a young person’s food habits and these will be discussed in chapter 2, however, the following table identifies some common risk behaviours associated with food habits and some protective behaviours that can be put in place.


Figure 1.17

The Australian Guide to Healthy Eating

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22

Table 1.5 Protective and risk behaviours associated with food habits


Risk behaviours

• Enjoying foods without overindulging

• Overindulging in foods e.g. having large helpings and going back for seconds or thirds

• Seeking out good information about food through magazines, the internet, health clubs and your local doctor • Eating a variety of foods in accordance with the Dietary Guidelines for Children and Adolescents and the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating

• Drinking soft drinks, energy drinks and sports drinks that are high in sugar on a regular basis

• Making plans to eat more healthily

• Skipping meals and then snacking on foods that are high in fat, salt and sugar

• Establishing healthy routines, such as getting up a bit earlier to allow you to eat breakfast or preparing healthy snacks to keep in the fridge

• Not being informed about the nutritional value of foods

• Bringing lunch from home rather than buying it every day

• Eating meals in front of the television or computer

• Being proactive in your school by organising a group to survey students and give suggestions to the canteen as to what healthy foods you would like to see on the menu

• Not eating breakfast

• Experimenting with fruit and vegetables to find some you enjoy

• Rarely eating fruit and vegetables

• Not being too strict on yourself in relation to foods—it is okay to have chocolates or chips sometimes

• Always buying lunch and recess snacks from the school canteen

• Talking to other people about their food habits

• Getting in the habit of coming home from school, sitting in front of the computer or television and snacking on high-fat foods

• Drinking plenty of water • Learning to read food labels • Talking to your parents about family meals, offering suggestions for health choices, going on food shopping trips and helping in preparing family meals

• Regularly eating at fast-food outlets

• Not being aware of what is in processed foods i.e. not reading food labels

• Asking to eat meals as a family around the table a few times a week rather than sitting in front of the television

Physical activity Many young people are involved in physical activity and although the general trend is towards an increase in physical activity levels, there are still concerns in this area. The Australian Physical Activity Recommendations for Children and Young People state that all young people should be involved in at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day. While a high percentage of young people meet this recommendation, activity levels tend to decline with age. Other issues relating to physical activity include that more boys are physically active than girls, that younger students tend to be more active than older students, all young people are more active in the summer months of the year, and young people who live in rural areas tend to be more active than those who live in urban areas. The amount of time spent in sedentary activities is also of concern. The Australian Government recommends that students should not spend more than two hours a day using electronic entertainment such as television, computers and hand-held games. However, the SPANS found a high proportion of boys and girls spending much more time than this engaged in these non-active pursuits. Less young people are using active means of transport to get to school and to get around on the weekends than in the past. It is more common for young people to be driven to school and other activities or to take public transport than to walk or ride a bike. While there are many reasons for this trend, it means that a potential avenue for physical activity is not often used.


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23

There are many short and long-term benefits associated with physical activity, such as the development of social skills and social networks through team sports, the increased likelihood of healthy blood-pressure levels, low cholesterol and low insulin levels, building stronger bones, maintaining a healthy weight range and increasing self-esteem. Putting in place protective factors around physical activity can assist in gaining these and other benefits. Table 1.6 Protective and risk behaviours for physical activity


Risk behaviours

• Becoming involved in a team sport • Limiting the amount of time spent on small-screen activities

• Spending increasing amounts of time in sedentary activities

• Walking or riding to school or getting off the bus a few stops earlier and walking part of the way

• Always using cars and public transport rather than walking or riding

• Finding a sport or physical activity that really suits you—it may be an individual or team activity

• Finding excuses to skip physical education classes

• Planning for physical activity and looking for ways to be physically active in everyday life e.g. walking the dog, riding your bike, parking further away from the shops

• Believing you are not able to change your skill level in relation to physical activity

• Organising a group at school to talk to teachers about your physical education uniform (if you are reluctant to participant in physical activity because of the clothes you have to wear, maybe you can lobby for the uniform to be changed) • Encouraging your friends to be involved in some form of sport or physical activity as a group • Going to a workshop to assist in developing skills in a particular sport or activity • Having a healthy, balanced diet • Seeing physical activity as a form of stress release

• Being in a group that encourage physical inactivity

• Spending large amounts of time working or studying and not balancing this with some form of physical activity • Using drugs or alcohol • Not eating a healthy diet • Not being aware of the opportunities available for physical activity in your school or local area • Not having suitable clothing to participate in physical activity • Seeing physical activity as an inconvenience not as an opportunity

• Making a list of what you perceive to be the personal benefits of being involved in physical activity • Looking for opportunities to be physically active


Discuss why statistics show that young women are less physically active than young men are.

2

Account for the decline in physical activity levels as people get older.

Body image Body image is a person’s attitude towards their body—how they see themself, how they think and feel about the way they look and how they believe others perceive them. Many young people identify body image as a concern; and a range of things, such as a person’s attitudes and beliefs as well as the media, our peers and society, can influence their thoughts. A young person’s body image can have a huge impact on their health and wellbeing. Poor body image can affect self-esteem and a young person’s social adjustment.


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24

Research into body image among young people shows a growing trend towards a more distorted and negative perception of the body and, as a result, a large degree of dissatisfaction with their body. This generally manifests itself in a desire among young women and men to be slimmer, and a desire for a more muscular body shape in young men. A distorted body image and body dissatisfaction can lead to many damaging behaviours and may also lead to disordered eating patterns such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. Young people need a great deal of encouragement and support around issues relating to body image due to the pervasive nature of the media in putting forward unrealistic stereotypes. Table 1.7 Protective and risk behaviours for body image


Risk behaviours

• Looking for ways to develop positive self-esteem e.g. working hard at school, finding activities you are good at, surrounding yourself with positive friends

• Participating in ‘yoyo’ or fad dieting or fasting

• Using media literacy to help deconstruct stereotypical images of a ‘normal’ body • Developing coping skills such as good communication, conflict resolution and problem solving • Making connections with a positive, caring adult • Being aware of and using relaxation and stress management techniques • Being proud of yourself and your achievements

• Excessively exercising or lifting weights • Using steroids • Following disordered eating patterns • Constantly comparing yourself and your body to media images, models and movie stars • Not having a range of friends and activities to be involved in • Believing that there are ‘good’ and ‘bad’ foods

• Having a good support network

• Believing that having a different body will make you happier

• Knowing that it is okay to eat a balanced diet that includes all foods, some in moderation

• Feeling guilty about what you eat

• Wearing the right clothes for your body shape

• Not critically analysing media messages about what is a ‘normal’ body

• Being involved with different groups of friends who have similar interests and who encourage you

• Having no one to talk to about problems, concerns or issues

• Knowing where you can seek help or advice about problems and concerns to do with your body

• Feeling ‘out of control’ in relation to your body

• Celebrating diversity

• Using drugs or alcohol


2

Visit the Dove ‘Campaign for Real Beauty’ at and view the advertisements Evolution and Onslaught. a Assess the impact you believe these advertisements may have on a young person’s perceptions of body image. b Discuss what media literacy skills these advertisements are advocating. c Propose other ways that young people can be informed about the unrealistic messages the media portrays about body image. Debate the following statement: ‘You cannot believe everything you see in the media’.


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Drug use Adolescence is a time when young people may choose to experiment with drug use and, even though large numbers of young people do not use or abuse drugs, there are some areas of concern. The earlier young people are initiated into the use of drugs such as tobacco, alcohol and illicit drugs, the more likely they are to continue to use these substances and develop problems that may affect their future health. The AIHW’s most recent findings around young people and tobacco use show that while there has been a steady decrease in the amount of smokers between 12–24 years of age, 17 per cent of young people are smokers and, of this figure, there are slightly more female smokers than males. This may be connected with issues around body image and the perception that smoking supresses the appetite. The use of illicit drugs is decreasing for young people, in all areas except for ecstasy use. While the percentage of young people using ecstasy is still less than 10 per cent of 16–19-year-olds, it is still important for young people to be aware of the associated risks and for them to put in place protective behaviours to ensure they make health-enhancing decisions around illicit drugs. Table 1.8 Protective and risk behaviours for drug use


Risk behaviours

• Hanging out with people who have common interests that do not involve substance use

• Binge drinking

Binge drinking the act of

• Drink driving or getting into a car with someone who is under the influence of alcohol or other drugs

drinking heavily over a short period or drinking continuously over a number of days or weeks. People who binge drink tend to drink with the sole purpose of getting drunk.

• Joining a sporting team or recreation group • Practising positive peer pressure e.g. challenging people not to drink or take drugs, and getting involved in alternative activities

• Mixing drugs and alcohol

• Trying to cultivate other interests that are not related to drug taking

• Accepting drugs from an unknown source

• Practising positive stress management and relaxation techniques

• Using drugs alone

• Having a range of skills to seek help

• Being aggressive towards others when under the influence of alcohol or other drugs

• Being able to talk to other people • Practising peer refusal skills • Having a plan before you go out, to avoid risky situations that involve drugs or alcohol e.g. how to get home: money for a cab, contract with parents to pick you up • Practising harm-management strategies if you do intend to drink e.g. spacing drinks, avoiding shouts, drinking nonalcoholic or low-alcohol drinks

• Having limited interests

• Drink spiking • Having minimal coping skills • Not knowing where to seek help • Using alcohol or other drugs to mask a problem or concern

• Avoiding drinking games

• Underage drinking

• Practising assertive responses to peer pressure • Having a positive family environment

• Getting involved in drinking games

• Knowing first aid and what to do in an emergency situation involving drugs or alcohol

• Having no social support networks

• Not taking drugs or drinking alcohol alone

• Drink walking

• Learning how to manage anger in a positive manner • Having connections with a caring adult


Drink walking walking whilst drunk. Drink walkers are likely to stagger onto the road, not use pedestrian crossings and may fall asleep or lie down on the road. These factors increase their risk of being hit by cars, and seriously injured or killed.

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Some young people drink alcohol in amounts that put them at risk of alcohol-related short-term harm. The immediate effects of alcohol combined with the tendency of adolescents to engage in a range of risk-taking behaviours greatly increases the risk of serious injury or death. Young people are the group most at risk of alcohol-related harm such as motor vehicle accidents, physical and sexual assaults, falls, drowning and suicide. Alcohol harm is not limited to the young person but also affects their peers, families and bystanders. The National Health Medical Research Council’s Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol 2009 recommends that the safest option for children and young people less than 18 years of age is not to drink alcohol at all. They suggest that children under 15 years are at the greatest risk of harm from drinking and that not drinking alcohol at all in this age group is very important. For young people aged 15–17 years, they suggest that delaying the initiation of drinking as long as possible is safest. To view all the Guidelines visit .

Sexual health

Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted bacterial infection, which can affect the penis, cervix, fallopian tubes, anus, and throat; it can cause serious health problems, such as pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility, if left untreated.


Sexual health is an important issue for young people but frequently this issue is not given the attention it requires due to its sensitive nature. Sexual health can be a confusing issue for young people and often they do no not know where to turn to for advice. Inadequate sexual health information can result in poor overall health outcomes for young people. It is important that young people feel comfortable with their sexuality and, when they do receive information on sexual health, it needs to be relevant, engaging, culturally and gender specific and from a trustworthy source. According to the 2008 Secondary Students and Sexual Health Survey the majority of young people (78 per cent), in Years 10 and 12 have participated in some form of sexual activity ranging from deep kissing through to sexual intercourse. The proportion of students who have experienced sexual intercourse has increased markedly in the six years since the previous survey in 2002, along with an increase in the number of sexual partners. The percentage of young people having oral sex has also increased, with a number of the students surveyed reporting having oral sex with three or more people in the past year. Of those students who are sexually active, it is concerning to note that just under a third of them had experienced unwanted sex at some time, generally due to being drunk or being put under pressure by their sexual partner. The number of young women experiencing unwanted sex has increased by 10 percent since the 2002 survey. A number of sexually active young people state that they were drunk or high during their most recent sexual encounter. A small percentage of young people report being same-sex attracted, which can put them at risk of marginalisation and depression. While young people are using condoms during sexual intercourse, they are mainly doing so to prevent pregnancy rather than to protect themselves from sexually transmitted infections (STI). Knowledge about HIV/AIDS and other STIs has improved since 2002 but is still quite low, which certainly can have an impact on health behaviours and health status. Chlamydia is the most commonly reported STI and notification rates of this disease have doubled since 2001.This could be partly due to increased awareness and testing, but the increase also relates to some young people engaging in unprotected sex and having multiple sexual partners. Many young

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Notifications per 100,000 young people


27

Notes

1,000 Male

900

1 Age-standardised to the Australian population as at 30 June 2001.

Female

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000 Year

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System

Figure 1.18

people report that they are not aware that Chlamydia can cause infertility. Knowledge about Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical cancer among the surveyed students was generally poor. Males are more likely than females to have multiple partners and to use condoms. These health behaviours could be influenced by societal double standards regarding sexual activity for males compared to females. Girls may feel they will be labelled ‘easy’ if they carry and suggest the use of condoms and may think that it is alright for a boy to have a number of sexual partners but not for a girl. Of concern is the finding that one in ten sexually active young people used the withdrawal method as a means of contraception in their last sexual encounter. Young people are the most common users of the morning after pill at Australian family planning clinics. Sexual health should incorporate breast checks, pap smears, testicular checks and regular sexual health checks if a young person is sexually active. The Penrith Panthers rugby league team have recently teamed up with Family Planning NSW to inform young men about the importance of testicular checks with the slogan ‘Penrith Panthers know the feel of their balls—do you?’ Michael Jennings, NSW Origin representative. Posters created to promote the importance of testicular self-examination among young men as part of looking after their reproductive and sexual health. Developed by Penrith Panthers , Andrology Australia and Family Planning NSW


CHAPTER 1

Chlamydia notification rates for young people aged 12–24 years, 1995–2005

Figure 1.19

Regular testicular checks are part of maintaining sexual health.

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Table 1.9 Protective and risk behaviours for sexual health


Risk behaviours

• Abstaining from or delaying sexual intercourse

• Early initiation of sexual activity

• Practising safe sex, if sexually active

• Having unprotected sexual intercourse

• Having well-developed communication skills and strategies • Regularly doing a breast self examination (BSE) • Regularly doing testicular checks • Having the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination to protect against cervical cancer • Getting regular pap smears if you become sexually active

• Having sexual intercourse when drunk or high • Having sexual intercourse when pressured to do so

• Getting regular sexual health checks if you become sexually active

• Coercing someone into having sexual intercourse

• Being well informed about STIs and various methods of contraception

• Not being informed about STIs

• Learning and practising being assertive in different situations

• Feeling confused about your sexuality but not talking to anyone about it

• Looking out for your friends if they are drunk or high • Researching where to seek advice, help and support regarding sexual health • Having respect for others • Having good social and communication skills • Practising how to negotiate safety

• Avoiding regular health checks and tests, particularly if sexually active

• Delaying the initiation of sexual activity • Having connections with, and being able to talk to, a caring adult

Road safety Wheels user this term incorporates bicycle riders, skateboarders, roller-bladers and roller-skaters. Morbidity rates illness and injury rates in a population.

Road safety, incorporating driver, passenger, pedestrian and wheels user safety, is an important health issue for young people. Injury is still the leading cause of morbidity and mortality for young people and, while there has been a decline in overall road deaths in Australia, young people (males in particular) remain overrepresented in traffic accident statistics. This is concerning particularly as they are only a small proportion of the population who hold a driver’s licence. Some of the factors influencing these statistics for young people include: greater levels of independence inexperience with new situations, which may require new skills overconfidence and a sense of impunity (‘it won’t happen to me’ attitude), which results in higher levels of risk taking the stage of brain development during adolescence means that hazard perception and decision-making skills are not fully developed the influence of peers experimentation with alcohol and other drugs busy lifestyles, which means that young people may be tired or distracted. Road safety around cars is an integral component of investigating protective and risk behaviours for young people. Getting a driver’s licence and being able to either drive themself or travel with friends who can drive is an important marker of adulthood. Driving brings opportunities, freedom and status but, at the same time, can bring increased risk. Statistics from the NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) show that a 17-year-old driver is four times more likely to be involved in a fatal crash than someone who is aged 26 years or older. Statistics also show that young people are more likely to be involved in motor vehicle accidents when driving at night and that the likelihood


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of being involved in a fatal crash increases when there are two or more passengers in a young person’s car. Speeding is the main cause of road crashes in NSW but other high-risk behaviours that contribute significantly are driver fatigue, drink driving and not wearing seat belts. Recent initiatives by the NSW government to improve the safety of young drivers include: The graduated licensing scheme introduced in 2000, specifically to improve training and licensing arrangements for new drivers. Zero tolerance for P1 drivers for speeding offences. P2 drivers caught speeding from 1 kilometre per hour to 30 kilometres per hour over the limit will lose an additional demerit point from July 2009, which means they will lose their licence for a second speeding offence. Zero alcohol Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) levels for L- and P-plate drivers. A ban on P-plate licence holders driving high performance vehicles. This scheme aims to prohibit young driver access to vehicles that are overrepresented in young driver crashes. The P1 Peer Passenger Condition, which means that P1 drivers under the age of 25 must not drive a vehicle with more than one passenger under 21 years old between 11 pm and 5 am. A one-passenger condition also applies to any provisional (P1 and P2) driver who has been disqualified for a driving offence. After the disqualification period, the licence holder can only carry one passenger at all times while driving, for a 12-month period. No mobile phone (even hands free) use by learner and P1 drivers and provisional riders.


Figure 1.20

A protective behaviour for young drivers is minimising the distractions in and around the car when driving

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30

Other areas relating to road safety and young people are passenger safety, pedestrian safety and safety while riding bikes or skateboards. There is a range of protective behaviours that young people can put in place to reduce their risk of injury when involved in these activities. These have been included in the table below. Table 1.10 Protective and risk behaviours for road safety


Risk behaviours

• Being assertive to safeguard your own and others’ safety, especially in cars

• Having a sense of invulnerability or impunity— an ‘it won’t happen to me’ attitude

• Not assuming ‘it won’t happen to me’

• Driving with a BAC above the legal limit

• Not drinking and driving

• Driving under the influence of other drugs

• Organising a designated driver who will not be using any alcohol or other drugs

• Drink walking

• Arranging to be picked up after a party or function

• Sending and reading text messages while driving

• Using public transport or a taxi if under the influence of alcohol or other drugs

• Driving with lots of passengers in the car

• Arranging to stay overnight rather than drive if you plan to drink at a function • Using the graduated licence scheme to your advantage e.g. encourage your instructor to give you lots of hours driving experience in lots of different environments

• Talking on a mobile phone while driving

• Having loud music in the car when driving • Changing the CD or song on your mp3 player while driving • Speeding • Driving while sleep deprived

• Planning long trips to include rest stops and using the stop, revive, survive centres and designated rest areas on NSW roads

• Driving long distances without a break

• Not driving at times when you would normally be asleep

• Overcrowding your car or putting people into the boot

• Sharing the driving whenever possible

• Driving at night

• Wearing seat belts

• Not crossing the road at traffic lights or pedestrian crossings

• Wearing helmets and protective clothing when riding motorcycles • Obeying road rules including different speed signs and warning signs • Wearing safety gear when using skateboards, roller blades etc. • Wearing a properly fitted, approved bicycle helmet • Being a positive influence on your peers (positive peer pressure) e.g. always using a seat belt or helmet, not driving under the influence etc.

• Not using a seat belt

• Cycling without a helmet • Taking risks in your vehicle when encouraged by friends • Daring your friends to take risks e.g. speeding, playing chicken with cars etc. • Drag racing

• Being a responsible passenger

• Not driving to suit the road conditions e.g. rain, snow, ice

• Learning how to recognise risky situations

• Driving a ‘bomb’ car that may not be roadworthy

• Minimising distractions in your vehicle

• Driving a high performance car

• Turning your mobile phone off in the car

• Driving aggressively and letting yourself become ‘road raged’

• Stop, look, listen and think when crossing the road • Obeying road rules relating to pedestrians e.g. using the pedestrian crossing, not jay walking • Wearing highly visible clothing as a pedestrian or cyclist, especially at night • Having driving lessons


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Visit the RTA’s website Geared at . a Go to Feature Articles >Driven to Distraction. Watch the video and read the information about distractions for young drivers. Propose a variety of strategies that young people can employ to minimise the number of distractions in their vehicle when driving. b Go to Driving >All articles in Driving. Read the Driving Skills article on ‘Girls on guys in cars’. Analyse the impact you think reading this article might have on young male drivers and their driving habits.

2

Critically analyse the graduated licensing scheme as a means of providing young drivers with more experience in a range of driving situations.

3

Discuss the impact that the peer passenger condition may have on motor vehicle-related accidents for young people.

4

Plan a road trip from Sydney to the Gold Coast to attend the Big Day Out. Include in your plan what you will do in preparation for the trip, and the rest stops you will make along the way.

chapter review Recap Health can be defined in a number of ways and is made up of five different dimensions— physical, social, cognitive, emotional and spiritual. The dimensions of health should be balanced so that the individual gains an overall sense of wellbeing. An individual’s health is constantly changing and is affected by their circumstances, age, environment and interactions and, as such, is referred to as being dynamic. Health is also seen as relative, as it is often defined in relation to something else, such as an individual’s previous health, the health of other people, their current situation or environment and their potential for health. An individual’s perceptions of health are shaped by a variety of factors including their education, family, culture and personal experiences, along with their values and opinions. A person’s perceptions of their health and that of others may lead them to form opinions of others or act towards them in a certain way. Our perceptions of health are seen to be socially constructed as they are formed because of social influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, family and friends. Young people in Australia are a diverse group and, for the most part, are faring quite well with their general health and wellbeing. However, there are some inequities in health among different groups of young people.


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The health patterns developed by young people in adolescence will often continue into adulthood. A young person’s health behaviours can include positive behaviours, those which support and enhance their health, and risk behaviours, those which may be detrimental to their health.

Useful websites for study

chapter review

Organisation


Current URL

Useful for …

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare

www.aihw.gov.au

Access to statistics and other information on the health and wellbeing of Australians, in particular, access to the publication Young Australians: Their Health and Wellbeing

Reach Out

www.reachout.com.au

Information about all health issues relating to young people—contains fact sheets, a forum to discuss issues, a chill-out space and information about how to develop and improve coping skills

Beyond Blue: the national depression initiative

www.beyondblue.org.au

Information relating to mental health

Somazone

www.somazone.com.au/about-somazone.html

Information about youth health issues by young people for young people

Federal government’s ecstasy and other drugs site

www.redi.gov.au/ecstasy_drugs/default.htm

Uses case studies to provide information to young people, parents and teachers about ecstasy and other drugs

DrugInfo clearinghouse

www.druginfo.adf.org.au

Easy-to-access information on alcohol, other drugs and prevention

Kids Helpline

www.kidshelp.com.au

Information about seeking help and 24-hour counselling for young people

Don’t turn a night out into a nightmare

www.drinkingnightmare.gov.au

Federal government website related to risky drinking; information for under-18s, over-18s and parents

Adios Barbie

www.adiosbarbie.com

A site devoted to all body shapes and sizes

National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre

www.ncpic.org.au

Information for young people, teachers and parents about cannabis, including fact sheets, real stories and a helpline

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Current URL

Useful for …

Completely Gorgeous

www.completelygorgeous.com.au

Information about all issues related to young people’s health including some good links

Get Clued Up

www.getcluedup.com.au

Information about Chlamydia

NSW Centre for Road Safety

www.rta.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety

Information related to all aspects of safe driving

Family Planning NSW

www.fpnsw.org.au

Information about sexual health: search under Sex Matters for fact sheets and FAQs

Exam-style questions 1 Give an outline of the five dimensions of health, highlighting the

33

chapter review

Organisation

CHAPTER 1

(4 marks)

interaction between each of them in relation to health. 2 Explain how a person’s perceptions of health are socially constructed.

(6 marks)

3 Select one of the following health issues—mental health, body image,

(10 marks)

drug use, sexual health, food habits, physical activity or road safety. Identify a range of risk and protective behaviours for this health issue and investigate how risk decreases or increases when multiple factors interact.


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2

Influences on the health of individuals What influences the health of individuals?

The health of an individual is subject to many influences, some of these have a positive effect on a person’s health outcomes, while some may be detrimental. These influences tend to act in various combinations and a person can exert differing amounts of control over them dependent upon their social, economic and environmental circumstances. The influences that affect an individual’s health construct their meanings around health, the value they attach to health and their health behaviours, whether these are health enhancing or health compromising. Because some influences on an individual’s health may be out of their control, the health of an individual becomes the joint responsibility of both the individual and the society in which they live.

The determinants of health

Interrelated something that is connected or linked to something else.

An individual’s health is influenced by a range of factors, which are commonly referred to as the determinants of health. These determinants are the conditions, circumstances and environments in which people are born, live, learn, work and play and they have a large impact on the way a person grows and develops as well as on the choices they make. While each individual has some responsibility for their health behaviours, there is growing recognition that the context of people’s lives can also greatly determine their health. Each determinant is important in its own right but, at the same time, they are interrelated. Often the network of interacting determinants increases or decreases a person’s health status.

Individual factors

Trait a distinguishing feature, characteristic or quality.


Our health can be shaped by individual factors, which include our knowledge, skills and attitudes, along with our genes. Our genes determine the characteristics passed on from parents to their children. These inherited traits can determine our potential in terms of physical development, intellectual capacity, life expectancy and the likelihood of developing certain diseases. Genes also establish a person’s gender, which can influence an

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Influences on the health of individuals

individual’s health. For example, males have an increased risk of developing various conditions, such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease and males generally have a shorter life expectancy than females. Individual health knowledge is acquired through a variety of means and helps a person develop skills that are important in supporting healthrelated decisions and choices. These skills, or personal health practices, are what people use to interact effectively with the world around them and to deal with the events, challenges and stresses they encounter in their dayto-day lives. They are sometimes referred to as coping skills; and effective coping skills enable individuals to be self-reliant, solve problems and make informed choices that enhance their health. Effective coping skills also allow people to face life’s challenges in positive ways, without recourse to risky behaviours. A young person with well-developed coping skills, such as problem solving, may be able to assess a risky situation, look at other options available, weigh up the consequences of each and make an informed decision that will enhance their health. Other determinants may come into play, which will also affect the individual’s choices and decisions. However, research tells us that people with a strong sense of their own effectiveness and ability to cope with various circumstances in their lives are likely to be most successful in adopting and sustaining healthy behaviours and lifestyles.

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35

Consequences what may happen because of a particular action.

Figure 2.1 Decision making Effective communicating

Problem solving

INDIVIDUAL COPING SKILLS

Goal setting

Anger management

Conflict resolution

Stress management techniques

When we look at individual factors as a determinant of health, we should also consider a person’s attitudes and values. These are shaped by many things, including their personality, priorities, motivation levels, temperament, expectations, roles and responsibilities, ability to think and learn, ability to connect with others, and their sense of self. All these factors interact in the formation of values and attitudes, and influence our health decisions. For example, motivation is what helps us to set goals and move towards them in a positive manner. Our motivation to do things can be extrinsic, that is, we act in a certain manner for the external rewards, or intrinsic, where we act in a certain way as it gives us personal satisfaction and we believe the outcome


Well-developed and effective coping skills can assist a person in making health-enhancing decisions

Sense of self how a person perceives themselves. The unique qualities that make up an individual.

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36

will be personally rewarding. Concerning health behaviours, some young people may be motivated to make certain choices out of a need to belong and feel valued by their peer group rather than by what is best for them, which may result in poor health choices such as using drugs.


Think about the coping skills you believe you possess. Examine the strategies you can employ to improve your coping skills and build on any areas in which you feel you are lacking.

2

Research the steps involved in the decision-making process for problem solving. Design a flow chart that summarises the main points people should consider when assessing a risky situation and deciding what course of action to take.

3

Define intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and discuss which of these would be most effective for assisting individuals to change their health behaviours.

Sociocultural factors

Health-enhancing behaviours behaviours beneficial to a person’s health, such as healthy eating, physical activity, communicating with others and not smoking.


Sociocultural factors refer to the influence of a person’s family and peers, their religion and culture, and the media on the personal health practices they adopt for their health. These determinants exert some influence on a person’s life and are ever-present when people make health-related decisions. As with all determinants of health, sociocultural factors can have a positive impact on the choices we make but, conversely, they may make it difficult for a person to adopt health-enhancing behaviours. Our health-related habits are closely associated with the examples set by our parents and family. As discussed in chapter 1, the beliefs and perceptions of one’s family in relation to all aspects of health are inextricably linked to our health choices. If a person grows up in a household where a healthy diet and regular physical activity are valued, where skills such as effective conflict resolution and good communication are regularly modelled and where risk-taking behaviour is encouraged in the context of sport, recreation and work challenges; the individual has support mechanisms already in place to assist them in making positive health choices. On the other hand, a family may have poor relationships and communication skills, not be aware of or value the benefits of healthy eating and exercise, and may engage in risk behaviours such as smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. A person may find it difficult to adopt health-enhancing behaviours in such an environment. For example, a young person may be made aware of the benefits of a low-fat diet with plenty of fruit and vegetables through PDHPE lessons at school and may be keen to incorporate these practices into their lifestyle. However, their parents do all the shopping and cooking for the family and the choices they make for meals tend to be processed meals that are high in fat, salt and sugar rather than fresh foods. This then becomes a barrier to making positive health choices for the young person and may determine their level of health. The family can also have strong influences in areas related to other dimensions of health. For example, a family who do not spend a lot of time together talking and building relationships and who encourage the family

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members to keep their emotions to themselves rather than discuss them may make it difficult for a young person to talk about any problems they may be experiencing. This can be distressing for a young person and, if they do not have the resources to seek help from other means, it may have a negative impact on their health status. Our peers are those who share something in common with us, such as age, background, interests and experiences. People tend to gravitate to those who share their values and attitudes, and their likes and dislikes. Often, the peer group is also the benchmark by which a person measures what is appropriate behaviour, along with determining their sense of self-worth. Everyone has peers with whom they interact throughout their lifetime, but during adolescence, a young person’s peer group is held in the highest esteem and has a tremendous impact on the decisions and choices that person makes. Humans are social beings and have many needs related to relationships, such as a need to feel valued, to belong and be accepted, to have friends and to develop a sense of identity. If our needs are not met, some of us may become prone to depression, drug use, anxiety and feelings of hopelessness, which can affect all aspects of health. The peer group meets many of these needs and can be a very positive determinant of good health through developing productive social relationships. If peer group membership results in a sense of satisfaction and wellbeing, it can be seen as a buffer against health problems. A young person may find that their peer group includes others with whom they can discuss health issues, take on challenges, seek help for problems if needed and generally be a good support network. The need for belonging, however, can be very strong in adolescence and can sometimes overcome other needs, such as safety, resulting in poor health choices. For example, a young person may chose to partake in an activity that compromises their health and wellbeing, such as smoking marijuana, in order to satisfy their need to be an integral part of their peer group, as they believe the group would not accept them if they did not participate.


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37

Figure 2.2

The quality of family life influences our health status

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38 Figure 2.3

The peer group meets many needs and can be a positive determinant of good health


Examine further examples of how sociocultural factors such as family and/or peers can have an influence on a person’s health behaviours.

2

Visit the Reach Out website at . Spend some time exploring the site and then critically analyse how useful it may be for young people to assist them in dealing with issues, seeking help and making health-enhancing decisions.

Marginalise to regard a group of people as less important than others, treating them differently and not affording them the same advantages as others.

Holistic viewing health as something that involves the whole person (mind, body and spirit) rather than just looking at an illness or disease.


Culture and religion can be important determinants of our health as either risk factors or protective factors. Different cultures have different values and beliefs about health. There are also practices that are associated with particular cultures that can either enhance or compromise health. Belonging to a particular culture can provide an individual with social support and a sense of community, which can have positive effects on their health. However, if a person is marginalised or discriminated against because of their culture, the effects of this will adversely affect their health and wellbeing. Cultural beliefs may affect the health decisions a person makes, for example, whether or not to seek healthcare for health concerns. Traditional diets associated with different cultures can affect a person’s health status. For example, a Japanese diet, which is low in fat and uses a lot of fresh fish and vegetables, can have a positive impact on a person’s physical health, whereas a culture that uses large amounts of oil, cream, meats and fats in their cooking may contribute to the risk of cardiovascular disease in people from that culture. The way different cultures view health can also affect a person’s health status. For example, the Chinese philosophy around health is very holistic, seeing a strong link between mind and body. The health practices someone from this culture may adopt, such as participating in tai chi, can have a positive influence on the physical, spiritual and emotional dimensions of their health.

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Cultural expectations can be a deterrent to the uptake of healthy practices. Adolescents in Australia have consistently low levels of adherence to sun protection recommendations despite being well aware of the consequences of ignoring this advice. This is, in part, due to the strongly held societal belief that to be healthy one must be tanned and the cultural expectation that you need to be a ‘bronzed Aussie.’ Other sociocultural determinants that interact with the choices young people make around sun-protection behaviours include peer approval, the notion that to belong you must fit a certain image, and a desire for a tan associated with images in the media. Religion as a social determinant can provide positive health outcomes such as social support, a sense of purpose, and a belief system to follow. Religious beliefs may also influence a person’s health behaviours by encouraging abstinence from alcohol, smoking, or sexual activity before marriage. Some religions, while advocating these behaviours, will also teach about the importance of family and relationships and this can have a positive impact on an individual’s health status. Other religious beliefs may have negative health outcomes, such as the illegal practice of female circumcision or not allowing blood transfusions as a treatment for serious illness or injury. A final sociocultural factor that can determine the health of an individual is the media. Due to its pervasive nature, the media has the ability to be a powerful influence on the health behaviours of people and, in turn, on their health and wellbeing. Media messages comment on all aspects of our lives and often tell us what we need in order to be happy, what products we should purchase in the pursuit of health and how people from different genders, cultures and age groups are meant to behave. The media can be very explicit in its health messages. For example, specific advertisements relating to positive health behaviours, such as ‘How do you measure up?’, ‘Go for 2 and 5’, ’Speeding: no one thinks big of you’ and ‘Don’t turn a night out into a nightmare’, inform people about issues that may affect their health and provide suggestions and strategies to address these issues. At the same time, the media can send implicit messages about health and what is valued in regard to health. For example, the constant portrayal of unrealistic images of male and female bodies in magazines and newspapers, online and on television can lead people to believe that this is the norm, resulting in the increased prevalence of dieting, disordered eating, smoking and drug taking for weight control, and obsessive exercise

CHAPTER 2

39

Abstinence not partaking in a particular activity or behaviour, for example, drinking alcohol or having sexual intercourse. Explicit an idea or concept that is very clearly expressed.

Implicit an idea or concept that is implied rather than clearly stated.

Figure 2.4

An example of the ‘Speeding: no one thinks big of you’ campaign

Figure 2.5

The ‘How do you measure up?’ health campaign encourages people to consider the impact of their health behaviours


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as people strive for the ‘ideal’ body. The 2008 Mission Australia National Survey of Young Australians reported that body image was of major concern to a third of the 45 558 young women and men surveyed. The media can play an educative role around health issues and serve as a tool to debunk common myths, such as coffee being able to sober up an intoxicated person. The media also has a great influence over how people perceive an issue or problem, such as, for example, the ‘obesity epidemic’. Media messages can sometimes provide misinformation in relation to health issues. It can often be difficult for people to determine what is fact and what is fiction, so that they can make informed decisions that will benefit their health.

Figure 2.6

Self-image is powerful but can be deceptive


Explain how you believe cultural expectations are formed and the impact they may have on an individual’s health behaviours.

2

Justify the following statement: ‘A person who is periodically discriminated against on the grounds of their culture, beliefs or race is likely to experience poorer health than someone who has never experienced discrimination’.

3

Visit the websites of the following health-related media campaigns: • Go for 2 and 5 • Don’t turn a night out into a nightmare • How do you measure up? • Speeding: no one thinks big of you . Comment on whether you believe these campaigns put across explicit messages about health-enhancing behaviours. Discuss what other sociocultural factors could be present in an individual’s life that may interact with these media messages to either encourage or discourage a person to change their health behaviours.

Socioeconomic factors Social gradient the term used when referring to the link between socioeconomic status (SES) and health.


Some persons or groups in society may face additional health risks because of the socioeconomic environment in which they live. Social gradient is the term used by the World Health Organization when referring to the link between socioeconomic status (SES) and health. There is a direct correlation between a person’s susceptibility to disease and their social environment in particular their income, their education and their social status. High income and social status is linked to good health, whereas low SES is closely tied to poor health. A person’s SES affects their life expectancy and their wellbeing, and there are a number of reasons for this.

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The health status of people in low socioeconomic situations is affected by a number of interrelated factors. Very often, people from low socioeconomic backgrounds can only obtain work in low-paid jobs that are associated with manual labour and are, therefore, exposed to greater risks and workplace stresses than those who work in other jobs. People in blue-collar work tend to have less control over their working environment and fewer opportunities for advancement. This has a detrimental effect on their health. People who have more control over their work circumstances and fewer stress-related demands of the job are generally healthier and often live longer. However, having some paid work, regardless of income, has some protective factors for our health and wellbeing as it not only provides us with money, but also with a sense of identity and purpose, social contacts and opportunities for personal growth. When a person loses these benefits through retrenchment or redundancy or is unable to get a job, the results can be devastating to both the health of the individual and their family. Unemployed people have a reduced life expectancy and suffer significantly more health problems than people who have a job. People from low SES backgrounds tend to have limited housing choices, Mastery to have knowledge which may mean they need to live in areas that are overcrowded, polluted, in and control over something. have high crime rates and limited access to health-care services—all elements (In physical activity, it is the which will have an impact on a person’s health status. ability to perform a skill or movement at a high level. It Education is closely tied to socioeconomic status. Education contributes involves perfecting the move.) to health by equipping people with knowledge and skills for problem solving and helps provide a sense of control and mastery over their life Debilitating something that is weakening; stopping a circumstances. It increases opportunities for job and income security and job person from moving forward. satisfaction along with improving a person’s ability to access and understand information to help keep them healthy. People from low SES backgrounds tend to have lower levels of education and are therefore restricted in their knowledge about positive health practices. For example, they may not be Figure 2.7 aware that poor nutrition and a sedentary lifestyle is linked to diabetes, or of People may find themselves the risk of contracting a range of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as in a vicious cycle in relation Chlamydia through engaging in unprotected sex. Low levels of education can to their health because lead to poor health literacy levels, and people from low SES backgrounds may of social and economic experience difficulty accessing health services. circumstances Low-income levels can result in reduced options and choices for problem solving. For example, not being able to afford private health cover may result in reduced health-care options, Reduced Low housing while only being able to shop for food in cheaper socioeconomic options status stores may limit the availability and choice of fresh fruit and vegetables. A lack of finances and education can be a debilitating problem for many young people and can reduce their options in relation to further education, housing Lack of Poor and employment. They may find themselves in finances education a vicious circle in relation to their health due to their social and economic circumstances. The longer people live in stressful social and Limited work economic conditions, the greater the negative opportunities impact on their health, wellbeing and life expectancy.


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Affluence at the heart of long life Preventative health should focus solely on the way we treat our bodies, right? Quit smoking, get more exercise, cut down the drinking, cut out the junk food: this has been the mantra of preventative health proponents for decades. Addressing Australia’s collective lifestyle certainly appears to be the sole priority of the Preventative Health Taskforce, which is no doubt busy preparing its national strategy. The fact is, when it comes to reducing chronic disease and extending people’s lives, improving lifestyle is only a small part of the picture. The most powerful factors in determining whether you get chronic disease and how long you are likely to live are decided in the womb, in the home, in the classroom and at work. I once would have argued smoking, blood pressure and cholesterol were the best indicators of the likelihood of heart disease. But evidence is now firm that the job you work in, as a measure of socioeconomic status, is in fact a far better predictor of cardiovascular death than cholesterol levels, blood pressure and smoking status combined. Indeed evidence suggests a person’s wealth is the most important factor to their health. Don’t interpret this to mean we can avoid healthy eating and exercise to focus on getting a better job. Looking after your health is obviously important. What it does mean, though, is that the factors you don’t discuss with your doctor—and that the Preventative Health Taskforce must examine—are more important to your health and life expectancy than a prescription or lifestyle change. Many people believe the health of the nation, and particularly the health of no or low-income earners, is determined by the quality of hospitals or universal access to general practitioners. My organisation, Catholic Health Australia, which oversees 75 not-for-

profit hospitals, believes the quality of our hospitals and strength of the health workforce is centrally important to providing care for all Australians, particularly those for whom health costs mean they may go without. Yet as the largest non-government provider of hospital services in Australia, we understand that what decides a person’s health occurs outside of any hospital or doctor’s clinic. The social determinants of health is a catch-all phrase describing the set of events that influence a person’s average life expectancy and the likelihood of them experiencing chronic disease. Health researchers have found these determinants include the experience of a baby in the womb, early childhood, school participation, transition to work, levels of income, geographic location and social connectedness. Overwhelming evidence is that a child’s first few years are the most important in establishing the health outcomes for their entire life. To put this in simpler terms, the law of averages means a person living in a middle to high-income household will be healthier than a person in a low to no-income household. In fact, low-income earners have been found to face twice the risk of avoidable death as high-income earners. Nearly all the social determinants of health occur outside the health system, yet health policy rarely pays them attention. Deputy Prime Minister Julia Gillard’s education revolution is a start. The report of the National Health and Hospitals Reform Commission also took a good step in acknowledging the importance of tackling social determinants but didn’t go all that far in outlining how. It may sound a little overwhelming but the how is actually pretty easy. For example, researchers have shown biological factors are less of a risk in developing several chronic diseases than

BY MARTIN LAVERTY

dropping out of high school. This does not mean biological factors play no role; of course they do. But it also presents an opportunity. It means we can lower the incidence of chronic disease by encouraging kids to finish Year 12. Similarly, researchers who conducted a three-year clinical trial showed that education levels were more influential than some drug therapies in determining whether a person will die of a heart attack. Again, the answer to keeping people alive longer is encouraging school completion and post-school qualifications. The cost of ignoring these confounding social determinants of health is immense. We can see it already. For people living in the affluent north shore of Sydney today, men can expect to live on average for 80.3 years and women for 84.5 years. Drive a few hours across the Great Dividing Range, and men in western NSW will die 4.3 years earlier at 76, and women 2.6 years earlier at 81.9. Of course for indigenous Australians the gap is wider. Most of us know indigenous Australians will die 17 years earlier on average than non-indigenous Australians. The World Health Organization last year outlined a blueprint for member countries to act to improve the health of the poor by raising social incomes, improving school retention for children, tackling violence and family breakdown, and supporting the isolated so they can participate in society. The Australian Government has yet to respond to the WHO blueprint. It can do so by broadening the scope of the Preventative Health Taskforce. To really improve the health of the nation, we need to give children a better start in life, we need to keep them at school and we must ensure all have financial resources to live well. Martin Laverty is the chief executive of Catholic Health Australia. The Australian, 4 April 2009


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Discuss the suggestion by the author that ‘… a person’s wealth is the most important factor to their health’. Include in your answer whether you believe that some determinants have a greater impact on an individual’s health than others or whether they all have equal influence.

2

Explain what the author of this article means when he states that ‘… we can lower the incidence of chronic disease by encouraging kids to finish Year 12’.

Environmental factors People’s health is influenced by the conditions in which they live. In order to function adequately and to feel safe and happy, we need to have a number of basic needs met in relation to our physical environment. Safe water; clean air; healthy workplaces; safe houses, communities and roads; and easy access to health services all contribute to good health. The government has a large role to play in providing positive environments for people’s health. Some environments have limited infrastructure, for example, poor public transport, limited facilities, few public recreation spaces and poor street lighting. These may be coupled with high levels of community violence resulting in people being afraid for their safety. Built-up areas in cities can be crowded and have greater levels of pollution and a lower quality of air and water. Environments such as these can hinder a person’s health in a number of ways. Geographic location can certainly have an impact on a person’s health and their ability to make wise health choices. Those living in areas that are isolated from major towns can find they have a lack of access to health services and to people who can provide them with help and guidance about various health issues. They may have to travel large distances to see a doctor and therefore, may neglect regular health check-ups such as pap smears, breast checks and bowel cancer screening. Having no close neighbours may limit social contact and opportunities for recreation, which are beneficial to health. Food choices are limited, particularly fresh foods, and some food items may not be available at all. People who live in rural and remote environments may also be subject to climatic conditions that can affect their health such as droughts, floods, fires and dust storms. The negative impact that the drought in rural Australia has had on people’s emotional health is quite severe, as people experience a loss of self-worth and feelings of hopelessness when they are unable to earn a living due to the weather conditions. Access to health services may also be restricted for those living in urban areas, due to overcrowding. An increase in the population in some areas due to more affordable housing has seen increased waiting times to see doctors, and to have medical procedures and gain referrals to health experts, which can affect the health of an individual. The access to health information via technology is an area that can assist people to make informed health choices. Rural and remote areas of Australia have been disadvantaged in their access to health services for some time. The Australian government has made a commitment to deliver affordable online access to communities in rural and regional Australia, and this may mean that individuals in these environments will have the opportunity to further their health knowledge through access to the internet.


Infrastructure the basic framework of a community; the roads, railways, schools and other permanent structures.

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Social cohesion the things that bond people within a society; including tolerance, social equality and fairness.

The design and development of urban areas in recent years has addressed some areas of concern regarding physical environments and their influence on the health of individuals and, in turn, of communities. The provision of bicycle and walking tracks and better public transport such as T-ways promote better health and gives people more choices to enable them to make good health decisions. Governments who include these considerations in their transport policies are going a long way in combating sedentary lifestyles and maintaining a healthy environment for people to live in. Cycling and walking tracks and the use of public transport can decrease air pollution, reduce injury through motor vehicle accidents, increase exercise levels and increase social cohesion; all of which can have an impact on the health of individuals. Various levels of government and a range of health organisations are also considering how different city environments can encourage people, particularly young people, to make positive health decisions. Many local councils provide a range of free youth friendly health services within the local area, in an attempt to provide positive environments for young people to meet, socialise and seek advice. The National Youth Mental Health Foundation (Headspace) has recently set up 30 centres across Australia. These serve as an entry point for young people to access a broad range of services that are available in their local community and which address health issues to do with mental health and substance use.


The council of Sunnyville Shire are proposing the development of a new suburb in their area. They have called for tenders from local developers and your company has won the contract. Your team has been given the responsibility of designing an exciting suburb where people will be keen to live and where healthy lifestyles are supported. In pairs, develop a proposal for the types of infrastructure (e.g. roads, cycle paths, parks, walkways etc.) and other facilities (e.g. community health centres, youth drop-in centres) that your company feels should be included in the new suburb to make the physical environment more conducive to positive health choices. You must justify your recommendations, being sure to take into account the influence that environmental factors have on the health of individuals.

2

Visit the Headspace website at . Investigate the services provided at the Headspace offices in NSW and the ACT, and assess these centres in terms of their ability to provide a positive and accessible environment for young people in relation to their health.

The degree of control individuals can exert over their health As can be seen from the previous discussion, an individual’s health can be determined by a range of factors acting in various combinations that influence health outcomes. Individuals can exert some control over their health; however, they may not be able to control many of the determinants directly. The key is to be able recognise those factors one can influence some control over and then work on developing positive behaviours to support those factors.


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By doing this, an individual can tilt the balance in favour of those factors they can exert some control over and reduce the risk of those determinants over which they have little or no control.

Modifiable and non-modifiable health determinants The factors that make up the determinants of health can be categorised into those that are modifiable and those that are non-modifiable. A non-modifiable health determinant is one that cannot be changed, modified or controlled. Non-modifiable health determinants include: Age—a person’s age is a non-modifiable health determinant and, although age does not necessarily have to be synonymous with poor health, as people get older the likelihood of them developing certain diseases increases, for example, cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes and osteoporosis. Gender—as mentioned previously, a person’s gender can affect their health. Being male puts an individual at greater risk of developing a number of diseases and in many countries, including Australia, is linked to shorter life expectancy. Being female is a risk factor for certain diseases such as breast cancer; however, women tend to live at least five years longer than men do. Australia has the joint third-highest female life expectancy (for non-Indigenous women) in the world. Family history—most chronic diseases and many illnesses have family history as a prominent determining factor for their development. An individual’s chance of developing certain diseases and illnesses is greatly increased if they have someone in their family who has had that disease, for example, many different types of cancers, hypertension, diabetes, CVD and depression. The more immediate the family member, the more increased the risk; for example, having a mother or sister who has had breast cancer is a greater risk factor for an individual than having a grandmother who has had breast cancer.

Figure 2.8

In order to increase a person’s health status it is important to try to tip the balance in favour of modifiable health determinants

Race/ethnicity—an individual’s race or ethnicity can be a determining factor of their health status. The risk of some diseases is more likely for people from certain races or ethnic backgrounds; for example, African Americans are more likely to suffer from sickle cell anaemia and Indigenous Australians are more likely to experience CVD, diabetes and glaucoma. Modifiable determinants of health are those factors that have an influence on our health status but have the potential to be changed or altered in some way; for example, aspects of lifestyle such as an individual’s nutritional habits, their tobacco and alcohol consumption and their physical activity levels.


Non-modifiable health determinants Modifiable health determinants

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Our health potential may be determined by things such as age and genetics, however, it is possible for an individual to positively adjust their lifestyle and/or environment to reduce the risk of ill health and to maximise their health potential. That said, the degree of control that can be exerted over various determinants differs depending upon the individual’s personal circumstances and the degree to which they are in a position to change their health outcomes. For example, an adult may be in a better position to alter socioeconomic factors, such as where they live, the type of employment they are in or their level of education, than may be possible for a child. It is important for a person to be aware of the non-modifiable health determinants that may apply to them so they are able to make informed decisions about how they can alter their modifiable health determinants to ensure the best possible health outcomes for their life.

The changing influence of determinants through different life stages Each of the determinants has an influence over the health of an individual to varying degrees. The level of this influence may change over time depending upon the life stage of the person, what is important to them at the time (values), and the extent to which they believe they can control the events and/ or circumstances which affect them (locus of control). Life contains a series of transitions for each individual and these changes can affect health, by having people move onto a more or less advantageous path. A young child’s health is predominantly influenced by their family. Parents make health decisions for their children, shape their health-related values, choose the school they attend and decide where they live. The decisions a parent makes on behalf of a child are influenced by a number of health determinants, including their knowledge, skills and attitudes, their culture, their level of SES, their education and their immediate environment. When a child becomes an adolescent, the influences on their health broaden. There is a definite shift of influence from parents to peers and, as previously mentioned, a young person’s peer group can work in positive or negative ways in relation to health. The influence of socioeconomic factors may alter if a young person gets a part-time job, which can change their level of income and, in turn, the possible options they have available to them. A young person will begin to develop their own values and beliefs in relation to health based on influences of the media, their teachers and their peers, and these may be different to those of their parents. A young person may begin to question aspects of their religion or culture and, as a result, the influence of these factors on their health may increase or decrease. As a young person develops their health-related knowledge, they may then be able to alter the influence of environmental factors such as access to health services as they learn what is available to them in the community and how to access support and assistance via the internet or telephone services such as Kids Helpline. A young person may have opportunities to move away from the environment they have been brought up in, such as taking on a job, or going to university or Technical and Further Education (TAFE). This can alter the influence that this determinant of health has upon the individual. For example, gaining further education and qualifications can mean a positive change in SES for a young person.


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Figure 2.9

Kids Helpline assists young people in need

Adulthood also can mean a change in the influence of the various determinants of health. Life experiences can affect an individual’s knowledge and skills, which in turn can affect their health behaviours. Adults tend to be less influenced by their peers and the media, and their individual attitudes may have a greater effect on their health. Socioeconomic factors such as employment and income may have a greater influence on an older person than sociocultural factors, for example, as they strive to pay their mortgage, provide for their family and find a work/life balance. Elderly people can find that environmental factors such as geographic location may have a greater influence on their health as they age. For example, if they become unable to drive and they live in an area that does not have adequate public transport options, they may become isolated from social contact and reliant on others to provide for their health needs, such as grocery shopping and medication provision. A person in a situation such as this can feel a lack of control over their ability to make health-enhancing decisions.



1

Assess whether genetic predisposition to certain diseases for some races is the only determinant influencing an individual’s health or whether other determinants of health, such as socioeconomic and environmental factors, play a role in the development of disease.

2

Give suggestions as to what individuals can do to modify the determinants they have little control over.

3

Explain how the level of influence of the determinants of health on an individual changes over time.

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Health as a social construct Why is it that the life expectancy for non-Indigenous Australians is markedly less than that of Indigenous Australians? Why do some young people make positive health decisions and others make poor ones, even though they attend the same school and receive the same health information? Why is it that the health status of people with a low socioeconomic status is different to that of those with a high socioeconomic status? Health was once thought to be the sole responsibility of the individual, and health status the direct result of their behaviours and actions. While ultimately individuals do make decisions about their health, it must be acknowledged that many sociocultural and socioeconomic factors impact upon a person’s health, the meanings a person gives to health and the judgments they make relating to their health. It is becoming more and more apparent that health is socially constructed, which means that people develop their meanings of health depending upon their social circumstances and that this view of health shapes a person’s beliefs, behaviours and practices.

Recognising the interrelationship of determinants The determinants of health do not operate in a vacuum. They function on multiple levels and interact with each other to influence health outcomes. A good way to understand the concept of health as a social construct and to see the interrelationship of the determinants is to look at young people’s health behaviours around drinking alcohol. The meanings that young people give to alcohol are very much socially constructed and involve a number of factors working together to influence decisions. Despite an awareness of alcohol-related harm, many young people engage in health-compromising behaviours when it comes to consuming alcohol (individual factors). Drinking alcohol is intrinsic to Australian culture and the activity is seen as normal, sociable and expected. Alcohol consumption is associated with celebrations, sport, relaxation and enjoyment and is sometimes part of religious and cultural ceremonies. Adolescents are constantly subject to social and cultural messages from their family, sporting organisations, the media and their peers that using alcohol, often at harmful levels, is acceptable (sociocultural factors). As previously mentioned, adolescence is a time when young people are endeavouring to find their sense of self and have a strong need to belong and fit in. Drinking is often seen as an activity that can foster a sense of social cohesion and solidarity among friends. It is a highly social activity, rarely occurring in isolation. Young people negotiate the meaning of alcohol in their social group and, for some, risky levels of drinking equate to popularity and can be used to strengthen their position among their peers. Many young people are concerned about the immediate social consequences of alcohol rather than the less immediate or non-social consequences. For example, they would rather drink excessively and risk the related harms than to abstain from drinking and risk not being able to fit in at a social event (sociocultural factors). Pleasure and hedonism are very dominant values among generations X and Y and, if drinking is perceived as being associated with enjoyment, this can also shape young people’s drinking behaviours (individual factors).


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Increasingly, young people have a great amount of leisure time and often lack recreational facilities in which to participate in productive and structured activities. Another characteristic associated with generations X and Y is the desire for instant gratification. If leisure time is perceived as boring and alcohol is associated with fun and socialising, drinking may become a desired leisure time activity. Access to communication technologies, for example, mobile phones, the internet and social networking sites such as MySpace, Facebook and Twitter, has created new ways for young people to interact socially, to access broader social networks and to arrange their leisure time. Communication technologies can affect young people’s drinking by facilitating the organisation of ‘big nites out’. Young people can also have high levels of expendable income due to part-time jobs, which may mean they have more opportunities to purchase alcohol (environmental, socioeconomic and sociocultural factors). Young people’s drinking behaviours can also be influenced by the traditional rites of passage into adulthood. Alcohol is perceived to be liberating and empowering, and getting drunk in many Australian communities is the badge of being an adult. From adults, adolescents can develop many preconceived ideas about what celebrations should entail and, more often than not, young people are introduced to alcohol by their parents or other significant adults in their lives. There is a close relationship between alcohol consumption and sport—young people either see intoxication modelled by their sporting role models or are supplied with alcohol as a reward for athletic performance (sociocultural factors). Every day in Australia, young people are exposed to high levels of alcohol advertising and marketing. Alcohol advertising and promotion encourages positive associations with alcohol, and links drinking alcohol with attractive symbols and role models. For example, beer advertisements often suggest that the product can help the drinker to be more relaxed, happy and successful, and advertisements for spirits and ready mixed drinks (RTDs), also known as alcopops, often link the consumption of the particular drink with personal, social or sexual success. In addition, alcohol advertisements tend not to portray the negative consequences of risky or excessive drinking, such as drunkenness and potential health and other risks. Other forms of media can also influence a young person’s meanings of health and their health behaviours. Modelling of risky drinking behaviours often occurs in popular movies and television shows. This depiction of intoxication portrays consequence-free drinking and links alcohol with enjoyable and normal social activities, which serves to glamorise drinking.


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Figure 2.10

There are interrelated determinants for young people drinking

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The placement of a particular type of drink in movies and television shows can give the impression that ‘everyone’ is consuming it (sociocultural, socioeconomic and individual factors). Finally, geographic location may influence the drinking behaviours of young people. For example, hotels and clubs are traditional community meeting places and centres of activity, particularly in rural areas (environmental factors, sociocultural factors). People may initially be highly critical of young people and their behaviours around alcohol consumption. However, by looking at the way the various determinants of health interact to determine beliefs about alcohol and responses to the health challenges associated with alcohol, we can gain a clearer understanding of how health and health attitudes are socially constructed. The government and other agencies seeking to address concerns around young people’s alcohol consumption patterns need to consider how young people’s health is socially constructed, if their campaigns are to have any impact on youth.

Challenging the notion that health is solely an individual’s responsibility

Figure 2.11

Is healthy eating solely an individual’s responsibility?


Acknowledging that health is socially constructed certainly challenges the idea that each individual is purely responsible for their own health. It shows an understanding that the meanings of health change over time and that health can mean different things to different people in varying contexts. The lens through which we view a person’s health behaviours needs to be much broader than simply asking what is the person doing or not doing in relation to their health. We need to extend these questions to include an exploration of why they are engaging in certain behaviours. For example, poor nutritional habits may be much more than an individual’s decision to select and cook unhealthy foods. The choices the individual makes may be influenced by a lack of education about nutritious foods and how to prepare them; a low income, meaning a person cannot afford to purchase fresh and nutritionally sound food; and geographic isolation resulting in limited access to support and advice around nutrition. In situations such as these, it becomes increasingly difficult for individuals to take full responsibility for their own health, and simply telling that person they need to change their diet will not bring about behaviour change. Many people are critical of the health behaviours of Indigenous Australians, however, we should consider the many factors that influence the decisions of people within Indigenous communities. The social constructs of Indigenous health are quite different to those of non-Indigenous health, and blaming the individuals for their health status does not go far towards addressing the inequities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous health. Good health can best be achieved through the

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combined efforts of both the individual and the wider community. Viewing health as a social construct recognises that society has a role to play in the achievement of good health, and that everyone has a right to good health despite their social or economic circumstances.


Debate the following statement: ‘Good health is your responsibility. Act now!’

2

Summarise your understandings of the notion that health is socially constructed.

3

Choose an example related to risky youth health behaviours (e.g. speeding, not using sun protection) and critically analyse how the interrelationship of the determinants of health impact upon a young person’s decision to engage in, or abstain from, these behaviours.

chapter review Recap An individual’s health is influenced by a range of factors that are commonly referred to as the determinants of health. The determinants of health are categorised into four areas: individual factors (e.g. knowledge and skills, attitudes, genetics), sociocultural factors (e.g. family, peers, media, religion and culture), socioeconomic factors (e.g. employment, income, education) and environmental factors (e.g. geographical location, access to health services and technology). There is a social gradient in relation to health, which indicates that high income, formal education and social status are linked to good health, whereas low SES and a lack of education are closely tied to poor health. Modifiable health determinants are those that a person can exert some control over, such as peers and education; whereas non-modifiable health determinants are those that are not able to be changed or controlled, for example, genetic factors (age and gender), family history and race. A person should be aware of the non-modifiable health determinants that may be an influence on their health status and then assess how they may be able to change their modifiable health determinants in order to maximise their health. The level of influence that certain determinants have on a person’s health alters according to their particular stage of life.


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Health is socially constructed, that is, it is formed or put together because of social influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, environment, family and friends. People develop their meanings of health dependant upon their social circumstances, and this view of health shapes a person’s beliefs, behaviours and practices. There is a strong interrelationship between the determinants of health in shaping a person’s attitudes and behaviours around health. An individual’s health should be the combined responsibility of both the individual and the community. Everyone has a right to good health despite their social or economic circumstances.

Useful websites for study Organisation

Current URL

Useful for …

World Health Organization

www.euro.who.int

Information on the determinants of health

Headspace

www.headspace.org.au

Australia’s National Youth Mental Health Foundation providing information and services related to mental health issues and substance use


www.aihw.gov.au

Access to the publication ‘Australia’s Health 2008’, which provides comprehensive information on the determinants of health and the health status of different population groups

Kids Helpline

www.kidshelp.com.au

Information about seeking help and 24-hour counselling for young people

Exam-style questions 1 Outline how the media can influence the health of individuals.

(3 marks)

2 Propose ways an individual can modify two of the determinants of health

(5 marks)

in order to have more control over the influence these determinants have on their health. 3 Critically analyse how the determinants of health interrelate to affect the

(12 marks)

health status of young people from low socioeconomic backgrounds.


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What strategies help to promote the health of individuals?

3

Enhancing the health of individuals is a positive step to improving the health of a nation. Governments, organisations, communities and individuals all play a role in promoting healthy behaviours. Providing effective programs that empower individuals to take positive measures in improving their health is a key factor in improving overall health levels. Key stakeholders need to work in partnership to support individuals in adopting positive health behaviours. Using a variety of strategies to target unhealthy behaviour patterns to bring about positive change is essential to improve an individual’s health.

What is health promotion? Given the dynamic nature of health, it is important that individuals are supported to increase control over their health. Health promotion is about individuals and communities working together to take action to improve their health using a combination of personal and social resources. Health promotion recognises the need for change in the way individuals live their lives and the environment they live in to improve their health. Effective health promotion works with people, uses community groups to support healthy practices, is directed at a variety of causes that affect an individual’s health, and emphasises the positive components of health. In order for improvements in health to occur, individuals and communities need to be advocates for health. When individuals and their communities work together to obtain political commitment, support or acceptance for a particular health issue, they are able to make it a priority to improve their living conditions and, thus, their health. Through partnerships, individuals and communities are able to strengthen their cause by arguing, supporting and defending their right for improved environmental, social and economic conditions that affect their health. For example, reducing pollution levels in their local area, which will assist in the reduction of asthma levels; lobbying for more open spaces, which are safe and structurally appropriate for physical activity and, therefore, reduce obesity levels, cardiovascular disease and diabetes; or using the mass media to lobby the government to change laws for


Advocate someone who argues for a cause as a supporter or a defender, in this case, of positive health.

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P-plate drivers to reduce accidents, therefore, reducing injuries to individuals and society. Allowing individuals to take action for themselves, or on behalf of others and to create positive living conditions to improve health is a key element of advocacy. Health professionals play a significant role in advocating for the health of society across all levels. Figure 3.1

Open spaces and facilities that enable people to be active are important for health promotion

Enable to provide an individual with the skills or opportunity to make decisions. Empower to give an individual the knowledge, skills and understanding to make a difference.

Health promotion is also about enabling and empowering individuals to adopt or strengthen their skills and capabilities to increase their control over improving their health. Ensuring the equitable distribution of health services and resources for people within the community is essential in enabling individuals to learn, refine and develop skills necessary for positive health gains. Providing safe environments, which enable individuals to take responsibility for their actions, is essential for achieving good health. Examples of health promotion might include: Developing people’s confidence in learning how to access health services for preventive measures, such as breast screening to reduce or detect breast cancer in its earliest stages. Printing health information on domestic violence in a variety of languages to enable migrants to understand the anti-violence messages to reduce mental health and injury rates. Providing healthy food, such as fruit and vegetables, at reduced prices so that people on a low income can make healthy choices to reduce cholesterol, cardiovascular disease or diabetes.

Mediate different parties coming together to work towards a common health goal or issue.


Communities that are empowered have a greater influence over their environment and can influence the quality of life and health of their community; whereas empowering individuals to make positive decisions, which give them greater control over, their own health is a key component of health promotion. Developing partnerships between individuals, communities and different sectors to tackle health issues is essential for effective health promotion. Mediating ways in which these groups and government authorities, private health sectors, non-government and voluntary organisations and the media can work together to promote and protect health is vital for improvements in health and crucial in assisting individuals and communities make changes to improve their health. While change can bring conflict among various groups

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in society, these groups have a major responsibility to bring people together to work for the greater good of society for future health benefits. All health promotion programs should be adapted to the needs of the community to ensure that these programs are appropriate for the various groups within that area. The intersectoral collaboration of many sectors in the community is crucial for effective health promotion. When various sectors work together, there is greater equity in health outcomes and greater awareness of how policies and decisions impact different communities. Intersectoral collaboration, or developing partnerships between different sectors of society, public, private and community, enables a broader approach to improving the overall quality of an individual’s health. For example, if the government provides funding for health issues in Kings Cross, is it best used for a needle exchange program or for a program aimed at reducing mental health issues for homeless people? When determining health needs of a community, various sectors need to work in partnership. In this instance, the local council, church groups, such as Mission Australia, and, in the case of a needle exchange program, HIV/AIDS organisations would need to work together.

Settings for health promotion In order for health promotion to be effective, it is paramount to target the settings in which an individual interacts and engages daily. The interaction of an individual with their community, home, school, workplace and their personal characteristics has a significant impact on their health. These settings need to be supportive of health outcomes, to ensure good health behaviours are adopted or supported. Individuals belong to a variety of communities, which can be used as health-promoting settings. Local communities are a great place to engage individuals in positive health behaviours through strategies such as:

Health behaviour any activity by an individual that aims to promote, protect or maintain their health.

hosting local community meetings on road safety for young people holding community festivals to raise awareness of heart disease providing support services for the elderly to assist them with their daily needs maintaining parks and walkways to encourage individuals to be physically active providing blood pressure checks at local shopping centres. The use of a community’s facilities, such as churches, parks, cycleways, shopping centres and community halls, allows various health promotion programs to be offered to all members of the community, which assists in developing good health. Using the home environment as a setting for promoting health is an effective way to assist individuals to achieve good health. People can implement many strategies to ensure their home environment promotes health. These include ensuring the house is structurally sound to reduce the likelihood of injuries, providing nutritious and healthy foods, actively participating in physical activity together, parents setting rules and expectations for behaviour and curfews to ensure personal safety, adults drinking responsibly and not smoking, and families spending time together talking about problems and working towards solutions. Schools are an excellent setting for promoting health. As individuals are in a safe and supportive environment, various strategies to raise awareness and enhance the skills of individuals can be easily achieved.


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Most individuals spend their time in some sort of work environment. Workplaces are, therefore, an effective place to assist individuals to adopt and refine their health behaviours. Workplaces can use strategies such as providing gym or physical activity facilities within the workplace to increase physical activity levels, presenting seminars on stress management to reduce mental health issues or lower blood pressure, following Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) laws to reduce workplace injuries, providing healthy work canteens to reduce obesity, and having recycling programs and smoke-free environments. Using workplaces to promote health will support individuals to adopt behaviours to improve their overall health. A variety of strategies can be used for health promotion, such as: radio advertisements television commercials billboards posters newspaper articles guest speakers stickers badges community events such as the Mother’s Day Classic laws and regulations increasing taxes on unhealthy practices health education use of famous people to promote/endorse a health issue, for example, Kylie Minogue and Kids Help Line.


Investigate the various health promotion initiatives that are in your: a home b school c workplace.

2

Evaluate the effectiveness of these initiatives in promoting health. Propose strategies to improve the health within these settings.

3

Explore other settings where health promotion can occur, such as the media. Assess how these settings enhance an individual’s or community’s health.

4

Critically analyse the statement, ‘Every aspect of society is a setting for health promotion’.

Responsibilities for health promotion Health promotion interventions measures taken to effect positive change in an area of health at both individual and community levels.


Health promotion interventions are the responsibility of all levels of society. Effective health promotion encompasses a variety of settings and strategies to ensure sustainable and effective promotion of a health issue or lifestyle pattern. Targeting a variety of levels within society to promote health is beneficial for positive health benefits. Table 3.1 outlines the types of strategies and sustainability of targeting a specific level of the population for health promotion.

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Table 3.1 A typology of interventions and sustainability

Intervention level

Intervention strategies

Program sustainability

Effect sustainability

Individual

Focus on information, modelling, education and training to promote individual change in knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and behaviour regarding health risks, such as smoking, eating and physical activity

Relatively short time frame for initial implementation, but requires ongoing resources if program to be maintained

Low impact on behavioural outcomes at both the individual and population level in the absence of other levels of intervention; often requires multiple exposures and attempts

Organisational

Focus on organisational change and consultancy to change organisational policies (rules, roles, sanctions and incentives) and practices that produce changes in individual risk behaviour; greater access to social, educational and health resources that promote health

Requires few ongoing resources once organisational change has been implemented, but a longer-term time frame for establishing the program and a systematic process for the withdrawal of resources are required

High impact on individual action and physical organisational change, but significant resistance to organisational change may occur and organisations may not have the processes and structures to implement change; also, setting may have only a limited impact on individuals

Community action

Focus on social action and social planning to create new settings (organisations, networks, partnerships) to produce change in organisations and redistribute resources that affect health

Often requires significant additional resources over an extended time frame, but may be systematically withdrawn once new settings have been created and resource redistribution occurs

High impact on individual action and physical environment once new settings are created, and settings may have pervasive effects on individuals, but significant resistance may be encountered over an extended period of time and the evidence for sustainability is mixed

Institutional change

Focus on social advocacy to change legislative, budgetary and institutional settings that affect community, organisational and individual levels of social organisation

Often requires significant resources over an extended time frame, but may be withdrawn once institutional change has been achieved

High impact on a wide range of settings and thereby on the physical environment and individual action once institutional change has been achieved, but significant resistance to institutional change is usually encountered Health Promotion International

Individuals Individuals play a significant role in achieving good health. Changing an individual’s healthrelated behaviours such as those related to smoking, unhealthy eating habits and speeding, will assist in improving the leading causes of mortality and morbidity for Australians. It is important to note, however, that an individual’s social, economic and cultural environments contribute to their health practices. Individual factors interrelate to impact on a person’s health. While individuals can develop their knowledge on health issues, which aim to impact on their behaviour, if an individual’s attitude is not supportive of the new knowledge they have gained, it is hard for their behaviour to change. For example, young people learn about the dangers of smoking and developing lung cancer in the future, however, young


Attitude

Knowledge

Behaviour

Figure 3.2

The health–behaviour triangle

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girls may think it is cool to smoke and that it can assist them with weight loss, therefore, their behaviour does not change, despite them knowing that smoking is bad for their health. An individual’s motivation levels also affect their health choices. If a person is motivated to reduce their stress levels, then by choosing to implement effective time-management strategies such as checklists, completing tasks before due dates and organising relaxation sessions they will contribute to reducing their stress levels. However, a lack of motivation can negatively affect an individual’s health, for example, a person who is not motivated to exercise. By sitting on the couch watching television and eating chips they will put on weight, which can lead to obesity, cardiovascular disease or diabetes. While there are external factors that influence an individual’s health, there are certain factors for which, ultimately, the individual is responsible if they are to improve and promote their health and wellbeing.


For each of the following scenarios explain the actions and responsibilities individuals can undertake to improve their health and the health of others. a Samantha is in Year 10 and enjoys going out with friends on the weekend, going to bed late and sleeping in. She leaves her assessments to the last minute, and she usually rushes them as they cause her stress. Samantha fights with her parents as they nag her to stay home more as her schoolwork is suffering. b Joshua is in Year 12 and works part time. He recently broke up with his girlfriend and spends his weekend at dance parties to deal with the break-up of his relationship. Joshua has started to lose weight and become unmotivated, missing some of his shifts at work. c Matthew is a single father who has two young children. He works two jobs and finds it easier to buy takeaway food each night than to prepare dinner for his children. d Mia is married with three children. She works long hours in order to get her work done. Mia rarely spends time with her family, which causes fights between her and her husband. She rarely has time to watch her children play sport, which is disheartening for them.

2

Analyse the statement, ‘Motivation is all individuals need to improve their health’.

3

Using the health–behaviour triangle model, provide examples of how these three factors work to: a improve the health of an individual b reduce the health of an individual.

Community groups/schools Communities play a significant role in supporting individuals to adopt health-promoting practices and ensure the environment in which people live is conducive to healthy living. Various community groups work towards improving the health of society. These include mobile playgroups, church groups, sporting groups and schools. These community groups can serve many purposes in supporting and enhancing an individual and their environment.


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School communities have an instrumental role in promoting opportunities for positive health behaviours. Providing activities for all the school community members allows a holistic approach towards health. Schools can offer health-promotion strategies for their communities through: teaching compulsory PDHPE lessons from kindergarten through to Year 10 educating individuals about the risk factors of lifestyle diseases such as smoking, inactivity and unhealthy eating choices implementing school policies such as ‘no hat, no play’ to reduce skin cancer implementing anti-bullying policies to reduce mental health issues bringing in guest speakers to raise the awareness of topics, such as domestic violence or ways in which to access health services offering lunchtime sport competitions to improve physical activity levels conducting peer support programs to ensure individuals feel connected and supported presenting seminars to parents on safe partying and how to assist their children with stress and coping selling healthy foods in the canteen holding multicultural days to highlight and accept diversity of the different cultures within the school. Depending on the needs of a local community, support groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous, English-speaking courses for new migrants and health facilities, such as a baby health clinic, can assist a population to improve their health. Community groups, such as the Lions Club, fundraise for their local communities and assist in times of disaster, such as bushfires and floods. Communities have a significant role in improving the health status of their members. They help develop personal and social identities through common beliefs, values and norms, which assist people to live. Communities have a greater ability to empower people to take action towards changing their environment for the better. When groups of people are bound together for a common cause, there is a greater capacity to bring about change. Community groups are a key stakeholder in promoting health, however, they can be more effective in delivering programs if supported by organisations who are working towards the same health goal. Working collaboratively with organisations can improve the resources, infrastructure and services a community has to improve the overall health of their population. Groups such as Healthy Canteens, Rotary Clubs, and Life Education Australia (Healthy Harold) are other examples of community groups that work towards achieving good health for their local communities.



1

Investigate the various community groups within your local area. Outline the services each of these groups provide. Discuss how these community groups promote health.

2

Propose strategies that your local community could undertake to meet the health needs of your community.

3

Debate the statement: ‘Communities have all the resources needed to improve individuals’ health’.

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Non-government organisations Non-government organisations (NGOs) play a key role in promoting health. Specialised organisations that are independent from the government provide a greater focus on specific heath issues. Examples of non-government organisations include the following.

The Heart Foundation

Figure 3.3

The Heart Foundation actively promotes cardiovascular health

The Heart Foundation actively promotes health linked to the heart. They contribute to the health promotion in the community through their research, support for health professionals, health promotion campaigns, educating the public and supporting people with cardiovascular disease. They target issues linked with cardiovascular disease, such as poor nutrition, lack of physical activity and smoking, though various health promotion campaigns. Well-known health promotion campaigns such as the Heart Foundation ‘Tick’, Jump Rope for Heart, Heart Foundation Walking and Heart Week are effective in promoting a healthy lifestyle. The foundation has a variety of tools to assist people to improve their health, such as a website with information on healthy living and on heart health, community speaking programs, advocating for cardiovascular disease prevention in the community, a heart health information call centre and an extensive range of health publications for patients and the general public. The Heart Foundation works in partnership with a variety of organisations that assist them in the sponsorship and delivery of health promotion programs. For example, Tetley is a supporter of the Heart Foundation’s ‘Go Red for Women’ campaign. These strategies and health promotion programs can enable and empower individuals and the community to improve their health.

