Process report on
Production of Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils In Partial Fulfillment of the requirement for the degree Of Bachelor of Science (Chemical Engineering) Session 2011201!
Submitted by:
"# $rslan
(E111!CE%&)
$'har $as
(E111!CE%)
*a'im +u +ussain
(E111!CE%,)
Sadain -afar
(E111!CE.0) (E111!CE.0)
Supervised by: Dr. Rashid Usman
Institute Of Chemical Chemica l Engineering And Technology Technology,, University Of The Punjab, Lahore
Dedications ICET, Pu, Lhr
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/e dedicate our or and utmost efforts to $$+ almight3 the creator of this uni4erse and most merciful and ounteous5 3ou ha4e ala3s een 3 m3 side guiding me all the a3 to this destin3 6 +ol3 Pro7het (PB8+) the cause of the creation of this uni4erse# Our 7arents5 ho taught us ho to e 7erse4ere and e 7atient in the midst of trials# Our most res7ected 9eachers ho uilt our noledge foundations5 Our Friends ho encouraged and strengthened us5 and our silings ho are our su77orters and ellishers#
c!no"ledgement
ICET, Pu, Lhr
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$ll 7raises to $lmight3 $$+ ho ga4e us light in the darness and ga4e us ailit3 and strength to com7lete our research 7ro:ect and all res7ects are for +is Pro7het "uhammad (PB8+5 on hom e $$+;S lessings and salutations) s alutations) /e tae immense 7leasure in thaning our orth3 teachers for their 4aluale hel7 regarding our 7rocess re7ort# /e all oe s7ecial thans to our su7er4isor Dr. Rashid Usman 5 ho hel7ed us throughout our research or# +is moti4ation5 guidance and ind ords ala3s encouraged us to or ith commitment# /hene4er e found oursel4es in an3 sort of troule5 e ala3s found him a4ailale to cater the issue# 9his sort of generosit3 and fa4ors are highl3 commendale# /e also than our elo4ed director
#ontents ......................................................... ........................................ ........................................ .......................................... ...................... 7 Cha7ter 1..................................... ICET, Pu, Lhr
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$.$
%hat is Biodiesel..................................................................................................8
$.&
'istory of of Bi Biodiesel...............................................................................................9
$.(
............................................................ ........................................ ...................................... .................. 10 Biodiesel Blends........................................
$.(.$ )o"*)evel Blends........................................ ........................................................... ....................................... .................................... ................ 10 $.(.& B&+...................................... ......................................................... ....................................... ........................................ ..................................... ................. 10 $.(.( B$++ and 'igh )evel Blends.................................................................................10 $.,
dvantages of of Bi Biodiesel........................................................................................11
$.- Disadvantages of Biodiesel .........................................................................................12 $. Ra" /aterials for Biodiesel Production.......................................................................12 $.0 Properties of Biodiesel....................................... ........................................................... ................................................ ............................ ....... 13
.......................................................... ........................................ ....................................... ...................................... ................... 14 #hapter &...................................... .......................................................... ........................................ ....................................... .......................... ....... 15 &.$ Biofuel Sources...................................... .......................................................... ........................................ .................................... .............................. ................. ... 15 &.$.$ lgae...................................... &.$.& #arbohydrate rich biomaterial.............................................................................15 &.$.( Oil rich biomaterial............................................................................................16 &.$.,griculture "astes 1organic and inorganic sources2...................................................16
.......................................................... ........................................ ........................................ ....................... ... 16 &.& Biodiesel as a fuel...................................... ........................................................... ........................................ ............................................. ......................... 17 &.( 3uel properties....................................... &., Different methods of biodiesel production.....................................................................18 &.,.$ Supercritical process...........................................................................................18 &.,.& Ultra* and high*shear in*line and batch reactors.......................................................18
......................................................... ....................................... ........................... ....... 18 &.,.( Ultrasonic reactor method...................................... &.,., )ipase*cataly4ed method.....................................................................................18 &.,.- Volatile 3atty cids from naerobic Digestion of %aste Streams .................................19 &.- Biodiesel Production..................................... ......................................................... ........................................ ........................................ ....................19 19 &.-.$ Production Process........................................ ........................................................... ..................................................... .................................. 21 &. 5nvironmental 5ffects of Biodiesel 3uel.......................................................................23
........................................................... ........................................ ................................. ........................ ........... 25 &.0 5nergy security....................................... ......................................................... ........................................ ........................................... ....................... 25 &.6 5conomic benefits..................................... #hapter (...................................... .......................................................... ........................................ ....................................... ...................................... ................... 26 (.$ Procedure of /anufacturing the Biodiesel....................................................................27
