UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DEL PERÚ
FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA DESEGURIDAD INDUSTRIAL Y MINERA
‘‘PROCESO DE PURIFICACION DE METALES’’ PRESENTADO POR: CASAPÍA ROSPIGLIOSI ERNESTO GASTÓN HALLASI ANDRADE JORGE LUIS DEL CARPIO YANAPA JOSUE JOSE LORENZO CORNEJO PAREDES STHEFANY ALEJANDRA MACHA CAHUINA HERNAN WASHINGTON
AREQUIPA – PERÚ 2012
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Contenido RESUMEN: .......................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................... ........... 5 INTRODUCCIÓN: ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ 6 1 LOS METALES........................................................... .............................................................................................................................. ................................................................... 1 1.1ESTRUCTURA DE LOS METALES ............................................................................................ ............................................................................................ 1 1.1.1Estructura Cristalina: ..................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2Estructura Granular: ................................................................................ ...................................................................................................... ...................... 2 1.2TIPOS DE METALES: .................................................................. .............................................................................................................. ............................................ 3 1.2.1LOS METALES FÉRROSOS .............................................................. ............................................................................................... ................................. 3 1.2.1.1Hierro puro ............................................................................ ............................................................................................................. ................................. 3 1.2.1.2Acero: ..................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1.3Fundición: ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1.4Aplicaciones de los metales ferrosos .......................................................... ..................................................................... ........... 3 1.2.2METALES NO FERROSOS: FER ROSOS: .............................................................................................. 4 1.3PROPIEDADES FÍSICAS .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... 5 1.4PROPIEDADES QUÍMICAS ..................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................... 5 1.5PROPIEDADES DE LOS METALES .......................................................................................... 6 1.6TÉCNICAS PARA TRABAJAR LOS LO S METALES: .......................................................................... 7 1.7PRODUCCIÓN Y USO DE LOS METALES ................................................................................ 8 2.-Procesos de purificación de los metales ................................................................................... ................................................................................... 9 2.1ANODIZADO: ................................................................. ........................................................................................................................ ....................................................... 9 2.1.1Elementos: ............................................................ .................................................................................................................. ...................................................... 10 2.1.2Ciclo Típico del Proceso de Anodizado. .............................................................. ....................................................................... ......... 11 2.2DESTILACIÓN ............................................................................................................. ...................................................................................................................... ......... 12 2.2.1Fundamento Teórico ................................................................................................... ................................................................................................... 12 2.2.2 Clasificación Clasificac ión de la destilación ................................................................. ..................................................................................... .................... 13 2.2.2.1 Destilación Simple S imple .......................................................................................... ................................................................................................... ......... 13 2.2.2.2 Destilación fraccionada ........................................................................................... 14 2.2.2.3 Destilación al a l vacío .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. 15 2.2.2.4 Destilación por arrastre de vapor ..................................................................... ........................................................................... ...... 16 2.3LA ELECTROLISIS: ....................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................ ......... 16
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2.3.3Electrólitos ............................................................ .................................................................................................................. ...................................................... 19 2.3.4Electrólisis del agua ...................................................................... ..................................................................................................... ............................... 19 2.4 GALVANIZADO .................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ............................... 21 2.4.1 Utilidad ....................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................... 21 2.4.2 Proceso galvanizado .................................................................... ................................................................................................... ............................... 22 2.4.3Descripción del proceso del galvanizado g alvanizado .................................................................... .................................................................... 22 2.4.4GALVANIZADO EN CALIENTE ................................................................... ....................................................................................... .................... 23 2.4.5 GALVANIZADO GA LVANIZADO EN FRIO .............................................................. .............................................................................................. ................................ 24 2.4.5.1APLICACIONES ...................................................................................................... 24 2.4.6 ZincadoElectrolitico .................................................................................................... .................................................................................................... 25 2.4.6.1 PRODUCTOS ............................................................................................... ........................................................................................................ ......... 25 2.4.7Galvanizado Electrolítico .................................................................................... ............................................................................................. ......... 26 2.4.8 GALVANIZADO POR LAMINACION.......................................................... .............................................................................. .................... 27 2.5 SIDERURGIA ............................................................................. ....................................................................................................................... .......................................... 28 2.5.1 EVOLUCIÓN DE LA SIDERURGIA ................................................................................. 29 2.5.2 Siderurgias integrales y acerías .............................................................. .................................................................................. .................... 29 2.5.3 Proceso de producción ...................................................................................... ............................................................................................... ......... 30 2.5.3.1 Procesos en plantas integrales ...................................................................... ............................................................................ ...... 30 2.5.4 Laminadoras ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 31 2.5.5 Procesos en acerías especializadas ............................................................................ ............................................................................ 32 2.6 Fundición ....................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................... .................... 33 2.6.1 Diseño y modelo.............................................................. ......................................................................................................... ........................................... 34 2.6.2 CLASIFICACION CL ASIFICACION DE PIEZAS .......................................................................................... .......................................................................................... 34
