Prometheus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the Greek mythological figure. For other uses, see Prometheus (disambiguation). (disambiguation) .
Prometheus depicted in a sculpture by Nicolas-Sébastien Adam, Adam, 1762 (Louvre Louvre))
In Greek mythology, mythology, Prometheus (Greek Greek:: Προμηθεύς, pronounced [promɛːtʰeús] Titan,, culture hero, hero, [promɛːtʰeús])) is a Titan and trickster trickster figure figure who is credited with the creation of man from clay, clay , and who defies the gods and gives fire to humanity (theft of fire) fire ), an act that enabled progress and civilization. He is known for his intelligence and as a champion of mankind. mankind.[1] The punishment of Prometheus as a consequence of the theft is a major theme of his mythology, and is a popular subject of both ancient and modern art. Zeus Zeus,, king of the Olympian gods, gods, sentenced the Titan to eternal torment for his transgression. The immortal Prometheus was bound to a rock, where each day an eagle eagle,, the emblem of Zeus, was sent to feed on his liver , which would then grow back to be eaten again the next day. (In ancient Greece, the liver, rather than the heart, was thought to be the seat of human emotions.) emotions.)[2] In some stories, Prometheus is freed at last by the hero Heracles (Hercules Hercules)). In another of his myths, Prometheus establishes the form of animal sacrifice practiced in ancient Greek religion. religion. Evidence of a cult to Prometheus himself is not widespread. He was a focus of religious activity mainly
at Athens at Athens,, where he was linked to Athena to Athena andHephaestus andHephaestus,, other Greek deities of creative skills and technology. technology.[3] In the Western classical tradition, tradition , Prometheus became a figure who represented human striving, particularly the quest for scientific knowledge, and the risk of overreac hing or unintended or unintended consequences. consequences. In particular, he was regarded in the Romantic era as embodying the lone genius whose efforts to improve human existence could also result in tragedy: Mary Shelley, Shelley, for instance, gave The Modern Prometheus as the subtitle to her novel Frankenstein (1818). Contents
[hide hide]]
1 Etymology
2 Mythology o
2.1 Hesiod
o
2.2 Aeschylus
o
2.3 Other authors
3 Religious cult
4 In Greek art
5 Comparative mythology
6 Post-renaissance and post-enlightenment tradition
o
6.1 Literature
o
6.2 Classical music, opera, and ballet
o
6.3 In painting
o
6.4 In landscape painting
o
6.5 In sculpture
7 Science o
7.1 Liver regeneration
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology[edit source | editbeta]
The ancients believed that the name Prometheus derived from the Greek pro (before) + manthano (intelligence) and the agent suffix -eus, thus meaning "Forethinker". Plato contrasts Prometheus with his dull-witted brother Epimetheus, "Afterthinker".[4] Writing in late antiquity, the Latin commentator Servius explains that Prometheus was so named because he was a man of great foresight (vir prudentissimus), possessing the abstract quality of providentia, the Latin equivalent of Greek promētheia (ἀπὸ [5]
τής πρόμηθείας).