.......................................................... ........................................ ................................................ ............................ 27 (.$.$ 3iltration...................................... ........................................................... ..................................................... ..................................... .... 27 (.$.& %ater Removing....................................... (.$.( #alculation for #ottonseed oil7 methanol and catalyst................................................28
ICET, Pu, Lhr
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(.$., #alculation for /ustard oil7 methanol and catalyst...................................................29 (.$.( #alculation for Sunflo"er oil7 methanol and catalyst.................................................29 (.$., Preparation of Sodium /etho8ide.........................................................................30 (.$.- 'eating and /i8ing............................................................................................31 (.$.- Settling............................................................................................................. 32 (.$. Separation........................................................................................................ 33 (.$. %ashing........................................................................................................... 33 (.$. 'eating............................................................................................................ 34 (.$.0 9lycerin........................................................................................................... 35 #hapter ,.................................................................................................................... 36 ,.$ 3lash Point............................................................................................................. 37 ,.& niline point........................................................................................................... 38 ,.( #loud Point............................................................................................................ 39 ,., Pour Point.............................................................................................................. 41 ,.- #alorific Value........................................................................................................ 42 ,.- Specific 9ravity....................................................................................................... 44 References.................................................................................................................. 45
)ist of 3igures 3igure $: rans*esterification Reaction.............................................................................20 3igure &: 3lo" chart of Biodiesel Production.....................................................................21 3igure (: Removal of %ater from Vegetable oil...................................................................28
ICET, Pu, Lhr
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3igure ,: Preparation of Sodium metho8ide.......................................................................31 3igure -: ransesterification Reaction 3igure : Preparation of Biodiesel............................32 3igure 0: Prepared Biodiesel 3igure 6: Separation of Biodiesel.........................................32 3igure ;: Removal of 9lycerin 3igure $+: Separated Biodiesel..........................................33 3igure $$: %ashing of Biodiesel.......................................................................................33 3igure $&: Biodiesel from Sunflo"er oil 3igure $(: Biodiesel from #ottonseed Oil..................34 3igure $,: Different samples of biodiesel...........................................................................34 3igure $-: 3lash Point ester..........................................................................................37 3igure $: 9raph of 3lash points.....................................................................................38 3igure $0: niline point pparatus..................................................................................39 3igure $6: 9raph of niline point....................................................................................39 3igure $;: 9raph of #loud Points....................................................................................40 3igure &+: 9raph of Pour points......................................................................................42 3igure &$: Bomb #alorimeter.........................................................................................43 3igure &&: 9raph of 9#V..............................................................................................43 3igure &( : 9raph of specific gravity................................................................................44
ICET, Pu, Lhr
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Cha7ter 1
Introduction
$.$ %hat is Biodiesel
ICET, Pu, Lhr
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Biodiesel is a clean urning alternati4e fuel 7roduced from domestic5 reneale resources# 9he fuel is a mi=ture of fatt3 acid al3l esters made from 4egetale oils5 animal fats or rec3cled greases# /here a4ailale5 iodiesel can e used in com7ressionignition (diesel) engines in its 7ure form ith little or no modifications# Biodiesel is a liquid iofuel otained 3 chemical 7rocesses from 4egetale oils or animal fats and an alcohol that can e used in diesel engines5 alone or lended ith diesel oil# $S9" International (originall3 non as the $merican Societ3 for 9esting and "aterials) defines iodiesel as a mi=ture of longchain monoal3lic esters from fatt3 acids otained from reneale resources5 to e used in diesel engines# Blends ith diesel fuel are indicated as >>B=;;5 here >>=;; is the 7ercentage of iodiesel in the lend# For instance5 >>B!;; indicates a lend ith !? iodiesel and ,!? diesel fuel@ in consequence5 B100 indicates 7ure iodiesel# Biodiesel is not the same as straight 4egetale oil or animal fat# $ normal diesel engine ill e4entuall3 e damaged through the use of straight 4egetale oil or straight animal fat fuel# Aegetale oils or animal fats must e con4erted into iodiesel 3 reacting the oil or fat ith an alcohol and a catal3st# 9his 7rocess is referred to as transesterification# $.& 'istory of Biodiesel
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mechanical energ3#