2.6.3 SELECCION Y ALEACION DE METALES PARA FUNDICION ........................ 35 2.6.4 VARIANTES V ARIANTES ................................................................................................................. 35 Bibliografía ................................................................. .................................................................................................................................. ................................................................. 37
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Contenido Imágenes Ilustración 1: Los Metales ................................................................. ............................................................................................................. ............................................ 1 Ilustración 2: Estructura Cristalina De Los Metales....................................................................... Metales....................................................................... 2 Ilustración 3: Estructura Granular De LLos os Metales ....................................................................... 2 Ilustración 4: Hierro (Siderita) .......................................................... ....................................................................................................... ............................................. 3 Ilustración 5: Acero ................................................................................................. ....................................................................................................................... ...................... 3 Ilustración 6: metales no ferrosos............................................................... ................................................................................................. .................................. 5 Ilustración 7: MOLDEO ............................................................................................ .................................................................................................................. ...................... 7 Ilustración 8:SOLDADURA ............................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................. 7 Ilustración 9: ELEMENTOS DEL ANODIZADO ........................................................... ............................................................................... .................... 10 Ilustración 10: CELDA ELECTROLITICA DE ANONIZACION ........................................................... ........................................................... 11 Ilustración 11: destilación ........................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................... 12 Ilustración 12: destilación simple ................................................................. ................................................................................................ ............................... 14 Ilustración 13: destilación fraccionada ....................................................................................... 15 Ilustración 14: destilación a vacío v acío ............................................................................................... ............................................................................................... 15 Ilustración 15: destilación por arrastre con co n vapor ...................................................................... ...................................................................... 16 Ilustración 16: electrolisis........................................... electrolisis............................................................................................................ ................................................................. 17 Ilustración 17: procesos .............................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................. 18 Ilustración 18: electro refinado del Cu y electropocicion del Ag ................................................ 18 Ilustración 20: reducción del agua .............................................................................................. .............................................................................................. 19 Ilustración 19: electrolitos................................................................. ........................................................................................................... .......................................... 19 Ilustración 21: reducción del agua 2 ........................................................................................... ........................................................................................... 20 Ilustración 22: proceso de reducción ...................................................................... .......................................................................................... .................... 20 Ilustración 23: utilidades .............................................................................. ............................................................................................................. ............................... 21 Ilustración 24: proceso de galvanizado ................................................................... ....................................................................................... .................... 23 Ilustración 25: galvanizado en caliente ................................................................... ....................................................................................... .................... 24 .............................................................................................. ................................ 25 Ilustración 26: galvanizado en frio .............................................................. ............................................................................................ ............................... 26 Ilustración 27: cincado electrolítico ............................................................. Ilustración 28: galvanizado electrolítico ................................................................. ..................................................................................... .................... 26 Ilustración 29: galvanizado por laminación............................................................. ................................................................................. .................... 27 Ilustración 30: planta siderúrgica ................................................................................................ ................................................................................................ 28 Ilustración 31: Cronología de los antecedentes del acero .......................................................... .......................................................... 29 Ilustración 32: Complejo Siderúrgico SOMISA, en Argentina ..................................................... 30 Ilustración 33: Laminador de chapas en caliente ............................................................... ........................................................................ ......... 31 Ilustración 34: Fábrica Siderúrgica con Laminadoras ......................................................... .................................................................. ......... 32 Ilustración 35: colocación del metal fundido .............................................................................. .............................................................................. 33
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RESUMEN: La metalurgia es la técnica de la obtención y tratamiento de los metales desde minerales metálicos hasta los no metálicos. También estudia la producción de aleaciones, el control de calidad de los procesos vinculados así como su control contra la corrosión. Además de relacionarse con la industria metalúrgica. Cuando los metales se extraen de la tierra, pocos o casi ninguno de ellos lucen brillantes y poseen las características y aspecto que les solemos atribuir. Por consiguiente, para obtenerse metales que se puedan utilizar en las diferentes aplicaciones humanas (es decir obtener metal puro), es necesario en primer término separar el mineral de la tierra y las piedras desprendidas con él . A continuación expondremos algunos de estos procesos tan esenciales para nuestras vidas cotidianas y algunas de los datos más curiosos e importantes que rodean todo este complejo sistema industrial. Uno de los procesos originales para obtener metales purificados se atribuye a la esposa de un minero. Esta descubrió, al lavar las ropas de su marido, que las partículas de plomo se adherían a la espuma del jabón. Aquel descubrimiento y años de pruebas y mejoras en el proceso, han desembocado en que las compañías mineras de plomo y cobre expongan los minerales a un líquido aireado espumoso. Este concentrado espumosos contiene una sustancia a la que se adhieren las partículas del metal, concretamente se adhieren a las burbujas de dicha sustancia.