Asthma Foundation NSW

Figure 3.4

The Asthma Foundation NSW advocates for the needs of individuals with asthma


The purpose of Asthma Foundation NSW is to support people living with Asthma today and free the community from Asthma tomorrow. Asthma Foundation NSW works to change the community’s attitudes and actions towards asthma through disseminating information and education to individuals and communities. They advocate for the needs of individuals with asthma and assist communities to create asthma-friendly environments. Their continued research into asthma builds greater knowledge on its causes and treatments. Asthma Foundation NSW has a variety of health promotion programs, such as Asthma Friendly Schools, community networks in rural and remote communities, Asthma Friendly Campsites and a new free online information service known as Asthma Assist. Asthma Assist, the Asthma Information Line, their onAIR e-newsletter and website, provide people with information relating to asthma. This includes the latest research and treatments of asthma as well as online surveys and polls. As a result, increasing awareness of asthma within the community is possible. Asthma Foundation NSW has developed partnerships within the community to assist in their delivery of health promotion programs and key messages.

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Black Dog Institute The Black Dog Institute is an educational, research, clinical and communityoriented organisation that focuses on mood disorders, such as depression and bipolar disorder. They aim to raise awareness through improving knowledge on mood disorders by continued research, education and training. The Black Dog Institute uses a variety of strategies to promote understanding of mood disorders through their a website. The Institute:

Mood disorders affect a person’s emotional balance. Mood may be too low (depression), too high (mania) or too high at some times and too low at others (bipolar disorder).

provides information for both the public and health professionals provides support groups for people with mood disorders hosts Information Hubs where individuals can access resources relating to mood disorders runs school education programs such as the Insight program runs workplace education programs offers e-cards, writing competitions and access to research through their site. A number of health promotion programs, such as the Rural Ambassador’s program, are conducted to enable and empower people to improve their health. The Black Dog Institute works in partnership with the Prince of Wales Hospital in Randwick and is affiliated with the University of New South Wales. These partnerships enable greater access to individuals and communities.

Figure 3.5

The Black Dog Institute raises awareness about depression

Cancer Council NSW The Cancer Council NSW’s focus is to educate, inform, advocate and provide services to individuals and families about cancer. They use a variety of strategies to promote information about cancer both as a preventative measure and for those who have been diagnosed with the disease. Strategies such as ongoing research into the causes and treatment of various cancers, a comprehensive website that provides individuals with information on cancer, access to services linked to cancer, online support communities, reallife stories, consumer research forums, accommodation lodges, the magazine Smart Living with latest news and stories about cancer, a telephone helpline and a section on the website for health professionals, assist in enabling and empowering individuals and communities. The Cancer Council NSW conducts various health promotion programs in partnership with various agencies such as the Cancer Council Outreach Service NSW tour sponsored by Coles and the ‘How do you Measure up?’ campaign in conjunction with the Australian Government. These strategies and health promotion programs endeavour to assist people in developing and adopting healthy behaviours in order to improve their health.


Figure 3.6

The Cancer Council NSW focuses on promoting the SunSmart message

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Create a table of the companies you know that sponsor health-related events organised by NGOs. Discuss why these companies have chosen to sponsor particular events.

2

Debate the following statement: ‘Should companies whose products harm an individual’s health be able to sponsor sporting events?’

Government The Australian Government plays a significant role in funding, researching and promoting good health. It is imperative that governments focus on health promotion as doing this reduces the burden of health care and services needed over time and ensures the future of Australia’s health is in good shape. Some of the various agencies provided by the government to serve the health needs of Australia include the following organisations.

Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing The branch of the federal government that looks after health is the Department of Health and Ageing. The department has the overall responsibility for working towards improving the health of all Australians. They aim to provide quality healthcare through affordable access to quality medical, pharmaceutical and hospital services as well as assisting people in the promotion and prevention of illness and disease. They advise the government on health policy development and research health issues. They regulate and work in partnership with other health organisations and health professionals to ensure quality healthcare is delivered, and work with all the states to ensure healthcare is accessible to all Australians. The department has a key focus on preventative measures such as providing information about healthy lifestyles and early prevention and intervention strategies. The Department of Health and Ageing is responsible for financing health projects across all sectors of the community. In order to effectively address the health needs of Australia, the department works in partnership with other government agencies in promoting health and the delivery of healthcare. These include the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Cancer Australia and the Private Health Insurance Administration Council. Various health promotion campaigns they run include: ‘How do you Measure up?’—focusing an obesity, diabetes and physical activity ‘Go for 2 & 5’—focusing on healthy eating ‘Get Moving’—focusing on increased physical activity, and the ‘National Drugs Campaign’—focusing on drug prevention for young people. Various strategies, such as online resources on different issues, healthcare services, men’s and woman’s health, brochures, posters, billboards, newspaper articles and radio advertisements, are used to inform and educate individuals to make healthier choices.


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NSW Department of Health Each state is responsible for the health care of their population. They receive funding from the Australian Government to provide health services, facilities and care. Ensuring the public health system is performing to meet the needs of the NSW population is an important element of this government branch.


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Figure 3.7

The Department of Health and Ageing developed the ‘Get Moving’ campaign

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Peak Performance 1 Preliminary PDHPE Figure 3.8

The NSW Department of Health developed the ‘What are You Doing to Yourself?’ campaign

There are a variety of services that support the NSW Department of Health to deliver effective health promotion. These include: 220 public hospitals 500 community, family and children’s health centres area health-services, responsible for care in all areas of NSW from the country to the city the Ambulance Service of NSW, responsible for the delivery of pre-hospital care and healthrelated transport the Children’s Hospital at Westmead, which provides education workshops for individuals and families on various health needs, treatment of illnesses and diseases and health promotion programs to enhance the lives of children. The NSW Department of Health also uses strategies such as brochures on domestic violence in a variety of languages, television commercials, articles in local newspapers on health issues and youth week celebrations. These strategies all enable individuals to access information to make informed health choices. The NSW Department of Health also conducts a variety of health promotion campaigns such as ‘What are You Doing to Yourself’ to combat binge drinking, ‘Good for Kids, Good for Life—Water’ campaign to encourage young people to drink water instead of soft drinks, and the ‘Winter Campaign’ to educate people about the dangers of illness during winter. All of these services aim to assist people in adopting healthy behaviours in order to improve their health both now and in the future.

Roads and Traffic Authority A branch of the NSW State Government, the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) is responsible for issues surrounding road safety. They work towards ensuring individuals and communities are safe when using the road.


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The RTA provides assistance with funding to local councils to ensure roads are structurally sound for use. They also play a significant role in educating and equipping skills for individuals to use on the road. Strategies such as booklets with road rules, brochures relating to drinking driving, car maintenance and research into road issues such as speeding, fatigue and overcrowding of cars to inform government policies and laws are some examples the RTA uses to educate, empower and inform individuals and communities on road safety. The RTA has developed numerous health promotion strategies that have had positive impact on road users. These campaigns include: ‘No one Thinks Big of You’—an anti-speeding message ‘Paranoia’—about mobile random breath test for drink driving ‘No Belt No Brain’—encouraging the use of seat belts ‘The Brain’—about the effect of alcohol and drugs. The RTA works in partnership with organisations to promote road safety, for example with the Lions Clubs providing ‘Stop, Revive, Survive’ stations during long weekends and school holidays in conjunction with the RTA’s health promotion campaign ‘Microsleeps’, which focuses on driver fatigue. The RTA works to educate individuals on the dangers individuals can face on the road and ways in which to reduce these harms to improve the health of drivers, passengers and bystanders on and around the road.

Figure 3.9

The RTA promotes road-safety messages



1

Evaluate the statement, ‘There is no more the federal, state and local governments can do to improve the health of individuals’.

2

Research other government agencies linked to health. How accessible are these agencies for individuals seeking health assistance?

3

Create a brochure of all the government health agencies within your local area and the health services/products they offer.

4

Discuss the importance of governments and individuals working together to improve the health of communities.

5

The RTA’s speeding campaign ‘No one Thinks Big of You’ has been deemed as one of the most recognisable health promotion programs produced. Investigate the campaign and its purpose and propose the reasons why this campaign has been so successful.

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International organisations Global health issues affect everyone, regardless what country a person lives in. Health varies considerably from country to country. International collaboration is important to improve Australia’s health, as Australia is able to learn from and contribute to international and regional health issues. Working with health ministers in other countries, and with international organisations and health and medical institutes enables Australia to set health standards and structures of support for health promotion. International organisations can and do assist Australia in developing health policies and resources and in providing information on how Australia’s health is progressing in comparison with the health of other nations.

Figure 3.10 The United

Nations was formed by 51 countries after the end of World War II


United Nations The United Nations (UN) helps millions of people around the world. They aim to give people a voice to share their struggles and fears. The United Nations plays a crucial role in assisting countries to address issues that they cannot resolve on their own. The key focus of the United Nations includes issues relating to children, education, poverty, peace, health, HIV/AIDS, human rights, climate change, emergencies, and women. Partnerships with broadcasting networks; celebrities such as Angelina Jolie, Michael Douglas and Nicole Kidman; non-government organisations, foundations and United Nations agencies all help to advocate for those less fortunate in the world. Extending from the United Nations are the United Nations Systems of Organisations, which play a significant role in assisting Australia to enhance its health. Organisations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), World Bank Group, World Trade Organization (WTO), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) promote sustainable living conditions and basic human rights for all people. Australia works through this international

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organisation to enhance the security and economic wellbeing worldwide by addressing global and national challenges such as conflict prevention, climate change and terrorism, which ultimately affect the health of the nation.

The World Health Organization A specialised branch of the United Nations, the World Health Organization aims to work with others to promote the health of all people. Conferences and forums allow discussions to take place around health issues that have a global impact. The main functions of the World Health Organization are: to give worldwide guidance in the field of health to cooperate with governments to strengthen the planning, management and evaluation of national health programs to develop and transfer appropriate health technology, information and standards for human health. As a result of their work, the World Health Organization has assisted in the reduction of deaths, provided health services, assisted in the campaign to fight infectious disease and assisted in the development of countries becoming healthier. Australia is a member of the World Health Organization and in documents compiled by the Australian Government, such as Australia’s Health, we show comparisons of Australia’s health to that of other developed countries. The government then uses these comparisons to develop policies, procedures and infrastructure to further develop Australia’s health.

World Bank The World Bank focuses on the inclusion and sustainability of globalisation to developing countries. The assistance provided through financial and technical support enables developing countries to improve the health and infrastructure of their populations. In order to achieve this, the two development institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA), assist countries to make investments in education, health, agriculture and environmental and natural resource management in order to improve the health of individuals. While Australia is not a developing country, it does have strong links with the World Bank and seeks advice on global issues that can affect Australia’s public health. For example, refugees coming to Australia from war-torn countries such as Iran or Iraq, who may have developed mental health issues, will ultimately affect the health of Australia and the public health care system. Alternatively, an infectious disease outbreak in a country can affect a person who has been travelling to that country and once they return to Australia, can transfer this infectious disease into the Australian community. Keeping up to date on health issues within the world enables the Australian Government to plan and implement measures to ensure these issues have minimal impact on the health of Australians.

Developing countries those with lower-level economies whose citizens are mostly agricultural workers.

Natural resource management the sustainable management of Australia’s natural resources, such as our land, water, marine and biological systems.

Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development The Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) monitors and evaluates economic trends in countries around the world. Economic trends have a significant impact on a country’s health status. The OECD aims to assist countries to achieve sustainable economic growth


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and employment, promote trade among countries, promote policies that demonstrate best practice for the economic and social welfare of a country’s population and assist developing countries to improve their economies. The OECD produces comparative data for each country to use in their planning and development of economic and social welfare. The Australian Government uses documents such as ‘OECD Health Data 2008—How does Australia compare’ to identify areas of health that are below global standard’s or below the standards of other countries. This information is also used in our government’s biannual document ‘Australia’s Health’ to show improvements or declines in Australia’s health, health care services and systems and funding allocation for health promotion and expenditure. The OECD provides the Australian government and other health agencies with information that can assist them in developing policies, infrastructure, research and education to improve the nation’s health.


Investigate the various health promotion campaigns or programs one of the international organisations undertakes. Discuss how this can improve the health of Australia.

2

Assess the statement: ‘What happens in other parts of the world does not impact on the health of individuals in Australia’.

3

Assess the statement, ‘Individual organisations alone can improve the health of individuals’.

Health promotion approaches and strategies Lifestyle/behavioural approaches Lifestyle a way of living where individual characteristics combine with the social and environmental conditions.

Various programs target an individual’s lifestyle and behaviour in order to improve their health. These programs aim to develop individual skills to empower people to take control of their behaviour and attitudes. Lifestyle/ behavioural approaches ensure that individuals: Develop accurate knowledge about the health consequences of their lifestyle behaviour, for example, knowing the short- and long-term effects of obesity on the body. Find personal meaning and relevance in changing their behaviour/lifestyle, for example, realising that reducing their drinking habits will bring about stronger family relationships. Feel positive towards the outcomes of their behaviour change—feeling a sense of achievement as they reach milestones. Are empowered in their ability to make the behaviour change. Are accepted by their peers and communities positively as a result of their behaviour change. Are equipped with skills to cope with difficult situations or relapses to their previous lifestyle/behavioural patterns.


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Recapturing the active Australian Knowing is not enough; it is doing that counts, writes Julie Robotham. ‘There is nobody who smokes who doesn’t know it’s bad for them. Nobody who is obese, who doesn’t know it’s bad for their health,’ says Professor Ron Penny. ‘The question is, why don’t they stop smoking? Why don’t they lose weight?’ The National Health and Hospitals Reform Commission pulls no punches in nominating chronic disease—mainly caused or worsened by un-healthy lifestyles—among the most critical problems facing any future Australian health system. But Penny, a senior clinical adviser to NSW Health and one of 10 commissioners who wrote this week’s first-draft health blueprint, says the solutions are less obvious than they might seem. Cast-iron evidence links poor diet to heart disease, diabetes and cancer, but that alone does not change people’s behaviour. The scientific study of what might influence people, nudging them out of a lifetime of sloth and junk food into better habits, is in its infancy, and—since an individual’s health changes subtly over years—it can be hard to attribute improvements directly to a single lifestyle change. After researchers packed up and left people to their own devices, many initiatives proved unsustainable. Failed diets, abandoned gym memberships and smoking relapses are so common as to look like the natural order. But the stakes are high enough to keep trying. Perhaps two-thirds of long-term diseases could be improved by what might appear simple changes to food, physical activity or alcohol and tobacco use. The same measures could cut cancer deaths by a third—a conservative estimate. And the costs of not making such changes spread well beyond those individuals whose potential is blighted by the poverty, pain and psychological

problems that frequently accompany chronic illness. Workforce participation among people who rate their own health very good or excellent is double that of those who say their health is only fair or poor, according to Victorian statistics. The World Health Orga-nization says a country’s economic growth can be linked directly to citizens’ health. Disease prevention is a government dream—one of few defences against the looming tsunami of health-care demand from ageing baby boomers. The reform commission has proposed a new statutory agency, independent of the health department, to oversee prevention and health promotion activities. It would, in the commission’s words, ‘translate the sometimes easy rhetoric [of prevention] into hard reality’ with research and campaigns and agitating for all portfolios to consider the health impact of new policies. The last point acknowledges health professionals’ concern that the basic infrastructure of modern life—long working hours, disproportionately expensive fresh food, suburbs that repel pedestrians—can thwart individual good intentions. But the problems go deeper still. Half the population, by the Bureau of Statistics’ reckoning, has insufficient literacy, numeracy, form-filling or problem-solving ability to navigate everyday life and work—or, by extension, manage their own health. Add to that some fundamentals of human nature. One difficulty in convincing people to modify their lifestyle, says Professor Ian Olver, is that the benefits accrue in the distant future. The prospect of sun-induced melanoma in middle age may be beyond the imaginative reach of the pre-teen who loathes her dorky school hat. Bowel cancer risk statistics are unlikely to redirect someone with a bacon craving towards the Bircher muesli.

‘People tend to be more biased towards the present,’ says Olver, the chief executive of Cancer Council Australia. He says health messages must acknowledge the power of instant gratification. ‘The benefits of not getting skin cancer are well down the track,’ he says. ‘But sunburn is painful tomorrow.’ Even the basic assumption that people know what is good for them may be misplaced. Trevor Shilton, the Heart Foundation’s physical activity spokesman, said a recent West Australian survey showed people understood broadly that regular exercise was good, but only a small minority could nominate specific health benefits—which include less likelihood of developing heart disease and diabetes. Many people see exercise as a means of losing weight and do not appreciate its independent effects, Shilton says. He also favours accentuating the positives—especially the immediate ones. ‘What else can you take once a day that gives you all those benefits and no side-effects?’ he says, arguing promotion of physical activity should concentrate on pleasure and social opportunity. And well-meaning, homespun campaigns ‘pale into insignificance compared to the advertising of alcohol and junk food’, Shilton says, estimating a national exercise marketing campaign intense enough to enter the collective consciousness would cost $200 million a year. More compelling still would be the opportunity to change by example. Once a critical mass of people starts cycling to work, it becomes unremarkable for others to join them. ‘We like to think of ourselves as healthy, active Australians,’ he says. ‘Unfortunately that culture has somewhat deserted us. We need to recapture that.’ Sydney Morning Herald, 21 February 2009


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Lifestyle and behavioural change can be difficult if left solely up to the individual. Health promotion programs, such as the National Tobacco Campaign, assist individuals to change their behaviour through a variety of measures, such as the QUITLINE phone service, a free service where people trying to quit smoking can access someone at any time if they need information about changing their smoking patterns, support when they are trying to quit, or reinforcement that reaching a milestone, such as not having a cigarette for two weeks, is a positive change in their behaviour. Alternatively, the makers of Nicorette deliver a health promotion program through their website, which provides information on why individuals should quit smoking, what happens when you quit smoking and tips to help you quit (as well as promoting their product). Providing individuals with the knowledge and skills to make changes in their lifestyle and behaviour is an essential component of this approach. This form of health promotion is usually successful for an individual who is motivated to change their behaviour, is well educated and has greater control over the social and material resources that affect their lives. While these programs are a good starting point to change an individual’s health behaviours, combining lifestyle/behavioural approaches is more effective when in partnership with other means of health promotion. If individuals are to change their lifestyle, then health promotion needs to target not only the individual but also the social and living conditions in which they interact. The ideal lifestyle for optimal health varies for people depending on their culture, income, family, gender, age and current health status. It is imperative, therefore, that when health promotion programs aimed at lifestyle or behaviour changes are developed, the current needs of the population it is targeting are addressed.

Understand and apply Refer to the article ‘Recapturing the active Australian’ to complete the following questions. 1

If, as stated in the article, ‘There is nobody who smokes who doesn’t know it’s bad for them. Nobody is obese, who doesn’t know it’s bad for their health’. Discuss why individuals do not just stop smoking or lose weight.

2

Explain why unhealthy lifestyles are the most critical problems facing any future Australian health system.

3

Propose why strategies targeting individuals, such as fad diets and gym memberships, fail to bring about positive behaviour change.

4

Outline the reasons given in the article for why individuals find it hard to change unhealthy behaviours.

5

Critically analyse the statement, ‘We like to think of ourselves as healthy active Australians’.

6

Propose strategies individuals can undertake to enhance their health.

Giving individuals the opportunity to gain knowledge about health issues through health education in schools, workplaces or local communities is essential in equipping individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to make healthy choices. Health education will take into account the social and environmental factors, which significantly affect the decision-making skills of


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an individual, as well as the risk factors and behaviours individuals display. Providing health education opportunities empowers individuals to take control of their lives and advocate for health issues relevant to them.

Preventative medical approaches Many illnesses and diseases can be prevented using vaccinations and health screenings. Using these measures can protect people from developing certain health issues. If an individual has a genetic predisposition to a particular health problem, preventative measures can be put in place to reduce the likelihood of the illness or disease occurring. Preventative approaches include childhood immunisation and cancer screenings. These approaches have proven to be effective in enhancing the health of individuals.

Immunisation to make immune, especially by inoculation.

Immunisation Immunisations are recommended for population groups who are at higher risk from vaccine-preventable diseases. The government funds some vaccinations free of charge, such as the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination that protects young women and girls against most cervical cancers. The Australian Immunisation Program distributes and administers various immunisations through states and territories. While immunisation is clearly a preventative measure and considered a preventative medical approach, it is also considered a public health measure as it can be administered through public health programs.

Childhood immunisation Immunisation is a key preventative approach throughout childhood. The National Immunisation Program Schedule in 2006–2007 covered children’s vaccinations for diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), polio, measles, mumps, rubella, meningococcal type C disease, varicella (chicken pox), pneumococcal disease, hepatitis B and rotavirus. Additionally for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children living in high-risk areas, hepatitis A is covered. Table 3.2 Childhood vaccinations by state and territory, 2006–2007

NSW

Vic

Qld

WA

General practice

940 229

528 876

675 433

215 650

180 666

65 738

30 698

1 968

2 639 258

Local government council

46 102

400 437

52 862

17 449

64 488

6 508

0

0

587 846

Community health centre

81 743

3 159

57 742

61 397

19 875

475

23 760

51 598

299 841

Hospital

14 140

8 242

25 750

18 729

1 294

155

245

6 200

74 950

5 712

1 589

9 034

3 380

1 825

0

36

7 353

28 929

0

0

68

25 859

333

0

17

109

26 386

Other

238

20

2 149

0

128

0

0

0

2 535

Total

1 088 164

942 323

823 038

342 464

268 609

72 876

54 756

67 228

3 659 745

Aboriginal health service or worker State/territory health department

SA

Tas

ACT

Aust (a)

Provider type

NT

(a) Includes Cocos/Keeling Island, Christmas Island, Norfolk Island and unknown; therefore rows do not add to the ‘Australia’ column. Medicare Australia unpublished data


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Explain why the government vaccinates children against each of the diseases or illnesses listed above.

2

Using table 3.2, explain why these places have been chosen to administer vaccinations.

3

Propose places where it may be more effective to deliver immunisations to children.

4

Investigate whether you were immunised as a child. Explain why your parents chose or chose not to immunise you against these childhood illnesses.

Deadly danger of dismissing shots BY KATE SIKORA AND CLEMENTINE CUNEO

ANCIENT diseases wiped out by vaccines are festering in pockets across the state where parents continue to refuse to vaccinate their children. Health experts last night warned of the return of potentially deadly illnesses, as a whooping cough epidemic already sweeps across NSW. The National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance has identified four areas in which diseases are incubating because parents do not vaccinate their children. The centre’s director Peter McIntyre has warned that children living on the North Coast, South Coast, Southern Highlands and in the Blue Mountains were most at risk. Suburb by suburb: Vaccination percentage rates. How does your area stack up? ‘About 25 to 30 per cent of children on the North Coast aren’t getting their whooping cough vaccine,’ Professor McIntyre said. ‘Your child is at risk.’ On average, just 3 per cent of children in NSW are not vaccinated. Professor McIntyre warned that if the current level of immunisations drops, it could bring the return of diseases including polio and tuberculosis, effectively wiped out through widespread vaccination. Lazy few are gambling with lives However, he said there is no need for panic as there has not been a recorded case of polio or diphtheria in Australia in decades, with current immunisation

levels at 95 per cent—enough to ward off the diseases. But health officials are already extremely concerned about the spread of whooping cough, with 3356 cases already diagnosed this year. Newborn babies could soon be given whooping cough vaccines following an outbreak that has reached epidemic proportions and this week claimed its first life in a decade. Editorial: The jabs that stop disease On Monday, a four-week-old baby from the Tweed Heads area died of whooping cough. Following that tragedy, NSW Health announced it would offer free vaccines for new parents, grandparents and those who care for new babies. It also will lower the age at which the vaccine can be given to a baby, from eight weeks to six weeks. However, in the future babies could be given the vaccine from birth. A trial by the National Centre for Immunisation Research Surveillance at Westmead, conducted last year, proved successful and is now being extended to involve hundreds of children this year. ‘Anti-vaccination groups say that clean living and good food is (the reason) we have low rates of diseases and that a healthy lifestyle is better protection but there’s a lot of things that clean living cannot protect us from,’ he said.

‘An outbreak of measles in Queensland can be traced back to areas with low immunisation rates around the Sunshine Coast. That’s why the measles outbreak has happened—and in unvaccinated kids. ‘We want to keep immunisation rates really high because some children can’t be protected because they have disease or illness or problems with their immune system.’ But Australian Vaccination Network, which is against immunisation, de-fended parents’ rights. President Meryl Dorey said parents who did not vaccinate their child should still be entitled to claim the maternity immunisation allowance. ‘A lot of people start vaccinating and then their child has a reaction so they start researching and then stop. ‘What we are annoyed at is that parents who get their child vaccinated are getting a payment from the Government,’ she said. ‘It’s a bribe and we don’t support it. It’s very hard to get good, objective advice on both sides of the story.’ South Coast mother Karen Nelson started her children on a vaccination program but stopped when one became blind in an eye. She said it was a personal choice for her family. ‘I did my own research and my husband was never vaccinated,’ she said. ‘I do get a lot of questions and remarks when I tell people. It’s an individual choice.’ The Daily Telegraph, 12 March 2009


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Understand and apply Read the article ‘Deadly danger of dismissing shots’ and complete the following questions. 1

Outline why health experts are concerned about some potentially deadly illnesses returning in some areas of NSW.

2

List the areas where immunisation levels are lowest. Describe the impact this could have on health in these areas.

3

Outline the health issues experts are most concerned about for young children.

4

Discuss the benefits of immunising children at a young age.

5

Discuss why the government has introduced the maternity immunisation allowance for some families.

6

Propose why the Eastern Suburbs, a wealthy and highly educated area, has the lowest levels of immunisation.

7

Assess the role immunisation plays in enhancing the health of an individual and community.

8

Debate the following topic: ‘All children should be immunised against childhood diseases’.

Adult immunisation Influenza and pneumococcal vaccines are provided free to all Australians aged 65 years and over, and Indigenous Australians aged 50 years and over. These population groups are at greater risk of these illnesses and diseases due to their reduced immunity. These vaccinations assist in lessening the severity of the disease or illness. Some workplaces such as schools or day-care centres offer their staff free vaccinations for influenza, as they are in an area of high contamination, particularly during winter, and employers want to minimise the chances of their staff being infected.

Screening Screening plays a significant role in preventing illness and diseases. Testing for, or having a procedure to check for, a disease or illness before it occurs is important in ensuring good health. Screening can also assist people in the early detection of an illness or disease. There are a variety of screening services in the community, such as full-body screening, heart screening and cancer screening. These procedures enable individuals to take greater control of their health if they are susceptible to certain illnesses and diseases. National screening programs for breast, cervical and bowel cancers are conducted to reduce the mortality and morbidity of these cancers. The Australian Government provides these screening programs free for people who are in the high-risk target age group for these diseases. For example, the BreastScreen Australia program provides free mammogram screening to women aged over 50 years and the National Bowel Cancer Screening Program offers free screening for men and women with a family history of bowel cancer. Other health agencies offer screening at a cost, such as screening of moles for skin cancer. BreastScreen Australia is jointly funded by federal, state and territory governments. It aims to reduce mortality and morbidity from breast cancer by actively recruiting women in the target age group 50–69 years who do


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not have symptoms to undergo screening. The program comprises a network of dedicated screening and assessment services throughout metropolitan, rural and remote areas of all Australian states and territories. Services are available through both fixed and mobile centres. They provide free twiceyearly mammograph screening and follow-up of any suspicious breast areas identified at screening, to the point of either diagnosis of breast cancer or confirmation of the absence of the cancer. As well as those from the target age group, females aged 40–49 years and 70 years and over may use the screening service. Attendance at the service does not require a doctor’s referral. Table 3.3 Participation of females aged 50–69 years in BreastScreen Australia 1996–1997 to 2004–2005

Years of screening

Target population

Participation rate (per cent)

1996–1997

844 626

51.4

1998–1999

975 511

55.7

2000–2001

1 063 585

56.9

2002–2003

1 118 146

56.2

2004–2005

1 188 720

56.2

Note: rates are the number of females screened as a percentage of the eligible female population calculated as the average of the Australian Bureau of Statistics estimated resident population and age-standardised to the Australian population at 30 June 2001. AIHW analysis of BreastScreen Australia data


Morbidity rates for breast cancer have increased over the years; discuss how screening has affected this increase.

2

Justify why 50–69-year-old women should have free breast cancer screening rather than to other population groups.

3

Propose ways to encourage more women from the target age group to participate in BreastScreen Australia’s screening programs.

The National Bowel Cancer Screening Program aims to reduce the incidence and mortality of bowel cancer through early screening to detect abnormalities of the colon and rectum. The first phase of the National Bowel Cancer Screening Program has three components: initial screening of people aged 50, 55 or 65 years of age re-screening of those people who participated in the Bowel Cancer Screening Pilot Program screening of people who were invited to participate in the Bowel Cancer Screening Pilot Program but declined. Unlike the breast or cervical screening programs, eligible people are personally invited to participate in the program. Invitation packs, including a faecal occult blood test (FOBT) kit, are sent directly to eligible people by Medicare Australia and participants are asked to post their completed FOBT to the program’s pathology laboratory for analysis. Participants with a positive result, indicating blood in their faeces, are advised to consult their


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general practitioner to discuss further testing. The program is coordinated at the national level by the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing with assistance from the states and territories.


Investigate the various screening processes available to check for illnesses and disease.

2

Create a poster to advertise the benefits of one of the health screenings available in your local area.

3

Discuss the role screening plays in improving the health of individuals.

4

Examine other health issues that would benefit from free screening programs to enhance an individual’s health.

Public health approaches Public health approaches are undertaken on a large scale. They seek to include a large number of people with maximum involvement. Usually these approaches endeavour to improve the health and safety of all individuals by addressing underlying risk factors. Public health approaches try to encompass whole communities to embrace positive behaviour change. A number of public health approaches have been used in Australia, such as healthpromoting schools and WorkCover. These approaches are implemented on a mass scale to ensure maximum involvement and coverage of individuals.

Health-promoting schools Health-promoting schools are a key public health approach used in Australia. The approach focuses on the interaction between health and education sectors to improve the health of children and young people. It has an organised set of policies, practices, activities and structures, designed to protect and promote the health and wellbeing of students, staff and the wider school community members, while providing consistent messages to school, home and within the community. A health-promoting school encompasses three Provides safe, important areas that interrelate supportive Addresses the environments health and intrinsically to enhance the wellbeing of staff health and learning outcomes of its community. The three areas are: curriculum, teaching and learning practices school organisation, ethos and environment partnerships and services.

Collaborates with the local community

Principles of Health Promoting Schools

Integrates into the school’s ongoing activities

Figure 3.11

Health-promoting schools follow strategic principles

Promotes health and wellbeing of students

Uphold social justice and equity concepts

Involves student participation and empowerment Links health and education issues


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The curriculum, teaching and learning practices are health promoting passive student centred teaching shade schools policy recreation areas specific to the content delivered experiential resource allocation clean physical learning for health to students and staff. They planned sequential activity areas curriculum school caring ethos underpins curriculum involve health-related topics organisation, social interactions teaching ethos and occupational health learning preservice and integrated into all subject areas, and safety environment inservice training respectful of diversity based on social for example, reading a story that justice principles health topics integrated friendly waste disposal covers drug issues in English, into other subjects staff health painting pictures of healthy and welfare and unhealthy foods during local health services community use of art, cross-age peer tutoring and partnerships contribute to school health school facilities and services through – screening, cooperative and collaborative alliances formed with immunisation, education of health, welfare and local teachers and parents, expert learning. They entail sequencing community agencies advice on referral and policy development school welfare services of content so that students can school community members involved in initiation, development and implementation of build, refine and enhance their school health policies and program health literacy skills to make informed health choices. The school organisation, ethos and environment encompass school policies relating to health: acceptance of diversity through school events, such as international week; a safe and caring environment that respects students, Figure 3.12 staff and parents; and allocating resources to improve health facilities. Health-promoting schools Examples of policies and programs include providing extra space for physical model activity, anti-bullying policies, and installing shade cloths over play areas. Establishing partnerships and services to enhance the health of the school involve working with outside organisations. Examples include school visits by police to talk about safe partying, experts on raising teenagers giving workshops to parents and staff of the school, and sharing school facilities such as gymnasiums and ovals with community groups to enhance physical activity opportunities. A health-promoting schools’ approach is able to target many individuals at once: students, staff, families and the wider community. Through the provision of education, school organisation, ethos and environment, and improved partnerships within the community, this approach to health promotion can have positive impacts on the health of individuals.


For each of the areas incorporated in a health-promoting school: a curriculum, teaching and learning b school organisation, ethos and environment c partnerships and services. Identify the various strategies your school undertakes for each area. Propose strategies to improve each area at your school.

2

Summarise why some schools struggle to become health-promoting schools.

3

Assess the role school environments play in enhancing the health of individuals.

4

Propose ways in which your school can enhance partnerships with health agencies in your local community.


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WorkCover WorkCover NSW is a statutory authority that works in partnership with the NSW community to create safe workplaces, effective return-to-work procedures and security for injured workers. They administer and enforce compliance with occupational health and safety (OH&S), injury management, return-to-work and workers’ compensation legislation and manage the workers’ compensation system. They have access to all workplaces and are, therefore, able to target specific issues to enhance individuals’ health. WorkCover has undertaken a number of health promotion initiatives to improve safety and wellbeing in the workplace. The ‘Homecoming’ campaign uses a television commercial to highlight the affect of a worker potentially not returning from work because they might have had an accident and showing the effect on their family. The campaign also uses posters to remind individuals that workplace safety doesn’t just affect those at work. Other strategies, such as information on sun safety at work, managing safety risks, workplace safety summits are effective methods implemented by WorkCover to enhance the safety and health of individuals in the workplace. More information relating to WorkCover can be found in Peak Performance 2 HSC PDHPE.

Figure 3.13

Sun safety is one of the many workplace health and safety issues that WorkCover promotes



1

Recall all the strategies you know that improve health and safety in the workplace.

2

Assess the statement, ‘All workplaces have a duty of care to their employees to keep them safe, regardless of age, gender or nationality’.

3

Investigate a workplace and examine the strategies in place to enhance the health of individuals. Propose strategies to improve the health of this workplace.

4

Health promotion strategies aim to improve the health of young people. Using various health-promotion programs targeting young people, for example, ‘the dark side of tanning’. Assess the effectiveness of these programs in improving the health of young people.

5

Improving the health of all Australians takes a variety of health promotion approaches. Propose other actions that may improve the health of all Australians. Justify why you think these actions would enhance the health of Australians.

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The Ottawa Charter As a response to the emergence of the new public health approach towards health, in 1986 the first International Conference on Health Promotion took place in Ottawa, Canada. The conference built upon previous progress in health relating to the Declaration on Primary Health Care at Alma-Ata, the publication WHO Targets for Health for All, and an intersectoral approach for health. The Ottawa Charter Framework for Health Promotion underpins all work surrounding health promotion, as it addresses not only the social and cultural factors that can alter an individuals behaviour to make positive health choices, but also ensures equity—as achieving good health is attainable for all individuals. The Ottawa Charter recognises that these factors must work together to improve the health status of individuals and communities through five areas: developing personal skills creating supportive environments strengthening community action reorienting health services building healthy public policy. Subsequent health promotion conferences have led to further development in the promotion of health. These developments continue to build on, or stand alongside, the Ottawa Charter Framework for Health Promotion. Australia, 1988, Adelaide Declaration—a new concept of health public policy was clarified and a call for political commitment to health by all. Sweden, 1991, Sundsvall—the concept of supportive environments conducive to health and the links with sustainable development were established, as was the priority of tackling health inequalities. Indonesia, 1997, Jakarta Declaration—key focus on bringing health promotion into the twenty-first century included: promoting social responsibility for health, increasing investments for health development, consolidating and expanding partnerships in health, increasing community capacity and empowering the individual, securing an infrastructure for health promotion. Mexico, 2000, Mexico City Declaration—key focus on addressing the determinants of health and ensuring greater equity in health through strengthening the ‘science and art’ of health promotion, and strengthening political skills and actions for health promotion. Thailand, 2005, Bangkok Charter—key focus for health promotion includes: placing health on a global agenda, ensuring the promotion of health is a core responsibility for all governments, the promotion of health as a key focus for communities and society, and that the corporate sector has a responsibility in ensuring good health and safety practice in the workplace. In addition to these key focuses, the World Health Assembly has also ratified frameworks and strategies specific to various health issues. These include the 2004 ratification of a Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, adopting resolutions on the promotion of healthy lifestyles, and the Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health. These frameworks and strategies are developed by various regions in the world to address the wider health issues of the region.


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Developing personal skills In order for individuals to achieve good health, they must develop the personal skills and abilities, so they can make the positive behaviour changes to meet the demands of everyday life. Individuals need to refine and modify poor health behaviours to improve their health. Providing individuals with information, education and life skills enables them to exert control over their actions and increases the options available to them. Enabling or empowering people to develop skills that will assist them in preventing or treating disease or illness, is a positive step towards individuals achieving good health. Developing personal skills such as decision making, problem solving, self-awareness, critiquing information, planning for change, developing time-management skills, and refining communication and assertiveness skills will assist individuals to make positive health decisions. Enabling people to make positive behaviour changes can be achieved through: compulsory PDHPE lessons in schools from kindergarten to Year 10 where skills on coping with change, resilience and lifestyle diseases are taught television and radio commercials that encourage individuals to make positive health choices making sure brochures on accessing health services are provided in a variety of languages to cater for the diversity of communities time-management seminars to develop skills around organising time to look after your health development of communication skills, such as assertiveness skills developing health literacy skills to enable individuals to understand different health products and services English-speaking courses for new migrants to Australia.

Creating supportive environments The environments in which we live, work and play have a significant impact on an individual’s health. Communities play a significant role in ensuring these environments are conducive to good health. Supportive environments aim to take care of the members of the community, as well as caring for their environment. Within these environments people are able to develop their capabilities to expand and improve their health status. Collaboratively working with communities, workplace and social groups to recognise and support individuals in healthy lifestyle choices is important. Ensuring supportive environments are protected, maintained, safe, stimulating and enjoyable is essential to sustain good health. Creating supportive environments can be achieved through: childcare centres in workplaces needle exchange programs safety electrical switches in the home speed humps, roundabouts and speed limits sun protection for outdoor areas modifying sports for young children e.g. kanga cricket, netta netball providing counsellors where needed e.g. in schools.


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Strengthening community action When communities join to take action for their health, we can see positive improvements. Communities who make decisions, plan strategies and implement them to improve health for their population generally see improved health benefits. When communities take ownership of the health issues they face and advocate for change, they are more likely to embrace these changes. Empowering communities to take control of their needs and decide how they can best work towards meeting these needs is essential for positive health behaviour change. In order for communities to take action, forming partnerships with health agencies or government or non-government agencies can assist them to implement strategies, access and gain information, and create opportunities to improve their community’s health. Strengthening community action can be achieved through: family planning and HIV/AIDS clinics in communities community events such as the City2Surf events such as ‘Clean up Australia Day’ communities lobbying for improvements to their environment, for example, overhead bridges for students to cross busy roads near schools encouraging traditional cultural activities within various ethnic groups for the community, such as Chinese New Year and Greek Easter celebrations single-parent support groups YMCA or drop-in centres for young people text messages to young people to remind them to eat healthy and to exercise.

On a mission to find homes for the needy HEATHER QUINLAN

RUNNING 14 kilometres in The Sun-Herald City2Surf to raise funds for Mission Australia will seem an easy task for race debutant Sonia Lipski, compared with the difficulties endured by homeless people. The Miss World Australia runner-up has spent time this year volunteering with the charity’s Missionbeat service on its patrols through the inner city assisting those in need. Ms Lipski, 20, who won Miss World’s 2008 Beauty With a Purpose category for her committed charity work, said she was thrilled to be participating in the City2Surf on Sunday, August 10, alongside several Mission Australia clients. ‘Not only is the City2Surf an amazing, exciting event, but people have the chance to fund-raise for a great cause,’ Ms Lipski said. Mission Australia—one of four City2Surf partners in this year’s charity challenge—works to eliminate homelessness through its crisis care and services such as financial counselling and training assistance. Each night there are 100 000 people without a home, half of whom are younger than 25, the charity states.

‘When I was 14, I walked alone up Main Street in Gosford and I saw this man lying in a pool of his own urine and I was appalled at the fact that he was homeless and that people were just walking past like he wasn’t there,’ Ms Lipski said. ‘Since then I have always wanted to be more involved with the problem of homelessness and to make my own contribution.’ Ms Lipski said she intended to enter the Miss World competition next year and continue to work towards combating homelessness. Participants in this year’s City2Surf, along with supporters and members of the public, can contribute to the charity challenge. Entrants can set up a personalised fund-raising web page, which can be emailed to friends, family and colleagues, simply by entering the City2Surf at www. sunherald.com.au. Even those not taking part this year can donate via the race website.

Sun-Herald, 27 July 2008


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Read the article ‘On a mission to find homes for the needy’. Describe why this person is participating in the City2Surf.

2

How does the City2Surf strengthen community action to improve health?

3

Investigate what community events exist in your local area. Describe how these events meet the health needs of your community.

4

Critically analyse how intersectoral collaboration assists communities in taking action to improve the health of their population.

Reorienting health services Health services in a community need to be specific to the needs of the population. They also need to be varied to accommodate the diversity of health issues that a population faces. The types of health services available need to incorporate intersectoral collaboration between health institutions, governments and health practitioners. Using health services can assist in preventing ill health and in diagnosis, health promotion and rehabilitation. In some communities, such as in rural locations, health services are limited and therefore, can affect the health of a population negatively. In order to ensure equity and access to health services, communities in regional centres may have mobile services such as breast cancer vans, travelling nutritionists and The Royal Flying Doctor Service, who visit communities throughout the year. Ensuring health services are easily accessible to all members of the community is important to ensure good health is achieved. Reorienting health services can be achieved through: mobile vans by youth community groups such as Point Zero patrolling the streets on weekends to assist young people in need of assistance relating to alcohol or drugs local governments providing free bus services late at night on weekends so people avoid drink driving cholesterol and blood pressure checks in shopping centres companies such as Banana Boat handing out free sunscreen at the beach during summer increased funding for research on alcohol baby healthcare centres near public transport to enable mothers without cars to access help cervical cancer vaccinations being conducted in schools.

Building healthy public policy In order to assist individuals and communities to improve their health, governments, organisations, workplaces and schools need to implement policies, guidelines and rules that work towards achieving good health. These policies are aimed at providing supportive environments in which individuals and communities can lead healthy lives. Policies enable governments and organisations to be accountable. Policies can assist or hinder an individual’s


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or community’s health and, therefore, governments and organisations are accountable in ensuring policies are aimed at improving health outcomes. Policies need to encompass every aspect of an individual’s life, if they are to be effective in improving the health status of a population. Some healthy public policies are: anti-discrimination laws guidelines on the use of solariums school anti-bullying policies age restrictions for drinking alcohol age restrictions for different levels of driving, e.g. learner’s permit 16 years, P-plate drivers 17 years compulsory third-party car insurance, to cover someone if they are injured physical activity guidelines for children and adults.

Planning a Healthier Environment The Planning Institute of Australia and its partners believe we need ‘Healthy Spaces and Places’. Anne Moroney explains why. The facts of Australia’s obesity epidemic are well known. With more than 60% of adults and one in four children overweight or obese this is widely seen as one of our greatest public health challenges. The Preventative Health Taskforce, appointed by the Commonwealth Government in April 2008, has found that addressing the burden of chronic disease caused by obesity, tobacco and excessive alcohol consumption requires a coordinated, multi-pronged approach to reshape behaviours over time. Healthy Spaces and Places fits the bill as one of these approaches. Its work will show how and why planners and the other built professions are critical contributors, along with the health professions, decision makers and communities, if Australia is to respond to the health burden of obesity and overweight. Currently, the Healthy Spaces and Places project is developing a website and complementary National Planning Guide showing how well-designed spaces and places can encourage active living, so that more people regularly walk, cycle, use public transport and enjoy physical recreation.

The National Planning Guide and website, and associated advocacy work, aim to fill an identified gap at the national level. While research in multiple disciplines – medical, health promotion and health prevention, urban studies and planning, and transport planning – has consistently concluded that there is a relationship between the built environment and health, there has not been the same consistency to solutions. Healthy Spaces and Places is a partnership between the National Heart Foundation, the Australian Local Government Association and the Planning Institute of Australia, with funding and support by the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. Its overall aim is to show the connection between the built environment and people’s lifelong health and wellbeing; to provide tools (often by way of example) to those who can make a difference when designing and building new places or redeveloping existing places; and to show qualitative research on the importance of the built environment (those spaces and places) to health and wellbeing. The built environment can promote active living through design elements such as suburbs and neighbourhoods that people find interesting and easy to walk around; key facilities such

as schools, shops, parks and public transport; provision of walking and cycling facilities (e.g. footpaths and cycleways); facilities for physical activity (such as sports centres and swimming pools); activity centres with a variety of uses; and transport infrastructure and systems (including public transport), linking housing to jobs in commercial and business areas. Planners and other built environment professions can help improve the health of people at every level from the strategic planning levels of state or metropolitan plans, to the detailed design of master planned neighbourhoods or centre redevelopment proposals. And it is not only obesity and overweight that are at issue. Research also shows that regular physical activity improves people’s physical and mental health and wellbeing. It also engenders a sense of belonging in a community and is a fundamental building block of improving social capital. In order to bring about long-term, consistent change, Healthy Spaces and Places is aimed at an audience of not only planners and other built envi-ronment professions but also decision makers including elected representatives in governments, communities and the health profession. Each group has a role and responsibility in order for change to be >>


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systemic. Planners and the other built environment more professions, governments (including elected representatives) and communities need to better under-stand how the built environment can benefit or adversely

affect people’s health; the health professions can provide the evidence in support of active living. Communities can push for change with their elected representatives. By bringing together planners and

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other built professions and health professions, Healthy Spaces and Places aims to bridge gaps between the ‘languages’ of these different groups that may have impeded understandings and actions in the past. Australasian Leisure Management Magazine, January/February 2009


Read the article ‘Planning a Healthier Environment’ and answer the following questions. a Outline the groups who are collaborating with each other to create a healthier environment. Discuss why each group would be a part of this project. b Describe how this project can improve the health of a community. c Using the five action areas of the Ottawa Charter, outline the strategies this project will use. Assess the effectiveness of these strategies in building a healthier environment. d Propose strategies to enhance the ‘healthy spaces and places’ concept.

2

Investigate your school’s rules and guidelines for students. For each rule or guideline, how does it promote health?

3

Propose new rules that could be added in your school to enhance the health of the school community.

4

Visit the NSW Road and Traffic website at and investigate the laws and guidelines relating to road safety. Assess how effective these laws /guidelines are in reducing road injuries.

Social responsibility for health While individuals play a key role in being responsible for their health, the actions and decisions made by both public and private industries impact directly on an individual’s health. The various sectors of government, organisations and groups within the community have a responsibility to ensure policies and practices protect and maintain the health of individuals and communities. Developing resources to protect the environment, restricting trade that is harmful to society’s health, safeguarding individuals and communities from misleading unhealthy advertising, and ensuring equity across all aspects of the Australian community is the role of all members of society. Health interventions need to be undertaken in their social context to ensure sustainable health change is achieved. The Ottawa Charter is based on a social construct of health, enabling the partnership of sectors in communities to work together for the greater health benefits of the individual and their community.


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Case study: alcohol abuse in society Alcohol-related issues are prevalent in society and increasing at an alarming rate. Issues such as binge drinking, underage drinking, alcohol-related violence and drink driving have a significant impact not only on the individual consuming the alcohol, but also on society in general. In order to address this health issue, various government and non-government organisations and communities have put strategies in place. As this issue is not in isolation, the use of the Ottawa Charter Framework for Health Promotion has been the backbone in assisting different sectors to work collaboratively with individuals to bring about positive changes in health behaviour. To see how the Ottawa Charter can be used to combat alcohol abuse in Australia, a variety of strategies that have been used across a number of health promotion programs, are applied here to the five action areas of the Ottawa Charter.

Creating supportive environments

• • • • • • • • •

Developing personal skills

• • • • • •

•

• •

Compulsory PDHPE lessons that focus on the shortand long-term effects of alcohol on the body. Healthy Harold vans which visit primary schools to educate young children about the effects of alcohol. Education through schools’ pastoral care programs on how to party safely if alcohol is available or how to enjoy yourself at a party without alcohol. Information in magazines such as Woman’s Day and Men’s Health about the impact alcohol can have on the body. Information in newsletters and university magazines on safe drinking levels for alcohol. Having students practise role-play scenarios similar to those young people might face around alcohol, so they can practise their problem solving, communication and assertiveness skills. Knowing how and where to access reputable information relating to alcohol. For example, internet sites such as the Australian Drug Foundation or local community health centres. Undertaking a first-aid course to develop skills to assist people with alcohol-related injuries. Creating posters, postcards, coasters, stickers and wallet cards to educate people on the dangers of excessive alcohol consumption.


Workplaces providing non-alcoholic drinks for after-work drinks. Creating alcohol-free workplaces. Companies providing counselling services for employees who are directly or indirectly affected by alcohol-related issues. Parents supervising teenage parties if there is alcohol. Parents modelling responsible drinking in front of their children. Cooperation between police and festival organisers to screen and check people’s bags for alcohol at youth festivals such as V Festival or Good Vibrations. Fundraising for charities linked with alcohol issues, such as domestic violence charities. Pubs and clubs changing cups made of glass to plastic cups and enforcing the responsible service of alcohol. Bouncers at pubs, clubs and parties making sure people behave responsibly around alcohol.

Strengthening community action

• • • • • • • • •

Supporting Alcoholics Anonymous groups. Providing support groups for families who have lost loved ones to alcohol-related issues such as domestic violence and road accidents. Police offering and supervising Blue Light events, such as hosting alcohol-free dances for young people. Pubs and clubs having a ‘2 am lock out’ policy to prevent drunken people from entering the premises. Pubs and clubs offering free bus services to take patrons home. Offering support groups for victims of sexual assault, which may be fuelled by alcohol abuse. Church communities offering food and shelter to victims of alcohol-related crimes. Local community activities to engage young people to be active citizens and prevent boredom issues leading to the consumption of alcohol. Communities providing statistics to support the submission for alcohol reforms to the local government in their area.

Reorienting health services

• •

Increased funding for health promotion initiatives to target underage and binge drinking. Registering parties with police to prevent gate crashers.

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• • • • • • •

Wheelchair basketball guest speakers to talk about injury prevention relating to alcohol. NRMA Road Trauma Forums for young people to prevent drink driving. Increased funding for health promotion programs relating to alcohol, particularly for young people. Rebates for driver education courses through car insurance agencies. The Police Citizens Youth Clubs (PCYC) offering activities at night to remove boredom for young people. Seminars run by Rotary on harm minimisation for adolescents and parents. Free water handed out at youth festivals such as the V Festival and Good Vibrations.

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Building healthy public policy

• • • • • • • • •

Laws on drink driving such as zero Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) for Learners and P-plate drivers. Laws defining the minimum age for purchasing alcohol e.g.18 years and over. Laws relating to responsible service of alcohol for people working in venues that sell alcohol. Local council laws on alcohol-free zones such as Bondi Beach. Standard alcoholic drink guidelines. Labelling of alcohol content on all alcohol bottles. Increasing taxes on RTDs (alcopops). Laws against violence and assault, which are often fuelled by alcohol abuse. Penalties for serving alcohol to minors.


Choose a lifestyle pattern that affects health, such as obesity, bullying or smoking. Using the five areas of the Ottawa Charter, outline the strategies that you know exist to improve this area of health.

2

Research two health promotion programs targeting the lifestyle pattern you have investigated, and assess how each of these programs effectively improves the health of individuals and communities.

3

Imagine you are the Minister for Health. Propose strategies that could be implemented for your chosen lifestyle health issue to improve the health of the Australian community.

Principles of social justice Access to good health should be available to all individuals. While most people generally have good health, the gap is widening in many areas of the Australian population. Health inequalities that exist have significant negative health impacts. Marginalised groups such as those with low socioeconomic status, Indigenous Australians, people living in rural and remote areas, people from non-English speaking backgrounds and older people, generally face poorer levels of health. Health inequalities are usually the result of an individual being in a disadvantaged social position; of inability to access information, services and resources; overexposure to various risk factors such as fast-food outlets and poor living conditions; lack of control over their own circumstances and a health care system that may be unaffordable.


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Unfortunately more and higher quality health services tend to be closer to those who are well off and need them less, than to those who are poor or marginalised. Social justice principles need to be considered to ensure all individuals have the opportunity to achieve good health. Equity, diversity and supportive environments underpin the social justice principles.

Equity In order for all individuals to achieve good health, access to health care services and information must be fairly distributed. Ensuring communities have the necessary infrastructure to provide quality health care for a free or low cost and have the ability to seek out health services regardless of age, gender or ethnicity is essential for individuals to achieve good health. Individuals have the right to good health, and governments need to ensure that all individuals have access to the same health care services and treatments. For example, people living in rural communities should have access to a dietician just as people living in the city do. As certain communities have higher health inequities than others, additional resources may be provided to reduce these health inequities. This could be through an increase of health services such as counsellors or through building more infrastructure such as nursing homes or hospitals. This would ensure greater equity of resources to those communities in greatest need. In order to reduce inequities, individuals should be able participate in the decision-making process within their community in relation to health needs. Individuals should be active participants in their own lives, planning for and making decisions about their own health.

Diversity Australia continues to grow into a diverse nation. From the physical diversity of the land to the social diversity of its cultures, Australia needs to consider many factors when addressing various health issues. Ensuring population groups within society are not discriminated against in terms of age, gender, sexuality or location is important in achieving good health for individuals. Providing health information in various languages, placing health services in places easy to access by public transport, celebrating various cultures and understanding the different health issues for the various population groups is essential in ensuring all individuals have the opportunity to achieve good health.

Supportive environments Providing environments where people are supported is essential to achieving good health. Homes, workplaces, schools and communities play a vital role in ensuring all people, regardless of their background, have the opportunity to be valued and make positive contributions to society. When the environment around a person supports positive health habits, it is easier for an individual to make positive choices. Ensuring environments in which people live are conducive and supportive for positive health is crucial for improving the health status of individuals. Celebrating the diversity of a community, empowering individuals and communities to take action on a health issue close to their heart and enabling people to improve environments is essential in achieving good health.


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Investigate the health services in your local area and those in another area about 100 kilometres away. Compare the health services for each of the areas. Decide if there is a disparity between them. Propose how the number of services in each area can affect the health of its community.

2

Discuss the impact bulk billing has on the health of an individual in terms of social justice principles.

3

Identify various health inequities in the community and propose strategies that can be implemented to reduce these inequities

4

Imagine you are the NSW Minister for Health. You have two applications for a grant of $100 000. One application is from the inner-city Newtown Council who would like to build a health centre to cater for mothers with newborn babies. The second application is from Broken Hill Council, a rural community, who would like to employ another general practitioner. To whom would you give the grant? Justify your decision.

5

Investigate various health-promotion programs and identify how the social justice principles have been applied to promote the health of individuals.

chapter review Recap Health promotion focuses on advocating, enabling and empowering individuals to make improvements to their health. Homes, schools, workplaces and the media are excellent settings where strategies to improve health can be implemented. The promotion of health is everyone’s responsibility. Individuals, communities, governments and organisations need to work in partnership to enhance the health of individuals. Intersectoral approaches enable a more collaborative approach to ensuring the environment in which an individual lives, works and participates promotes positive health behaviours. There are various approaches and strategies undertaken to improve the health of individuals, which include lifestyle behavioural changes, preventative medical approaches and public health approaches: Using a variety of health promotion strategies throughout a health-promotion program is the key to effective behaviour change. The blueprint for health promotion is based on the Ottawa Charter Framework for Health Promotion. It consists of five action areas: – developing personal skills – creating supportive environments


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– strengthening community action – reorienting health services – building public policies for health. Health promotion has continued to develop since the establishment of the Ottawa Charter. These developments focus more on the social determinants and the globalisation of health. Society has a responsibility towards enhancing the health of individuals through the development of policies and practices that protect and maintain an individual’s health. Including the social justice principles of equity, diversity and supportive environments is essential in ensuring positive health is achievable for all members of society.


Current URL

Useful for …


www.aihw.gov.au

Data on health promotion

World Health Organization

www.who.int/en

Information and data on health promotion

Australian Health Promoting Schools Association

www.ahpsa.org.au

Information on health-promoting schools

Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing

www.health.gov.au

Data and information on health-promotion programs

NSW Health

www.health.nsw.gov.au

Policies and programs that enhance health

WorkCover NSW

www.workcover.nsw.gov.au

Information and programs on workplace safety

Exam-style questions 1 Explain how various settings can be used to improve the health of individuals.

(3 marks)

2 Discuss how the different levels of government take responsibility for and

(5 marks)

protect the health of the populace. 3 Using a health-promotion initiative relating to an area of life, for example,

(12 marks)

food habits, physical activity, drug use, mental health or road safety, assess the effectiveness this health-promotion initiative has in improving an individual’s health.


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Preliminary Core

2

The body in motion


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Musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and respond to movement?

4

The human body is made up of many complex systems that enable it to function. While it is possible to study anatomy in isolation, the interrelation of anatomy and physiology makes it hard to separate the two fields. The interrelationships of the skeletal, muscular, cardiovascular and respiratory systems are paramount in enabling our bodies to respond and move effectively. Planned training programs can enhance the capacity of some systems of the body to influence and respond to movement in an enhanced way.

When studying anatomy and physiology it is useful to understand directional terms—that is, the way the body is described technically. To understand the structure and functioning of the body, we must be able to use the anatomical position to locate body parts in relation to one another. The universal body position for identifying the location of body parts is: standing straight, with feet together, palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from the body. Being able to locate body parts in relation to each other is important in understanding the structure and functioning of the body. When studying anatomy, the body is usually cut into sections or planes. Viewing cross-sections of a plane allows us to gain a greater insight into the body or organ from different views. The three most common planes used in the body are:

Anatomy the study of the body’s structures and how they interrelate.

Physiology the function of the body’s structures and how they work. Anatomical position a reference point within the body that is used to describe and locate body parts.

Sagittal plane—a vertical plane that divides the body into left and right parts Frontal plane—a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts Transverse plane—a horizontal plane that divides the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) parts; this is also known as a cross-section.


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92 Figure 4.1

Planes of the body Frontal plane

Median (mid-sagittal) plane

Transverse plane

a Frontal section through torso

b Transverse section through torso (superior view)

c Median (mid-sagittal) section

Skeletal system Cartilage tough, elastic, fibrous tissue found in the body, for example, between joints, in the nose and in the ear.

The skeletal system is the framework of the body and is made up of bones, cartilage, joints and ligaments. The 206 bones in the body enable us to function each day, giving us body shape. The skeletal system makes up approximately 20 per cent of our body weight. Bones perform five main functions in the body: 1 Support—bones provide the framework of the body; they support it and give the body shape. For example, the vertebrae support the ribs to enable us to stand. 2 Protection—bones protect vital organs within the body. For example, the pelvis surrounds the reproductive organs. 3 Movement—in conjunction with muscles, bones act as levers to allow the body to move. For example, the flexion of the knee joint allows us to kick a ball. 4 Storage of minerals—bones store minerals needed for the functioning of the body. For example, calcium is stored in bones. 5 Formation of blood cells—the formation of blood cells occurs in the cavities of certain bones.


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The unique size and shape of each particular bone enable them to serve specific functions and needs in the body. Bones can be classified in the following five ways. 1 Long bones—these are long in length and elongated in shape. They consist of two ends and a shaft. They are made up of a hard shell casing (compact bone) and contain spongy bone on the inside. Examples include the femur, humerus, radius and ulna. 2 Short bones—these are cube-like and are mostly made up of spongy bone. A thin layer of compact bone provides the shape. Examples include the carpals, metacarpals, tarsals and metatarsals. 3 Flat bones—these are flat, thin bones that usually protect organs. Examples include the skull and sternum. 4 Irregular bones—these are bones that do not fall into one of the above categories; they are usually complicated in shape. Examples include the vertebrae and pelvis.

Compact bone an external layer of tissue that forms the hard surface of a bone.

Spongy bone the internal layer of tissue within a bone that usually looks like a sponge.

Sternum the breastbone found in the upper-middle section of the chest.

5 Sesamoid bones—these are bones found in the body where tendons pass over a joint, for example, in the foot, knee and hand. They aim to protect the tendon and increase movement. Long bones are the major bones involved in movement. They are structured as follows. Bone shaft—the long narrow part of the bone that is made of mostly marrow and compact bone Epiphysis—the head of the bone containing spongy tissue Periosteum—the thin, fibrous membrane covering the entire surface of the bone Figure 4.3

Structure of a long bone

Figure 4.2 Classification of bones

Epiphysial line

Long bone, e.g. femur of leg Proximal epiphysis

Articular cartilage Spongy bone Medullary cavity

Flat bones, e.g. parietal bone of skull

Compact bone Diaphysis

Short bones, e.g. carpals of wrist


Irregular bone, e.g. vertebra

Distal epiphysis

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Medullary cavity the space inside the bone where bone marrow is produced.

The size and shape of bones can influence movement significantly. Consider the example of bones acting as levers when performing movements (with the assistance of the muscular system). Long bones make long levers, and biomechanical principles dictate that great force can be generated when using long levers. Throwing, kicking and hitting actions all use the long bones as long levers and, as such, generate significant force. When a bat or racquet is held in the hand to strike a ball, the length of the lever is effectively increased and additional force can be generated. Bones are made of connective tissue that is extremely strong, yet light. They are made of specialised cells and protein fibres, and they continually rebuild themselves. The size and shape of a bone adjusts as the bone grows. In order for bones to continue to grow and be healthy, a continuous cycle of cell formation occurs. These cells are created in the bone marrow (bone marrow is produced in the medullary cavity). New cells that form to strengthen the bones are known as osteoblasts. These cells then wrap themselves around the bone tissue, which is known as osteocytes. Other cells, known as osteoclasts, break down and remove dead cells or unhealthy bone.

Major bones involved in movement Axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage; it forms the long axis of the body.

Appendicular skeleton consists of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder and hipbones that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.

The skeletal system is comprised of two conjoined skeletons: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton that, in concert with joints and muscles, allow movement.

Axial skeleton The axial skeleton provides the central structure (or long axis) of the skeletal system as shown in figure 4.4. Many of the bones in the axial skeleton do not move, or move only minimally. They provide the main structure of the overall skeleton, and the core stability of the axial skeleton allows the bones of the joined appendicular skeleton (especially the long bones) to move efficiently, with both parts of the skeleton relying on the muscles that are attached to perform their appropriate function of either supporting stability or driving the movement. The axial skeleton includes the cranium, vertebral column and rib cage.

Cranium (skull) The cranium is the most complex bony structure in the body. It is formed by two sets of bones— the cranial bones and the facial bones—numbering 22 in total. The cranium bones protect the brain and organs for hearing. The facial bones form the structure of the face and cavities for the body’s senses. The skull is classified as a flat bone. Vertebral column (spine) The spine is also called the backbone of the human skeleton. It protects the spinal cord and connects the skull to the pelvis. Its 26 irregular bones (fused bones are counted as one) are classified into five sections. Cervical vertebrae—the seven vertebrae of the neck Thoracic vertebrae—the next 12 vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae—the five vertebrae supporting the lower back Sacrum—the five fused vertebrae that connect to the pelvis Coccyx—the four fused vertebrae, also known as the tailbone


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Frontal bone Cranium (skull)

Thoracic cage

95

Parietal bone

Zygomatic bone

Temporal bone

Maxilla

Occipital bone

Mandible (jawbone) Pectoral girdle

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Mandible

Clavicle

Clavicle

Scapula Scapula (shoulder blade)

Sternum (breastbone) Ribs

Humerus

Costal cartilages Spinal column Os coxae

Pelvic girdle

Ulna

Pelvis (hipbone)

Radius Coccyx (tailbone)

Carpus (wrist bones) Metacarpal bones Phalanges

Femur (thighbone) Patella (kneecap)

Fibula (calf bone) Tibia (shinbone)

Tarsus (anklebones)

Metatarsal bones

Calcaneus

Phalanges a Anterior view

Each vertebra is cushioned by an intervertebral disc, which acts like a cushion between the bones.

Rib cage The sternum and 12 pairs of ribs make up the rib cage. All ribs attach to the posterior part of the vertebrae. Ribs provide protection around the heart and lungs. Ribs are classified as flat bones and are structured as follows.

b Posterior view

Figure 4.4

The human skeleton— the axial skeleton is coloured pink

The first seven ribs are joined directly to the sternum by cartilage.


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The remaining five ribs are indirectly attached to the sternum; they actually join onto each other. Ribs 11 and 12 are known as ‘floating’ ribs, as they are only attached posteriorly.

The appendicular skeleton The appendicular skeleton includes all of the key long bones that are directly involved in effecting movement (see figure 4.4). It includes the shoulder girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle and lower limbs.

Shoulder girdle The shoulder girdle consists of two bones: the clavicle (also known as the collarbone) and scapula (also known as the shoulder blade). The clavicle is classified as a long bone. The scapula is classified as a flat bone. These bones and surrounding muscles form the shoulder girdle. The appendicular skeleton is attached to the axial skeleton when the clavicle attaches itself to the sternum and the scapula attaches to the vertebrae. The shoulder girdle: provides attachment points for the upper limbs provides the upper limbs with flexibility and mobility not possible at any other place in the body.

Upper limbs Thirty bones comprise the upper limbs, also known as the arm, forearm and hand. The humerus, a long bone, makes up the arm segment of the upper limb. The ulna and radius make up the forearm segment of the upper arm. The ulna and humerus are responsible for the elbow joint. The radius and carpals are responsible for the hand joint; therefore, when the radius moves, the hand moves as well. Carpals are classified as short bones. Eight carpals connected by ligaments make up the wrist and five metacarpals (long bones) form the palm of the hand. The carpals, metacarpals and phalanges (fingers) make up the entire hand segment of the upper limb. Pelvic girdle (hip) The pelvic girdle connects the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. It acts as a transfer point for weight from the upper body to the lower limbs and, as a result, plays a key role in movement. The pelvic girdle is secured to the axial skeleton by some of the strongest ligaments in the body. Lower limbs Three segments make up the lower limb: the thigh, leg and foot. Because they carry the weight of the body when standing, the lower limb bones are thicker and stronger than bones of the upper limb. The femur, a long bone, makes up the thigh, and is the largest and strongest bone in the body. The tibia and fibula make up the leg segment of the lower limb. The tibia joins with the femur to form the knee joint, while the fibula stabilises the ankle joint. The tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges make up the foot segment of the lower limb. The foot supports and propels our body forward when we move. Seven tarsals make up the foot. The metatarsals are made up of five small long bones. In each foot, the toes are made up of 14 phalanges.


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Identify the type and location of major bones involved in figure 4.5 below.

Figure 4.5 978 1 4202 2881 6 © Darryl Buchanan, Donna O’Connor, Jo McLean and Karen Ingram 2010

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Suggest why the type of bones involved in the exercises are structurally suited to the movement.

Structure and function of joints When two or more bones meet, they form a joint. Joints allow the body to move and ensure that the skeleton stays together as it moves. All movements, from running, to throwing, to dancing and sitting are possible because of joints. Joints are the weakest part of the skeletal system, and are therefore susceptible to injury that may result in restricted movement. The function of a joint is based on the amount of movement allowed. Based on their functionality, joints can be classified as immovable, slightly moveable and freely moveable. The structure of joints varies depending on the tissues that join the bones and whether or not there is a joint cavity. There are three ways to classify joints based on structure.

Joint area where two or more bones meet.

Fibrous joints—these joints are characterised by fibres joining the ends or parts of bones together. Fibrous joints use various fibres to connect bones, including short fibres (sutures), long fibres (syndesmosis) and ligaments (gomphosis). No joint cavity is present in these types of joints. These fibres make movement difficult. Cartilaginous joints—these joints are characterised by cartilage joining the ends or parts of bones together. They contain no joint cavity and, therefore, allow only slight movement. Synovial joints—these joints are enclosed in a capsule and covered with cartilage and a synovial membrane to allow free movement.


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a Fibrous Suture

Figure 4.6

Types of joints

b Cartilaginous Cartilage

c Synovial

Synovial joints Most joints in the body are classified as synovial joints. Synovial joints have common structural features that enable them to move freely. These include: synovial cavity—a space where two bones meet synovial fluid—a rich viscous fluid that acts as lubrication to the bones in the synovial cavity. It also plays a role in the cleanup of tissue debris from daily wear and tear on the joint articular cartilage—covers the end of the bones, provides cushioning and reduces friction between the bones in the joint joint capsule—encloses the cavity and keeps the fluid contained fibrous capsule—encloses the bones, tissues and fluid synovial membrane—secretes the fluid into the joint meniscus—cartilage that grows inwards from the joint capsules to absorb shock, reduce pressure and enhance stability. Tendons, ligaments and bursae complement synovial joints to ensure they are stable. While each of these fibres enhances the stability of the joint, their function is quite different. Tendons join muscle to bone, which enables

Figure 4.7

Features of a synovial joint

Joint cavity filled with synovial fluid Articular cartilage Synovial membrane Fibrous joint capsule Ligaments


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movement of the bones when muscles contract. Ligaments connect bone to bone and they provide joint stability that permits movement only in the direction intended for that joint. A bursa is a sac filled with synovial fluid that acts as a lubricant to facilitate smooth movement of the joint. Synovial joints can be classified into six categories, which depend on the shape of the joint. This is shown in figure 4.8.

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Figure 4.8

Synovial joints of the body

1 PIVOT JOINT—one bone has a projection that fits into a ring-like structure of another. Movement occurs only as a rotation around another bone. Example: the radius rotates around the ulna

4 BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT —one bone has a smooth head that fits into the cup-like structure of another. Example: the humerus fits into the shoulder socket

2 GLIDING/PLANE JOINT —usually flat and allows small gliding movements. Example: joints between the vertebrae

5 HINGE JOINT—one bone has a convex surface that fits into a concave of another. Movement usually occurs in only one plane. Example: bending and straightening at the elbow

3 SADDLE JOINT— shaped like a saddle, concave in one direction and convex in the other. Example: the carpals at the base of the thumb

6 CONDYLOID/ELLIPSOIDAL JOINT —an oval convex surface where one bone slides over or fits into a similar-shaped bone. Example: carpals in the hand


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Joint actions Figure 4.9

a Cervical flexion b Elbow flexion

a

Joints produce actions in various ways. These actions can be grouped to describe opposite or contrasting movements. Flexion—movement at the joint reduces the angle between the bones b 978 1 4202 2881 6 © Darryl Buchanan, Donna O’Connor, Jo McLean and Karen Ingram 2010

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Figure 4.10

a Cervical extension b Elbow extension

a

Extension—movement at the joint increases the angle between the bones b

Hyperextension—movement makes the joint go beyond its normal range of motion Figure 4.11

Shoulder hyperextension

Circumduction—the entire limb rotates in a circular motion while the proximal end stays stationary Figure 4.12

Hip circumduction



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Abduction—the limb is moved away from the midline of the body Figure 4.13

Shoulder abduction

Adduction—the limb is moved towards the midline of the body Figure 4.14

Shoulder adduction

Dorsiflexion—this movement is a flexing motion (the foot flexes towards the shin) Figure 4.15

Dorsi flexion

Plantar flexion—this movement is a flexing motion (the foot points towards the ground) Figure 4.16

Plantar flexion

Supination—the palms face forward and an outward rotation of the forearms brings the radius and ulna parallel to each other Figure 4.17

Supination



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Pronation—the palms face backwards and an inward rotation of the forearms rotates the radius over the ulna Figure 4.18

Pronation

Rotation—the movement of a bone around its own axis Figure 4.19

Spinal rotation

Inversion—an inverted movement (for example, the sole of your foot is moved inwards) Figure 4.20

Inversion

Eversion— an outward movement (for example, the sole of your foot is moved outwards) Figure 4.21

Eversion

Elevation—lifting a body part to the superior plane Figure 4.22

Elevation

Depression—moving a body part to the inferior plane Figure 4.23

Depression



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Movement at a joint varies significantly from one type of joint to another and from person to person. A person’s range of movement (ROM) affects their functioning and daily life. The strength of muscles, tendons and ligaments can affect the stability and range of movement of a joint; for example, tighter muscles and tendons can restrict ROM. Reduced range of movement can make a person more prone to injuries as it places them at greater risk of stretching ligaments, tendons and muscles beyond their capacity, even when completing simple movements. Conversely, having a greater ROM can positively influence movement performance by enabling significant force to be generated. The effect is increased power and speed. Additionally, some sports, such as gymnastics and dancing, are particularly reliant on flexibility for aesthetic purposes and flexibility requires a high level of ROM.


Demonstrate how the directional terms are demonstrated in various sports.

2

Investigate issues that can affect joint mobility (e.g. arthritis).

3

In pairs, complete the following skills and identify the joint actions that occur throughout the movement. a Sitting on a chair b Bowling a cricket ball c Jumping over a hurdle d Kicking a soccer ball e Hitting a tennis ball with a racquet f Writing on a page g Forming a forward roll

4

Complete the following table. Bone

Location

Joint actions(s)

Example of how it is used in movement

Humerus Clavicle Tibia Tarsals Phalanges Vertebrae Cranium Ulna Femur Scapula


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4

Examine figure 4.24 below. Identify the major joint actions involved at each of the three stages of the movements. a

Figure 4.24 978 1 4202 2881 6 © Darryl Buchanan, Donna O’Connor, Jo McLean and Karen Ingram 2010

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a Snatch b Dumbell throw and acceleration

b


The muscular system

Myofilament the term for the chains of (primarily) actin and myosin that pack a muscle fibre. Actin a protein that aids cell movement, important in the contraction of muscles. Myosin a protein that forms the thick myofilaments of muscle and binds with actin for muscle contraction. Myology the study of muscles.

Muscles enable us to move, breathe and communicate; provide stability so we can stand upright; and serve many internal bodily functions. Muscles come in various shapes and sizes and make up approximately 40 per cent of our body weight. There are approximately 640 muscles in the body, so their ability to convert energy and enable us to function is crucial to our everyday lives. Muscle fibres are elongated cells and require two types of myofilaments to contract: actin and myosin. These two proteins assist with the contraction of muscles to produce movement. The study of muscles is called myology. There are three types of muscles in the body: 1 Cardiac—these are only found in the heart. The muscle is striated in texture but works involuntarily, so we have little control over the number of times our heart beats. At times, our body may need to increase the intensity of the heart’s pumping action—usually when undertaking cardiovascular activity. Our heart accommodates these periods of time to ensure adequate oxygen is provided to the body. 2 Smooth—These are found in the walls of organs such as the stomach and bladder, and in arteries and veins. They are non-striated, involuntary and have long, slim muscle fibres. Contractions are slow and sustained. 3 Skeletal—These are the most common types of muscles in the body. They are named because of their location; they are attached to the bones of the skeletal system. Skeletal muscles are voluntary and can therefore be controlled to contract and relax. They are striated in texture, contract easily and require rest after exercise. These muscles have tremendous power and strength.