$.(Biodiesel Blends Biodiesel can e lended and used in man3 different concentrations# 9he most common areD B100 (7ure iodiesel)5 B20 (20? iodiesel5 0? 7etroleum diesel)5 B! (!? iodiesel5 ,!? 7etroleum diesel) and B2 (2? iodiesel5 ,? 7etroleum diesel)# $.(.$ )o"*level Blends
$S9" International is de4elo7ing s7ecifications for a ide 4ariet3 of 7roducts5 including con4entional diesel fuel ($S9" <,&!)# 9his s7ecification allos for iodiesel concentrations of u7 to !? (B!) to e called diesel fuel5 ith no se7arate laeling required at the 7um7# ole4el iodiesel lends5 such as B! are $S9" a77ro4ed for safe o7eration in an3 co m7ressionignition engine designed to e o7erated on 7etroleum diesel# 9his can include lightdut3 and hea43 dut3 diesel cars and trucs5 tractors5 oats5 and electrical generators# $.(.& B&+
B20 (20? iodiesel5 0? 7etroleum diesel) is the most common iodiesel lend in the 8nited States# B20 is 7o7ular ecause it re7resents a good alance of cost5 emissions5 coldeather ICET, Pu, Lhr
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7erformance5 materials com7atiilit35 and ailit3 to act as a sol4ent#B20 and loerle4el lends generall3 do not require engine modifications# Engines o7erating on B20 ha4e similar fuel consum7tion5 horse7oer5 and torque to engines running on 7etroleum diesel# Pure iodiesel (B100) contains aout ? less energ3 7er gallon than 7etroleum diesel# For B205 this translates to a 1? to 2? difference5 ut most B20 users re7ort no noticeale difference in 7erformance or fuel econom3# Biodiesel has some emissions enefits5 es7eciall3 for engines manufactured efore 2010# For engines equi77ed ith selecti4e catal3tic reduction (SC) s3stems5 the air qualit3 enefits are the same hether running on iodiesel or 7etroleum diesel# +oe4er5 iodiesel still offers etter greenhouse gas (+) enefits com7ared to con4entional diesel fuel# 9he emissions enefit is roughl3 commensurate ith the lend le4el@ that is5 B20 ould ha4e 20? of the + reduction enefit of B100# $.(.( B$++ and 'igh )evel Blends
B100 and other highle4el iodiesel lends are less common than B20 and loer lends due to a lac of regulator3 incenti4es and 7ricing# B100 can e used in some engines uilt since 1,,. ith iodieselcom7atile material for certain 7arts5 such as hoses and gasets# B100 has a sol4ent effect5 and it can clean a 4ehicles fuel s3stem and release de7osits accumulated from 7etroleum diesel use# 9he release of these de7osits ma3 initiall3 clog filters and require f requent filter re7lacement in the first fe tans of highle4el lends# /hen using highle4el lends5 a numer of issues should e considered# 9he higher the 7ercentage of iodiesel ao4e 20?5 the loer the energ3 content 7er gallon# +ighle4el iodiesel lends can also im7act engine arranties5 gel in cold tem7eratures5 and ma3 7resent unique storage issues# B100 use could also increase nitrogen o=ides emissions5 although it greatl3 reduces other to=ic emissions# B100 requires s7ecial handling and ma3 require equi7ment modifications#
$., dvantages of Biodiesel Some of the ad4antages of using iodiesel as a re7lacement for diesel fuel areD 1# eneale fuel5 otained from 4egetale oils or animal fats# ICET, Pu, Lhr
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2# o to=icit35 in com7arison ith diesel fuel# %#
aromatic h3drocarons5 aldeh3des# oer health ris5 due to reduced emissions of carcinogenic sustances# Ho sulfur dio=ide (SO2) emissions# +igher ash 7oint (100C minimum)# "a3 e lended ith diesel fuel at an3 7ro7ortion@ oth fuels ma3 e mi=ed during the
fuel su77l3 to 4ehicles# ,# E=cellent 7ro7erties as a luricant# 10# It is the onl3 alternati4e fuel that can e used in a con4entional diesel engine5 ithout modiJcations# 11# 8sed cooing oils and fat residues from meat 7rocessing ma3 e used as ra materials# $.- Disadvantages of Biodiesel 9here are certain disad4antages of using iodiesel as a re7lacement for diesel fuel that must e taen into considerationD 1# 2# %# .#
Slightl3 higher fuel consum7tion due to the loer caloriJc 4alue of iodiesel# Slightl3 higher nitrous o=ide (HO=) emissions than diesel fuel# +igher free'ing 7oint than diesel fuel# 9his ma3 e incon4enient in cold climates# It is less stale than diesel fuel5 and therefore longterm storage (more than si= months) of
iodiesel is not recommended# !# "a3 degrade 7lastic and natural ruer gasets and hoses hen used in 7ure form5 in hich case re7lacement ith 9eon com7onents is recommended# G# It dissol4es the de7osits of sediments and other contaminants from diesel fuel in storage tans and fuel lines5 hich then are ushed aa3 3 the iofuel into the engine5 here the3 can cause 7rolems in the 4al4es and in:ection s3stems# In consequence5 the cleaning of tans 7rior to Jlling ith iodiesel is recommended# It must e noted that these disad4antages are signiJcantl3 reduced hen iodiesel is used in lends ith diesel fuel# $.Ra" /aterials for Biodiesel Production 9he ra materials for iodiesel 7roduction are 4egetale oils5 animal fats and short chain alcohols# 9he oils most used for orldide iodiesel 7roduction are re7laced (mainl3 in the ICET, Pu, Lhr
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Euro7ean 8nion countries)5 so3ean ($rgentina and the 8nited States of $merica)5 7alm ($sian and Central $merican countries) and sunoer5 although other oils are also used5 including 7eanut5 linseed5 safoer5 used 4egetale oils5 and also animal fats# "ethanol is the most frequentl3 used alcohol5 although ethanol can also e used# Since cost is the main concern in iodiesel 7roduction and trading (mainl3 due to oil 7rices)5 the use o f nonedile 4egetale oils has een studied for se4eral 3ears ith good results# Besides its loer cost5 another undeniale ad4antage of nonedile oils for iodiesel 7roduction lies in the fact that no foodstuffs are s7ent to 7roduce fuel# 9hese and other reasons ha4e led to medium and largescale iodiesel 7roduction trials in se4eral countries5 using nonedile oils such as castor oil5 9ung5 cotton5 :o:oa and :atro7ha# $nimal fats are also an interesting o7tion5 es7eciall3 in countries ith 7lent3 of li4estoc resources5 although it is necessar3 to carr3 out 7reliminar3 treatment since the3 are solid@ furthermore5 highl3 acidic grease from cattle5 7or5 7oultr35 and Jsh can e used# "icroalgae a77ear to e a 4er3 im7ortant alternati4e for future iodiesel 7roduction due to their 4er3 high oil 3ield@ hoe4er5 it must e taen into account that onl3 some s7ecies are useful for iofuel 7roduction# $lthough the 7ro7erties of oils and fats used as ra materials ma3 differ5 the 7ro7erties of iodiesel must e the same5 com7l3ing ith the requirements set 3 international standards# $.0 Properties of Biodiesel /hat maes a fuel different from others are its cetane numer and heat of comustion# 9he 4iscosit3 of a fuel is im7ortant ecause it influences the atomi'ation of the fuel eing inserted into the engine comustion chamer# For com7lete comustion to ha77en5 a small fuel dro7 is required# 9he iodiesel fuel 7ro7ert3 of ha4ing the 4iscosit3 much closer to diesel fuel than 4egetale oil hel7s create a much loer dro75 hich urns cleaner# 9he other main 7ro7ert3 of iodiesel fuel that e ill discuss is its luricating 7ro7erties# It has much etter luricating and a higher cetane ratings than toda3s loer sulfur diesel fuels# $dding Biodiesel also hel7s in reducing fuel s3stem ear# 9he fuel in:ection equi7ment de7ends on the fuel for its lurication# 9he iodiesel fuel 7ro7erties increase the life of the fuel in:ection equi7ment# i4ing etter luricit3 and a more com7lete comustion increases the engine energ3 out7ut5 thus 7artiall3 alancing for the higher energ3 densit3 of 7etro diesel# Older diesel "ercedes is ell non for running on iodiesel# ICET, Pu, Lhr