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INTRODUCCIÓN: Alrededor del año 3500 a. C. ya existía la metalurgia del hierro esponjoso. Algunas técnicas usadas en la antigüedad fueron el moldeo a la cera perdida, la soldadura o el templado del acero. Las primeras fundiciones conocidas empezaron en China en el siglo I a. C., pero no llegaron a Europa hasta el siglo XIII, cuando aparecieron los primeros altos hornos. En la Edad Media la metalurgia estaba muy ligada a las técnicas de purificación de metales preciosos y la acuñación de moneda. El empleo de los metales, característico de la Edad de los Metales, se debe a que el hombre, motivado por sus nuevas actividades, necesitó sustituir las herramientas de piedra, hueso y madera por otros muchos más resistentes al calor y al frío. El cobre fue el primer metal descubierto por encontrarse en estado casi puro en la naturaleza y fue trabajado al final del periodo Neolítico. Al principio, se le golpeaba hasta dejarlo plano como una hoja. Después se aprendió a fundirlo con fuego y vaciarlo en moldes, lo que permitió fabricar mejores herramientas y en mayor cantidad. Se calcula que hacia el tercer milenio antes de Cristo, después de un difícil proceso de extracción, se empezó a trabajar con el hierro. Este requiere, como se sabe, altas temperaturas para su fundición y moldeado porque así es más maleable y resistente. Los utensilios elaborados con metales fueron: armas, herramientas, vasijas, adornos personales, domésticos y religiosos. El uso de los metales significó un gran avance técnico que repercutió de diversas formas en la conformación de la civilización humana.
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1 LOS METALES Los metales se caracterizan por tener un brillo especial, llamado brillometálico y principalmente por ser excelentesconductores excelentesconductoresdel del calor y la electricidad, porostentar una importantísima densidad y por mantenerse sólidos en temperaturas ambiente, excepto el mercurio que es líquido. Algunos metales se presentan en estado libre como el oro, pero otros aparecen en estados de óxidos, sulfuros, carbonatos, fluoruros, cloruros. etc. Los metales son toxicos como es elcaso del plomo y del mercurio. (TORRES, 1869) (DIAZ COBO)
Ilustración 1: Los Metales
1.1ESTRUCTURA DE LOS METALES Se le llama estructura de los metales a la disposición ordenada y geométrica, en el
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Estructura cristalina Elemento Hexagonal compacta Be, Cd, Co, Mg, Ti, Zn Cúbica compacta Ag, Al, Au, Ca, Cu, Ni, Pb, Pt Cúbica centrada en el cuerpo Ba, Cr, Fe, W, alcalinos Cúbica-primitiva Po
Ilustración 2: Estructura Cristalina De Los Metales
1.1.2Estructura Granular: En esta otra estructura, el elemento fundamental es el grano, constituido por agrupación de cristales. Los granos son de forma irregular y su tamaño oscila entre 0,002 y 0,2 mm, lo cual depende principalmente:
Del proceso de fabricación del metal, ya que, por ejemplo, los aceros desoxidados con el aluminio son de granos más finos que los desoxidados con silicio.