Modern scientific linguistics suggests that the name derived from the Proto-Indo-European root that also produces the Vedic pra math, "to steal," hence pramathyu-s, "thief", cognate with "Prometheus", the thief of fire. The Vedic myth of fire's theft by Mātariśvan is an analog to the Greek account. Pramantha was the tool used to create fire.[6]
Mythology[edit source | editbeta] Greek deities series
Titans Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Personified concepts Other deities
Titans
The Twelve Titans: Oceanus and Tethys, Hyperion and Theia, Coeus and Phoebe, Cronus and Rhea, Mnemosyne, Themis, Crius, Iapetus Children of Oceanus: Oceanids, Potamoi, Calypso Children of Hyperion: Helios, Selene, Eos
Daughters of Coeus: Leto and Asteria Sons of Iapetus: Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, Menoetius Sons of Crius: Astraeus, Pallas, Perses
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Hesiod[edit source | editbeta] The Prometheus myth first appeared in the late 8th-century BC Greek epic poet Hesiod's Theogony (lines 507 – 616). He was a son of the Titan Iapetusby Clymene, one of the Oceanids. He was brother to Menoetius, Atlas, and Epimetheus. In the Theogony , Hesiod introduces Prometheus as a lowly challenger to Zeus's omniscience and omnipotence.[7] In the trick at Mecone, a sacrificial meal marking the "settling of accounts" between mortals and immortals, Prometheus played a trick against Zeus (545 –557). He placed two sacrificial offerings before the Olympian: a selection of beef hidden inside an ox's s tomach (nourishment hidden inside a displeasing exterior), and the bull's bones wrapped completely in "glistening fat" (something inedible hidden inside a pleasing exterior). Zeus chose the latter, setting a precedent for future sacrifices.[7] Henceforth, humans would keep that meat for themselves and burn the bones wrapped in fat as an offering to the gods. This angered Zeus, who hid fire from humans in retribution. In this version of the myth, the use of fire was already known to humans, but withdrawn by Zeus .[8] Prometheus, however, stole back fire in a giant fennel-stalk and restored it to humanity. This further enraged Zeus, who sent Pandora, the first woman, to live with humanity.[7] Pandora was fashioned by Hephaestus out of clay and brought to life by the four winds, with all the goddesses of Olympus assembled to adorn her. "From her is the race of women and female kind," Hesiod writes; "of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who live amongst mortal men to their great trouble, n o helpmeets in hateful poverty, but only in wealth."[7]
Prometheus, in eternal punishment, is chained to a rock in the Caucasus, Kazbek Mountain, where his liver is eaten daily by an eagle,[9] only to beregenerated by night, due to his immortality.[10] The liver is also a regenerative organ. The eagle, a symbol of Zeus Himself. Years later, the Greek hero Heracles (Hercules) slays the eagle and frees Prometheus from his chains .[11] Hesiod revisits the story of Prometheus in the Works and Days (lines 42 –105). Here, the poet expands upon Zeus's reaction to the theft of fire. Not only does Zeus withhold fire from humanity, but "the means of life," as well (42). Had Prometheus not provoked Zeus's wrath (44 –47), "you would easily do work enough in a day to supply you for a full year even without working; soon would you put away your rudder over the smoke, and the fields worked by ox and sturdy mule would run to waste." Hesiod also expands upon the Theogony' s story of the first woman, now explicitly called Pandora (" all gifts "). After Prometheus' theft of fire, Zeus sent Pandora in retaliation. Despite Prometheus' warning, Epimetheus accepted this "gift" from the gods. Pandora carried a jar with her , from which were released (91 –92) "evils, harsh pain and troublesome diseases which give men death".[12]Pandora shut the lid of the jar too late to contain all the evil plights that escaped, but foresight remained in the jar, giving humanity hope. Angelo Casanova,[13] Professor of Greek Literature at the University of Florence, finds in Prometheus a reflection of an ancient, pre-Hesiodic trickster -figure, who served to account for the mixture of good and bad in human life, and whose fashioning of humanity from clay was an Eastern motif familiar in Enuma Elish ; as an opponent of Zeus he was an analogue of the Titans, and like them was punished. As an advocate for humanity he gains semi-divine status at Athens, where the episode in Theogony in which he is liberated[14] is interpreted by Casanova as a post-Hesiodic interpolation.[15]
Aeschylus[edit source | editbeta] Prometheus Bound , perhaps the most famous treatment of the myth to be found among the Greek tragedies, is
traditionally attributed to the 5th-century BC Greek tragedian Aeschylus. At the center of the drama are the results of Prometheus' theft of fire and his current punishment by Zeus; the playwright's dependence on the Hesiodic source material is clear, though Prometheus Bound also includes a number of changes to the received tradition.[16] Before his theft of fire, Prometheus played a decisive role in the Titanomachy, securing victory for Zeus and the other Olympians. Zeus's torture of Prometheus thus becomes a particularly harsh betrayal. The scope and character of Prometheus' transgressions against Zeus are also widened. In addition to giving humankind fire, Prometheus claims to have taught them the arts of civilization, such as writing, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and science. The Titan's greatest benefaction for humankind seems to have been saving them from complete destruction. In an apparent twist on the myth of the so-called Five Ages of Man found in Hesiod's Works and Days (wherein Cronus and, later, Zeus created and destroyed five successive races of
humanity), Prometheus asserts that Zeus had wanted to obliterate the human race, but that he somehow stopped him.