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Oser4ing the 7h3sical 7ro7erties of iodiesel fuel5 it is a liquid hich can e different in color5 from golden and dar ron5 all de7ending on the 7roduction feedstoc# It is immiscile ith ater5 has a high oiling 7oint and lo 4a7or 7ressure# 9he flash 7oint of iodiesel is consideral3 higher than that of 7etroleum diesel# Biodiesel fuel has a densit3 of K 0# gLcmM5 hich is less than that of ater# Stud3ing the chemical 7ro7erties of iodiesel fuel5 its calorific 4alue is aout %& "NL5 hich is ,? loer than regular 7etrol diesel# It has 7racticall3 no sulfur content5 and is frequentl3 used as an additi4e to 8ltrao Sulfur
#hapter &
ICET, Pu, Lhr
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)iterature Revie"
&.$ Biofuel Sources +ere are . iofuel sources5 ith some of their a77lications in de4elo7mental stages5 some actuall3 Im7lementedD &.$.$ lgae $lgae come from stagnant 7onds in the natural orld5 and more recentl3 from algae farms5 hich 7roduce the 7lant for the s7ecific 7ur7ose of creating iofuel# $d4antage of algae focused on the folloingsD Ho CO2 ac into the air5 selfgenerating iomass5 $lgae can 7roduce u7 to %00 times more oil 7er acre than con4entional cro7s# $mong other uses5 algae ha4e een used e=7erimentall3 as a ne form of green :et fuel designed for commercial tra4el# $t the moment5 the u7front costs of 7roducing iofuel from algae on a mass scale are in 7rocess5 ut are not 3et commerciall3 4iale#
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&.$.& #arbohydrate rich biomaterial It comes from the fermentation of starches deri4ed from agricultural 7roducts lie corn5 sugar cane5 heat5 eets5 and other e=isting food cro7s5 or from inedile cellulose from the same# Produced from e=isting cro7s5 can e used in an e=isting gasoline engine5 maing it a logical transition from 7etroleum# It used in the $uto industr35 heating uildings (flue less fire7laces)# $t 7resent5 the trans7ortation costs required to trans7ort grains from har4esting to 7rocessing5 and then out to 4endor;s results in a 4er3 small net gain in the sustainailit3 staes# &.$.( Oil rich biomaterial It comes from e=isting food cro7s lie ra7eseed (aa Canola)5 sunfloer5 corn5 and others5 after it has een used for other 7ur7oses5 i#e# food 7re7aration (aste 4egetale oil5 or /AO)5 or e4en in the first usage form (straight 4egetale oil5 or SAO)# Hot susce7tile to microial degradation5 high a4ailailit35 reused material# It is used in the creation of iodiesel fuel for automoiles5 home heating5 and e=7erimentall3 as a 7ure fuel itself# $t 7resent5 /AO or SAO is not recogni'ed as a mainstream fuel for automoiles# $lso5 /AO and SAO are susce7tile to lo tem7eratures5 maing them unusale in colder climates#
&.$., griculture "astes 1organic and inorganic sources2 It comes from agricultural aste hich is concentrated into charcoallie iomass 3 heating it# Aer3 little 7rocessing required5 lotech5 naturall35 holds CO2 rather than releasing it into the air# Primaril35 io char has een used as a means to enrich soil 3 ee7ing CO2 in it5 and not into the air# $s fuel5 the offgasses ha4e een used in home heating# 9here is contro4ers3 surrounding the amount of acreage it ould tae to mae fuel 7roduction ased on io char 4iale on a meaningful scale# Furthermore5 use of agriculture astes hich rich ith inorganic elements (HP*) as com7ost (fertili'er) in agriculture# &.& Biodiesel as a fuel Biodiesel (B100) is defined as a fuel com7rised of monoal3l esters of longchain fatt3 acids deri4ed from 4egetale oils or animal fats# Biodiesel Fuel can e 7roduced from a 4ariet3 of ICET, Pu, Lhr
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natural cro7s5 including ra7eseed5 so3ean5 mustard5 fla=5 sunfloer5 canola5 7alm oil5 hem75 :atro7ha and aste 4egetale oils# In addition5 it must meet all of the 7arameters as defined ithin the $S9" s7ecification
&.( 3uel properties 9he 7ro7erties of iodiesel can e grou7ed 3 multi7le criteria# 9he most im7ortant arethose that influence the 7rocesses taing 7lace in the engine (ignition qualities5 ease ofstarting5 formation and urning of the fuelair mi=ture5 e=haust gas formation and qualit3 and the heating 4alue5 etc#)5 cold eather 7ro7erties (cloud 7oint5 7our 7oint and cold filter 7lugging 7oint)5 trans7ort and de7ositing (o=idati4e and h3drol3tic stailit35 flash 7oint5 induction 7eriod5 microial contamination5 filterailit3 limit tem7erature5 etc#)5 ear of engine 7arts (luricit35 cleaning effect5 4iscosit35 com7atiilit3 ith materials used to manufacture the fuel s3stem5 etc#)# Others properties: Sulfated ash is a measure of ash formed from inorganic metallic com7ounds#
$fter the urning of iodiesel5 in addition to CO2 and +2O a quantit3 of ash is formed consisting of unurned h3drocarons and inorganic im7urities (e#g# metal im7urities)# "etallic ash is 4er3 arasi4e and ma3 cause e=cessi4e ear of the c3linder alls and the 7iston ring#
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Caron residue indicates the 7resence of im7urities and de7osits in the engine comustion chamer5 and is also an indicator of the quantit3 of gl3cerides5 free fatt3 acids5 soa7s and 9ransesterification reaction catal3st residues# Co77erstri7 corrosion is an indicator of the corrosi4eness of iodiesel5 of the 7resence of fatt3 $cids deri4ed from materials hich did not enter into reaction during the 7roduction 7rocess# Content of metals (Ca5 Ha5 "g5 * and P) can lead to comustion chamer de7osits5 filter and fuel in:ection 7um7 clogging5 and can harm the catal3st# &., Different methods of biodiesel production &.,.$ Supercritical process $n alternati4e5 catal3stfree method for transesterification uses su7ercritical methanol at high tem7eratures and 7ressures in a continuous 7rocess# In the su7ercritical state5 the oil and methanol are in a single 7hase5 and reaction occurs s7ontaneousl3 and ra7idl3# 9he 7rocess can tolerate ater in the feedstoc5 free fatt3 acids are con4erted to meth3l esters instead of soa75 so a ide 4ariet3 of feed stocs can e used# $lso the catal3st remo4al ste7 is eliminated# +igh tem7eratures and 7ressures are required5 ut energ3 costs of 7roduction are similar or less than catal3tic 7roduction routes# &.,.& Ultra* and high*shear in*line and batch reactors 8ltra and +igh Shear inline or atch reactors allo 7roduction of iodiesel continuousl35 semi continuousl35 and in atchmode# 9his drasticall3 reduces 7roduction time and increases 7roduction 4olume# 9he reaction taes 7lace in the highenergetic shear 'one of the 8ltra and +igh Shear mi=er 3 reducing the dro7let si'e of the immiscile liquids such as oil or fats and methanol# 9herefore5 the smaller the dro7let si'e the larger the surface area the faster the catal3st can react# &.,.( Ultrasonic reactor method In the ultrasonic reactor method5 the ultrasonic a4es cause the reaction mi=ture to 7roduce and colla7se ules constantl3# 9his ca4itation simultaneousl3 7ro4ides the mi=ing and heating required to carr3 out the transesterification 7rocess# 9hus using an ultrasonic reactor for ICET, Pu, Lhr