De los procesos térmicos a los cuales fue sometido el metal; por ejemplo, el grano de acero, crece al calentar el material a partir de 850°C. Cuanto mayor es el grano de que está constituido un metal, peores son, en general, sus propiedades mecánicas. Según expertos, es debido a que los materiales de nivel técnico, tales como los utilizados en la industria, contienen siempre una cantidad muy pequeña de impurezas las cuales son muy finas y frágil por lo que se concentran formando capas
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1.2TIPOS DE METALES: Los Metales se pueden dividir en dos grandes grupos: 1.2.1LOS METALES FÉRROSOS
Son aquellos cuyo componente principal es el hierro, pues es abundante y tiene buenas propiedades. Los metales férricos más importantes son: 1.2.1.1Hierro puro: Que apenas es utilizado. 1.2.1.2Acero: Es una aleación de hierro y carbono (que no es un metal), de modo que el porcentaje de carbono es de menos de un 1,7% 1.2.1.3Fundición: Es una aleación de hierro y carbono, de modo que el porcentaje de carbono está entre un 1,7% y un 6,7%.
Fíjate que el acero y la fundición tienen los mismos componentes, pero la fundición tiene más carbono que el acero. (DIAZ COBO)
1.2.1.4Aplicaciones de los metales ferrosos METAL HIERRO FUNDICIÓN ACERO
PROPIEDADES
APLICACIONES
Buenas propiedades magnéticas. Es fácil y difícil de mecanizar. Color negro, muy frágil y dura. Resistente a las vibraciones.
Maquinas eléctricas y transformadores. Componentes eléctricos. Elementos con formas complicadas: Radiadores antiguos, farolas, bolardo, tornillos de banco. Bancadas de máquinas y motores. Perfiles de todo tipo: vigas, redondos, cuadrados, escuadras. Herramientas, patas de mesa y sillas del aula. Vallas de protección de las carreteras. Estanterías.
El más utilizado de los metales Buenas propiedades mecánicas Es tenaz, maleable y dúctil. Aleado con Cr y Ni conseguimos aceros inoxidables.
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1.2.2METALES NO FERROSOS:
Dependiendo de sus características, estos materiales sustituyen con ventaja a los derivados del hierro enmúltiples aplicaciones tecnológicas. Sin embargo, resultan más caros de obtener debido a diversas razones, entre las que destacan las siguientes: • La baja concentración de algunos de estos metales es sus menas. La energía consumida en los procedimientos de obtención, y afino, ya que, la mayoría de los casos, se trata de procesos electrolíticos para los que se emplea energía eléctrica. • La demanda reducida, que obliga a producirlos en pequeñas cantidades. Los metales no férricos de mayor aplicación industrial son el cobre y sus aleaciones: el aluminio, el plomo, el estaño y el cinc. Otros como el mercurio y el volframio, se aplican en ámbitos industriales muy específicos.
Los demás metales casi nunca se emplean en estado puro sino formando aleaciones, es el caso del níquel, el cromo, el titanio o el manganeso Hay un tipo de metales no ferrosos que destacan por su valor económico, llamados metales nobles, los cuales son: oro, plata y platino. (Avilés, 2010) (I.E.S). (ALVAREZ, 2011)
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(DIAZ COBO)
Ilustración 6: metales no ferrosos
1.3PROPIEDADES FÍSICAS Los metales suelen ser duros y resistentes. Aunque existen ciertas variaciones de uno a otro, en general los metales tienen las siguientes propiedades: dureza o resistencia a ser rayados; resistencia longitudinal o resistencia a la rotura; elasticidad o capacidad de volver a su forma original después de sufrir deformación; maleabilidad o posibilidad de cambiar de forma por la acción del martillo, tienen elevada conductividad eléctrica, elevada conductividad térmica. Hay ciertos metales que tienen la propiedad de ser maleables, lo que significa que se pueden cortar en finísimas láminas como el oro, el estaño y el aluminio; y otros como el hierro y el cobre que son tenaces o resistentes resis tentes a la ruptura por tracción.