Heracles freeing Prometheus from his torment by the eagle ( Attic black-figure cup, c. 500 BC)
Moreover, Aeschylus anachronistically and art ificially injects Io, another victim of Zeus's violence and ancestor of Heracles, into Prometheus' story. Finally, just as Aeschylus gave Prometheus a key role in bringing Zeus to power, he also attributed to him secret knowledge that could lead to Zeus's downfall: Prometheus had been told by his mother Gaia of a potential marriage that would pr oduce a son who would overthrow Zeus. Fragmentary evidence indicates that Heracles, as in Hesiod, frees the Titan in the trilogy's second play, Prometheus Unbound . It is apparently not until Prometheus reveals this secret of Zeus's potential downfall that the two reconcile in the final play, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer or Prometheus Pyrphoros, a lost tragedy by Aeschylus. Prometheus Bound also includes two mythic innovations of omission. The first is the absence of Pandora's
story in connection with Prometheus' own. Instead, Aeschylus includes this one oblique allusion to Pandora and her jar that contained Hope (252): "[Prometheus] caused blind hopes to live in the hearts of men." Second, Aeschylus makes no mention of the sacrifice-trick played against Zeus in the Theogony .[17] These innovations reflect the play's thematic reversal of the Hesiodic myth [citation needed ]. In Hesiod, the story of Prometheus (and, by extension, of Pandora) serves to reinforce the theodicy of Zeus: he is a wise and just ruler of the universe, while Prometheus is to blame for humanity's unenviable existence [citation needed ]. In Prometheus Bound , this dynamic is transposed: Prometheus becomes the benefactor of humanity, while every character in
the drama (except for Hermes, a virtual stand-in for Zeus) decries the Olympian as a cruel, vicious tyrant.[17]
Other authors [edit source | editbeta]
Creation of humanity by Prometheus as Athena looks on (Roman-era relief, 3rd century AD)
Prometheus watches Athena endow his creation with reason (painting b yChristian Griepenkerl, 1877)
Some two dozen other Greek and Roman authors retold and further embellished the Prometheus myth into the 4th century AD. The most significant detail added to the myth found in, e.g., Sappho, Plato, Aesop and Ovid[18] — was the central role of Prometheus in the creation of the human race. According to these sources, Prometheus fashioned humans out of c lay. In the dialogue Protagoras, Protagoras asserts that the gods created humans and all the other animals, but it was left to Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus to give defining attributes to each. As no physical traits were left when the pair came to humans, Prometheus decided to give them fire and other civilizing arts .[19] Although perhaps made explicit in the Prometheia, later authors such as Hyginus, the Bibliotheca, and Quintus of Smyrna would confirm that Prometheus warned Zeus not to marry the sea nymph Thetis. She is consequently married off to the mortal Peleus, and bears him a son greater than the father — Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War . Pseudo-Apollodorus moreover clarifies a cryptic statement (1026 –29) made by Hermes in Prometheus Bound , identifying the centaur Chiron as the one who would take on Prometheus' suffering and die in his place.[19] Reflecting a myth attested in Greek vase paintings from the Classical period, Pseudo-Apollodorus places the Titan (armed with an axe) at the birth of Athena, thus explaining how the goddess sprang forth from the forehead of Zeus.[19] Other minor details attached to the myth include: the duration of Prometheus' torment ; [20][21] the origin of the eagle that ate the Titan's liver (found in Pseudo -Apollodorus and Hyginus); Pandora's marriage to Epimetheus (found in Pseudo-Apollodorus); myths surrounding the life of Prometheus' son ,Deucalion (found in Ovid
and Apollonius of Rhodes); and Prometheus' marginal role in the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (found in Apollonius of Rhodes and Valerius Flaccus).[19] Anecdotally, the Roman fabulist Phaedrus attributes to Aesop a simple etiology for homosexuality, in Prometheus' getting drunk while creating the first humans and misapplying the genitalia .[22]