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iodiesel 7roduction drasticall3 reduces the reaction time5 reaction tem7eratures 5 and energ3 in7ut# +ence the 7rocess of transesterification can run inline rather than using the time consuming atch 7rocessing# Industrial scale ultrasonic de4ices allo for the industrial scale 7rocessing of se4eral thousand arrels 7er da3# &.,., )ipase*cataly4ed method arge amounts of research ha4e focused recentl3 on the use of en'3mes as a catal3st for the transesterification# esearchers ha4e found that 4er3 good 3ields could e otained from crude and used oils using li7ases# 9he use of li7ases maes the reaction less sensiti4e to high free fatt3 acid content5 hich is a 7rolem ith the standard iodiesel 7rocess# One 7rolem ith the li7ase reaction is that methanol cannot e used ecause it inacti4ates the li7ase catal3st after one atch# +oe4er5 if meth3l acetate is used instead of methanol5 the li7ase is not inacti4ated and can e used for se4eral atches5 maing the li7ase s3stem much more cost effecti4e# &.,.- Volatile 3atty cids from naerobic Digestion of %aste Streams i7ids ha4e dran considerale attention as a sustrate for iodiesel 7roduction oing to its sustainailit35 nonto=ic and energ3 efficient 7ro7erties# +oe4er5 due to cost reasons5 attention must e focused on the nonedile sources of li7ids5 in 7articular oleaginous microorganisms# Such microes ha4e the ailit3 to assimilate the caron sources from a medium and con4ert the caron into li7id storage materials# 9he li7ids accumulated 3 these oleaginous cells can then e transesterified to form iodiesel# &.- Biodiesel Production Biodiesel can e 7roduced from straight 4egetale oil5 animal oilLfats5 tallo and aste oils# 9here are three asic routes to iodiesel 7roduction from oils and fatsD •
Base catal3'ed transesterification of the oil#
•
•
Con4ersion of the oil to its fatt3 acids and then to iodiesel#
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$lmost all iodiesel is 7roduced using ase catal3'ed transesterification as it is the most economical 7rocess requiring onl3 lo tem7eratures and 7ressures and 7roducing a ,? con4ersion 3ield# For this reason onl3 this 7rocess ill e descried in this re7ort# 9he 9ransesterification 7rocess is the reaction of a trigl3ceride (fatLoil) ith an alcohol to form esters and gl3cerol# $ trigl3ceride has a gl3cerin molecule as its ase ith three long chain fatt3 acids attached# 9he characteristics of the fat are determined 3 the nature of the fatt3 acids attached to the gl3cerin# 9he nature of the fatt3 acids can in turn affect the characteristics of the iodiesel#
Figure 1: Trans-esterification Reaction
9he 7roducts of the reaction are the iodiesel itself and gl3cerol# $ successful transesterification reaction is signified 3 the se7aration of the ester and gl3cerol la3ers after the reaction time# 9he hea4ier5 co7roduct5 gl3cerol settles out and ma3 e sold as it is or it ma3 e 7urified for use in other industries5 e#g# the 7harmaceutical5 cosmetics etc#
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Straight 4egetale oil (SAO) can e used directl3 as a fossil diesel sustitute hoe4er using this fuel can lead to some fairl3 serious engine 7rolems#
oered 4iscosit3
•
Com7lete remo4al of the gl3cerides
•
oered oiling 7oint
•
+igh flash 7oint
•
oered 7our 7oint
&.-.$ Production Process $n e=am7le of a sim7le 7roduction flo chart is 7ro4ed elo ith a rief e=7lanation of each ste7#
ICET, Pu, Lhr
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Figure 2: Flow chart of Biodiesel Production
/i8ing of alcohol and catalyst 9he catal3st is t37icall3 sodium h3dro=ide (caustic soda) or 7otassium h3dro=ide (7otash)# It is dissol4ed in the alcohol using a standard agitator or mi=er# 9he alcoholLcatal3st mi= is then charged into a closed reaction 4essel and the oil or fat is added# 9he s3stem from here on is totall3 closed to the atmos7here to 7re4ent the loss of alcohol# 9he reaction mi= is e7t :ust ao4e the oiling 7oint of the alcohol (around 1G0 QF) to s7eed u7 the reaction and the reaction taes 7lace# ecommended reaction time 4aries from 1 to hours5 and some s3stems recommend the reaction tae 7lace at room tem7erature# E=cess alcohol is normall3 used to ensure total con4ersion of the fat or oil to its esters# Care must e taen to monitor the amount of ater and free fatt3 acids in the incoming oil or fat# If the free fatt3 acid le4el or ater le4el is too high it ma3 cause 7rolems ith soa7 formation and the se7aration of the gl3cerin 37roduct donstream#
Separation Once the reaction is com7lete5 to ma:or 7roducts e=istD gl3cerin and iodiesel# Each has a sustantial amount of the e=cess methanol that as used in the reaction# 9he reacted mi=ture is sometimes neutrali'ed at this ste7 if needed# 9he gl3cerin 7hase is much denser than iodiesel ICET, Pu, Lhr
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7hase and the to can e gra4it3 se7arated ith gl3cerin sim7l3 dran off the ottom of the settling 4essel# In some cases5 a centrifuge is used to se7arate the to materials faster# lcohol Removal Once the gl3cerin and iodiesel 7hases ha4e een se7arated5 the e=cess alcohol in each 7hase is remo4ed ith a flash e4a7oration 7rocess or 3 distillation# In others s3stems5 the alcohol is remo4ed and the mi=ture neutrali'ed efore the gl3cerin and esters ha4e een se7arated# In either case5 the alcohol is reco4ered using distillation equi7ment and is reused# Care must e taen to ensure no ater accumulates in the reco4ered alcohol stream# 9lycerin
Product =uality Prior to use as a commercial fuel5 the finished iodiesel must e anal3'ed using so7histicated anal3tical equi7ment to ensure it meets an3 required s7ecifications# 9he most im7ortant as7ects of iodiesel 7roduction to ensure troule free o7eration in diesel engines areD •
Com7lete eaction
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•
emo4al of l3cerin
•
emo4al of Catal3st
•
emo4al of $lcohol
•
$sence of Free Fatt3 $cids