Major muscles involved in movement Skeletal muscles are made up of a variety of structures that, in partnership with our bones and joints, provide support and movement for the body.


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Individual muscle fibres (or cells) are wrapped together by layers of connective tissue. These bundles of muscle fibres are combined to make the thicker region, or belly, of the muscle. Skeletal muscle fibres are soft and fragile and are covered with connective tissue to protect them from being damaged. This protective covering also provides avenues for blood vessels and nerves to pass through. While all muscles play a role in the everyday activities of our bodies such as walking, eating gardening and sport, the major muscles involved are shown in figure 4.26 below. Figure 4.25 Dissection of a skeletal muscle

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Bone Tendon

Blood vessel

Perimysium

Endomysium (between fibres) Endomysium Fascicle (wrapped by perimysium)

Muscle fibre cell

Figure 4.26 Major muscles involved in movement

Deltoids

Sternocleidomastoid

Raises the arms away from the body to front, side and rear

Tilts and twists the neck to change head direction

Trapezius Triceps Extends the forearm at the elbow and straightens arm

Latissimus dorsi Pulls the shoulders back; extends and rotates and lowers arms

Rotates, elevates and retracts shoulder blades

Pectoralis major Draws arm in towards body and rotates upper arm inward

Biceps brachii

Erector spinae (sacrospinalis) Elevates and straightens the spine

Internal and external obliques

Flexes the forearm at the elbow and turns the palm upward

Rectus abdominis Flexes the spine and supports posture

Flex and rotates the trunk

Gluteus medius Rotates the thigh when walking

Quadriceps A group of four muscles that flex and extend the knee and hip

Gluteus maximus Straightens the hip by pulling the thigh back when walking or running

Biceps femoris (hamstrings) Extends thigh at hips; flexes and rotates leg

Achilles tendon (no movement function)


Gastrocnemius Soleus Aids forward propulsion when walking or running

Flexes heel and pulls up the heel

Tibialis anterior Supports the arch of the foot when running

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Shoulder joint

Scapula

As all movements involve the combination of muscles and bones, when a muscle contracts, it moves one bone relative to another. Where the muscle attaches to the relatively stationary end of the bone, this is called the point of origin. Where the muscle attaches to the relatively mobile end, this is called the point of insertion.

Biceps brachii Figure 4.27

Origin (O) and insertion (I) of biceps brachii muscle Ulna Radius



Research how actin and myosin enable muscles to contract during movement.

2

Participate in the sample gym exercises shown in figure 4.28 on the following page. For each exercise, use a table like the one below to identify the muscles involved, the location and points of origin and insertion. Exercise

Muscles

Location

Point of origin

Point of insertion

Bicep curl Dumbell deep squat Bench press Lateral pull down Lunge walk Sit-up Dumbell upright row Prone alternating reverse fly Leg press calf raise


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Video exercises

Bicep curl

Dumbell deep squat

Bench press

Lat pulldown

Lunge walk

Sit-up

Dumbell upright row

Prone alternating reverse fly

Leg press calf raise

Figure 4.28 Sample gym exercises



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Muscle fibres

Myoglobin a protein that has oxygen attached; it provides reserve levels of oxygen to muscles during high levels of physical activity. Mitochondria a cell that is responsible for breaking down nutrients to create energy for cells. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) the chemical compound found in the body that produces energy.

Sliding filament theory the process where the thin muscle filaments slide over the thick muscle filaments to contract.

Two types of muscle fibres are responsible for the speed of muscle contractions: slow twitch (type 1) and fast twitch (type 2). While each fibre is unique in its ability to contract, every one contains a combination of both types of fibres. Success in some sports is assisted by the dominant fibre type that an individual may possess. Slow twitch (type 1) fibres contain large amounts of myoglobin, mitochondria and blood capillaries. These fibres are more efficient than fast twitch at using oxygen to generate the body’s fuel adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for muscle contractions of a continuous period. They work slower and therefore take longer to fatigue. These muscle fibres are beneficial to people involved in long-distance endurance events such as marathons, triathlons and ocean swims. Fast twitch (type 2) fibres do not use oxygen to create fuel and therefore are best used for short bursts of speed and strength. They produce the same amount of force as slow twitch fibres, but over a shorter period of time, and fatigue quickly. These muscle fibres are beneficial to people involved in events requiring short bursts of speed and power such as weightlifting, sprinting and shot put. Sliding filament theory is the process where the muscles contract the filaments – both type 1 and 2 fibres overlap each other to cause muscles to contract therefore causing movement.

Muscle relationships Action movement produced by a muscle.

Figure 4.29

Muscle relationships in elbow extension and flexion

Origins

Scapula

Triceps brachii

Hinge joint (elbow) Insertion


Muscles work in groups to produce an action. They allow joints to move bones to enable our body to run, walk, write and dance. Depending on their actions, muscles can be classified into one of the following three categories. Agonist (prime mover)—This is the muscle that produces the most force (contracts or shortens) during an action. For example, in the downward motion of a biceps curl (extending the elbow) the triceps is the (agonist) prime mover. Antagonist—This is the muscle that works opposite the agonist (extends or lengthens). In the upward motion of a biceps curl Ball-and-socket (flexing the elbow), the triceps joint becomes the antagonist. It relaxes Origins to give the agonist (biceps) control over the action. The antagonist determines the speed and range of the agonist to prevent excessive Biceps brachii brachialis movement and injury. Synergists or fixators—these are surrounding muscles that assist the agonist to produce the action. Synergists act as stabilisers for Insertion the joint. In flexing the elbow, the biceps and brachialis act as Radius synergists to each other. Ulna

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There are four phases involved in the contraction of a muscle for movement. 1 Excitation—when a nerve fibre or muscle cell is stimulated, it triggers muscle fibres to get ready for action. 2 Excitation–contraction—the stimulation of the muscle fibres activates the myofilaments in the muscles to contract. 3 Contraction—the thin myofilaments slide past the thick myofilaments to cause the muscle fibre to contract, lengthen and move. 4 Relaxation—when the nerve or muscle stimulation stops, the muscle relaxes.

Types of muscle contraction Throughout movement, muscles will contract differently to allow movement to occur. The type of contraction used will depend on the movement of the muscle. There are two main types of muscle contractions: isometric and isotonic.

Isometric contraction This is the process where the muscle contracts and no movement is produced. The length of the muscle stays the same. Examples of isometric contractions include the triceps and pectoral muscles when holding a starting position for a push-up. In completing a rock climb, isometric contractions will be used during periods where the climber is holding on to the rock wall while deciding where to move next.

Isotonic contraction This is the process where the muscle contracts, producing enough force to move an object. The muscle shortens and maintains its tension throughout the whole movement. There are two types of isotonic contractions. Concentric contraction—when the muscle shortens as it contracts. For example, the pectoral muscles when completing the pushing-up phase of a push-up. Eccentric contraction—when the muscle lengthens as it contracts. For example, the pectoral muscles when completing the lowering phase of a push-up.

Figure 4.30

Isometric, eccentric and concentric contractions occur in the three phases of a push-up



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Participate in a circuit. For each exercise, identify the agonist and antagonist muscle(s) and type of contraction. Station

Agonist

Antagonist

Type of contraction

Heel flicks Push-ups Plank Skipping Tricep dip Upper cuts V sit Lunges Tricep push-ups 2

Analyse selected movements from a sport to determine the different types of muscle contractions that are evident.

3

Explain the significance of isometric contractions for movement performance.

4

A plyometric exercise, such as the vertical leap, involves performing an eccentric contraction of a muscle group immediately followed by a powerful concentric contraction of the same muscle group. Explain why this process enhances the capacity to generate power.

Respiratory system The respiratory system is responsible for the transfer of oxygen from the air to the blood, and for the disposal of the waste product carbon dioxide. A vital element for life, the respiratory system works in conjunction with the cardiovascular system to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body. While the body can do without food for a few days, the body cannot survive after a few minutes without oxygen. The availability of oxygen, its delivery to working muscles and the removal of waste products are essential for enabling repeated movements.

Structure and functions The respiratory system is made of various structures that enable the exchange of gases both within and outside the body. Supplying all body cells with oxygen and removing carbon dioxide is the overall function of the respiratory system. As air is breathed in through the nostrils and mouth, it travels into the nasal cavity that joins to the pharynx. The larynx is located at the bottom of the pharynx. The larynx joins the pharynx to the trachea (windpipe).


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Table 4.1 Structures and functions of the respiratory system

Structure

Function

Nose

Provides a warm, moist place for air to enter the body

Nasal cavity

Situated in the nose, and contains hairs that filter and clean foreign objects when entering the body. Incoming air is warmed as it passes through the nasal cavity

Pharynx

Also called the throat; connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx. It is a pathway for both food and air

Larynx

Responsible for ensuring food and air go into the proper channels. When food is in the pharynx, the epiglottis closes the inlet to the larynx. Also known as the voice box, the larynx contains the vocal cords that vibrate to produce sounds as air rushes upwards from the lungs

Trachea

Commonly called the windpipe; is very flexible and mobile. Cilia lining the trachea expel dust and other foreign particles towards the pharynx. The trachea divides into two bronchi; one each, into the left and right lung respectively.

Bronchi

Once inside the lung, bronchi divide further into smaller bronchioles; this is often referred to as the respiratory tree. At the ends of the bronchioles, tiny air sacs called alveoli exist.

Alveoli

The chambers where gas exchange occurs. These grape-like structures account for most volume in the lungs and provide a large surface for gas exchange

Lungs

Enclose the structures of the body responsible for gas exchange, i.e. bronchioles and alveoli. The lungs are mainly air spaces where internal gas exchange occurs

The epiglottis sits above the larynx and, when a person is eating, it prevents Epiglottis an elastic cartilage that opens to allow air into the food from entering the trachea. As the air travels down the trachea, it splits trachea and closes when food into two airways called primary bronchi; one to the right lung and one to goes to the oesophagus. the left lung. The bronchus divides into smaller branches called bronchioles. Bronchioles contain small sacks called alveoli. It is here, at the alveoli, that oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanges into and out of the blood Figure 4.31 through capillaries. An average adult’s lung contains approximately The respiratory system 600 million alveoli. During this process, deoxygenated blood has travelled through the right side of the heart to the lung for disposal of carbon dioxide. In the lungs, the blood picks up oxygen, and the oxygenated blood is returned to Nasal cavity the heart through the left side. It is Pharynx then sent out to the rest of the body Epiglottis to enable the functioning of muscles, Larynx tissues and organs. Esophagus Carbon dioxide follows the same path as air when it is breathed out of the body. A sheet of muscles that Left lung lies across the chest, the diaphragm, Left primary bronchus contracts to draw oxygen into the lungs and relaxes to pump carbon Secondary bronchus dioxide out of the lungs. Tertiary bronchus


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Lung function The act of breathing is known as pulmonary ventilation. It is a mechanical process that relies on pressure changes occurring in the thoracic cavity. When the volume and pressure in the lungs changes, the flow of gases must equalise this pressure. There are two phases involved in pulmonary ventilation.

Intercostal means between the ribs.

Figure 4.32

Inspiration and expiration Inspiration

Inspiration (inhaling) is the process of breathing air into the lungs. The diaphragm is the most important muscle in the process of inspiration. This thin dome-shaped muscle attaches to the lower ribs and is controlled by the body’s nerves. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the ribs lift, causing the lungs to expand. This increase in lung size lowers the air pressure in the alveoli. As a result, air from a highpressure region such as outside the body, quickly flows through the respiratory tract and into the lungs. Expiration (exhaling) is the process of breathing air out of the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, the rib cage resumes its normal position and the lungs retract. This compression of the lungs forces carbon dioxide to flow out of the lungs. During normal expiration, no muscular effort is required as the walls are elastic and return to their normal position after expanding during inspiration. During exercise, the process of inspiration calls upon neighbouring muscles to assist in the expansion of the lungs. These muscles collectively assist the diaphragm in increasing the volume in which air can be breathed in. The expiration process becomes more active during exercise. The abdominal muscles assist with expiration as they push the diaphragm up and the ribs are pulled down, resulting in an increase of exhaled gases.

Exchange of gases

Expiration


The amount and type of gases at any one place, both in the atmosphere and body, varies. Gas in the atmosphere consists mostly of oxygen and nitrogen, whereas gases in the lungs consist of carbon dioxide and water vapour. As a result of the variance in gas types, oxygen exchange occurs in the lungs because of the high levels of carbon dioxide and low levels of oxygen. When we take a breath of air, it follows the respiratory pathways into the lungs. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood occurs in the lungs. This process is known as external respiration. There is also a variance of gases between the capillaries and tissue cells. Tissue cells use oxygen frequently, and for each volume of oxygen they use, they produce the same amount of carbon dioxide. As a result of the lack of oxygen in the tissue and abundance of oxygen in the capillaries, oxygen moves quickly from the capillaries into the tissue and carbon dioxide moves quickly from the tissue into the capillaries and veins. This process is known as internal respiration. Carbon dioxide in the blood vessels returns to the lungs for external respiration.

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Bronchiole Pumonary arteriole Pumonary venule

Alveoli

Capillary network around alveolus

Alveolar sac

When exercising, a person’s breathing pattern changes. These changes can occur in terms of the depth of each breath and rate at which they take each breath. While breathing becomes deeper and more frequently during exercise, the respiratory rate, however, does not significantly change. Because of increased stress on the muscles to perform, more oxygen is needed to fuel working muscles. The body attempts to meet these increased demands by breathing more often (faster) and more deeply than when at rest. Usually when a person first starts exercising, the body needs to adapt to the increased demand for oxygen to the working muscles. Once the body has adapted to the oxygen demand, the body can maintain a regular breathing pattern throughout the exercise to ensure oxygen demands to body tissues are met. If a person is unable to meet the increased demand for oxygen in the body, they may hyperventilate. Alternatively, a person’s breathing depth and rate may be inhibited and become slow and shallow, and they may hypoventilate.

Figure 4.33

Structures inside the lung

Hyperventilation an abnormal increase in depth and rate of breathing.

Hypoventilation abnormally slow and shallow breathing.



1

Explain how gas exchange occurs in the body.

2

Research how asthma affects the gas exchange.

3

Investigate how swimming can develop the respiratory system.

4

Investigate how an illness such as influenza (or even the common cold) can affect the respiratory system.

5

Undertake a series of physical activities. Start with a low intensity activity such as walking and slowly progress to a high intensity activity such as continuous skipping with a rope. Explain how varying the intensity of physical activity impacts on breathing patterns.

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Circulatory system

Figure 4.34

The circulatory system

The circulatory system, which includes the cardiovascular system, is made up of three main parts: the heart, blood vessels and blood. Its role is to transport materials such as nutrients, blood, hormones and waste products to muscles and organs around the body via the blood stream, and convert lactic acid into pyruvic acid.

Components of blood Blood plays a vital role in the body’s ability to breathe, break down nutrients for energy, eliminate waste, and maintain the body’s temperature and water balance. Blood is the only fluid tissue in the body. Blood is red in colour, due to the presence of haemoglobin, but the shade varies depending on the amount of oxygen present in blood. The more oxygen that is present, the brighter the shade of red, the less oxygen that is present, the darker the shade of red. Blood carries out three main functions. 1 Distribution of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body transportation of waste products from cells to excretory sites transportation of hormones around the body. 2 Regulation maintaining core body temperature maintaining normal acidity or alkaline (pH) in body tissue maintaining adequate fluid levels in the blood. 3 Protection preventing blood loss through clot formation preventing infection through antibodies and white blood cells. Haemoglobin red blood cells, responsible for carrying oxygen around the body.

Blood is made up of four components that all play a key role in the functioning of the body. • Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are responsible for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body. They pick up oxygen from the lungs and transport it around the body to muscles, tissues and organs, where it is exchanged for carbon dioxide. They then transport the carbon dioxide back to the lungs and the exchange occurs again. They contain iron and protein.


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White blood cells (leukocytes) are responsible for fighting infections. They attack and destroy germs and infections as they enter the body. When the body has an infection, the number of white blood cells increases in order to fight it. Platelets are the blood-clotting agencies that help stop bleeding. When we cut ourselves or break a blood vessel, platelets stick to the damaged blood vessel to block the blood flow. Blood plasma is the liquid part of blood that transports materials such as blood cells, nutrients, hormones and gases around the body. It is predominately water and contains mainly oxygen. The soft tissue inside bones (called marrow) makes red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Participating in aerobic-based activities over time can increase blood volume and therefore, increase the amount of red blood cells in the body. This can enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and enables more efficient participation in aerobic-based activities by being able to exercise at a higher intensity and for longer. A lack of oxygen in body tissues is called hypoxia.

Hypoxia lack of oxygen in body tissues.

Structure and function of the heart The heart has four chambers. The two superior chambers—the right and left atria—receive the blood into the heart. The two inferior chambers—the right and left ventricles—are responsible for the pumping action that ejects blood into the arteries. The heart has four valves to control blood flow. The functioning of the heart is a complex process. Starting from the lungs, the blood picks up oxygenated blood and transports it to the heart via the pulmonary vein (the only vein in the body that carries oxygenated blood) to the left atrium. The blood is held here until the bicuspid valve opens to let the blood flow into the left ventricle. As the heart beats (contracts), blood is pumped from the left ventricle through the aorta around the body. As the blood flows through arteries around the body, the small capillaries allow the oxygen to Superior vena cava be exchanged for carbon dioxide at a working muscle, tissue or Right pulmonary organ. After the gas exchange has artery occurred, deoxygenated blood Right travels through veins back to the pulmonary heart. The deoxygenated blood veins returns to the heart via the Right atrium inferior vena cava and superior vena cava before it enters the Tricuspid valve heart through the right atrium. The blood is held in the right atrium until the tricuspid valve opens and allows the Inferior vena cava deoxygenated blood to flow into the right ventricle. From there the deoxygenated blood is pumped through the


Figure 4.35

The heart

Aorta Left pulmonary artery Left pulmonary veins Left atrium Bicuspid (mitral) valve

Left ventricle Myocardium

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pulmonary artery (the only artery in the body that carries deoxygenated blood) to the lungs. Once in the lungs, the blood exchanges the carbon dioxide for oxygen and the cycle starts again. The coronary artery supplies blood to the heart muscle. In addition to these features, the heart also contains the myocardium, which is the cardiac muscle that is striated, and an involuntary muscle of the body, the pericardium, which is the double wall sac of the heart, and the septum—the thick wall that divides the two ventricles. Regularly participating in aerobic-based activities will cause the left ventricle to respond by becoming slightly larger and capable of contracting more strongly. This has the effect of being able to deliver blood more efficiently to working muscles because the left ventricle is able to become fuller and disperse blood to the body more powerfully. The effect of this is increased aerobic efficiency.

Structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries

a

In order for blood to be transported around the body, pathways must exist to ensure that the flow of blood reaches all body parts effectively. These pathways are tubes known as blood vessels and, for the most efficient movement, it is important that they are as open as possible and not blocked by the build-up of plaque or other agents. Blockages are often caused by behaviours such as eating a high-fat diet. The blood vessels in our bodies form a closed circuit that starts and ends at the heart. There are three types of blood vessels. 1 Arteries—these are large vessels with thick, muscular walls; they transport oxygen-rich blood away from the heart. 2 Capillaries—the smallest blood vessels in the body; they have thin walls that allow the exchange of materials between blood and tissue fluid. Capillaries connect arteries to veins. 3 Veins—with slightly thinner walls than arteries, veins are responsible for transporting carbon dioxide (deoxygenated blood) back to the heart via the lungs.

b

c

Figure 4.36

a Arteries b Veins c Capillaries


Pulmonary and systemic circulation The heart can be described as the ‘transport system pump’ that delivers oxygen around the body. Despite its small size (about the size of a clenched fist), it is incredibly strong and enduring. The heart weighs between 250–350 grams and is protected by the rib cage, located slightly left of the midline. On average, the heart pumps blood out at 70–80 beats per minute. An elite athlete’s beats per minute are lower. The cardiovascular system comprises two major circuits. 1 Pulmonary circuit—circulates blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. This occurs on the right side of the heart. 2 Systemic circuit—circulates blood from the heart to every body part and then back to the heart. This occurs on the left side of the heart.

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Pulmonary circuit O2 CO2

Pulmonary capillaries CO2

O2

Pulmonary arteries

Pulmonary veins

Superior vena cava

Branches of aortic arch

Right atrium

Left atrium

Tricuspid valve Left ventricle

Right ventricle

Descending aorta

Systemic circuit

Inferior vena cava

Systemic capillaries

O2 CO2

Oxygen-poor CO2-rich blood

Oxygen-rich CO2-poor blood

Figure 4.37

Pulmonary and systemic circuits


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Heart rate The thick muscular walls of the two lower chambers of the heart (ventricles), contract to squeeze blood into the arteries. The upper chambers of the heart (atrium) are the holding spots for blood. A heartbeat has two main phases: diastole—as the heart relaxes and refills with blood; and systole—the contraction that forces blood around the body. During exercise, stress or excitement, the heart rate increases because a higher volume of blood is needed throughout the body. The heart rate is controlled by the medulla in the brain. It sends electrical impulses along nerves to set an average resting heart rate. The hypothalamus or hormones such as adrenaline can speed up a person’s average heart rate and override the normal heart rhythm. A person’s resting heart rate (RHR) is usually determined first thing in the morning. At rest, the adult heart usually beats between 60–80 beats per minute. The higher the level of a person’s fitness, the lower their resting heart rate will be. This is because the heart of a fit person is able to effectively pump out more blood using fewer contractions. Taking a person’s pulse will give an indication of how hard their heart is working. The carotid artery (in the neck) and the radial artery (in the wrist) are two common sites used to take a person’s pulse. Figure 4.38

Blood pressure graph

Systolic pressure (upper reading)

180

Diastolic pressure (lower reading)

Blood pressure (mmHg)

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 AWAKE

ASLEEP

20 0 Noon

Midnight

Noon


In pairs, take each other’s pulse at both the carotid artery and radial artery.

2

Explore how a person’s heart rate changes during exercise.

Blood pressure When your heart beats, it pumps blood around the body to give it the energy, oxygen and nutritional requirements it needs. As the blood moves through the body, it pushes against the sides of the blood vessels. Blood pressure is the strength of this push against the sides of the arteries.


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Blood pressure is measured based on two factors: the systolic and diastolic pressure of the blood vessels. Systolic blood pressure measures the force of the contractions in the left ventricle as the heart pushes blood out into the body. This number is the highest reading recorded (the top number). The diastolic blood pressure measures the heart as it is relaxing and filling with blood. This number is the lowest reading recorded (the bottom number). The amount of blood forced out during a contraction from the left ventricle is known as stroke volume. The fitter the person, the greater the volume of blood forced out in one contraction. A heart becomes more efficient when it is able to push out the same volume of blood in fewer contractions. The volume of blood pumped out in one contraction over a minute is known as cardiac output. The volume of blood pumped around the body increases as we exercise. The ideal blood pressure is 120/80. At this level, your heart works efficiently to meet the demands of the body. However, a person’s blood pressure can change depending on their lifestyle, gender and age. People who are inactive, overweight or stressed run the risk of developing high blood pressure. High blood pressure puts extra strain on the heart and blood vessels and can cause them to become weak or damaged. Heart attack, stroke and kidney disease are linked to high blood pressure. Blood pressure is usually measured using a sphygmomanometer. These can be electrical or the process can be manual with the use of a stethoscope. A sphygmomanometer has several parts that are used to gain the blood pressure reading: an inflatable cuff; a measuring chart labelled with numbers for a systolic and diastolic reading and a rubber pump that, when squeezed, inflates the cuff. A stethoscope is used to listen to the blood flow. Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury (mm.Hg). The following steps outline how you should take a blood pressure reading.

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Sphygmomanometer a pressure gauge for measuring blood pressure.

1 Have the person who is getting their blood pressure taken sit in a chair with their arm resting on a table. 2 Ask the person to place their palm facing upwards on the table, with elbow slightly bent. 3 Wrap the inflatable cuff around the person’s upper limb just below the armpit. (This works best if there is no clothing on the upper limb.) 4 Locate the brachial pulse on the inside of the elbow. 5 Place the ear tips of the stethoscope in your ears. 6 Place the chest piece of stethoscope under the cuff on the inside of the elbow, on the brachial pulse. 7 Slowly squeeze the rubber pump to inflate the cuff to 170–200 mm.Hg. Be mindful so that the inflated cuff does not hurt the person. 8 Once the cuff is inflated, slowly turn the valve on the rubber pump and listen closely for the first pumping sound you hear. Take note of where the mercury is on the measuring chart. This is the systolic reading. 9 Continue listening carefully until you hear the last sound. Take note of where the mercury is on the measuring tape. This is the diastolic reading. 10 Record the systolic reading over the diastolic reading. 11 Slowly expel all the air from the cuff and remove it from the person.


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120


Explain to a partner how blood travels around the body.

2

In pairs, demonstrate how to take a person’s blood pressure.

3

Explain how exercise affects blood pressure.

4

Discuss the impact high and low blood pressure has on the body.

5

Investigate the conditions linked to the circulatory system and how they affect the body.

chapter review Recap Systems of the body work together to allow the body to move. The systems primarily responsible for movement are the skeletal, muscular, circulatory and respiratory systems. The skeletal system has 206 bones. Bones can be classified as long, short, flat or irregular. Directional terms are used to assist in locating bones. The skeletal system is grouped into two categories: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. Joints occur where two or more bones meet. Joints are classified three ways: fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial. Synovial joints are the most common joints in the body and are classified as gliding/plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid/ellipsoidal, saddle and ball-andsocket joints. Joints produce various actions, which can be described as opposite or contrasting movements. The muscular system has approximately 640 muscles that can be categorised into three types: smooth, cardiac and skeletal. When a muscle attaches to a stationary bone in a joint action, this is called the origin. The muscle that attaches to the bone moving in the joint action is called the insertion. Muscles work in groups to produce movement. These are referred to as agonist and antagonist muscles that are supported by stabilisers or fixators. There are three types of muscle contractions: isometric, concentric and eccentric. The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body. Lungs allow breathing to occur in two ways: inspiration and expiration. The exchange of oxygen into tissues is achieved through the capillaries, as is the exchange of carbon dioxide from tissues into the blood stream.


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CHAPTER 4

The heart is a cardiac muscle that is divided into four chambers. The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood into the body, whereas the right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.


Current URL

Useful for …

Inner Body

www.innerbody.com/image/skelfov.html

Information on the skeletal system

Loyola University Medical Education Network

www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/GrossAnatomy/ dissector/mml/mmlregn.htm

Information on the muscular system

The Franklin Institute

www.fi.edu/learn/heart/index.html

Information on the circulatory system

BBC UK

www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/pe/appliedanatomy/ 1_anatomy_respiratorysys_rev1.shtml

Information on the respiratory system

How stuff works

http://health.howstuffworks.com/body-systems-channel.htm

Information on all systems of the body

chapter review

The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients and waste products around the body. It contains three major parts: blood, blood vessels and the heart.

121

Exam-style questions 1 Explain the way bones are classified and describe the different kinds

(3 marks)

of bones. 2 Discuss the role blood plays in the body. 3 Examine how exercise affects the circulatory and respiratory systems.


(5 marks) (12 marks)

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5

Physical fitness, training and movement

What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement efficiency?

Physical fitness and training lead to improved physiological responses to exercise and higher skill levels. This, in turn, produces movement efficiency, as participants in physical activity and sport can sustain and recover from physical effort more quickly, and execute skills more consistently, with less effort.

Health-related components of physical fitness Health-related components of physical fitness are related to a person’s ability to perform vigorous daily activities, while preventing chronic disease. People with a high level of fitness will be less fatigued when performing general tasks such as cleaning, gardening, grocery shopping and walking up stairs. Research has illustrated that people who participate in activities to improve their cardiorespiratory endurance, strength, muscle endurance and flexibility and who have optimal body composition are at a lower risk of developing heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, insomnia, depression and osteoporosis. Regular physical activity can contribute to a healthy lifestyle by increasing your energy levels and social, physical and psychological wellbeing.

Cardiorespiratory endurance Cardiorespiratory endurance is the ability to perform strenuous exercise for a sustained time without fatigue.


Cardiorespiratory endurance, also called aerobic fitness, refers to the circulatory and respiratory system’s ability to supply oxygen to the body and to remove carbon dioxide and waste products during sustained exercise. Some say this is the best indicator of a person’s overall health. There are many benefits of having a high level of cardiorespiratory endurance. Heart disease is Australia’s biggest killer, and having good cardiorespiratory endurance will lower your chance of suffering from heart disease. It also reduces the incidence of diabetes, blood pressure problems, stroke, depression and anxiety, and assists in the improved health of muscles and bones resulting in a fitter person.

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A high level of cardiorespiratory endurance is beneficial in sports such as cross-country running, triathlon, road cycling, race walking and various team sports. Testing fitness components (such as cardiorespiratory endurance) is a key to any training program. Providing a choice of tests is appropriate and if they are administered correctly, benefits include: identifying strengths and weaknesses identifying any imbalances in flexibility or strength monitoring progression. A number of different tests are required to determine a person’s fitness profile—no one test will tell you everything. However, we must also make sure that we are testing for a reason—and not just testing for the sake of testing. Fitness testing is time consuming, so care must be taken with planning and scheduling. You may want to monitor some fitness components once a month and monitor others once every three months. To make sure that any changes in results are from training rather than testing error, attempt to replicate testing conditions each time. Tips include:

Figure 5.1

VO2 max testing in the laboratory

have the same person conduct the test give the same instructions each time conduct the tests in the same order with the same recovery between tests conduct tests on the same surface (e.g. indoors or outdoors for a beep test) check equipment is working correctly. Laboratory tests are generally more reliable and accurate but are very time consuming and expensive. Field tests can generally be administered to a large group of people in a relatively short period and are less expensive.

Testing cardiorespiratory endurance Cardiorespiratory endurance can be assessed using a range of tests. These include: Astrand submaximal test Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test Coopers 12 minute run multi-stage beep test. Factors to consider when selecting the appropriate test include reasons for the test; the participant to be tested; the cost of testing; and the availability of equipment, personnel and time. For these reasons, the use of maximal testing in the laboratory tends to be limited to clinical reasons, for research or for testing elite athletes. For athletes involved in weight-independent sports, such as rowing and cycling, where the individual sits and performs work on a machine, the results should be expressed in absolute terms of litres of oxygen per minute (L/min-1). Athletes participating in sports that involve supporting their body mass, such as running events and sports such as soccer, hockey and


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VO2 max the maximum amount of oxygen in millilitres one can use in one minute, per kilogram of body weight.

basketball, should have their VO2 max results expressed in relative units (relative to body mass) mL/kg/min-1. Three tests: the Astrand submaximal, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery and Coopers 12 minute run are now presented in detail.

Astrand submaximal test This test protocol estimates a person’s VO2 max based on the linear relationship between heart rate, workload and VO2. The aim is for the person to reach a steady state heart rate, which is between 140–170 beats per minute (bpm) for someone under 30 years, during the test. Instructions are as follows:

Kilopond a measure of force defined as the magnitude of the force exerted on 1 kilogram of mass by a 9.80665 m/s2 gravitational field (standard gravity, a conventional value approximating the average magnitude of gravity on Earth).

1 Prior to the start of the test, which will be conducted on a stationary bike, weigh the person, take their resting heart rate (ideally using a heart-rate monitor) and adjust the seat height (leg extended when in the lowest pedal position). Record the results of their weight and heart rate. 2 Have the person warm up for 2–3 minutes. 3 Participants remain seated throughout the test. The suggested workload for females is 450 kilopond metres (kpm) or 75 watts (W) for females and 600 kpm (100 watts) for males at 50 revolutions per minute (rpm). Record heart rate and workload at the completion of each minute throughout the test. (Trained participants may want to start at a workload that is 25 watts higher.) 4 Aim for >128 bpm at the end of 2 minutes. If the participant comes under this figure, increase the workload by 150 kpm or 25 watts. 5 The test should run for a minimum of 6 minutes. Steady state is achieved if there are less than 5 beats between minutes 5 and 6—otherwise you need to continue until steady state HR has been achieved. 6 Cool down for several minutes.

Calculating maximum oxygen uptake Refer to the appropriate table (table 5.2 for males and table 5.3 for females). Instructions are as follows:

Table 5.1 Correction factors for age and maxHR

Age 15+ 20+ 25+ 35+ 40+ 45+ 50+

1 Find the appropriate work/heart rate in the heart rate column. 2 Read across the workload columns. 3 The number in the appropriate workload column is the absolute estimated maximum oxygen uptake (litres/min). Record this number. 4 As maximum heart rate decreases with age, a correction factor for age is needed (see table Factor 5.1). Multiply the maxVO2 with the correction 1.10 factor for that age. Use this to correct the figure 1.05 you found in (3) above. For example, if you are 17 years old, multiply the number by a factor of 1.00 1.10. Record this result. 0.87 5 Determine relative VO2 max: convert L/min by dividing by body weight to obtain mL/kg/min. 0.83 For example, your age-corrected V02 max is 0.78 2.42 L/min and your body weight is 60 kilogram. 0.75

= 2.42 x 1000 = 40.3 mL/kg/min 60 Compare your results to the ratings given in table 5.4.


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Physical fitness, training and movement Table 5.2 Prediction of maximal aerobic power from heart rate and work rate on a cycle ergometer (men) Heart rate


600 (100 W) kpm/min-1

900 (150 W) kpm/min-1

1200 (200 W) kpm/min-1

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Table 5.3 Prediction of maximal aerobic power from heart rate and work rate on a cycle ergometer (women) Heart rate

600 (100 W) kpm/min-1

900 (150 W) kpm/min-1

1200 (200 W) kpm/min-1

120

3.5

4.8

120

3.4

4.1

4.8

121

3.4

4.7

121

3.3

4.0

4.8

122

3.4

4.6

122

3.2

3.9

4.7

123

3.4

4.6

123

3.1

3.9

4.6

124

3.3

4.5

6.0

124

3.1

3.8

4.5

125

3.2

4.4

5.9

125

3.0

3.7

4.4

126

3.2

4.4

5.8

126

3.0

3.6

4.3

127

3.1

4.3

5.7

127

2.9

3.5

4.2

128

3.1

4.2

5.6

128

2.8

3.5

4.2

129

3.0

4.2

5.6

129

2.8

3.4

4.1

130

3.0

4.1

5.5

130

2.7

3.4

4.0

131

2.9

4.0

5.4

131

2.7

3.4

4.0

132

2.9

4.0

5.3

132

2.7

3.3

3.9

133

2.8

3.9

5.3

133

2.6

3.2

3.8

134

2.8

3.9

5.2

134

2.6

3.2

3.8

135

2.8

3.8

5.1

135

2.6

3.1

3.7

136

2.7

3.8

5.0

136

2.5

3.1

3.6

137

2.7

3.7

5.0

137

2.5

3.0

3.6

138

2.7

3.7

4.9

138

2.4

3.0

3.5

139

2.6

3.6

4.8

139

2.4

2.9

3.5

140

2.6

3.6

4.8

140

2.4

2.8

3.4

141

2.6

3.5

4.7

141

2.3

2.8

3.4

142

2.5

3.5

4.6

142

2.3

2.8

3.3

143

2.5

3.4

4.6

143

2.2

2.7

3.3

144

2.5

3.4

4.5

144

2.2

2.7

3.2

145

2.4

3.4

4.5

145

2.2

2.7

3.2

146

2.4

3.3

4.4

146

2.2

2.6

3.2

147

2.4

3.3

4.4

147

2.1

2.6

3.1

148

2.3

3.2

4.3

148

2.1

2.6

3.1

149

2.3

3.2

4.3

149

2.1

2.6

3.0

150

2.3

3.2

4.2

150

2.0

2.5

3.0

151

2.3

3.1

4.2

151

2.0

2.5

3.0

152

2.3

3.1

4.1

152

2.0

2.5

2.9

153

2.2

3.0

4.1

153

2.0

2.4

2.9

154

2.2

3.0

4.0

154

2.0

2.4

2.8

155

2.2

3.0

4.0

155

1.9

2.4

2.8

156

2.2

2.9

4.0

156

1.9

2.3

2.8

157

2.1

2.9

3.9

157

1.9

2.3

2.7

158

2.1

2.9

3.9

158

1.8

2.3

2.7

159

2.1

2.8

3.8

159

1.8

2.2

2.7

160

2.1

2.8

3.8

160

1.8

2.2

2.6

161

2.0

2.8

3.7

161

1.8

2.2

2.6

126

2.0

2.8

3.7

126

1.8

2.2

2.6

163

2.0

2.8

3.7

163

1.7

2.2

2.6

164

2.0

2.7

3.6

164

1.7

2.1

2.5

165

2.0

2.7

3.6

165

1.7

2.1

2.5

166

1.9

2.7

3.6

166

1.7

2.1

2.5

167

1.9

2.6

3.5

167

1.6

2.1

2.4

168

1.9

2.6

3.5

168

1.6

2.0

2.4

169

1.9

2.6

3.5

169

1.6

2.0

2.4

170

1.8

2.6

3.4

170

1.6

2.0

2.4

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126

Table 5.4 Ratings for aerobic capacity

Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test

Age 16 boys

Age 16 girls

>54.6

>44.4

Good

49.8–54.5

40.8–44.3

Average

44.9–49.7

37.1–40.7

Fair

40.1–44.8

33.5–37.0

Poor

<40

<33.5

Excellent

Figure 5.2

Set up for Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test

5m

This test was designed specifically for soccer and is similar to the beep test (multi-stage fitness test) but involves an active recovery of 10 seconds after each up-and-back shuttle (2 x 20 m). This test is now used by most team sports. Instructions are as follows: 1 The equipment needed to conduct the test includes a tape measure, markers, a Yo-Yo CD, a CD player and recording sheets. Figure 5.2 Illustrates where you need to place your markers. It is suggested that you divide your group into pairs so one person can run and the other can monitor how far that person runs before they are eliminated from the test. The partners then swap over.

20 m Start & finish

2 Students run 20 metres forward, pivot at a line (or marker) in time with the beep from the CD and run 20 metres back to the start before the next audio beep. 3 During their 10 seconds of active recovery they continue jogging to (and around) the next marker and back to the start line. 4 On the next beep, they repeat another up-and-back shuttle. 5 The speed of the audio beeps corresponding to the shuttle run gradually increases throughout the test while the 10-second recovery interval remains consistent throughout the test. 6 The test continues until the student either has missed two beeps at the ‘finish’ marker or is unable to get to the ‘start’ marker in time for the next beep.

Table 5.5 Examples of elite athlete target results in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test

As this stage, there is no normative data for school students using this test. However, to give you some indication of performance, table 5.5 reports test values that have been recorded for athletes from different sporting groups.

Athletic group

Coopers 12 minute run Level/shuttle

Junior elite basketball players (male)

17–22.5

Junior elite basketball players (female)

15–18.7

Australian women’s basketball squad

17–21

NRL players

20–24


As the test name suggests, this test requires the participant to cover as much distance as they can in 12 minutes. The instructions for the test are as follows: 1 Select an oval or area and measure the lap length by placing markers at 20-metre intervals to make calculating the distance covered easy. 2 Use the buddy system for undertaking the test and recording completed laps. Using the result

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sheet, record each time a student has completed one lap by crossing off the relevant lap number. 3 When the whistle signals the completion of the test (after 12 minutes), students walk to the closest marker so the distance achieved in the final lap can be calculated and recorded. 4 Calculate the distance covered in 12 minutes. Refer to table 5.6 to determine the estimated max VO2 from the distance covered during the test and refer to table 5.7 to determine your rating. Distance

mL/kg/min

Distance

mL/kg/min

1600 m

28.2

2900 m

51.8

1700 m

30.0

3000 m

53.5

1800 m

31.9

3100 m

55.3

1900 m

33.8

3200 m

57.0

2000 m

35.7

3300 m

58.7

2100 m

37.5

3400 m

60.5

2200 m

39.2

3500 m

62.3

2300 m

41.0

3600 m

64.0

2400 m

42.7

3700 m

65.8

2500 m

44.6

3800 m

67.5

2600 m

46.4

3900 m

69.2

2700 m

48.2

4000 m

71.0

2800 m

50.0

Table 5.6 Estimated VO2 max from distance run in 12 minutes

Table 5.7 Cardiorespiratory fitness ratings based on 12-minute test

Rating

Gender

13–19

20–29

AGE GROUPS (YR) 30–39 40–49

50–59

60+

Male

<2.09

<1.96

<1.90

<1.83

<1.66

<1.40

Female

<1.61

<1.54

<1.53

<1.43

<1.35

<1.26

Male

2.09–2.20

1.96–2.11

1.90–2.10

1.83–2.00

1.66–1.87

1.40–1.65

Female

1.61–1.90

1.54–1.79

1.53–1.70

1.43–1.58

1.35–1.49

1.26–1.39

Male

2.21–2.52

2.12–2.40

2.11–2.34

2.01–2.24

1.88–2.10

1.66–1.94

Female

1.91–2.08

1.80–1.97

1.71–1.90

1.59–1.79

1.50–1.70

1.40–1.58

Male

2.53–2.77

2.41–2.64

2.35–2.52

2.25–2.47

2.11–2.32

1.95–2.13

Female

2.09–2.30

1.98–2.16

1.91–2.08

1.80–2.00

1.71–1.90

1.59–1.76

Male

2.78–3.00

2.65–2.84

2.53–2.73

2.48–2.66

2.33–2.55

2.14–2.50

Female

2.31–2.43

2.17–2.34

2.09–2.24

2.01–2.16

1.91–2.10

1.77–1.90

Male

>3.01

>2.85

>2.74

>2.67

>2.56

>2.51

Female

>2.44

>2.35

>2.25

>2.17

>2.11

>1.91

Very poor

Poor

Fair

Good

Excellent Superior


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128


Explain why the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test, Coopers 12 minute run and Astrand submaximal test are all referred to as estimated VO2 max tests.

2

Why are the results of aerobic tests expressed as VO2 max in relative terms?

3

Explain why cardiorespiratory endurance is important for everyone.

4

Evaluate the different cardiorespiratory endurance test protocols mentioned in this section in relation to: a their strengths and weaknesses b their suitability for different population groups.

5

How would you rate your aerobic capacity? What does this result actually mean?

Muscular strength Strength the maximal force that can be generated in one repetition of a movement.

Muscular strength is the ability to produce force against a resistance. This is often measured by how much you can lift in one repetition. For example, the load you can lift while performing one repetition on a leg press machine is a good indication of the strength of your leg muscles. As we age, muscular strength and lean muscle mass reduces, although this can be reversed with increased activity and strength training. Muscular strength is a major factor in determining the quality of life an older person will experience, as it reduces the stress on your joints. Strength training can improve our metabolism, our posture and provides better bone strength to help guard against osteoporosis. Performance in sports such as weight lifting, gymnastics and rugby require a high degree of strength for successful performance.

Testing muscular strength

Figure 5.3

Muscular strength is needed to lift an extremely heavy weight successfully, as shown by Australia’s Damon Kelly

Strength is often assessed using three-repetition maximum (3RM) tests. This involves performing a particular exercise with as high a load as possible for three repetitions, using correct technique. Exercises such as the bench press, squat, leg press, prone row and dumbbell shoulder press are often used to assess muscular strength. Two strength tests that you may be able to complete in class include the 7-stage abdominal test and the handgrip strength test.

7-stage abdominal test As the name suggests, this test is undertaken in seven stages. Students lie on their back with their knees at 90 degrees and their feet flat on the floor while they attempt one repetition of a variety of sit-ups. To progress to the next stage of sit-up, the repetition must be completed without students moving their feet. They may have as many attempts as possible at each stage. The description for each sit-up is as follows:


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Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Stage 5 Stage 6 Stage 7

arms extended, sit-up until wrists pass knees arms extended, sit-up until elbows pass knees arms across the body with hands on opposite elbows, sit-up until forearms touch thighs arms crossed over chest with hands touching opposite shoulders; student sits up until forearms touch thighs (elbows must be touching trunk) hands behind head touching opposite shoulders, sit-up is complete when chest touches thighs as per Stage 5 but holding a 2.5-kilogram weight as per Stage 5 but holding a 5-kilogram weight.

Once the highest stage has been determined, refer to table 5.6 to see your rating. Elite athletes should be aiming at stage 6 or 7.

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Table 5.8 Ratings for the 7-stage abdominal strength test

Stage

Variation

Rating

1

Fingertips

Poor

2

Elbows

Fair

3

Abdomen

Fair

4

Chest

Average

5

Shoulders

Good

6&7

Weights

Excellent

Figure 5.4 The 7-stage abdominal test

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5


Stage 6

Stage 7

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Handgrip strength test The handgrip strength test is an example of an isometric strength test using a handgrip dynamometer. The student holds the dynamometer in their hand (palm up) with their arm raised and parallel to the floor. Making sure the pointer has been reset to zero; the student squeezes the grip as hard as possible for several seconds. Record the best trial from three attempts for the dominant and non-dominant hands. Figure 5.5

Table 5.9 Ratings for handgrip strength

Handgrip dynamometer

Rating Excellent

MALES Non-dominant Dominant

FEMALES Non-dominant Dominant

>57

>61

>36

>40

Good

51–56

55–60

31–36

35–40

Average

45–50

49–54

25–30

29–34

Fair

39–44

43–47

19–24

23–27

Poor

<39

<43

<19

<23


Identify five specific sporting situations where strength levels are important for success.

2

Outline two examples where strength is important in everyday life.

3

Investigate the influence of age and gender on strength levels. What implications does this have for performance?

4

Evaluate your own strength levels. Relate your results to your normal weekly activities.

5

Assume you are the coach of a sprinter and have access to a gym. Outline the tests you would use to assess your athlete’s strength. Indicate what these test results actually tell you and how they can help in designing your athlete’s training program.

Muscular endurance Muscular endurance the ability to generate force over a period of time.


Muscular endurance is the ability to exert force and continue it for some time. Athletes such as marathon runners, triathletes, soccer players, football players, basketball players and swimmers all possess high levels of muscle endurance. Long-distance runners need a significant amount of muscular endurance but relatively little muscle strength. Having high levels of muscular endurance makes it easier to perform everyday tasks, improves posture and can reduce the instance of back pain. Muscle endurance training programs involve many repetitions at a light load.

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Testing muscular endurance A number of different tests can be performed to assess muscular endurance. Elite sporting teams will often use tests such as testing the maximum number of repetitions of chin-ups, dips or bench presses at a load equivalent to their body weight and how long the athlete can hold a certain position, such as a prone hold. When selecting tests, it is best to consider the muscle groups or movement that you want to assess. Two tests that you can complete in class include the prone hold and the maximum push-up test.

Prone hold test This test assesses core strength and stability. The student adopts the position illustrated in figure 5.7 and holds this position for as long as possible. Keep the neck in line with the spine. The test is terminated when the student can no longer keep their body straight—generally students will drop their hips. Refer to table 5.10 for the test ratings. Figure 5.6

Table 5.10 Ratings for prone hold

Rating

Time

Excellent

50 seconds or more

Good

30–40 seconds

Average

20–30 seconds

Fair

11–20 seconds

Poor

10 seconds or less

Muscular endurance is required in gymnastics

Figure 5.7

Prone hold position

Push-up test The push-up test assesses muscle endurance of the chest, shoulder and triceps muscles. Start in a push-up position with weight on the hands and toes, as shown in figure 5.8. The subject’s hands should be just wider than shoulderwidth apart and their back and legs will be kept straight at all times. Lower the body to the floor until the elbows are at 90 degrees. Push back up to the start position. This is one repetition. Repeat as many repetitions as possible. Figure 5.8

Table 5.11 Ratings for the push-up test

Rating

Age 16–19 males

Age 16–19 females

>56

>35

Good

35–56

21–35

Average

19–34

11–20

Fair

11–18

6–10

Poor

<11

<6

Excellent

Correct push-up



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Explain the difference between muscular strength and muscular endurance. Give two examples of each.

2

Compare your results on the two muscular endurance tests. What impact would this have on your daily tasks and sports performance?

3

Find and describe two other tests that could be used to assess muscular endurance.

Flexibility Flexibility the ability to move a muscle through a complete range of motion.

Figure 5.9

Static flexibility demonstrated with the splits and dynamic flexibility exhibited by hurdlers

Flexibility is the ability to bend and stretch to execute the full movement at a joint. The body can be flexible in one joint but tight in another joint, or it can be flexible in one movement of a joint but not in all movements of that joint. For example, if you can do a front split, you may not be able to do a side split as this uses the joint in a different way. Ideally, you want to be flexible enough to perform your daily tasks with ease. If these tasks include specific sporting activities there will be a need for greater flexibility at different joints. A greater range of movement also enhances your capacity to develop force. Figure 5.9 demonstrates the two types of flexibility—static and dynamic.

The best way to maintain and increase flexibility is to stretch your muscles. Unless your routine incorporates stretches at all the major joints, you may become flexible at some joints and be inflexible at others. Age and gender are influencing factors—young females are generally the most flexible. Stretching and the resultant flexibility can improve performance, coordination and posture, reduce back pain and assist in the prevention of injury.

Testing flexibility There are two types of flexibility tests—direct tests that involve measuring the range of movement (ROM) at specific joints using a goniometer with the score being expressed in degrees, for example, the active knee extension test;


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and indirect tests where scores are measured in centimetres using a tape measure. Outlined below are two indirect tests to assess upper and lower body flexibility.

Sit and reach This test measures the ROM of the hamstrings and lower back. This test requires a ‘sit and reach box’ or ruler/tape measure placed between your feet. Instructions are as follows: 1 Traditionally this test has been completed with both legs extended straight (partner may gently hold the knees to keep them straight) and the soles of your feet (no shoes) flat against the box. 2 Placing both hands together (middle fingers on top of each other), reach forward as far as possible and hold for 3 seconds. 3 Your partner will take a reading at the point of your fingertips. Complete three trials. Reaching beyond your feet will be a positive reading.

Insert 05020, 21

Alternatively, this test can be completed measuring the left and right leg separately. The only change to the above description is one leg is extended with the foot against the box and the non-tested leg is bent with the sole of the foot resting against the opposite knee. When reaching forward, make sure the hips are square and not tilting towards the tested side.

Figure 5.10

Sit and reach

Table 5.12 Ratings for the sit and reach test, measurements in centimetres

Rating Excellent

16-year-old females Left leg Right leg Both legs

16-year-old males Left leg Right leg Both legs

24+

24+

23+

23+

23+

22+

Good

22–23

22–23

22–23

21–22

21–22

20–21

Average

21–22

21–22

20–21

20–21

20–21

19–20

Fair

20–21

20–21

19

19–20

19–20

18

Poor

19 or less

19 or less

18 or less

18 or less

18 or less

17 or less

Figure 5.11

Arm over and under

Arm over and under This test can be conducted in pairs. Instructions are as follows: 1 The student stands with their back to the tester. 2 To test the right shoulder ROM, the student: a puts their left hand behind their back with fingers reaching upwards b puts their right hand over their right shoulder and reaches down their spine c attempts to touch the fingers of their left hand, see figure 5.11.


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3 Repeat the procedure with the left shoulder. Scoring can be simply a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, if the fingers touched. For those whose fingers do not meet, you can measure the distance between fingertips so students can see if they improve with training. Partners then swap over. If fingers can touch, this indicates good shoulder flexibility, while a distance of more than 5 centimetres between fingertips indicates poor shoulder flexibility.


Figure 5.12

An example of low body fat composition common in triathletes

1

Discuss the potential sources of error when conducting the three flexibility tests outlined above.

2

List five sports where good flexibility at the following joint/muscle group would enhance performance: a shoulder b hamstrings.

3

Discuss your own flexibility results in relation to the sports you play.

4

Discuss how a lack of flexibility can affect sporting performance.

5

Research the impact of age and gender on flexibility. Explain how flexibility changes depending on age or gender.

6

Describe a flexibility test to assess: a the calf b the adductors.

Body composition Body composition is the percentage of bone, muscle (and organs) and fat in one’s body. Two people of the same height and weight can look quite different if they have different amounts of body fat and muscle mass. The person with the greater muscle mass and lower body fat will have a higher resting metabolic rate. Body fat is the main component of body composition that is monitored, and it can have a detrimental effect on our wellbeing and performance. Having a high body fat percentage— particularly around the abdomen—can increase the likelihood of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes. Conversely, when body fat levels become too low, the immune system can be compromised. From a performance aspect, a high level of body fat is generally detrimental as it is considered ‘dead’ weight and will lower an athlete’s power-to-weight ratio. Very low body fat percentages are generally found in body builders, triathletes and cyclists. High body fat percentages are not usually found in athletes except for the likes of sumo wrestlers.


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Testing body composition A number of different indirect procedures estimate body composition. Body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio are two assessments that can help identify health risks, while the sum of skinfolds is the assessment procedure predominantly administered to athletes. These assessments are outlined below.

Body mass index Body mass index is an indirect measure of body composition. As it does not distinguish between excessive weight produced by muscle or body fat, this test is not suitable for athletes (as muscle weighs more than fat, it could skew the results). When scores fall above or below the standard range, further assessment is recommended. BMI is calculated using the following formula: BMI =

mass (kg) height (m2)

For example, if your height is 170 centimetres, and your body mass is 60 kg BMI = BMI =

60 (kg) 1.7 x 1.7 (m2) 60 (kg) 2.89 (m2)

Table 5.13 BMI categories for adults

BMI categories

Score

Underweight

<18.5

Normal weight

18.5–24.9

Overweight

25–30

Obesity

>30

BMI = 20.8

Waist-to-hip ratio Calculating a person’s waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) indicates how much body fat they are carrying around their abdomen compared to their hips. Increased body fat around the abdomen increases the risk of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes. Instructions are as follows. 1 Take a waist measurement at the level of the narrowest point between the lowest rib and the hips (iliac crest). 2 If there is no obvious narrowing then the measurement is taken at the mid-way between the two points. 3 Take the measurement at the end of a normal expiration, with the arms relaxed at the sides. 4 Then take the hip measurement at the Ratings level of the greatest protrusion of the Low risk buttocks. The person stands with feet together and gluteal muscles relaxed.

Increased risk of cardiovascular disease

Table 5.14 Ratings for WHR in adults

Males

Females

<0.85

<0.72

>0.9

>0.8

WHR is calculated using the formula waist girth (centimetres) divided by hip girth (centimetres).

Sum of seven skinfolds Athletes regularly have their ‘sum of seven skinfolds’ assessed to monitor their body composition. Instructions for the assessment are as follows. 1 All measurements are taken on the right side of the body. 2 All sites are measured using a tape measure and anatomical landmarks.


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3 The thumb and forefinger are used to lift the skin and body fat away from the muscle. 4 Measurements should be taken by the same tester on each occasion, at the following areas: • triceps—this is a vertical fold at the posterior midline of the upper arm • subscapular—this is a diagonal fold 2 centimetres below the shoulder blade • biceps—with the arm in anatomical position, where the arms hang by your side and your palms face forwards, a vertical fold is taken at the midpoint of the front of the upper arm (between the bony tip of the shoulder and the elbow joint) • suprailiac—this measurement is taken as a diagonal fold at the front of the hip bone • abdominal—this is a vertical fold taken 5 centimetres to the right of the centre of the belly button • front thigh—this vertical measurement is taken halfway between the knee cap and the top of the thigh (the inguinal crease) • medial calf—the vertical fold is taken on the medial side (the inside) of the calf at the maximum circumference.

Body fat Body fat can be estimated from skinfold measurements or from analysing bioelectric impedance. The bioelectrical impedance analysis relies on the resistance of an electrical flow through the body to estimate body fat percentage, fat free mass and total body water percentages. The ideal body fat percentage varies between males and females and by age. As a guide to maintain good health, women should not be leaner then 12 per cent body fat and men 5 per cent body fat. The healthy average is more like 22 per cent to 25 per cent for women and 16 per cent to 20 per cent for men. For men over 25 per cent and women over 32 per cent body fat, there is a higher occurrence of illness and disease.

Calculation of optimum weight If 23 per cent fat for women and 16 per cent fat for men are used as the desired body fat standards, then the following equations can be used to calculate your optimum body mass. Desired weight, women: weight – (weight x (per cent fat/100)) 0.77 Desired weight, men: weight – (weight x (per cent fat/100)) 0.84 For example, a 19-year-old male who has 23 per cent fat and weighs 95 kilograms would have to reduce his body mass to 87.1 kilograms to attain his goal of 16 per cent fat. The steps to work this out are as follows: 1 Divide your body fat percentage by 100. For the example provided, this would give 0.23. 2 Multiply your weight by this number. So in the example, multiply 95 by 0.23, which equals 21.85.


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3 Subtract this number from your original weight, for example, 95 minus 21.85 equals 73.15. 4 Divide this resulting number by either 0.77 for women or 0.84 for men. In our case, dividing 73.15 by 0.84 equals 87.1 kilograms. Expressed as a formula, calculations for the above example are: 95 – (95 x 0.23)/0.845 = 73.15/0.84 = 87.1 Optimum weight = 87.1 kg


Define body composition.

2

Discuss the importance of body composition to sports performance.

3

Evaluate the different body composition measurements outlined in this section in relation to: a their strengths and weaknesses b their suitability for different population groups.

4

Explain how you could reduce the measurement error in any of the body composition tests.

5

Explain why it is important not to carry excess body fat.

6

Evaluate your own body composition scores. a Were your results consistent for all tests? b Outline what you can do to improve or maintain your results.

Talent hunt for next generation of Olympians goes online The search is on to find Australia’s next gold medal hopes, with an eye on the London 2012 Olympics and beyond. With competition from other nations increasing, Australia is embarking on a world first initiative that will uncover talented hopefuls from every corner of the nation. In the lead up to the Beijing Games, the Australian Sports Commission’s (ASC) has launched an online electronic talent identification program (better known as eTID). Greg Nance, ASC Director for Sport Performance and Development, understands that for Australia to compete successfully on the world stage, we need to think differently. ‘eTID is Australia’s solution to finding talent in a way that is smarter and more efficient. Being a relatively small country we don’t have the

resources to invest in sport like the UK or China, so we need to continuously develop innovative tools that enable us to keep up with the rest of the world,’ Nance said. ‘eTID can be the start of an athlete’s journey towards elite sport. That journey could potentially include support and funding to fully nurture and develop the athlete into Australia’s next top sporting talent.’ The system was the brainchild of the ASC’s successful National Talent Identification and Development program which seeks to identify and develop Australia’s future sporting talent. eTID is a simple to use, free, online program that allows anyone (aged 12–29) to assess their sporting potential. It provides opportunities for aspiring or current athletes and even former elite athletes looking to start a

new sport. The athletes’ information is processed and if identified as ‘above average’ by eTID they are then encouraged to visit a Talent Assessment Centre (TAC) to have their results verified. The TAC system is a collaboration between the ASC and over 20 universities throughout Australia. Such a collaboration to seek out talent has never occurred before and through this method the capability to hunt for talented athletes has been greatly expanded. Once a TAC identifies that the athlete has real talent they can then enter the elite sporting system, where they could be supported with coaching, equipment and travel. We encourage all aspiring athletes to log onto eTID today and find out if they have the potential to be Australia’s next sporting champion. www.ausport.gov.au, 29 April 2009


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1

Visit . Complete the seven test protocols: standing height; body mass; arm span; 30-second push-ups; vertical jump; 40-metres sprint; 20-metres shuttle run or 1.6-kilometres run; then register and enter your results online. After you have submitted your results, you will receive feedback based on your age and gender. If you have been identified as a potentially talented athlete, it is suggested that you attend a Talent Assessment Centre for further testing and verification of results. Identify what fitness component was being measured in each of the seven tests.

2

Evaluate the selection of tests included in this talent identification process. Would you make any modifications? If so, what would you delete or add?

3

Before submitting your results, identify the fitness components where you believe you performed well. What have you based your answer on?

4

After receiving your feedback, explain it in your own words.

Skill-related components of physical fitness Having a range of skill components is critical to being able to execute a skill successfully. If an athlete exhibits the qualities needed for their chosen sport, they have a significantly better chance of success than if they did not possess these qualities.

Power Power the ability to generate force as quickly as possible. Figure 5.13

Power—a combination of strength and speed

Power can be described as the ability to apply force as quickly as possible resulting in a dynamic burst of movement. It is the measure of how much work is achieved per unit of time. To be described as a powerful athlete, you must exhibit the qualities of both strength and speed. Power is important in activities involving sprinting, throwing and jumping.

Testing power Power can be assessed using tests such as jumps for height, jumps for distance and throws for distance. Anaerobic power can also be assessed by performing a maximal 10-second bike test that measures peak power and total work. The following are two examples of power tests that can be conducted in class.

Vertical jump The vertical jump test measures leg power and is used by a number of different sports. Equipment may include a jump mat, tape measure and a marked wall or a vertec (a piece of equipment used to measure jump height). Instructions are as follows. 1 Assuming that you will use a marked wall, the students will stand side on to the wall and using their dominant arm they will reach up as high as possible to have their reach height recorded. (Their feet must be kept flat on the ground.)


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2 Each student now attempts to jump as high as possible by bending their knees, swinging their arms up and touching the wall at the top of the jump. 3 The distance of the jump is calculated as the difference between the jump height and reach height. 4 The best of three trials is recorded. As a variation to this test, a number of sports also record trials where the athlete is allowed one step into the jump. Table 5.15 Ratings for vertical jump, measurements in centimetres

Rating

Males

Females

>70

>60

Good

56–70

46–60

Average

41–55

31–45

Fair

31–40

21–30

Poor

<30

<20

Excellent

Standing backward overhead throw Start with your back facing the direction you will throw. Holding a 4-kilogram medicine ball above your head, swing your arms down so the ball goes between your legs and then swing up and throw the ball backwards over your head as far as possible. Your arms must remain straight throughout the throw. Measure from the start line to where the ball hits the ground. Your score will be the best of three trials.

Figure 5.14

Vertical jump

Table 5.16 Ratings for backward overhead throw

Rating

Males

Females

Fair

<11.4 m

<6.6 m

Average

11.4–12.6 m

6.6–9.0 m

Good

12.7–16.2 m

9.1–2.0 m

>16.2 m

>12.0 m

Excellent



1

Choose two sports that demonstrate a need for: a leg power b upper body power.

2

Outline why power is important for success in those sports.

3

Evaluate your own results in the two power tests.

Figure 5.15

Backward overhead throw

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Speed Speed is the pace at which an athlete performs a task using any part of their body. This can be a sprinter moving their legs or a cricket bowler using their arms.

Figure 5.16

Speed is the central component of sprinting

Testing speed Ideally, speed tests are conducted using electronic timing lights to increase accuracy and reliability. However, if this equipment is unavailable, you can use a stopwatch. For straight-line speed in team sports, measurements over 10–40 metres are commonly used with splits taken at each 10-metre interval. To remove the additional component of reaction time, it is best to have the student start when they are ready rather than responding to a signal. Flying 30-metre times can be calculated by subtracting the time to complete the first 10 metres from the 40-metre time. Students should have at least a 5-minute recovery between trials and take the quickest times from the two trials. Table 5.17 Ratings for 10 metres and 40 metres sprint, measurements in seconds

Rating

10-METRE SPRINT Males, age 15–17 Females, age 15–17

Excellent

40-METRE SPRINT Males, age 15–17 Females, age 15–17

<1.77

<1.90

<5.49

<5.89

Good

1.78–1.88

1.91–1.98

5.49–5.79

5.90–6.19

Average

1.89–1.99

1.99–2.08

5.80–6.10

6.70–6.50

Fair

2.00–2.10

2.08–2.18

6.11–6.41

6.51–6.81

Poor

>2.11

>2.19

>6.41

>6.81

Agility Agility is the ability to change direction rapidly with minimal loss of speed or balance.

Agility can be described as the ability to change pace and direction quickly and efficiently. This involves balance, coordination and speed. A soccer player who is dribbling the ball downfield must sidestep to manoeuvre around opposing players. Their success at such a task can be attributed to their agility. Other examples of sports that require agility include skiing, wrestling, squash and most team sports.

Testing agility When selecting an agility test to include in any fitness assessment, it is important to consider specificity. Tests vary from 10 metres with one change of direction to tests involving numerous changes of direction over a distance of 60 metres (or more). Aspects of interest within the test may include change of direction involving swerving; turning at 90 degrees; turning at 180 degrees; turning left or right; running with a ball, racquet or stick; and getting up and


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down off the ground. The more of these aspects that are included in the one test the more difficult it is to isolate specific strengths and areas for improvement. For this reason, the 5-0-5 agility test is often the test of choice.

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Figure 5.17

Soccer displays why agility is critical to success

5-0-5 Agility test Ideally, this test would be conducted with the use of electric timing lights—if this is not possible, use a stopwatch. Instructions are as follows (see figure 5.18): 1 The course is set up as illustrated in the diagram below, preferably using a line on the ground at (2). If using timing lights, they are set up at marker (3). 2 The student starts at marker (1) and when ready, sprints forward to turn at (2) by placing their left or right foot on the line and accelerating back to the start. 3 The time is recorded from when they first pass the marker identified as (3) and timing is stopped when they again pass this marker (i.e. the total distance of the test is 10 m). Three trials are recorded for each foot. Table 5.18 Ratings for 5-0-5 agility, measurements in seconds

Rating

Males, age 15–17

Excellent

10 m

5m

Females, age 15–17

<2.33

<2.66

Good

2.34–2.50

2.67–2.87

Average

2.51–2.67

2.88–3.08

Fair

2.68–3.84

3.09–3.29

Poor

>3.85

>3.30

(1)

(3)

(2)

Figure 5.18


5-0-5 agility test

1

Discuss the difference between speed and agility.

2

Choose two sports that demonstrate a need for agility. Outline why agility is important for success in those sports.

3

Select a sport and develop a sport-specific agility test for it.

4

Suggest activities that could be included in training to improve your speed and agility.

5

Identify three aspects of daily life where speed and agility would be beneficial.

Coordination Coordination is the athlete’s ability to use their physical fitness to combine all aspects of a skill to execute the skill successfully. A tennis player must coordinate different skills to complete a powerful and successful first serve, as does a basketball player going in for a lay up with defenders in the key.


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Figure 5.19

A USA basketball player shows Australia they have the coordination to make the basket count, even with tough defence

Athletes who have good coordination tend to learn new skills quickly and are less likely to sustain an injury when exercising.

Testing coordination Coordination tests are generally not included in fitness test batteries for athletes. However, a coordination test, such as the one described below, is sometimes included when assessing overall fitness and skill development.

Table 5.19 Rating for alternate hand wall toss test

Rating Excellent

Catches >35

Good

30–35

Average

20–29

Fair

15–19

Poor

<15

Alternate hand wall toss test To perform this test you need a wall, tennis ball, some tape or chalk, a tape measure and a stopwatch. Draw a line 2 metres from the wall. The student stands behind the line, throws the tennis ball at the wall with their right hand and must catch it in their left hand. They then throw the ball back against the wall with their left hand and catch it in their right hand. This sequence continues as many times as possible in 30 seconds. The best score is the highest number of successful catches in three 30-second trials.


Identify three activities that demonstrate a high level of coordination.

2

Discuss the choice of the alternate hand wall toss test as a measure of coordination.

3

Identify the limitations with testing this fitness component.

4

Outline how having a good level of coordination can be beneficial during daily life.

Figure 5.20

Balance and focus are absolutely essential to dancers

Balance Balance is the state of equilibrium that results in an equal distribution of weight, which keeps an athlete’s desired posture and composure. Balance is needed by gymnasts to perform a beam or floor routine, and by divers a 10-metre platform dive.


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Testing balance The stork balance stand test requires the students to balance for as long as possible on the ball of one foot while the other foot is placed against the inside of their knee (see figure 5. 21). The hands must remain on hips at all times. The stopwatch starts when the heel lifts off the ground and it is stopped when any of the following events occur: the support foot moves (e.g. hops); the foot loses contact with the knee of the support leg; the heel touches the ground; or the hands are lifted off the hips. Record the best of three trials. Table 5.20 Ratings for stork balance stand test, measurement in seconds

Rating

Time

Excellent

>50 or more

Good

40–50

Average

25–39

Fair

10–24

Poor

<10 or less Figure 5.21

Reaction time

The stork balance stand test

Reaction time is the delay between a stimulus and a muscle movement—the response to the stimulus. This could be the time between a starter’s gun and the athlete leaving the blocks. A faster reaction time will deliver a faster time. Reaction time can also refer to an athlete’s ability to adapt their play. If their team is in attack and suddenly the ball is stolen by the opposition, the quicker they reacts to the change of events and moves defensively, the better the chance of eliminating points scored by the opposing team. Response times can vary greatly if a decision has to be made after the stimulus. Reaction time can be improved by reducing anxiety and increasing focus on the stimulus.


Describe two situations in (a) daily life and (b) sport where balance is important.

2

Describe two situations in (a) daily life and (b) sport where reaction time is important.

3

Select one sport and discuss how power, speed, agility, coordination, balance and reaction time are linked to performance.

Testing reaction time Testing reaction time is possible with just a stopwatch and some marker cones.

Nelson choice reaction time test This test measures a person’s ability to react to stimulus. Instructions are as follows.


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1 Three marker cones are set up 6.4 metres apart in a straight line. The student stands at the middle marker facing the tester. 2 The tester holds a stopwatch in the air and suddenly points left or right as they simultaneously start the stopwatch. 3 The student responds by running to that marker as Males Females quickly as possible. The watch is stopped as the student passes the marker. 1.3 or less 1.6 or less 4 The student has 10 trials in random order, with 1.35–1.6 1.65–1.9 5 trials in each direction. The rest interval between trials is 20–30 seconds, while the interval between 1.65–2.4 1.95–2.55 ‘ready’ and the ‘signal’ should be 0.5–2 seconds. 2.45–2.7 2.6–2.85 Average all trials and compare them to the ratings in table 5.21. 2.75 or more 2.9 or more

Table 5.21 Ratings for Nelson choice reaction time, measurements in seconds

Ratings Excellent Good Average Fair Poor


Complete the Fitness Profile worksheet, which appears on the Student CD-ROM. Review your ratings for each test completed. Analyse your results for the five health-related fitness components.

2

If your results were to stay the same over the next five years, discuss the impact/influence this would have on your lifestyle.

3

Examine your results for the skill-related fitness components. Describe situations where each component is important.

4

Discuss the aspects of your fitness profile that you’d like to change over the next 12 months. Suggest how this might be achieved.

Elite-level fitness testing AFL draft

NBA draft

The following tests are conducted at the AFL draft camp (with best results in brackets): • height (201.7 cm) • body mass (99.35 kg) • sum of skinfolds • arm length (86.5 cm) • hand span (25.6 cm) • multi-stage fitness test (15.08) • 3 km time trial (9.37 min) • vertical jump—standing (83 cm) • vertical jump—with step (102 cm) • 20 m sprint with 5 m and 10 m splits (2.79 s) • repeat speed—6 x 30 m on the 20 s cycle • specific AFL agility test—approx 40 m in total distance (7.79 s) • sit and reach.

The following tests are included in the pre-NBA draft: • height • weight • arm span • standing reach • bench press: number of reps at 185 lbs (approximately 85 kg) • vertical jump—stationary and with step • three-quarters court sprint • lane agility drill.


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Evaluate the fitness components that are important in the following sport’s drafts: a AFL b NBA.

2

Identify the fitness components that are included in each sport’s testing regime

3

Are there any fitness components you listed in your answer to question 1 that are not included in the listed tests for that sport? If so, what tests would you include?

4

Choose another sport and indicate what tests you would include in its fitness assessment. Justify your selection.

Aerobic and anaerobic training Aerobic training specifically aims to enable you to use your aerobic energy system more effectively. This type of training draws on the aerobic energy system, which uses oxygen. This will result in you being able to exercise for longer without fatiguing, and to recover more quickly during rest periods. Anaerobic fitness, on the other hand, refers to your ability to perform short high-intensity efforts using the anaerobic energy system. This system involves the supply of energy to working muscles though the conversion of glycogen (stored glucose).

FITT principle Following the FITT principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type) will assist you in planning a training session or writing a fitness program. Manipulating the various components within the FITT principle allows a gradual progression and overload, so you are more likely to achieve your goals.

Frequency Frequency refers to how often something is done. For aerobic training, aim for three to six sessions per week, whereas resistance training may be prescribed for two to three times per week.

Intensity Intensity generally refers to how hard you are working. This can be measured by a percentage of your maximum heart rate, for example, 75 per cent maxHR. It can also be measured by a percentage of your maximum effort. In the gym, this might be 60 per cent 1RM for a bench press (60 per cent of the load you could lift for one repetition) or on the track, it may be 85 per cent of your 400-metres run pace. For example, if your personal best for 400 metres is 60 seconds, then you may run intervals at 69 seconds in training. MaxHR can be estimated by subtracting the person’s age from 220. Table 5.22 outlines the different training zones that can be used. T1–5 predominantly works the aerobic energy system, while the T6 zone works the anaerobic energy system.


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Table 5.22 Training zone table

Training zone

maxHR %

Perceived exertion

Blood lactate (Mm)

Predominant energy system

Lactate transition zones

T6

NA

Maximum exertion

NA

anaerobic

T5

>92%

Very hard

>6.0

aerobic

>VO2 max

T4

90–92%

Hard

4.0–6.0

aerobic

LT2**

T3

85–90%

Somewhat hard

3.0–4.0

aerobic

T2

75–85%

Light

2.0–3.0

aerobic

T1

60–75%

Very light

<2.0

aerobic

LT1*

*LT1 refers to the lactate threshold where lactate levels are just above resting levels. Sometimes referred to as aerobic threshold. **LT2 is where lactate accumulation is greater than lactate clearance. Also referred to as the anaerobic threshold.

Time Time or volume relates to how long or how much and can be measured by time (45-minute run), distance (20-kilometre bike ride) or number of sets or repetitions (26 sets in the gym).

Continuous training exercising non-stop for a minimum of 20 minutes up to several hours.

Type

Interval training completion of a number of prescribed bouts of exercise, each followed by a recovery period.

Type refers to the mode of exercise and may be classified as continuous training or interval training. If you are aiming for aerobic improvements, then the exercise choice should involve large muscle groups such as running, swimming, rowing, walking and cycling. Table 5.23 Example training sessions using the FITT principle

FITT principles

Aerobic training

Anaerobic training

Resistance training

Frequency

4 aerobic sessions per week

2 speed sessions per week with 48 hr recovery between sessions

3 all-body sessions per week with 48 hr recovery between sessions

Intensity

75–85% maxHR

100% effort with maximal recovery

Set 1 = 75% 1RM; set 2 = 80% 1RM; set 3 = 85% 1RM

Time

30-km bike ride

5 x 20 m 5 x 40 m 3 x 60 m

3 sets x 6 repetitions of each exercise with 2–3 min recovery between sets

Type

Cycling—continuous

Sprinting—intervals

8 strength exercises


Compare the relative importance of aerobic and anaerobic training to success in the following sports: a diving c gymnastics b water polo d soccer.


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2

Select a sport of your choice and design (a) an aerobic training session and (b) an anaerobic training session using the FITT principle.

3

Exercising at intensities up to 75 per cent maxHR predominantly uses fat as an energy source. Exercising between 75–90 per cent maxHR is often used for aerobic training and uses a combination of fats and carbohydrates for energy. It is suggested that 90 per cent maxHR corresponds to a person’s anaerobic threshold (lactate accumulation is greater than lactate clearance). This is the minimum intensity for anaerobic training. Calculate your: a maximum heart rate b 75 per cent maxHR c 90 per cent maxHR.