Religious cult[edit source | editbeta] Despite his importance to the myths and imaginative literature of ancient Greece, the religious cult of Prometheus during the Archaic and Classical periodsseems to have been limited.[23] Writing in the 2nd century AD, the satirist Lucian points out that while temples to the major Olympians were everywhere, none to Prometheus is to be seen.[24]
Heracles freeing Prometheus, relief from the Temple of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias
Athens was the exception. The altar of Prometheus in the grove of the Academy was the point of origin for several significant processions and other events regularly observed on the Athenian calendar . For the Panathenaic festival, arguably the most important civic festival at Athens, a torch race began at the altar, which was located outside the sacred boundary of the city, and passed through the Kerameikos, the district inhabited by potters and other artisans who regarded Prometheus and Hephaestus as patrons.[25] The race then traveled to the heart of the city, where it kindled the sacrificial fire on the altar of Athena on the Acropolis to conclude the festival.[26] These footraces took the form of relays in which teams of runners passed off a flaming torch. According to Pausanias(2nd century AD), the torch relay, called lampadedromia or lampadephoria, was first instituted at Athens in honor of Prometheus .[27] By the Classical period, the races were run by ephebes also in honor of Hephaestus and Athena.[28] Prometheus' association with fire is the key to his religious si gnificance [23] and to the alignment with Athena and Hephaestus that was specific to Athens and its "unique degree of cultic emphasis" on honoring technology.[29] The festival of Prometheus was the Prometheia. The wreaths worn symbolized the chains of Prometheus . [30]
Pausanias recorded a few other religious sites in Greece devoted to Prometheus. Both Argos and Opous claimed to be Prometheus' final resting place, each erecting a tomb in his honor. The Greek city of Panopeus had a cult statue that was supposed to honor Prometheus for having created the human race there.[19]
In Greek art [edit source | editbeta] Prometheus' torment by the eagle and his rescue by Heracles were popular subjects in vase paintings of the 6th to 4th centuries BC. He also sometimes appears in depictions of Athena's birth from Zeus' forehead. There was a relief sculpture of Prometheus with Pandora on the base of Athena's cult statue in the Athenian Parthenon of the 5th century BC.
Comparative mythology [edit source | editbeta] The two most prominent aspects of the Prometheus myth have parallels within the beliefs of many cultures throughout the world; see creation of man from clay and theft of fire. In Georgian mythology, Amirani is a culture hero who challenged the chief god, and like Prometheus was chained on the Caucasian mountains where birds would eat his organs.[citation needed ] Some Gnostics identified Prometheus with Lucifer , with the theft of fire from heaven embodied by the fall of Lucifer "the Light Bearer".[31]
Post-renaissance and post-enlightenment tradition [edit source | editbeta]
Mythological narrative of Prometheus by Piero di Cosimo (1515) See also: Prometheus in popular culture
The myth of Prometheus has been a favorite theme of Western art and literature in the post-renaissance and post-enlightenment tradition, and occasionally in works produced outside the West.
Literature[edit source | editbeta]
For the Romantic era, Prometheus was the rebel who resisted all forms of institutional tyranny epitomized by Zeus — church, monarch, and patriarch. The Romantics drew comparisons between Prometheus and the spirit of the French Revolution, Christ, the Satan of John Milton'sParadise Lost , and the divinely inspired poet or artist. Prometheus is the lyrical "I" who speaks in Goethe's Sturm und Drang poem"Prometheus" (written c. 1772 –74, published 1789), addressing God (as Zeus) in misotheist accusation and defiance. In Prometheus Unbound (1820), a four-act lyrical drama, Percy Bysshe Shelley rewrites the lost play of Aeschylus so that
Prometheus does not submit to Zeus (under the Latin na me Jupiter), but instead supplants him in a triumph of the human heart and intellect over tyrannical religion. Lord Byron's poem "Prometheus" also portrays the Titan as unrepentant. Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein is subtitled "The Modern Prometheus", in reference to the novel's themes of the over-reaching of modern humanity into dangerous areas of knowledge.