&. 5nvironmental 5ffects of Biodiesel 3uel $lthough iodiesel fuel is fast emerging as the oil of the future5 a numer of en4ironmental effects of iodiesel fuel are also surfacing associated ith its use# 9hese iodiesel fuel en4ironmental effects 7otentiall3 include decrease in greenhouse gas emissions5 deforestation5 7ollution and the rate of iodegradation# 9reenhouse gas emissions /hether using iodiesel is ale to loer greenhouse gas emissions as com7ared to the fossil fuels ma3 de7end on man3 factors# Caron dio=ide is non to e one of the ma:or greenhouse gases# 9he 7lant feedstoc used in the maing iofuels asors caron dio=ide from the atmos7here hen it gros and once the iomass is con4erted into iodiesel and urnt as fuel5 the energ3 released is used to 7oer an engine hile the caron dio=ide is released ac into the atmos7here# /hen considering en4ironmental effects of iodiesel fuel due to the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions5 it is im7ortant to consider the hole 7roduction 7rocess# Se4eral factors lie 7roduction methods5 t37e of feedstoc 7la3 their role# $ssuming toda3s 7roduction methods5 ith no land use change5 iodiesel from ra7eseed and sunfloer oil 7roduce .!?G!? loer greenhouse gas emissions than 7etrodiesel But calculating the caron intensit3 of iodiesel fuels is a com7le= and ine=act 7rocess# +oe4er5 there is continuing research for im7ro4ing the efficienc3 of the 7roduction 7rocess of the iodiesel fuels# Deforestation 9here can e gra4e effects of iodiesel fuel on en4ironment if deforestation and monoculture farming techniques are used to gro iofuel cro7s# It ma3 damage the ecos3stems and iodi4ersit3 and increase the emission of climate change gases rather than hel7ing controlling them# 9o meet the demand for chea7 oil from the tro7ical region5 the amount of arale land is eing e=tended in order to increase 7roduction at the cost of tro7ical rainforest# $s feedstoc oils ICET, Pu, Lhr
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in Euro7e and Horth $merica are much more e=7ansi4e than $sia5 South $merica and $frica5 im7orts to these more affluent nations are liel3 to increase in the future# 9ro7ics forests are eing cleared to mae room for oil 7alm 7lantations# 9hese can lead to serious iodiesel fuel en4ironmental effects as deforestation can e threatening man3 s7ecies of unique 7lants and animals# Pollution Biodiesel fuel is the onl3 alternati4e fuel to ha4e effecti4el3 com7leted the +ealth Effects testing requirements of the Clean $ir $ct (1,,0)# 9he 7articulate emissions as the consequence of 7roduction are loered 3 around !0 7ercent com7ared ith fossilsourced diesel# +a4ing a higher cetane rating than 7etrodiesel5 some 7ositi4e effects of iodiesel fuel on en4ironment can e seen as it can im7ro4e 7erformance and clean u7 emissions# Biodiesel also consists of feer aromatic h3drocarons# Biodegradation $nother of the en4ironmental effects of iodiesel fuels can e sees in its iodegradation rates5 hich are ! times faster than 7etroleum diesel o4er a 7eriod of 2 da3s# Biodiesel fuel lends can also accelerate the rate of 7etroleum diesel degradation through cometaolism# 9o=icit3 studies ha4e re4ealed no mortalities and an3 to=ic effects of iodiesel fuel on en4ironment# &.0 5nergy security 9he 8S uses roughl3 20 million arrels of oil a da3# "ore than half of this numer is im7orted and the numer of these arrel im7orted are slated for a fast rise in the near future# 8#S# someho continues its de7endence on foreign sources of oil5 hich can e dangerous# Its time it looed into a3s to loer its dangerous de7endence on foreign oil and see energ3 securit3 in iodiesel fuel5 hich is gaining momentum in the 8#S# 9oda35 for 8S5 iodiesel is the fastest groing alternati4e fuel# et us stud3 energ3 securit3 due to iodiesel fuel on this 7age# $ll across the orld5 the countries are ado7ting iodiesel fuel for energ3 securit3 as it 7rotects the en4ironment5 esides oosting the econom3# 9oda35 iodiesel is fast turning as the groing alternati4e fuel not onl3 in $merica5 ut other 7arts of the orld as ell# Be3ond the
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en4ironmental and health enefits5 iodiesel fuel can also hel7 free the countries from the hold of im7orted oil5 thus gi4ing them more energ3 securit3 due to iodiesel fuel# One of the main reasons ehind transition to iodiesel fuel is energ3 securit3# $s the nations reliance on foreign oil gets reduced5 use of locall3 a4ailale sources is sustituted# 9hus a countr3 finds energ3 securit3 in iodiesel fuel ithout a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions# $lthough the total energ3 alance is still a deatale issue5 ut clearl3 the energ3 securit3 due to iodiesel fuel is enhanced# 9oda35 8S ha4e made it am7l3 clear using iodiesel fuel for energ3 securit3 is the main dri4ing force and the main reason ehind the 8S iofuels 7rogramme# Clearl3 changing to iodiesel fuel for energ3 securit3 is a ma:or reason for 7romoting iofuel# It has een stressed 7ro7erl3 managed iodiesel fuels ha4e the 7ros7ecti4e for strengthening the securit3 of su77l3 through ranching out of energ3 sources# &.6 5conomic benefits "ulti7le economic studies ha4e een 7erformed regarding the economic im7act of iodiesel 7roduction# One stud35 commissioned 3 the Hational Biodiesel Board5 re7orted the 2011 7roduction of iodiesel su77orted %,502& :os and more than R2#1 illion in household income#9he groth in iodiesel also hel7s significantl3 increase
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#hapter (
58perimental %or!
(.$ Procedure of /anufacturing the Biodiesel 9here are some ste7s hich are used to manufacture the Biodiesel5 hich are gi4en elo
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(.$.$ 3iltration Filtration 7rocess is carried out for remo4ing the 7articles from 4egetale oil# 9his 7rocess is carried out 3 using the doule la3er of cheesecloth# Cheesecloth hel7s to remo4e the solid 7articles from oil# (.$.& %ater Removing Oil ill 7roal3 contain ater content# $fter filtration the oil is heated at 100 C Q ecause the oiling 7oint of ater is 100 CQ# /ater in the oil can slo don the reaction and also causes the soa7 formation# So for a4oiding the s7ecification and slo don the reaction the ater is remo4ed from oil 3 heating#
Figure 3: Removal of Water from Vegetale oil
(.$.( #alculation for #ottonseed oil7 methanol and catalyst /eight of Cottonseed oil taen5 /
%00 g
"olecular eight of Cottonseed oil5 "
&, gLgmole
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"oles of Cottonseed oil5 m
/L" 0#%.12 gmoles
From literature oil to methanol ratio
1D !
"oles of "ethanol5 H
!T 0#%12 1#&0G. gmole
"ethanol required
HT%2 1#&0G.T%2 !.#G0 grams
9otal no#of moles
0#%.12 U 1#&0G. 2#0.&G gmoles
1? HaO+ is taen as Catal3st# "oles of HaO+ required for this reaction 0#01T2#0.&G 0#020. gmole HaO+ required for this reaction
0#020. T .0 0#1,0 gram
(.$., #alculation for /ustard oil7 methanol and catalyst /eight of "ustard oil taen5 /
%00 g
"olecular eight of "ustard oil5 "
%0#!., gLgmole
"oles of "ustard oil5 m
/L" 0#,&22 gmoles
From literature oil to methanol ratio
1D!
"oles of "ethanol H
!T 0#,&22 .#G10 gmole
"ethanol required
HT%2 .#G10 T%2 1!.#!2 grams
9otal no#of moles
0#,&22 U .#G10 !#%%2 gmoles
1? HaO+ is taen as Catal3st# "oles of HaO+ required for this reaction 0#01T!#%%2 0#0!% gmole HaO+ required for this reaction
0#0!% T .0
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2#%%%2 gram
(.$.( #alculation for Sunflo"er oil7 methanol and catalyst /eight of Sunfloer oil taen5 /
.00 g
"olecular eight of Sunfloer oil5 "
2. gLmole
"oles of Sunfloer oil5 m
/L" 1#.%.Ggmoles
From literature oil to methanol ratio
1D!