4

Examine a training session for health-related fitness compared to a fitness training session for sports performance.

5

Compare the heart rate graphs for a 20-year-old athlete during two different training sessions (see figures 5.22 and 5.23). a Calculate their maximum heart rate, 75 per cent maxHR and 90 per cent maxHR. b Estimate the amount of training time they would have spent below 75 per cent maxHR, between 75–90 per cent maxHR and above 90 per cent maxHR for each training session. c What does monitoring the athlete’s heart rate during the two sessions tell the coach about the intensity of these two training sessions?

147

HR (bpm)

Figure 5.22 Heart rate graph for training session 1

220

220

200

200

180

180

160

160

140

140

120

120

100

100

80

80

60

60

40

40 20

20 211 bpm 0 0:00:00

0:05:00

Time: 0:00:00

204 bpm 0:10:00

205 bpm

0:15:00

0:20:00

151 bpm 0:25:00

0:30:00

190 bpm 0:35:00

0 0:40:00

Time

HR:212 bpm


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HR (bpm)

200

200

180

180

160

160

140

140

120

120

100

100

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20 176 bpm

0 0:00:00

179 bpm

162 bpm

HR (bpm)


148

147 bpm 0

0:00:00

0:30:00

0:20:00

0:40:00

Time

Time: 0:21:35 HR:184 bpm

Figure 5.23

Heart rate graph for training session 2

Immediate physiological responses to training Heart rate

Maximum heart rate can be estimated at 220 minus the person’s age. Steady state when your heart rate plateaus as exercise demands are met.

Cardiovascular drift when cardiac output is kept constant in the latter parts of prolonged exercise and is achieved by a slight increase in heart rate as stroke volume slightly decreases even though workload stays the same.


Resting heart rate (HR) varies among individuals depending on their fitness level—an elite endurance athlete may have a resting heart rate as low as 28 bpm, while an unfit sedentary person’s can be as high as 100 bpm. On average, an adult’s resting heart rate will be 70–75 bpm. Just before we begin to train, our heart rate will rise in anticipation so our true ‘resting’ heart rate should be taken first thing in the morning. During maximal exercise, there is a linear increase in heart rate corresponding to the increase in exercise demands, until you reach your maximum heart rate. This pattern occurs for both trained and untrained participants. However, at any given submaximal workload, the untrained person will have the higher heart rate. The trained participant will have a sharp increase in heart rate at the beginning of exercise, which will then plateau when they reach steady state during submaximal exercise. During prolonged exercise at a constant workload, the heart rate will shift from the steady state upwards due to cardiovascular drift. When undertaking resistance training, there is an increase in heart rate the more repetitions that are performed. The cardiorespiratory fitness level of a person will determine how quickly the heart rate returns to resting levels after exercise—the fitter you are, the quicker you recover. Initially there is a large drop for both trained and untrained individuals.

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Ventilation rate Ventilation rate refers to the movement of air into (inspiration) and out of (expiration) the lungs and is more commonly known as breathing. At rest, the average person will perform 12 breaths of approximately 500 millilitres each minute resulting in a ventilation rate of 6 litres/minute. Similar to heart rate, there is an anticipatory rise in ventilation rate as we begin exercising. Once exercise actually commences, there is a second rise in ventilation rate as the rate and depth of breathing increases. This increased ventilation corresponds with increased oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. It has been suggested that, during maximal exercise, the main influence on minute ventilation is the need to remove carbon dioxide rather than the need for oxygen. For this reason, ventilation rate does not limit a person’s aerobic capacity. Maximal minute ventilation rates can reach 130 and 170 litres/ minute for untrained and trained participants. Figure 5.24 illustrates the ventilatory response to light, moderate and heavy exercise. As can be seen in the graph, once exercise ceases there is an initial rapid decline followed by a gradual return to resting ventilation rates. Figure 5.24 Pulmonary ventilation (L/min)

Start

Ventilatory response to light, moderate and heavy exercise

Stop

120 Heavy

100 80

Moderate

60 Light

40 20

Exercise

0 –2

–1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Time (min)

Stroke volume Stroke volume (SV) refers to the amount of blood pumped from the heart (left ventricle) per beat. Resting stroke volume values are approximately 50–60 millilitres for untrained participants and 80–110 millilitres for trained participants. These values then increase during exercise to approximately 100–120 millilitres for untrained, and up to 200 millilitres for trained participants. It is thought that maximal stroke volume occurs at a work intensity corresponding to 40–60 per cent maximal and then plateaus as exercise intensity increases. The large difference in maximal stroke volume amounts between trained and untrained individuals is a major contributing factor to aerobic endurance. Increased stroke volume is due to the left ventricle holding more blood and a stronger contraction, then emptying more blood per beat. There is virtually no change from resting levels when performing resistance training. Women will tend to have a slightly lower stroke volume than men.


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Cardiac output Cardiac output (Q) refers to the amount of blood pumped from the left ventricle each minute. It can be calculated as: Q (L/min) = SV (mL) x HR (bpm) Cardiac output under resting conditions is similar for trained and untrained individuals, and is approximately 5–6 litres. There is a sharp increase in cardiac output as exercise commences, and this continues to increase as workload increases in order to meet the exercising muscles’ demands for more oxygen. Interestingly, cardiac output is similar for trained and untrained individuals at submaximal workloads. This is because the trained person will have a higher stroke volume and lower heart rate compared to the untrained individual, who will have the higher heart rate and lower stroke volume. For example: An untrained participant at 50 per cent maximal effort has a heart rate of 140 and a stroke volume of 100 millilitres. Their cardiac output is 140 x 100 = 14 L/min. A trained participant at 50 per cent maximal effort has a heart rate of 100 and a stroke volume of 140 millilitres. Their cardiac output is 100 x 140 = 14 L/min. The main difference between trained and untrained individuals is their maximal cardiac output. Trained athletes have recorded maximal cardiac outputs of 40 litres compared to untrained individuals who average 20 litres. Women will tend to have a slightly lower cardiac output than men have.

Figure 5.25

Distribution of cardiac output at rest and during maximal exercise

a Rest (Q=5.8 L.min –1)

b Maximal Exercise (Q=25 L.min –1) Splanchnic (300 mL) 1%

Other (600 mL) 10% Skin (500 mL) 9%

Splanchnic (1400 mL) 24%

Other (~100 mL) 1% Skin (600 mL) 2%


Cerebral (900 mL) 3% Coronary muscle (1000 mL) 4%

Renal (1100 mL) 19%

Skeletal muscle (1200 mL) 21%

Coronary muscle (250 mL) 4%

Renal (250 mL) 1%

Cerebral (750 mL) 13%

Skeletal muscle (22,000 mL) 88%

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Figure 5.25 illustrates the distribution of cardiac output at rest and during maximal exercise. We see in this example that cardiac output rose from 5.8 litres at rest to 25 litres during maximal exercise. The main change has been the redistribution of blood from the various body organs to the skeletal muscles, which now receive 88 per cent of cardiac output (compared to 21 per cent at rest) in an attempt to meet the muscles’ demand for oxygen. As a thermoregulatory measure (in other words, to keep the body cool), there is an increase in blood flow to the skin during maximal exercise.

Lactate levels

Blood lactate (mmol . L–1)

Lactate is produced by the breakdown of carbohydrates and is cleared from the body by the muscles. Under resting conditions, its clearance rate is in balance, resulting in constant levels of 1–2 mmol/L. During exercise, lactate levels will increase as the body produces lactic acid to create energy for the muscles. The amount will vary depending on the intensity of the exercise. High-intensity exercise will create higher lactate levels. As depicted in figure 5.26, during low intensity exercise the lactate levels remain fairly stable. However, as intensity increases and the body has a greater demand for energy, the production of lactate exceeds the rate at which it can be removed. Consequently, we get an exponential rise in blood lactate accumulation. It is thought that this is due to a reliance on anaerobic glycolysis, less oxygen being available in the tissues, the recruitment of fast twitch-fibres and the reduced removal of lactate. Three elements of the lactate curve provide important information for the coach. These are the intensity or speed of exercise that corresponds to lactate threshold, the maximum amount of lactate that can be produced and the slope of the curve. Lactate threshold is the speed or intensity of exercise that results in a sustained increase in lactate concentration above resting levels. Therefore, below this workload is where someone can exercise at a steady state. For untrained people this generally corresponds to 50–60 per cent VO2max, whereas in trained endurance athletes this can be at 75–85 per cent VO2max. The maximum amount of lactate that can be produced is a reflection of a person’s anaerobic conditioning, with 400-metre runners recording maximum lactate levels of >20 mmol/L. The slope of the curve for trained Figure 5.26 Lactate athletes is shifted to the right. response to exercise Once maximal exercise ceases, lactate levels will begin to return to resting levels. Passive recovery results in 50 per cent of the lactate removed within 14 15–20 minutes, and resting levels restored after 30–60 Trained 12 minutes. However, optimal levels of lactate removal Untrained 10 occur with an active recovery at an intensity below a person’s lactate threshold. Cool-downs at 30–45 per 8 cent intensity (max VO2) for untrained exercisers and 6 between 50–65 per cent intensity for trained athletes LT 4 can return lactate concentrations to resting levels 2 LT within 20 minutes. 0

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % VO2 max


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Table 5.24 Summary of physiological responses at rest and during maximal exercise

Male, age 30 Heart rate (bpm)

AT REST untrained trained

MAXIMAL EXERCISE untrained trained

72

40

190

190

50–70

80–110

100–120

Up to 200

Cardiac output (L/min)

5–6

5–6

20

40

Ventilation rate (L/min)

6

6

130

170

Lactate levels (mmol/L)

1–2

1–2

10

20

Stroke volume (mL/beat)


In pairs, using heart-rate monitors or manual methods, take your partner’s heart rate every 2 minutes while they complete the following exercises. Then change roles and repeat. a 10-minute continuous run b Five x 30-second shuttles, aiming at as many shuttles as possible in each 30 seconds, with 90-second recovery between each work interval. c Mini soccer (5 vs. 5) for 10 minutes. In addition, take a heart rate reading 2 minutes after each activity finishes.

2

Describe your breathing before, during and after the various activities.

3

Graph the HR results.

4

Discuss the heart-rate response to the three different types of activity.

5

Suggest what the lactate graph would look like for the three different activities.

chapter review Recap Cardiorespiratory endurance refers to the circulatory and respiratory systems’ ability to supply oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide and waste products during sustained exercise. Having a good cardiorespiratory endurance will lower your chance of suffering from heart disease, blood pressure problems and other health problems. A high level of cardiorespiratory endurance is also beneficial in sports such as cross-country running, triathlon, road cycling, race walking and various team sports. Muscular strength is the ability to produce force against resistance. This is often measured by how much you can lift in one repetition. Strength training can improve our metabolism and our posture and it provides better bone strength to assist in guarding against osteoporosis. Sports such as weightlifting, gymnastics and rugby require a high degree of strength for successful performance.


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Flexibility is the ability to bend and stretch to execute the full movement of a joint. Ideally, you want to be flexible enough to perform your daily tasks with ease. If these tasks include specific sporting activities, there will be a need for greater flexibility at different joints. A greater range of movement enhances the capacity to develop force. Body composition is the percentage of bone, muscle, organs and fat in one’s body. Body fat is the main component of body composition that is monitored and it can have a detrimental effect on our wellbeing and performance. Having a high body fat percentage—particularly around the abdomen—can increase the likelihood of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes. When body fat levels become too low, the immune system can be compromised. A range of skill-related fitness components (power, speed, agility, coordination, balance and reaction time) is critical to be able to execute a skill successfully. If an athlete exhibits the qualities needed for their chosen sport, they have a significantly better chance of success than if they did not possess these qualities. Testing fitness components is a key to any training program. Providing a choice of tests is appropriate and if they are administered correctly, benefits include identifying strengths and weaknesses; identifying any imbalances in flexibility or strength; and monitoring progression.

chapter review

Muscular endurance is the ability to exert force and continue it for some time. Athletes such as marathon runners, triathletes, soccer players, football players, basketball players and swimmers all possess high levels of muscle endurance. Having high levels of muscular endurance makes it easier to perform everyday tasks, improves posture and can reduce the instance of back pain.

153

Aerobic training specifically aims at enabling you to use your aerobic energy system more effectively. This will result in you being able to exercise for longer without fatiguing, as well as being able to recover more quickly during rest periods. Anaerobic fitness, on the other hand, refers to your ability to perform short high-intensity efforts using the anaerobic energy system. Following the FITT principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type) will assist you in planning a training session or writing a fitness program. Manipulating the various components within the FITT principle allows a gradual progression and overload, so you are more likely to achieve your goals.



Current URL

Useful for …

Better health channel

www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv 2/bhcsite.nsf/pages/bmi4child

BMI calculator for adolescents

Sports coach

www.brianmac.co.uk

Fitness library with information on sport science and coaching

Rob’s home of fitness testing

www.topendsports.com

Fitness testing protocols

ExRx.net (exercise prescription on the net)

www.exrx.net/Testing.html

Fitness testing and calculators to determine ratings for various tests based on age and gender

dartfish

www.dartfish.tv

Video clips of training drills and fitness tests

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Exam-style questions 1 The following graph shows the lactate response during a 1500-metre race.

16

Series 1

mmoI/L lactose levels

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

Distance 100 metres

a Identify the stage of the race that corresponds with the runner’s anaerobic threshold. b Explain why there was an increase in lactate levels towards the end of the race. c Discuss the type of recovery strategy you would recommend to assist the removal of lactic acid. d Describe the heart-rate response during the race.

(5 marks)

chapter review

2 The following components have been identified as being important for tennis

performance. Outline one test for each component that you would recommend be included in a tennis player’s fitness-testing schedule. a aerobic fitness b agility c flexibility d power e coordination

(5 marks)

3 Using the FITT principle, design a one-week training program for a person


in their late twenties, who has not done any exercise since school.

(10 marks)

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Biomechanical principles and movement How do biomechanical principles influence movement?

6

Biomechanics combines the study of biology and mechanics to explain how the body functions as a machine. An understanding of biomechanics allows us to answer many questions about how people move. For example, what technique will enable a hockey player to shoot a ball at maximum velocity and how do we learn to produce that technique? Or how might catching a cricket ball cause injury to the hands and how do we prevent this? This chapter will introduce you to a few of the more important concepts in biomechanics and how they can be applied to human movement.

Motion Being able to describe exactly what movements occur is essential before we can begin to understand what movements athletes should be performing. We can describe movement by specifying where an object is located, how fast it is moving in a particular direction, and how quickly the speed is changing. For example, we might analyse a tennis stroke by describing the part of the court from which the tennis ball was hit, which direction it travelled, how fast it moved, how the speed of movement changed during flight, and where the ball landed in the opponent’s court. Once we know exactly how the stroke was performed, then we can start to think about how this might be improved. The ball might be struck faster to beat an opponent or more slowly to land closer to the net; it might be hit with spin to change the ball’s flight through the air; or it might be sent in a particular direction away from the opponent.

The application of linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration and momentum in movement and performance contexts Displacement and distance Knowing the position of a body and how that position changes is the first step in describing movement. The displacement of an object is its location, described with respect to some known position. For example, figure 6.1


Displacement the location of an object, measured with respect to some known point.

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Distance the path travelled by an object as it moves from one displacement to another.

illustrates the position of a netball player, playing centre, as she moves about the court during a game. At any given point in time, her displacement can be described by measuring how far she is from the centre circle in metres. The distance this player ran can be measured by following the path created by her displacement during the game. As you can see, centres run a great distance around the court, often travelling more than 8 kilometres during a match.

Figure 6.1

Displacement of a netball player

Direction of play

Movement Challenging/Defending Netball

Displacement can be measured in one, two or three-dimensions, depending on the movement being analysed. To describe the movement of a runner during a 100-metre sprint, just a single dimension is required. The body moves forward during the race and we can describe the position by stating how far the body is from the start line at any point in time. For example, Usain Bolt won the final of the men’s 100-metre sprint at the Beijing Olympics in a world-record time of 9.69 seconds. Figure 6.3a shows us a graph of Bolt’s Figure 6.2

Usain Bolt celebrates his win in the 2008 Olympic 100-metre sprint final


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Figure 6.3

Displacement, velocity and acceleration of Usain Bolt during the 2008 Olympic 100-metres sprint final

a Displacement Displacement (m)

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0

2

4

6

8

10

6

8

10

6

8

10

Time (s)

Velocity (m/s)

b Velocity 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0

2

4 Time (s)

c Acceleration

Acceleration (m/s/s)

15 10 5 0 2

4

–5 –10 Time (s)

displacement during this race, together with his velocity and acceleration that we will discuss in later sections. Only a single dimension is necessary to understand this movement as he does not move from side to side, and vertical movements do not affect his time to cover the distance. From figure 6.3a, we can see that at time zero (when the gun went off), Bolt had a displacement of zero metres because he was still at the start line. Two seconds after the start, he had a displacement of 11 metres in front of the start line; at four seconds his displacement was 33 metres; and so on, until he reached the finish line (100 metres) at 9.69 seconds. The netball displacement illustrated in figure 6.1 is an example of a two-dimensional measurement. The figure enables us to visualise how much the player moves forward and back, as well as left and right on the court. At any particular point in time, we can describe her position by stating how many metres she is located in front or behind the centre circle, and how far to the left or right. Figure 6.4 is also a two-dimensional diagram that shows the side view of a gymnast performing a handstand. Using the vertical and


Axes plural of axis. An axis is a mathematical line used to describe displacement as distance from some arbitrary zero position. If two or three axes are used, these are located perpendicular to one another so that displacement can be measured independently along each axis.

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0.3 m

Vertical axis

1.5 m

horizontal axes on the diagram, we can locate any part of the body by describing how far that body part is located from the vertical and horizontal axes. For example, the ankle is located 1.5 metres above the horizontal axis and 0.3 metres in front of the vertical axes. The hands, however, are 0 metres from the horizontal axis, but 0.25 metres in front of the vertical axes. Using diagrams like this enables us to quantify exactly what position the body is adopting at any instant in time. Specialist computer software allows sport scientists to analyse video images to determine exactly where each body segment is located in each frame of the video, and to track the movements of those body segments over time. Some movements need three dimensions to be described accurately. For example, if you wished to describe the movement of a hiker crossing the Blue Mountains, then you would need to consider changes in height, as well as movements north/south and east/west, if you were to understand the path they took. Similarly, to fully understand the movement of the tennis ball described earlier, we would need to consider how high the ball travelled, as well as what position it was forwards/backwards and left/right.


Obtain a photograph of an athlete in an interesting pose. Measure from the left and bottom of the photograph to describe the two-dimensional displacement of the major joints of the body.

2

Use figure 6.4 to measure the horizontal displacement of the ankle, hip, shoulder, ear and wrist. Explain how these points should be positioned for an optimal handstand posture.

3

Position people with stopwatches every 40 metres around a 400-metre running track. Have an athlete run 400 metres and measure the time he/she passes each 40-metre point. Sketch a displacement—time graph for the entire distance.

4

List three examples each of movements that can be best described in one dimension, two dimensions or three dimensions.

Horizontal axis

Figure 6.4

Sagittal view of a gymnast performing a handstand

Velocity and speed Speed measured by considering the total distance travelled, divided by the time taken.

Speed can be calculated using the equation: speed = distance time That is, if we measure the time taken to cover a known distance, we can calculate the speed of movement. For example, Eamon Sullivan set a freestyle world record at the Beijing Olympics with a time of 47.05 seconds for 100 metres. His average speed for this race was therefore:


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speed = distance time =

100 m 47.05 s

= 2.13 m/s When an object is moving at high speed, it does not take as much time to cover a specified distance as would a slower moving object. A tennis ball struck at high speed will not give your opponent much time to prepare to hit the ball back. Similarly, a rugby league player running at high speed leaves less time for opponents to intercept before he reaches the try line. Rearranging the speed equation demonstrates this point by showing us that: time = distance speed The term velocity is often considered to have the same meaning as speed, but in mechanical terms, it is calculated using the formula: velocity = change in displacement time While the calculation for velocity is almost the same as for speed, the difference is the same as that between displacement and distance. Speed is calculated from the distance covered, no matter what path that distance takes. Velocity, however, uses the displacement of an object and, therefore, considers only the absolute difference between the starting and finishing positions, not the actual distance covered. We will usually use the terms ‘speed’ and ‘velocity’ interchangeably. We are usually more interested in speed, but the mathematics of what we measure might give velocity instead. From now on, we will simply use the term ‘velocity’, knowing that occasionally we really mean speed instead. The winner of a running race should always be the person with the smallest time to complete the race. That is, the person with the highest velocity over the race distance will win. We need to be careful about this statement, however, because our formula for calculating velocity gives only the average velocity throughout the entire period analysed. Usain Bolt’s record time for 100 metres was 9.69 seconds, giving an average velocity of 10.32 m/s. From figure 6.3b, however, we can see that his velocity peaked at more than 12 m/s. There obviously had to be some time at the beginning of the race when his velocity built up from zero, reducing his average to 10.32. The winner of a race is not necessarily the person with the highest maximum velocity, but is the person with the highest average velocity over the entire race. This average velocity contains a reaction time at the beginning of each race when the speed is zero, before the athlete starts to move. Reducing this reaction time can have a large effect on race time without requiring any increase in running speed. If we want to understand how velocity is changing during a race, then we need to consider the instantaneous velocity of an athlete. Figure 6.3b is a graph of instantaneous velocity, showing us how the velocity continuously changed during the race. From this graph, we can see that Bolt’s speed was initially zero at the beginning of the race, and then gradually rose up to a peak of about 12.5 m/s. Interestingly, this graph also shows his speed was decreasing rapidly towards the end of the race as he started to celebrate his win. At the time, this


Velocity (or speed) may be formally defined as the ‘rate of change in displacement’. That is, velocity tells us how quickly an object changes its displacement from one location to another.

Average velocity measured by considering the change in displacement divided by the time taken.

Instantaneous velocity the velocity of an object at a specific instance in time. Instantaneous velocity can change within the period used to calculate average speed.

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160

led commentators to speculate that a time of 9.5 seconds was within reach had he been pushed for the entire race. These comments were supported by his subsequent world record of 9.58 seconds at the 2009 World Championships.


Obtain the times measured for running 400 metres in the previous section on displacement and distance. Use the total time of the run to calculate the average velocity of running.

2

Using the times measured every 40 metres around the track, calculate the velocity within each 40-metre interval. Plot a graph of velocity versus time.

3

Describe how velocity varied within the 400-metre run. Did it remain constant, or was one portion of the race faster than other portions? Explain why runners may or may not wish to run at a constant velocity.

4

Mark out a distance of 20 metres and measure how long it takes to run this distance from a standing start. a Calculate the average velocity for this run. b How do you think the maximum running speed would compare to this average value? c Suggest how you might be able to measure maximum running speed.

5

Explain why the runner who can run the fastest may not always win a race. Hint: consider why 100-metre sprinters do not also win marathon races.

Acceleration Acceleration the rate of change in velocity. This is a similar concept to velocity itself. While velocity tells us how quickly an object changes its position, acceleration tells us how quickly it changes velocity.

Average acceleration like velocity, acceleration can only be directly calculated as an average between two points in time. The formula for average acceleration is therefore the change in velocity divided by time.

When velocity is changing, we define acceleration as being the rate at which velocity (or speed) is increasing or decreasing. Acceleration may be calculated from either speed or velocity and, again, the difference between displacement and distance must be considered, but we will continue to refer just to velocity. The formula for calculating acceleration is: acceleration = change in velocity time Like velocity and speed, our calculation of acceleration is an average value over the time being analysed, and it is possible for instantaneous acceleration to vary within this period. Figure 6.3b shows us the instantaneous velocity of Usain Bolt during his run at the Beijing Olympics. Bolt’s velocity increased from 0 to 12.5 m/s over the first four seconds of the race. From this, we can calculate his average acceleration during these four seconds as: acceleration = change in velocity time =

12.5 m/s – 0 4s

=

3.125 m/s2

A large acceleration tells us that velocity is changing quickly. When a golf ball is struck, its velocity can change from zero to about 50 m/s in a time of just 0.4 seconds. This is an average acceleration of 125 m/s2; considerably higher than the 3.125 m/s2 we calculated for Usain Bolt. When acceleration is zero, this means that velocity is not changing. It is possible to be travelling


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very quickly and still have zero acceleration. Zero acceleration just means that velocity is not changing; it does not tell you what that velocity is. Figure 6.3c shows a peak acceleration much higher than the 3.125 m/s2 we calculated earlier for average acceleration. This is because, as with velocity, there was a period before Bolt started to move when his acceleration was zero. His peak acceleration occurred just after he commenced moving, while his feet were still in contact with the starting blocks giving a large force to accelerate him forward. After leaving the blocks, he continued to accelerate until reaching top speed, but the faster he went the more difficult it was to keep accelerating. His acceleration therefore declined after the initial peak. The average acceleration, 3.125 m/s2, is the average of all acceleration values in the period from zero to four seconds. At around 4.4 seconds, Bolt’s velocity reached a maximum point when it was no longer increasing. At this time, we see the instantaneous acceleration was zero; that is, velocity was not changing at this point. After this time, the acceleration was often negative. When a person is moving forward with positive velocity, negative acceleration implies that their velocity is decreasing, so they were slowing down. The small burst of positive acceleration between 7.1 and 8.3 seconds meant that Bolt’s velocity increased again for a time, but there was quite a rapid slowing after this, indicated by the large magnitude of negative acceleration.


Have a look at the acceleration graph in figure 6.3c. Explain what is happening at the times when acceleration is greatest, when acceleration is negative, and during the period from 5–6 seconds when acceleration is approximately zero.

2

Explain why rapid acceleration is much more important for a 100-metre sprinter than it is for an 800-metre runner.

3

A tennis ball being struck by a racquet experiences much higher acceleration than does a space rocket during lift off. Explain how the rocket can achieve such high velocity when it has less acceleration.

Momentum Once an object starts to move, it has a tendency to keep on moving. This property of objects is known as momentum. Momentum may be calculated using the formula: momentum = mass x velocity For example, a discus with a mass of 2 kilograms and a velocity of 20 m/s will have a momentum of 40 kg m/s. The faster an object moves, or the more mass possessed by that object, the greater the momentum. Objects possessing a large amount of momentum can be very difficult to stop moving. Some rugby players who have a large mass, and who can run very fast, become very difficult to stop as they charge towards the try line. Smaller players have less mass, and hence they must run more quickly to generate the same momentum. If a player does not have as much momentum, they become easier to stop in a tackle. Smaller players must rely more


Momentum sometimes defined as the ‘quantity of motion’. Momentum is calculated from the mass of an object multiplied by its velocity. Mass measured in kilograms, mass refers to the amount of matter in your body. It can affect the motion of an object. We must always be very careful to define mass differently from weight.

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on speed, both to avoid being caught in a tackle and to generate enough momentum to keep moving if they are caught. The principle of momentum becomes important any time you wish to stop a moving object. For example, catching a ball requires you to halt the momentum of that ball. A cricket ball travelling at the same speed as a tennis ball can be more difficult to catch. This is because the greater mass of the cricket ball produces more momentum, which must be brought under control during the catch. Similarly, a ball hit with more speed will be more difficult to control because of its momentum. Later in this chapter, in the Applying force to an object section, we will see how forces must be applied to increase or decrease the momentum of an object.


A golf ball can travel at speeds up to about 50 m/s, while a cricket ball rarely travels faster than 40 m/s. Find out the mass of these two ball types and estimate the momentum of each ball travelling at these speeds.

2

Measure the mass and maximum running speed of your class members. Calculate the peak momentum for each person and discuss the implications for rugby tackling.

3

Experiment with throwing and catching balls with different masses and speeds (for example, a ping-pong ball, tennis ball, basketball and a medicine ball). Discuss the effect of momentum on the difficulty of catching each ball.

Balance and stability Placing the body in a position where it is balanced and unlikely to fall over is an essential component of many activities. Sometimes, balance itself is the overall goal of a task. For example, successful performance of a handstand requires gymnasts to adopt a certain posture and to remain stationary in this position for two seconds (dependent on specific rules being applied). Other tasks, such as throwing, kicking or striking a ball may not have balance as a direct goal, but require a stable body position from which to execute the desired movement. This section will introduce you to some of the major principles involved in maximising the body’s stability.

Centre of gravity

Centre of gravity the point at which the weight of a body is balanced above, below and on either side.


Gravity exerts a force on our body that pulls us down towards the Earth. This will be discussed in much more detail later on in the Force section. Gravity acts on all parts of our body, in proportion to the weight of each body part. Therefore, gravity exerts a larger force on our head than it does on our fingers, because of the larger weight of the head. Our centre of gravity is a spot within the body where gravity is balanced above, below and on either side. For objects with symmetrical distribution of weight, such as a ball or wooden ruler, the centre of gravity is right in the middle of the object. Most objects, however, have one end that is heavier than the other, so the centre of gravity will be located closer towards the heavy end. For all objects, regardless of weight distribution, the centre of

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gravity is the balance point of that object. For example, you can balance a 30-centimetre ruler on your finger at the 15-centimetre mark, the middle of the ruler. If you place an eraser on one end of the ruler, however, this moves the centre of gravity towards that end, and you need to slide the ruler along your finger to find the balance point. Humans have more weight in their head and chest than they do in their feet. Therefore, the centre of gravity is slightly higher than half the height, usually about 55–60 per cent of standing height. This will vary somewhat between individuals, depending on factors such as leg length, upper body development, and the distribution of muscle and fat within the body. Because we are fairly symmetrical left to right, the centre of gravity is in the midline of our body when viewed from the front.

The location of the centre of gravity can be moved by changing your posture. Squatting down will obviously bring the centre of gravity closer to the floor. Lifting your arms will raise the centre of gravity by about four or five centimetres. Lifting just one arm to the side will move the centre of gravity away from your midline by a couple of centimetres. Most of the time we can imagine the centre of gravity being located about in the middle of our pelvis.


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Figure 6.5

The centre of gravity for different objects

Figure 6.6

Centre of gravity moves with body position

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Obtain a number of different sporting implements, such as hockey sticks, tennis racquets and so on, and balance them to locate their centre of gravity.

2

Obtain some photographs of sportspeople. Try to find photos where the person is adopting an interesting posture, such as a swim start, a high jumper crossing the bar or a dancer performing an arabesque. For each photo, estimate the location of the centre of gravity.

3

Balance a Barbie doll or a similar toy figure on your hand and locate its centre of gravity. Explain why the location of Barbie’s centre of gravity may not be in exactly the same place as yours. Consider such factors as body composition, leg length compared to body, and the relative size of different body parts.

Line of gravity an imaginary line drawn vertically downwards from the centre of gravity.

Line of gravity The line of gravity can be imagined as a line drawn vertically downwards from your centre of gravity. When we come to consider factors affecting the stability of the body, an important consideration will be where this line of gravity touches the ground. As illustrated in figure 6.7, you can usually imagine this as a line down from the pelvis, unless the body is in quite an extreme posture.

Base of support Figure 6.7

Line of gravity and base of support


While we are standing on two feet, our base of support is determined by an area enclosed by the outline of the feet. Figure 6.7 shows that, as you move your feet further apart, the size of the base of support increases from left to right. The use of crutches further increases our base of support, as this base is determined by the area enclosed by whatever is in contact with the ground, shown in figure 6.8. Depending on where the crutches are positioned, the base of support can be increased in size either forwards and backwards (figure 6.8b), side-to-side (figure 6.8a), or both (figure 6.8c). For a person to maintain a stable position, the line of gravity must pass through the base of support. If the line of gravity falls outside the base of support, it is impossible to be balanced and we must either adopt a new posture or else fall over. If we are in a position where the line of gravity is very close to the edge of the base of support, then we feel at risk of falling over because there is very little room to move without the line of gravity passing outside the base of support. A position close to the edge is problematic because we are never exactly stationary. We are always moving slightly forward and back, left to right, and this normal level of movement risks passing the line of gravity outside the base if we stray too close to the edge.

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Figure 6.8

Line of gravity and base of support

a

b

c

Figure 6.9

A stable posture requires the line of gravity to be located within the base of support

a

b

c

balance retained

balance precarious

balance lost

Several approaches may be used to increase the stability of the body. First of all, a larger base of support will increase stability. This is because more movement is allowed before the line of gravity gets close to the edge of the base of support. Lowering your body will also increase stability. With a lower centre of gravity, the body can tilt more from side to side without the line of gravity passing outside the base of support. Finally, increased mass will increase stability. A larger mass tends to remain steadier and requires more force to be accelerated. This point is explained later in the section Applying force to an object.


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Available range of motion for line of gravity Total base of support

Figure 6.10

Athlete widening the base of support and moving the line of gravity towards the direction of an anticipated force

Adopting a stable posture often requires us to maintain this stability in the face of some external force that might knock us over. This could be a deliberate attempt to make us unstable, such as a rugby tackle or could result from some other source of force, such as catching a ball. Whenever a force is applied to our body, we tend to get pushed in the direction of that force. If this moves our line of gravity outside the base of support, then we will fall over. However, there are strategies to minimise this effect. If we move our line of gravity closer to the edge of the base of support, in the direction that we expect the force will be applied we will become more stable. Moving your line of gravity towards the force before it makes contact will allow more movement to occur after the force is applied without us being pushed outside the base of support. The benefits of this can be even greater if you make your base of support larger and set your base of support in the direction from which the force is expected. Doing this allows even more room for the line of gravity to move after impact. Figure 6.10 illustrates an example of an athlete maximising his stability in anticipation of an external force. The athlete has increased the size of his base of support in the direction of the applied force, and moved his line of gravity towards the edge of the base of support where he expects the force to occur.


Discuss why your feelings of stability change when you stand on one leg instead of two, when you close your eyes or when you lift your heel off the ground.

2

Sketch a view from above of an elderly person using a walking frame and identify the base of support for the person. Explain why the walking frame provides more stability than the use of a walking stick or no aid at all.

3

Obtain three wooden blocks with approximately 10 centimetres square base, but different heights (10 centimetres, 20 centimetres and 30 centimetres). Place all three blocks onto a desk and gradually lift one edge of the desk until the blocks fall over. In which order do the blocks fall over and why? Explain with respect to line of gravity and base of support.

4

Consider the diagram opposite and discuss whether you think this man could remain balanced in this position.


Figure 6.11 Gymnast in a balance position

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Fluid mechanics Flotation

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Buoyancy an upward force on the body experienced when the body is immersed in water. The effect of buoyancy is to reduce the apparent weight of the body by opposing gravity.

When a body is immersed in water, the water exerts an upwards force on Archimedes’ Principle the the body that we call flotation or buoyancy. The principles of flotation size of the buoyant force is were described more than 2000 years ago by a Greek mathematician named equal to the weight of water Archimedes. Archimedes’ Principle states that when a body is immersed in displaced by the body. This means that to maximise the water, the body experiences an upwards force equal to the weight of water buoyant force, as much of the displaced by the body. You can see this effect when you get into a bath. body as possible should be kept The water level in the bath rises because your body takes up space that was below water. previously occupied by the water. The water level in the bath rises, but gravity tries to pull this water back down again. Your body then experiences an upwards force as the water tries to squeeze you out of the way to get back Figure 6.12 to where it was. Weight and buoyancy Whether or not you float depends on the relative size of the buoyant force a compared to your body weight. If the buoyant force is greater than or equal to your weight, then you will float. The size of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the water displaced. This means that, whatever volume of your body is b underwater (figure 6.12b), there will be an upwards force proportional to this volume. This point is very important when people are learning to float on their backs. There Buoyant force is a strong temptation to try to lift your face clear of the water, but this reduces the volume of your body underwater. c Weight of swimmer Therefore, the volume of water displaced is reduced and, consequently, the buoyant force becomes less. Keeping as much of your body under water as possible will maximise the amount of water displaced, Buoyant force thus increasing the buoyant force and making it easier to float. Taking a large breath of air makes it easier to float. This is because inflating your lungs causes the body’s volume to increase, increasing the amount of water displaced and, therefore, Density calculated from the increasing the buoyant force. Exhaling all the air from your lungs reduces the mass of an object divided by its volume. Water has a body’s volume, thus reducing buoyancy and making it more likely that you density of 1 kg/L because will sink. 1 litre of water has a mass The ease with which your body floats depends on the density of your of 1 kg. If an object is less body. Having a higher density means there is more mass, and therefore, dense than water then it will float, as the weight of water weight, packed into a given volume. This can make the weight force larger displaced will be greater than than the buoyant force and cause the body to sink. Certain body tissues have body weight; meaning the relatively high or low densities when compared to water. Fat has a density buoyant force will be larger than body weight. An object less than water and therefore, people with a higher proportion of fat tend to denser than water will sink float more easily. Bone, on the other hand, has a higher density and therefore, because the buoyant force will is more likely to sink. The legs have large, strong bones and therefore, are be less than body weight.


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relatively dense and tend to sink. Muscle tissue has a very similar density to water. Consequently, heavily muscled people do not necessarily sink more easily than the rest of us; the percentage of fat in the body has a much larger effect on whether you float or sink.


Explain why keeping more of your body underwater will increase the size of the buoyant force acting on the body.

2

Imagine a man who has exhaled all his air and is standing on a set of scales underwater. Would the reading on the scales be more, less or the same as when he is on land? Why?

3

In the previous question, the man had exhaled all his air. What effect would having a lung full of air have on the scale reading?

4

Imagine two people with equal body weight, but one person has a larger percentage of fat in their body than the other. If these people were standing on the scales underwater, which person would record the largest reading and why? (Note: this technique is sometimes used in laboratories by exercise scientists and nutritionists to estimate a person’s body fat.)

5

Explain why children are less likely to perform a successful back float if trying to lift their face clear of the water.

Centre of buoyancy Centre of buoyancy the point in the body where the amount of volume under the water is equally distributed on either side. The centre of buoyancy tends to be higher in your body than the centre of gravity, because of the effects of dense legs at one end and low-density lungs towards the other end.


Centre of gravity is the balance point of the body, where weight is equally distributed on either side. We use this point to illustrate the force of gravity (i.e. weight) on diagrams of the body. A concept related to this is the centre of buoyancy. This is the point where all the volume of the body underwater is distributed evenly on each side. Because the buoyant force is caused by the volume of water displaced, the centre of buoyancy becomes the point where the buoyant force is located as shown in figure 6.12. The centre of gravity is usually located slightly lower in the body (i.e. closer to the feet) than is the centre of buoyancy, as you can see in figure 6.12c. This is because the lungs are in the top half of the body, displacing a relatively large volume compared to weight (i.e. low density), while the legs are relatively dense because of their strong bone structure. This means that there is more volume per unit weight in the upper part of the body, and less volume for a given weight in the lower part. When a body is suspended in water, it will rotate until the centre of buoyancy and the centre of gravity are aligned, one above the other. You can imagine this effect by looking at figure 6.12c and imagining a cutout figure of the body. Pull downwards on the centre of gravity, and upwards on the centre of buoyancy, and the body will rotate. Once the two points are aligned as in figure 6.13, the two forces will hold the body in that position. Because the centre of buoyancy is higher in the body than the centre of gravity, the legs usually sink when people try to float on their back. There are several strategies that swimming teachers use to help people float more horizontally. One approach is to have the swimmer bend their knees, as shown in figure 6.13a. This moves the centre of gravity up towards the

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head and therefore can bring the centre of gravity into line with the centre of buoyancy. Similarly, extending the arms will also move the centre of gravity up towards the centre of buoyancy. A third technique can be to lift the fingers and possibly the hands out of the water (figure 6.13b). Because the centre of buoyancy is where the volume of water being displaced is balanced, lifting the fingers out of the water means that they are no longer contributing to buoyancy. This moves the centre of buoyancy in the body down towards the centre of gravity. Caution must be used in this approach because, by reducing the volume of the body under water, the total force of buoyancy is also reduced. Usually, encouraging swimmers to keep their lungs full of air, and to hold their head down with their ears under water, will provide enough buoyancy to balance the loss of floatation from the hands and keep them afloat.

a

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Buoyant force

Weight force

b Buoyant force

Weight force

c Buoyant force

Weight force Figure 6.13

Centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity are aligned during a stationary float


Take a photocopy of figure 6.12c, cut out the figure and attach some cotton to the points where gravity and buoyancy act on the body (try to attach the cotton right at the tip of each arrow). Pull on the cotton in the direction of the two forces and explain what happens to the figure.

2

Repeat the above experiment using figure 6.13a, where the buoyant force and weight forces are aligned above one another. Now what happens when you pull on the two pieces of cotton?

3

Use figure 6.13b to explain why lifting the hands clear of the water will shift the centre of buoyancy towards the feet.

4

We have explained that most people have their centre of buoyancy higher in the body than their centre of gravity, so that it is difficult to float horizontally. In relation to buoyancy, explain the benefit kicking the legs gives while swimming freestyle or backstroke.

Fluid resistance In the field of biomechanics, air is also considered to be a fluid, like water. Water is much more dense than air and, therefore, has a greater effect on our movements, but the same principles can be applied to examine the effect of these fluids on movement. When we move through a fluid (air or water), we have to push that fluid aside as we move through it. This creates resistance on the body that tends to slow our movements. This is often called a drag force.


Drag this term is used interchangeably with ‘resistance’ in biomechanics. Drag increases with the density of the fluid and in proportion to the square of velocity. Other effects on total drag are best considered by referring to the individual components; surface drag, form drag and wave drag.

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Fluid resistance a force that opposes movement through a fluid. Surface drag caused by friction between the surface of an object and the fluid surrounding it. A larger surface area or a rougher surface will increase the amount of surface drag present. Form drag determined by the size and shape of an object. Objects with lower form drag have a narrower profile and a tapered shape at the back. Wave drag produced when an object moves near the boundary between two different types of fluid (e.g. water and air). Friction a force present between two objects that are sliding past, or tending to slide past each other. Friction acts in a direction opposite to the movement of the objects, tending to oppose the movement.

Cavitation resistance caused by an air pocket behind the object being sucked along in its wake. This same effect also occurs in water, where fluid is dragged along behind an object.

The amount of fluid resistance is proportional to the density of fluid, so there is obviously much more resistance moving through water (density = 1 kg/L) compared to air (0.0012 kg/L). Fluid resistance increases in proportion to the speed of movement squared (F v2). This means that if speed doubles from 1 metre to 2 metres per second, the amount of resistance will be quadrupled. If speed increases four times, the drag force will be increased by a factor of sixteen. This means that resistance is much more important for fast movements than it is for slow ones. For example, track cyclists go to great lengths to reduce resistance on their bikes and helmets, but marathon runners pay little attention to the aerodynamic nature of their clothing. Fluid resistance is caused by three different effects: surface drag, form drag and wave drag. The first type, surface drag, is caused by friction between an object and the air or water around it. The amount of surface drag is caused by the density of fluid, the speed of movement, the smoothness of the object and the amount of surface area in contact with the fluid. A rougher surface increases the friction between the body and fluid, raising the amount of drag force to be overcome, while a smoother surface decreases the friction. Rowing boats, for example, are highly polished, creating a smooth surface that water can flow past easily. Synthetic materials were adopted for swimsuits quite early on to reduce the surface drag associated with older woollen swimwear. Form drag is the second type of resistance acting on objects moving through a fluid. This resistance is determined by the shape (or form) of an object, the size of the object and how the fluid moves around this shape. When an object moves through fluid, there is usually some air pocket at the back that is sucked along behind the object (figure 6.14b). This pocket forms because the object pushes air (or water) out of the way as it moves through, but the fluid cannot change direction quickly enough to get in behind the object and fill up the cavity. For this reason, the effect is often referred to as cavitation. Providing a tapered shape at the back of the object leads the fluid flows around either side of the object to join at the back, thus reducing

Figure 6.14

The effect of shape on cavitation and form drag

a

b


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the size of the cavity and reducing the form drag (figure 6.14a). This tapered shape is typical of all objects required to travel at high speed with low fluid resistance as shown in figure 6.15. The amount of form drag can change depending on how the fluid flows past the object. Sometimes a slightly rougher surface on an object can reduce form drag by helping the fluid to stay close to the object as it flows around, and thus diminishes the amount of cavitation. Figure 6.16 illustrates the effects of dimples pressed into the surface of a golf ball. When air flows past a smooth ball, it tends to keep moving in a straight line (laminar flow) and thus creates a large air pocket at the back. The effect of dimples is to trip the air as it moves past so that it starts to move in different directions in a chaotic fashion (turbulent flow). Because the air is already changing direction through its turbulent flow, it does not tend to remain travelling in a straight line and can change direction to fill up the cavity at the rear of the ball. This reduces the amount of form drag. The effect of smoothness on fluid resistance can be confusing to us because roughening an object will always increase the amount of surface drag, but can sometimes reduce the amount of form drag, if it substantially reduces the amount of cavitation. Dimples reduce the amount of air resistance on a golf ball only because the resulting reduction in form drag is greater than the increase in surface drag.

Turbulent boundary layer

Separation

Smooth sphere

Thick wake = large form drag

Golf ball

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Figure 6.15

Objects designed for low form drag possess a similar tapered shape at the back to reduce cavitation

Laminar flow fluid moving with laminar flow travels in straight lines, like flat sheets. Laminar flow of a fluid will result in that fluid tending to remain travelling in a straight line as it passes an object, potentially increasing the size of the air pocket behind the object. Turbulent flow fluid having a turbulent flow moves chaotically in many directions. Because the fluid is already changing directions frequently, it tends to fill in behind an object moving past and therefore, reduces the size of the air pocket.

Separation

Thin wake = small form drag

Laminar boundary layer

Figure 6.16 Dimples reduce a golf ball’s form drag by reducing the amount of cavitation behind the ball


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Frontal area the area of the object viewed head on in the direction of movement.

Figure 6.17

Increased frontal area during the recovery phase of breaststroke swimming increases form drag

a

b

Form drag is also determined by the frontal area of an object in the direction of movement. Frontal area can be imagined as the area of a photograph taken from directly in front of the object. Narrower objects will have a smaller cavity behind them and therefore, will have reduced form drag. This requirement is what makes rowing boats so narrow and therefore, easy to tip over. If a boat was widened for increased stability, this would increase the amount of form drag and, therefore, the effort required for rowing. Similarly, flexing the legs during the recovery phase of breaststroke swimming greatly increases the frontal area, causing increased form drag and causing the body to slow down at this time (figure 6.17a). Breaststrokers are trained to maintain a streamlined position for as long as possible to minimise the drag on the body (figure 6.17b). The third type of fluid resistance is called wave drag. This occurs at the interface between different fluid types, usually water and air. Swimming along on the surface of the water causes waves to arise as the body interacts with the water. These waves greatly increase the amount of drag present. The amount of wave drag present at any time is a complex relationship between the shape, length and speed of an object. In the 1950s, breaststroke swimmers discovered they could minimise the wave drag by swimming under the water instead of on top of it. This increased their speed through the water, but greatly reduced the appeal of races for spectators. After the 1956 Olympic games, breaststroke rules were changed so that only one stroke at the beginning of each lap can be performed underwater.


The world record for a marathon (42.195 kilometres) was set by Haile Gebrselassie at the Berlin marathon in a time just under 2 hours and 4 minutes. The record for the 4000-metre individual pursuit in cycling was set in Beijing by Steven Burke in a time of 4 minutes and 21 seconds. Calculate the average velocity of the two athletes. Use this velocity to estimate the relative difference in air resistance expected if the only difference between the events was the velocity (fluid resistance is proportional to the square of velocity). Explain why cyclists spend so much more effort on reducing air resistance than do runners.

2

Discuss why marathon runners don’t wear skin-tight clothing to gain even slight benefits in reducing their air resistance. Hint: this answer has nothing to do with mechanics, but deals with the physiology of running.


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3

Make two sketches of a cyclist; with and without an aerodynamic helmet (figure 6.15b). Draw lines of air flow over your pictures and explain how the helmet reduces form drag.

4

Racing cyclists bend forward over the handlebars, rather than sitting upright in a more comfortable posture. Explain why they would do this and how this might reduce resistance.

5

Consider the photographs of two cars below. Discuss how the shape of the two cars at the rear affects the amount of fluid resistance experienced.

Force A force pushes or pulls an object, tending to make it change its position. Forces are often applied through direct contact, when one object pushes against another. If you squeeze a cricket ball, for example, a force is applied to the ball because your fingers cannot pass through the ball. The contact force exists between the hand and the ball to keep the ball and fingers from merging. Direct contact between objects is not required for all forces, however. Gravity is a force of attraction between any two objects, and the gravity we experience on Earth is the pull of our body towards the Earth. No contact is required, because gravity still exists when we jump into the air. Forces are measured using units called Newtons (N). While these units are not in common usage in the community, we can imagine how big they are by considering that a force of 10 Newtons is about the amount of force required to lift a mass of 1 kilogram. In this section we will investigate how the body generates forces to move objects, including itself, and what effect forces can have when applied to the body.

How the body applies force There are several ways in which you can apply force to another object. The simplest is just to use your body weight. In mechanics, weight is a force, exerted by gravity, which pulls you downwards towards the Earth. The weight of an object is equal to the mass of that object multiplied by acceleration due to gravity. On Earth, acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2, which we


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Figure 6.18

Two cars with different rear-end shapes

Newton the standard measure of force, abbreviated using a capital N. Named after Sir Isaac Newton, a seventeenth-century mathematician and physicist, one Newton (1 N) is the amount of force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. Weight a force equal to your body mass multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity. In mechanics, weight is a force measured in Newtons, never a mass measured in kilograms. Acceleration due to gravity the rate of acceleration experienced by an object falling under the influence of gravity. On Earth, the acceleration due to gravity is approximately 9.8 m/s2. It varies slightly with latitude and height above sea level but the change is very small, with gravity on top of Mount Everest being only 0.3 per cent less than that at sea level. The value 9.8 will be correct to a single decimal place anywhere on Earth.

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can round up to 10 m/s2. Therefore, weight in Newtons can be estimated by multiplying your mass in kilograms by 10 (use 9.8 if you want to be more precise). For example, if you have a mass of 60 kilograms then your weight is 584 N, or approximately 600 N. To avoid confusion later on, you should always be careful to think of weight as a force, measured in Newtons, while your mass is measured in kilograms. If you want to generate extra force with your body, rather than just flopping down under the influence of weight, then you need to contract your muscles. Muscles are specialised tissues within the body that are able to change their length by actively shortening. Because the muscles connect to bones that act as levers, when a muscle shortens it applies a force to the bones it connects with. This force can then be transmitted through the body to external objects. Training the body to generate higher forces, therefore, involves training the muscles to produce more force. The final way we can apply forces is by building up momentum within the body. Once the body has momentum, a force is required to stop the body from moving. For example, if you rest a hammer on top of a nail and press down, you can generate some force through the weight of the hammer and exert some additional force by contracting your muscles. If you swing the hammer towards the nail, however, extra force is produced from the momentum of the hammer, allowing you to drive a nail through solid timber. Similarly, if you wish to apply large forces while kicking a ball, increasing the momentum of the leg during the swing will increase force of impact because of the greater momentum of the leg. Another example of this is hitting a hockey ball. During the swing, the stick acquires momentum that increases force on the ball during impact. Performing a push, however, does not generate as much force because you are relying only on muscle forces during the push, without the additional force from the momentum of the stick being built up during a swing. Whenever two surfaces rub past one another, they produce friction. The amount of friction between objects is determined by two factors. The first factor is the amount of force holding the two objects together. If you sit in a chair and gently slide your foot across the ground, the force holding the foot against the ground is very small. Consequently, the friction force between your foot and the ground is very small. Once you stand up and put weight on your feet, this weight exerts a large force pushing your foot down onto the ground. Now that the force holding your foot onto the ground is much larger, the amount of friction will be correspondingly greater. Depending on the floor surface and what sort of shoes you are wearing, you might not be strong enough to slide your foot backwards along the ground if all your weight is on the foot. Simply reduce the contact force, however, by taking more of your weight on the other leg, and you will find it easier to slide the foot once again. The second factor affecting the amount of friction is determined by the nature of the two surfaces in contact. Some surfaces are naturally more resistant to sliding past each other. For example, basketball shoes have a particular rubber compound that seems to stick to wooden floors. These generate a large amount of friction between the shoe and floor, enabling players to control their movements and change direction more easily. If you take the same basketball shoes outside onto the grass, you will find they are not so ‘grippy’. It is not the shoe by itself that determines how much friction is present; it is the combination of the shoe and floor together.


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Basketball shoes produce high friction on a wooden floor, but not so much on grass. In contrast, football boots produce relatively high friction on grass, but can be very slippery when walking on concrete. Hiking boots may not be perfect on any surface, but are designed to provide reasonable friction across a range of different ground surfaces. Producing large friction forces, therefore, requires you to have two surfaces in contact that produce high friction properties, and for you to hold the two surfaces together with a large amount of force. For example, if you want to hold onto a tennis racquet without it slipping from your hand, then you need to squeeze hard with your fingers to apply a force holding the hand in contact with the racquet. You also need to make sure the handle of the racquet is not slippery against your hand. This can be done by taping the grip with appropriate material that doesn’t slip, making sure your hand isn’t wet from sweat which makes the grip more slippery, or by applying some other material, such as rosin powder between the grip and your hand. There are products available that can be sprayed onto the grip surface to maximise friction and, therefore, control.


Calculate your weight in Newtons.

2

Use the concept of momentum to explain how a large force is applied to a football when it is kicked.

3

Do you think you could apply more force to a volleyball by throwing it, or by performing a serve? Hint: which action feels like there is more force applied to your hand?

4

Many sporting implements like cricket bats and hockey sticks can be chosen with different masses. Use the concept of momentum to explain why a larger mass might be able to impart more force onto a ball.

5

Still thinking about momentum, and remembering that momentum is mass times velocity, discuss why a stick with more mass will not always apply a larger force.

6

Obtain a collection of different shoe types such as a tennis shoe, dress shoe, football boot and so on; a mass of at least 2 kilograms that can be placed in the shoes; and a spring balance that can be attached to the shoes by hooking through the laces. Try dragging the shoes across a range of different surfaces (e.g. wood, grass, concrete) and measure how much force is required to drag each shoe/surface combination. Discuss why more force is required in different circumstances.

7

Repeat the previous experiment with more or less weight in the shoes. Explain why the amount of friction varies. Note: I have deliberately used the word ‘weight’ in this question— why?

How the body absorbs force While your body applies forces to objects, you also allow objects to apply forces to you. When a force is applied, your body deforms in response to that force. How your body absorbs the force determines how much deformation occurs and this can influence your risk of injury. Further, if the forces involved are very large, then they become more difficult to control, increasing the difficulty of performing a task successfully.


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Impulse calculated as force multiplied by time. For example, a force of 100 Newtons applied for a time of 2 seconds produces an impulse of 200 N s.

When a moving object, such as a ball, hits your body, it applies a force to your body. The amount of force applied depends on the momentum of the moving object and on the amount of time over which the force is applied. The product of force and time is called impulse. When a moving object hits your body and comes to a halt, the impulse (Newton seconds, or N s) required to halt the object is equal to the momentum (kg m/s) of that object. For example, a ball of mass 0.5 kilograms travelling at 20 m/s will have a momentum of 10 kg m/s, so an impulse of 10 N s must be applied to halt the ball. This impulse of 10 N s could be produced by a force of 10 Newtons applied for 1 second, or equally by a force of 100 Newtons applied for only 0.1 seconds. In both cases, the impulse is the same, and so the ball will be brought to a halt completely, but the amount of force involved is very different. A force of 100 Newtons is obviously more difficult to control and more likely to cause an injury. Successful control of collisions with the body, therefore, requires the body to increase the duration of time over which the force is applied. When catching a cricket ball, for example, players keep their fingers, wrists and arms relatively loose before impact so that the hands move backwards at impact, increasing the duration of impact. This can greatly reduce the force of impact compared to a stiff-armed catch, reducing the force against the hand and reducing the likelihood of the ball bouncing straight back out of the hands. Baseball catchers achieve the same effect using a large padded glove. When the ball contacts the glove the padding compresses, bringing the ball to a halt more gradually and, therefore, reducing the average amount of force required to generate the required impulse. This same principle can be applied whenever padding is used to reduce impact injuries. High-jump landing mats, running shoes and bicycle helmets are all designed to compress on impact, increasing the deceleration time and thus reducing the amount of force required. The foam in bicycle helmets allows this compression, and is therefore the most important component of a helmet. The hard plastic shell over a helmet provides some protection for the foam and gives a more attractive appearance, but does not directly affect the safety performance because it does not compress.


With a partner, throw and catch a basketball and a medicine ball at different speeds. Take note of the amount your hands move while you are catching the two balls at different speeds. Discuss why the amount of hand movement differs.

2

Try to find places where you can drop from a height of about 1 metre and land onto concrete, grass and a jumping matt. Take note of the feeling as you land in each case. Discuss how much force your body must absorb in each case and why. Note: if your body drops the same height onto each surface, then your momentum at the time of impact should be the same in each case.

3

What movements did you perform with your legs as you dropped onto concrete in the previous question? Why was this movement useful?


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Applying force to an object When a force is applied to an object, movement will result—unless there is some other force also present to prevent movement. The response of objects to applied forces was described in detail by Isaac Newton. In the seventeenth century, Newton developed three laws that governed the motion of objects in response to applied forces. His first law of motion, the law of inertia, explains that a stationary object will remain stationary until a force causes it to accelerate. Similarly, once it is moving, it will tend to keep moving in a straight line unless a force causes it to slow down or change direction. The amount of acceleration experienced in response to an applied force is determined by the amount of force applied, and by the mass of the object. This is Newton’s second law of motion. If twice as much force is applied, then twice as much acceleration will result. Mass has an inverse relationship with acceleration; if the amount of mass is doubled, the acceleration will be halved. Mass, therefore, is a measure of the object’s inertia. Objects with a large mass have a large amount of inertia, meaning they are difficult to accelerate; while objects with a small mass need only a small force to be accelerated. Newton’s second law is often written as a formula: a = F m This formula allows us to easily quantify the amount of acceleration resulting from an applied force. If a force of 120 Newtons is applied to a person of mass 60 kilograms, the resulting acceleration will be 2 m/s2. If a ball of mass 0.2 kilograms has the same 120 Newtons force applied, its acceleration will be 600 m/s2. Clearly, a smaller object will have much higher acceleration for a given amount of force. When more than one force acts on an object simultaneously, we can add the forces together to get a total force. Figure 6.19 illustrates a person jumping into the air by applying a force to the ground of 1000 Newtons. The person has a mass of 60 kilograms, and consequently a weight of 588 Newtons. When we consider the total force acting on the body, the 1000 Newtons upwards is partially balanced by 588 Newtons of weight pulling down, leaving a total force of just 412 Newtons upwards. It is this force that would determine the amount of acceleration: a = F m

Newton’s first law of motion (also known as the law of inertia) states that a body will maintain a state of rest or constant velocity in a straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced external force.

Newton’s second law of motion states that when a force is applied to an object, the object experiences an acceleration in the direction of that force that is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. Known as the law of acceleration, this law is usually expressed mathematically as acceleration equals force divided by mass.

Inertia the resistance of an object to acceleration. If an object has a large inertia, then it is difficult to accelerate. That is, a stationary object with large inertia will be difficult to start moving, while a moving object with large inertia will be difficult to stop. The inertia of an object is determined by its mass, measured in kilograms.

= 1000 – 588 N 60 kg = 412 N 60 kg = 6.9 m/s2 The following illustration shows us two ways in which body mass influences our acceleration while jumping. Firstly, a larger mass means increased inertia, resulting in a smaller acceleration for any given force. The second point compounds this, because a larger mass means that more weight is pulling the body downwards. This means that not only would there be less acceleration for a given amount of force, but there would also be less total


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178

Weight = 588 N

Force = 1000 N

Figure 6.19

Forces during a vertical jump

Newton’s third law of motion the law of reaction. When one object exerts a force on a second, another force is applied back onto the first object, which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the original force. This law is often stated as ‘every action has an equal and opposite reaction’.

force because more weight is pulling the body down. This is a very great problem for jumping athletes. On one hand, they need to develop strong muscles to apply large forces to the ground while jumping. On the other hand, if they strengthen their muscles through excessive hypertrophy (i.e. enlarging muscle tissue), then the weight of those muscles may actually retard performance. Jumpers must therefore aim to strengthen their muscles in such a way that the benefits of increased force outweigh the disadvantages of increased mass. The example in figure 6.19 applies to forces that are both aligned vertically. If the two forces were not parallel, they could still be added or subtracted, but this addition would require considering the direction of those forces, rather than just a adding the numbers. Consideration of this is beyond our scope, but will not be a problem for our current discussion provided we only consider forces in one direction at a time. If you want to consider the effect of forces on vertical acceleration, use only vertical forces in your consideration. Similarly, only horizontal forces determine horizontal acceleration. Having more than two forces does not have any different effect. You can add as many forces as you like to get a total. Newton’s third law of motion states that when one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object must also exert an equal-sized force back onto the first object, in the opposite direction. This sounds complicated, but need not be when we consider some examples. Figure 6.19 shows a vertical force acting upwards under the foot. In practice, we jump by pushing down onto the Earth with our feet. The force in figure 6.19 is the oppositional force resulting from Newton’s third law as the ground pushes back at us. When we catch a ball by applying a force to slow it down, the ball will exert an equal and opposite force back onto our hands—this is a force equal in size, but opposite in direction. The force on the ball causes it to slow down (figure 6.20b); while the force on our hands may cause pain and will certainly cause our hands to accelerate in the direction of the ball (figure 6.20c). To avoid confusion, we should use diagrams that show only the forces acting directly onto the object, and not include the paired force from Newton’s third law that would act on another object. For example, figure 6.19 shows only the force of the ground pushing up onto the feet. If I also tried to illustrate the force pushing down onto the ground, then this might cause confusion about which direction the body would accelerate, or whether I should have added or subtracted the ground force in my acceleration equation.

Figure 6.20

The force applied to a ball during a catch is equal and opposite to that applied to the hand


a

b

c

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Only forces coming from outside a body are able to cause acceleration of that body. For example, you can squeeze your fist as tight as you like, but it will not propel you anywhere. Only when your hand pushes against some external object, and that object pushes back against your hand through Newton’s third law, can we produce acceleration. The diagrams we draw to analyse movement therefore only ever show forces coming from outside the body. Our muscles initiate much of the force that causes us to move, but only when the muscles push our limbs against some external object can they be effective in causing acceleration. Once an external force is applied to an object, then acceleration occurs in the direction of that applied force. If a sprinter needs to accelerate forward at the beginning of a race, then he must push backwards against the ground, so that the ground will push him forward. Sprinters lean forward so they can better direct the forces backward against the ground. Similarly, if a shot putter needs to direct his put higher into the air to increase the flight distance, then he needs to get his shoulder below the shot so that extending his arm will direct it upward as well as forwards. The use of diagrams can be invaluable in imagining what direction forces need to be applied for effective performance in any sport. By illustrating all the forces acting on an object, you can then visualise the acceleration that would result from those forces. Newton’s laws tell us about acceleration. His second law tells us how much acceleration will occur as a result of a force being applied. The total velocity change in response to an applied force, however, is determined by how long the acceleration continues, as well as by how much acceleration there is. The longer a force is applied, the longer the body will spend accelerating and, therefore, the more the total velocity will change. We have already considered the effect of force and time multiplied together, and called this impulse. Impulse is not only important for stopping moving objects, but also for increasing speed, if that is desired. The greater the combination of force and time, the more momentum, and hence velocity, will increase. When children first learn to perform a shot put, they stand in one position and forcefully extend the knees and elbows to put the shot forward and upward. This technique produces large acceleration of the put, but there is a limit to the amount of time the force can be applied because the arm very quickly reaches full extension and the put leaves the hand. The next stage of the technique involves performers starting at the very back of the circle and gliding forward to the front before release (figure 6.21). This technique allows force to be applied to the put for a longer time, increasing the impulse applied to the shot, and consequently


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Figure 6.21

Path of movement during shot put release

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resulting in a higher release velocity. Many modern shot putters now use a rotational technique, like a discus wind up, where the body spins prior to release, allowing even more time for force to be applied and, therefore, producing an even greater impulse. During a shot put, the athlete commences at the very back of the circle and glides towards the front as he accelerates the shot. The dotted line illustrates the path taken by the shot before release. By increasing the time over which force is applied, a greater impulse can be applied to the shot, resulting in a higher release velocity.


High jumpers must generate a large acceleration during takeoff and require large forces to achieve this acceleration. Identify the training methods that might enable a jumper to produce larger forces and discuss why increasing strength to improve jumping force may not necessarily result in greater acceleration during the takeoff.

2

Imagine a force of 30 Newtons is applied to a golf ball and a table-tennis ball. Which ball will experience more acceleration during impact and why?

3

The above acceleration would be present only while the balls were in contact with the bat or club. If you said that the table-tennis ball had higher acceleration, why then would it not necessarily fly through the air further than a golf ball? Hint: consider forces acting on the ball during flight.

4

You can throw a cricket ball much faster than you could propel it by striking it like a volleyball serve. Use the concept of impulse to explain why the larger force from striking does not necessarily result in larger velocity.

5

Use Newton’s second law of motion to explain why all objects would fall with the same acceleration due to gravity, regardless of their weight, if we ignore the effects of air resistance.

6

Use Newton’s second law once again to explain why air resistance seems to have more effect on objects such as feathers and table tennis balls. a Use Newton’s third law of motion to explain why catching a fast-moving ball can cause pain. b Use the concept of momentum to explain why a ball that has a larger mass, or one that is moving faster, will cause more pain to your hand. c Use the concept of impulse to explain why a harder ball will cause more pain to your hand. Hint: compare the time taken for a softer ball to come to a halt.

7


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chapter review Recap Displacement, velocity and acceleration can be used to describe the position of an object, how fast its position is changing and how quickly the speed is changing. Momentum is the product of mass times velocity. An object with more momentum will be more difficult to stop moving. Adopting a stable posture requires the centre of gravity to be located above the base of support. Increasing stability involves strategies to ensure that the line of gravity does not move outside this base. Bodies immersed in water experience an upwards force called buoyancy that is proportional to the weight of water displaced by the body’s volume underwater. Adopting a horizontal floating position requires the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy to be aligned at the same location in the body. Objects moving through air or water experience a fluid resistance force that increases with the square of velocity. Faster moving objects therefore have much more fluid resistance than do slower objects. Different causes of fluid resistance are surface drag, caused by the amount of surface area and the smoothness of the object; form drag, caused by the shape of the object and its frontal area; and wave drag, caused by movements of the object at the interface between two different fluids (for example, water and air). Weight and mass are quite different concepts. Weight is the force of gravity measured in Newtons. Mass is a measure of a body’s inertia, determined by the amount of matter packed into the body and expressed in kilograms. The body can apply force to other objects through weight, by contracting the muscles, or by using momentum. When moving objects collide with the body (or vice versa), enough force needs to be applied over the time of contact in order to remove the momentum of the object. Applying force over a longer time allows momentum to be removed without requiring as much force to be applied. Newton’s laws of motion describe how an object will respond when a force is applied by telling us whether velocity changes, what the size of the acceleration will be, and how forces will be returned from one object to another.


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Current URL

Useful for …

Coaches’ Information Service

www.coachesinfo.com

Articles about sport science and improving performance. Although not exclusively a biomechanics site, there are many articles describing the biomechanics of sports

BioLab

www.biolab.org.uk

The downloads page from the BioLab web site provides many practical activities that can be used for teaching biomechanics. Although designed primarily for university students, there are many activities that will be suitable for high school students

Teachers’ Information Service

www.usfca.edu/ess/tis

Again, a site designed more for university students, there are once again practical activities that can be used to teach principles of biomechanics

Exam-style questions

chapter review

1 View the velocity–time graph in figure 6.3 and answer the following questions:

a

What was the maximum velocity reached during the race?

(1 mark)

b

At what time was the maximum velocity reached?

(1 mark)

c

What was the average acceleration from time zero up until maximum velocity?

(2 marks)

d

Describe how velocity was changing over the last second of the race.

(2 marks)

2 Describe the strategies that people use to hold a stable, balanced position.

For example, how they hold a balance position during a gymnastics routine.

(4 marks)

3 Explain why people do not always float in a horizontal position, and what

strategies can be used to make the body more horizontal. 4 Explain the difference between mass and weight.

(4 marks) (2 marks)

5 What is Newton’s second law of motion? Use this law to explain why it


would be difficult to play table tennis with a normal tennis ball while still using a table tennis bat.

(4 marks)

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Preliminary Options


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First aid

7

The term ‘first aid’ refers to the giving of aid or assistance to someone in need, when you are the first person on the scene of an accident or urgent medical situation. While the majority of people go about their daily routine without disruption, health emergencies can occur without warning. Having fundamental first aid knowledge and skills can go a long way towards assisting in an emergency and could mean the difference between life and death for the people involved. This chapter will provide an overview of vital first aid information and will consider some ethical questions that should be taken into account concerning the administration of first aid.

What are the main priorities for assessment and management of first aid patients? First aid situations and medical emergencies can take on many forms and are often combined with high levels of stress and anxiety. In order to ensure that emotion does not cloud the decision-making process and that the needs of all patients are met, there is a clear set of procedures for the assessment, prioritisation and treatment of injured or ill patients. These procedures can assist the first aider to make informed decisions about the main priorities for the assessment and management of first aid patients in an emergency.

Setting priorities for managing a first aid situation and assessing the casualty

Priorities the most important or urgent tasks. In a first aid situation, setting priorities refers to deciding which condition is most in need of treatment.

Situational analysis In order to be effective in an emergency, it is critical that the first aider conducts a thorough analysis of the situation before starting any first aid measures. The purpose of a situational analysis is to provide an overview of the emergency so the first aider can make the best decisions to assist the


Emergency an unforeseen or sudden occurrence. Many emergencies involve danger to the health and wellbeing of the people involved and demand urgent attention.

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Bystander someone who is present at a particular event or situation but is not directly involved—an onlooker. Emergency services the police, ambulance and fire brigade.

Figure 7.1

Stay focused, stay relevant, stay on the line

casualty and ensure that no further harm occurs to the victim, any bystanders or themself. A situational analysis should take no more than a few minutes and can be conducted through observation and questioning. Things to consider when conducting a situational analysis include: What has occurred and is a risk of further danger? What can be done to make the situation safer? Is anyone’s life in immediate danger? Are the casualties contained in one place or spread out over a larger area? How many people appear injured and/or ill and what is the severity of their injuries or illnesses? Are there other people who may be able to assist? How can emergency services be contacted, who will contact them and how far away are they? What first aid equipment (if any) is available? During the situational analysis, the first aider should arrange for medical and/or emergency assistance. Emergency services personnel are specially trained for these situations and therefore, it is essential that they attend the scene as quickly as possible. The first aider should phone 000 or, if 000 does not work from a mobile phone, try 112 or direct someone else to do this. It is important that the caller provide clear and detailed information about the situation.

Priority assessment procedures In an emergency, it is essential that patients be treated in order of priority, depending on the severity and/or life-threatening nature of their injuries or conditions. An emergency action plan that includes the situational analysis can assist the first aider to remain calm and in control and assess which casualties’ needs are greatest. Priority should always be given to unconscious patients. Bleeding patients should also be given priority treatment as to loss of blood can lead to shock and, in turn, to loss of consciousness. The most simple emergency action plan to follow is the DRABCD Action Plan.

DRABCD The DRABCD acronym stands for:

Assessment an evaluation of the situation.

D R A B C D

Danger Response Airway Breathing Circulation Defibrillation

The DRABCD Action Plan assists the first aider to be confident in their assessment of the situation. By following the steps highlighted by each letter of the plan, the first aider can make informed decisions about resuscitation, serious injury treatment and treatment of other injuries and/or conditions.

Danger In many emergencies, there is a degree of danger. This danger can be to the patient, the bystanders and/or to the person administering the first aid. Before any first aid treatment is given, it is vitally important that the first


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First aid

aider check for any danger associated with the emergency and ensure that the environment is safe before proceeding. Danger can take the form of traffic, body fluids, poisons, gas leaks, live electrical wires, fire, overhanging debris, unstable surfaces, aggressive bystanders, animals and/or flammable materials. The first aider should be on the look out for ways to remove any current danger and to prevent new dangers from occurring. As far as possible, the casualty should not be removed from their position unless there is immediate danger. A first aider should not make decisions that put themself or others at risk and, if they believe that the situation cannot be altered to reduce any potential danger, it is best to wait for emergency personnel to arrive. Danger may also come from the casualty. They may be aggressive, uncooperative, scared or under the influence of drugs. The first aider should not attempt to administer first aid until they are confident it is safe to approach the patient. Talking calmly to the injured or ill person to provide reassurance and establish a rapport can help make them easier to approach and assist.

Response When it is established that there is no danger, assessment of the patient can begin. The first step is to determine whether the person is conscious. This can be done by checking for a response to questions such as: Can you hear me? What is your name? In conjunction with these questions, it is wise to gently touch the person on the hands and ask them to squeeze your hands if they can hear you (touch and talk), as with some conditions or injuries a person may be conscious but unable to speak. If the person responds, this means they are conscious. It is then important to treat and manage any injuries that may need attention, to seek medical assistance, and to reassure the person and monitor them for shock or lapses into unconsciousness. A conscious patient should be turned onto their side in the recovery position. This will provide a clear airway and stop them from swallowing vomit or other foreign material. No response means that the person is unconscious, which is a potentially life-threatening situation. The first aider should ensure that medical assistance has been called and continue following the steps of the DRABCD Action Plan.

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Body fluids include blood, saliva, mucus, vomit, urine, tears, sweat, semen, vaginal fluid.

Conscious refers to a person being alert and awake.

Figure 7.2

To put someone in the recovery position, kneel beside the person and position their arms and legs as shown


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188 Figure 7.3

Roll the person gently away from you; always supporting their head and neck

Figure 7.4

Carefully tilt the person’s head back using your hands on their forehead and chin

Airway the airways are the means by which the body gets air into the lungs. They consist of the mouth, nose, throat and the bronchial tubes that lead to the lungs.

Airway Unconsciousness may mean that a person’s supply of oxygen has been impaired in some way. To allow an unconscious person to breathe and improve their chance of survival, it is vital that a clear airway is maintained. Blockages to the airway can be caused by foreign materials such as vomit, mouth guards, false teeth, food or seaweed, or by physical reponses such as swelling or the tongue falling back over the airway. The first aider should check for foreign materials in the airway and, if they are present, remove them by turning the patient into the recovery position (supporting the head and neck) and clearing the foreign material with their fingers. If no foreign material can be seen, the airway can be opened by gently tilting the casualty’s head back, while supporting the forehead and jaw. This simple action can bring the tongue away from the back of the throat and may be all that is required to ensure the airway is clear. Breathing When the airway is clear, it is necessary to check for breathing. To do this the first aider should look, listen and feel for no more than 10 seconds. Listen and feel for sounds of air from the patient’s mouth and/or nose. Look and feel for movement of the chest.

Rescue breaths breathing for a non-breathing person by blowing air into their mouth or nose. Signs of life consciousness, breathing and movement.


If the casualty is breathing, they should be placed in the recovery position and monitored for any changes until medical assistance arrives. If the casualty is not breathing, the first aider should give two rescue breaths to get air into the lungs. After these two breaths, the first aider must check for signs of life. If there are signs of life but the person is still unconscious, they should be placed in the recovery position and continually monitored until medical assistance arrives. If there are no signs of life, the first aider should move to the next step in the action plan.