Prometheus (1909) by Otto Greiner
Franz Kafka (d. 1924) wrote a short piece on Prometheus, outlining what he saw as the four aspects of his myth: According to the first, he was clamped to a rock in the Caucasus for betraying the secrets of the gods to men, and the gods sent eagles to feed on his liver, which was perpetually renewed. According to the second, Prometheus, goaded by the pain of the tearing beaks, pressed himself deeper and deeper into the rock until he became one with it. According to the third, his treachery was forgotten in the course of thousands of years, forgotten by the gods, the eagles, forgotten by himself. According to the fourth, everyone grew weary of the meaningless affair. The gods grew weary, the eagles grew weary, the wound closed wearily. There remains the inexplicable mass of rock. The legend tried to explain the inexplicable. As it came out of a substratum of truth it had in turn to end in the inexplicable .
[32]
The British poet Ted Hughes titled a 1973 collection of poems Prometheus On His Crag . The Nepali poet Laxmi Prasad Devkota (d. 1949) wrote an epic entitledPrometheus ( ). Next book is "Prometheus Bound" (free download – two volumes about 600 pages) by Musa Polyhymnia Foundation (B.H.)
Classical music, opera, and ballet [edit source | editbeta] Works of classical music, opera, and ballet based on the myth of Prometheus include:
Beethoven, The Creatures of Prometheus (1801), ballet.
Franz Liszt, Prometheus (1850), Symphonic Poem No. 5 (S.99).
Hugo Wolf , Prometheus (Bedecke deinen Himmel, Zeus , 1889), part of his Goethe-lieder for voice and piano, later arranged for orchestra and voice.
Alexander Scriabin, Prometheus: Poem of Fire , Opus 60 (1910), for orchestra.
Gabriel Fauré, Prométhée (1910)
Carl Orff , Prometheus (1968), opera using Aeschylus' original Greek Prometheia.
Charles-Valentin Alkan, Grande sonate 'Les quatre âges' (1847), 4th movement entitled "Prométhée enchaîné" (Prometheus Bound)
In painting [edit source | editbeta]
Chained Prometheus(1611 –12), by Peter Paul Rubens
Prometheus Being Chained by Vulcan (1623), by Dirck van Baburen
Prometheus (1868), byGustave Moreau
Prometheus (1927), byJosé Clemente Orozco, atPomona College
In landscape painting [edit source | editbeta]
Prometheus Chained on the Snowy Peaks of the Caucasus by Francesco Foschi (1710 –1780)
Prometheus Bound byThomas Cole (1801 –1848)
In sculpture[edit source | editbeta]
Paul Manship, 1933 (Rockefeller Center )
Jacques Lipchitz, 1943 (Philadelphia Museum of Art)
Menashe Kadishman, 1980 –87 (Meyerhoff Art Education Center, Tel Aviv)
Science[edit source | editbeta] The myth of Prometheus, with its theme of invention and discovery, has been used in science-related names and as a metaphor for scientific progress.
The cloned horse Prometea, and Prometheus, a moon of Saturn, are named after this Titan, as is the asteroid 1809 Prometheus.
The name of the sixty-first element, promethium, is derived from Prometheus.
The Prometheus Society is a High IQ society. The name of its magazine, Gift of Fire , is explained by the ancient association of fire with mental gifts .[33]
Prometheus Books, a publishing company for scientific, educational, and popular books, especially those relating to secular humanism or scientific skepticism, takes its name from the myth.
The Prometheus Award is given by the Libertarian Futurist Society for Libertarian science fiction.
In 1983 Robert Anton Wilson published a non -fiction book called Prometheus Rising (which was followed by Quantum Psychology )
Liver regeneration[edit source | editbeta]
Prometheus by Theodoor Rombouts(1597 –1637)
Scientific and medical literature about liver regeneration often alludes to Prometheus and the devouring and daily regrowth of his liver. Some think [34] the myth even indicates that the ancient Greeks knew about the liver’s remarkable capacity for self-repair. The Greek word f or liver, hēpar, hepat - (ἧπαρ, cf. English "hepatitis", "hepatology", etc.) is derived from the verb hēpaomai (ἠπάομαι), meaning "mend, repair".[35] While others doubt the significance to Greek medical knowledge,[36] Prometheus's name is associated with biomedical companies involved in regenerative medicine.