"oles of "ethanol5 H
!T 1#.%.G &%gmole
"ethanol required
HT%2 &% T%2 22,#!% grams
9otal Ho#of moles
1# .%.G U &% ,#1.&Ggmoles
1? HaO+ is taen as Catal3st# "oles of HaO+ required for this reaction 0#01T,#1.&G 0#0,1.gmole HaO+ required for this reaction
0#0!% T .0 %#G!,0 gram
(.$., Preparation of Sodium /etho8ide Calculated amount of Sodium h3dro=ide and "ethanol are mi=ed together 3 heating and stirring# It is stirred and heated at tem7erature less than that of methanol oiling 7oint till Sodium h3dro=ide com7letel3 dissol4ed in methanol# /ater is remo4ed 3 heating# 9he chemical reaction is gi4en eloD
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CH 3OH+NaOH→ CH 3ONa + H 2O ………………………… !"uation
1
Figure #: Pre$aration of %odium metho&ide
(.$.- 'eating and /i8ing $fter manufacturing the Sodium metho=ide5 it is mi=ed ith required amount of 4egetale oil# Ho the mi=ture of Aegetale oil and Sodium metho=ide is stirred for 1 to 2 hours 3 magnetic stirrer and heated at G0 C Q# 9he tem7erature should not rise than && C Q otherise methanol ill e e4a7orating so@ the tem7erature should e maintained elo the && C Q# 9he transesterification 7rocess se7arates the meth3lester and gl3cerin# 9here should e a 4orte= :ust on the surface# $ 4orte= can e a4oided 3 the o7timum s7eed of magnetic stirrer# 9he tem7erature is maintained at G0 C Q throughout the 7rocess 3 using ta thermostat
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Figure ': Transesterification Reaction
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Figure (: Pre$aration of Biodiesel
Page 31
(.$.- Settling
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$fter a ell mi=ed mi=ture of Biodiesel and gl3cerin is 7ut into the se7arating flas and gi4ing
them till gl3cerin is settled don#
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Figure ): Pre$ared Biodiesel
Figure *: %e$aration of Biodiesel
(.$. Separation $fter com7letel3 settling it ill sho to liquids hich is ased on densit3 differences# $fter com7letel3 settling the gl3cerin from the Biodiesel is se7arated from se7arating flas# If gl3cerin is filed in titration flas5 then it reheated for easil3 remo4ing from se7arating flas#
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Figure +: Removal of ,lcerin
Figure 1.: %e$arated Biodiesel
(.$. %ashing $fter se7arating the gl3cerin the iodiesel is ashed 3 ater# /ater is s7rinled ao4e the surface of iodiesel# /ater solule ith methanol so it ill dissol4e ith methanol and finall3 to liquids ill e a77eared 3 densit3 differences# $4oid shaing the mi=ture hile ashing otherise the mil3 mi=ture ill e a77eared and its se7aration ill tae se4eral ees#
Figure 11: Washing of Biodiesel
(.$. 'eating /ashing the Biodiesel till ater;s color a77ears# "ost 7roal3 methanol remo4es ith ater5 ut due to etter result the iodiesel is heated at 100 Q C # 9he heated tem7erature should not
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greater than the oiling 7oint of Biodiesel from an3 4egetale oil# $t this tem7erature methanol and ater ill e 4a7ori'ed and finall3 the Biodiesel is free from all im7urities#
Figure 12: Biodiesel from %unflower oil
Figure 13: Biodiesel from /ottonseed 0il
Figure 1#: ifferent sam$les of iodiesel
(.$.0 9lycerin 9he l3cerin from 4egetale oils is ron hich turns to a solid elo 100 C Q# $fter sometime it turns into gelled formed# ICET, Pu, Lhr
Page 36
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#hapter ,
Results
,.$ 3lash Point 9he flash 7oint is the loest tem7erature at hich oil gi4es out sufficient 4a7ors to form an ignitale mi=ture in air and catches fire momentaril3 hen flame is a77lied# "easuring a flash 7oint requires an ignition source# $t the flash 7oint5 the 4a7or ma3 cease to urn hen the source ICET, Pu, Lhr
Page 38
of ignition is remo4ed# 9he 4alue of the flash 7oint is hel7ful for the storage 7ur7ose of the iodiesel#
Figure 1': Flash Point Tester
Procedure
•
Oil cu7 is cleaned and dried# Sam7le oil is then 7asses into the cu7 u7 to the le4el indicated 3 the filling mar# Place the lid o4er cu7 in its 7osition and insert a thermometer in the holder# $77aratus is heated and stirred is rotated at the rate from 12 re4olution 7er second# $77l3 the test flame at tem7erature inter4als of ! Ḟ in such a manner that the flame is
•
loered in one half second5 left in its loered 7osition for one second and quicl3 raised# 9he tem7erature at hich a distinct flash is 4isile in the oser4ation this reading of
• • • •
tem7erature is recorded as flash 7oint# Flash 7oint of mustard iodiesel G1o C Flash 7oint of cotton seed iodiesel oil !. o C Flash 7oint of sunfloer iodiesel oil G&o C#
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!lash "oint
Tem"erature in celsius
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Flash poi!
Figure 1(: ,ra$h of Flash $oints
,.& niline point 9he aniline 7oint of oil is defined as the minimum tem7erature at hich oil is com7letel3 miscile ith an equal 4olume of aniline (CG+!H+2)# It is the aromatic content of the oil# $niline is used in this method ecause aniline is miscile 3 most of the aromatics# +igher the aniline 7oint loers the aromatics and higher the 7araffin content ith 4er3 high cetane numer maing the oil suitale for use in diesel engine#
$niline 7oint of mustard iodiesel 21o C $niline 7oint of cotton seed iodiesel oil 2.o C $niline 7oint of sunfloer iodiesel oil 2Go C# Figure 1): niline $oint $$aratus
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Aniline Point 30 25 20 Tem"erature in celsius
'ilie Poi!