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First aid

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) involves simulating the actions of the heartbeat and breathing when the casualty is unable to do this for themself. The technique combines pushing down on the lower half of the casualty’s sternum to compress their chest and inflating their lungs by breathing into their mouth. Further details of CPR are given in the Crisis management section of this chapter. By performing CPR, the first aider can either restart the normal action of the heart or maintain sufficient circulation to keep oxygen moving to the brain until medical help is available. Research purports that, if CPR is begun within four minutes of the heart stopping, oxygenation of the vital organs is maintained. Defibrillation Medical studies have shown that the chances of survival for a casualty whose heart has stopped are greatly increased if defibrillation occurs within 8 to 12 minutes of cardiac arrest. A disturbance of the electrical activity in the heart’s ventricular muscle can cause fibrillation. This means the heart quivers rather than beats which stops blood from being pumped around the body. This can cause cardiac arrest. A defibrillator delivers an electric shock to the heart muscle, which may restore the normal heart rhythm. Ambulances and hospitals have defibrillators; however, easy-to-use defibrillators with voice prompts, called an automated external defibrillator (AED), have been developed for use in the home or workplace and on the sports field. This means a first aider may have quick access to defibrillation, especially if emergency services have a delayed response time.

189

Sternum breastbone found in the upper-middle section of the chest. Figure 7.5

An automated external defibrillator

WARNING Do not use a defibrillator: • on a person under 12 years old • in a moving vehicle. Before defibrillation—move: • casualty if touching metal fixture or lying in water • oxygen away from casualty • mobile phones/two-way radios 2 metres away.



CHAPTER 7

1

Outline the reasons for a situational analysis and include what the first aider may need to take into account in an emergency.

2

Design a small wallet information card that provides a point-form summary of the key details to be provided to emergency services when calling 000 to report an emergency. You may like to visit for assistance with this task.

3

Working with a partner, demonstrate placing a casualty into the recovery position.

4

With a partner or manikin, apply the DRABCD Action Plan demonstrating the critical aspects of each step.

5

Devise a basic life support flowchart that could be used in a school, workplace or home, which clearly summarises the steps to be taken in an emergency.

Figure 7.6

It is important to read the warnings before using an AED

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STOP The DRABCD Action Plan outlines the essential steps to be followed to assess a critically ill or injured casualty. Once you have established that a person is conscious and not suffering from a life-threatening condition, it is important to prevent further harm from occurring and to treat any less severe injuries or problems. The STOP plan is another series of steps that can be followed to assess, treat and manage non-life-threatening injuries or illnesses.

Demeanour the way a person behaves or looks.

S

Stop the patient from moving and ensure they are comfortable. This may include stopping any activity and having them sit or lie down.

T

Talk to the patient in order to reassure them and to help them to feel less distressed. Talking also allows the first aider to gain valuable information about what has happened. The situation can be assessed by asking questions about what happened, how it happened, whether it has happened before, where it hurts, what was heard and how they feel. The first aider can also ask the patient if they have any allergies, if they are taking any medication, if they have any past or present illnesses and when they last ate. Talking to bystanders can also provide useful information.

O

Observe the patient as making careful observations of the person can supplement any information already obtained. Observe their general demeanour and appearance. Are they distressed, pale, holding a certain part of their body or giving off other signs of pain? Do they have a MedicAlert bracelet, a Ventolin inhaler or an EpiPen on them? Look at their body to observe any swelling, deformation or tenderness.

P

Prevent further injury by treating any injuries or conditions that may have been discovered by talking to and observing the casualty, monitoring them for more serious injuries that may not be immediately apparent, and reassuring them.

MedicAlert bracelet a bracelet worn by people with a medical condition, allergy or taking certain medications to inform others of these conditions/illnesses.

EpiPen an auto-injector of adrenalin, which is used to treat anaphylactic shock. A person diagnosed with anaphylaxis will carry an EpiPen.

Crisis management A crisis is a major event that has the potential for harm to those involved. A crisis usually occurs unexpectedly and is often characterised by important decisions having to be made in a short time period. Crisis management is the attempt to eliminate or reduce danger and preserve life in a crisis. A number of first aid skills and techniques are important to have in order to deal proficiently with a crisis.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is required in a crisis if it has been determined that there are no signs of life in the casualty. CPR involves the following steps: 1 Kneel beside the patient and give 30 compressions to the chest. This is done by locating the person’s sternum and placing one of your hands on the lower section with the heel of your other hand on top. The first aider


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should position themself above the patient, use straight arms and push down so that approximately one third of the chest is depressed. The pressure should then be released and repeated. The first aider should avoid rocking movements. 2 After the 30 chest compressions, the first aider needs to tilt the casualty’s head and lift their chin to ensure a clear airway. 3 Give 2 breaths to the casualty. This is done by placing one hand on the casualty’s forehead to maintain head tilt and sealing the nose by pinching its soft part. With the other hand, the first aider should open the casualty’s mouth (maintaining head tilt), place their mouth over the casualty’s mouth (ensuring that there is no break in the mouth seal) and blow steadily for about one second. After each breath, the first aider should turn their head towards the casualty’s chest and watch for the chest to rise and fall and listen and feel for signs of air being released. It is also possible to do mouth to nose breathing or mouth to mask breathing if this is easier or more suitable. 4 Give another 30 compressions. 5 Continue compressions and breaths in a ratio of 30:2 until medical assistance arrives. This ratio of compressions to breaths is the same for all people regardless of age. However, the following table indicates some differences for babies and children with regard to the type of breaths and the depth of compressions.

Figure 7.7

Correct arm positioning for CPR on an adult

Table 7.1 CPR for different age groups

Age group

Head tilt

Type of breath

Hand positioning for compression

Baby

No head tilt

A small puff

2 fingers only to a depth of 2 cm

Child (1–8 years)

Half head tilt

Half a breath from the lungs

2 hands (1 used only for support) to a depth of 3 cm

Adult

Full head tilt

Full breath from the lungs

2 hands to a depth of one third of the chest

Figure 7.8

Turn the head between each breath to look, listen and feel for the chest rising and air being expelled

If there are two first aiders available to perform CPR, frequent rotation of the person administering CPR can lessen fatigue. The first aiders should try to swap every two minutes aiming for a smooth changeover that results in minimum disruption to the CPR procedure. Once CPR has commenced, the first aider should only stop under the following circumstances: the casualty shows signs of life qualified help arrives the first aider is physically unable to continue.


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Bleeding Blood has a number of essential roles in the body such as transporting oxygen, hormones and nutrients; maintaining body temperature; removing toxins and waste products and transporting antibodies to protect against disease. Blood is, therefore, crucial for correct body functioning. Bleeding results in a loss of blood from the blood vessels (capillaries, veins or arteries) and, if untreated, can lead to lead to shock, collapse and possibly death. In a crisis management situation, all bleeding should be viewed as life threatening and treated accordingly. The DRABCD Action Plan should be applied to assess the casualty. If there are no signs of life, CPR takes priority over any bleeding injuries. The first aider should always wear gloves when treating a bleeding patient. The most effective first aid for external bleeding is pressure and elevation (to restrict and slow blood flow and encourage clotting). The recommended treatment is outlined in the following steps:

Elevate raising the limb/s to reduce blood flow to the area.

1 Apply direct, firm and sustained pressure to the wound with a pad. If this becomes blood soaked, another pad should be applied over the first. If there is an object embedded in the wound, indirect pressure should be applied to the area around the object. DO NOT remove the object. 2 Lie the casualty down to restrict movement and elevate the bleeding part. 3 Maintain pressure on the pad. 4 Reassure the patient and monitor for shock until medical assistance arrives. If the patient becomes unconscious, follow the DRABCD Action Plan. If bleeding does not stop, the first aider can also apply pressure with their hand to a pressure point, for example, in the groin or inside the elbow. A tourniquet should never be applied. Bleeding may also occur internally. This type of bleeding is often difficult to recognise but can be very dangerous for the casualty. Internal bleeding requires urgent hospitalisation. Some signs of internal bleeding may be shock, tenderness, swelling, abdominal pain, and coughing up or vomiting blood.

Shock Shock is the body’s response to trauma, which may be caused by severe bleeding, burns, infection, vomiting or diarrhoea, multiple fractures, heart attack or allergic reactions. Essentially, it is a failure of the circulatory system to do its job, resulting in a lack of oxygen to the body’s tissues. Shock can be life threatening and the first aider should be watch constantly for any signs that the patient is going into shock. Table 7.2 Signs and symptoms of shock

Signs of shock

Symptoms of shock

• Faintness or dizziness

• Cold, clammy, pale skin

• Reduced level of consciousness

• Confusion or anxiety

• Shortness of breath

• Rapid and weak pulse

• Vomiting or nausea

• Gasping or rapid breathing

• Feeling cold

• Restlessness

• Extremities become blue


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The DRABCD Action Plan should be used to assess the casualty and any severe bleeding needs to be controlled. A handy acronym to use to manage shock is the four Rs:

R R

Ring 000.

R R

Reassure the patient.

Rest the patient, preferably with their head down and their feet up (except when there are fractures or spinal injuries). Rug them up, to maintain their body heat. For example, cover them with a blanket and ensure they are comfortable.

The first aider should continue to observe the patient and maintain a clear airway. The onset of shock can be a delayed reaction, so the casualty needs to be monitored carefully even after their injuries or condition have been treated.


On a manikin, practise CPR, concentrating on accurate hand placement for the compressions, and a good mouth and nose seal for the breaths.

2

In pairs, work on a manikin to rehearse an efficient swap from one CPR operator to another.

3

Identify the priorities for treatment at the scene of an emergency, and explain why certain injuries and illnesses take precedence over others.

4

Demonstrate the correct treatment for a person with a bleeding wound caused by a sharp object embedded in their upper leg.

Neck and spinal injury Spinal injury should be suspected in all crisis situations, particularly those involving falls, motor vehicle or sporting accidents, diving, being ‘dumped’ in the surf and any accident where the casualty is unconscious. Any accident or injury such as these could mean damage to the spinal cord, which can result in paraplegia or quadriplegia. The possibility of spinal injury should always be taken into account when assessing, managing and treating trauma victims. The number one principle to be considered with suspected spinal injury is to not move the casualty unless they are in immediate danger. Immobilisation needs to occur as quickly as possible to reduce the risk of further spinal damage. The DRABCD Action Plan should be followed and priority given to airway management. If the casualty is conscious, some signs and symptoms of spinal injury might include pain at or below the injured area, tingling or numbness in the limbs and/or loss of sensation or movement below the injured area. Treatment differs for conscious and unconscious patients.


Paraplegia/quadriplegia damage to a person’s spinal cord that results in the inability to move the limbs below the damage. Paraplegia refers to two limbs (legs) and quadriplegia refers to four limbs (legs and arms).

Immobilisation reducing a patient’s movement as much as possible to reduce the risk of further injury.

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Table 7.3 Treatment of conscious and unconscious patients

Conscious patient with suspected spinal injury

Unconscious patient with suspected spinal injury

• Call 000

• Call 000

• DRABCD

• DRABCD

• Do not move the casualty

• Support the casualty’s head and neck at all times

• Support the casualty’s head and neck at all times using both hands or a cervical collar

• Place in the recovery position endeavouring to maintain spinal alignment at all times

• Reassure the casualty

• Monitor signs of life

• Monitor for shock

Moving the casualty As far as possible, a casualty should not be moved by anyone other than qualified emergency personnel unless the casualty is in immediate danger. Movement can worsen an injury, causing unnecessary pain, further bleeding and possibly shock. If it is necessary to move a casualty, the first aider should choose a method that poses the least risk to both the casualty and themself. A single first aider may need to drag the casualty to safety, particularly if unconscious or seriously injured. This can be done using the casualty’s ankles, arms or clothes. Small children can be moved by cradling them in the arms and carrying them. Conscious casualties can be assisted to move using a human crutch, a firefighter’s carry or a piggyback. When there are others available to assist with movement of a casualty, seats can be improvised by using hands and patients can also be moved sitting on a chair. Stretchers can be devised for unconscious or seriously injured casualties using blankets or clothes. If a number of people are involved in moving a casualty, one person needs to take charge and issue clear and concise instructions. Care should always be taken to support the head and neck and keep the spine in alignment. Regardless of the method of movement used, it is important that the conscious casualty feels safe and secure if they are to be moved. This can be achieved by telling the casualty what is going to be done before it occurs and seeking the casualty’s help and cooperation. The first aider should be fully prepared and should not take any unnecessary risks.

Medical referral While first aid in an emergency is vital, a first aider’s skills can only assist up to a point, and part of crisis management involves referring the patient to trained professionals for further medical assistance. The first step in medical referral is when the first aider calls 000. The first aider should remain with the casualty until medical help arrives and monitor the patient for signs of life and possible shock. Medical personnel may ask the first aider for information about what has occurred and the first aid treatment that has taken place. They may also require the first aider to remain at the scene and further assist in managing the crisis. Medical referral is also wise with less serious injuries or medical conditions. While a person may seem to have recovered after basic first aid treatment, they could have other problems and/or injuries that are not easy to see and diagnose. Any open wound is at risk of infection and referral to a


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medical practitioner can lessen the likelihood of this occurring. A person who has been unconscious for any amount of time, no matter how short, should always be referred to a health-care professional.

Brain injury victims can seem OK, symptoms delayed At first, Natasha Richardson said she felt fine after she took a spill on a Canadian ski slope. But that’s not unusual for people who suffer traumatic head injuries like the one that killed the actress. Doctors say sometimes patients with brain injuries have what’s called a ‘lucid interval’ where they act fine for an hour or more as the brain slowly, silently swells or bleeds. Later, back at her hotel, Richardson fell ill, complained of a headache, and was taken to a hospital. She died Wednesday in New York. An autopsy Thursday showed that the 45-year-old actress hit her head, which caused bleeding between the skull and the brain’s covering, resulting in what’s called an epidural hematoma. It’s a type of injury often caused by a skull fracture.

Because of that lucid interval, doctors always tell patients who seem OK after a brain injury to have someone keep a close eye on them, in case symptoms emerge. Symptoms—headache; loss of consciousness; vomiting; problems seeing, speaking or moving; confusion; drainage of a clear fluid from the nose or mouth—appear after enough pressure builds in the skull. By then it’s an emergency. ‘Once you have more swelling, it causes more trauma which causes more swelling,’ said Dr. Edward Aulisi, neurosurgery chief at Washington Hospital Center in the nation’s capital. ‘It’s a vicious cycle because everything’s inside a closed space.’ Pressure can force the brain downward to press on the brain stem that controls breathing and other vital func-

tions, causing coma or death. Frequently, surgeons cut off a portion of the skull to give the brain room to swell. Or they drain the blood and remove clots that formed. ‘This is a very treatable condition if you’re aware of what the problem is and the patient is quickly transferred to a hospital,’ said Dr. Keith Siller of New York University Langone Medical Center. ‘But there is very little time to correct this.’ Details of Richardson’s treatment have not been disclosed. A CT scan can detect bleeding, bruising or the beginning of swelling after an injury. The challenge is for patients to know whether to seek one. ‘If there’s any question in your mind whatsoever, you get a head CT,’ Aulisi advised. ‘It’s the best 20 seconds you ever spent in your life.’

Associated Press, 20 March 2009

Care of the unconscious casualty Unconsciousness in a casualty is extremely serious and is an indication of some level of brain damage. Unconsciousness can come about because of direct injury or illness to the brain, lack of oxygen to the brain or poisons/ toxins in the bloodstream. Treatment of an unconscious casualty can be very difficult, as there may be little indication of what has caused the unconsciousness. Regardless of the cause, an unconscious casualty should be treated using the following principles: always assume the unconscious casualty may have a spinal injury DRABCD if there are signs of life, the unconscious patient should be placed in the recovery position, supporting the head and neck at all times treat any other injuries monitor the casualty and record any differences in levels of consciousness give nothing by mouth ensure medical assistance has been notified under no circumstances should the first aider leave an unconscious patient unattended before medical help arrives.


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In a group, demonstrate how you would support the head, neck and body of a person you suspected had spinal injuries.

2

Imagine you are the only person capable of administering first aid at the scene of a car crash. You are with your best friend. The casualties are a family of four. In what order would you treat the following casualties and how could your friend help? You must be able to justify your answers. a Casualty 1—the 16-year-old son, conscious but complaining of abdominal pain and dizziness b Casualty 2—the mother, conscious but not speaking and has a deformed and painful arm c Casualty 3—the 10-year-old daughter, screaming loudly and has a few scratches on her face d Casualty 4—the father, who is unconscious

3

In a group, examine a variety of different methods for moving casualties from dangerous situations. Practise these methods, alternating the person whose role it is to be in charge of the move.

4

Evaluate the best method/s for moving: a a small child b a person who is much larger and heavier than the first aider c a person with an injured leg d an unconscious person.

How should the major types of injuries and medical conditions be managed in first aid situations? The first aider may find themself in situations where they will be required to treat a diverse range of injuries and/or medical conditions. A sound knowledge of basic treatment principles for different injuries and medical conditions will stand the first aider in good stead, enabling them to attend to these situations, lessening the risk of further injury or complications, and making the patient more comfortable. It is important that the first aider is able to recognise the signs and symptoms of the major types of injuries and medical conditions so they can make informed decisions about the best way to manage these first aid situations.

Management of injuries Cuts and lacerations Cuts and lacerations are classified as open wounds and generally involve bleeding. A cut is caused by something sharp, such as a knife or piece of glass


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coming into contact with the skin. A laceration is a tear injury of the skin and is caused by something jagged like barbed wire or machinery. Cuts and lacerations can cause injury to the skin and underlying tissues. Table 7.4 Signs, symptoms and primary management of cuts and lacerations

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Bleeding

• DRABCD

• Pain

• Control bleeding

• Swelling

• Clean the wound

• Exposure of tissue and muscles

• Cover with a sterile non-adhesive dressing

• Loss of sensation around the area due to possible nerve damage

• Reassure the patient and monitor for shock

• Shock

Fractures A break to any part of a bone is known as a fracture. Fractures can be caused by either direct or indirect force. For example, a snowboarder falls over and extends their arm to break the fall and, as a result, breaks their collarbone (indirect) or a batter in softball misses the ball, which then hits their arm, breaking the radius (direct). Fractures can be classified in the following ways: complete—the bone is broken completely into two or more parts incomplete—the bone bends and splinters on one side but does not break right through (also known as a greenstick fracture and very common in children) comminuted—the bone is broken into many pieces closed—the broken bone does not pierce the skin open—the broken bone protrudes though the skin complicated—when the broken bone damages a major nerve, organ or blood vessel, for example, a broken rib punctures a lung.

Complete

Closed


Comminuted

Open

Figure 7.9

Types of fractures

Incomplete / Greenstick

Complicated

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Table 7.5 Signs, symptoms and primary management of fractures

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Pain at and around the site

• DRABCD

• Patient holding the injured limb

• Control any bleeding

• Deformity

• Encourage the patient not to move

• Swelling

• Gently immobilise the fracture

• Limited movement and/or loss of function

• Ensure bandages do not cut off circulation

• A breaking noise

• Monitor for shock

• Bleeding (open and complicated fractures) • Protrusion of bone through the skin

Figure 7.10

Slings can be helpful for immobilising an arm or collarbone break

Dislocations A dislocation can occur when extreme force is placed on the ligaments around a joint, causing the ends of the two connected bones of the joint to separate. Dislocations are extremely painful and can result in damage to the surrounding ligaments, tissues, nerves and blood vessels. Table 7.6 Signs, symptoms and primary management of dislocations

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Pain at or around the injured area

• DRABCD

• Swelling • Difficulty using or moving the joint normally

• Do not attempt to put the dislocation joint back into place (‘reduce’ the dislocation)

• Deformation of the dislocated area

• Rest and support the injured part

• Loss of power

• Apply ice packs

• Warmth, bruising or redness in the area

• Monitor for signs of loss of circulation in the limb below the joint • Seek medical attention • If in doubt, a dislocation should be managed as a fracture

Head injuries and concussion Head injury refers to trauma to the head, which can be the result of a number of factors including car accidents, falls, sporting collisions or assaults. Many superficial head injuries may bleed profusely due to the scalp being rich


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with blood vessels, but tend not to be dangerous. Internal head injuries, however, may lead to death or permanent brain damage and, therefore, require urgent medical attention. Concussion is a temporary loss or altered state of consciousness, which can occur following a blow to the head. Concussion should also be treated seriously, as there may be the possibility of internal damage. Although someone who has experienced concussion may seem to recover quickly, they should be monitored carefully for some time after the concussion. Table 7.7 Signs, symptoms and primary management of head injuries and concussion

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • •

Unconsciousness Varying levels of consciousness Drowsiness, confusion or vagueness Slurred speech Agitation or irritability Wounds to the head, face and neck Vomiting and/or nausea Bleeding or fluid discharge from ears, nose or mouth Difference in size or shape of pupils Blurred vision Loss of memory Abnormal responses to commands or touch Unable to coordinate movement of limbs Seizures

• •

• • •

DRABCD Support head and neck If they are unconscious, place the patient in the recovery position If they are conscious, place them in a comfortable position with the head and shoulders slightly raised Control bleeding (do not apply pressure if a skull fracture is suspected), and treat any other injuries If there is blood or fluid coming from the ears, a sterile pad should be placed over the ear and, if possible, lie the patient on their injured side so the fluid can drain out Reassure the patient Monitor for signs of life and shock Ensure medical assistance is on its way

Eye injuries The eye is a very delicate part of the body and, because of its nature, it is very easily damaged. Eye injuries can range from minor irritations such as dirt, eyelashes or small foreign objects in the eye to more major issues such as penetrating eye injuries and burns. Eye injuries can cause damage to the cornea of the eye, which may affect sight, and corneal injuries are very prone to infection. The risk of infection when treating eye injuries can be reduced by wearing gloves and using sterile dressings. Table 7.8 Signs, symptoms and primary management of eye injuries

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • •


Irritation of the eye Dry, gritty or scratchy feeling in the eye Pain and/or redness in eye Patient cannot open or close the eye Watering of the eye Twitching or spasms of the muscles around the eye Discharge or blood from the eye Injuries to the eyelids or surrounding facial tissue Sensitivity to light

DRABCD Calm and reassure the patient Support the patient’s head Encourage the patient to not rub or move the eyes Flush the eye with clean, cool flowing water for up to 20 minutes Cover the eye with a sterile pad Do not attempt to remove any large or embedded objects—pad around the eye • Seek medial attention

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Nasal injuries Nasal injuries are quite common, as the nose has very little structural support and occupies a very prominent place on the face. The most typical nasal injury is a blockage, which is usually caused by young children putting foreign objects into their nose and which can then become lodged there causing discomfort, pain and breathing difficulty. Removal of these objects requires expert medical attention. Other common nasal injuries are bleeding and broken noses. As the nose is close to other important structures, initially any nose injury should be treated as a head injury and a search made for any other facial damage. Table 7.9 Signs, symptoms and primary management of nasal injuries

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Bleeding

• DRABCD

• Pain in and around the nose

• Tell the patient to breathe through their mouth and to try not to sniff or blow their nose

• Swelling

• Sit them up with head tilted slightly forward

• Bruising • Instability of the nose bones

• Pinch the soft part of the patient’s nose together between the fingers and hold for 10 minutes (do not do this for a broken nose)

• Deformity

• Apply ice packs to the neck and forehead

• Facial lacerations

• Seek medical assistance for a broken nose, or if bleeding from the nose does not stop

Burn injuries Burns are common injuries and can be caused by an array of substances and external sources such as chemicals, friction, electricity, radiation, water, steam, and extreme hot and cold temperatures. The severity of a burn depends upon its extent, which parts of the body are burnt, the burn’s depth and the age of the patient. If a burn is larger than a 20-cent piece, it will generally require medical attention. Severe burns can result in a number of complications such as shock, infection, breathing difficulties and swelling that may cut off circulation. Figure 7.11

What to do if your clothes catch on fire


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Burns are classified according to the depth of the burn and the tissues affected. Superficial burns—damage to the top layer of skin, for example, sunburn. The burn site will be red and painful. Partial thickness burns—damage to the first and second skin layers plus the underlying tissues. The burn site is very painful and will be red, blistered, peeling and swollen. There may be clear or yellow fluid leaking from the site. Full thickness burns—damage to the first and second layers of skin plus underlying tissues, muscle, bone and organs. The burn site is white or charred and there may be exposed fatty tissue, muscle or bone. As the nerve endings are generally destroyed, there tends to be little or no pain at the site; however, the surrounding areas may be very painful. The main aims of burn injury management are to stop the burning process, to cool the burn to provide relief and to cover the burn to reduce the risk of infection. Table 7.10 Managing burns

Primary management • DRABCD

DO NOT:

• Instruct the person to stop, cover, drop and roll if there are flames present

• Apply any sort of lotion or cream

• Remove the person from the source of the burn

• Put butter on the burn

• Immediately cool the burn under running water for at least 20 minutes

• Use ice to cool the burn

• If possible, remove jewellery or other constrictive items from the burn area

• Break any blisters

• Cover the burnt area with a non-stick dressing or plastic wrap

• Remove any stuck clothing

• Reassure the patient and monitor for shock

• Give alcohol

Teeth injuries Injuries to teeth are relatively common, particularly in children, teenagers and athletes. Any injuries to the teeth should be referred to a dentist as quickly as possible to increase the chance of any damaged teeth being saved. Teeth injuries from sport can be easily prevented by the use of a well-fitted mouth guard. The first aider should also be alert to possible head injuries that may result from a blow to the mouth. Table 7.11 Signs, symptoms and primary management of teeth injuries

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Bleeding

• DRABCD

• Lacerated mouth

• Ensure a clear airway is maintained, as teeth may be knocked down the patient’s throat

• Broken teeth

• Treat any bleeding

• Empty tooth socket/s

• If a tooth has been knocked out, find it and save it

• Swelling and/or bruising around the mouth and jaw

• Gently clean any dirt from the tooth using the patient’s own saliva, milk or a sterile saline solution • If possible, replace the tooth in the socket and ask the patient to hold it in place • If it is not possible to replace the tooth, wrap it in clean plastic and store in milk or a sterile saline solution • Take the tooth and the patient immediately to a dentist


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Electrocution Table 7.12 Signs, symptoms and primary management of electrocution

Electrocution is considered life threatening, as an electric shock can cause the heart to stop and may cause severe burns. Safety of the first aider is paramount in electrocution situations and the first aider should avoid any risk of shock to themself. If this cannot be guaranteed, it is better to wait for emergency services to arrive.

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• No signs of life • Burns on the skin, commonly the hands or feet • Power lines, electrical cables or electrical equipment near the victim

• Check for danger and ensure that any power source is disconnected before approaching the casualty • Remove the casualty from the electrical supply without directly touching them • DRABCD • Cool any burnt areas under cool running water • Cover burns with non-adhesive sterile dressings • Monitor for signs of life and shock • Call for urgent medical attention

Chest injuries

Table 7.13 Signs, symptoms and primary management of chest injuries

The chest contains the essential organs of the heart, lungs and major blood vessels and, while they are somewhat protected by surrounding bone structures, these organs are very vulnerable. Chest injuries can be caused by blows, falls, crushing, stabbing or shooting and include a range of injuries from simple bruising to damage that affects breathing and circulation. Types of chest injuries include fractured ribs, flail chest (floating ribs), penetrating chest wounds and lung collapse. Treatment for all chest injuries should focus on seeking medical assistance and on keeping the patient as comfortable as possible.

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Pain (if the patient has fractured ribs, pain may be worse when they breathe or cough) • Tenderness at the injured site • Difficult and painful breathing • Rapid, weak pulse • Shallow, rapid breathing • May be holding the injured area (fractured ribs) • Restricted movement of chest wall (collapsed lung) • Possible unconsciousness • Blood-stained and frothy spit (fractured ribs) • Sound of sucking air when the patient inhales (penetrating wound) • Bloodstained bubbles around the wound (penetrating wound) • Part of the chest does not move with normal breathing (flail chest) • Blue around lips, nails and earlobes • Difficulty speaking • Possible unconsciousness

• DRABCD including calling 000 If conscious: • make the patient comfortable by placing them in a half-sitting position leaning to the injured side • Reassure and calm the patient If unconscious: • Lie the patient in the recovery position with the injured side down • Monitor signs of life


ADDITIONAL TREATMENT FOR: Fractured ribs • Apply padding gently to the injured site • Bandage the patient’s arm to their side • If comfortable, immobilise the patient’s arm in a sling Penetrating chest wound: • Cover the wound to stop air going into the chest with plastic or similar and seal with tape on the sides and top but NOT the bottom (i.e. seal on three sides) Flail chest: • Place padding over the injured site with a firm bandage

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Abdominal injuries The abdomen houses a number of important body organs. As there is no protective bone structure around the abdomen, these organs can be easily injured. Complications that may arise with abdominal injuries are extensive internal bleeding and infection, therefore, it is essential with any abdominal injury that urgent medical attention is sought. Table 7.14 Signs, symptoms and primary management of abdominal injuries

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Pain

• DRABCD

• Bruising, swelling or tenderness around the wound

• Ensure the casualty is comfortable

• Unnatural paleness • Cold, clammy skin

• Lay the casualty on their back with the knees slightly raised and supported

• Nausea or vomiting

• Loosen any restrictive clothing

• External bleeding

• Cover any protruding organs with a sterile dressing or similar and secure with a bandage (if available)

• Blood in the urine and/or bleeding from the anus and/or genitals

• Ensure medical assistance is on its way

• Protrusion of abdominal organs through the wound

DO NOT:

• Shock

• give anything to eat or drink

• Possible unconsciousness

• apply direct pressure to the wound • try to push organs back into the abdomen

Understand and apply Describe your diagnosis and demonstrate the management of the injuries in the following scenarios:


1

One of your friends is playing hockey and has forgotten to wear her mouthguard. She is hit in the mouth with a stick and when you run up to her you discover her top lip is bleeding and a tooth has been knocked out.

2

You are a member of the local bushfire brigade involved in a controlled burn of a fire trail. One of your workmates gets too close to the burn-off and their clothes catch on fire. They are starting to panic and run around.

3

Your little brother is having a birthday party and the guests are playing ‘stuck in the mud’ in the back yard. One of the boys falls and hits his head on the concrete path. He is lying on the floor in a semi-conscious state.

4

A snowboarder puts out her left arm to break a fall. Once she is on the ground, she complains of severe pain to the shoulder and is holding her arm still and close to her body.

5

A middle-aged man has fallen down a set of stairs in a shopping centre. He is holding one side of his chest and complaining of pain that worsens when he coughs and breathes. He is anxious and very pale.

6

The First XV rugby team are playing in their opening match of the season and one of the players emerges from a tackle complaining of pain in the shoulder area. On closer observation, the shoulder is deformed and swollen and there is a loss of power in the shoulder and arm.

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Management of medical conditions Heart attack Table 7.15 Signs, symptoms and primary management of heart attack

A heart attack occurs when there is a lack of oxygen to the heart, usually caused by a blockage in one of the arteries. This lack of oxygen causes damage to the heart muscle and, if not rectified, may cause the heart to stop beating. This is obviously a life-threatening situation and immediate action should be taken.

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Complaining of ‘indigestion’ that does not go away

• Have the casualty stop what they are doing and rest

• Discomfort or pain in the chest—may be described as tightness, heaviness or squeezing

• DRABCD

• Pain may spread to the neck, shoulders, back and arms • Shortness of breath

• Call 000 for an ambulance—do not drive the casualty to hospital yourself in case they go into cardiac arrest on the way • If the patient is conscious, place them in a sitting position with the head and shoulders upright and help them to take any angina medication. They can also be given one aspirin tablet in water to thin the blood

• Nausea or vomiting • Sweating • Dizziness or light-headedness • Anxiety and/or confusion

• If the patient is unconscious, place them in the recovery position and monitor signs of life

• Cardiac arrest with no warning signs

• Loosen any tight clothing

• Collapse and unconsciousness

• Reassure the patient and rug them up

Stroke A stroke occurs when there is a lack of oxygen to the brain, usually due to a blockage or rupture of one of the blood vessels. When blood flow to a part of the brain is cut off, that part can no longer get the oxygen it needs and the brain cells in that area die, causing permanent brain damage. While many people recover fully from a stroke, it is still a life-threatening emergency. The National Stroke Foundation encourages people to be aware of the ‘FAST test’ to check whether a person is suffering from a stroke. Figure 7.12

The National Stroke Foundation’s campaign to encourage people to recognise the signs of stroke and act fast


F

Facial Check their face. Has their mouth drooped?

A

Arm Can they lift both arms?

S

Speech Is their speech slurred? Do they understand you?

T

Time Time is critical. If you see any of these signs, call 000 now!

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Table 7.16 Signs, symptoms and primary management of stroke

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Weakness, numbness or paralysis in the face, legs or arms

• DRABCD

• Difficulty speaking or understanding

• FAST test

• Dizziness or loss of balance

• Call 000

• An unexpected fall

• Reassure and rug up the patient

• Blurred or decreased vision or loss of vision

• If the casualty is conscious, support their head and shoulders on pillows, loosen any tight clothing and ensure their airway is clear

• Difficulty swallowing • Severe and abrupt headache • Drowsiness

• If unconscious, place in the recovery position and monitor signs of life.

Diabetes For our body to work properly, it needs to be able to convert the sugar from food (glucose) into energy. A hormone called insulin, which is produced in the pancreas, plays an essential role in this conversion. In people with diabetes, insulin is no longer produced by the body or is not produced in adequate amounts to do its job. If glucose is not converted to energy, sugar builds up in the blood and the cells do not receive the energy they need. There are three types of diabetes, described as follows:

Figure 7.13

All forms of diabetes require a healthy eating and physical acivity regime as part of their management

Type 1—the body does not produce insulin at all, so regular insulin injections are required. Type 2—the pancreas does not make enough insulin or the insulin that is produced does not do its job properly. This is the most common type of diabetes. Gestational diabetes—developed during pregnancy, as pregnant women need more insulin than normal. This type of diabetes usually disappears after the baby is born. If treated and managed correctly, most people experience no adverse affects from their diabetes. All forms of diabetes require a healthy eating and physical activity regime as part of their management. A medical emergency may arise if a diabetic’s blood glucose levels become too low (hypoglycaemia) or too high (hyperglycaemia). The most common form of diabetic emergency is hypoglycaemia, which can be caused by missing meals, eating too many carbohydrate-rich foods, overly strenuous exercise and/or drinking alcohol. If untreated, hypoglycaemia may lead to a diabetic coma. Hyperglycaemia is less common and can be caused by sickness, infections, too many carbohydrate-rich foods and/or not enough insulin.


Diabetic coma where a diabetic is unconscious due to blood sugar levels being too low or too high.

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Table 7.17 Signs, symptoms and primary management of diabetes

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

Hypoglycaemia

Hypoglycaemia

• Weakness, dizziness, light-headedness

• Tingling or numbness around the lips and fingers

• Headache

• Hunger

• Shaking

• Confusion or aggression

• Sweating

• Unconsciousness

• Lack of concentration

If conscious:

If unconscious:

• Give a quick-acting/easily consumable carbohydrate, e.g. a sweet drink (not ‘diet’ drink), honey or jelly beans

• DRABCD

• Follow this with a more long-acting carbohydrate, e.g. fruit

• Rapid pulse and racing heart beat

• Monitor the person and, if they still feel unwell, repeat the first step and seek medical advice

Hyperglycaemia

Hyperglycaemia

• Call 000 • Give nothing by mouth

• Excessive thirst

• Rapid pulse

If conscious:

If unconscious:

• Frequent urination

• Allow the patient to self-administer their insulin or diabetic medication

• DRABCD

• Tiredness

• A smell of acetone on the breath (extreme cases)

• Blurred vision

• Unconsciousness

• Seek medical attention if required

• Give nothing by mouth

• Encourage patient to drink sugar-free drinks

• Hot, dry skin

• Call 000

Epilepsy Seizure a fit or convulsion.

Epilepsy is a disorder of normal brain functioning that takes the form of seizures. A seizure occurs when the brain’s nerve cells misfire and generate a sudden, uncontrolled burst of electrical activity in the brain. Epilepsy can result from brain injury, infections, tumours, degenerative conditions and family history. An epileptic seizure can be very frightening but most seizures will stop of their own accord and, once the person becomes reoriented, there will be no adverse affects. Many people with epilepsy control their seizures with medication. Table 7.18 Signs, symptoms and primary management of epilepsy

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• A sudden cry

During the seizure:

After the seizure:

Seek medical aid if:

• The person may fall to the ground and lie rigid for a few seconds

• Note the time the seizure began

• DRABCD • Place in the recovery position

• The seizure lasts for more than 5 minutes

• Do not restrain the person or try to put anything in their mouth

• Reassurance

• The person is injured

• Manage any injuries sustained during the seizure

• The person is pregnant

• Jerky, spasmodic muscular movements • Frothing at the mouth • Loss of control of bladder or bowel

• Protect them from injury or danger, for example, move tables and chairs away

• Allow the patient to sleep while monitoring signs of life

• You know it is the person’s first seizure

• Protect their head


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Asthma Asthma is a chronic inflammation and narrowing of the airways. The bronchioles (small air passages) contract and, therefore, restrict the amount of oxygen exchanged within the lungs. The narrowing of the airways leaves people with a tight chest, breathlessness and wheezing. Many factors can trigger an asthma attack including allergies, respiratory infections, exercise, emotions, smoke and/or a change of seasons. Table 7.19 Signs, symptoms and primary management of asthma

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Difficulty in breathing, particularly taking breaths in

• DRABCD

• Coughing and wheezing • Hands clasped to the throat • Able to speak only a few gasping words • Pale and sweaty • Anxious and panicky

• If the person has an asthma management plan—follow it • Follow the asthma first aid procedure below • If the patient becomes unconscious follow the DRABCD Action Plan

• Lips, face, earlobes and fingertips turning blue • Unconscious

Figure 7.14

The asthma first aid procedure

Reproduced with the permission of Asthma Foundation NSW

Anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis is a severe and sudden allergic reaction. It can occur when a susceptible person is exposed to an allergen such as a food, certain drugs or an insect sting. Reactions usually begin within minutes of exposure and can progress rapidly. Anaphylaxis is potentially life threatening as it can result in blockage of the airway and always requires an emergency response. Prompt treatment with injected adrenalin is required to halt progression of the allergic reaction and can be life saving.


Adrenalin a hormone that increases the body’s heart rate and blood pressure. It is manufactured by the body but can also be produced synthetically.

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Figure 7.15

How to administer an Epipen in the case of an anaphylactic reaction

Table 7.20 Signs, symptoms and primary management of anaphylaxis

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

• Flushing and/or swelling of the face • Itching and/or swelling of the lips, tongue or mouth • A sense of tightness in the throat • Difficulty breathing and/or swallowing • Hives or an itchy rash on the body • Swelling of the extremities • Nausea, cramps or vomiting • Faint, rapid pulse • Low blood pressure • Light-headedness, feeling faint, collapse • Anxiety or distress • Unconsciousness

• DRABCD • Call 000 • If the patient has an emergency action plan for anaphylaxis—follow it • Administer EpiPen or EpiPen Jnr at once • If the patient is conscious, help them into a position that makes breathing easiest • If the patient is unconscious, place them in recovery position and monitor signs of life

Poisoning A poison is any substance that harms body tissues when it is used in the wrong way, by the wrong person and/or in the wrong amount. Some poisons are harmful in small amounts, while others require larger amounts to be poisonous. Most environments house a number of poisonous substances, which are often not stored correctly, allowing easy access. Simple measures such as storing poisons in a locked cupboard, disposing of medications appropriately, buying products with child-resistant lids, reading instructions on medications, and wearing protective clothing when working with chemicals can go a long way to preventing poisoning.

Table 7.21 Signs, symptoms and primary management of poisoning

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

These will differ depending on the type of poison but may include: • Abdominal pain • Burns • Headache • Nausea or vomiting • Drowsiness • Difficulty breathing • Blurred vision • Bite or injection marks • Smell of fumes • Odours on the breath • Burning pain in mouth, throat and stomach • Seizures • Sudden collapses • Unconsciousness • Open chemical or medication containers near the patient

• • • • • • •


• • • • •

DRABCD Call 000 Try to establish what the poison was Call 13 11 26 Do not induce vomiting (ingested poison) Do not give anything by mouth (ingested poison) Wipe obvious contamination away from the mouth and nose (ingested poison) Ask the patient to remove any contaminated clothing (absorbed poison) Flood the skin with cool, running water (absorbed poison) Move the person to fresh air, or open any windows (inhaled poisons) Loosen tight clothing (inhaled poisons) Reassure the person

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Poisoning can occur through a number of means such as ingestion, absorption, injection or inhalation. Poisons can move rapidly through the bloodstream once in the body and, if not treated, can lead to death. The Poisons Information Centre can provide information about poisons and help in an emergency. It has a national 24/7 call centre that can be reached on 13 11 26.

Bites and stings Australia has a wide range of animals that can bite and sting. Most are non-lethal, simply causing pain and discomfort, however, some bites and stings have the potential to be deadly. An allergic reaction to a bite or sting can further complicate matters. Treatment for bites and stings varies depending upon the type of animal or insect involved but, in general, for all bites and stings the first aider should try to keep the patient completely still, manage their pain and endeavour to stop any further release of venom.

Figure 7.16

A Pressure Immobilisation Bandage can help to slow the flow of venom around the body

Table 7.22 Signs, symptoms and primary management of bites and stings

Signs and symptoms Will vary according to the animal or insect but can include: • Intense pain at the site • Burning feeling where bitten • Local swelling • Swollen eyelids, lips, neck and face • Vomiting or nausea • Sting or creature still left in the body, e.g. a bee sting or a tick • Bite, scratch or fang marks • Sweating

• • • • • • •

Blurred vision Headache Muscle weakness Drowsiness Pain or tightness in chest Difficulty breathing Unconsciousness

Primary management Bites or stings that cause red, hot, itchy symptoms

Bites or stings from spiky, spiny or fishy creatures

Bites or stings from things that can kill you

bee mosquito wasp ant tick

sea urchin sting ray stone fish bullrout

snake funnel web spider blue ring octopus cone shell allergic reactions box jellyfish—douse liberally with vinegar

nettle jelly fish centipede scorpion redback and other spiders

Treatment: • DRABCD • Ask the patient not to move • Remove sting, creature or tentacles • Apply cold or ice packs to the site • Reassure patient • Monitor them for shock and/or allergic reactions • Call 000 for redback spider bites


flat head leatherjacket crown-of-thorns starfish

Treatment: • DRABCD • Lie or sit the patient down • Extract barb if possible • Apply a hot pack to the site or immerse the bite area in hot water • Reassure the patient • Monitor for shock and/or allergic reactions • Call 000 especially for stone fish and sting rays

Treatment: DRABCD • Lie or sit the patient down • Pressure Immobilisation Bandage (PIB) • Ensure the casualty does not move • Reassure the patient • Monitor for shock and/or allergic reactions • Call 000

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Exposure to heat and cold

Hyperthermia overheating of the body causing the core body temperature to rise.

The body is designed to function effectively at a constant temperature of approximately 37 degrees Celsius. If the environment that a person is in or the activity they are doing causes their body temperature to rise or fall significantly, the body can no longer function properly. Heat-induced illness is called hyperthermia and can be caused by excessive physical exertion, hot climatic conditions coupled with high humidity, inadequate fluid intake and infections. Young children and the elderly are especially prone to hyperthermia. There are various levels of heat-induced illness ranging from heat swelling and heat cramps to heat exhaustion and heatstroke. All body organs are affected by heatstroke, which is a potentially lethal condition. Table 7.23 Signs, symptoms and primary management of exposure to heat

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

Heat exhaustion

Heat exhaustion

• Fatigue

• Lie the patient down in the shade

• Thirst

• Loosen and remove excessive clothing

• Headache • Nausea and vomiting

• Moisten the skin with cold cloths and/or water

• Dizziness and fainting

• Cool by fanning

• Rapid breathing and shortness of breath

• If conscious, give fluids to drink

• Pale, clammy skin

• Seek medical attention if they do not recover fairly rapidly

• Rapid, weak pulse Heatstroke • Lack of sweating—flushed, dry skin • Temperature above 40 °C • Rapid, pounding pulse which may weaken • Headache • Nausea and vomiting • Dizziness and possible hallucinations • Irritability and confusion • Altered mental state

Heatstroke • DRABCD • Move casualty to a cool environment • Moisten the skin • Fan repeatedly • Apply wrapped ice packs to neck, groin and armpits • If conscious, give fluids to drink • Call 000 for urgent medical attention

• Seizures • Unconsciousness

Hypothermia sub-normal body temperature that causes a drop in core body temperature.


Hypothermia occurs when the body experiences overexposure to cold temperatures causing the core body temperature to drop. The extremities are often the first thing affected from overexposure to cold, as blood vessels in the skin will shut down (vasoconstriction) to prevent core heat from escaping. Hypothermia can be categorised as mild, moderate or severe. The further the body temperature falls, the more life threatening the condition.

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Table 7.24 Signs, symptoms and primary management of exposure to cold

Signs and symptoms

Primary management

Mild hypothermia (35 °–34 °C)

• DRABCD

• Maximum shivering • Pale, cool skin

• Gently move patient to a warm, dry area protected from wind, rain, snow and cold

• Poor coordination

• Lie the person down and remove any wet clothing

• Slurred speech

• Wrap the patient in blankets, a space blanket or a sleeping bag

• Usually responsive but may be apathetic and slow to react Moderate hypothermia (33 °–30 °C) • Most shivering stops

• Ensure the head is covered to maintain body heat • If conscious, give warm fluids

• Consciousness impaired

• If the patient is shivering, rewarming may be tried using body-to-body contact or applying hot water bottles etc. to the patient’s neck, armpits and groin

• Pulse and respiration slow

• Call 000 and stay with the person till help arrives

Severe hypothermia (<30 °C)

DO NOT

• Progressive loss of consciousness

• Give alcohol

• Pupils fixed and dilated

• Massage or rub the affected area/s

• Heart rhythm likely to change

• Expose to excessive direct heat

• Muscles become rigid


It is a common myth that treatment for an epileptic seizure is to force something into the person’s mouth to stop them from swallowing their tongue. Explain why this is not a sensible course of action and then describe the best management for this medical condition.

2

Describe the steps involved in treatment for an asthma attack.

3

Critically analyse the use of a Pressure Immobilisation Bandage in the treatment of bites or stings from snakes, cone shell, blue-ringed octopus and funnel web spiders.

4

Prepare a mind map that clearly shows the different management for various bites and stings.

5

Explain why a first aider should not put a hypothermia patient in a hot bath or close to an open fire to restore their body temperature.

What does the individual need to consider in administering first aid? While having the knowledge and skills to deliver first aid in various situations is important, this is only one aspect of first aid. The first aider should always be looking for ways to: 1 2 3 4


promote a safe environment preserve life prevent the condition or injury from worsening promote recovery and provide comfort.

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In light of these first aid principles, there are number of things the individual should consider before, during and after the administration of first aid.

Physical environment As already mentioned in this chapter, the safety of the first aider, the victim and any bystanders is of paramount importance in a first aid situation. The physical environment can pose a number of threats to safety, and the first aider should analyse the various safety issues associated with common physical environments to enable the formulation of protective strategies.

Traffic accidents Traffic accidents are a dynamic environment; danger, in the form of oncoming cars, fire, chemicals, unstable trees or powerlines and damaged vehicles, is always present. The first aider needs to look for ways that the traffic accident site can be made safe for all involved and ensure that no further accidents occur. Things that can be done to reduce danger include: Ensuring any assisting cars are parked safely off the road with hazard lights on. Setting up warnings for oncoming cars a fair distance from the accident, in both directions, by, for example, asking a bystander to warn cars to slow down or placing warning markers on the road. Using headlights to illuminate the accident area. Turning off the ignition of any cars involved in the accident, applying the handbrake and, if on a slope, chocking the wheels of the vehicles. Stopping people from smoking at the scene. Not moving victims from the scene unless they are in immediate danger. Checking around the accident site for victims who may have been thrown from the vehicle/s. Avoiding any wires or power lines. Treating any injuries, giving priority to unconscious and bleeding casualties Calling emergency services.

Water environment Water environments have a number of inherent risks and every year there are several cases of a rescuer drowning while trying to save someone else. The personal safety of the first aider is paramount, and assessing a water environment should always involve considering ways to get a person to safety without the rescuer actually entering the water. If the casualty is conscious, the first aider can first talk to the person and encourage them to move to safety. Reaching out to the casualty with a broom, branch or other rigid item may be a way of pulling them to safety. It may also be possible to throw the casualty some sort of floatation device such as a ball, body board or Esky, or a rope to tow them in. If the casualty is too far away for these methods to be useful, it may be necessary to wade, swim or row out to them. Care should always be taken when approaching a casualty in the water, as they will be panicking and may pull the rescuer under if they get too close. The first aider should try to reassure the person and, in the first instance, use a towel or rope to tow them back to shore rather than making physical contact with them.


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If the casualty is unconscious, the first aider should use the DRABCD Action Plan and get the person to shore as quickly as possible. Deep-water resuscitation is an advanced skill that should not be attempted by an untrained person.

Electricity Any first aid situation where electricity is involved is considered extremely dangerous and could be fatal. The first step in making the environment safe would be to turn the electricity off at the mains, if possible. The first aider should try to remove the casualty from the electrical supply without directly touching them, for example, by using dry clothes to drag them, or a wooden stick to push them away from the source of the electricity. If the casualty is in contact with high-voltage power lines, under no circumstances should the first aider approach the victim. The job of the first aider in this circumstance would be to keep bystanders at least 6 metres away from any live materials.

Infection control and protection In an emergency, there may be body fluids and/or secretions present. These can serve as a path of transmission for a variety of infections, and the first aider needs to be extremely vigilant in minimising their contact with body fluids. Concerns about disease transmission can cause some people to be reluctant to perform first aid; however, there are no recorded cases of viruses such as hepatitis or Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) being passed on through CPR or other first aid treatments. If a first aider follows simple hygiene measures when administering first aid, they can greatly reduce the risk of contamination through body fluids. These measures include: covering any cuts or sores with waterproof dressings washing hands thoroughly with warm water and soap before and after administering first aid wearing disposable latex gloves wearing eye protection, such as sunglasses, if possible wearing a protective cover over clothing where possible, for example, wearing a plastic apron or garbage bag carrying and using a mouth shield when performing CPR encouraging the casualty to perform their own first aid if possible, for example, by applying pressure to a bleeding wound. If any blood or fluids are spilt on the surrounding area, they should be cleaned up with paper towel and warm, soapy water. When the first aider has finished treating the casualty and cleaning the area, they should put any gloves, aprons, cloths and/or bandages into a plastic bag sealed inside another plastic bag, place this in the garbage bin and wash their hands. If the first aider comes into direct contact with blood or fluids, they should wash their skin with soapy water or their eyes, nose or mouth with running water and seek medical advice.

HIV/AIDS The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is found in blood and body fluids and weakens the immune system of the infected person, causing them to become more susceptible to different infections and illnesses. Transmission of


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HIV can occur through numerous means, including infected blood being passed to another person via a cut on the skin. There is no evidence that HIV can be spread through saliva. HIV can cause Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), which is the development of life-threatening diseases due to the breakdown of the body’s immune system. There is no cure for HIV/AIDS, although there are treatments available to slow down the HIV and damage to the immune system.

Blood-borne viruses (hepatitis B and C) Blood-borne viruses are those that are carried in the blood and cause disease. The viruses can be spread from person to person regardless of whether they are showing symptoms of a particular disease or not, so safety precautions should be used in all instances. Hepatitis B is one of the most common infectious diseases in the world. The hepatitis B virus causes inflammation of the liver and is found in blood and body fluids. It is generally contracted by infected blood passing into an open cut or wound. Hepatitis B can be prevented with a vaccination, and there are a number of treatments for those with the disease. Hepatitis C is a virus that also causes liver inflammation and disease. It too is spread through contact with infected blood. There is no vaccine for hepatitis C; however, treatments are available.


Under the headings of reach, throw, tow, wade and row, identify ways that a first aider could assist a conscious but injured person in a water environment.

2

Explain the procedures that should be taken to prevent contamination through body fluids when administering first aid.

3

‘The safety of the first aider is paramount and outweighs treatment of the casualty’. Justify this statement.

Legal and moral dilemmas A first aider needs to consider a number of legal and moral questions before they administer first aid. A person should have thought these through when undertaking any first aid training, and should give them due consideration again during the situational analysis of a first aid situation.

Legal implications In our increasingly litigious society, people can be reluctant to provide assistance in an emergency. However, gaining an understanding of the various pieces of legislation that are in place in relation to administering first aid can allay some fears. Citizens have no legal obligation to assist someone in an emergency and cannot be held accountable if they choose not to help. However, many states and territories in Australia have in place regulations that provide some measure of protection for the public from


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liability during a rescue attempt or the administration of first aid in an emergency. The Civil Liability Act 2002 (NSW) has a Good Samaritan clause, which affords protection. The Act states that a person who administers first aid cannot be held liable if, in an emergency, they are acting in good faith when coming to the assistance of a person who is injured or at risk of being injured and they do not expect payment or reward. If a person decides to assist in an emergency, they should then do so to a standard that is appropriate to their level of training. The Good Samaritan clause takes into account that everyone can make mistakes and it will protect helpful citizens if any mistakes made are reasonable under the circumstances. When acting in good faith, it is important that the first aider seek the consent of the person they are going to administer first aid to. Consent can be implied if the person is unconscious or unable to give consent. It is also wise to keep records if you administer first aid in an emergency. These can include notes on the date, time and place of the emergency, details of the casualty, their injury, what first aid was administered, what happened next and signatures of the first aider and the casualty if possible. With regard to the workplace, all states and territories have occupational health and safety regulations that ensure employers maintain a safe working environment and minimise risks within the workplace. In NSW these fall within the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 that states an employer has legal obligations to provide first aid facilities and personnel, safe work spaces, safe systems for equipment and chemical handling, and protective equipment. This regulation also encourages preventative strategies in the workplace and accurate record keeping of all workplace injuries.

Is this a case of litigiousness gone too far? Injured shopper sues claiming first aid treatment was assault. A woman from rural NSW who was injured when visiting Sydney on a shopping trip is suing, saying that the emergency first aid treatment provided to her by a fellow shopper was in fact unlawful assault. Mrs Alison Wheeler, 45, tripped down the escalators at a popular Sydney shopping centre while visiting last month. She claims that another shopper who came to her assistance permanently damaged her elbow whilst administering first aid and has begun legal proceedings to seek compensation for the alleged further injury. Mrs Wheeler says she merely sprained her elbow in the fall and asserts that the person who tried to help her actually made the injury worse; causing shock, permanent damage, a loss of range of movement in the elbow, discomfort and ongoing pain.


It is understood that she has undergone numerous operations since the incident. The injured woman states that the first aider was negligent in her treatment and believes that the treatment provided went well beyond any first aid training amounting to unlawful assault and battery. This atypical case is causing much debate in both legal and community circles. Many people are concerned what impact the success of such a case may have on the willingness of the general public to administer first aid in emergency situations. A number of solicitors making comment on the case have stressed the importance of first aiders using their common sense and not over-stepping their capabilities when administering emergency care, especially in circumstances where their treatment may cause further problems.

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In this article, a number of solicitors are referred to as stressing the ‘importance of first aiders using their common sense and not over-stepping their capabilities when administering emergency care, especially in circumstances where their treatment may cause further problems.’ Discuss this statement.

2

If a case like the one in the article was successful, predict the implications it may have on the general public’s willingness to administer first aid in an emergency.

Moral obligations Legally there is no obligation for an everyday citizen to stop and render assistance in the event of an emergency; however, many people would see it as their moral obligation to help someone in difficulty. ‘Duty of care’ refers to the duty by one person to another to act in a certain way. Due to the knowledge and skill a first aider may have in relation to first aid, they have a duty of care towards any casualties in an emergency. The first aider also has a duty of care to exercise reasonable care and skill when providing treatment. There is an additional duty of care, which is to continue administering first aid once started until someone more qualified takes over or the first aider is no longer physically able to continue. A first aider also has a duty of care to themself to ensure that they are not at risk when providing first aid treatment. Society values responsible citizenship and there are many ways that a person can exhibit these qualities in relation to first aid. A responsible citizen undertakes first aid training in order to obtain the skills and knowledge necessary to administer first aid if required and, in doing so, shows care and concern for their fellow citizens. A responsible citizen may also carry first aid equipment and supplies with them when travelling and may volunteer to be the point of contact for first aid in their workplace or sporting club. A responsible citizen will also seek professional help for a casualty as soon as possible in any emergency.

Commonsense versus heroics Sometimes in an emergency people can be caught up in the moment and take unnecessary risks in order to ‘save the day’. While heroic acts may seem appropriate at the time, they are rarely well thought-out and can often result in further injury to the casualty, the first aider and/or the bystanders. It is important that the first aider approach any emergency in a calm and considered manner, and apply the DRABCD Action Plan to guide their actions and treatments. A commonsense approach will ascertain that a safe environment is maintained and no further injuries occur. Part of acting with commonsense is ensuring that any treatment given is commensurate with the first aider’s training and knowledge and not beyond their capabilities.

Support following first aid situations It is quite normal for a first aider to experience strong emotional and physical reactions following their involvement in an emergency or traumatic event.


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The types of responses that may occur include fatigue, disturbed sleep, restlessness, mood changes, anxiousness, withdrawal, poor concentration and recurrent thoughts about the event. The person may also feel emotions such as guilt, sadness, fear or anger. These reactions may last a few days or weeks and are part of the healing process. The first aider can address these feelings and reactions with the help of family and friends, and by employing a number of coping strategies such as: acknowledging that the event was distressing confronting what happened by talking about it and expressing their feelings endeavouring to return to a normal daily routine getting plenty of rest participating in regular exercise using relaxation methods such as meditation or yoga avoiding the excessive use of drugs or alcohol.

Debriefing Sometimes it may be necessary for the first aider to be involved in a debriefing session after an emergency or traumatic event. This can be informal in nature and may involve talking with people who were present at the scene or with empathetic others. Debriefing can also be more formal and may be organised by the person’s workplace using an external facilitator. Debriefing sessions generally involve talking about the event, asking questions, expressing concerns and discussing the individual’s needs. Involvement in a debriefing session allows the first aider to put the event into perspective and experience closure, making it easier to move on and resume their normal life.

Figure 7.17

Talking can help first aiders cope with emotional and physical reactions which may follow their involvement in an emergency or trauma

Counselling Most first aiders who have experienced a traumatic or emergency event will recover on their own in a few weeks with the support and encouragement of others. However, some people may find they cannot move past the experience and that their life is being adversely affected. Normal physical and emotional reactions to stress can give way to more serious effects such as severe sleep problems, depression, feeling on edge, constantly reliving the experience and losing touch with reality. People should consider seeking professional assistance if they: do not start to feel better after three weeks are feeling anxious or distressed all the time are thinking of hurting themself or others are unable to respond emotionally to others find their reactions are interfering with their day-to-day life are using drugs, alcohol or gambling as a coping mechanism. There are many people and resources in the community that can be accessed to gain help. These include speaking to a local general practitioner, the local community health centre or contacting mental health professionals such as counsellors, psychiatrists, psychologists and social workers. The Australian Psychological Society has a free referral service which can be contacted on 1800 333 497.


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Conduct a class debate around the legal and moral dilemmas associated with providing first aid.

2

Speak to a friend or parent about the provisions for first aid in their workplace. Make an assessment of these based on the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 and its requirements for employers with regard to first aid.

3

Research the local area and identify sources of support that are available for first aiders after they have been involved in an emergency.

4

Recommend some strategies that can be employed to assist a person in making informed decisions relying on commonsense, rather than heroics, in emergencies.

chapter review Recap A situational analysis can assist the first aider to assess an emergency and make informed decisions about treatment priorities. The DRABCD Action Plan is a useful assessment tool to be used when dealing with any serious injuries, medical conditions and emergencies. The STOP plan is a series of steps that can be followed to assess, treat and manage injuries or illnesses that are not life threatening. In a crisis, a first aider should be aware of the importance of being able to quickly administer CPR, if necessary, and of the critical nature of bleeding, shock and spinal injuries. A casualty should only be moved if they are in danger of further injury. A first aider needs to be able to recognise the signs and symptoms of the major types of injuries and medical conditions so they can decide upon the best way to manage the casualty. An unconscious person should always be placed in the recovery position and monitored for signs of life, which include breathing, movement and responsiveness. Shock can occur after any emergency and, if left untreated, can be life threatening. When administering first aid, it is important to analyse the safety issues that may be associated with various physical environments such as traffic accidents, water environments and electricity. The first aider’s number one priority should be to do no harm to themself, the casualty or any bystanders. A number of legal and moral dilemmas may arise when a person is considering whether to administer first aid. Common sense should always prevail when making decisions.


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Organisation

Current URL

Useful for …

The Australian Resuscitation Council

www.resus.org.au

Contains the most up-to-date information on resuscitation techniques and guidelines; provides basic information on first aid management and treatment for a number of injuries and illnesses

St John Ambulance Australia

www.stjohn.org.au

Information on first aid management and treatment for a number of injuries and illnesses; information on first aid courses and other services provided by this organisation

Australian Red Cross

www.redcross.org.au

First aid safety tips, first aid courses and equipment (search under NSW)

Australian Stroke Foundation

www.strokefoundation.com.au

Information on the nature of stroke, and advice for detection and treatment

Asthma Foundation NSW

www.asthmansw.org.au

Comprehensive information about asthma—its nature, triggers, treatment and a link to the Asthma Friendly Schools website.

Diabetes Australia

www.diabetesaustralia.com.au

Information about the different types of diabetes; causes, treatment and management of the condition

Royal Life Saving Society—Australia

www.royallifesaving.com.au

Fact sheets relating to safety advice and first aid in water environments, and drowning statistics.

Hepatitis Australia

www.hepatitisaustralia.com

Information about hepatitis A, B, C, D and E including transmission, symptoms, treatment and available vaccines.

Anaphylaxis Australia

www.allergyfacts.org.au

Information about all aspects of anaphylaxis, including treatment and management.

chapter review

Useful websites for study

219

Exam-style questions 1 Describe the signs, symptoms and management of a head injury.

(3 marks)

2 Distinguish between hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia, and clarify the

(5 marks)

key management points for each condition. 3 Explain the assessment and management procedures a first aider should

(12 marks)

follow when responding to an emergency.


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8

The elements of composition—space, dynamics, time and rhythm, and relationships— are the basic building blocks of all movement. An understanding of the elements of composition and how they apply to different movement mediums can allow performers to be creative in their thinking and can assist them when learning different skills, composing movement sequences, devising tactics and strategies, and appraising composition and preformance.

How do the elements of composition apply to different movement mediums? Movement medium the context in which movement occurs, such as dance, gymnastics, aerobics or games. Execution the delivery of movement, the way it is performed.

Manipulate to change or alter in some way.

Game strategies set patterns of movement sometimes referred to as tactics or plays that players in a team will use to help them achieve the best game outcome.

Whatever the movement medium, the elements of composition combine to form a framework for movement in that context. How the various elements are applied to different movement mediums has an impact upon the way movement is performed, the success of the movement’s execution, how it is viewed by others and how it is appraised. Each element of composition is made up of certain components that can be manipulated according to the type of movement required and the purpose of that movement.

Space Space refers to where the body moves in a particular area. It is a crucial element to be considered when composing movement sequences, routines and game strategies. The size or shape of a space and the amount of people inhabiting it can affect the way movement occurs within it. For example, the movement of an athlete performing a routine on a trampoline will be quite different to the movement of a number of players on a hockey field, and different again to that of a large dance troupe performing their finale on stage. There are different types of space: Performance space—the area in which a performance or movement activity occurs, for example, a stage, a gymnastics mat or a playing court/field.


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Figure 8.1

TIME AND RHYTHM

SPACE

(when) • musical applications • duration • momentum • pace

(where) • direction • level • dimension • patterns and formations

The elements of composition are the building blocks of all movement

RELATIONSHIPS (with whom or what) • people • apparatus and equipment • formations (team/partner) and positions

THE ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITION

DYNAMICS (how) • force • flow

Personal space—the area immediately around a performer or athlete’s body. It is highly variable and will expand or contract in relation to others and the action occurring around the individual. General space—the open space that is in a movement area. This is the space that a performer or athlete shares with other people and with equipment, props, sets and/or permanent fixtures such as goal posts. A number of spatial components can be used to add meaning, value or interest to the movement occurring in a particular space, or can allow the space to be used more effectively. A skilful performer, player or choreographer can look at the space available to them and assess how these spatial elements can be applied to best advantage.

Figure 8.2

The size, shape and amount of people in a space will affect movement within it

Direction We use direction as a component of the space around us every day, whether by walking down the school corridor or mowing the lawn. This is the path you take to move from one area of space to another. Direction can be as simple as forwards and backwards, however, it also includes sideways, diagonal, up and down, zigzag and circular movements. Direction is generally determined


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222

Figure 8.3

An arabesque will have more impact for the audience if viewed from side on

Intricacy the difficulty, complexity or sophistication of a movement.

by the way the body is facing when it moves or the body part that leads the movement. For example, forward movement occurs when the body is facing forwards and the front of the body leads the movement. In most movement mediums, a variety of different directions are combined in order to best use the performance and general space. Direction, when applied to composition, usually serves a specific purpose. A choreographer composing a dance or cheerleading routine will make use of different directions to add to the aesthetic value of a performance. Combining different directions within a performance can also add to its complexity. A dance routine that uses only forwards and backwards directions is less difficult to perform than one that incorporates circular and zigzag movements. Direction changes during a performance will also add to its intricacy and appeal. Certain skills within a performance may have more impact for the audience when viewed from different directions. For example, an arabesque is more effective when viewed from the side rather than the front; therefore, a performer may change their direction in relation to the audience before executing this skill. A performer can apply can directional change to use a performance space to their benefit. For example, a rhythmic gymnast will cover the whole area of the designated mat space by using directional changes. This gives them more room to perform the skills required in their routine, makes the routine more visually interesting to the audience and may allow more complex skills to be incorporated. Direction can be used to communicate a message to the audience via the visual medium. An example is that moving backwards generally indicates retreat, while forward movement can suggest a chase; spinning can suggest confusion and jumping up can convey excitement. Within the game’s movement medium, direction has a more functional purpose. In team sports, the direction of movement is often determined by the aim of the game, which may be to move in the direction of the goal area in order to score. A player chooses the direction they move with a particular purpose in mind, such as to outmanoeuvre the opposition. To do this, a hockey player may dodge in a zigzag direction, while a touch player may perform a dummy pass by moving sideways to confuse the opposition.

Level The term ‘level’ refers to the height at which movement occurs. A number of different levels can be used within space: they can be applied to the individual and the height of their movement within their personal space, and to groups and the height of their movements within the general and performance space. ‘Level’ can also refer to the use of floor space and air space by equipment or people. In all movement mediums, three levels are used to varying degrees. These are:


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Low—close to the ground. There is a variety of lows such as lying, rolling, sitting, crawling, kneeling, squatting and crouching. Medium—a level somewhere between the hips and the shoulders. A person is moving at a medium level when they are standing or running. High—above the shoulders, often involving elevation such as jumps and leaps. The use of levels can make a space more interesting, can demonstrate the strength and agility of the performer or athlete, and can be applied to strategy and tactics within games. Dancers and gymnasts are encouraged to use a variety of levels when composing their movement in order to make the routine more visually exciting. A change in level may be as simple as a dancer standing at a medium level and extending their arms above their head to a high level, or as complex as a gymnast leaping from a medium level into the air to perform a somersault (high) and then dropping to the floor and rolling forwards (low). Cheerleading and aerobics routines demonstrate the prowess of the performer and are breathtaking for the audience as exciting changes in level occur such as throws, jumps, leaps and balances. Equipment or sets can also be used to provide level changes. For example, a choreographer may arrange the dancers on stage at different levels using the floor, raised boxes, steps and chairs, or a dancer may be lowered onto the stage from above. In games and sports, athletes use different levels throughout the activity to bring them closer to the desired outcome of the game. Changes in levels in a group fitness class such as body combat or step aerobics ensure that all muscles of the body are used during the workout. A basketball game requires players to move through all levels when running, defending and shooting; an AFL player uses high levels to their advantage to take a mark; and a rugby player moves through the low level in order to tackle their opponent. Skilled athletes in various sports will use levels to their advantage when passing. A netball player may choose to use a lob pass (high), a bounce pass (low) or a chest pass (medium) depending upon the position of their opponents and their assessment of which level of pass will most effectively move the ball towards their goal circle. A hockey player may use a flick pass, which moves the ball through the air into the goal or a fast pass along the ground to their teammate. Cricket, softball and baseball players will practise a variety of shots at different levels so that, in a game, they can use the best hit to ensure the most amount of runs. Field athletes who are involved in throwing and jumping events are well aware of the optimum level at which to throw or jump in order to gain the most distance for their event. A diver or gymnast knows that they must gain height in order to perform complex twisting and turning skills. Coaches have a good understanding of the use of levels in sport and will apply this when they are analysing a particular game and devising game tactics and strategies.


Figure 8.4

The use of levels can add visual appeal to a performance

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Dimensions Dimension is a measure of spatial extent. It refers to the amount of performance space that is available to be used, and can refer to an individual and the extent of their movement within the general space. The dimensions of a space include its: height width depth Dimension is an important aspect of composition, as the size of a space will determine the type of activity that can occur within it, and the skills and movement patterns that may be included in a performance or game. Someone who is composing a dance or gymnastics routine must be very familiar with the dimensions of the performance space they have to work in. This will determine the number and type of skills used, the directions in which the performers can move, and how many performers can fit within the space to have the most effect. In gymnastics, points will be deducted if a gymnast moves outside the allocated performance space, so it is critical that the gymnast has an intimate knowledge of the area’s dimensions. Part of the impact of a mass dance performance, such as the Rock Eisteddfod Challenge, is large numbers of dancers on stage moving together. A choreographer needs to know how many dancers will fill out the performance space without it looking too crowded or too empty. Sometimes a performance will need to be altered if the performance space changes. For example, a jazz dance group may have developed a routine that they perform in their dance studio. The routine is designed to fit within the dimensions of the studio space. However, if they are then asked to perform at a shopping centre to promote the group, they may need to alter their routine to fit the area provided for the performance. If the space is smaller, it may mean a change in the range of movements included in the dance or in where dancers can move to within the space. Alternatively, if the space is larger, the dancers may need to incorporate stronger moves and to produce more movement around the performance space. The dimensions of a court or field can affect the rules of the game played within that space. Consider the differences in rules from field to indoor hockey or soccer, and how the skills of those games need to be modified to best fit the change in space from a larger outdoor field to a smaller indoor area. The rules of half-court basketball change from that of a full-court basketball game to account for the smaller space in which the players move. Many sports have modified versions for younger players, for example Kanga cricket and Tee-Ball. A common denominator in all these modified games is that the dimensions of the playing area and goals are reduced to accommodate the size of the players and their less developed skill levels. Coaches and tacticians can use court or field dimensions to gain advantage in play. They may choose to use only a particular part of the playing area during the game in order to put pressure on the opposition, for example, using a half-court press in basketball or they may position their players in certain areas of the court to maximise their strengths, for example, using 6-2 offensive formation in volleyball. An individual performer or athlete needs to consider dimension in relation to their personal space and their movement in the space around them.


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Indoor Hockey court

3m

9m radius

Centre line

Minimum 36 m to maximum 44 m

Minimum 18 m to maximum 22 m

Outdoor Hockey court 91.4 m

2.19 m 14.63 m 55 m

3.66 m

22.9 m

Diagrams not to scale.

A dancer or gymnast can add interest and appeal to their performance by exploring the space above, behind, in front of, or beside them by stretching, bending, expanding, shrinking, reaching or sinking to the ground. A goalie in handball or soccer may extend their arms and legs into the space around them to lessen the goal space making it more difficult for the other team, or a basketball player may draw their arms and legs close into them and stand still in an attempt to draw a foul from an approaching player. An individual athlete or performer requires a certain amount of body awareness in relation to their dimensions in space, if they are to be successful in their movement medium. This body awareness, known as proprioception, can assist them to create appropriate muscle tensions in movement activities, to know where the body ends and external space begins and to feel the correctness of a movement or body position.


Figure 8.5

The dimensions of the space performers have to work in will determine the types of skills and movements used in the activity

Proprioception an awareness of where the body is in space, and the capacity of the body to determine where all of its parts are positioned at any given time.

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226


Explain the movement changes that would need to occur in a game of netball if it was played on a court with dimensions similar to a badminton court.

2

Explore the element of space through the following activity. • Spread the class out on a basketball court or space of a similar size. • Have everyone move around the area, avoiding other people. • Gradually reduce the space, for example, to three quarters of the court, half the court, a quarter of the court and even smaller. With each reduction in space, you are to move around the area trying to avoid others. In groups of three, discuss the types of things you did to avoid people as the space became smaller. Apply the points made from this discussion to a movement medium of your choice.

3

Using the bush dance the Heel and Toe Polka, investigate how different levels can be used when performing the dance to make it more visually appealing.

Patterns and formations When a performer or athlete moves from one place to another within the performance space, the imaginary lines or pathways that their body makes on the ground and in the air are referred to as patterns. These patterns will vary depending upon the path a person takes and the obstacles they encounter along the way. They can be straight, curved, angular, twisted, circular, spiral or zigzag. Patterns can also be made by equipment for example, the pattern a ball makes as it is thrown between and caught by different players on the court. A pattern can occur spontaneously, for example, when a touch player is running down the wing but then needs to quickly change direction to avoid a member of the opposing team. The pattern their movement makes could be represented by a straight line; a circle, to show them turning away from the opposition; then a diagonal path. Patterns can also be designed. An example of this is a set play in a sport, where the pathway of the players and ball are planned before the game and then incorporated into play. Another example could be a routine in aerobics, where the movement sequences are developed and involve different directional changes representing patterns on the floor, such as a box step or L shape. Different floor patterns can be used to create different effects in dance and gymnastics, such as a circular pattern being used to convey unity. The analysis of player patterns in sport can assist coaches to develop strategies and game plays to ensure efficient use of player energy, to reduce weak spots, and to strengthen attack and defence effectiveness. Formations involve groups of performers or players being in a particular configuration or position that has an explicit purpose. Many dances have fixed formations, such as circles in folk dance, square formations in square dance and a longways set in bush dance. These formations are part of the dance itself and may change during the performance. Formations can also be used to great effect in large group displays, for example, the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics relied on the use of many line formations to create a tremendous visual impact. Formations can also refer to the set offensive and defensive plays that are used in different games and sports. A zone defence in


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basketball is a formation, as are the short corner in hockey and the free kick in soccer. Coaches will often change the formations of players during a game in order to disrupt the pace of the other team or to counteract strategies the opposition is using.

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Figure 8.6

Different floor patterns and formations can be used for effect or for a specific purpose

FLOOR PATTERNS Spiral

Straight

Curved Combinations of pathways Zigzag

FORMATIONS Single line

Double lines

Spokes of a wheel

Geometric shapes Circle

Figure 8.7

The formation of a short corner in hockey

Attacking team

Ball Defending team


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Explore patterns and formations through the following activity. • Take a dance that is usually performed in a circle formation, such as the barn dance. • Perform the dance using different formations, for example, in lines or geometric shapes. • With a partner, examine the impact this had on the dance and outline any changes that needed to be made according to the formation used.