See also[edit source | editbeta]
Olympic flame
Prometheism, a political project in Poland named for Prometheus.
Notes[edit source | editbeta] 1.
^ William Hansen, Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford
University Press, 2005), pp. 32, 48 –50, 69 –73, 93, 96, 102 –104, 140; as trickster figure, p. 310. 2.
^ Krishna, Gopi; Hillman, James (commentary) (1970).Kundalini – the evolutionary energy in man . London:
Stuart & Watkins. p. 77. SBN 7224 0115 9. 3.
^ Lewis Richard Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1896), vol. 1, pp. 36, 49,
75, 277, 285, 314, 346; Carol Dougherty, Prometheus (Routledge, 2006), p. 42ff.. 4.
^ Plato, Protagoras; Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 159.
5.
^ Servius, note to Vergil's Eclogue 6.42: Prometheus vir prudentissimus fuit, unde etiam Prometheus dictus est ἀπὸ τής πρόμηθείας, id est a providentia .
6.
^ Fortson 2004, 27; Williamson 2004, 214 –15; Dougherty 2006, 4.
7.
^
8.
^ M.L. West commentaries on Hesiod, W.J. Verdenius commentaries on Hesiod, and R.
a b c d
Hesiod, Theogony 590-93.
Lamberton's Hesiod , pp.95 –100. 9.
^ "The Aetos Kaukasios (or Caucasian Eagle) in the Prometheus Myth". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
10. ^ The liver is one of the rare human organs to regenerate itself spontaneously in the case of lesion. 11. ^ "Hesiod, ''Theogony''". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18. 12. ^ Hesiod, WORKS AND DAYS Translation By H. G. Evelyn-White 13. ^ Casanova, La famiglia di Pandora: analisi filologica dei miti di Pandora e Prometeo nella tradizione esiodea(Florence) 1979.
14. ^ Hesiod, Theogony , 526-33. 15. ^ In this Casanova is joined by so me editors of Theogony . 16. ^ Some of these changes are rather minor. For instance, rather than being the s on of Iapetus and Clymene Prometheus becomes the son of Themis. In addition, the chorus makes a passing reference (561) to Prometheus' wife Hesione, whereas a fragment from Hesiod's Catalogue of Women fr. 4 calls her by the name of Pryneie, a possible corruption for Pronoia. 17. ^
a b
"Aeschylus, ''Prometheus Bound''". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
18. ^ Cf. Ovid, Metamorphoses, I, 78ff. 19. ^
a b c d e
"Theoi Project: "Prometheus:". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
20. ^ "30 Years". Mlahanas.de. 1997-11-10. Retrieved 2012-05-18. 21. ^ "30,000 Years". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18. 22. ^ "Dionysos". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18. 23. ^
a b
Dougherty, Prometheus, p. 46.
24. ^ Lucian, Prometheus 14. 25. ^ On the association of the cults of Prometheus and Hephaestus, see also Scholiast to Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 56, as cited by Robert Parker, Polytheism and Society at Athens (Oxford University Press,
2007), p. 472. 26. ^ Pausanias 1.30.2; Scholiast to Plato, Phaedrus 231e; Dougherty, Prometheus, p. 46; Peter Wilson, The Athenian Institution of the Khoregia: The Chorus, the City and the Stage (Cambridge University Press,
2000), p. 35. 27. ^ Pausanias 1.30.2. 28. ^ Possibly also Pan; Wilson, The Athenian Institution of the Khoregia , p. 35. 29. ^ Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States , vol. 1, p. 277; Parker, Polytheism and Society at Athens, p. 409. 30. ^ Aeschylus, Suppliants frg. 202, as cited by Parker, Polytheism and Society at Athens, p. 142. 31. ^ R.J. Zwi Werblowsky, Lucifer and Prometheus, as summarized by Gedaliahu G.Stroumsa, "Myth into Metaphor: The Case of Prometheus," in Gilgul: Essays on Transformation, Revolution and Permanence in the History of Religions, Dedicated to R. J. Zwi Werblowsky (Brill, 1987), p. 311; Steven M.