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Los metales tienen energía de ionización baja: reaccionan con facilidad perdiendo electrones para formar iones positivos o cationes. De este modo, los metales forman sales como cloruros, sulfuros y carbonatos, actuando como agentes reductores (donantes de electrones). (SLIDESSHARE)
1.5PROPIEDADES DE LOS METALES (I.E.S)
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1.6TÉCNICAS PARA TRABAJAR LOS METALES: Para cortar, unir y dar forma a los metales se utilizan algunas de las herramientas que hemos visto y otras técnicas específicas. Moldeo: Consiste en verter el metal fundido sobre un recipiente o molde que contiene el hueco objeto que deseamos, se solidifica al enfriar y se extrae la pieza. Forjado: consiste en dar forma al material calentado mediante un proceso de golpeteo continuo. Laminado: se hace pasar el material entre dos cilindros que consiguen dar le forma al material obteniendo los perfiles metálicos. Troquelado: es una técnica de corte en la que el útil cortante posee una forma determinada. Oxicorte: Se emplea calor y oxígeno elevando la temperatura del metal y un fino chorro de oxígeno que produce la línea de corte. Remachado: permite la unión de chapas por medio de remaches. Soldadura: consiste en la unión de piezas metálicas aplicando calor. En la soldadura blanda se utiliza un soldador eléctrico y se suele utilizar el estaño como metal de aportación. En la soldadura por arco se forma un arco eléctrico entre dos electrodos alcanzando temperaturas muy elevadas que funden las piezas a soldar por la zona de unión así como una varilla (metal aportación). Fresado: la fresadora es una herramienta dotada de una fresa que tiene filos y que rota permitiendo el mecanizado de las superficies de las piezas. Torneado: las piezas que queremos conformar giran sobre su eje, mientras una herramienta llamada torno, avanza y corta. . (Avilés, 2010) (DIAZ COBO)
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1.7PRODUCCIÓN Y USO DE LOS METALES (I.E.S)
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2.-Procesos de purificación de los metales Para producir metales refinados se utilizan generalmente dos tecnologías de recuperación, los procesos piro metalúrgicos y los hidrometalúrgicos. En los primeros se utiliza calor para separar los metales deseados de otros materiales. En estos procesos se aprovechan las diferencias entre potenciales de oxidación, puntos de fusión, presiones de vapor, densidad y/o miscibilidad de los componentes del mineral cuando se funden. Las tecnologías hidrometalúrgicas se diferencian de los procesos piro metalúrgico en que los metales deseados se separan de otros materiales utilizando técnicas que aprovechan las diferencias de solubilidad y/o entre las propiedades electroquímicas de los constituyentes mientras se encuentran en solución acuosa. (RAYMOND, LARRY, WHITTEN, & STANLEY) .
2.1ANODIZADO: El anodizado es un proceso electroquímico industrial aplicado al aluminio para aumentar el espesor creando una densa capa de óxido de aluminio, la cual proporciona al metal una mayor resistencia a la abrasión y a los agentes químicos y atmosféricos. Bien, el proceso de anodizado consiste en obtener de manera artificial películas de óxido de mucho mas espesor y con mejores características de protección que las capas naturales, estas se obtienen mediante procesos químicos y electrolíticos. Artificialmente se pueden obtener películas en las que el espesor es de 25/30 micrones en el tratamiento de protección o decoración y de casi 100 micrones con el procedimiento de
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2.1.1Elementos:
Debemos contar con un recipiente de plástico, en mi caso un „‟taperware‟‟donde quepan las piezas a tratar, estas deben quedar totalmente sumergidas en la solución y sin tocarse entre sí. También tendremos que colocar dentro del mismo un termómetro que nos permita controlar la temperatura del electrolito. El baño debe mantenerse a unos 20º C. de temperatura, como el mismo proceso genera calor es que necesitamos una bandeja con agua donde poder refrigerar el recipiente de anodizado. En algunos casos necesitaremos colocar algo de hielo en el agua para mantener la temperatura. Para sostener las piezas dentro del electrolítico utilizaremos un listón de madera en el que hemos colocado algunos clavos en sus laterales, unimos estos mediante un cable de cobre para que estén conectados eléctricamente entre sí. Las piezas, denominadas ánodo, y que conectaremos al (+ positivo), estarán sostenidas de los mismos mediante unos cocodrilos. Ahora necesitamos construir uncátodo, el cual conectaremos al polo (- negativo), este ira sumergido en el fondo electrolito y estará formado por un aro de plomo con un diámetro un poco menor al del recipiente, clavamos en él una barra de aluminio que salga fuera del líquido para que podamos enviarle corriente a través de ella. Solo falta una fuente de corriente que puede ser un cargador de baterías de 12 volts., algunos cables, cocodrilos y tester si tienen. ti enen. (BARROS, 2004)
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2.1.2Ciclo Típico del Proceso de Anodizado.