2

In a small group, select a message you wish to convey through dance, for example, community. Propose different floor and air patterns that could be used by the performers to relay this message to the audience.

Dynamics Figure 8.8

Different skills and activities require differing amounts of force

Dynamics refer to how the body moves. They relate to the quality of movement and the muscular tension used to create a movement. The dynamics of movement are concerned with energy and how a performer or athlete expresses the meaning or purpose of their movement. This is the element that gives movement its expressiveness. When people describe a movement or movement sequence as strong, flowing, explosive, smooth or weak they are commenting on the dynamics of that movement and how the components of force and flow are being used to give the movement interest and appeal. Performers and athletes can alter the dynamics of the skill or movement sequence they are undertaking to achieve specific purposes.

Force Force has to do with the intensity of energy that is exerted, expended or released in a movement. The amount of force will affect the quality and substance of any given movement. Force exists on a continuum that ranges from strong to gentle, and can be generated by the performer or athlete themself or as a reaction to something external such as a beat board in gymnastics. Some skills require a greater amount of force than others, in order to be successful. For example, a gymnast will not be able to complete a handspring unless they exert a large amount of force in their takeoff, and a batter in baseball will not achieve a home run unless they hit the ball with strong force. Conversely, much less force is required to successfully putt a golf ball or complete a drop shot in badminton. Skills that require large amounts of force will often be referred to as strong, powerful, explosive or forceful; whereas skills that require less amounts of force may be referred to as delicate, light, soft, gentle or precise. An athlete or performer needs to be able to control the amount of force they apply in different situations. This can be a challenge when learning new skills. As a person becomes more skilled, they will have more control over the force they use and can turn this to their benefit. For example, a skilled baseball player is able to choose whether they bunt or hit the ball, depending upon the state


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of play, and a skilled gymnast or dancer can incorporate a variety of skills requiring different amounts of force into a routine to add a higher degree of difficulty. As well as controlling the amount of force applied, an athlete or performer also needs to be able to absorb force well. Landing after a leap in dance or after performing an airborne skill in aerobics or cheerleading requires the performer to bend their knees to absorb the force. Similarly, a hockey player will allow their stick to ‘give’ when receiving a pass in order to absorb the force of the ball and gain control before passing or dribbling. The use of varying amounts of force in movement can also communicate messages to an audience. A dancer may use strong, high-energy movements during their performance to convey the idea of anger, power or excitement; whereas movements using less force can communicate passiveness, gentleness or that the dancer is floating. Typically, a choreographer will include a range of movements requiring different amounts of energy expenditure throughout the dance to tell a story. Force energy can be released continuously and evenly, resulting in movements that are smooth and sustained such as swimming laps or it can be released in a sudden, explosive action such as a dance leap, a crouch start or a golf drive. Energy can also be released in short, sharp bursts and this kind of movement is referred to as jerky. Figure 8.9

The use of strong, forceful movements in a performance of the Haka puts across a clear message

Flow Flow relates to the movement of the body or an object through space and time. Effective movement skills and patterns are based on a person’s ability to use their whole body skilfully and on the way their force is controlled or released. The two most commonly used words to describe flow are ‘bound’ and ‘free’. Bound flow relates to the performer controlling the energy of the movement. A movement is said to be bound if it can be stopped or restrained at any time without difficulty; for example, changing direction in a dance or pausing in a shape during a gymnastics routine. Bound flow does not necessarily mean that the movement stops altogether but it often involves a change of pace and energy. Often when an athlete or performer is learning a new skill, they will need to stop and start the movement until they gain mastery. Bound flow is an


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Aesthetically pleasing when something is pleasing to look at; it has a sense of flow and balance.

integral part of game play, where an athlete needs to be able to stop and start regularly when avoiding their opponent, looking for a pass, setting up a play or shooting a goal. In free flow, the movement tends to be uninterrupted. The person may not be totally in control of the energy of the movement and it is not easy to stop. This use of energy requires the performer or athlete to take some risks. Free flow tends to be the realm of the more skilled performer, as they are at the autonomous stage of skill acquisition and can perform in a more flowing manner instead of having to think about engaging their skills. Free flow is often seen in activities where improvisation is called for, such as dance. Flow can be used to describe continuity of movement, where the actions of the performer or athlete seem smooth and effortless and, as a result, are aesthetically pleasing. An example of this is linking together a series of skills into a movement sequence such as in aerobics or gymnastics, and then performing this sequence as a continuous motion. Flow is also necessary between various body parts in order for an athlete or performer to execute a skill such as throwing, kicking or hitting with ease and efficiency.

Time and rhythm Time and rhythm are critical elements of composition as they both affect the quality, flow and precision of movement in all mediums. Time refers to when the body moves, and rhythm is the underlying organisational pattern that gives order to that movement. Time and rhythm relate directly to the execution of skills and, without them, the resulting movement can be ineffective and appear rushed, uncoordinated and meaningless.

Musical applications Many movement mediums such as dance, synchronised swimming, gymnastics (artistic and rhythmic), ice dancing, aerobics and cheerleading are directly tied to music. The musical accompaniment determines many aspects of the movement including timing, duration and speed. There are a number of musical applications in relation to time and rhythm to be familiar with. Beat—a beat occurs at regular intervals, such as marked by the clapping of hands or the beat of a drum, and is the steady pulse that can be heard in a lot of music. A beat can be regular or irregular, which indicates unpredictability. Beats in music are generally organised into patterns or phrases known as bars. Bar or measure—this is a specific number of beats or counts arranged in a group. There can be two, three or four beats in a bar that make up the rhythm of the music. The first beat is usually the strongest. Metre—is the arrangement of the rhythms of a particular musical piece in a repetitive pattern of strong and weak beats. It is a very useful way to organise music as it sets up an underlying pattern in the pulse of the music, for example, strong–weak–weak–strong–weak–weak. It establishes regularity in timing. Accent—is an aspect of rhythm and refers to the emphasis placed on a particular beat in a bar. Placing an accent on a beat means that one note lasts for a different amount of time to the other notes surrounding it. The accent is usually placed at the beginning of the bar but may occur on any beat.


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Rhythmic patterns or phrases—when a series of beats is repeated, a rhythmic pattern is established. These patterns are generally part of larger rhythmic phrases. Often it is obvious where one musical phrase ends and another begins. This is useful in dance, as the end of one rhythmic phrase may indicate a change to another dance step, for example, in a bush, folk or square dance. Tempo—is the speed of the beat. It will determine the pace of the movement and can be slow, fast or otherwise. It influences how the music sounds or feels and can change abruptly during a piece of music. The tempo of a piece of music is usually indicated at its start in a musical score. Certain dances have a particular tempo at which the music should be played so the dancers can express the style of the dance, for example with the tango or waltz. Dance or music style Heel and Toe Polka

Waltz

Modern dance, country music

Time

Pattern

2 4

1 & >

2

1 & >

2

1 >

3

1 >

3

3 4

2

2

4 4

1 >

2

3

4

1 >

2

3

4

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Table 8.1 Various music patterns

Accent

Tempo

First beat of bar

Fast

First beat of bar

Moderate

First beat of bar

Dependent on the dance and the music

Duration Duration can mean the length of time required to complete a particular movement, and the length of time in which an activity is performed. In movement mediums where a performance is accompanied by music, the duration of the routine is determined by the length of the track. In trampolining, all routines are restricted to 10 bounces but the duration of the routine will vary depending upon the complexity of the skills included. Skills that involve many twists and turns will take longer to execute than simpler skills and, therefore, extend the performance time. In many games, the duration of activity is predetermined, such as four 15-minute quarters in netball or two 40-minute halves in rugby. However, other sports are not restricted by a time limit and the duration of play may be fairly short, or extended, depending upon the skill of the players and how many points are scored; for example, in volleyball, tennis or table tennis. Coaches and players can attempt to manipulate the use of time in some game situations by calling time outs to slow down a game when losing or by speeding up the game play with distance throws when winning. Some skills have a finite range of duration. For example, a gymnast can only be airborne when performing a leap or somersault for so long. Conversely, other sports can continue until the person decides to stop, for example, swimming laps. The rules of a game can determine the duration of a movement or the positioning of the players. For example, in handball and netball, a player must play the ball within three seconds; and in basketball, there is a 3-second limit in the key for offensive players. The duration of a performance or movement can give it meaning or make it more or less effective. A golfer who is trying to putt their ball may not be successful if they have to rush the shot, for example.


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Choreographers may increase the duration of a particular movement pattern or repeat it in order to create suspense, and then shorten the duration of other movements to build excitement or to signify the climax or end of a performance. Duration is linked to rhythm in that some movements appear to have an even rhythm as each part of the movement is of equal duration, such as running or walking; while other movements may be of varying duration, which creates an uneven rhythm.

Momentum Momentum refers to the velocity at which a movement is performed and the mass that drives the movement. It is closely linked with acceleration (speed gain) and deceleration (speed loss) of movement. The performance speed of a particular movement will be determined by the movement. If it is not performed at the necessary velocity, it may affect outcome, success or safety of the movement. For example, a sprinter needs to accelerate quickly to complete their race in the minimum amount of time, an ice skater doing a number of turns will need to gradually slow down to move onto the next skill in their routine and an athlete who is trying a new skill may find it beneficial to start slowly and gradually increase the speed of the movement over time. It is quite common for the speed in movement to alter during a performance or game. This indicates that the performer or athlete has control over their performance. In dance, changes in speed and momentum can complement a story or create a feeling. Increasing or decreasing the speed of play in a game can be a useful strategy to confuse the opponent and potentially lead them to make mistakes. In field athletics, a hammer thrower needs to increase the speed of their turn so they can throw with the most momentum, and a gymnast will constantly increase and decrease their speed in a routine depending upon the skills they are performing.

Self-paced versus externally paced Timing and control are important factors to consider when executing a skill or performing a movement sequence. The environment in which the skill is performed can have an impact on how it is performed and can determine the amount of control the athlete or performer has over the movement. If the performer initiates the movement and has control over the rate at which the skill is executed, this is referred to as self-paced. Self-paced movements or skills typically occur in stable and predictable environments in which the performer has plenty of time to make decisions, and begin and end the movement when they choose. Examples of this include a discus throw, putting a shot or a volleyball serve. Movement in which the timing and form are determined by factors outside the control of the performer, such as the environment, music and/or opponents is referred to as externally paced and include hitting a ball that has been bowled, served or pitched or keeping in time with dance music. Some sports are purely self-paced, such as golf; while some are entirely externally paced, such as an aerobics routine to music. However, many sports use combinations of both self-paced and externally paced movement. A basketball player may stand and compose themself before they take a shot from the free throw line. They have no interference from others and are in control as to when the shot occurs. The same player then goes back


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into normal game play and their skills become externally paced, as they are affected by the speed and direction of the ball and by the positioning of other players. Many external factors will impinge on the execution of the skills of the game and there is often pressure to perform quickly. Most sports that require a high level of externally paced movement, such as basketball, soccer or hockey, will still have some room for self-paced skills to be used; and within these games, athletes can have some control over the timing of their movements, such as making decisions about when to pass or when to move.

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Figure 8.10

Jogging is a self-paced movement, whereas sprinting is externally paced


Distinguish between self-paced and externally paced movement, and comment on the effects of these for composition of movement.

2

Explore the concepts of time, duration, dynamics and space through the following activity. • Draw a dance map similar to the one shown here. The oval shapes are where you do one or more moves; the arrows indicate the direction and speed of travel. • Move through your dance map experimenting with different movements, ways of travel and uses of force. • Change your dance map by altering some of the circles and arrows, and repeat the activity. Explain how coaches use the elements of composition, such as space, dynamics and time, to develop offensive and defensive team strategies.

3


Fast

SMALL

BIG Slow WIDE

BIG

Fast

Fast and slow

Fast

SMALL

BIG

Medium

Slow and fast

THIN

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Timing Time is an ordering force in all movement mediums, and correct timing is critical for the performance of most skills and movements. If the timing of movement is wrong, it can detract from the performance and can mean that a play is missed or an opponent allowed to score. When movement sequences are designed to be accompanied by music, it is glaringly obvious when the performer is out of time with the music and this negatively affects the visual impact of the performance. Choreographers will often choose the speed of the music to suit the ability of their performers so it is easier for them to stay in time. Some activities, such as aerobics and synchronised swimming, diving or trampolining, require the performer to be in time with other performers and this takes a lot of time and practice to perfect. Timing can be used in different combinations to create intricate visual effects such as including a hesitation during a performance followed by a quick movement, which can surprise the audience. Timing is critical in many sports. An athlete needs to be able to assess the best moment to pass the ball to their teammate or to shoot for a goal. It is also essential for the correct performance of some skills, such as timing the swing of the bat in softball to connect with the pitched ball, or the combination of timing and rhythm in a hurdles race. Timing can be manipulated in some games by modifying the equipment used, for example, the use of low-bounce balls in tennis means the balls are slower in flight and, therefore, the game can be slowed down.

Relationships When applied to physical activity, the term ‘relationships’ refers to who or what the body moves with. Relationship is the connection between people and things, such as the performer with other people, with the performance space, with sound and visual images or with the equipment and apparatus. An awareness of the importance of relationships in all movement mediums is encouraged; and the more understanding of relationships a performer has, the more efficient and effective they will become in their movement. Relationships, in a movement context, can change depending upon what is intended by the particular movement being performed.

Other people The relationships a performer or athlete develops with other people can greatly enhance a performance or outcome. Alternatively, they can have a negative impact upon the performance. In all relationships with other people, communication is a key component. It can be verbal, such as a player calling for the ball or letting other members of the team know that a defender is approaching, or non-verbal including gestures, hand movements or facial expressions. A non-verbal example would be the signals passed between the bowler and wicket keeper in cricket. There are a variety of people that an athlete or performer can form a relationship with. Team members—successful teams have a shared understanding of their purpose along with an appreciation of their role in that team, and the roles of other team members. Effective teamwork involves trust and communication. As relationships develop between team members, each one knows how they contribute to plays and manoeuvres. They are well


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aware of the positioning of their teammates and they know they can rely on them to be in the right place at the right time to receive a pass, block an opponent or make a space on the field or court to gain advantage. Often a team will practise set plays or movement sequences to be implemented during the game. If something changes during play to alter a strategy, a team with good relationships will be able to adapt easily and quickly communicate with each other to put another tactic into place. Opponents—a player needs to be able to read their opponents well. An understanding of body movements will help a person to anticipate what their opponent is going to do next. Studying the plays and skills of the opponent away from the game can help a player to learn common patterns and strategies of the other team, assisting them to put countermeasures in place. Performers—relationships between performers in dance, aerobics and gymnastics are clearly defined. The moves and routines are choreographed and there tend to be no surprises. However, there is still the expectation that the other members of the group will be in the position they are meant to be in, at the time they are meant to be there. In ballroom and Latin dancing, the relationships are very clear: with one person leading the dance and the other following. Often the relationships between performers in group routines are developed using different techniques, such as everyone moving in unison (at the same time), groups working in contrast (performing movements that have opposite qualities like fast and slow), or groups moving in canon (performing the same movement at different times). Partners—often in dance, ice-skating and aerobics, a performer will have to work closely with a partner. The relationship between partners is an intimate one, as each partner relies on the other to perform the movements or skills to the best of their ability. A large amount of trust is required, as in many sequences one partner is required to lift, catch or hold the other. This trust can be developed through practice and communication. The relationship that forms between partners can also assist in conveying a desired message through the movement medium. For example, a dance couple who have formed a strong relationship will easily communicate the passion and story of the bullfight while dancing the Paso Doble. The audience—in order to convey the story or message of a performance, it is vital that the performers form a connection with the audience. The choreographer may begin this relationship with the way they link various movement sequences and the type of music they use. Performers can then continue to form links with their audience by their proximity, eye contact, through subtle or obvious gestures and even by the clothing or costumes they wear. In other movement mediums, a relationship with the audience may be formed simply because the athlete is from the same country as some members of the audience, such as at the Olympic or Commonwealth Games, or because the audience supports the team they are watching, such as AFL teams who represent a town or region.


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Figure 8.11

Trust and communication is important for performers when developing relationships with each other and the audience

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Apparatus and equipment Many movement mediums use apparatus and equipment. The relationship that a performer or athlete has with their equipment/apparatus can add much to their performance or their success in a game situation. An athlete who is new to a game, such as tennis, squash or hockey, may find the use of their racquet or stick cumbersome and will focus much of their attention on correctly using their equipment, sometimes to the detriment of their game skills. As a player becomes more skilled, the racquet or stick becomes more like an extension of their body, and their relationship with it seems effortless. In rhythmic gymnastics, the gymnast needs to form a close relationship with their equipment in order to portray ‘oneness’ to the audience. Points are awarded based on the performer’s ability to demonstrate continuous and flowing movement of the equipment both in the air and around their body. Again, this takes great skill to perfect. In other gymnastics disciplines, the performer must be very familiar with the piece of apparatus they are using, such as rings, vault, beam and bars. A gymnast performing a routine on the beam needs to know the exact length, width and height of the beam. A vaulter must know exactly where to place their hands on the vault in order to perform the skill well and on the bars; a successful gymnast will appear to move smoothly around each bar and from one level to another during their routine. The step in a step aerobics class is considered equipment, and requires an individual to demonstrate coordination and timing while moving on, over and around the step. Dancers often use props such as chairs, hats, scarves, pieces of material and canes. A dancer’s relationship with their props can complement their performance, making it more interesting and helping to express meaning to the audience.

Team formations, positional play and partner work Individuals should be encouraged to explore various configurations when working with a partner or in groups. Different team formations and positional play allow teams to use the space on the field or court to its maximum potential, to execute various strategies and plays in offence and defence, and to capitalise on the strengths of individual players. Positional play in games and sports can speed up or slow down a game or can create scoring opportunities. Most team games have set positions for players, and while each position will have a certain role to play and sometimes a certain area of the court or field they can move in, the relationship between all members of the team in combination is what makes a team effective. In dance, synchronised swimming and competitive aerobics teams, the use of various formations throughout the performance adds much to its appeal and interest. Watching a routine where the performers stay in a single line for the whole time would be very boring. Choreographers will incorporate a number of different formations into a routine, and these formations may highlight various relationships among the performers. In dances, such as folk or bush dance, a transition from one formation or sequence to another allows different dance moves to be included or allows for there to be a change in partners or leaders. When performers are working in pairs, a seamless relationship between partners is fundamental to the performance. Partners must be able to work well together towards their shared objective. The various moves of each


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partner make up the whole, and each is essential to the other and the overall routine. Ice skaters will work together and use various combinations of space and time, such as unison, mirroring, shadowing, echoing and supporting, to form relationships with each other in the performance of their dance. The skaters may not be touching in some parts of the dance but, by simply skating in unison next to each other, they make their relationship very clear and this adds meaning to their performance. Figure 8.12

Team formations and positions assist teams to develop relationships

Player positions for netball Goal third

Centre third

Goal third

WA

GD

WD

GA

GS

C

GK

GK

C

GS

GA

WD

GD

WA


Go to the following URL and read the story about the use of an iPod in soccer. Discuss how the use of technology, such as this, to study the plays and skills of another team can assist a performer in developing a relationship with their opponent.

2

Analyse the purpose of various group formations within different movement mediums.

How are the elements used to compose movement? As already discussed, the elements of composition are the building bocks of all movement. Once a person has a thorough understanding of these building blocks, they can use them as tools for making and creating routines, strategies and performances. The exploration, organisation and combining of movement into patterns and sequences is referred to as composition. The term ‘choreography’ is also used in relation to movement composition, particularly in the mediums of dance and gymnastics. All movement compositions require careful planning and are generally created to fulfil a specific purpose such as communicating an idea, message or story, or scoring a goal. Movement composition can also be seen as a problem-solving exercise, where the


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composer explores how a variety of movement skills can be combined with the manipulation of space, dynamics, timing and relationships to achieve the best possible outcomes. Regardless of the movement medium, a number of processes should be considered when using the elements of composition to compose movement such as the purpose of the movement, different ways of combining and arranging movement skills, and the use of improvisation to explore movement variations and alternatives. Movement composition is a skill that combines a knowledge of how, when and where to use the elements of composition, along with a creative touch that defines the composition and makes it distinctive.

The process of creating movement Defining the purpose or motivating factors The first step in the process of creating movement is to have a starting point. It is difficult to compose a dance, game play or gymnastics routine without first knowing the intentions behind the movement. If the purpose of the movement is clearly defined, it is easier to know what to include in planning and the composition is more likely to be successful. Therefore, the question at the beginning of every movement composition should be: ‘Why are we doing this?’ The purpose for creating movement may be different depending upon the movement medium. It is important that both the composer and the performers have the same understanding of the purpose of a movement composition. An obscure purpose tends to cause failure in communication, which can result in a different outcome being achieved. Different purposes for composing movement include the following: to entertain to pass on aspects of tradition or culture to win as a challenge to score to improve fitness and/or coordination to demonstrate skill, ability, strength and/or flexibility to communicate an idea or story to create something aesthetically appealing to make an impact, for example, the opening ceremony of the Olympic games to inspire others to show teamwork to achieve one’s personal best. Motivation is different to purpose in that motivation is what provides the stimulus or inspiration for the movement composition. While there tends to be a commonality to the purpose of many movement mediums, the motivation behind movement composition may be quite original and generally provides the energy for creativity in the composition. A coach can design a strategy that moves the players and ball down the field with the purpose of scoring a goal, however, they may be able to be more creative in their design, and therefore more successful in achieving their purpose, if they consider motivating factors such as a desire to create a gap in the opposing team’s defence. In dance, iceskating, synchronised swimming and rhythmic gymnastics, the stimulus or motivation for the composition of a performance could be:


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auditory—music, sounds, instruments, voices or words visual—photographs, drawings, pictures, patterns, shapes or sculptures tactile—material, objects or surfaces kinaesthetic—the movement itself such as a shrinking, stretching or turning ideational—dreamtime stories, folktales, legends or individual words. Figure 8.13

The stimulus for creating movement can come from anywhere

Visual

Kinaesthetic

Auditory

STIMULUS

Ideational

Tactile

Generating movement relevant to the purpose The next step in the process of creating movement is for the composer to select skills to include in the composition, which are relevant to its purpose. The selection of these skills will be dependent upon the skill level of the performers and the source of inspiration for the movement. The chosen skills should be closely matched to the purpose of the activity and the idea it is trying to convey and, at the same time, should provide variety and interest within the performance. There are three types of skills that are inherent in all movement mediums: 1 Locomotor skills—require the performer or athlete to move from place to place. These skills vary in their degree of difficulty and include movements such as walking, running, hopping, jumping, leaping, skipping, climbing, galloping, rolling, dodging and sliding. 2 Non-locomotor skills—require the performer or athlete to perform the skill in one place. The only movement involved is around the same base of support rather than movement from one place to another. These skills include bending, balancing, curling, holding, lifting, pulling, pushing, stretching, swinging, twisting, pivoting and turning. 3 Manipulative skills—involve the control of objects such as balls, bats, racquets or ribbons. These skills are performed in conjunction with locomotor or non-locomotor skills and are usually involved in games. They include throwing, kicking, volleying, striking, rolling, bouncing, tapping, catching, trapping, heading and batting.


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Wakakirri Festival a national performing and visual arts festival for primary schools that challenges students to create a story, make an impact and share it with Australia. Wakakirri means to describe the process of storytelling through dance.

A key to successful movement composition is to know which skills are basic to the particular movement medium, how each of them can be best used and the number of different skills to include. The degree of difficulty of each skill is also a consideration and this relates back to the purpose of the movement and the skill level of the performer. When putting together a trampolining routine, for example, the purpose of the activity may be to score the most points and, therefore, the composer may choose some trampoline skills that have a higher degree of difficulty than others. However, if the athlete does not have the requisite skill to perform these high-level skills with ease, this may defeat the purpose of including them in the routine. An aerobics instructor who is choreographing a routine for their class to perform will choose a combination of locomotor and non-locomotor skills dependent upon whether the class is designed to improve fitness, core strength, flexibility or coordination, and upon whether the class is for beginners or advanced participants. Another step in the process of generating movement is the manipulation of the elements of composition with a view to creating movement that is most relevant to its purpose. A composer should experiment with the application of space, dynamics, time and relationships to various skills in order to create the most effective performance. For example, a person choreographing a routine for the Wakakirri Festival may explore the use of different levels, groupings, directions, movement dynamics and props to produce a routine that puts across a strong message, while being interesting and unique. These elements are all relevant to the purpose of a Wakakirri performance. A coach can devise a number of different team strategies that use the dimensions of the playing area, assorted team formations and various timings, and then use one of these depending on the state of play.

Figure 8.14

Wakakirri Performing and Visual Arts Festival

Exploring variations It is said that variety is the spice of life and this is true in movement composition. When creating movement sequences and routines, a skilled choreographer will continually look out for how they can vary their


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composition to make it more creative or interesting. A clever composer will also consider simple things they can add to a routine or performance in order to make it more difficult or, indeed, things they can subtract to give it simplicity. For example, the addition of more twists and turns in a gymnastics routine will increase its difficulty and provide challenges for the performer. Variation to a basic aerobics routine can simply mean the addition of arm movements making the routine more interesting and increasing the difficulty level. A coach may vary a game strategy by increasing or decreasing the speed at which it is performed. They will know that a variety of different offensive and defensive plays will keep the opponents thinking and give their own team an advantage. The elements of composition are ideal tools with which to add variety to a movement composition. Experimenting with momentum, tempo, directions, levels, equipment, intensity, dimensions, different formations, accents, dynamics, and group and/or partner work provides diversity in composition and may lead to new ideas. For example, does the accent in a dance always need to be on the first beat? What happens if it occurs on the third beat instead? What happens to a performance if the group members perform the arm movements at different times instead of in unison? Is it possible to perform a roll in gymnastics more quickly or slowly than usual? How does this affect the routine? While variety can be achieved in movement composition by the composer altering the movements, another way of introducing variations is to allow the performer to further develop a set routine by adding ideas and movements of their own.

Improvising To improvise means to perform or compose something without preparation or a set of rules to follow. Improvised movement tends to be spontaneous and can lead to the invention of new practices and the creation of unique and innovative movement designs. When they are new to movement composition, an individual can be very set in their approach and tend to follow recognised ways of doing things. As they become more comfortable with the process of creating movement, they are less inhibited and will more readily experiment with different concepts of space, shape, time and energy. Similarly, a performer may be less inclined to branch away from established routines, steps and skill combinations when they are first involved in a particular movement medium. However, as they become more skilled they may feel comfortable using a range of options that best suit the situation. Although improvisation allows a performer to move away from the normal conventions of their movement medium, it is still important for their movements to flow and connect to one another if they are going to have the desired impact. The term ‘improvisation’ is most commonly associated with modern dance; however, it simply means changing movement to meet the need of the moment. This can happen on the sports field as easily as on the dancefloor. An athlete may need to improvise in order to make a play work. For example, the team may have practised a set play developed by their coach but on the field the opposition may do something to stop the play from going according to plan and players are then required to improvise a variation to make their movement successful.


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Explore stimulus through the following activity: 1 2 • Mark out a large area of the floor and divide it into four sections as shown opposite: • Each area has its own imaginary characteristics: 3 4 Area 1—so hot that you are melting as you are moving. Area 2—the whole floor is covered in chewing gum. Area 3—there are biting, crawling and flying insects throughout the area. Area 4—you have to push through cotton wool to move at all levels. • Select an area in which to begin. In your own time, move through that area and into another area (in any order) changing your movement in response to the stimulus. • Consider questions such as: How did the stimulus influence your movements in each area? Was the stimulus clear enough to direct your movements? Why were your movements different to your classmates even though the stimulus was the same? • Repeat the activity using a different type of stimulus, such as different images or a different Dreamtime legend in each area.

2

Select a movement medium and list all the locomotor, non-locomotor and manipulative skills that are specific and particular to it.

3

Design and practise an offensive play in the goal third of a netball court. Examine how changing just one part of that play, for example, the direction the ball is passed or the positioning of one of the players varies the play.

4

Describe the factors that may need to be present for a performer to feel comfortable in using improvisation in their movement medium.

The process of combining and arranging movement The rules and conventions of the medium Rules a set of governing principles or regulations.

Conventions the customary way that things are done.

Each movement medium has its own rules and conventions, and these determine how the elements of composition are applied to the process of combining and arranging movement. Gymnastics, dance, aerobics and games all have their individual styles that refer to features or characteristics such as technique, rules, movements and objectives. While these movement mediums are quite different in many ways and require variations in the application of the elements of composition, they all involve the body moving in some way to achieve a desired outcome.

Gymnastics ‘Gymnastics’ is an all-encompassing term for a number of different forms of the sport. These include: Artistic—using the floor and a variety of apparatus. Rhythmic—combining gymnastic skills with equipment such as ribbons, balls and clubs. Trampoline sports—using the double mini and large trampoline.


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Educational—creative movement exploration through gymnastics and movement skills. Acrobatic—dynamic paired and group routines that include jumping and sophisticated balances. Cheerleading—organised routines that incorporate aspects of gymnastics, dance and acrobatics. Gymnasts need a combination of skills, including flexibility, strength, coordination and agility, to perform competently in the gymnastics form of their choice. Gymnastics can be highly competitive involving set routines, compulsory movement sequences and sometimes interaction with equipment and apparatus. There tends to be strict rules that the performer must adhere to in gymnastics, along with set performance standards. Some forms of this movement medium also allow the athlete to incorporate a degree of creativity into their performance. The elements of composition need to be manipulated accordingly.

Dance Dance has many different styles and forms which can be grouped in the following ways: Traditional, cultural or ceremonial—these dances reflect the culture and stories from where they originated, for example, folk dance, square dance, bush dance and traditional Indigenous dance. Social—dances that have the purpose of socialisation and are usually performed with partners or in groups, for example, ballroom dancing, Latin dance and hip-hop. Performance—dances that require a high-skill level and are often performed for an audience, for example, jazz and classical ballet and modern dance. These groups are certainly not definitive, and many additional styles of dancing have emerged over recent years such as Bollywood dance and krumping. The rules and conventions of dance are very particular to the style of dance. Performance dance and some forms of social dance are generally


Figure 8.15

The rules and conventions for these styles of dancing are quite different and have an impact on the movement that is performed

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focused on technical skill, choreography and the correct performance of movement sequences, whereas other dance forms rely heavily on improvisation with performers freely interpreting existing moves. Dance is usually accompanied by music and this adds another dimension to the process of arranging dance movements.

Aerobics Aerobics is the performance of a series of movement sequences to music. It includes general aerobics classes for fitness and fun along with competitive aerobics. The purpose and structure of the movement skills and elements in these styles differ accordingly. A competitive aerobics routine contains compulsory moves, set timings and strict attention to technical detail, yet a performer can still use the elements of composition in different ways to create a distinctive and individual routine. There are many styles of non-competitive aerobics classes including step, combat, pump, jam and attack. These styles cater for different ages, fitness levels, abilities and needs. As a result, movement skills will be incorporated and elements of composition applied according to the particular need for which the class is meeting. Music is an important component of both forms of aerobics and is used to develop movements and sequences. Games Games are somewhat different to other movement mediums as they have specific rules that determine what is performed, how it is performed, and where and how it occurs. These rules affect how the elements of composition are applied to the game. It is sometimes difficult for an athlete to move from one sport to another because, while the skills they have may be transferable, the rules and conventions of movement that apply to one sport may not apply to another. For example, a basketball player may have trouble if they start to play netball and will need to reconsider aspects of movement such as dimension (they are now restricted in their movement around the court) and force (they cannot throw ‘over a third’).

Sequencing

Movement phrases a number of related skills or actions.


All movement mediums are comprised of a number of individual skills or movements. While each of these is important in its own right, the crux of movement composition is the organisation of these single skills into a logical order that has a purpose. Sequencing is the foundation of dance, aerobics, gymnastic and games, and it is essentially the building of a performance. It takes single movements and joins them together to make movement phrases. These phrases are then joined together to make a movement sequence, and the sequences combined to make the full performance. A movement sequence is like a story and needs to have a beginning, middle and end. A sequence can be performed on its own, which is usually the case in games and sports. For example, in athletics the triple jump is a movement sequence in its own right (comprising of the following skills—run, hop, step, jump and land), as is a lay up in basketball and the tennis serve. The success of a sequence depends on how well its component parts are performed and, in training, a performer may practise the sequence in parts—gradually combining the skills until they are able to practise it as a whole. Sequences will increase in complexity as variables are added, such as the inclusion of skills that are more difficult or the number of movements in the sequence.

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In dance and gymnastics, a number of sequences are joined together to make up the whole dance or routine. The ordering of the sequences will be determined by what order is the most expressive and what communicates the purpose of the performance. Sometimes the best order will suggest itself, and sometimes it might need some experimentation and rearranging to get it right. The types of movement phrases included in a sequence and the manner in which sequences are arranged into a full composition can be influenced by the choreographer, the accompanying music, the court, the rules and the performers. The nature of the movement medium can also influence how sequencing occurs. For example, sequencing in a rhythmic gymnastics routine will be quite different to the sequencing of an artistic gymnastics floor routine. Likewise, the sequencing of a ballroom dance performance will be different to more freeform styles of dance such as salsa or hip-hop.

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Figure 8.16

Examples of movement sequences

Aerobics movement sequences SEQUENCE 1

SEQUENCE 2

Walk forwards for 4 counts

Jog on the spot for 16 counts

Walk backwards for 4 counts

Walk forwards for 4 counts

Repeat

Walk backwards for 4 counts

Step and curl to right and left—repeat

Repeat

Squats x 6

Right and left lunges x 10

Grapevine to the left

Jumping jacks x 16

Grapevine to the right

March on the spot for 16 counts

Repeat

Repeat

These two separate movement sequences can be repeated individually or joined together to form a full routine

Transitions Earlier in this chapter, the importance of flow, rhythm and continuity within a performance was discussed. Transitions are the joining of movement skills, phrases and sequences to make a whole and give performances connectedness. A transition in a movement composition is often determined by physical necessity, that is, by the need to turn around to complete the next move. However, a performance would look unusual if the performer stopped


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every time they needed to change direction, use a different skill or move from one level to another. This would detract from the performance and would not seem smooth or logical. Transitions are an integral component of the composition, yet are very often neglected or put in as an afterthought. The use of transitions contributes to the flow of movement and, to be most effective, a transition needs to be seamless and appear to be part of the movement itself. The size and complexity of a transition is generally determined by the context in which it occurs, and it should only last as long as it takes to fulfil its function. It can be a jump, a turn or a leap, a change in music or music tempo, or a change in possession of the ball.

Repetition Repetition means doing the same thing over again. In relation to the process of arranging movement, it involves combining a number of skills into a movement phrase and then repeating that phrase within a dance or routine. Repetition in different movement mediums serves a number of purposes. It can assist an individual to learn a new skill or sequence. It can help to develop fitness levels. For example, a soccer coach may put together a short movement sequence that involves running, passing, dribbling and shooting, and then have the players repeat this a number of times in a training session. It can add focus to a performance. For example, a folk dance may have a chorus that includes a small movement sequence that is repeated a number of times throughout the dance. It can add meaning to a performance, when a particular skill or movement is emphasised through repetition to get a point across. Most movement mediums involve some sort of repetition; however, it is important not to include too much repetition. In dance, skating, aerobics and gymnastics, the overuse of repetition can make a performance tedious and the audience can lose interest. Repetition in games’ strategies and tactics may make plays predictable and eliminate the element of surprise for the other team.

Variation Variation is the way various movements are combined and arranged. It adds interest and keeps the motivation levels of the performers and audience high. Performances with little variation can become boring to watch, yet too much variety can be confusing and distracting. Music is a good way to incorporate variety into the composition of a routine. By selecting music that has a number of different tempos within it, the composer can then combine different skills within the routine to link with the music. In some movement mediums, such as gymnastics and trampolining, there may be little opportunity for variation in the arrangement of movement skills, as they include routines or exercises that are compulsory. These are generally balanced with the opportunity for performers to develop an optional routine that allows them to show their individual style and flair. Coaches can include variation in their training sessions by arranging skills practices in different ways and by designing numerous arrangements of players and movements when teaching strategies. By varying skills and play combinations, they are providing more options for when the players are in game situations.


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Compare the rules and conventions of a dance style such as krumping to those of ballroom dance. Discuss the implications of changing the rules and conventions of one dance style to reflect those of the other.

2

For each of the movement mediums, describe different ways that you might vary the known movements and combinations, for example, in an aerobics routine changing a series of grapevine steps performed in a straight line to an L shape.

3

Explore sequencing in a think, pair, share activity. • Think about the following stimulus points and make up a short movement that demonstrates each one—climb, jump, wiggle, turn, high, low and wide. • Combine each of these movements into a short sequence using some of the movements as transitions. • Pair up with another student. Teach them your sequence and have them perform it, and then learn and perform theirs. • Join the two sequences together. Practise these and then share with the rest of the class.

What is the role of appraisal in the process of composing and performing? As can be seen from the information in this chapter, the process of movement composition is quite complex and there are many things which need to be taken into consideration. A performance is often the culmination of the composition process and is a way of sharing the results of the journey. No matter how simple or complex a performance is, some value will be placed upon it by others either formally or informally. The term ‘appraisal’ refers to the evaluation of a performance, and involves people reacting to it and making a judgment about its effectiveness. Appraisal is a form of feedback and has a vital role to play in the process of composing and performing. It can give both objective and subjective information to those involved, which can then be used to determine the success of the performance, and can assist both the performer and composer to make any corrections or improvements for future performances.

Ways of appraising Performance can be appraised in a number of different ways, each with its own benefits and drawbacks.

1 Observing Observing is a common form of appraisal and often occurs informally— for example, a coach may observe a set play being performed during a game and at half-time will talk to the players about how the play affected the


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game, giving suggestions for how the play can be improved next time. Observation can be objective or subjective. When using objective observation, a non-biased assessment will be made of the performance against set criteria. The inclusion of criteria means that the observation is based on facts rather than on thoughts or opinions, and is taken from an artistic perspective that involves a degree of critical analysis and evaluation. There are levels of objectivity in appraisal. Measures like how fast, how high, how many and how long allow little room for debate, whereas checklists and rating scales that indicate what an observer should be looking for are less objective. The use of criteria provides a means to decide why a performance Figure 8.17

An example of marking criteria


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was good or otherwise by analysing various aspects of the performance and giving them a rating. While the observer is guided by a number of specifically designed criteria, there is the possibility of the observer’s personal feelings about the performance creeping into their judgment. Subjective observation is based purely on the impressions or feelings of the person who is observing—their ‘gut’ feeling about whether they found the performance pleasing. It is judged from an aesthetic perspective. While everyone is entitled to their own opinions, this form of appraisal may not be the most reliable as what one person sees as desirable in a performance may be quite different to what another person enjoys and bases their judgment upon. The use of technology, such as video footage, provides another means of appraisal through observation. A performer, coach or choreographer may find it advantageous to watch their performance on video to help identify any errors being made and to analyse the use of the compositional elements.

2 Analysing Analysing involves examining the technical aspects of the performance, scoring them and comparing the scores to others. A common form of analysis is the use of statistics to appraise individuals or teams in a game situation. Statistics relating to different aspects of the game, such as the number of lineouts won in rugby union, the number of successful blocks in volleyball or the shooting average of individual players in basketball, are collated and then used to appraise the performance. Statistical feedback can be used to develop different tactics and strategies or to focus on a skill a player may need to work on. Other forms of appraisal through analysis include norm ratings, where an individual’s score on a test is compared to the standard of large groups of others who have taken the same test, for example, maxVO2 testing or the Harvard Step Test. Percentile rankings are also used in sport and games. An actual performance score is taken and compared with that of others taking the same test. If the person scores in the 70th percentile, this means that they have scored or performed better than 70 per cent of people who participated in the test. Norm reference testing in sport may be used for team selection or talent identification.

3 Experiencing Experiencing is a very valuable method of appraisal for both performers and external observers. The more time an individual can spend looking at different performances, applying the judging criteria and discussing their ideas with others, the better they will become at critical analysis. Group discussion of the application of criteria can lead to high levels of consistency in judgment and greater objectivity in appraisal. Judges who are new to appraisal in a particular movement medium can gain experience in judging by watching a variety of performances from beginners to advanced. As a performer becomes more experienced in their ability to perform a particular skill or movement sequence, they will find they can use this experience to make their own judgments in relation to their performance.


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Aspects for appraisal Performance appraisal has a number of purposes and involves the interpretation, measurement or judgment of a performance to determine its merit. It can be used to review a performance and identify strengths and weaknesses, to motivate performers, to provide feedback and as a tool to develop individual abilities. While appraisal methods may differ between the various movement mediums, a number of key aspects should be considered: the elements of the composition the level of creativity and innovation the arrangement of movement whether the performance achieves its purpose.

Elements of composition The elements of composition are an integral component of movement development and should enhance the quality of a performance. Therefore, they have an important role to play in the appraisal process. Each element should be looked at in relation to the movement medium, and questions raised about how well the element was applied to the performance. For example: Space—was all the available space used to the best advantage? Did the use of patterns and formations add to the appeal of the performance? How well did the players draw out their opponents to create space? Dynamics—was the player able to control their shots? Did the performance flow smoothly? Was the takeoff from the floor explosive? Timing and rhythm—was the performance of the correct duration? Were the performers in time with the music? Was variety added to the performance, with changes in tempo and accent? Relationships—did the positioning of players allow the set play to be carried out? Did the performers establish a positive relationship with the audience? Did the performers’ use of equipment or props blend in with the movement being performed?

Creativity and innovation

The Phillips an original balance beam mount, named after American gymnast Kristie Phillips and described as a press to side handstand, front walkover to side stand on both legs.


Many of the movement mediums have great scope for creativity and innovation in their composition and performance. Part of appraisal is to determine how well these aspects have been incorporated and whether their use has enhanced the aesthetics and interest of the performance for the audience. In competitive aerobics and some forms of dance and gymnastics, creativity is actually a component of the judging criteria. In the Rock Eisteddfod Challenge, innovation and originality contribute to eight of a possible twenty marks school groups can receive in the area of ‘Concept and Interpretation’. In sports such as gymnastics, dance, diving and trampolining, being innovative in the performance of skills can add to the degree of difficulty of a routine and, therefore, make the performer more competitive. If an athlete is innovative enough to create a skill that has never been performed before, it will often be named after them. For example, the beam skill the Phillips is named after American gymnast Kristie Phillips.

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Rock Eisteddfod judging requirements and components A) Concept and interpretation 20 points Originality, soundtrack, concept, innovation, interpretation and integrity (4 points each) The theme should be composed of an original idea extended into a concept and supported by the soundtrack to translate into a composite structure with continuity and integrity. This means that the theme must be well developed and that suitable music must be used.

B) Performance elements 20 points Presentation and teamwork, choreography, drama, skill and visual (4 points each) The impact of the students on stage, their visual impact and their technique are assessed. The performance is composed of the presentation—that is, the enthusiasm and enjoyment of the students’ the teamwork—that is, precision and technique; the choreography—that is, space, flow, levels and drama (acting and character portrayal); the skill level—that is, complexity and execution, blended to give a visual impact and emotion.

C) Production elements 20 points Set design and staging, lighting, costumes, hair and make-up, and enhancement (4 points each) All non-human elements used to enhance the production are judged. The production elements include set design and form—that is, the physical structure of the sets and how they fit on stage; the staging— that is, movement of sets; the lighting— that is, enhancement of mood by lights; costumes—that is, design relevance to theme, integration with choreography; make-up and hair—that is, design and relevance to theme; other enhancements—that is, technology and innovative props such as aerotechnics.

Rock Eisteddfod Challenge—Prime Judging Sheet School: _____________ Performance No: ____ Event location: _____________ Date: _______ Judge: ________________ Date: __________ Signed: ________________________ Independent scorer:________________ Date: __________ Signed: ________________________ Concept and interpretation Originality Concept Interpretation and integrity

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

Music Innovation Total out of 20 –

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 ____________

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

Choreography Skill Total out of 20 –

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 ____________

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

Lighting Hair and make-up Total out of 20 –

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 ____________

Performance elements Presentation and teamwork Drama Visual

Production elements Set design and staging Costumes Enhancement • • • •


Each score box MUST have only ONE whole number circled AND scores MUST reflect comments given. Positive and constructive comments should be written in all areas wherever possible. The judges MUST add their own scores, which will then be checked by the independent scorer. Score reassessment MUST have a written reason AND be initialled by the independent scorer.

Concept and interpretation Performance elements Production elements

Sub-total Sub-total Sub-total

____________ ____________ ____________

Final score out of 60

Total

__________

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Arrangement of movement The way movement is arranged is an essential aspect of appraisal. The importance of sequencing and the placement of transitions were highlighted earlier in this chapter as critical elements in ensuring the overall smoothness, continuity and flow of a performance. Looking at movement patterns in games can assist in appraisal and analysis by identifying weak spots and deciding which arrangement of movements resulted in the best and most successful strategies.

Achievement of purpose When we discussed the process of creating movement, we identified that all movement compositions need a purpose. When making an appraisal, we also make a judgment about whether or not the performance achieved its purpose. In some movement mediums, the purpose of the performance is very clear-cut and, therefore, easy to appraise. For example, the purpose of the game of AFL is to score the most goals, and the team with the greatest amount of points at the end of the game is deemed successful. In dance, rhythmic gymnastics and ice-skating, the purpose of the performance may be less obvious and, therefore, it is up to the performers to clearly communicate their message and/or story through their movements, music and use of props. A performance that leaves the audience wondering what its point was may not be appraised as highly as one that captures audience understanding throughout.

Establishing and applying criteria Criteria standards or principles by which something can be judged or decided.


In order to be consistent in appraisal of performance in any movement medium, judges or appraisers need to have a set of criteria to follow. This ensures that appraisals are fair across a competition. Criteria are usually decided upon before a performance and describe exactly what the judges must look for. Having criteria specific to various movement mediums, styles and forms means a person is better able to evaluate and appreciate the quality of the performance and provide relevant and useful feedback to the performer/s. If there are a number of judges using one set of criteria to judge a performance, it is important that they all have a clear understanding of what each criterion looks like in order to be fair and consistent. Sometimes it is necessary to assign a weighting to the different criterion. For example, in a competitive aerobics routine more marks may be awarded for keeping in time with the music and performing the required number of set skills than for moving around the space adequately. When setting criteria for appraising performance in the various movement mediums, it is appropriate to consider the unique nature of the medium. Although judges follow a standard set of procedures when evaluating a performance, all competitions differ in the way they are judged.

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Table 8.2 Comparison of appraisal criteria

Movement medium

Summary of appraisal criteria

Gymnastics

Features that judges may look for when appraising gymnastics routines and passes include: • Form—does the skill look as it is meant to look (e.g. back straight not arched); skill control? • Amplitude—includes height, length, flexibility • Body stretch and extension • Landings—must be solid; deductions are made for not maintaining balance and also for moving outside the area of competition • Separation—there is a minimum degree of separation of the legs in skills like leaps and straddles • Precision of timing and rhythm • Falling and dropping—marks are deducted for falling off a piece of apparatus or for dropping equipment • Inclusion of all compulsory elements or skills • Composition of the routine • Degree of difficulty of skills • Skill execution—includes style, technique and creativity.

Dance

There are various criteria for dance, dependent upon the style; however, in general, judges need to look for: • Use of the elements of composition • Technical competence—showing technical skill in performing the moves, coordination • Communication—with the audience, with a partner and showing stage presence • Choice of music—appropriateness, timing • Achievement of purpose • Inclusion of compulsory elements • Production elements—set design, staging, lighting, costumes.

Aerobics

There are rules that must be adhered to in competitive aerobics: • Routine completed in the set time frame • Inclusion of the specific performance requirements—performance of skills from the compulsory exercise categories of jumping jacks, high leg kicks and push-ups; and the completion of one movement from each of the obligatory movement groups: push-ups, static strength, aerial and split groups • Satisfies dress requirements • Entries and exits • Safety—no contraindicated exercises. The scoring criteria are divided into three sections: • Technical—degree of difficulty, ease of execution, correct technique, all muscle groups targeted, flexibility, strength • Artistic—innovation, creative sequencing of movement patterns and transitions, timing and style, competitor’s appearance, communication, synchronisation, showmanship • Aerobic—display of a high level of cardiovascular endurance throughout the performance through choreography, flow and style.

Games


The judging of games is regularly done through objective means, for example, collection and analysis of statistics. However, criteria for subjectively appraising games includes: • Skill execution—how well does the athlete perform general skills such as running, dodging, weaving, passing? • Communication • Teamwork • Game technique—how well does the athlete perform skills specific to the game? • Physical fitness.

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DEDUCTIONS

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

PIKE POSITION Angle upper body/thighs Elements/phases without twist

Multiple somersaults with twist in at least two phases

Position of the hands

Vertical jumps Straddle jump

Figure 8.18

Examples of trampoline deductions



Explain which movement medium would be the most difficult to judge. Justify your answer.

2

From one of the movement mediums, choose a particular style of that medium and research the technical information that relates to its appraisal. Summarise this information into a fact sheet that could be given to a new judge in this area.

3

Watch a dance performance, for example, a routine from So You Think You Can Dance or Dancing with the Stars and identify which aspects of the performance you think could be judged. a Propose a set of marking criteria for the dance performance taking into account the various aspects for appraisal. b Watch the performance again and use your criteria to appraise the performance and give it a mark. c Compare your marks and judgment with a partner. d Investigate ways that your marking criteria can be altered to make marking more objective.

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chapter review Recap There are four elements of composition, which are the building blocks of all movement. These are space, dynamics, time and rhythm, and relationships. Space refers to where we move. It incorporates personal space, general space and performance space and has a number of components that are particular to it, including direction, level, dimensions, patterns and formations. Dynamics refer to how we move and this is the element that gives movement its expressiveness. Dynamics include force, which is the intensity of the release of energy in movement and its control; and flow, which is concerned with continuity of movement. Time and rhythm refer to when we move and impact upon the quality, flow and precision of movement. Time and rhythm include the components of beat, tempo and accent as they apply to music along with duration, momentum, self-paced versus externally paced movement and timing. An awareness of relationships in all movement mediums is important, as relationships can help a performance convey a message or assist a group to achieve their movement goals more successfully. There can be relationships between people, with apparatus or equipment, and those connected with team formations and positional play. When using the elements of composition to compose movement, an individual must define the purpose of the movement and establish the motivating factors behind the movement. Obscurity of purpose can result in a failure to achieve the desired outcome of a performance. The ability to improvise within a movement medium can greatly enhance performance. When combining and arranging movement, a composer should consider how the different parts can be best put together to make a whole. This involves looking at different movement phrases and how these can be connected into sequences. Repetition and variety should be used in balance when developing movement sequences and performances. Appraisal is an integral component of movement composition and is an effective evaluation and feedback tool. Appraisal can be subjective (an aesthetic perspective) or objective (an artistic perspective). In order to be consistent and fair in appraisal, a set of criteria should be developed specific to the movement medium and the styles of movement within that medium.


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Current URL

Useful for …

Gymnastics Australia

www.gymnastics.org.au

A great variety of information about all forms of gymnastics, including trampoline sports and cheerleading; has technical and judging information about all gymnastic-related disciplines

The Association of National Aerobics Championships

www.sportaerobics-nac.com/affiliates.htm

Information about competitive aerobics: search under ‘rules and regulations’ for technical information

Wakakirri National Performing Arts Festival for primary schools

www.wakakirri.com

Information about the Wakakirri Festival, which challenges students to compose a performance that tells a story; performance criteria and marking scheme are available

Exam-style questions 1 Outline the differences between subjective and objective forms of appraisal.

(2 marks)

2 Explain the process of creating movement.

(6 marks)

3 Using a movement medium of your choice (dance, aerobics, gymnastics

or games) critically analyse how each of the elements of composition can be applied to this activity when composing and performing.


(12 marks)

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Fitness choices

9

Exercise has different meanings to different people, and individuals have varying fitness needs, so it is important that a wide range of fitness choices is available. People need to be able to access the types of activities that will help them best meet their own needs. Personal goals and commitments, financial capacity, geographic location and general health and wellbeing are just some of the factors that can influence the fitness choices people make. This chapter will feature a series of Fitness Profiles that provide a snapshot of real people’s lives and highlight their varying fitness needs.

What does exercise mean to different people? At its core, exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities for a sustained period of time, which can improve fitness. The wide range of different reasons that motivate people to want to exercise ensures that exercise will have different meanings for different people. For some, the meaning will be related to the physical health benefits that can come from exercise; for others, it may relate to physical appearance, social outcomes, the mental challenge or simply to habitual behaviour that they have never analysed. We know that attitudes to exercise and fitness can change over time, both for individuals and at a broader cultural level. As such, it is important for leaders and decision makers to work to ensure that the benefits that can be gained from exercise and fitness remain clear and pervasive.

Exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities, which can improve fitness.

Meanings of exercise Exercise as a form of physical activity For some people, the thought of exercise stirs up an array of negative emotions. They recall feelings of pain and fatigue brought on by a sense of obligation to ‘get fit’. They hear the overzealous parent, coach or trainer pushing them physically beyond their comfort zone, and they sense the


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discomfort of their body temperature rising. While they labour under the weight of sweat-soaked clothes, they anticipate the stiff and sore muscles they will experience for days after the torture is over. For many others, their memories of physically demanding exercise bring a sense of satisfaction; a recollection of establishing challenging goals and successfully achieving them; a reminder of the camaraderie developed with friends as they encourage each other to keep going through the pain; and that satisfying feeling of being at one’s physical peak. There are other people who view exercise as simply a means to an end: an activity that can be undertaken regularly and moderately to maximise their health and wellbeing. Clearly, exercise means different things to different people. So what exactly is ‘exercise’? As mentioned, exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities to improve fitness. It implies the presence of a basic plan involving a series of physical activities that have been organised to help achieve a set purpose, which is usually fitness related. An example can be seen in applying the FITT principle, where the purpose or goal is to reduce body fat levels and the plan is to achieve this by exercising using the following plan.

F I T T

Physical activity the overarching term that includes all movement-related activities that have a physical dimension, including exercise.

Frequency

Three times per week

Intensity

60–70 per cent of maximum heart rate

Time

Minimum 30 minutes

Type

Aerobic physical activities using large muscle groups, e.g. running, swimming, walking

Physical activity is currently used as the overarching term that includes all movement-related activities that have a physical dimension. Physical activity can include everything from an adult walking their dog or children playing a game of hide and seek, through to an elite athlete training and competing in their chosen sport. Exercise is a form of physical activity and, therefore, fits along the physical activity spectrum. A defining feature of where different activities might fit best along the physical activity spectrum is in the purpose of the activity. As an example, one person may go for a walk because it is a nice day and they have some free time available. This would be considered recreational activity. Another person may be taking part in a structured program to lose body fat, which involves regular sessions of walking for specified distance in a set time. This would be considered exercise. Both people are walking, but the different purpose and the level of structure distinguishes recreational activity from exercise.

Exercise and its relationship to fitness Exercise has a strong and clear link to fitness. One of the most common reasons that people plan a structured exercise program is to enhance or maintain their level of fitness.


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Figure 9.1

The physical activity spectrum

SPORT Competition

Recovery programs EXERCISE

ACTIVE RECREATION PLAY

Frisbee

Fishing

Hide and seek Play wrestling Chasings

Strength-training programs

Cardiovascular fitness programs

Walking the dog

Fat-loss programs

Sport-specific training

The nature and extent of the exercise undertaken will significantly influence precisely what types of fitness gains are made. For example, weight-training programs consisting of heavy loads and low repetitions are likely to result in strength gains over time. However, corresponding gains in cardiovascular fitness are unlikely to eventuate unless the participant also undertakes specific aerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise, which can occur in a variety of forms, is an extremely popular form of exercise because there is a clear correlation between aerobic exercise, cardiovascular fitness and health benefits. Regular participation in aerobic exercise is a protective factor against common life-threatening and debilitating chronic conditions such as heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes and some cancers.



1

Identify the significance of exercise to people’s lifestyles. Justify your answer.

2

Explain what it means to be ‘fit’.

3

Reflect on the nature of your own physical activity participation. Where do you sit on the physical activity spectrum?

4

Propose reasons why aerobic activities are a popular form of exercise.

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The value that people place on exercise and fitness Changing attitudes to fitness

Table 9.1 Snapshot—changing attitudes to fitness

Era 1970s

1980s

What do people want to be fit for …? Fit for life? Fit for health? Fit for pregnancy? Fit for competitive sport? Fit for a sculpted physical appearance? Fit for the sake of it? Each of these is a valid reason for aspiring to be fit and, throughout a person’s life cycle, more than one of these reasons may motivate them. Attitudes to fitness are heavily influenced by advances in research, enhanced technology and cultural trends. Perhaps the most dominant attitude to fitness in recent years has been the notion that fitness can look and be quite different for different people. Stereotypical body images for males and females that sought to define ‘being fit’ have become increasingly outdated and irrelevant. No longer is the gym-sculpted muscular look the only image to satisfy the criteria of being fit. In fact, an almost unwavering value associated with fitness is its role in promoting good health. There has been ongoing community concern about the obesity epidemic. The SPANS found that approximately 25 per cent of 15- and 16-year-old students were overweight or obese and the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that 54 per cent of Australian adults, in 2004, were overweight or obese. In addition, only half the population meet the recommended level of 30 minutes of physical activity on most days of the week. Additional concerns have been raised about the costs to individuals and the community resulting from chronic health conditions, which have physical inactivity and obesity as underlying risk factors. Chronic conditions such as heart disease, stroke and cancer cost in excess of $10 billion nationally each year, and obesity costs are approximately $5 billion. Add to these concerns the fact that Australia has an ageing population, and it becomes clear why governments, commercial organisations, communities and individuals have increasingly framed their attitudes of exercise and fitness around the ‘fit for health’ perspective.

Prevailing attitude

Features

Enduring image

Fit and strong

The rise of jogging as a form of exercise The rise of weight training as a form of exercise

Arnold Schwarzenegger in the movie, Pumping Iron

The rise of aerobics as a form of exercise

Jane Fonda aerobics videos

Celebrity role models

The Hawaii Iron Man triathlon becomes an iconic event ‘Life. Be in it’ campaign 1990s

Too busy; no time

The rise of professionalism in sport

Personal training

A reduction in memberships of sporting clubs due to time-poor people wanting flexible and individualised fitness options 2000s

Fitness for health

The obesity epidemic Holiday and after-school sports clinics and camps for kids

Structured fitness programs for children

Active living


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Figure 9.2

Enduring images often symbolise the attitudes to fitness which characterise different eras

The NSW Government is seeking to promote health and wellbeing and alleviate costs associated with obesity and physical inactivity through the Premier’s Council for Active Living (PCAL). PCAL aims to encourage more people in NSW to be more active every day. They intend to achieve this by building and strengthening physical activity environments that support people to be active in ways ranging from incidental physical activity through to structured fitness and sport programs. Table 9.2 outlines some of the strategies that PCAL is considering.

Incidental physical activity unplanned movement that occurs normally within an everyday lifestyle, such as walking to the bus stop instead of driving, or using the stairs instead of an elevator.

Table 9.2 PCAL strategies designed to increase active living

PCAL short-term strategies

PCAL longer-term strategies

• Ensure footpaths on streets are in good repair and conducive to walking and jogging

• Ensure state and local planning policies promote active living, such as the provision of open space for sport and recreation

• Provide seats and access to water periodically along walking routes • Increase the number and quality of trails for walking and cycling near beaches, coastlines, parks and bushland • Ensure lighting is adequate and working in public places • Provide bicycle-storage facilities near public transport points • Encourage workplaces to provide showers and change-room facilities for staff

• Encourage developers to design and build suburbs that support active living • Provide adequate transport options that reduce reliance on the car • Promote a culture that encourages active choices in favour of convenience

• Encourage workplaces to promote staff participation in physical activities and lunchtime recreational games


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Fitness profile—Susan Susan is 43 years old, married and the mother of three children under five years old. She works part time at a public hospital. ‘I migrated from the north of England about 15 years ago and the biggest impact on my approach to fitness has been the weather. In England, I found myself needing to exercise indoors if I wanted to do it with any sort of regularity throughout the year. As a result, I mostly went to the gym. I really had to force myself to go to the gym because I have never particularly enjoyed it. Since I’ve moved to Australia, my personal exercise has mainly been unstructured outdoor activities like walking. The weather is so nice and there are so many beautiful places to walk; it is just an enjoyable way to get and stay fit. Also, since the children have been born I’ve really needed to be flexible with my commitment to exercise and so walking is a great option for me. I have been really fortunate to connect with some of the local mums and we often go walking together for about an hour or so twice a week. We tried getting a personal trainer for a small group of us but in the end, we decided walking was ideal for us. It is flexible, a really good workout and we can talk the whole time we are walking.’

Figure 9.3 Walking is a fitness priority for Susan.


Analyse reasons why people’s attitudes to fitness change over time.

2

Analyse reasons why cultural attitudes to fitness change over time.

3

Assess the extent to which the financial costs associated with the health consequences of physical inactivity motivate governments to invest in promoting fitness and physical activity.

4

Predict the likely outcomes that will result from the work being done by PCAL.

Fitness as a commodity In 2009, Business Review Weekly identified the fitness industry as earning $12–15 billion per year in Australia, with that figure expected to be $60 billion per year in 2012. The fitness industry employs large numbers of people. Fitness Australia, the peak body for the fitness industry, has over 20 000 registered exercise professionals. Money in the fitness industry is generated through a wide range of commercial transactions related to aspects such as employment, gymnasium memberships, fitness equipment, training services, fitness clothing and nutritional supplements.


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Fitness choices

People choose to use, and pay for, fitness facilities and services for a range of reasons. Some reasons include: having access to a wide range of resources having access to specific knowledge and skills of personnel using the membership or service as a source of motivation.

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time poor to lose weight

motivational support REASONS

help with achieving Gymnasiums and fitness trainers enable a specific training people to access a range of equipment and goal facilities that they probably could not afford on an individual basis. As professionals, gym staff and trainers also make the commitment to individuals that the equipment, facilities and activities provided are safe. Exercising carries a degree of risk of physical injury because it involves physical exertion, and so tapping into the expertise and quality assurance of commercial gymnasiums and their staff is an appealing feature. Some people choose to purchase their own fitness equipment and establish home gyms. This can be a cost-effective approach providing that the equipment is of good quality and is well maintained, and that the individual has the knowledge and skills to use the equipment safely and effectively. Fitness trainers and gymnasium personnel offer individuals the capacity to maximise the benefits they hope to derive from their training. They promise to help individuals achieve their goals. The knowledge and skills that trainers and gymnasium personnel bring is one of the main reasons that the fitness industry thrives. In a culture where many people are time-poor, having a trainer can provide motivation and help ensure commitment to an exercise program.

to access knowledge and expertise

Figure 9.4

Reasons cited for choosing to engage a personal trainer


Predict future trends in the fitness industry.

2

Evaluate the potential to profit financially from investing in the fitness industry.

3

Assess the potential of career opportunities in the fitness industry.

4

Discuss why people are prepared to pay to access fitness products, services and facilities.

What are the ways people choose to exercise for fitness? For some, exercise is preferred as a solo pursuit in which ever-increasing goals are set and a program of exercise undertaken to achieve them. For others, the social dimension and commitment to a team that exercise can have carries a high priority and, therefore, group fitness activities and teambased games hold appeal. Having access to a broad range of fitness options is important to help people to realise their fitness goals.


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Individual fitness activities Power walking/running Power walking involves walking at a brisk pace while accentuating movement of the arms to elevate the heart rate further and generate more energy. Although it is not an aesthetically pleasing movement, power walking has the benefit of enabling the individual to work in the target heart-rate zone that is effective for burning body fat and maintaining good cardiorespiratory health. Power walking is also a low-impact activity with a low risk of injury. Running requires a higher level of intensity than power walking and thus burns more energy and can help derive significant cardiorespiratory fitness gains. Running has a higher impact and carries with it greater risk of related injuries to the lower limbs and, potentially, cardiac arrest in older athletes or those who have not developed a sufficient training base.

Swimming Swimming is a low-impact activity in which individuals benefit from the buoyancy of the water. Swimming requires a fairly high degree of skill and the level of skill can be a factor influencing the amount of energy burned during exercise. An inefficient swimmer is likely to burn up more energy and swim less distance than a more skilled swimmer. Some evidence suggests that swimming is a less effective form of exercise for reducing fat than running or cycling possibly because of buoyancy-related factors, the performance benefits of slightly higher levels of body fat for endurance swimming performance, and/or the cooling effect of being in the water.

Cycling Cycling is a low-impact form of exercise that promotes excellent gains in cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular endurance. Cycling on the road adds a potentially dangerous dimension, with the increased risk of road-related injuries from collisions or falls. Using a stationary bike allows for controlled measures of time, distance and speed; while avoiding collisions or falls as well as potentially performance-compromising factors such as wind, rain and sun.

Weight-training programs

Repetition the number of times the load is lifted consecutively before a rest.

RM stands for Repetition Maximum, which refers to the heaviest load that can be lifted once.


Weight-training programs are commonly structured to promote the development of fitness components such as muscular strength, muscular endurance, power and speed. Strength-based programs typically involve moving heavy loads with lower repetitions. Muscular endurance-based programs use light to moderate loads moved with more repetitions. Power and speed-based programs use moderate to heavy loads moved quickly a moderate number of times. As people often use heavy loads in weight training, there is potential for soft-tissue injuries such as strains, sprains and tears. It is important to develop a sound technique using lighter weights before graduating to moving heavier loads, and to be very careful when testing your RM.

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Component of fitness

Load

Repetitions

Rate of movement

Muscular strength

Heavy (80–100% RM)

2–6

Slow to moderate

Power

Moderate to heavy (60–80% RM)

2–10

Fast

Muscular endurance

Light to moderate (40–60% RM)

15–25

Moderate

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Table 9.3 Basic principles of weight-training programs

Fitness profile—Michael Michael is 42 years old and is married with one child. He has a demanding corporate job based in the city. ‘I played a lot of team sports as a kid, soccer and cricket mostly, but when I left school I found myself drawn to the attraction that individual fitness activities offer. I found that I enjoyed swimming laps for exercise but it was cycling that really enthused me. I began doing long rides on weekends and found that, apart from the physical health benefits, it was really therapeutic from a mental health perspective. It really relaxed me to be able to take my mind off everything else and just focus on the ride; and there are some absolutely beautiful places to cycle. I soon started riding to university each day and also set up a stationary bike in my house that I could use for my cycling ‘hit’ on days of inclement weather when I didn’t want to ride outside. I’ve done a few corporate rides and charity events but the prospect of racing competitively has never held any appeal. Mostly I ride to work and back each day. I get the physical and mental health benefits and it is also quicker in peak hour than public transport or driving. I aim to do at least four rides each week.’

Figure 9.5 Michael finds cycling has both physical and

mental health benefits

Tai Chi Tai Chi comes from Chinese culture and is often observed being practiced in local parks by devotees. Tai Chi has its origins as a form of developing combat and self-defence skills, although equally it has been used for centuries as a way of promoting general health, fitness and wellbeing. Tai Chi is characterised by controlled, gentle and tranquil movements designed to foster harmony in mind and body as well as improve movement, flexibility and mental alertness. There is an ancient Chinese saying: ‘Whoever practices Tai Chi regularly will, in time, gain the suppleness of a child, the strength of a lion, and the peace of mind of a sage.’

Pilates/yoga Pilates involves completing a sequence of movements in a highly controlled fashion. Through Pilates, a greater understanding of the body’s ideal position during movement is developed, together with improved core body strength. Pilates movements can isolate muscle groups for the purpose of strengthening weak muscles and/or lengthening tight, bulky muscles. The aim is to create balance within the body.


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Common principles focused upon in Pilates are concentration, breathing, centring, control, movement, flow, precision and routine. Yoga takes a holistic approach to wellbeing. It has a strong physical dimension through its poses and movements; focuses on breathing, meditation, contemplation and, sometimes, a spiritual dimension. There are a number of different styles of yoga, each with their own unique interpretations. For example, Bikram Yoga can be quite intense, burn more energy, and be more likely to make you sweat. Hatha Yoga is more passive and involves holding poses for longer periods and placing greater focus on meditation and controlled breathing. Ashtanga Yoga is the most popular style. It is a fast-paced series of sequential poses and it is structured in six levels of increasing degrees of difficulty, which allows students to work at their own pace and ability level.

Figure 9.6

The lotus pose is a common yoga position

Holistic approach in addition to placing our focus on the physical dimensions of health, we also emphasise mental, emotional and sometimes spiritual dimensions with a view to supporting and aligning the dimensions of the whole person.


Discuss why a holistic approach to fitness might appeal to some people.

2

Explain how controlled, gentle and tranquil movements, such as those practised in Tai Chi, can have a fitness benefit.

3

Describe ways that a person could distinguish between the different styles of yoga to find a style that is most suitable for them.

4

Outline benefits associated with improving core body strength.

Emerging individual fitness activities Any fitness activity that becomes popular involves people spreading the message of its benefits. In an era of pay TV, the internet and globalisation, it is increasingly likely that new fitness activities will emerge and spread more easily. Similarly, it is possible that there will be a broader range of ‘niche’ activities that appeal to a small but committed number of devotees, rather than the historical attachment of masses of people to traditional activities, which occurred when there were far less fitness options available. An example of an individual fitness activity that has emerged, or at least has had a surge in popularity, is stand up paddle surfing (SUP). SUP has been around for more than sixty years, and it is believed to have originated in Hawaii when photographers ventured into the ocean to take photos of tourists. The photographers stood and paddled on their boards in order to keep their camera equipment dry. SUP developed into a form of surfing for a short period but is now gaining rapid popularity, as improved technologies have allowed boards to be made much lighter and far more manoeuvrable on waves. In some instances, SUP enables surfers to catch waves that may not be possible with a traditional surfboard.


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SUP can be done catching waves in the surf or exploring the environment on flat water. SUP offers greater visibility than lying on a surfboard or sitting on a surf ski and is therefore well suited to exploring lakes and rivers. Fitness benefits from SUP include improvements in muscular endurance, core strength, balance and cardiorespiratory fitness.

Group fitness activities Aerobics/aquarobics The concept of aerobics was first developed by Kenneth H Cooper, an air force doctor based at the San Antonio Hospital in Texas. Aerobics, at that time, comprised a series of running, cycling, swimming and walking activities. They were developed initially to help prevent coronary heart disease and, soon after, to train and monitor astronauts preparing for missions. Dr Cooper is renowned in the area of endurance fitness testing and is the man who developed the Cooper 12 minute run and the 1.5-mile run as standardised fitness tests. Dr Cooper’s book Aerobics was published in 1968. In the early 1980s, aerobics gained an international following largely through celebrity workout videos, such as Jane Fonda’s demonstrating how aerobics could be done in your home. Subsequently, a wide range of aerobics variations has evolved including step aerobics, dance aerobics, competition aerobics and aquarobics. Aquarobics is usually done in a group in a pool with a fitness leader taking the group through a range of callisthenic movements to the sound of music. A major advantage of aquarobics is the cardiovascular benefits that can be derived with very limited impact on muscles and joints, due to the buoyancy effect of the water supporting the body. Research by the Australian Sports Commission estimated that there are over 30 000 adults who participate in aquarobics in Australia with the average age being 45 years.

Figure 9.7

Stand-up paddle surfing is an emerging individual activity that has clear fitness benefits

Pump/step/spin classes A key strategy of any commercial gymnasium is to continually update the program of classes they offer. This demonstrates their currency with the latest research and trends in fitness, helps to keep members motivated and enthused by offering new classes, and enables the gymnasium to meet the varying needs of their members. Major fitness-class categories that have been added to gymnasium timetables in recent years include: Pump—this is weight training, using barbells and dumbbells, performed to music. The class promotes improvement in the areas of muscular strength, muscular endurance, muscle tone and cardiorespiratory fitness. Step—this class involves choreographed movements, which involve stepping in various directions (up down, back, forward and across) to the beat of music. Spin—this involves group fitness, where participants exercise on a stationary bike to the sounds of inspiring music. The class leader may


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dictate intensity through calling for different terrain, speeds or pedal resistance. Alternatively, some spin classes encourage each individual to control the intensity of their workout. Body Jam—this class uses dance-inspired cardio workouts to dance music using low-impact, moderate-intensity movements Boxercise—this group fitness session requires participants to use boxing pads and gloves to safely punch, duck, weave, bob and move for extended periods at varying degrees of intensity. The result is a cardiorespiratory workout with other gains in muscular endurance and agility.

Circuit training Circuit training involves completing a number of different exercises one after the other, with little or no break in between. The intent is to provide a cardiorespiratory workout with some gains in muscle tone and muscular strength and endurance. Figure 9.8

Spin classes are a popular group fitness activity

Circuit training can involve the use of different weight-training equipment, medicine balls, fit balls, boxing gloves and other equipment; however, bodyweight exercises are extremely common in most circuit classes. Examples of common exercises used in circuit classes include push-ups, dips, sit-ups, lunges, boxing, skipping, squats, star jumps, step-ups and agility runs.


Identify fitness classes that would best meet your needs and interests. Justify your selections.

2

Compare costs for participating in individual fitness activities with costs for participating in group-fitness activities.

3

Propose reasons, other than cost, which might influence people to choose either individual or group fitness activities in preference to other fitness activities.

4

Investigate sources you could access to provide you with valid and reliable information about a selected activity.

Team games Team games appeal to many people because they are based on the principle of working collectively to achieve a common goal. Many team games are inculcated in people from a very young age, and games culture becomes ingrained in the social and cultural background in which people exist. Team games also offer an added social dimension, because of the sheer number of people involved and because people to want to debrief with one another after a hard training session or competitive match. Team games are resource-efficient because they provide exercise opportunities for a reasonable


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number of people using a relatively small amount of resources and facilities. For example, a game of soccer provides exercise for 22 people at once on a single field using one ball and a couple of goal posts.

Exercise for specific groups Exercise is highly recommended for all people because of the fitness and general health benefits that stem from it. However, it is important to acknowledge that there is a range of physical factors for different individuals that can affect the nature and extent of exercise and what is suitable for them to attempt. Pregnant women, children and the aged all have physical factors that need to be carefully considered when planning suitable exercise.

Pregnant women Exercise is beneficial for pregnant women; it can improve posture, lower body-fat gains, provide stress relief and better sleep, and enhance preparation for the physical demands of motherhood. Pregnant women should consult with their doctor, physiotherapist and/or health-care professional prior to commencing an exercise program, and it is advisable if they already currently exercise regularly that the nature and extent of their existing program should be discussed. For women with hypertension, heart disease, multiple foetuses or those who have an increased risk of premature labour, it may be best to avoid exercise during pregnancy. Common elements to consider for pregnant women exercising include: remain well hydrated and avoid overheating select low- to moderate-intensity exercise, especially during the later stages of the pregnancy restrict high-impact activities and contact sports have at least two rest days per week and do not exercise on a particular day if not feeling well or not feeling like it.