15 10 5 0 "u#o$er %io&iesel
Figure 1*: ,ra$h of niline $oint
,.( #loud Point /hen oil is cooled then the tem7erature at hich it ecomes cloud3 or ha'3 is called the cloud 7oint of oil# 9he ha'iness is due to the se7aration of cr3stals of a= or increase of 4iscosit3 at lo tem7erature# In the 7etroleum industr35 cloud 7oint refers to the tem7erature elo hich a= in diesel or io a= in iodiesels form a cloud3 a77earance# 9he 7resence of solidified a=es thicens the oil and clogs fuel filters and in:ectors in engines# 9he a= also accumulates on cold surfaces (e#g# ICET, Pu, Lhr
Page 41
7i7eline or heat e=changer fouling) and forms an emulsion ith ater# 9herefore5 cloud 7oint indicates the tendenc3 of the oil to 7lug filters or small orifices at cold o7erating tem7erature# Procedure •
Oil is 7oured into the test :ar# It is im7ortant that the inside of :acet shall e clean and dr3# 9he ne=t im7ortant factor is
•
the cooling# First the asseml3 is inserted into a cooling medium# So that onl3 aout one inch of the
•
•
• •
:acet 7ro:ects ao4e the liquid medium# $s the cooling 7recede the test :ar is ithdran quicl35 ut ithout disturing the oil at e4er3 2 degree celsius fall and e=amined for cloud# If cloud 7oint doesn;t a77ear5 it is cooled again and e=amined# 9he first distinct cloudiness or ha'e in the oil at the ottom of the test :ar is regarded as the cloud 7oint
Cloud 7oint of mustard iodiesel oil 12#&o C Cloud 7oint of sunfloer iodiesel oil 1#Go C Cloud 7oint of cotton seed iodiesel oil &o C
Cloud "oints 10 5 Tem"erature celsius
0 (us!ar& %io&iesel )5 )10 )15
Figure 1+: ,ra$h of /loud Points
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Clou& poi!s
,., Pour Point 9he tem7erature at hich the oil :ust ceases to flo (or 7ure) is called the 7our 7oint# It determines the tem7erature at hich oil cannot e used as a luricant# In crudeoil a high 7our 7oint is generall3 associated ith high 7araffin content5 t37icall3 found in crude deri4ing from a larger 7ro7ortion of 7lant material# Cloud and 7our 7oints indicate the suitailit3 of iodiesel in cold conditions# Procedure • •
Oil is 7oured into the test :ar# It is im7ortant that the inside of the :acet shall e clean and dr3# 9he ne=t im7ortant
•
factor is the cooling First the asseml3 is inserted into a cooling medium# $s the cooling 7recede the test :ar is ithdran ithout disturing the oil at e4er3 % V
•
fall and e=amined for 7our 7oint# If oil shos an3 mo4ement under these conditions the test :ar is immediatel3 re7laced in
•
the :acet and a test for flo re7eated at the ne=t tem7erature % V loer# $s soon as the oil ceases to flo the :ar is held in a hori'ontal 7osition for e=actl3 !
•
seconds and then note the tem7erature# Pour 7oint of mustard iodiesel oil 1.#& o C Pour 7oint of sunfloer iodiesel oil %#G o C Pour 7oint of cotton seed iodiesel oil !o C
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Page 43
Pour Points 10 5
Tem"erature in Celsius
0 (us!ar& %io&iesel )5
Pour Poi!s
)10 )15 )20
Figure 2.: ,ra$h of Pour $oints
,.- #alorific Value 9he calorific 4alue5 or heat of comustion or heating 4alue of a sam7le of fuel is defined as the amount of heat e4ol4ed hen the unit quantit3 of fuel is com7letel3 urnt and the 7roducts of comustion cooled to a standard tem7erature of 2, degree *# 9he calorific 4alue is measured 3 om calorimeter# Procedure • •
•
•
• •
• •
9ae 12 gram of sam7le and 7lace it into the crucile of the calorimeter# $ 7iece of firing ire5 co77er is stretched across the inner terminus of the om and a 7iece of seing cotton is attached to it ith the other end in contact ith the sam7le# 9he om is charged ith o=3gen to a 7ressure of 2! atmos7heres through the needle 4al4e ithout dis7lacing the original air 9he calorimeter 4essel is then ith almost 2#! liters of ater to sumerge the om u7 till co4er com7letel3# Place the om in the calorimeter after com7lete assurance of its tightness# 9he thermometer is ad:usted along ith the co4er of calorimeter5 start the stirrer and allo it to run for ! minutes efore oser4ations to egin# 9he tem7erature of ater is noted after e4er3 ! minutes# $s the tem7erature rate of change is constant5 close the electrical circuit and note the tem7erature reading#
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Page 44
Figure 21: Bom /alorimeter
*ross Calori+ -alue o /us!ar& io)&iesel oil 44459.03 g *ross Calori+ -alue o su#o$er io)&iesel oil 34022.18 g *ross Calori+ -alue o o!!o see& io)&iesel oil 37153.61 g
#ross Calori$c %alue 50000 45000 40000 35000 30000 #C% in &'(&g 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 "u#o$er %io&iesel
*ross Calori+ alue
Figure 22: ,ra$h of ,/V
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,.- Specific 9ravity S7ecific gra4it3 is the ratio of the densit3 of a sustance to the densit3 (mass of the same unit 4olume) of a reference sustance# $77arent s7ecific gra4it3 is the ratio of the eight of a 4olume of the sustance to the eight of an equal 4olume of the reference sustance# • • • • •
•
9ae the gra4it3 ottle and measure the eight of ottle 3 measuring alance# ra4it3 ottle is filled ith 4egetale oil u7 to the mar# $gain measure the eight of gra4it3 ottle# Ho calculate the difference of eight5 hich gi4es us the eight of 4egetale oil# For measuring the densit3 of oil e di4ided measured eight of the oil 3 4olume of oil carr3ing a gra4it3 ottle# S7ecific gra4it3 is measured 3 di4iding the calculated densit3 of oil 3 the densit3 of ater#
S7ecific gra4it3 of Sunfloer iodiesel 0#.G, S7ecific gra4it3 of "ustard iodiesel 0#.&! S7ecific gra4it3 of Cottonseed iodiesel 0#...
)"eci$c #ravity
)"eci$c gravity
0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.84
"pei+ *ra-i!
Figure 23 : ,ra$h of s$ecific gravit
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Page 46
References h!!p$$$.e!esio.orgpages26602i!ro&u!io)!o)io&iesel:.&;
h!!p$$$.ereleio&iesel.orgo-er-ie$)le&s)io&iesel.h!/l h!!p$$$.a&.eerg.go-uelsio&iesel=le&s.h!/l h!!p$$$.siee&ire!.o/sieear!ilepii"136403211300141> h!!p$$$.siee&ire!.o/sieear!ilepii"0196890406002378 h!!p$$$.su#o$ersa.o/oilio&iesel h!!ps$$$.google.o/.purl? sa!@r!A@<@esrs@soure$e@&1@-e&0CC'BFA''ahE$i;7Dr"h' h>>%BT7'*I@urlh!!p3'2F2F$$$.&i-a)por!al.org2Fs/ash2Fge! 2F&i-a23'4432952Full!e!01.p&@ei>Pls/52g'*@usg'FBACGF "$oBBr-32iH*G&'L"/$@-/-.99804247,&.&24@a&rAa h!!ps$$$.google.o/.purl? sa!@r!A@<@esrs@soure$e@&3@-e&0CEBFA'CahE$iC6GaChr' h>D%BB('as@urlh!!p3'2F2F$$$.o/isolie.org2Fop!i/i;a!io)o) io&iesel)pro&u!io)ro/)su#o$er)oil)usig)respose)surae)/e!ho&olog)2157) 7048.1000141.p&@eig>JD8P("HhGg@usg'FBACGEE4PIJJ&G"A) DhCTh>ga3g@-/-.99804247,&.&24@a&rAa h!!p$$$.as$ers)!o)our)io&iesel)
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