Enganche Permite asegurar un adecuado contacto para la conducción de la corriente.
Desengrase Consiste en aplicar agentes químicos que eliminen de la superficie manchas de aceite, grasas u otros
Matizado o Decapado Químico Este proceso se realiza en un tanque con soda cáustica como etapa preparatoria de la superficie del aluminio antes de la anodización
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2.2DESTILACIÓN Proceso que consiste en calentar un líquido hasta que sus componentes más volátiles pasan a la fase de vapor y, a continuación, enfriar el vapor para recuperar dichos componentes en forma líquida por medio de la condensación. El objetivo principal de la destilación es separar una mezcla de varios componentes aprovechando sus distintas volatilidades, o bien separar los materiales volátiles de los no volátiles. En la evaporación y en el secado, normalmente el objetivo es obtener el componente menos volátil; el componente más volátil, casi siempre agua, se desecha. Sin embargo, la finalidad principal de la destilación es obtener el componente más volátil en forma pura. Por ejemplo, la eliminación del agua de la glicerina evaporando el agua, se llama evaporación, pero la eliminación del agua del alcohol evaporando el alcohol se llama destilación, aunque se usan mecanismos similares en ambos casos. (TODOBODEGA) (RAYMOND, LARRY, WHITTEN, & STANLEY)
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La destilación depende de parámetros como: El equilibrio liquido vapor, temperatura, presión, composición, energía.
El equilibrio entre el vapor y el líquido de un compuesto esta representado por la relación de moles de vapor y líquido a una temperatura determinada, también puede estudiarse este equilibrio a partir de sus presiones de vapor. La temperatura influye en las presiones de vapor y en consecuencia de la cantidad de energía proporcionada al sistema, también influye en la composición del vapor y el líquido ya que esta depende de las presiones del vapor. La presión tiene directa influencia en los puntos de ebullición de los líquidos orgánicos y por tanto en la destilación.
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refrigerante, a este producto se le conoce como, “ destilado”, y a la porción que queda en el balón de destilación el “residuo”, se
debe mantener el ritmo de destilación, manteniendo continuamente una gota de condensado en el bulbo del termómetro. Para evitar el sobrecalentamiento de los líquidos es necesario introducir en el balón, núcleos de ebullición y mantener constante el ritmo de destilación. La destilación simple es aplicable en los sistemas que contengan líquidos orgánicos de puntos de ebullición bastante diferenciados, ejemplo: Sistema butano-etanol, agua-metanol. (GERMAN) (GRANADA)
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termodinámica liquido-vapor, y este es el intercambio de energía (perdida) que se verifica la columna de fraccionamiento. (GERMAN) (GRANADA) (GRANADA)
Ilustración 13: destilación fraccionada
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2.2.2.4 Destilación por arrastre de vapor
Es una técnica que sirve fundamentalmente para separar sustancias insolubles en agua y literalmente volátiles, de otros productos no volátiles mezclados con ellas. Esta método es un buen sustituto de la destilación al vacío, y tiene algunas ventajas, ya que la destilación se realiza a temperaturas bajas. El comportamiento de la destilación de un sistema de dos fases miscibles, donde cada líquido ejerce su propia presión de vapor y la suma de ambas es de la presión de operación, y son independientes de las cantidades relativas de la mezcla. Estos hechos constituyen la base para la purificación de
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2.3.3Electrólitos
Un electrolito es una sustancia que al disolverse en agua, da lugar a la formación de iones. Los Los electrolitos pueden ser débiles o fuertes, según estén parcial o totalmente ionizados o disociados en medio acuoso. Un electrolito fuerte es toda sustancia que al disolverse en agua, provoca exclusivamente la formación de iones con una reacción de disolución prácticamente irreversible. (PACIFICO)
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2.4 GALVANIZADO
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