Children Children are not little adults and the structure of an exercise plan should reflect this. Children tend to come from a low knowledge and skill base and they are experiencing consistent growth with periodic rapid bursts of growth. These factors dictate that the exercise focus for children needs to be on skill development, variety, enjoyment, participation and good health. It is generally considered inappropriate for high-intensity exercise and excessive specialised activities to be imposed on children because they are not ready to cope physically or emotionally with these demands. Children can be particularly susceptible to overuse injuries, such as stress fractures, which can be caused by repetitive actions placing stress and subsequent wear and tear on bones, muscles and joint components such as cartilage, ligaments and tendons. Thermoregulation is another major consideration for children when they are exercising, because children do not have a fully developed cooling system and, therefore, they are less efficient at losing heat through sweating. Shorter-duration activities, lower intensities, appropriate clothing and regular breaks for water are important strategies to incorporate when children exercise.


Overuse injuries occur when repetitive actions place undue stress on muscles, bones and joints.

Thermoregulation the body processes through which heat is gained and lost to maintain the ideal body temperature of approximately 37 degrees Celsius.

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The aged In some respects, the aged have similar exercise needs to children but for different reasons. Whereas exercise modifications for children stem largely from under-development of their physical capabilities, the aged need to manage exercise because their bodies may now be less able to cope with some challenging activities. The natural loss of strength and flexibility that occurs after middle age can mean that older people need to perform movements at a slower rate and at a reduced intensity. Exercise that requires fast or intense movement can place the aged at heightened risk of tears, sprains and strains, as well as injuries from falls. Many older people have reduced bone density and so consistent participation in high-impact exercises can place them at greater risk of bone injuries such as fractures. In addition, the duration and intensity of endurance activities need to be carefully monitored because of the stress that these activities can place on the circulatory system when they are performed too long or too hard.

Emerging group fitness activities Figure 9.9

Dragon boat racing is a very team-oriented activity and its popularity continues to grow


Group fitness activities that have either emerged, or have grown significantly in popularity, in recent years include dragon boat racing and outdoor group fitness activities such as Boot Camp. Dragon boat racing came to prominence when Hong Kong held an international race festival in 1976. Dragon boat racing started out with slow growth in Australia, but participation numbers have grown noticeably. Dragon boat racing is now the fastest growing water sport in Australia. Dragon boat crews are made up of 22 people and dragon boat racing is an attractive team-building activity for many organisations. A key factor in successful dragon boat racing is paddle cohesiveness among the entire crew. Communication, cooperation and commitment among the entire team are critical to successful performance. Dragon boat racing can be physically demanding at a competitive level and helps develop muscular endurance, core strength and cardiorespiratory fitness. Boot Camp has been a highly successful initiative introduced by the commercial gymnasium chain Fitness First. Boot Camp is a four-week training program based loosely on military-style training principles. It is conducted completely outdoors, encourages a strong team focus and establishes goals to be achieved and periodic assessments of progress. The principles of Boot Camp are replicated in a number of other fitness service providers. For example, Step into Life is an organisation that sells franchises to trainers. The Step into Life training model also involves group fitness activities being held outdoors in community spaces, such as parks and beaches. Participants all wear the Step into Life training apparel that symbolises the sense of team within the group that is training.

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Figure 9.10

Boot Camp and other similar group fitness activities seek to motivate people to commit to their training and achieve their fitness goals


Copy and complete Table 9.4 as you participate in selected individual and group fitness activities throughout this topic. Table 9.4 Comparative summary of various forms of fitness activities

Activity

Benefits

Where available?

Cost

Time commitment

Further information

Personal reflections

Power walking/running Swimming Cycling Weight training Tai chi Pilates/yoga Emerging individual fitness activities Aerobics/ aquarobics Pump/step/spin classes Circuit training Team games Exercise for specific groups e.g. pregnant women, children, the aged Emerging group fitness activities


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2

Do you prefer individual or group fitness activities? Explain the reasons for your preference.

3

Propose suitable fitness activities for the following people: • a 35-year-old woman who is six months pregnant • a 75-year-old man who has regularly trained and competed in masters athletics competitions • an average seven-year-old child.

4

Predict individual and group fitness activities that could become significant in the next 10 years.

What influences people’s choice of fitness activities? A wide range of factors influence people’s choice of fitness activities, including access to facilities and resources, cost, skills, past experiences and other life responsibilities. Each of these factors can influence choice and participation in positive or negative ways.

Settings for exercise Exercise at home Exercise at home can be the most cost effective way to exercise. It can be done with little or no equipment and for little or no cost. However, a potential disadvantage is that the opportunity to tap into the expertise of others and the social dimensions may be lost.

Fitness Profile—Daniel Daniel is a 47-year-old sales manager. He has been the sole parent to his two children aged 11 and 13 years, since his wife died three years ago. ‘I was never particularly into sport or fitness growing up. Even as a young adult, it was not a priority for me. It wasn’t until my wife died that I became really quite serious about getting fit and staying fit. The motivation for me was the fear that being unhealthy might cause something to happen to me, which would leave me unable to look after my two children. As a sole parent, that became a major issue for me. I decided to do all that I could to ensure my own good health. I eat well, do not drink or smoke and I follow the recommended physical activity guidelines. I exercise 3–4 times per week doing mainly aerobic-type activities for about 30 minutes. I exercise at home in the evenings because it doesn’t cost anything and I need to be at home in the evenings when the kids are doing their homework and going to bed.’


Figure 9.11

Daniel finds exercising at home to be most convenient for him

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To sustain exercise at home in the long term, it is critical to have a high level of motivation and commitment. Effective strategies to sustain motivation and commitment include setting measurable performance goals, regularly assessing progress and then re-setting new goals that are more challenging. For those people who want to exercise at home and are willing to spend some money to make it as effective as possible, a number of options are available. Home gyms range from simple ones at a few hundred dollars to comprehensive ones costing tens of thousands. Designs are available that can fit into a small room or take up the space of a large garage. The most popular home gym equipment is cardio based and includes stationary bikes, treadmills and rowing machines. Dumbbells, barbells and multi-function weight machines are popular for strength-based training at home. A growing market exists for niche exercise aids, such as the ab-cruncher, which are advertised in the media through infomercials and on shopping channels. Often promising great results, many of these niche exercise aids develop only a limited range of fitness. To achieve broad and sustained results, a more comprehensive approach to exercise is often needed.

Community facilities Community facilities play a significant role in providing equitable access to exercise facilities. In many cases, community facilities are provided and maintained by local councils. Community groups, charities and sporting associations also sometimes provide and/or maintain exercise facilities. Examples of ways that community facilities are used for exercise include: Halls belonging to churches, schools and local councils being hired out for a low fee to groups wanting to conduct activities such as karate classes, Pilates and yoga. Tennis courts being provided and maintained by the local council on land they own. Hiring fees are usually quite reasonable. Public golf courses being leased to a club, which is managed by a committee. The golf club can have members and allocate specific times for member-only competitions, but is also obliged to have significant times set aside during the week for the course to be used by the public. Some public golf courses also build in tracks surrounding the course for walking and running. Local councils providing exercise equipment along routes commonly used for walking and jogging Local and state governments developing bushwalking paths through forests and other natural environments.

Figure 9.12

Long Reef Golf Club is a community facility that provides people with the opportunity to play golf and use the surrounding tracks for walking and jogging

The majority of costs associated with developing and maintaining community facilities are borne by the body that owns them, often the local council. In the case of local councils, they mostly use income from the council rates paid by all local residents as well as government grants to meet the bulk of the costs. The fees charged for using some of the facilities or for parking nearby usually subsidise only a small amount of the costs.


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Fitness centres and personal trainers Fitness centres can offer state-of-the-art facilities with highly credentialed trainers on site at your disposal. It can be expensive for fitness centres to provide this level of service and, therefore, the price of membership can also be expensive. Ultimately, the decision about whether or not to join a fitness centre is based around questions such as: Is this a preferred form of exercise for me? Can I afford it? Will I go regularly enough to get value for money? Are there any current or likely health issues that might restrict my capacity to go to the gym? Which fitness centre best meets my needs? Fitness centres clearly prefer to have people join as members, rather than pay to attend on a casual basis. As a result, annual membership fees (which are typically charged monthly or weekly) are cheaper than the cost of regular casual visits. It is quite common for a casual visit to a fitness centre to cost in excess of $25, while an annual membership fee can be less than $1000. When signing up for an annual membership, it is important to carefully review the contract and seek advice. Fitness centre contracts can be quite complex and often include financial penalties for ending them within the minimum period.

Fitness First: your stories ARJUN RAMACHANDRAN AND ERIK JENSEN

smh.com.au has been inundated with emails from readers complaining about their experiences with Fitness First. About 70 per cent were from Fitness First customers who had difficulties cancelling their memberships, or those of a loved one. The readers often cited injuries, health concerns, or death as the reason for cancelling, but often found their accounts continued to be debited by Fitness First. About 20 per cent complained about the pushiness of staff when they inquired about joining the gym and the harsh terms and conditions of the contracts. The remaining customers complained about a range of other issues, including the cost of memberships and the facilities. Terry Lewis, from Artarmon, said he contacted the Fitness First in Chatswood in January to cancel his wife’s


membership after she became terminally ill and was no longer able to exercise. Despite being told it would be done, the fortnightly payments of $33.95 continued to be deducted from their bank account, he said. His wife, Maxine, passed away in March, but the payments continued despite a number of phone calls, he said. ‘When she was ill it was bad enough ... but Fitness First knew she was dead, the personal trainer even came to the funeral,’ said Mr Lewis’s daughter, Fiona. Mr Lewis said: ‘They do a direct debit out of the account and with the banks you’re not allowed to cancel the account, it’s got to be cancelled by the provider, so they’ve got you really.’ The payments finally ceased about six weeks after his wife died, Mr Lewis said.

However, Fitness First did not refund any of the fees deducted after Mrs Lewis passed away, Ms Lewis said. Christopher Zinn, from consumer group Choice, said gym memberships had a reputation for being unfair but that it was a difficult case for consumers to argue after they had signed the contract. ‘Unfortunately in these cases, if you sign on the bottom line, it tends to have a stronger legal pull,’ he said. ‘The point of a contract is to lock you in, which is fair enough, but they have to be fair. ‘With gym memberships in particular we have been seeing many examples of unfair contracts. It’s not necessarily unfair that they have a termination fee, but it might be unfair that they don’t allow somebody with genuine medical reasons for exiting it to do so.’ >>

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Mr Zinn said Choice has been campaigning for unfair contracts to be banned by national laws. Carolyn Bond, co-CEO of the Consumer Action Law Centre, said the lawyers at the consumer group received many complaints about gyms. ‘The gym industry is pretty notorious for these sort of contracts that lock people in,’ she said. ‘We think in many cases that’s unfair when people want to break the contract for health reasons or other serious reasons.’ It was not legally possible for consumers to simply opt to break gym membership, without any penalties, she said. ‘They are definitely worded in a way that tries to tie people in. There’s

no automatic arrangement where you can just write to cancel an agreement. For example, you can’t just cancel your mortgage.’ However she believes the contracts ought to be made ‘fairer’, by allowing for them to be broken in ‘valid reasons’. Professor Philip Clarke, an expert in contract law from Deakin University, said the practices described were unusual but not illegal. As long as the gym did not attempt to mislead clients while they were signing contracts, the terms stood. ‘I imagine it is designed to make you less inclined [to leave] because there is a personal conversation,’ he said. ‘People are not inclined to

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do that—they would rather do it anonymously.’ Professor Clarke said he was unaware of research into gym contracts, but there was always chatter about the difficulty of leaving contracts and he was not surprised Fitness First was pursuing the paltry sum of $200 in the case of Suh Yoke Chong. ‘From the organisation’s point of view they would have been concerned about the precedent created by the tribunal, not because they were worried about the $200,’ he said. ‘It’s not uncommon at all for companies to fight small claims like this because they don’t want the negative precedent established that may put at risk their other contracts.’

The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 August 2008


Estimate how often you would need to attend a fitness centre to feel as though you were receiving value for money.

2

Discuss reasons for and against joining a fitness centre.

3

Identify reasons why fitness centres might want to ‘lock you in’ for a fixed term of membership.

4

Outline strategies that can help you enter into a fitness centre contract fully informed.

Exercise clubs Exercise clubs are usually built around like-minded people joining to form a club based on a shared interest in a particular form of exercise. Running clubs, walking clubs, cycling clubs and triathlon clubs are quite common. While exercise clubs usually have one specific activity at their core, related dimensions may include priorities that are socially based, training based and/ or competition based. Generally speaking, many exercise clubs have suffered a drop in membership numbers in recent years. There seems to be an overall trend for people to want more flexibility and to feel less able to commit to the regular participation that clubs often require. In addition, people do not always want to follow the rigid rules and traditions that are sometimes part of clubs. Other explanations include the possibility that, in recent years, the work–life balance has shifted for many Australians to the point where


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work consumes a greater proportion of their time. The changing nature of the workplace also means that many people do not necessarily work in the traditional Monday to Friday, 9 am to 5 pm structure. One exercise club that is bucking the trend of falling membership numbers is the Bondi Icebergs Winter Swimming Club. The club began in 1929 as a way for local lifesavers to maintain their fitness and swimming capabilities during the winter months. Membership has climbed in recent years, as the clubhouse has been extensively renovated and membership has become fashionable. Growth spiked in 1994 when women were allowed to join the previously menonly club, and it continues to climb in spite of the club’s rigid initiation expectations. Different levels of membership are available, but to obtain full membership of Bondi Icebergs Winter Swimming Club applicants must swim in club races three out of four Sundays every month from May to September for five years. Figure 9.13

Bondi Icebergs Winter Swimming Club is an iconic club in an iconic location

Cultural groups Acknowledging that sport and exercise have strong social and cultural factors underpinning them helps us to understand the reasons why cultural groups can demonstrate stronger affiliations to particular forms of exercise and have proportionally greater participation rates. Australia has a generally warm climate and according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, 83 per cent of Australians, in 2008, lived within 50 kilometres of the coast. It is no surprise then that large numbers of Australians use swimming as a form of exercise. Other water-based forms of exercise, such as canoeing and surfing, also have higher participation rates in Australia than in most other countries. There is evidence to suggest that cultural approaches to exercise and sports participation continue when people migrate to Australia. For example, Pacific Islander peoples have proportionally high rates of participation in the rugby codes, while gymnastics participation rates are proportionally higher among Australians with an eastern European family background. In many cases, participating in forms of exercise and sport in Australia that are similar to those in the home country provides a feeling of connection, both to the home country and with other migrants from that country.


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Would you ever consider joining an exercise club? Explain why or why not.

2

Propose ways that exercise clubs can turn around the trend of losing members.

3

Explain ways that your social and cultural background has influenced your involvement in exercise.

Advertising and promotion How do you know who to believe? Navigating effectively through the volume of advertising and promotion for fitness products, services and facilities requires a relatively high degree of skill. While much advertising is ethical and informative, some techniques that are used and claims that are made can be misleading or even false. Fitness products can also be faulty or potentially dangerous. Knowledge is an advantage. However, for those people who do not have extensive knowledge and experience in the fitness area, it is important that they access sound advice from qualified and reliable sources. Some useful strategies to help navigate through the maze of fitness advertising and promotion include: Critical literacy—developing critical literacy skills is valuable, and these skills can be applied effectively to a broad range of contexts, including fitness. Critical literacy skills involve analysing images and text with a mindset that questions the key messages being communicated and examines exactly what the person or company putting out the message might be trying to achieve. Critical literacy helps people to avoid simply accepting what they are being told without question. Questioning—placing your fitness, health and wellbeing in the hands of a fitness leader, product or service involves a high level of trust. The potential for negative outcomes, such as injury, are real. Therefore, it is appropriate to ask many questions and expect them to be answered satisfactorily. Checking credentials—this may include asking a personal trainer to provide evidence of their formal qualifications, checking that a gymnasium and its staff are accredited with a reputable professional body such as Fitness Australia, reading research supporting or questioning the safety and validity of a particular product or activity, and investigating by using tools such as the internet and mass media. Seeking references from reliable sources—if you are interested in a particular fitness product, service or facility it can be useful to ask people who have used it, especially family or friends, about their experiences. It is important to be aware, however, that although family and friends are likely to be genuine in their appraisal they may or may not have the knowledge, skills and experience to provide you with an informed view.


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Promotional techniques The fitness industry has been known to prey on the insecurities of its potential clients. Promises of amazing results achieved in ridiculously short time frames appeal to many people. Despite most people understanding at a cognitive level that fitness gains are experienced gradually over a sustained period of regular physical effort, there is a small part of many people that wants to believe that a product or service exists that can provide instant results. The fitness industry uses strategies that have proven successful in other commercial industries. Some examples of these strategies include:

Figure 9.14

Many gyms offer free fitness assessment to new or potential customers

The free fitness assessment—this promotion provides an opportunity for people to receive personalised health information that will enable them to make informed decisions about what they might need to do to enhance their fitness levels. The provider of this promotion clearly hopes that the person will choose to access support from them in helping to meet these fitness needs. The free trial—this promotion invites people to use the gym for a limited period or receive a personal training session at no cost. It is based on the principle of try-before-you-buy. One purpose behind this strategy is for the provider to be able to demonstrate the quality of the facilities and service they can provide. Of equal or perhaps greater importance is the opportunity to engage in a one-to-one sales opportunity with a potential client whom they might not normally have been aware of and to have access to their personal details for future marketing purposes. The free trial nearly always requires the individual to complete an information form and to meet with a sales consultant. Using clients to sell your product or service—promotions that invite you to sign up a friend or family member in return for a discount on your own gym membership are effectively using gym members as part of their sales team. Gym membership sales increase and members who bring family and friends on board receive a ‘commission’ in the form of a reduced membership rate. The celebrity endorsement—celebrities who may hold some appeal for the target audience can be effectively used to endorse a product. People show an increased willingness to commit to a product or service when a celebrity who they admire, respect, believe or want to be like endorses that product or service. Infomercials use celebrities to sell fitness equipment, and celebrity fitness DVDs are big business. Perhaps one of the most effective strategies used to increase gym memberships has been the inclusion of childcare services in the gym. Providing this service made it possible, in a practical sense, for a completely new market to tap into the services provided by gyms. Many mothers of young children are at home some or all days of the week and they place a high priority on their fitness, health and wellbeing. Without childcare support, it would be next to impossible for them to access the gym. With childcare being available


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onsite during the time that they work out, usually between 9 am and 12 pm, this niche market has provided a significant revenue stream for gyms at a time of the day when previously they were often unused.


Evaluate your current level of critical literacy.

2

Outline ways that you could improve your capacity to make informed decisions about fitness products and services.

3

Rank the five fitness-advertising strategies and promotions that you believe would be most effective. Justify your rankings.

4

Explain why providing a childcare service has been important both for fitness centres and for parents.

Accuracy of information There is a basic expectation that information provided to consumers will be accurate. This expectation is enshrined in legislation and supported in NSW by the Office of Fair Trading, which safeguards the rights of consumers and advises businesses on fair and ethical trading. All consumers are protected from false and misleading advertising under the Commonwealth Trade Practices Act 1974 and NSW Fair Trading Act 1987. Under these Acts, consumers have the legal right to receive accurate information about products and services they want to purchase without being lied to or misled. A number of relevant industry-related mechanisms are also in place that promote the provision of accurate information, such as self-regulation through the Advertising Standards Bureau and the Fitness Australia Code of Ethics. The Fitness Australia Code of Ethics provides explicit guidance around advertising under its Professional Integrity section, as shown below. ‘Fitness professionals may advertise in connection with their professional practice if the advertising is not false, not misleading or deceptive or likely to mislead or deceive, is not vulgar or sensational, and does not claim or imply superiority of the fitness professional over any or all other fitness professionals. The advertisement for the fitness professional may contain a statement of the areas of expertise in practice.’

While legislation, self-regulation and codes of ethics are useful strategies for protecting people from false or misleading advertising, individuals also need to recognise the role that they must play in adequately researching and critically analysing advertising.

Ethics of advertising Ethics are important in any industry. However, it would be naive to assume that all or even most commercial organisations always advertise ethically. In the fitness industry, some gymnasiums have been in the media and in the courts over difficulties that some people have experienced with their membership and unethical promotion tactics. Problems have included significant penalty costs incurred when ending long-term gym membership contracts, particularly when the penalty was not


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Self-regulation the process by which industries, organisations or individuals commit to meeting a set of agreed standards or codes. It is not a legislative requirement but rather an acknowledgment that behaviours identified in the standards or code represent good practice and behaviours that fall outside these should be avoided.

explicitly advertised prior to signing the contract; hiding information about penalties in the fine print of a lengthy contract and urging the client to sign quickly to benefit from the current sale promotion on offer or to avoid an imminent fee increase. Another unethical advertising practice is to make exaggerated or unproven claims. Some advertisers sell programs that promise weight loss and fitness while ‘eating all the food you like and not getting hot and sweaty with exercise’. All providers of fitness-related services and products must meet general business regulations regarding advertising standards. Ethical advertising is encouraged and self-regulation is in place through industry-related and advertising codes of ethics. However, providers are really only obliged to advertise as ethically as the law requires them to.

The Advertising Standards Bureau The Advertising Standards Bureau (ASB) administers a national system of advertising self-regulation through the Advertising Standards Board and the Advertising Claims Board. Using a system of self-regulation is based on the premise that advertisers share a common interest in promoting consumer confidence in and respect for general standards of advertising. The Advertising Standards Board provides a free public service of complaint resolution in which it makes determinations on complaints about advertising in relation to issues such as the use of language, portrayals of discrimination, portrayals of violence, sex/sexuality/ nudity, health and safety, concern for children and marketing of food and beverages to children. The Advertising Claims Board provides a complaint resolution service and determines complaints involving issues of truth, accuracy and legality of advertising. A Code of Ethics prescribed by the Australian Association of National Advertisers (AANA) is used as the basis for making determinations about complaints. The complaint below and the determination made were in relation to advertising by Fernwood Female Fitness Centres.

Case report Advertiser Product Type of advertisement Nature of complaint

Date of determination DETERMINATION


Description of the advertisement This television advertisement features two balls bouncing to a musical backing, with the superimposed caption, ‘These are the only balls you’ll see at Fernwood’, ahead of a caption for the Fernwood Female Fitness Centre.

The complaint Comments made by the complainants in relation to this advertisement include the following: ‘I find the advertisement highly objectionable because it refers to man’s genitals in a demeaning and deprecatory manner in a public forum and also flaunts a discrimination for membership of this organisation on the basis of gender.’ ‘The arbitrary and flippant reference to male genitalia is personally offensive to me and is potentially degrading towards men in general.’

The determination

The Advertising Standards Board … considered whether this advertisement breaches Section 2 of the AANA Advertiser Code of Ethics … The Board determined that the material within the advertisement did not contravene prevailing community standards in relation to its portrayal of sex/sexuality/ Fernwood Female Fitness Centres Pty Ltd nudity and that it did not constitute Leisure & Sport discrimination or vilification. TV Finding that the advertisement Discrimination or vilification did not breach the Code on these Other—section 2.1 or any other grounds, the Board Portrayal of sex/sexuality/nudity dismissed the complaint. —section 2.3 Tuesday, 8 May 2001 Dismissed

www.advertisingstandardsbureau.com.au

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Discuss the benefits and limitations of a self-regulation approach to managing advertising standards and claims.

2

Assess the likely effect of Fitness Australia Code of Ethics

3

Evaluate the determination made on the Fernwood Female Fitness Centre advertisement.

Motivators and barriers to participation Access to facilities Factors that restrict access to fitness facilities can be a significant impediment to exercise participation. Geographic challenge can be a significant factor in limiting access. Smaller country towns can have limited access to major exercise facilities, such as fitness centres or public pools, because the community may not be large enough to support them and make them commercially viable. Local councils and other government bodies can have a major role in supporting these facilities. Another strategy is to encourage private and public sector cooperation, as well as using fund-raising measures to subsidise some of the costs. The town of Tingha in northwestern NSW has had a Community Swimming Pool project running for some time and is raising funds to build a local swimming pool. Nathan Blacklock, the former Rugby League player, is a prominent part of this community project for the town in which he grew up. In cases where adequate access to fitness facilities is a barrier, committing to exercise can require additional motivation on behalf of individuals and small groups. Options are limited to those forms of exercise that are free, low cost or accessible. Country towns also face challenges when competing in large team sports because numbers can be limited. Travel times and distances for competitions can also be prohibitive.

Convenience of use Convenience can be a double-edged sword. On the one hand, having fitness facilities and services conveniently located takes away a significant barrier. On the other hand, when things are very convenient there is potential to take them for granted and not access them adequately. How many people have signed up for fitness centre memberships and rarely used them? Many of these people continue to maintain their membership under the misguided belief that eventually they will find the time or the motivation to use the centre sufficiently. Similarly, how many people have purchased fitness equipment for their home only to have it remain in the garage or under the bed? Council clean-ups often include rarely-used fitness equipment left on the side of the road to be picked up, recycled or disposed of.


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Having convenient access to fitness opportunities is important. To maximise benefits, it is useful for people to clearly identify their reasons for exercising, set measurable goals and do their research before making expensive commitments.

Cost Local councils and higher levels of government subsidising costs of developing and maintaining exercise facilities is one strategy that can work. For example, building skateboarding facilities in community parks is a relatively cheap way of providing an exercise option that will be freely used by large numbers of young people. Some exercise options, such as skiing, are inherently costly and some are run as a commercial enterprise. As such, these options will cost money to be involved in. It is important, however, that communities have a range of options at their disposal, at least some of which cost little or nothing to do.

Feelings about fitness and exercise

Figure 9.15

Fitness testing can have a positive or negative influence on people’s feelings about fitness and exercise

Our feelings about fitness and exercise are developed over time and they are influenced by a range of sources. A critical influence is our early experience with fitness and exercise. Having positive experiences increases the likelihood of ongoing participation. Negative experiences reduce that likelihood. For some people, their first exposure to the concept of ‘fitness’ may have been completing a battery of fitness tests in PDHPE. While this could be a positive experience for those who performed well in the tests or found the tests to be a source of motivation, others may have felt humiliated or been demoralised by ‘failing’ in front of their peers. These early feelings can be perpetuated and, in the case of negative feelings, be very difficult to change. The concept of exercise has become associated with undertaking physical exertion and experiencing related pain and fatigue in pursuit of ‘fitness’. Some people are inspired by this concept, whereas others find it unpleasant. This has led to the promotion of ‘physical activity’ as the dominant concept in improving health. Fitness and exercise are still clearly linked, however, the term ‘physical activity’ implies potential for the activity to be undertaken at a lower level of intensity, for it to be an enjoyable experience, and for the intended outcome to be enhanced health and wellbeing, not necessarily enhancing fitness.

Exercise as a priority When we place a high priority on something, we usually make adequate time for it. If we truly value fitness, we will find the time and opportunities to exercise. Perhaps the most effective strategy for prioritising exercise is to use a diary. By timetabling regular commitments to exercise into your diary, you are more likely to follow through on your commitments.


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Fitness Profile—Veronica Veronica is 78 years old, married, with three adult children and six grandchildren. ‘I have always been active and tennis is the sport I have played consistently since I was a child. I met my husband at a tennis tournament in the 1950s and played midweek social tennis with a group of local mothers while we were raising our children in the 1970s and 1980s. The children are grown up now but most of the original mums still play today—every Wednesday. I had my first hip replacement in 1995 and the doctor suggested swimming was good for the rehabilitation process. I had never really been into swimming but I followed the doctor’s advice and I quite enjoyed it. When I had my other hip replaced in 1999, I began swimming again and I have kept it up—every Friday. A friend from tennis and I catch the train to the pool, we swim for an hour and then catch the train home again. Tennis on Wednesday and swimming on Friday works out really well from a family point of view because my husband plays golf on both of those days.’

Figure 9.16

Veronica has found tennis and swimming to have a positive impact on her life

Influence of other responsibilities Throughout life, there are different transition stages that are common experiences for many people. These include starting and finishing school, beginning fulltime work, getting married, having children and retiring from fulltime work. Responsibilities that are inherent in these and other stages of life can impact positively or negatively on participation in exercise. The NSW school curriculum designates PDHPE as compulsory for kindergarten to Year 10 students, thus providing exercise opportunities for all children. Upon leaving school, greater personal freedom, part or fulltime work, further study and a growing social life can restrict opportunities and sometimes motivation to exercise. Alternatively, some people find that greater personal freedom and financial independence gives them more scope to pursue their exercise passions. Having children is time consuming and often occurs at a time of life when career advancement opportunities are emerging. These two factors are common contributors to people experiencing weight gain and a decline in fitness level. The other side is, children like to be active and parents can choose to exercise with their children by doing activities like running around with them, riding bikes together and swimming. Retirees find themselves with more time available. It is important from a mental and physical health perspective that some of this time be used for regular exercise.


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Fitness Profile—Josh Josh is 22 years old and single. He finished his HSC in 2006 and works as an apprentice electrician. ‘I’ve always played lots of sport. At school, sport and exercise were always organised for you. You didn’t have to do anything, it just happened. I also did lots of sports outside of school. Since I’ve left school I’ve kept up nearly all of my sports. I surf twice a week and I also play tennis, golf and Oztag competitively each week. I just can’t sit still and do nothing—I get bored. Even when I am at home not doing anything special I still kick a ball around with my brother or look for something active to do. It can be hard to fit everything in with work and socialising but mostly I manage. When I first left school I did some tennis coaching but I gave that up when my fulltime job became more demanding. Having a driver’s licence has made it easier to keep playing sport because everything I play is fairly local so I can just jump in the car and be there within 5 or 10 minutes.’ Figure 9.17

Josh is finding that exercise and sport can be enjoyed even when transition stages in life bring new responsibilities

chapter review Recap Exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities for a sustained period of time, which can improve fitness. Early experiences with exercise and fitness can influence our feelings about fitness in the long term, positively or negatively. People’s attitudes to fitness change over time and are influenced by transition stages throughout life. The fitness industry is expected to earn $60 billion per year by 2012. For some people, exercise is preferred as a solo pursuit in which ever-increasing goals are set and a program of exercise undertaken to achieve these goals. For others, the social dimension and commitment to a team that exercise can have carries a high priority and, therefore, group fitness activities and team-based games hold appeal.


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Different fitness activities emerge or regenerate from time to time. Their increase in popularity can increasingly be linked to globalisation and the ease of communication possible in an era of pay TV, the internet and people becoming more globally connected. Stand up paddle surfing and Pilates are two examples of this. Useful strategies to help navigate through the maze of fitness advertising and promotion include critical literacy, questioning, checking credentials and seeking references from reliable sources. Common strategies used to advertise and promote fitness products, services and facilities include offering free trials, offering a free fitness assessment, using existing members to attract family and friends to join up and using celebrity role models. Legislation, self-regulation and industry codes of ethics are approaches used to help ensure that information provided to consumers is accurate, and that the product or service provided is safe and of suitable quality. Making exercise a priority increases the likelihood that people will, in fact, exercise and improve their fitness.


Current URL

Useful for …

Fitness Australia

www.fia.org.au

Information about the fitness industry, provided by the peak body in Australia

The Premier’s Council for Active Living

www.pcal.nsw.gov.au

Information about the NSW Government strategy to increase physical activity participation

The Advertising Standards Bureau

www.advertisingstandards bureau.com.au

Information about self-regulation in advertising

Exam-style questions 1 Discuss how attitudes to fitness have changed over time.

(4 marks)

2 Design a profile of someone who would have their fitness needs suitably

(4 marks)

met by Pilates. 3 Analyse ways that fitness product and service providers advertise to

potential clients.


(12 marks)

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10

Outdoor recreation

Australians have a proud history of embracing the outdoors and participating in a variety of activities, which make use of the wonderful environment that the country has to offer. Whether it is sailing on Sydney Harbour, bushwalking in the Blue Mountains, surfing on their favourite beach or fishing off the rock ledges in the Royal National Park every weekend thousands of people enjoy the benefits of outdoor recreation.

What is the value of outdoor recreation? Outdoor recreation a wide range of leisure, sport or recreation activities undertaken outside

Different people value different aspects of outdoor recreation. Some people thoroughly enjoy the social aspects of activities such as bushwalking with friends, while others find the challenge of navigating through trackless terrain intellectually rewarding.

Figure 10.1

People participate in outdoor recreation for a variety of reasons


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Reasons for participation in outdoor recreation People participate in a range of leisure, sport and recreation activities in the outdoors for a number of reasons.

Stress management/relaxation Stress is a normal and natural part of everyday life; simply learning to live, getting an education and obtaining a job is stressful. This level of stress can increase dramatically when you add other issues such as conflicting relationships, financial difficulty, overcrowding or urban noise into the equation. If levels of stress become high and remain unresolved for an extended period, this can result in a variety of stress-related illnesses such as heartburn, hypertension and heart disease. Outdoor recreation offers a range of ways to relax and reduce stress levels. What makes outdoor recreation such a great tool for alleviating stress and relaxing is that many outdoor pursuits can be undertaken by people of all ages and at all levels of ability. If we take surfing as an example, we often see teenagers surfing alongside retirees in the morning; then in the evening whilst watching the television we often see professional surfers competing on huge waves at the world championships.

Figure 10.2

A surfer enjoying the thrill of riding big wave

Enjoyment, challenge and excitement Many people participate in outdoor recreation for intrinsic reasons, such as the enjoyment and excitement that comes with completing a challenging activity. These intrinsic reasons affect people differently. What some people find enjoyable others might not; what some people find challenging others might find easy. An example of this would be walking up a steep, long mountain spur with a heavy pack on, then sitting down at the top and enjoying the challenge as much as the view. Some people might read that sentence, smile and think of a time they have been in that situation, while others dislike the very thought of it. What is great about outdoor recreation is that it is easy to change the challenge to suit most people, and then everyone can enjoy it.

Intrinsic reasons come from oneself, without regard to outside factors.

Figure 10.3

Competitive outdoor sports like adventure racing, are a part of outdoor recreation


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Social interaction

Figure 10.4

Some people enjoy the social interaction that is a part of many outdoor recreational activities

Many outdoor pursuits require teamwork, cooperation and social interaction in order to achieve planned outcomes. Rock climbing and canoeing are great examples of these. With rock climbing, two people are needed to climb a rock face safely. One person climbs first, while the second person belays the climber to ensure their safety. Roles are reversed when the climber reaches the top of the pitch. To do this safely, the two people must communicate constantly throughout the climb. In a two-person canoe, the person at the front provides the forward momentum, while the person at the back steers. Again, the two people must communicate and interact to successfully get the canoe to go where they want it to, as without interacting they will not succeed.

Appreciating the environment Another reason people choose to participate in outdoor recreation is that it provides the opportunity to explore and appreciate Australia’s diverse natural environment. With this environment ranging from snow-covered mountains to tropical rainforests and from hot sandy deserts to beautiful coral reefs, the Australian outdoors has something to offer everyone. Having a greater appreciation for this environment, leads to a greater understanding of the environment and, in turn, to a realisation that we need to protect it.

Health and fitness The majority of outdoor pursuits require some degree of fitness not only to participate in them, but also to enjoy them. This requirement means people can either do the activity to improve fitness, or specifically train for the activity so they can compete at a higher level. Mountain biking is a great example of this. Some people simply ride once or twice a week for exercise and enjoyment, whereas others might train on a road bike 4 days a week and combine this with several weights sessions, in order to enter into competion. Either way, the outdoor activity is providing the motivation to exercise and, therefore, improve fitness and health.



1

List the various types of outdoor recreation that you are involved in and describe the reasons why you participate in these activities.

2

Discuss the reasons that extreme adventurers, like high-altitude mountaineers or big wave surfers, might participate in these activities despite the inherent dangers.

3

Explain the reasons why some people like to participate in outdoor activities by themselves. Consider any spiritual outcomes in your answer.

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What are the technical skills and understanding needed for safe participation in outdoor recreation? In order to participate safely in various outdoor pursuits, people need to recognise that they require a number of skills. These include specific technical skills like map reading, canoeing or abseiling skills, as well as a variety of environmental and emergency management planning skills. The right combination of these skills cannot guarantee safety, but will certainly go a long way to minimising the risk inherent in outdoor activities. This lends support to the saying ‘proper prior planning prevents poor performance’, and it is worthwhile exploring the planning skills involved in outdoor recreation in more detail.

Planning skills Ensuring maximum fun and safety in outdoor recreation requires some degree of planning. Whether this is quickly checking your tyre pressure and brakes before a 30-minute bike ride or the years of planning needed to climb Mount Everest, the degree of planning is likely to play an important role in the success of the activity.

Environment planning The environment plays an important part in outdoor recreation and knowing how to plan a recreational activity considering all environmental factors is an important skill in the outdoors. Without this, the enjoyment and safety of the activity can be compromised. Important environmental factors to consider prior to partaking in outdoor recreation include: Weather—checking up-to-date weather forecasts prior to, and, if necessary, during, an activity is an important consideration. During overnight camps, think about getting weather forecasts twice a day, in the morning and evening. This way you have more notice if bad weather is on the way and can make appropriate arrangements. In countries like Australia, it’s not only the cold and wet weather forecasts that you need to consider, but hot and dry forecasts should also be treated with caution. Venue—matching the skill level of the group with the venue, by planning exactly where to go walking, camping, riding or climbing is also an important consideration. By selecting an appropriate venue, a group leader can help ensure that some group members are not out of their depth while others are still challenged.

Emergency management planning Spending time planning what to do if things go wrong is an important investment that should be made prior to any outdoor adventure and something that all group leaders must do. This type of planning should include:


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Identifying any possible escape routes, should the activity need to be cut short for any reason, or if a group member becomes ill and needs to be evacuated.

Risk management plan a document that identifies any potential risks associated with an activity and strategies to manage these risks.

Identifying which phone numbers should be carried on the trip such as: local police, hospital, national park offices, home contact numbers for all group members, equipment rental company and transport company. In addition, at what times will you contact outside people? Reconnoitering of the route by at least one group member prior to the trip. Developing a risk management plan is also an important step in any emergency management planning. A risk management plan helps to identify any potential risks as well as actions or precautions to minimise the risks. A partly completed risk management plan for an overnight bushwalk can be seen below. RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN

Leader

John Smith

Activity

Bushwalking

Contact number

04 2222 8888

Location

Royal National Park (see route plan attached)

Start date and time

9.30 am, 27 March 2009

End date and time

5.00 pm, 31 March 2009

Total number of people

16 (see list attached)

Aim of activity

To teach friends to navigate

Experience of participants

All group members have been on one overnight hike.

Medical conditions of participants

John Doe has asthma (see medical forms attached)

Medications carried

Ventolin inhaler

Method of communication

A phone call will be made to his mother twice a day at 9.00 am and 5.00 pm

RISKS

DANGERS

RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

People: attributes people bring to an activity e.g. skills, fitness, health, fears

Low skill level of group

Group members to be closely monitored

Varying fitness levels

Walk at the pace of the slowest person

Asthma attack

Carry inhaler

Equipment: resources that impact on the activity: clothing, tents, lights, vehicles, etc.

Inappropriate clothing, e.g. too much

• Group list to be given to all members • Gear check prior to trip • Group members to carry no more than ¼ of their body weight

Inappropriate shoes

Checked before trip

Pack not waterproofed

Checked that pack is lined with a large plastic bag

Environment: factors that impact on the activity: weather, terrain, water, snow/ice, etc.

Hot conditions

Ensure all members carry 3 litres of water and that they drink frequently

Exposed cliffs

Monitor everyone and ensure that all members are at least 2 body lengths back from the cliff edge

River crossing (will not be attempted if flooded)

Group will be shown how to cross rivers safely Waist straps on packs will be undone and shoulder straps will be loosened

Swimming

A buddy system will be adopted before swimming, with one buddy swimming and the other watching

Others …

???


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Food and water considerations The amount of food and water to be consumed on any outdoor adventure will depend on the type, intensity and duration of the activity, as well as on the age and body type of the participants. However, certain factors should be considered when planning what food and water should be carried:

Food How many meals will I need? For example, 2 breakfasts, 3 lunches, 2 dinners, 4 snack meals. Will all the food have to be carried? If so, consider lightweight alternatives, e.g. dehydrated food, 2-minute noodles etc. Does the food require water to be cooked and will water be available? How far do you have to carry it? How is the food packaged and can I leave some of the packaging at home? (Remember you will have to carry out all rubbish.) How nutritious is the food? Is anyone in the group allergic to any foods, e.g. nut allergies. If so, all nut products should be left at home. How easy is the food to cook, and how long does it take to cook? The correct cooking utensils and the right amount of fuel will need to be carried. Water How much do I usually drink? How hot will it be? Extra water will be required in hot weather. How hard will I be exerting myself? (Extra water will be required if you are working hard.) How far or long before water will be available? Will the water be safe to drink, or do I need to treat it or boil it?

Resources for safe participation Participating in outdoor recreation a requires a certain amount of equipment and, given the recent technological advances and increasing participation rates, the amount and range of specialised equipment available on the market today is vast. Deciding on exactly what equipment you need and what equipment to buy requires doing research and asking experts in the area. As a general rule of thumb, the more expensive the equipment is, the lighter, more durable and more comfortable it will be—however, this is not always the case. The suggested resources for an overnight trip can be seen in table 10.1 These resources can easily be modified for other types of activities. The clothing used in outdoor pursuits should follow the three-layer system. Having three different layers of clothing allows for maximum heat retention and cooling efficiency in all weather environments. The principles of the three-layer system are: The base layer—consists of an inner layer designed to quickly wick moisture away from your skin and towards the outer layers of clothing. This layer is relatively thin, like a common t-shirt, although when it is colder it could be a thermal top. In warmer weather, you can wear this inner layer by itself to stay cool and dry. The middle layer—is the main insulation layer that captures the heat from the body and prevents it from escaping. The middle layer is commonly made up of wool or fleece.


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Table 10.1 Suggested equipment needed for an overnight trip

The outer layer—is a waterproof and windproof shell. A outer layer made of Gore-Tex (or similar fabric) will also allow the moisture that is being wicked away from your body by the inner and middle layers to escape. Using a combination of these layers, it is possible to stay warm and dry in all conditions in Australia.

Clothing

Personal equipment

Group equipment

Beanie Wide-brimmed sun hat Thermal gloves Thermal tops x 2 Thermal pants x 2 Fleece or woollen jumper Track or trekking pants Waterproof jacket Socks Shorts (quick drying material) T-shirt x 2 (quick drying material) Underwear Waterproof over-pants Shoes or boots

Sleeping bag Sleeping mat Head lamp Sunscreen Water bottles (3 litres) Toiletries Snacks Eating utensils Whistle Compass Pack and liner bag Camera Gaiters (optional)

Tent (pegs and poles) Stove and cooking utensils Fuel for stove Food Maps and compass First aid kit Toilet paper and trowel General purpose repair kit (needle, cotton, tape) Rubbish bags Matches

Legal and administrative requirements Many outdoor activities require access to national parks, waterways, state forests and reserves or private land. If a trip you are planning travels through these areas you may need to consider obtaining permission to access them, and to book campsites. Many organisations and private owners also require that you fill in trip-intention forms. These forms cover information such as the date, start time, number of people in the group, contact details, activities to be undertaken and an expected time of return. The forms are designed to notify the authorities that your group is in the area and lets them know what your intentions are if something goes wrong. Most trip-intention forms require you to sign out afterwards. If this is the case, you must do this, otherwise authorities may think you have not returned and start searching for you.

Understand and apply Imagine you and three of your friends are going on an overnight coastal walk through the Royal National Park. 1

Develop checklist of personal and group equipment needed and discuss how the equipment will be dividing between four group members.

2

Taking into consideration the stove you will be carrying and the cooking utensils you have, create a menu for the trip. Then use the internet to find out prices and calculate how much the food will cost per person.

3

Design your own risk management plan for the trip.

4

Using the internet, research the various types of tents available and explain what tent would be perfect for the trip.


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Campsite selection Camping in a wilderness setting can be an amazing experience for some people and a daunting prospect for others. To ensure you get the most out of a camping experience, it is worthwhile spending time selecting the most appropriate site to pitch a tent. This valuable investment can not only make the camping experience more enjoyable for everyone, but it will also make the experience safer and have less of an impact on the environment. The initial planning can start at home prior to your trip. This is a good time to research possible sites, as well as nearby alternatives in case the scheduled campsite is unavailable. It is also a time to find the answers to questions such as: Do you need to book or is a permit required to camp there? Are there any fire restrictions? Is there water available at the campsite? What is the weather forecast? Is there any specific local information that you need to be aware of? Information like this can usually be found in guidebooks, on websites, or in information centres.

Geographic, environment and climatic considerations When you arrive at your campsite, spend time deciding where to camp and where exactly to pitch your tent. Use the following checklist as a guide.

Establishing the campsite: checklist Proximity to water Is drinking water close by? Can you camp high enough above the water in case of flooding after heavy rains? Is it possible to get more than 50 metres away from the water, for toileting and washing purposes? If the water is still, are there lots of bugs around?

The tent site Is the ground level and free from sharp rocks and sticks (which could tear ground sheets or tent floors and provide an uncomfortable night’s sleep)? Is the ground level or slightly raised, to prevent water from pooling during rain? Is there enough room to peg out all of the tent’s guy ropes, if necessary? Are dedicated tent sites available or can an existing tent site be used to minimise the environmental impact? Can the tent be pitched so that it faces east to catch the sun’s early morning rays and promote an early rise, or faces west to avoid the morning sun and help with sleeping in? Are there any branches or trees that could fall on the tent? Are you far enough away from a tree if it does fall down?


Environmental considerations—fire Is a total fire ban in place? Is a campfire really necessary? Is there a plentiful supply of fallen wood? Have you avoided breaking branches from a standing tree (as wildlife makes use of them)? Is there an existing fireplace or fire ‘scar’ that you can use? Will the fire always be attended? Can the fire be put out quickly if the need arises? Is the camp fire at least 10 metres from tents (as sparks can travel a long way)? When you leave the site, have you remembered that a fire is only considered out if the ashes are cool to touch?

Environmental considerations—hygiene If toilet facilities are not available, have you assigned a private toilet area? Is the private toilet area 50 metres away from any watercourse and downwind from the campsite? If washing facilities are not available, have you assigned a washing area for cleaning cooking equipment? Is the washing area 50 metres from a watercourse? When you leave, have you carried all rubbish with you out of the campsite? Have you left the area cleaner than you found it?

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Conservation skills As more and more Australians are heading into the outdoors for recreation, leisure and sport, we are running the risk of ‘loving our natural areas to death’. To avoid this and to reduce the impact users have on the environment, several educational programs and camping practices and procedures have been introduced. ‘Leave no trace’ camping and ‘minimal impact’ practices are two of the most well known of these.

‘Leave no trace’ camping Respecting the environment and ‘leaving no trace’ that you were there are key components of sustainable outdoor recreation. Without protecting the areas that people use for recreation, these areas will not survive. The international ‘leave no trace’ educational program aims to address this issue, to avoid or minimise the impact that recreational users have on natural and cultural resources. The educational program strives to achieve this by creating a globally recognised and accepted outdoor ethic that promotes personal responsibility and stewardship. It encourages outdoor recreationists to follow seven principles to protect the environment. The seven ‘leave no trace’ principles are:

Plan ahead and prepare By planning ahead, prior to participating in the outdoors, you minimise the chance of things going wrong and help make the trip a success. Planning also allows you to build the other ‘leave no trace’ principles into your trip. For example, you can plan to use existing campsites rather than creating new ones. Travel and camp on durable surfaces When you are planning your trip, or when you are actually outdoors walking, riding or driving, always try to follow established tracks. Do not be tempted to cut corners or travel on edges of tracks, as this makes the track wider and increases the impact on the environment Dispose of waste properly All outdoor recreationists have a responsibility to clean up before they leave any area they have been using. This means carrying out all rubbish and kitchen waste, including leftover food. Leave what you find ‘Take nothing but photos and leave nothing but footprints’ is something many seasoned adventurers say. Abiding by this saying means that when we pass interesting rocks, shells, plants, feathers or other remarkable objects, we leave them there for others to enjoy. Minimise campfire impacts Every year in Australia, bushfires destroy hundreds of kilometres of recreational areas. Some of these fires are either accidentally or carelessly lit by uninformed campers. With the development of efficient lightweight stoves, campfires are no longer essential for cooking or comfort and their use should be minimised. If a campfire is to be set, use existing fireplaces and check with local authorities for other information, such as fire bans.


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Respect wildlife All animals, to some extent, are affected by people visiting their habitats. Some flee their homes; others are attracted by new sounds and food. Users of the recreational area must consider this and plan to minimise their impact and respect wildlife. Be considerate of your hosts and other visitors When we use recreational areas, we must consider and respect the rights of the traditional landowners as well as share the areas with many other users. Being considerate of these groups enables everyone to enjoy the outdoors.


Describe the procedures you would go through when camping near a stream to maintain the purity levels of the water in the stream.

2

Discuss your response if you were out camping with your friends and they wanted to dig trenches around your tent to stop the rain getting under it.

3

Debate the need for campfires in Australia—should they be completely banned?

Minimal impact practices With ever-increasing numbers of visitors in outdoor recreational areas many organisations, clubs and government bodies have formalised the ‘leave no trace’ program and developed specific codes of practice to minimise the impact that their groups have on the recreation areas they use. These codes of practice may vary slightly between different groups, but all have the same focus—preservation of the natural ecosystems. An example of some of the codes of practice from the NSW Confederation of Bushwalking clubs can be seen in the following box.

Sections from the ‘Bushwalkers’ Code’ Tread softly

Pack it in, pack it out

•

•

• • •

•


Keep walking parties small in number; four to six people is ideal. Avoid popular areas in holiday periods when campsites are crowded. Use existing tracks; don’t create new ones. On zigzag paths, don’t cut corners as this creates unsightly damage that leads to erosion. In trackless country, spread your party out; don’t walk in one another’s footsteps. Avoid easily damaged places such as peat bogs, cushion moss, swamps and fragile rock formations. Wade through waterlogged sections of tracks; don’t create a skein of new tracks around them.

• •

• •

Remove all your rubbish including food scraps, paper, plastic, aluminium foil and empty containers. Don’t burn or bury rubbish. Burning creates pollution and buried rubbish may be dug up and scattered by animals. Digging also disturbs the soil, causing erosion and encouraging weeds. Carry a plastic bag for your rubbish. If you find litter left by irresponsible people along the track or around a campsite, please remove it. Show you care for the environment, even if others don’t. Be hygienic. Bury all faeces and toilet paper at least 15 centimetres deep.

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• •

Carry out things that won’t easily decompose. Carry a lightweight plastic trowel or a large aluminium tent peg to make digging easier.

Keep water pure

• •

•

Wash cooking and eating utensils well back from the edge of lakes and creeks, so waste water falls on soil where it will be absorbed. Prevent soap, detergent or toothpaste from getting into natural water systems. Similarly, when washing cooking utensils, don’t use detergent and don’t let oils and food scraps get into creeks or lakes. Always swim downstream from where you get your drinking water.

• •

• •

Before you leave

•

Be very careful with fire

• •

•

Have a fire only when you are absolutely certain you can light it with safety. A fuel stove is preferable for cooking and thermal clothing is better for warmth. Always use a fuel stove in places where even a tiny fire may cause permanent damage. Places where fire lighting should be avoided include many rainforest and all alpine regions. Do not light fires: – in hot, summer conditions – in dry windy weather – in declared ‘fuel stove only’ areas – when there is a declared fire ban.

Always remember

•

Fire doesn’t destroy aluminium foil, and plastics release toxic gases when burnt. So carry foil and plastics out in your pack with all your other rubbish, including food scraps. Don’t use your campfire as a rubbish incinerator.

If you light a campfire, follow these rules

• •

In popular campsites, light your fire on a bare patch left by previous fires. Don’t light it on fresh ground. Light your fire on bare soil or sand, well away from stumps, logs, living plants and river stones (which may explode when heated).

Definitely don’t build a ring of stones as a fireplace. This is unnecessary and unsightly. Dismantle stone rings wherever you find them. Sweep away all leaves, grass and other flammable material for at least 2 metres around your fireplace. (Major bushfires have been caused by careless campers who didn’t take this precaution.) Burn only dead wood that’s fallen to the ground. Don’t break limbs from trees or shrubs. Keep your fire small—remember, the bigger the fool, the bigger the fire.

• •

Douse your fire thoroughly with water, even if it appears to be already out. Don’t try to smother a fire by covering it with soil or sand, as the coals will continue to smoulder for days. Only water kills a fire with total certainty. Feel the ground under the coals. If it is too hot to touch, the fire is not out. Douse it some more. Scatter the cold charcoal and ashes well clear of your campsite, then rake soil and leaves over the spot where your fire was. You should aim to remove all trace of it.

Respect Indigenous heritage

• • •

Many places have spiritual or cultural significance for our Indigenous communities. Treat such places with consideration and respect. Obtain permission from traditional landowners or the relevant land manager to visit sensitive areas. Leave Indigenous relics as you find them. Don’t touch paintings or rock engravings.

Be courteous to others

•

• •

The sound of radios, CD players, mobile phones and similar devices is out of place in the natural environment. Leave the electronics at home and switch off your mobile phone. When you open a gate, make sure the last person through knows it has to be closed. Respect the rights of landholders and land managers. Don’t enter private property without permission. In national parks, abide by plans of management and encourage others to do so too. The Confederation of Bushwalking Clubs NSW Inc., 2004

Ethical issues Simply being in the wilderness has an effect on the environment of that natural setting. Bushwalking might mean crushing small saplings; mountain biking around muddy patches could widen the track; rock climbing means you could leave chalk on a rock face and four-wheel driving could leave deep wheel ruts in a wet field. These are all examples of harming the environment. From one person’s point of view, they may be able to justify their behaviour based on a particular situation; from another person’s point of view, this type


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of behaviour may be wrong in any situation. These ethical issues are just a few examples of the many in outdoor recreation. For example, how can we justify the costs of the development of alpine roads, electrical infrastructure, chair-lift installation, lift passes, the impact on a fragile environment and the initial outlay of personal clothing and equipment for the human pleasure of simply skiing down a snow-covered slope? When people’s values and beliefs are compared, debate often arises. These valuable discussions are interesting, as they enable people to hear a variety of points of view and to develop and justify their own well thought-out ethical stance on the topic.

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Table 10.2 A variety of ethical issues in outdoor recreation

Issue

One point of view

Another point of view

Should areas be set aside as human free?

What is the point of saving that part of the environment if nobody can use it or see it?

Yes, as it is the only way to prevent humans from destroying the environment, and extreme measures are needed in very sensitive areas.

Should 4WDs be banned from some recreational areas?

No, as everybody has the right to visit recreational areas and 4WD tracks can provide rescue access to other users.

We need to consider the use of different recreational areas on an individual basis, taking into account the access, environment impact and needs of users.

Should dogs be allowed in National Parks?

Yes, because correctly trained dogs on a leash provide no threat to native animals.

No, as native animals see dogs as predators and the lasting scent of a dog can easily scare away animals. In addition, dogs’ faeces can carry diseases harmful to native wildlife.

Should toilet paper be buried, burnt or carried out after it is used?

It’s only paper, it will get wet and break down naturally.

It should be carried out, as that is the only way of completely reducing the impact of human waste.


Explain the rationale for why different organisations, clubs, and government bodies each have their own specific minimal-impact codes of practice.

2

Using specific examples, discuss the implications of the minimal-impact code of practice during the planning stage of a bushwalk.

3

Debate the following topic: ‘Should helicopter landing areas be developed in remote World Heritage-listed areas such as the Wollemi National Park, to allow easier access for the elderly, the young or the physically disabled?’

Navigational skills The ability to accurately read maps and navigate using a compass are important foundational skills for many outdoor activities. Whether it is planning an extended mountain bike ride, sailing to a remote island or even driving to the trail head the night before you start bushwalking, the ability to


Figure 10.5

A walking track affected by erosion

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navigate can not only save you time, but it is also an important safety skill in outdoor recreation. The map (or maps) you bring with you on any trip in the outdoors should match the journey that you have planned. The type of map(s) you will need will depend on the type of trip you are going on. For a long-distance cycletouring adventure, a road map may be appropriate; while for a sea-kayaking trip around Jervis Bay, nautical maps will be required. For many journeys in the outdoors, you will need topographic maps. A distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is that the shape of the Earth’s surface is shown by contour lines. These contour lines are imaginary lines that join points of equal elevation on the surface of the land above or below the mean sea level. Contour lines enable the three-dimensional terrain to be represented on a two-dimensional piece of paper. They make it possible to identify the height of mountains, depths of the ocean bottom and steepness of slopes. An example of how contour lines work can be seen in figure 10.6.

Topographic map a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural and natural features on the ground. Contour lines lines that join points of equal elevation.

200 40 0

A

200 300

50 0

60 0 400

500

600

600

30 0

600

60 0 600

500

400

300

B

200

600

600

500

500

400

400

300

300 200

200 100

B

Figure 10.6

The relationship between a three-dimensional world and a two-dimensional map


Horizontal scale – 1cm : 1000m Vertical scale – 1cm : 100m VE = 10

100

B

Initially, contour lines look confusing; however, if we break down the concept, there are five main features that cover many of the situations seen on topographic maps. These five features can be seen in table 10.3 Topographic maps also combine the natural features shown with contour lines with manmade structures such as roads, buildings, powerlines and established walking tracks. All of the features shown on topographical maps are described in the map legend. The legend explains the meanings of all the symbols, lines and colours used on the map. Most of the symbols on maps are standardised, but they may vary depending on the country and the company that publishes the map. It is worthwhile examining a map’s legend to ensure you are not making assumptions based on the symbol usage of other maps.

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What it looks like on a map

all sides are lower

60

Spur

3 sides are lower, 1 side is higher

What it actually looks like

299

Table 10.3 The five main features shown by contour lines on topographic maps

570

Hill, knoll or mountain top

When standing on it …

600

Feature

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0

Spur Spur

570

0

57

60

Gully or valley

0

3 sides are higher, 1 side is lower

Valley

560

Saddle

1 side higher, 1 side lower—contour lines converge together

590

Converging contours forming cliff

60 0 57

0

Cliffs

2 sides are higher, 2 sides are lower

Scale the ratio between The map legend also gives the scale of the map. The scale refers to the distance on a map and the relationship between distance on a map and the corresponding distance corresponding distance on on the ground. The map’s scale is given as a ratio that relates to a unit of the ground. measurement on the map to some number of the same units of measure on the Earth’s surface. For example, a map with sealed unsealed a scale of 1:10 000 indicates that 1 unit of measure (like Principal road; Built up area; Locality a centimetre) represents 10 000 of the same units on the Secondary road; Bridge; Causeway Minor Road; Embankment; Cutting Earth’s surface. On a large-scale map, such as one of the Vehicle track; Gate; Stock grid world, a large scale of 1:10 000 000 would be required. Most 22 Dual carriageway; Distance in kilometres topographic maps in Australia are drawn to a much smaller Route Marker: National, State 1 5 scale and are either 1:25 000 or 1:50 000. On a map with a Airport; Landing ground; Heliport scale of 1:25 000, 1 centimetre on the map equals 25 000 Multiple track railway; Station or siding centimetres on the Earth or 250 metres. H

Single track railway; Bridge; Tunnel Power transmission line Homestead; Building/s; Ruin Fence; Levee; Open cut mine


Figure 10.7

Mine; Windpump; Yard

The legend on an Australian topographic map

Contour with value; Depression contour Horizontal control point; Spot elevation

20

0 350

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300

The legend on a topographic map also indicates which way the map is aligned, that is, which way TN MN it is pointing. This is displayed with a declination diagram, which looks like a series of arrows, as shown in figure 10.8. Grid convergence True north (TN or *) indicates the direction of 1.3° Grid/Magnetic angle the Earth’s North Pole. Magnetic north (MN) is the 13.5° direction a compass needle points. The reason that this is different from true north is because true north True North (TN), Grid North (GN) and Magnetic and magnetic north are not in the same spot. Magnetic North (MN) are shown diagrammatically for the north is located northwest of Hudson Bay in Canada, centre of the map. about 800 kilometres from the Earth’s true North MN is correct for 1997 and moves easterly by Pole. The difference between true north and magnetic less than 0.1° in 10 years. north is known as magnetic declination. It ranges from about 5 degrees west of true north in Western Figure 10.8 Australia to about 15 degrees east of true north in eastern Australia. Because A declination diagram the position of the north magnetic pole moves slightly from year to year, the showing the different magnetic angle and magnetic declination will vary by a small amount each north points shown on a year. When using a map for accurate navigation, magnetic variation can be topographic map important, particularly if the map is several years old. Grid north (GN) is the direction of the vertical gridlines on a topographic map. The angular difference between grid north and true north is known as grid convergence. This also varies across the country, although its magnitude and direction east or west of true north is usually less than 2 degrees. Another main feature shown on topographic maps are gridlines. Gridlines are the black lines intersecting at right angles that form squares on the map. The longitudinal lines are vertical lines that run down the globe. The meridian (zero degrees) runs through Greenwich in the United Kingdom and longitude is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds either east or west from this meridian. Longitude numbers (also known as eastings) run along the bottom and top of a map. The latitudinal lines are the horizontal lines that circle the globe. The equator is the most famous line and is the zero degree meridian. Latitude numbers (or northings) are measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds either north or south from the equator. These numbers are on the sides of maps. Using these imaginary lines that make up a grid around the Earth, it is possible to indicate an exact location on a map by means of grid references. GN

Grid references A grid reference states a unique position on a map. A four-figure grid reference is used to identify which grid square a feature is located in. A six-figure grid reference is used to locate more specifically the feature to an accuracy of one tenth of the grid interval. To work out a four-figure grid reference, you need to know the eastings and northings on the map. Remember, the eastings are located on the top and/ or bottom of the map, while the northings are located on the sides. The first two numbers of the grid reference refer to the easting (the vertical line) to the left of the point of interest. The second two numbers refer to the northing (the horizontal grid line) below the point of interest. For example, Spot Height 345 in the middle map of figure 10.9 is located at grid reference 91 66. Remember to always read the eastings first, then the northings.


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Working out a six-figure grid reference is similar, and provides a much more accurate and specific location within a grid square on a map. To work out six-figure grid references, you need to imagine that each grid square is divided into 100 smaller squares, and then estimate which smaller square the point of interest is located in. To work out the six-figure grid reference of Spot Height 345, in figure 10.9, you need to divide the four-figure grid into 100 smaller squares and estimate which square the Spot Height is located in. In figure 10.9 the six-figure grid reference of Spot Height 345 would be: • • • • •

91 indicating the easting 6 indicating 6 tenths of the way along the easting 66 indicating the northing, and 8 indicating 8 tenths of the way up the northing Giving the final six-figure grid reference of GR 916 668.

30˚N 0˚

60˚ 30˚ W W

+

30˚S 60˚S

Prime meridian

Figure 10.9 60˚N

0˚

60˚N 30˚N 30˚ 60˚ E E

=

60˚ 30˚ W W

30˚ 60˚ E E

30˚S 60˚S EARTH’S GRID

LONGITUDE

LATITUDE

0˚

How the latitude and longitude lines around the world can be used to describe a unique position

68

67 345

66

66 90

91

92

93

94

95

9 8

The reference of spot height 345 is...

7

4 Figure - 91 66

6

6 Figure - 916 668

5 4 3 2 1 0


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

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Map reading

Figure 10.10

Using a combination of the symbols shown on topographic maps with the scale, contour lines and gridlines, it is possible to read maps accurately.

The features on a 1:25 000 topographic map

Corroboree Flat

342

226

29 254

200

a

k re Eu

28

377

Ca

k

Cree

276

pt

ain

27 ur

Sp

358 0 30

Clarke Saddle

Reynolds Saddle

26

300

405

423

25 04


05

06

07

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Understand and apply Using figure 10.10: 1

Identify the main feature at the following grid reference location: a GR 04 29 c GR 058 286 b GR 06 26 d GR 065 283.

2

Calculate the four-figure grid reference for: a Spot Height 377 b Spot Height 342.

3

Calculate the six-figure grid reference for: a Spot Height 377 b Spot Height 226.

4

What is the approximate height of the knoll (or hills) at grid reference? a GR 045 256 b GR 050 291.

Magnetic compasses A magnetic compass and a map are designed to complement each other. While they are both useful tools on their own, when matched together they can be extremely valuable, even life saving. While there are numerous types of compasses, they all rely on the principle that a magnetised needle will point towards the magnetic North Pole. The most common type of compass for bushwalking is known as a baseplate compass. Baseplate compasses, like the one shown below, have a transparent base with a direction of travel arrow and orienting lines marked on a rotating housing, which enables it to be used as a protractor to record line of site bearings, to measure grid bearings, or to orientate a map. To orientate a map with the ground, place the compass on it so that the side edges of the baseplate are parallel with the vertical longitudinal lines (or eastings). Turn the rotating housing so that zero is in line with the index pointer, then rotate the map, with the compass sitting on top of it, until the red magnetic needle points to whatever the magnetic declination is in that location—approximately 12 degrees in NSW. Now the map will actually be pointing north and features on the map will correspond with the ground.

60

10 0

80

E

Baseplate

12 0

40

20

S

N

180

Orienting arrow

20 0

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360

Orienting lines 160

22

3

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20

Read Bearing Here

The features of a baseplate compass

Compass housing with degree dial 0 14

0

W

24

260

280

30

0

Direction of travel arrow

Figure 10.11

Magnetic needle

Index line


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Grid bearing To take a grid bearing, place a compass on a map with the long edge of the compass along the desired line of travel. Ensure that the direction of travel arrow is parallel to your desired line of travel and pointing the way you wish to go as shown in figure 10.12. Figure 10.12

Taking a grid bearing— step 1 Destination PH

Starting point 0

30 0

280

32

0

24

0

0 34

26

W

309

220

N

360

200

20 40

180

S 0 16

60 80

E 10 0

120

140

Then turn the rotation housing until the orienting arrow points towards north on the map. The orienting lines in the housing should be parallel to the vertical longitudinal lines (or eastings). The number on the rotating housing that is at the index pointer shows the grid bearing. Finally, you need to adjust the grid bearing to allow for the magnetic declination, shown in the declination diagram. If magnetic north is left of map north, add the degrees of the declination to your compass bearing. If magnetic north is right of map north (as it is in NSW), subtract the degrees of the declination from your map heading. Figure 10.13

Taking a grid bearing— step 2 PH

340

309

0

360

N

20 40

30 280

80

E

W 260

10 0

24

0

12 0

160

S

0 14

180

0

20 0

22


Bearing

60

0

32

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To follow the bearing, the compass needs to be held flat in the hand of the user, and the user needs to rotate their entire body until the red magnetic needle is aligned perfectly with the orienting arrow. The direction of travel arrow now points towards the destination. To follow this bearing, sight a feature on the way and walk towards it. Repeat this procedure until you reach the destination. Figure 10.14

340

0

360

305

20 40

S

24

To work out a magnetic bearing, you need to select a visible feature and, holding the compass level, point the direction of travel arrow towards the visible feature. To find the bearing, turn the rotating housing until the orienting arrow aligns with the red magnetic needle. Then simply read the bearing at the index line.

12 0

0

10 0

260

Magnetic bearing

80

280

N

30

60

0

E

32

Taking a grid bearing—step 3

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W

0 14

160

180

20 0

0

22

Figure 10.15

Taking a magnetic bearing

Measuring distance Measuring the distance to be covered on the map is difficult to do precisely; however, there are a number of ways to estimate the distance to be covered. One of the most popular ways is to use a piece of string. Place one end of the string at the starting point on the map. Then carefully lay the string out along the intended route, following the curves of the route as closely as possible. When the destination is reached, simply mark the finishing point on the string, straighten the string out and measure it against the map scale.

0

340

360

20

40

N

30

60

0

32

W

24

12 0

0

10 0

260

80

280

E

0 14

0

S

160

180

20 0

22

Figure 10.16 Using string to measure distance on a map

School

School

0

My house


1

2

5

6

My house

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306

Figure 10.17

Walking speed

Using the Southern Cross to locate the South Pole

Southern Cross

Large Magnetic Cloud

Coal Sack

South Celestial Pole Pointers

Achernar Small Magnetic Cloud

South

While walking speeds vary greatly; once you have worked out the distance and you know the terrain type, it is possible to estimate walking speed. A commonly used ‘rule of thumb’ to work out walking speed comes from the British Hill Walkers and is called Naismith’s Rule. This rule suggests: For every 5 kilometres of easy going, allow 1 hour. For every 3 kilometres of easy scrambling, allow 1 hour. For every 1 kilometre of rough land, deep sand, soft snow or thick bush, allow 1 hour. Add an extra hour for every 500 metres up (cumulative). Add an extra hour for every 1000 metres down (cumulative). Add an extra hour for every 5 hours, to allow for fatigue. Note that Naismith’s Rule is an estimate, and individuals will need to adjust this rule to suit themselves and the group they are walking with.

Natural navigation Besides using a compass for navigation, it is also possible to find directions using other means, including the stars and the Sun. The stars in the southern hemisphere can easily be used to find an approximate location of the South Pole. The first step involves locating the Southern Cross. Once you have done this, there are three similar ways to locate the South Celestial Pole and subsequently, the South Pole. It is worth understanding all three ways, as debate on how to do it often arises around campfires. Use figure 10.17 to explore each method. The first way involves extending the long axis of the Southern Cross from the bottom star four and a half times. This will give you the approximate location of the South Celestial Pole. From there simply drop a straight line down to the horizon to locate the South Pole. The second way to locate the South Pole using the Southern Cross is to extend the long axis of the cross below the cross. Then draw another imaginary line starting half-way between the two pointer stars and at 90 degrees to a line joining the pointer stars together. Where the first and second lines cross is, again, roughly the South Celestial Pole. The last way to find the South Pole using the Southern Cross is to draw a straight line between the bottom star in the cross and Achernar (the ninth brightest star in the whole sky).The South Celestial Pole is approximately half-way along this line. The Sun can also be used to locate a bearing. All you need is an analogue watch (or a drawing of the face of watch with the correct time on it) and, using the Sun, you will be able to locate north. All you need to do is point the 12 o’clock mark to where the Sun is. Then north lies half-way between the hour hand and the 12 o’clock mark. (Note that this only works in the southern hemisphere).


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307

Figure 10.18 North is halfway between the ‘12’ and the hour hand N

Sun

Using a watch and the sun to locate the North Pole in the southern hemisphere

Point 12 to the sun

12 9

3 6

It is worthwhile practising these techniques at home, as they may be extremely helpful if you are ever lost in the bush!

Understand and apply Using a compass and figure 10.10:

Emergency management skills An emergency is cause for concern at any time but when the emergency is in a remote area, resources are limited and help may be some time away. If the situation is not brought under control quickly, a manageable condition can rapidly deteriorate. Taking time to learn a few emergency management skills is a valuable investment.

Wilderness first aid

1

Calculate the distance between: a Spot Height 275 and Spot Height 377 b Spot Height 377 and Corroboree Flat c Corroboree Flat and Captain Spur (along the creek).

2

Apply Naismith’s Rule—how long would you estimate it would take to walk between Corroboree Flat and Captain Spur (along the creek). Calculate the grid bearing between: a Spot Height 275 and Spot Height 377 b Spot Height 377 and Corroboree Flat.

3

While general first aid was covered in chapter 7, wilderness first aid is a specific discipline within general first aid. The two specific scenarios listed here are possible situations that could arise while participating in outdoor recreation in Australia. With all first aid situations, the first priority is the safety of the rescuer, followed by that of the rest of the group, then by that of the injured person(s). It is important not to forget this key point, so that the rescuer does not become part of the problem.

Thermoregulation Thermoregulation refers to the human body’s ability to keep its core temperature within certain boundaries. In normal environments, this temperature is approximately 37 degrees Celsius; however, in hot or cold weather and with exercise or illness, this temperature can change. If the body’s temperature increases or decreases by even a few degrees, serious illness, or worse, can occur. Heat-induced illness is called hyperthermia, and illness brought about by a drop in the body’s temperature is called hypothermia. For a full description of these conditions, please refer to chapter 7. In the outdoor environment, it is important to be aware of these conditions and to take precautions to prevent them from happening. Precautions include wearing the appropriate clothing, staying hydrated, and keeping an eye on each other for signs and symptoms so they can be treated early.


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Table 10.4 Signs, symptoms and primary management of snake bites

Snake bite Australia has many different types of poisonous snakes. Although some snake bites can be fatal, the number of people who actually die from them is relatively low, especially if they receive the correct first aid. As mentioned in chapter 7, the signs and symptoms of a snake bite will vary depending on the type of snake and the amount of venom injected. However, in Australia the treatment remains the same until experienced medical help is found. An overview of the signs and symptoms can be seen below. The table also outlines any possible considerations you may make in a wilderness setting.

Signs and symptoms (may vary)

Treatment

Considerations in the outdoors

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• Follow the DRABCD action plan, as outlined in chapter 7 • Lie or sit the patient down • Apply a Pressure Immobilisation Bandage (PIB) • Ensure the casualty does not move • Reassure the patient • Monitor for shock and/or allergic reactions • Call 000

• If you can’t find a PIB you can make one out of strips of clothes—be sure to keep the strips broad so they do not act as a tourniquet • Never remove the PIB • Minimise all movement of the patient • Consider bringing a vehicle to the patient or carrying the patient to the vehicle • Do not be afraid of asking the authorities for a helicopter evacuation

Intense pain at the site Burning feeling where bitten Local swelling Swollen eyelids, lips, neck and face Vomiting or nausea Bite, scratch or fang marks Sweating Blurred vision Headache Muscle weakness Drowsiness Pain or tightness in chest Difficulty breathing Unconsciousness

What to do when you are lost If you find yourself lost in the wilderness, do not panic, stop moving and work through the following steps: 1 If your group is lost—keep the group together. 2 Find shelter—this may mean putting up a tent. 3 Sit down and do the following: a Orientate your map and discuss as a group whether it is possible to retrace your steps until you can identify a known location. This should be easy if you have been navigating correctly. b If the group decides it is not possible to retrace your steps, do not move. Wait for help to arrive. c Consider the following ways to signal for help: i The international distress signal for help is three short whistle blasts, followed by a long pause (at least a minute) and then repeated at regular intervals. ii Calling out with a distinctive call that carries, e.g. ‘Cooee’. iii Laying out a tarpaulin in a clear area. iv Tying a pack liner bag to a tree. v Waving bright clothing. vi Using a bright reflective surface as a signal mirror. d If the weather is bad, be prepared to conserve energy, food and water as a rescue party may be delayed.


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Bushfire procedures It is generally considered unwise to go bushwalking on extreme or even high bushfire warning days, and it is certainly not wise to go into an area where bushfires are burning nearby. If, however, you find yourself caught in a bushfire, the NSW Fire Brigades recommend the following procedures: Seek shelter in your vehicle or a large body of water—but never climb into any type of water tank. Never run uphill to escape a fire (bushfires spread more quickly uphill). Try to find an open space such as a previously burnt-out area or rocky ground, or clear litter away from around you and shelter behind your backpack or a fallen log. Stay low to the ground for fresh air and cover up exposed skin for protection from radiant heat. Never attempt to run through a bushfire unless it is small with flames less than 1 metre in height (this should only be done as a last resort). Use your mobile phone or CB radio (if working) to dial triple zero (000) to notify the emergency services and the National Parks and Wildlife Service of your situation and location. Remember when camping to notify the National Parks and Wildlife Service rangers of your location and obey fire restrictions.