Wasserstrom, Religion after Religion: Gershom Scholem, Mircea Eliade, and Henry Corbin at Eranos (Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 210; James Randall Noblitt and Pamela Sue Perskin, Cult
and Ritual Abuse: Its History, Anthropology, and Recent Discovery in Contemporary America (Greenwood
Praeger, 2000, rev. ed.), p. 133. 32. ^ Translated by Willa and Edwin Muir . See Glatzer, Nahum N., ed. "Franz Kafka: The Complete Stories" Schocken Book, Inc.: New York, 1971. 33. ^ Prometheus Society website. 34. ^ See arguments for the ancient Greeks' knowledge of liver regeneration in Chen T and Chen P (1994), Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 87(12): 754-755. 35. ^ LSJ entry ἠπάομαι meaning mend , repair 36. ^ A counterargument is provided by Power C and Rasko J (2008). "Whither Prometheus' Liver? Greek Myth and the Science of Regeneration". Annals of Internal Medicine 149(6): 421-426.
References [edit source | editbeta]
Alexander, Hartley Burr. The Mythology of All Races. Vol 10: North American . Boston, 1916. Beall, E.F., Hesiod's Prometheus and Development in Myth , Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 52, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep., 1991), pp. 355 –371
Dougherty, Carol. Prometheus. Taylor & Francis, 2006. ISBN 0-415-32406-8, ISBN 978-0-415-32406-9
Erdoes, Richard and Alfonso Ortiz, edds. American Indian Myths and Legends . New York, 1984.
Fortson, Benjamin. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction . Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
Judson, Katharine B. Myths and Legends of the Pacific Northwest . Chicago, 1912.
Lamberton, Robert. Hesiod , Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-04068-7
Swanton, John. "Myths and Tales of the Southeastern Indians." Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 88: 1929.
Verdenius, Willem Jacob, "A Commentary on Hesiod: Works and Days, Vv. 1 –382", Brill, 1985, ISBN 9004-07465-1
West, M.L., "Hesiod, Theogony, ed. with prolegomena and commentary", Oxford: Clarendon Press 1966
West, M.L., "Hesiod, Works and Days, ed. with prolegomena and commentary", Oxford: Clarendon Press 1978
Westervelt, W.D. Legends of Maui – a Demigod of Polynesia, and of His Mother Hina . Honolulu, 1910.
Williamson, George S. The Longing for Myth in Germany: Religion and Aesthetic Culture from Romanticism to Nietzsche (Chicago, 2004).
Further reading [edit source | editbeta]
Fernandes, Ângela, "Human values and spiritual values: Traces of Prometheus in Portuguese literature
and criticism", in journal Neohelicon, Akadémiai Kiadó, co-published with Springer Science+Business Media B.V., Volume 34, Number 1 / June, 2007, pp. 41 –49 Kerényi, Carl, (Translated by Ralph Manheim) "Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Human
Existence", Princeton University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-691-01907-X
External links [edit source | editbeta] Look up prometheus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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Urania Aglaea
Charites (Graces) Euphrosyne
Thalia Dike
Horae (Hours) Eunomia
Eirene Nike
Kratos Styktides
Bia
Zelos
Poseidon
Amphitrite Oceanic Theoi Halioi deities
Triton
Oceanus
Tethys
Pontus/Thalassa
Nereus
Glaucus
Proteus
Phorcys
Ceto
Thetis Clymene
Dione
Doris
Eurynome Oceanids
Metis
Nemesis
Pleione
Tyche Amphitrite Nereides
Thetis
Galatea Achelous
Asopus Potamoi
Enipeus
Scamander
Hades
Persephone
Theoi Khthonioi Gaia
Demeter
Hecate Alecto
Chthonic
Erinyes (Furies) Tisiphone
deities
Megaera Hecatonchires
Cyclopes
Gigantes Earthborn
Kouretes
Meliae
Telkhines
Typhon Iacchus
Trophonius
Triptolemus
Apotheothenai Orpheus
Minos
Aeacus
Rhadamanthus
Categories:
Creator gods
Greek culture heroes
Greek deities
Greek mythological hero cult
Greek mythology