What to do if lightning is present If you think that you may be caught up in an electrical storm, start making a few preparations early and, if possible, try to find substantial shelter in an enclosed building. If there is no shelter around, move down from high peaks and off ridges, and move away from tall trees and objects that could form lightning conductors. If you are in a forested area, seek cover in low brushy areas. If you are in an open area, try to find a low spot or a depression in the ground. Once you have selected your spot to see out the storm, as the storm moves overhead squat on the balls of your feet on whatever insulating material is available. This may often be a sleeping mat, although a backpack, a coil of rope, Personal Floatation Device (PFD) or even a pile of extra clothes can provide insulation. A nearby lightning strike can travel along the surface on the ground for over 50 metres as it dissipates. During this time, when it is moving over the ground it seeks the path of least resistance, so your goal is to prevent it from travelling up one leg and down the other (if your feet are apart) or through your vital organs (if you’re lying down). So remember, in this situation, never lie down or stand with your feet apart, as this will increase your chances of injury.

Flooded rivers When you are out in the wilderness, you will generally have an idea of whether the rivers are going to be flooded, as it will be raining or may have just finished raining. However, sometimes it is possible that a rainstorm has passed upstream from you and that a river you planned on crossing may now be flooded. If you come across a flooded river, you need to ask yourself if you really need to cross it and put yourself and your group in danger. Would it be better to walk out another way, cross in another place, or even wait until the river levels drop? Surely it would be better to be hungry and late rather than put yourself in danger.


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Imagine you are on a day walk in the Blue Mountains and you become lost. Describe how you would build a shelter using natural materials.

2

Discuss various prevention strategies you could use to avoid becoming lost on a day walk.

Skills needed for other outdoor activities— relevant to the experience When participating in various outdoor recreational activities you need to ensure that you, and/or the people in your group, have the skills necessary to conduct the activity safely. The table below lists some of the skills required for various activities. Table 10.5 The specific skills needed for canoeing and abseiling

Canoeing

Abseiling

Forward stroke

Site selection

Reverse stroke

Anchor selection

Sweep stroke

Linking of anchors

Draw stroke

Knot tying:

Sculling strokes Emergency stop ‘J’ stroke or rudder Self rescue ‘T’ Rescue

• figure of eight (on a bight) • figure of eight (retrace) • clove hitch • prussic knot

• Italian hitch • double fisherman • tape knot

Various belay techniques Self-rescue Partner rescue

There are a variety of ways to develop the skills needed to participate in outdoor recreational activities like canoeing and abseiling. These include attending certified courses, practising with knowledgeable others, or through community organisations such as Scouts Australia.

What impact do group dynamics have on the outdoor experience? The very nature of outdoor recreation makes it an excellent setting for group activities. When groups of people are put together in an exciting and dynamic environment, they can create certain outcomes, such as team bonding, discovering new skills or developing leadership abilities. These outcomes can be planned, for example, the Wallabies attending an outdoor adventure camp to specifically improve team cohesion and fitness, or the outcomes can be unplanned and left to chance. Either way, a group participating in outdoor recreation will be affected by the experience. Similarly, dynamics within a group will also affect the experience. Understanding how group dynamics work means outdoor leaders and instructors can have greater success when planning outdoor recreation for specific outcomes.


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Leadership styles Whenever there is a group situation, there is a need for leadership. Whether it is a captain of a sporting team, a principal of a school, a prime minister of a country or an organiser on a weekend bushwalking trip, a good leader makes a significant difference to the wellbeing of the group and the outcome of the task. All leaders, including the ones listed above, have different styles and ways of achieving their goals. A good leader will not only be able to identify their natural leadership style, but also be able to modify their style to suit the situation. Given the fact that the outdoors is a dynamic environment where a situation can change quickly, the ability of a leader to modify and adjust their style is even more important. The four main leadership styles identified in outdoor recreation are:

Democratic Democratic leadership is generally considered the most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer advice and guidance to the group members. They also listen to their group members and encourage their input when group decisions are being made. Individuals in a democratically led group often feel important and valued, resulting in increased motivation levels. A weakness of democratic leadership is that it takes time to make decisions, and input from inexperienced group members can be incorrect. In addition, conflict may arise when different points of view are aired.

Laissez-faire A laissez-faire leadership style is characterised by a very casual leader who is often disorganised and leaves decisions to chance. This style can promote leadership opportunities for group members, as they may feel forced to take charge. This leadership style may be effective when group members are skilled in the area of expertise; however, it often leads to poorly defined roles and lack of motivation. It can also result in a dangerous situation developing, as there may be a lack of guidance when required, for example, at the top of a cliff or when crossing a river.

Autocratic Autocratic leaders provide clear instructions for their group members, telling them what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done. With autocratic leaders, there is a clear distinction between leaders and followers. These leaders make decisions independently of the group, often allowing little or no input from the group. This style of leadership is often required in potentially dangerous situations, where accurate decisions need to made, and made quickly. In an autocratically led group, members may feel as though the leader is bossy or controlling, and that thoughts and input from other are not wanted. This could possibly lead to frustration and conflict.

Strategic non-intervention Strategic non-interventional leaders actively observe their group members and step in when dangerous situations or valuable learning opportunities arise.


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This style of leadership, if used correctly, can promote group decision making, teamwork and leadership within the group. If, however, the leader delays in stepping in, or does not identify the need to step in, a dangerous situation can arise.


Explain an appropriate leadership style for a group of friends heading out on an overnight bushwalk.

2

Describe four situations that could arise on a cross-country ski trip where a schoolteacher may use a different leadership style for each situation.

3

Discuss what type of leader you think you naturally are—and describe why you think this.

4

Discuss what type of leadership style a rock-climbing instructor may adopt.

Understanding group dynamics People who work with groups and the actual group members can benefit from having a greater understanding of people’s behaviour within groups. The following section explains some of the theories underpinning the formation of groups and dynamics within a group.

Stages of group dynamics When people are first put together in a group situation to complete a task, it has been suggested that the group goes through distinct five stages: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning (sometimes known as mourning).

Stage 1: forming During this initial stage, individuals gather for the first time to form a group. People are generally trying to be accepted by others in the group and avoid controversy or conflict. Serious issues are often avoided and people tend to concentrate on routine things such as deciding who does what and when. This is generally a comfortable stage to be in. Stage 2: storming During the second stage of group development, individuals begin questioning one another as important issues start to be addressed. Some people in the group may lose patience and minor confrontations usually arise. These often relate to the workings of the group itself, or to roles and responsibilities within the group. Some people believe it is good to air their thoughts, while others may suppress them, however, they may still be there under the surface. Stage 3: norming As the second stage progresses, certain rules for the group become established and the roles and responsibilities within the group become clearer. People in the group learn to understand each other and appreciate each others’ skills, and they begin to feel part of a cohesive, effective group.


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Stage 4: performing This stage occurs after a group has been together for a while, but not all groups get to this stage. During this stage, everyone knows each other well enough to be able to work together. They trust each other and can change roles and responsibilities almost seamlessly. This cohesiveness allows the group to direct all its focus towards achieving the task. Stage 5: adjourning The final stage of group development is about completion and disengagement from the task and the group itself. This is where the group ‘un-forms’ and the group members go their separate ways and move on. Figure 10.19

Good teamwork requires practice, work and a leader

Conflict resolution With an understanding of group dynamics and of how groups form, it is possible to see that an important and healthy part of group development is conflict. Knowing and understanding that conflict happens, means that group leaders and group members can be aware of it and can put procedures in place to resolve any conflict quickly. This enables the group to move on and become more effective.

Team building Teamwork is a large component of outdoor recreation, and being able to build effective teams successfully and quickly is an important skill that outdoor leaders and group members should work towards attaining. It is a skill that can be constantly refined and perfected as every group situation is different.

Cooperation The ability to cooperate within a team setting is a skill that does not just happen, it is learnt and requires practice. It involves knowing how to communicate tactfully, knowing when to offer suggestions and when to listen to others. It also requires that members support group decisions, even if they are not in total agreement with them.


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Understand and apply Read the scenario below, and then answer the following questions.

Trainer steers trek to triumph; Hawthorn members walk Kokoda track Toowoomba trainer Glen Azar can lay claim to assisting Hawthorn in their 2008 AFL premiership win. Early in 2008 Azar led a contingent of the club on a gruelling trek on the Kokoda Track providing them with the essential team-building they needed to pull off their unlikely triumph. He has walked the Kokoda Track many times, but Azar said the Hawthorn group would be hard to top for fitness. While it took the group the usual eight days to complete the trek, they were forced to face a number of obstacles each day.

Among their obstacles was carrying 15 kg sand bags for an entire day, carrying 100 kg sand bags on stretchers and carrying logs up mountains. ‘Everything they did was to simulate how hard it was for the Diggers on the Track,’ Azar said. ‘Normally these guys would do it in five days, but because of the obstacles they did it in eight days. ‘These guys are extremely fit. They’re like machines.’ Hawthorn has done the trek previously and has adopted the wording from

pillars at one of the battle sights on the Kokoda Track. ‘The four pillars are of courage, endurance, mateship and sacrifice and Hawthorn have put that in the gym,’ Azar said. ‘They believe the players should show those qualities to themselves and each other’. Travis Tuck was awarded the Bruce Kingsbury Award for the player showing the most team spirit on the walk. The award is named in honour of Victoria Cross winner Bruce Kingsbury. The Chronicle, 30 September 2008

1

Discuss why the extra ‘obstacles’ were included to make the trek harder for the players— what benefit would this have had?

2

Participating in adventure training activities, like walking the Kokoda Trail, has certain risks, for example, sprained ankles, malaria, and so on. Debate whether elite sporting teams should face these risks prior to a long season—is adventure training worth the risks?

3

Using the stages of group dynamics, outline a series of situations that may have occurred on the Kokoda Trail with the Hawthorn players.

Facilitation skills Group work plays an important part in many outdoor recreational activities, and being able to facilitate a group experience is an important skill that group leaders and members should have. A good facilitator will be able to enhance the effectiveness of a group by developing the processes that groups go through. This typically includes improving how a group identifies and solves problems, as well as how a group makes decisions. A good facilitator will have excellent communication and decision-making skills and have a flexible approach when dealing with groups.

Communication skills Good communication involves being able to effectively transfer thoughts, opinions and information between group members and to other people. This may sound easy, but like all skills, excellent communication


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requires practice. It is worthwhile developing your communication skills, as poor communication can lead to misadventure, unhappy group members and dangerous situations. Practising how to communicate during outdoor recreation can be a fun process, as it requires participating in outdoor recreational activities with others, then reflecting on the interaction that occurs and working out any strengths and weaknesses of the group.

Decision making Encountering problems is, for many people, often an enjoyable part of many outdoor activities. For others, the decision-making process surrounding problems can be quite daunting. However, it need not be if you follow certain steps. The steps involved in the decision-making process are: 1 Identify the exact problem and when it needs to be solved, i.e. is it important and/or urgent. 2 Gather all the information and facts associated with the problem. 3 Brainstorm possible solutions. 4 Consider and compare the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. 5 Select the best solution. 6 Explain the decision to all involved, and implement it. 7 Reflect on the process afterwards and identify what can be learnt from it.

Flexibility Being flexible in the outdoors does not just involve altering plans if weather conditions change, or if a group member becomes ill. It also involves flexibility on the leader’s part to select appropriate group management styles and approaches. For example, a leader might decide before they meet a group to take a democratic approach to leadership, however, when the leader realises that the group is extremely confident and capable they might be flexible and decide to take a strategic non-intervention approach.


Discuss how poor communication could affect the outcomes of a overnight canoeing trip— give four examples. Outline how good communication would reduce these problems.

2

Describe how each step of the decision-making process can be applied to a group of novice bushwalkers who are crossing a waist-deep river.

Understanding strengths and weaknesses Identifying your own strengths and weakness, the strengths and weaknesses of others in your group can lead to a successful and rewarding experience. For example, identifying a stronger and fitter team member and giving them extra group equipment to carry can make that person feel helpful and a valued team member. Likewise, giving lighter group equipment to less able members can help also make them feel valued, as they are still carrying something even if it does not require the same amount of energy.


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Participant readiness Ensuring that a participant is ready to undertake various outdoor activities is an important ethical decision that group leaders and individual group members need to consider. Taking a direct approach and forcing people to do activities that they may not wish to do can result in negative consequences. However, giving group members the opportunity to challenge themselves by letting them decide whether they participate in various activities or not can be beneficial as it gives the individuals ownership of their decision and responsibility of their actions. Another important consideration when looking at participant readiness is selecting an appropriate activity for that participant. That means considering the age, fitness, prior expertise and maturity levels of all group participants when deciding which type of recreational activity is going to be performed, and where the activity should be conducted. Matching these skills with an appropriate activity is vital if a safe and enjoyable, yet challenging experience is to be had.

Self-efficacy Self-efficacy is commonly referred to as the belief in one’s capabilities to achieve a goal or an outcome. For example, a person who cannot ride a horse would probably have a poor self-efficacy with regard to horse riding. A person who is a competent rider and who knows that they are skilled in this area would have a high self-efficacy with regards to horse riding. A well-planned and directed outdoor recreation experience, with a strong leader, will have a positive effect on a person’s self-efficacy.

Balancing challenge and safety Being able to balance the level of challenge and the risks associated with the challenges can be extremely hard, especially when a leader needs to consider the individual differences of the participants, for example, their skill level, fitness, motivation, age and so on. This decision needs to be made whenever groups are going into the outdoors. A poor decision can result in unhappy participants, unsafe practices and unplanned outcomes, such as injuries. While a good decision, where the participants are matched perfectly with the correct level of challenge, will result in happy and fulfilled group members.

Pushing the comfort zone The comfort zone refers to the environments or behaviours that people are comfortable in. Pushing through the comfort zone so that participants go beyond these areas is an important part of the growth process. When you are outside your comfort zone, you often need to make decisions to get back into your comfort zone. Many people use outdoor recreation to push other people’s, or their own, comfort zones. For example, a teacher might take students abseiling to teach them trust. When the student is on the cliff edge, they have to make a decision about trusting the teacher, the ropes and their own ability to abseil. On this edge, students may be pushing their comfort zones. Pushing comfort zones is a delicate process, as pushing too far can have negative effects, for example, the same student on the cliff edge being too scared to participate and refusing to do the activity. This is where good group facilitation skills are needed, to turn this potentially negative experience into a positive one.


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Discuss the ethical considerations that a leader might encounter as they design an outdoor adventure experience that balances challenge with safety.

2

Debate whether it is ethical to ‘push’ someone out of their comfort zone if they do not want to go there.

3

Describe the difference between self-efficacy and self-esteem and give examples.

chapter review Recap Outdoor recreation can be defined as a wide range of leisure, sport or recreational activities that are undertaken outside. People participate in outdoor recreation for a number of different reasons. These can include, but are not limited to, stress management and relaxation, enjoyment, the challenge and excitement offered, social interaction, appreciation of the environment or for health and fitness reasons. In order to participate safely in various outdoor pursuits, people need to realise that a number of skills are needed. These include sport-specific skills like kayaking strokes and map reading, as well as overarching environmental and emergency management skills. The environment plays an important part in any outdoor activity. The venue should match the skill level of the group, and the weather should be monitored before and during any trip. A risk management plan should be developed before any trip, as it can help in identifying any potential risks as well as any actions or precautions that could be taken to minimise the risks. The clothing used in outdoor pursuits should follow the three-layer system, as this will allow for maximum heat retention and cooling efficiency. The system involves a base layer to wick moisture away from your skin, a middle layer to capture the heat from your body, and an outer layer to stop the wind and rain. ‘Leave no trace’ camping and ‘minimal impact’ procedures are two educational programs that have been introduced to help preserve the environment from people who participate in outdoor recreation.


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Finding your way in a wilderness setting involves both compass- and map-reading skills. Using a topographic map, one should know how to read grid references, take grid bearings and identify land features. Using a compass, one should know how to orientate a map, take a grid bearing and follow a bearing. Understanding what to do if you are lost, caught in a bushfire or stuck in a thunder storm is an essential emergency management skill that everyone who participates in outdoor recreation should know. Many factors affect the success of a group participating in outdoor recreation. Knowing and understanding these factors can help to control them and potentially influence the success of the group.


Current URL

Useful for …

Outdoor Council Australia

www.outdoorcouncil.asn.au

Information about outdoor recreation in Australia

Leave no trace Australia

www.lnt.org.au

Information on minimal impact outdoor recreation

The Outdoor Recreation Industry Council

www.oric.org.au

Information about the outdoor industry in NSW

Wilderdom

www.wilderdom.com

For general information about ‘living in conjunction with nature’

Exam-style questions Imagine you and three of your friends are about to embark on a three-day walk along a remote section of the NSW South Coast. As leader of the group, you need to: 1 Outline three specific procedures that you will adopt to help protect the

environment during your journey.

(3 marks)

2 Identify five possible risks you may encounter during your journey and

explain ways to manage these risks.

(5 marks)

3 Identify and discuss four potential situations you may encounter on the

journey where a different approach to leadership may be required to increase the safety or improve the dynamics of the group.


(12 marks)

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Suggested answers CHAPTER 1 1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.

Your answer could include: • The name of each of the five dimensions of health—physical, mental/emotional, cognitive/intellectual, spiritual and social. • A brief description of each dimension, for example, the physical dimension of health includes the functioning of the body, and things relating to this such as physical activity and nutrition; the mental/emotional dimension of health refers to our ability to cope and be resilient, and to recognise our emotions and so on. • A statement about how each dimension of health relates to the other and if one area of health is compromised this may have an affect on the other dimensions.

(4 marks)

2 To explain means to relate cause and effect, to make the relationships between things

evident or to say why and/or how. Your answer could include: • A brief description of what a person’s perceptions are—an individual’s picture of what health means, how it looks and what they recognise as good or poor health. • Our perceptions of health are formed or put together as a result of social influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, family and friends. • These perceptions will shape how we value health and what meanings we give to it. • You will need to include an example to show your understanding of how our health perceptions are socially constructed. You could use the examples of young people’s behaviour in cars, their relation to body image or their attitudes to smoking, as mentioned in this chapter, or you can develop your own example to illustrate your answer.

(6 marks)

3 To identify means to recognise and name. To investigate means to plan, inquire into

and draw conclusions about. Your answer could include the following: • Choose one health issue relating to young people from the list provided. • List a number of risk and protective behaviours that are related this health issue. You can find the risk and protective behaviours for each health issue in this chapter but the lists provided are not definitive. Try to come up with other behaviours for this issue. • Look at the relationship between the different risk and protective behaviours. If a person is able to include more protective behaviours in their lives in relation to this health issue, does that counteract the risk behaviours and vice versa? • Provide an example to show your understanding. For example, concerning mental health, if a young person is feeling depressed and isolated and is beginning to engage in risky activities or thinking about self-harm (risk behaviours), the risk can be reduced if they: • are aware of places they can go to seek help and to talk • have supportive friends and family • can possibly write about their feelings and emotions • have some good coping skills such as problem solving (protective behaviours). Alternatively, a young person’s coping skills could be poor and they do not have a support network, which increases the impact that risk behaviours can have on the person’s health and wellbeing.

PDHPE Pre END 4pp.indd 320

(10 marks)

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CHAPTER 2 1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main

features. Your answer could include the following points: • The media is well placed to influence the health of individuals, as it is such a prominent part of society. • The media can have a positive or negative influence on health. • The media can provide explicit messages and educate individuals about positive health behaviours that they can incorporate into their life. • The media can sometimes provide inaccurate information or misinformation about health issues.

(3 marks)

2 To propose means to put forward an idea or suggestion for consideration or action.

To answer this question, you need to address two determinants only. The proposed suggestions will be dependent upon the determinants chosen, but could include things such as: • Family history—while family history is a non-modifiable determinant, if a person is aware of diseases in their family, they can take measures to lessen their risk of suffering from these diseases. For example, in relation to cardiovascular disease, they could monitor blood pressure, eat a healthy diet, participate in regular physical activity; in relation to breast cancer they could conduct regular breast self-examinations and have mammograms; in relation to diabetes they could eat a healthy diet, get regular physical activity and monitor their weight. • Media—to modify this determinant, you could deconstruct health messages from the media, make sure you are an informed and intelligent consumer, improve health-literacy levels and know the criteria for evaluating health-related websites and their information. • Gender—to modify this determinant, make sure you are aware of the diseases and illnesses that are common to each gender and their risk factors and put in place behaviours to lessen these risk factors. • Access to health services—you could research health services that are available in your area and find out how to avail yourself of them; and/or research different health-related services available online. • Individual knowledge and skills—for this determinant, you could seek advice from teachers and other adults for information on various coping skills, and practise skills such as problem solving and conflict resolution with friends and family to make these skills easier to use when needed.

(5 marks)

3 To analyse means to identify components and the relationship between them;

draw out and relate implications. To do this critically, you need to add a degree or level of depth, knowledge and understanding or questioning to your analysis. Your answer could include each of the health determinants that needs to be addressed—individual factors, sociocultural factors, socioeconomic factors and environmental factors— and examples of how each determinant impacts on the health status of young people specifically from low-SES backgrounds. • Individual—attitudes around health may be poor, knowledge and understanding may be low due to interrelating factors of education. • Sociocultural—family and peers may not value a healthy lifestyle, if this is so, they are more likely to believe misinformation from media, and possibly have low health literacy.


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• Socioeconomic—a low income may determine someone’s housing (for example, it may be overcrowded or in an unsafe area); it will also determine education levels, and education levels relate back to a young person’s ability to develop knowledge and skills around health and health-enhancing behaviours • Environmental—low SES may mean a person may be geographically further away from health services; they may not be able to afford technology, such as access to the internet, which can provide access to health information; they may lack facilities and infrastructure, such as parks, recreation areas, cycle ways and so on, which then makes it more difficult to partake in physical activity. In your answer, the analysis should link the determinants to one another and to how they combine to influence a person’s health behaviours. Each of the examples should then explain how this will impact upon the person’s health status.

(12 marks)

CHAPTER 3 1 In order to answer this question you should consider:

• Health promotion uses a variety of settings such as homes, schools and workplaces to improve the health of individuals. • Homes can improve the health of individuals by providing a safe and supportive environment. This can be seen, for example, in chemicals and drugs being stored in high locked cupboards; in parents assisting children to work through issues rather than fighting; in providing healthy options at meal times and in participating in physical activity together as a family. • Schools provide various ways of improving the health of their community. Things schools can do include providing counselling services to students to enhance mental health, celebrating the school’s cultural diversity through multicultural days, providing family breakfasts with a focus on healthy eating, bringing in police as guest speakers in relation to safe partying and having canteens that provide healthy food options. • Workplaces provide various avenues by which staff and customers can improve their health including: • implementing policies that promote positive work habits, such as OH&S policies on correct lifting of heavy materials and anti-bullying policies • providing seminars on how to deal with stress • providing flexible work hours to allow more family time • participating in lunchtime sporting events • conducting team-building activities to strengthen relationships.

(3 marks)

2 In order to answer this question you should consider:

• The federal government is responsible for the health of Australia through the provision of health services and health care and by regulating health products. The federal government is responsible for allocating funding for preventative and curative treatment. Establishing policies, such as OH&S, which protect workers safety; anti-discrimination laws; labelling of food content on food products; and displaying the effects of smoking on cigarette packaging are some measures the federal government uses to take responsibility for the health of its people. The federal government faces many challenges in ensuring all people have the same access to health care and health services. It is responsible for ensuring equity of resources and funding.


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• The state government has a responsibility to ensure parks, roads and schools enable positive health behaviours. Maintaining roads to ensure they are roadworthy for drivers and pedestrians is a responsibility of the state government. Implementing laws and actions to combat speeding, such as impounding P-plate cars for those drivers exceeding the speed limit by 30 kilometres per hour is a way the state government takes responsibility for an individual’s health. Another strategy is changing laws to combat drunkenness and violence through the implementation of 2 am curfews at certain venues that assists in preventing drunken violence. • Local governments take responsibility for their local communities by addressing the various health needs and issues, and by implementing programs and events to enable and empower individuals. Events such as Battle of the Bands at Ryde during Youth Week celebrations allow young people to come together in a drugfree environment to play music and feel connected. Providing activities for people from non-English speaking backgrounds creates a sense of community for those new to the area. • While the various governments are responsible for the health of the populace through the development of policies and environments conducive to positive health, individuals also play a role in adopting these measures to enhance their own health.

(5 marks)

3 In order to answer this question, you should discuss concepts such personal skills,

strengthening community action, creating supportive environments, reorienting health services and building healthy public policies in relation to your chosen campaign. Using food habits and physical activity, for example, your answer could show: • The Australian government has developed a health-promotion campaign targeting unhealthy food habits and lack of physical activity. The campaign ‘How do you measure up?’ aims to provide society with the tools and knowledge to make healthy lifestyle choices. The campaign uses a variety of strategies to assist people to make these choices. • This campaign works collaboratively with the federal, state and territory governments to implement a national approach towards improving the health of individuals. • The campaign uses a variety of strategies to develop personal skills in individuals. The campaign website provides individuals with a quiz to see how healthy they are, which is an effective tool for assessing their current health status. If, after completing the quiz, the results come back negative, the website also provides information, recipes, recommended serves and helpful tips on improving your health. The use of television commercials and advertisements further enhances the skills of individuals to improve their health. These commercials visually show individuals the effect of a lack of physical activity on a person’s health and provide contact details for further assistance. The inclusion of these strategies makes this healthy-promotion campaign effective. • The campaign aims to strengthen community action through a variety of measures. Including materials in various languages addresses different sub-communities, encouraging different nationalities to take notice and adopt the strategies. Using top chefs from various ethnic backgrounds to launch the campaign in a healthy cook-off is an effective measure to engage the community in the program. The use of chefs from a variety of cultures is effective, as individuals can see ways to make their own cuisine healthier. To enhance the effectiveness of this campaign, communities could run free cooking classes for adults, to show them how simple it is to cook healthy and nutritious meals.


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• Creating supportive environments for people to improve their nutrition and physical activity levels is prominent throughout this campaign. The cook-off can be viewed on SBS television so people at home can get ideas to create meals for their family. Encouraging families to be physically active by providing information creates a supportive environment at home. While no specific reference to school activities are included, the campaign itself can inform schools about positive food choices for their students, and about the benefits of creating physical activity opportunities at school. Greater inclusion of ways in which workplaces can improve the nutritional and physical activity levels of employees would enhance the effectiveness of this campaign. • Funding for this health campaign to promote healthy eating and physical activity is part of reorienting health services. Allocating substantial money for the research and promotion of this health issue is a positive aspect of this campaign. For example, providing posters about healthy waist measurements on the inside of shopping trolleys, on bus shelters or in shopping centres is an effective way to reach people. To further enhance the effectiveness of this campaign, it could have mobile vans that travel to rural and remote communities and provide them with physical activity opportunities such as aerobic sessions or running groups. These strategies would certainly improve the health of individuals. • While there are no policies outlined in the campaign, the campaign has many links to other health agencies that promote building healthy public policies. Links to associations such as Nutrition Australia that have National Dietary Guidelines for consumption of food, and the Australian government’s recommendations for physical activity enhance and support this campaign. Notification of laws that regulate food products and things such as labels on products and identification of food additives could be advertised in the campaign to highlight the importance of understanding the impact food can have on a person’s weight. • Through the use of various strategies to promote healthy weight, the ‘How do you measure up?’ campaign can be deemed effective in assisting individuals to improve their overall health.

(12 marks)

CHAPTER 4 1 In order to answer this question you need to consider the following:

• Bones can be classified based on their shape and size. There are five ways to classify bones. – Bones that are elongated and long in length are called long bones. They are made of compact bone and contain spongy tissue on the inside; for example, the humerus. – Bones that are cube-like and mostly made of spongy tissue are short bones. A thin layer of compact bone, which gives them shape, covers them. The tarsals are an example. – Flat bones are usually thin, flat and protect organs; for example, the skull. – Bones that are usually complicated in shape and do not belong to one of the other categories are called irregular bones; for example, vertebrae. – Bones found in the body where tendons pass over a joint; for example, in the foot, knee and hand are sesamoid bones.

(3 marks)

2 In order to answer this question you need to consider the following:

• Blood plays a vital role in the efficient functioning of the body. Four components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma make up blood.


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• Red blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen around the body. They pick up oxygen from the lungs and transport the oxygen through red blood cells to various body tissues. If red blood cells did not carry the oxygen to working tissues, these tissues would die and the body would stop functioning. Red blood cells are also responsible for carrying waste products such as carbon dioxide to the lungs for waste disposal. If these waste products are not expelled from the body, the body would not be as efficient. If you participate in aerobic-based activities over time, this can increase blood volume and therefore increase the amount of red blood cells in the body. This can enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. • White blood cells are responsible for fighting infections. They attack and destroy germs and infections in the body. If white blood cells were not present in the body, infections would damage the body and make it less effective. • Platelets are the clotting agents for the blood. When a blood vessel is broken, platelets prevent excess bleeding as they stick to the damaged tissue. If platelets were not present in the blood, uncontrollable bleeding would occur.

(5 marks)

3 In order to answer this question you need to consider the following:

• The body responds to exercise in various ways. Depending on a person’s fitness level, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems respond in different ways. The cardiovascular system’s function is to transport oxygen around the body, whereas the respiratory system’s function is to provide the exchange of gases so cell tissues can function. • When a person undertakes exercise, they place an increased demand on the body’s ability to transport sufficient levels of oxygen to working muscles. When the body is at rest, supply of oxygen to body tissue is met quite easily. The heart is able to pump enough oxygenated blood into its vessels, which will transport oxygen around they body. However, once the body starts to exercise, the demand of oxygenated blood increases to ensure the body works effectively. This increase in blood flow means the heart beats faster to pump more blood around the body. If the body does not pump sufficient levels of blood to working muscles, the person will fatigue and stop exercising. • Exercise can strengthen the heart muscle so it can pump more blood into the body with less contractions (cardiac output). Being able to pump the same levels of blood in less contractions reduces stress on the body and enables a person to exercise for longer periods of time. The body is able to meet the increased demands for blood by beating its heart faster. For an unfit person, this could cause a heart attack or stroke, if in a person who exercises regularly, it would have limited negative impact on their health. • Since the cardiovascular system and respiratory system work together, if the heart beats faster, then the demand for oxygen uptake is increased. Exercise increases the breathing rate of a person in order to meet the body’s oxygen debt. People who are unfit will struggle to take in the added oxygen and therefore may find themselves short of breath and easily fatigued. People who exercise regularly may find that their breathing pattern changes when starting to exercise; however, as time progresses, their breathing rate returns to a regular pattern, taking in ample oxygen through the lungs for the blood to transport to the body’s tissues. • While exercise places increased demands on the body, it enables physical adaptations to ensure adequate oxygen is breathed in and transported round the body and that waste products such as carbon dioxide, are expelled in order for the body to perform effectively.


(12 marks)

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CHAPTER 5 1 Lactate response during a 1500-metre race:

a 1200 metres b There is less oxygen available for the muscles; a reliance on anaerobic energy sources for the sprint to the finish; and lactate is not being removed at the same rate it was produced. c An appropriate stategy would be active recovery consisting of jogging (as it uses the same muscles) at a lower intensity to assist blood flow and removal of lactate. d Heart rate will be elevated prior to the race, in anticipation. There will be a sharp rise in heart rate during the early stages of the race. There will then be a more gradual but linear rise in HR approaching maxHR by the end of the race.

(5 marks)

2 The tests for the tennis player could be:

a aerobic fitness—the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test b agility—the 5-0-5 test c flexibility—sit and reach d power—vertical jump e coordination—alternate hand wall toss test.

(5 marks)

3 The one-week training program using the FITT principle would need:

• Frequency—5 sessions per week • Intensity—75 to 85 per cent maxHR • Time—30–60 minutes • Type—continuous, interval and circuit. Therefore, two possible programs could be: 1 Doing a continuous jog/walk for 30 minutes at an intensity of 75 per cent maxHR 2 Completing a circuit involving squats, bench press, sit-ups, lunges, seated row, shoulder press, tricep pushdown, arm curls; using three sets of 15 repetitions with a light load and resting 30 seconds between sets.

(10 marks)

CHAPTER 6 1 a 12.8 m/s

b 4.3 s

(1 mark) (1 mark)

c 3.0 m/s2

(2 marks)

d Velocity slowed rapidly during the final second.

(2 marks)

2 Centre of gravity must be located above the base of support in order to be stable.

Stability can be increased by: • widening the base of support so that more movement of the centre of gravity can occur without the line of gravity moving outside the base • lowering the centre of gravity so that the body can lean further from side to side without the line of gravity moving outside the base • if force is expected from a particular direction, the base of support should be widened in the direction of the force and the centre of gravity moved towards the edge in a direction towards the force.


(4 marks)

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3 The legs are relatively dense because of their bone structure, while the rest of the body

has relatively low density due to its air-filled lungs. Therefore, the centre of buoyancy is located more towards the head than is the centre of gravity. • When suspended in water, the body is pulled up by the buoyant force and down by the weight force, and rotates until the two forces are aligned one above the other. Achieving a horizontal float requires the two forces to be at the same location between the head and toes. • Bending the knees and raising the arms will move the centre of gravity up towards the centre of buoyancy. • Lifting the hands out of the water will move the centre of buoyancy down towards the centre of gravity.

(4 marks)

4 Mass is a measure of the body’s inertia, its resistance to acceleration. Mass is

measured in kilograms and is determined by the amount of matter packed into the body. Weight is a measure of the force of gravity pulling the body downwards. Weight is determined by mass multiplied by acceleration due to gravity. On Earth, weight is proportional to mass, but astronauts moving away from the Earth will experience less weight when gravity is reduced. However, their mass, and hence their inertia, will always remain the same.

(2 marks)

5 Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of an object in response to a

force is proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. A tennis ball has a much greater mass than a table-tennis ball. Therefore, the tennis ball must be hit with more force to achieve an equal acceleration to the table-tennis balls. A large tennis racquet has a larger mass, and also moves at a higher velocity because of its longer handle length. The mass and velocity of the racquet therefore give it more momentum, which can be used to impart a large force onto the ball.

(4 marks)

CHAPTER 7 1 To describe means to provide the characteristics and features of a head injury and

its management. Consider the following: • Signs and symptoms can include—varying levels of consciousness, drowsiness, confusion; slurred speech; vomiting and/or nausea; bleeding or fluid discharge from ears, nose or mouth; a difference in size or shape of pupils; blurred vision and loss of memory. • Management of a head injury involves following DRABCD, while supporting the casualty’s head and neck. • Your answer should also include what to do if the person is conscious (place in a comfortable position with head and shoulders raised) or unconscious (place in the recovery position), and what to do if they are bleeding or have fluid coming from the ear.

(3 marks)

2 The term ‘distinguish’ asks you to note the differences between hyperglycaemia

and hypoglycaemia. You then need to make clear or plain (clarify) the management of each condition. You answer should include the following: • Hypoglycaemia is a medical emergency that arises when a diabetic’s blood sugar levels become too low. It is generally caused by missing meals, eating too many carbohydrate-rich foods, overly strenuous exercise and/or drinking alcohol. • Hyperglycaemia is a medical emergency that arises when a diabetic’s blood sugar levels become too high. It can be caused by sickness, infections, too many carbohydrate-rich foods and/or not enough insulin.


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• Management for hypoglycaemia involves getting the person’s blood sugar levels up by giving them a quick source of carbohydrate, such as jelly beans, followed by a longer acting carbohydrate. The person should be monitored and reassured. If unconscious, follow DRABCD. • Management for hyperglycaemia involves assisting the person to administer insulin or other medication, giving them sugar-free drinks and seeking medical assistance if necessary. If unconscious, follow DRABCD.

(5 marks)

3 To explain means to discuss why and how. Your answer should include the following:

• Situational analysis—describe what should be looked for in a situational analysis. • DRABCD—go through each step of the DRABCD Action Plan highlighting what it means, what should be done at that step, why you do it and what should happen next. • STOP procedure—explain what would be done to assess a person who was conscious and did not have serious or life-threatening injuries or illness. • It is important to give information in your answer about why each step is included. For example, you check for danger to ensure safety for yourself, the victim and any bystanders; and you place an unconscious person in the recovery position to maintain good head tilt and to ensure any fluids drain from the mouth and do not block the airway.

(12 marks)

CHAPTER 8 1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.

Your answer could include: • Subjective appraisal is based on the impressions or feelings of the person who is looking at a performance. For example, you could ask a group of people what they thought about a dance performance. Subjective appraisal can vary from person to person, as it is based on thoughts or opinion. • Objective appraisal is a non-biased assessment of a performance against set criteria, for example, the use of game statistics or using marking criteria to judge a gymnastics routine. The inclusion of criteria means that the observation is based on facts.

(2 marks)

2 To explain means to relate cause and effect, and tell how. Your answer could include:

• A process is a series of steps that must be adhered to in order to create movement. • Every movement needs a starting point. To compose movement there needs to be a purpose, which defines why the movement will occur. • The purpose of movement will vary between mediums. You could give some examples of movement purpose in your answer: such as to entertain, to score or to communicate an idea. • Purpose is more meaningful as there is motivation attached to it. Motivation allows composers to be more creative. • Once the purpose and motivation have been established, the composer needs to decide what skills can be used that are relevant to the purpose of the movement; for example, locomotor, non-locomotor, manipulative or a combination of these. • During the process of creating movement, it is important to explore variations of movement, for example, moving faster or slower. • Improvisation is a part of creating movement, it provides different ways to explore themes.


(6 marks)

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3 To analyse means to identify components and the relationship between them, to

draw out and relate implications. To do this critically, you need to add a degree or level of depth, knowledge and understanding or questioning to your analysis. Your answer should identify your movement medium clearly, relate all your examples back to that medium, and cover each element of composition and its component parts. • Space—analyse how the use of direction, level, dimensions and patterns/ formations can be used in your chosen medium and give relevant examples. • Dynamics—analyse how force and flow apply to you medium and give relevant examples. • Time and rhythm—analyse how beat, tempo and accent, duration, momentum, pacing and timing can be used in your chosen medium and give relevant examples. • Relationships—analyse the relationships that are evident in your chosen medium (other people, apparatus or equipment, formations and positions) and give relevant examples. • In order to make your answer a critical analysis, you need to also provide information about the impact the manipulation of these elements has on movement composition and performance in the chosen medium.

(12 marks)

CHAPTER 9 1 • Attitudes to fitness are heavily influenced by advances in research, enhanced

technology and cultural trends. • Current attitudes are based strongly around concerns related to obesity and costs associated with chronic conditions that can be reduced with enhanced levels of fitness, such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. • Previous eras have been defined by the growth of key trends such as jogging and weight training (1970s), aerobics and celebrity-workout videos (1980s) and personal training (1990s).

(4 marks)

2 • Pilates involves completing a sequence of movements in a highly controlled

fashion. Through Pilates, a greater understanding of the body’s ideal position during movement is developed, together with improved core body strength. Pilates movements can isolate muscle groups to strengthen weak muscles and/or lengthen tight, bulky muscles. The aim is to create balance within the body. • Pilates is suitable for men and women and for people of all ages, although prescreening is recommended. Women have higher rates of participation, suggesting it better meets their fitness needs and preferences. • People wanting improvements in flexibility and core strength would form a suitable profile. In addition to women, some people with sport-specific needs around these areas may also form a suitable profile.

(4 marks)

3 To analyse means to identify components and the relationship between them;

to draw out and relate implications. • Common strategies used to advertise and promote fitness products and services include offering free trials; offering a free fitness assessment; using existing members to attract family and friends to join up; and using celebrity role models. • These strategies have proven effective over time. Free trials and free fitness tests provide an opportunity to showcase what you have to offer a potential client and to establish a relationship with them. Contact details are also usually collected at this time offering future potential for direct marketing.


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• Having existing members encourage friends and family to join the gym is a costeffective strategy that can be win–win. The member receives a reward in the form of a reduced cost of their membership and they also have someone to exercise with. The gym benefits from getting a new member. • Celebrity role models are renowned for being a deciding factor in people choosing to spend money on their own fitness and to spend it on a particular product or service.

(12 marks)

CHAPTER 10 1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.

Your answer could include the following: • Use fuel stoves instead of open fires, as this will reduce the likelihood of a campfire turning into a bushfire. • Carry out everything that you carry in. This means that all food scraps, wrapping paper and so on will be taken out of the wilderness setting, therefore, reducing our impact on the environment. • Wash cooking utensils away from waterways to keep the water pure. • Where possible, stick to tracks over headlands rather than make new tracks.

(3 marks)

2 To identify means to list the risks and to explain means to provide reasons how or why.

Possible risks could include: • Encountering flooded rivers—obtain weather forecasts and do not cross flooded rivers. • Being caught by rising tides—check tidal charts on rocky sections. • Exposure to the sun, leading to heat stroke—wear appropriate clothing and follow SunSmart rules.

(5 marks)

3 To identify and discuss means to list and describe in detail. Your answer should include

the following: • Democratic leadership—generally considered the most effective leadership, although it can be time consuming. • Laissez-faire leadership—a casual leadership style, but can be effective when group members are skilled. • Autocratic leadership—can be beneficial in potentially dangerous situations when strong leadership is needed. • Strategic non-intervention leadership—the leader observes from a distance and steps in when valuable learning experiences occur, or when dangerous situations arise.


(12 marks)

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Glossary Abstinence

means not partaking in a particular activity or behaviour, for example, drinking alcohol or having sexual intercourse.

Acceleration

is the rate of change in velocity. This is a similar concept to velocity itself. While velocity tells us how quickly an object changes its position, acceleration tells us how quickly it changes velocity.

Acceleration due to gravity

is the rate of acceleration experienced by an object falling under the influence of gravity. On Earth, acceleration due to gravity is approximately 9.8 m/s2. It varies slightly with latitude and height above sea level but the change is very small, with gravity on top of Mount Everest being only 0.3 per cent less than that at sea level. The value 9.8 will be correct to a single decimal place anywhere on Earth.

Actin

is a protein that aids cell movement; it is important in the contraction of muscles.

Action

is movement produced by a muscle.

Adenosine triphosphate

(ATP) is the chemical compound found in the body that produces energy.

Adrenalin

is a hormone that increases the body’s heart rate and blood pressure. It is manufactured by the body but can also be produced synthetically.

Advocate

means someone who argues for a cause as a supporter or a defender, in this case, of positive health.

Aesthetically pleasing

refers to when something is pleasing to look at; it has a sense of flow and balance.

Agility

is the ability to change direction rapidly with minimal loss of speed or balance.

Airway

is the means by which the body gets air into the lungs. The airways consist of the mouth, nose, throat and the bronchial tubes that lead to the lungs.

Anatomical position

is a reference point within the body that is used to describe and locate body parts.

Anatomy

is the study of the body’s structures and how they interrelate.

Appendicular skeleton

consists of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder and hipbones that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.

Archimedes’ Principle

says that the size of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of water displaced by the body. This means that to maximise the buoyant force, as much of the body as possible should be kept below water.

Assessment

is an evaluation of the situation.

Average acceleration

can be calculated by dividing the change in velocity by time (like velocity, acceleration can only be directly calculated as an average between two points in time).

Average velocity

of an object is measured by considering the change in displacement divided by the time taken.

Axes

is the plural of axis. An axis is a mathematical line used to describe displacement as distance from some arbitrary zero position. If two or three axes are used, these are located perpendicular to one another so that displacement can be measured independently along each axis.


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Axial skeleton

consists of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage; it forms the long axis of the body.

Binge drinking

refers to the act of drinking heavily over a short period or drinking continuously over a number of days or weeks. People who binge drink tend to drink with the sole purpose of getting drunk.

Body fluids

include blood, saliva, mucus, vomit, urine, tears, sweat, semen, vaginal fluid.

Buoyancy

is an upward force on the body experienced when the body is immersed in water. The effect of buoyancy is to reduce the apparent weight of the body by opposing gravity.

Bystander

is someone who is present at a particular event or situation but is not directly involved—an onlooker.

Cardiorespiratory endurance

is the ability to perform strenuous exercise for a sustained time without fatigue.

Cardiovascular drift

happens when cardiac output is kept constant in the latter parts of prolonged exercise and is achieved by a slight increase in heart rate as stroke volume slightly decreases even though workload stays the same.

Cartilage

is a tough, elastic, fibrous tissue found in the body; for example, between joints, in the nose and in the ear.

Cavitation

is resistance caused by an air pocket behind the object being sucked along in its wake. This same effect also occurs in water, where fluid is dragged along behind an object.

Centre of buoyancy

is the point in the body where the amount of volume under the water is equally distributed on either side. The centre of buoyancy tends to be higher in your body than the centre of gravity, because of the effects of dense legs at one end and low-density lungs towards the other end.

Centre of gravity

is the point at which the weight of a body is balanced above, below and on either side.

Chlamydia

is a sexually transmitted bacterial infection, which can affect the penis, cervix, fallopian tubes, anus, and throat; it can cause serious health problems, such as pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility, if left untreated.

Compact bone

is an external layer of tissue that forms the hard surface of a bone.

Conscious

refers to a person being alert and awake.

Consequences

are what may happen because of a particular action.

Construct

is something that is formed or put together as a result of various ideas or influences.

Context

the circumstances surround a particular situation, the setting in which something occurs.

Continuous training

involves exercising non-stop for a minimum of 20 minutes up to several hours.

Contour lines

are lines that join points of equal elevation.

Conventions

refer to the customary way that things are done.

Criteria

are standards or principles by which something can be judged or decided.

Debilitating

is something that is weakening; stopping a person from moving forward.

Demeanour

is the way a person behaves or looks.


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Density

is calculated from the mass of an object divided by its volume. Water has a density of 1 kg/L because 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg. If an object is less dense than water then it will float, as the weight of water displaced will be greater than body weight; meaning the buoyant force will be larger than body weight. An object denser than water will sink because the buoyant force will be less than body weight.

Detrimental

means damaging or making something worse.

Developing countries

are those with lower-level economies whose citizens are mostly agricultural workers.

Diabetic coma

is where a diabetic is unconscious due to blood sugar levels being too low or too high.

Displacement

is the location of an object, measured with respect to some known point.

Distance

is the path travelled by an object as it moves from one displacement to another.

Drag

is used interchangeably with ‘resistance’ in biomechanics. Drag increases with the density of the fluid and in proportion to the square of velocity. Other effects on total drag are best considered by referring to the individual components: surface drag, form drag and wave drag.

Drink walking

is walking whilst drunk. Drink walkers are likely to stagger onto the road, not use pedestrian crossings, and may fall asleep or lay down on the road. These factors increase their risk of being hit by cars and seriously injured or killed.

Dynamic

means characterised by energy or effective action, active, forceful; the opposite to static.

Elevate

means raising the limb/s to reduce blood flow to the area.

Emergency

means an unforeseen or sudden occurrence. Many emergencies involve danger to the health and wellbeing of the people involved and demand urgent attention.

Emergency services

are the police, ambulance and fire brigade.

Empower

means to give an individual the knowledge, skills and understanding to make a difference.

Enable

means to provide an individual with the skills or opportunity to make decisions.

Epiglottis

is an elastic cartilage that opens to allow air into the trachea and closes when food goes to the oesophagus.

EpiPen

is an auto-injector of adrenalin, which is used to treat anaphylactic shock. A person diagnosed with anaphylaxis will carry an EpiPen.

Ethics

is the study of morality, where morality refers to the ‘rightness’ or ‘goodness’ of matters.

Execution

is the delivery of movement, the way it is performed.

Exercise

involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities, which can improve fitness.

Explicit

is an idea or concept that is very clearly expressed.

Flexibility

is the ability to move a muscle through a complete range of motion.

Fluid resistance

is a force that opposes movement through a fluid.


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Form drag

is determined by the size and shape of an object. Objects with lower form drag have a narrower profile and a tapered shape at the back.

Friction

is a force present between two objects that are sliding past, or tending to slide past each other. Friction acts in the direction opposite to the movement of the objects, tending to oppose the movement.

Frontal area

is the area of the object viewed head on in the direction of movement.

Game strategies

are set patterns of movement sometimes referred to as tactics or plays that players in a team will use to help them achieve the best game outcome.

Haemoglobin

are red blood cells, responsible for carrying oxygen around the body.

Health behaviour

is any activity by an individual that aims to promote, protect or maintain their health.

Health-enhancing behaviours

are behaviours beneficial to a person’s health, such as healthy eating, physical activity, communicating with others and not smoking.

Health promotion interventions

are measures taken to effect positive change in an area of health at both individual and community levels.

HIV

stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

Holistic

refers to viewing health as something that involves the whole person (mind, body and spirit) rather than just looking at an illness or disease.

Holistic approach

means that in addition to placing our focus on the physical dimensions of health, we also emphasise mental, emotional and sometimes spiritual dimensions with a view to supporting and aligning the dimensions of the whole person.

Homogenous

means alike or all the same.

Hyperventilation

is an abnormal increase in depth and rate of breathing.

Hypoventilation

is abnormally slow and shallow breathing.

Hypoxia

is a lack of oxygen in body tissues.

Immobilisation

means reducing a patient’s movement as much as possible to reduce the risk or further injury.

Immunisation

means to make immune, especially by inoculation.

Implication

refers to what might happen as a result of something else.

Implicit

is an idea or concept that is implied rather than clearly stated.

Impulse

can be calculated as force multiplied by time. For example, a force of 100 Newtons applied for a time of 2 seconds produces an impulse of 200 N s.

Incidental physical activity

is unplanned movement that occurs normally within an everyday lifestyle, such as walking to the bus stop instead of driving, or using the stairs instead of an elevator.

Inertia

is the resistance of an object to acceleration. If an object has a large inertia, then it is difficult to accelerate. That is, a stationary object with large inertia will be difficult to start moving, while a moving object with large inertia will be difficult to stop. The inertia of an object is determined by its mass, measured in kilograms.

Infrastructure

is the basic framework of a community; the roads, railways, schools and other permanent structures.


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Instantaneous velocity

is the velocity of an object at a specific instance in time. Instantaneous velocity can change within the period used to calculate average speed.

Intercostal

means between the ribs.

Interrelated

means something that is connected or linked to something else.

Interval training

involves completing a number of prescribed bouts of exercise, each followed by a recovery period.

Intricacy

refers to the difficulty, complexity or sophistication of a movement.

Intrinsic reasons

come from oneself, without regard to outside factors.

Joint

is an area where two or more bones meet.

Kilopond

is a measure of force defined as the magnitude of the force exerted on 1 kilogram of mass by a 9.80665 m/s2 gravitational field (standard gravity, a conventional value approximating the average magnitude of gravity on Earth).

Laminar flow

is fluid travelling in straight lines, like flat sheets. Laminar flow of a fluid will result in that fluid tending to remain travelling in a straight line as it passes an object, potentially increasing the size of the air pocket behind the object.

Lifestyle

is a way of living where individual characteristics combine with the social and environmental conditions.

Line of gravity

is an imaginary line drawn vertically downwards from the centre of gravity.

Manipulation

means to change or alter in some way.

Marginalise

is to regard a group of people as less important than others, treating them differently and not affording them the same advantages as others.

Mass

is measured in kilograms and refers to the amount of matter in your body. It can affect the motion of an object. We must always be very careful to define mass differently from weight.

Mastery

means to have knowledge in and control over something. In physical activity, it is the ability to perform a skill or movement at a high level. It involves perfecting the move.

Maximum heart rate

can be estimated at 220 minus the person’s age.

Mediate

means to have different parties coming together to work towards a common health goal or issue.

MedicAlert bracelet

is a bracelet worn by people with a medical condition, allergy or taking certain medications to inform others of these conditions/illnesses.

Medullary cavity

is the space inside the bone where bone marrow is produced.

Melanoma

is a malignant cancer of the skin. Melanoma is the fourth most common cancer.

Mitochondria

is a cell that is responsible for breaking down nutrients to create energy for cells.

Modifiable

means able to be changed or altered.

Momentum

is sometimes defined as the ‘quantity of motion’. Momentum is calculated from the mass of an object multiplied by its velocity.

Mood disorders

affect a person’s emotional balance. Mood may be too low (depression), too high (mania), or too high at some times and too low at others (bipolar disorder).


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Morbidity rates

are illness and injury rates in a population.

Mortality rates

are death rates.

Movement medium

is the context in which movement occurs, such as dance, gymnastics, aerobics or games.

Movement phrases

are a number of related skills or actions.

Muscular endurance

is the ability to generate force over a period of time.

Myofilament

is the term for the chains of (primarily) actin and myosin that pack a muscle fibre.

Myoglobin

is a protein that has oxygen attached; it provides reserve levels of oxygen to muscles during high levels of physical activity.

Myology

is the study of muscles.

Myosin

is a protein that forms the thick myofilaments of muscle and binds with actin for muscle contraction.

Natural resource management

is the sustainable management of Australia’s natural resources, such as our land, water, marine and biological systems.

Newton

is the standard measure of force, abbreviated using a capital N. Named after Sir Isaac Newton, a seventeenth-century mathematician and physicist, one Newton (1 N) is the amount of force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2.

Newton’s first law of motion

(also known as the law of inertia) states that a body will maintain a state of rest or constant velocity in a straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced external force.

Newton’s second law of motion

states that when a force is applied to an object, the object experiences an acceleration in the direction of that force that is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. Known as the law of acceleration, this law is usually expressed mathematically as acceleration equals force divided by mass.

Newton’s third law of motion

is the law of reaction. When one object exerts a force on a second, another force is applied back onto the first object, which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the original force. This law is often stated as ‘every action has an equal and opposite reaction’.

Outdoor recreation

refers to a wide range of leisure, sport or recreation activities undertaken outside.

Overuse injuries

occur when repetitive actions place undue stress on muscles, bones and joints.

Paraplegia/ quadriplegia

is damage to a person’s spinal cord that results in the inability to move the limbs below the damage. Paraplegia refers to two limbs (legs) and quadriplegia refers to four limbs (legs and arms).

Phillips, the

is an original balance beam mount, named after American gymnast Kristie Phillips, and described as a press to side handstand, front walkover to side stand on both legs.

Physical activity

is the overarching term that includes all movement-related activities that have a physical dimension, including exercise.

Physiology

is the function of the body’s structures and how they work.

Potential

refers to the possibility of something occurring—a yet to be reached capacity.


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Glossary

337

Power

is the ability to generate force as quickly as possible.

Priorities

are the most important or urgent tasks. In a first aid situation, setting priorities refers to deciding which condition is most in need of treatment.

Proprioception

is an awareness of where the body is in space, and the capacity of the body to determine where all of its parts are positioned at any given time.

Quadriplegia/ paraplegia

is damage to a person’s spinal cord that results in the inability to move the limbs below the damage. Paraplegia refers to two limbs (legs) and quadriplegia refers to four limbs (legs and arms).

Reinforce

means to strengthen.

Relative

means that something exists in comparison to something else; it has some relation to something else.

Repetition

is the number of times the load is lifted consecutively before a rest.

Rescue breaths

means breathing for a non-breathing person by blowing air into their mouth or nose.

Risk management plan

is a document that identifies any potential risks associated with an activity and strategies to manage these risks.

RM

stands for Repetition Maximum, which refers to the heaviest load that can be lifted once.

Rules

are a set of governing principles or regulations.

Scale

is the ratio between distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the ground.

Seizure

means a fit or convulsion.

Self-regulation

refers to the process by which industries, organisations or individuals commit to meeting a set of agreed standards or codes. It is not a legislative requirement but is rather an acknowledgment that behaviours identified in the standards or code represent good practice and behaviours that fall outside these should be avoided.

Sense of self

is how a person percieves themselves. The unique qualities that make up an individual.

Signs of life

are consciousness, breathing and movement.

Sliding filament theory

is the process where the thin muscle filaments slide over the thick muscle filaments to contract.

Social cohesion

is the things that bond people within a society; including tolerance, social equality and fairness.

Social gradient

is the term used when referring to the link between socioeconomic status (SES) and health.

Socioeconomic status (SES)

relates to an individual’s or a family’s income, education, occupation and standing in the community.

Speed

of an object is measured by considering the total distance travelled, divided by the time taken.

Sphygmomanometer

is a pressure gauge for measuring blood pressure.

Spongy bone

is the internal layer of tissue within a bone that usually looks like a sponge.

Steady state

is when your heart rate plateaus as exercise demands are met.


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Sternum

is the breastbone found in the upper-middle section of the chest.

Stigmatise

means to disapprove of a person or group because they are perceived as being different; making it clear that something is socially unacceptable.

Strength

is the maximal force that can be generated in one repetition of a movement.

Surface drag

is caused by friction between the surface of an object and the fluid surrounding it. A larger surface area or a rougher surface will increase the amount of surface drag present.

Thermoregulation

refers to the body processes through which heat is gained and lost so as to maintain the ideal body temperature of approximately 37 degrees Celsius.

Topographic map

is a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural and natural features on the ground.

Trait

means a distinguishing feature, characteristic or quality.

Turbulent flow

is fluid moving chaotically in many directions. Because the fluid is already changing directions frequently, it tends to fill in behind an object moving past and therefore reduces the size of the air pocket.

Velocity

(or speed) of an object may be formally defined as the ‘rate of change in displacement’. That is, velocity tells us how quickly an object changes its displacement from one location to another.

VO2 max

is the maximum amount of oxygen in millilitres one can use in one minute, per kilogram of body weight.

Wakakirri Festival

is a national performing and visual arts festival for primary schools that challenges students to create a story, make an impact and share it with Australia. Wakakirri means to describe the process of storytelling through dance.

Wave drag

is produced when an object moves near the boundary between two different types of fluid (e.g. water and air).

Weight

is a force equal to your body mass multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity. In mechanics, weight is a force measured in Newtons, never a mass measured in kilograms.

Wellbeing

refers to a person’s experience of feelings of happiness, contentment and satisfaction.

Wheels user

is a term that incorporates bicycle riders, skateboarders, roller-bladers and roller-skaters.


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Acknowledgments

339

Acknowledgments The authors and publisher would like to gratefully acknowledge the following for permission to reproduce copyright material. Photographs Australian Associated Press/AP/AFP/Valerie Hache, 156; Getty Images/ Carl de Souza, 171 centre, /Jon Gray, 261 top left, /Jeff Gross, 142 top, / Sajjad Hussain, 243 left, /JupiterImages, 166, 173 both, 288, /Manchan, 209, / Marvin E Newman, 171 right, /Purestock, 10 bottom, /Brian Skerry, 171 left, iStockphoto/Abejon Photography, 261 bottom left, /akurtz, 77, /allgord, 268, / Keith Binns, 266, /claylib, 262, /elkor, 221 left, /forgiss, 287 bottom, /Liv FriisLarsen, 205 bottom, /Anton Gvozdikov, 286, /Kevin Jay, 284, /killerb10, 272, / Rich Legg, 261, top right, /LisaFX Photographic Designs, 217, /Juan Monimo, 283, /monkeybusinessimages, 278, /Perderk, 17 bottom, /POBox, 265, /Daniel Silva, 243 right, /splain2me, 205 top, /Sportstock, 313; /Alexander Yakovlev, 142 bottom; Laerdal Pty Ltd, 189 top; Long Reef Golf Club, 273; Newspix/Kym Smith, 66; Photolibrary, 276, /Alamy Images 282, /Buzz Pictures Ltd, 287 top, /Erik Isaksen, 235 bottom /Stock4B, 222; Peter Richardson, 297; Shutterstock/ Wolfgang Amri, 233 left, /Olga Besnard, 235 top, /Hannahmariah, 228 bottom, /Alexander Kalina, 221 right, /Kzenon, 37, /Andre Nantel, 270, /Pete Niesen, 233 right, /Orange Line Media, 11 bottom, 54, /Kristian Sekulic, 11 top, / Marek Slusarczyk, 10 top, /Tracey Whiteside, 38; Sport the Library/AAP image, 128, /Delly Carr, 131 top, /B. Crockford, 138, /Jeff Crow, 132 right, 221 centre, /Lucie Di Paolo, 134, /Chris Elfes, 228 top, /Carlos Furtado, 141, / Icon Sports Media, 223, /Tony McDonough, 132 left, /Photosport, 229, /Press Sports, 140, /Tom Putt, 123, /Steve Robertson/ASP Australasia, 267, /Clifford White, 261 bottom right. Other material Extract from website, The Advertising Standards Bureau, 280; article, ‘Brain injury victims can seem ok, symptoms delayed’, The Associated Press, 19 March 2009, 195; images reproduced with permission of the Asthma Foundation New South Wales, 60 bottom, 207; performance scoresheet, Auscheer, 248; article, ‘Talent hunt for next generation of Olympians goes online’, Ausport, 29 April 2009, 137; advertisement, ‘Give your kids the run around’, used by permission of the Australian Government, 63; table data from the Australian Institute of Health & Wellbeing, 8, 13 both, 14 top, 16 both, 17 top, 27 top, 71, 74; logo, The Black Dog Institute, 61 top; screenshot, ‘Kids Helpline’, Boystown, 47; logo, Cancer Council New South Wales, 61 bottom; cartoon, CartoonStock.com, 50; Triple Zero logo, Commonwealth Attorney General’s Department, 186; images adapted with permission, Copyright © Commonwealth of Australia – Geoscience Australia, 2005, 299, 300, 302; sections from the ‘Bushwalkers’ Code’, The Confederation of Bushwalking Clubs NSW Inc. 2004, 295–6; health promotion posters, Department of Health & Ageing, 21, 39 bottom; data adapted from Eriksen et al, 2009, American Journal of Physics, 77 (3): 224-228, American Institute of Physics/Hans Eriksen, University of Oslo, Norway, 157 all; text extract, Fitness Australia Code of Ethics, 279; screenshot, Fitness First, 271; diagram


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adapted from The Health Promoting Schools Association, 76; logo, The Heart Foundation, 60 top; article: ‘Affluence at the heart of long life’ by Martin Laverty, The Australian, 4 April 2009, 42; article: ‘Trainer steers trek to triumph; Hawthorn members walk Kokoda track’, by Cameron Leslie, The Chronicle, 30 September 2008, 314; article: ‘Planning a Healthier Environment’, by Anne Moroney, Australasian Leisure Management Magazine, January/February edition, 82–3; image and text reproduced with permission from The National Stroke Foundation, 204; graphs adapted from The NSW Centre for Road Safety, 15 all; graphs adapted from The NSW Department of Health, 14 bottom, 64, 208; graph from The Human Body, edited by Ruth O’Rourke et al, 2007, Dorling Kindersley UK, 118; table, Health Promotion International Vol 19, No 1, 123-130, March 2004, Oxford University Press, 57; poster, Michael Jennings, Origin representative. Poster created to promote the importance of testicular self-examination among young men as part of looking after their reproductive and sexual health. Developed by Penrith Panthers (penrithpanthers.com.au), Andrology Australia (andrologyaustralia.org) and Family Planning NSW (fpnsw.org.au), 27 bottom; article: ‘On a mission to find the needy’, by Heather Quinlan, The Sun-Herald, 27 July 2008, 80; article: ‘Fitness first: your stories’, by Arjun Ramachandran and Erik Jensen, The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 August 2008, 274–5; campaign image, Road Safety Marketing, Road Traffic Authority NSW, 39 top, 65; article: ‘Recapturing the active Australian’, by Julie Robotham, The Sydney Morning Herald, 21 February 2009, 69; article: ‘Deadly danger of dismissing shots’, by Kate Sikora and Clementine Cuneo, The Daily Telegraph, 12 March 2009, 72; illustration, South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service, 200; text extract, St Johns Australia, Australian First Aid, 2006, 189 bottom; Visualcoaching® Pro software , 97 both, 100 all, 101 all, 102 all, 104, 107, 109, 131 centre and bottom; screenshot, Wakakirri Performing and Visual Arts Festival, 240; graph adapted from Wilmore and Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise, 2nd Edition, 1999, Human Kinetics, 149. While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge copyright, the publishers tender their apologies for any accidental infringement where copyright has proved untraceable. They would be pleased to come to a suitable arrangement with the rightful owner in each case.


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Index

341

Index 7-stage abdominal test 128–9 abdominal injuries 203 acceleration 160–1 due to gravity 173–4 actin 104 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 108 administering first aid, see also first aid infection control and protection 213–14 legal and moral dilemmas 214–16 physical environment 212–13 support following first aid 216–17 adolescence 18–19, see also health of young people adrenalin 207 advertising and fitness 277–80 Advertising Standards Bureau (ASB) 280 advocacy 53 aerobic fitness, see cardiorespiratory endurance training 145–8 aerobics 244, 253, 267 agility 140–1 airway 188 alcohol consumption and abuse 84–5 and health of young people 48–50 alternate hand wall toss test 142 anaerobic training 145–8 anaphylaxis 207–8 anatomical position 91 anatomy 91 apparatus and equipment 236 appendicular skeleton 94–6 appraising composing and performing 247–54 aquarobics 267 Archimedes’ Principle 167 arm over and under test 133–4 arteries 116 asthma 21, 207 Asthma Foundation NSW 60 Astrand submaximal test 124 Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing 62 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 8, 12–13 axial skeleton 94–5 balance 142–3 and stability 162–6 base of support 164–6


bearings 304–5 biomechanical principles balance and stability 162–6 fluid mechanics 167–72 force 173–80 motion 155–62 bites and stings 209 Black Dog Institute 61 bleeding 192 blood pressure 118–19, see also haemoglobin body composition 134–7 fat 136 fluids 187 image 23–4 mass index (BMI) 135 Boot Camp 270–1 bowel cancer 74–5 brain injuries 195 breast cancer 73–4 breathing 188 buoyancy 167 burn injuries 200–1 bushfire procedures 309 camping 293 cancer bowel 74–5 breast 73–4 cervical 75 capillaries 116 cardiac output 150–1 cardiopulmonary resuscitation 189–91 cardiorespiratory endurance 120–7 cardiovascular drift 148 cartilage 92 cavitation 170 centre of buoyancy 168–9 of gravity 162–3 cervical cancer 75 chest injuries 202 circuit training 268 circulatory system 114–20 cognitive dimension of health 4–6 community action 80 facilities 273 groups 58–9 health services 81 compact bone 93 compasses, see magnetic compasses composition and performance

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Peak Performance 1 Preliminary PDHPE appraisal criteria 252–4 appraising 247–52 for different movement mediums 219–37 elements used for 237–47 concussion, see head injuries and concussion conscious 187 conservation skills 294–7 continuous training 146 contour lines 298 Coopers 12 minute run 126–7 coordination 141–2 counselling 217 cranium (skull) 94 crisis management 190–5 cuts and lacerations 196–7 cycling 264 dance 243–4, 253 debriefing 217 defibrillation 189 density 167–8 diabetes 21, 205–6 diseases 71–5 dislocations 198 displacement 155–8 distance 155–8 diversity 86 DRABCD Action Plan 186–9, 192–3 drag 169–72 drugs protective and risk behaviours 25–6 and young people 15–17 dynamics 228–30 group 310–13 electricity 213 electrocution 202 emergency management skills 307–9 services 186 environmental factors and health 43–4 epiglottis 111 epilepsy 206 EpiPen 190 equipment, see apparatus and equipment equity 86 ethical issues, see conservation skills exercise, see also fitness clubs 275–6 definitions of 257–63 factors influencing choice of 272–84 types of 263–71 expiration 112 externally paced movement 232–3 eye injuries 199


facilitation skills 314–15 families 11 FAST test 204 first aid, see also administering first aid injuries and medical conditions 196–211 managing and assessing patients 185–95 wilderness 307–9 fitness, see also exercise; physical fitness and advertising 277–80 attitudes to 260–2, 282 barriers to 281–3 centres and personal trainers 274–5 as a commodity 262–3 and exercise 258–9 group activities 267–71 individual activities 264–7 motivators 281–3 and outdoor recreation 288–9 FITT principle 145–6, 258 flexibility 132–4 flotation 167–8 flow 171, 229–30 fluid mechanics 167–72 resistance 169–72 food habits 21–2 force 173–80, 228–9 form drag 170 fractures 197–8 friction 170 frontal area 172 plane 91–2 games 218, 244, 253 government organisations 60–5 gravity acceleration due to 173–4 centre of 162–3 line of 164 grid bearings 304–5 references 300–1 group dynamics 310–13 gym exercises 107 gymnastics 253 haemoglobin 114–15 handgrip strength test 130 head injuries and concussion 198–9 health behaviour 36–7, 55 cognitive dimensions of 4–6 definition of 3–4 dynamic nature of 6–7 emotional dimension of 4–6

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Index and environmental factors 43–4 influences, see health determinants and the media 39–40 nature of 6–7 and outdoor recreation 288–9 perceptions of 8–11 and physical fitness 120–38 potential 7 services 81 as a social construct 10–11, 48–51 and social responsibility 83–4 health determinants environmental factors 43–4 individual factors 32–6 individual responsibilities 50–1 interrelationships of 48–9 modifiable and non-modifiable 45–6 sociocultural factors 36–40 socioeconomic factors 40–2 through different life stages 46–7 health-enhancing behaviours 36–7 health of young people and alcohol consumption 48–50 health status and behaviours 12–30 perceptions of their health 8 sexual 17, 26–7 health promotion approaches and strategies 68–77 definition of 53–5 interventions 56–7 Ottawa Charter 78–85 responsibilities for 56–68 in schools 75–6 settings for 55–6 and social justice 85–6 heart attack 204 rate 118, 148 structure and function 115–17 Heart Foundation 60 heatstroke 210 hepatitis B and C 214 HIV/AIDS 13, 213–14 hyperglycaemia 206 hyperthermia 210–11 hyperventilation 113 hypoglycaemia 206 hypothermia 210–11 hypoventilation 113 hypoxia 115 illnesses, see diseases immunisations 71–3 improvising 241 impulse 176 incidental physical activity 261 Indigenous Australians and health 50–1 inertia 177


343

infection control and prevention 213 injuries 193–5 management of 196–203 overuse 269 intercostal 112 international organisations 66–8 interval training 146 isometric contractions 109 isotonic contractions 109 joints 97–104 kilopond 124 lacerations, see cuts and lacerations lactate levels 151–2 laminar flow 171 leadership styles 311–12 lifestyle approaches 68–70 lightning 309 limbs 96 line of gravity 164 lung function 112 magnetic bearings 305 compasses 303 management crisis 190–5 of injuries 196–203 of medical conditions 204–11 maps, see also topographic maps reading 302 mass 161 maximum heart rate 148 media and alcohol advertising 49–50 and health 39–40 and perceptions of health 11 mediation 54 MedicAlert bracelet 190 medullary cavity 94 melanoma 13 mental health problems and issues perceptions of 9 protective and risk behaviours 19–20 mitochondria 108 momentum 161–2, 232 mood disorders 61 morbidity rates 28 mortality rates 13 motion 155–62 movement, see also biomechanical principles combining and arranging 242–7 creating 238–41 externally paced 232–3

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Peak Performance 1 Preliminary PDHPE medium 218 phrases 244–5 self-paced 232–3 muscle contractions 109–10 fibres 105–8 relationships 108–9 muscular endurance 130–1 strength 128–30 system 104–10 musical applications 230–1 myofilaments 104 myoglobin 108 myology 104 myosin 104 nasal injuries 200 navigational skills 297–307 neck injuries 193 Nelson choice reaction time test 143–4 Newton 173–4 Newton’s first law of motion 177–80 second law of motion 177–80 third law of motion 178–80 non-government organisations 60–1 NSW Cancer Council 61 NSW Department of Health 63–4 optimum weight 136–7 Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 67–8 organisations government 60–5 international 66–8 non-government 60–1 Ottawa Charter 4, 78–85 outdoor recreation and group dynamics 310–16 participation in 289–310 reasons for 285–8 overuse injuries 269 oxygen uptake 124–5 paraplegia 193 partner work 236–7 pelvic girdle (hip) 96 perceptions of health 8–11 performance, see composition and performance personal trainers 274 The Phillips 250 physical activity 258–61 physical fitness, see also fitness agility 140–1 balance 142–3 body composition 134–7


cardiorespiratory endurance 120–7 coordination 141–2 flexibility 132–4 health-related components 120–38 muscular endurance 130–1 muscular strength 128–30 power 138–9 protective and risk behaviours 22–3 reaction time 143–4 skill-related components 138–44 speed 140 physiology 91 Pilates 265–6 poisoning 208–9 positional play 236–7 power 138–9 walking 264 Premier’s Council for Active Living (PCAL) 261 prone hold test 131 public health approaches 75–7 policies 81–2 pulmonary circulation 116–17 pump classes 267–8 push-up test 131 quadriplegia 193 QUITLINE 70 reaction time 143–4 recreation, see outdoor recreation relationships 234–7 repetitions 246, 264 rescue breaths 188 respiratory system 110–13 rib cage 95–6 risk management plans 289–90 rivers, flooded 309 RM (Repetition Maximum) 264 road safety 28–30, 64–5 traffic injuries and fatalities 15 Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) 64–5 Rock Eisteddfod 251 rules 242–3 running 264 sagittal plane 91–2 scale of map 299 schools communities, see community groups health-promoting 75–6 screening 73–5 seizure 206 self 35–6 self-paced movement 232–3 sequencing 244–5

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Index sexual health protective and risk behaviours 28 of young people 17, 26–7 shock 192–3 shoulder girdle 96 signs of life 188 sit and reach test 133 skeletal system 92–104 skeleton 95 skills conservation 294–7 emergency management 307–9 facilitation 314–15 navigational 297–307 physical fitness 138–44 specific outdoor recreation 310 skinfolds 135–6 skull (cranium) 94 sliding filament theory 108 snake bites 308 social constructs of health 10–11 dimensions of health 4–6 gradient 40 justice 85–6 responsibility for health 83–4 sociocultural factors and health 36–40 socioeconomic status (SES) 40–2 space 219–27 SPANS 14 speed 140, 158–60 sphygmomanometer 119 spin classes 267–8 spinal injuries 193 spongy bone 93 stability, see balance and stability standing backward overhead throw 139 steady state 148 step classes 267–8 sternum 93, 189 stigmatise 9 stings, see bites and stings STOP 190 strength, see muscular strength stress management 287 stroke 204–5 volume (SV) 149 sum of seven skinfolds 135–6 surface drag 170 swimming 264 synovial joints 98–9 systemic circulation 116–17 systems circulatory 114–20 muscular 104–10 respiratory 110–13 skeletal 92–104


345

Tai Chi 265 team formations 236–7 games 268–9 teeth injuries 201 tests 7-stage abdominal 128–9 agility 140–1 arm over and under 133–4 balance 143 body fat 136 body mass index (BMI) 135 Coopers 12 minute run 126–7 coordination 142 FAST 204 handgrip strength 130 Nelson choice reaction time 143–4 prone hold 131 push-up 131 sit and reach 133 speed 140 standing backward overhead throw 139 sum of seven skinfolds 135–6 vertical jump 138–9 waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) 135 Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery 126 thermoregulation 269 time and rhythm 230–4 timing 234 topographic maps 298 traffic accidents 212 injuries and fatalities 15 training aerobic and anaerobic 145–8 cardiac output 150–1 continuous 146 heart rate 148 interval 146 lactate levels 151–2 physiological responses to 148–52 stroke volume (SV) 149 ventilation rate 149 traits 34–5 transition 245–6 transverse plane 91–2 turbulent flow 171 United Nations (UN) 66–7 vaccinations, see immunisations veins 116 velocity 158–60 ventilation rate 149 vertebral column (spine) 94 vertical jump test 138–9 VO2 max 123–7, 151

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Peak Performance 1 Preliminary PDHPE waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) 135 Wakakirri Festival 240 water environment 212–13 wave drag 170 weight 173, see also optimum weight weight-training 264–5 wellbeing 5 wilderness first aid 307–9 WorkCover 77 World Bank 67 World Health Organisation (WHO) 4, 67 Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test 126 yoga 265–6


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Peak Performance 1 Prelim PDHPE

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