Regional Planning and Zoning

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REGIONAL PLANNING Regional planning deals primarily with the integrated development of human settlements and countryside within a region. It aims at reducing the disparity in the level of living of the people and the wide gulf between urban and rural life. Regional planning can be a tool for balanced development of the nation and coordinate the aims and objectives of the national development planning with the implementation programmes at the micro-level. REGION The term ‘Region’ applies to an area with certain characteristics, often-mere size, by virtue of which it is adopted as a suitable unit for some particular purpose of business and administration. It is also an area which is homogeneous in respect of some particular set of associated conditions, whether of the land or of the people, such as industry, farming, distribution of population, commerce, or the general sphere of influence of a city. A region in general terms is envisaged as a natural unit, in contrast to the artificial unit created for administrative purposes. For planning purposes, whether for planning a town or a country, new unit areas are required, differing in character and extent for particular purposes. Though different areas are used for distinct purposes – say, for planning towns, developing resources, collecting census data, regionalisation of public services, like health and housing and so on – it is essential that there should be as close a geographical co-ordination between them as is practicable. A region is not rigid as some people may think of. Separate regions are delineated for different purposes of study. A region selected for development of agriculture may differ from that for forest development. Similarly a region used for development of educational or cultural activities may not coincide with a region selected for fisheries development or for flood control. Thus, a conceptual common region for purposes of comprehensive planning and development is impracticable, except through the administrative unit, be it a country, state, district or local area. In case of special studies of inter-state importance, wider regions may be delineated cutting across state boundaries. REGIONAL CAPITAL The term regional capital applies to a city which owes its importance to its population, prosperity, antiquity and historical reputation, and which is the head of the region. It is the center of administration, finance and many other activities. Every town or village is in more or less degree a regional capital. Each town works as a service center for the neighbouring area; it is the seat of regional integration for the area around it.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

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CENTRAL PLACE THEORY

Walter Christaller (1933) has discovered that there is some ordering principle governing the distribution of towns and cities, that is, settlements concerned with the provision of goods and services. He has developed a theory regarding the gradation of towns and the degree of centralized services. Working on a theoretical basis and taking the market town with a service radius of 4 kms. As the unit area, he has drawn up a scheme of distribution of centralized services. According to Walter Christaller ‘ a central place is defined as a settlement providing services for the population of its hinter land (known as complementary region), supplying it with central goods and services (educational, leisure and cultural facilities) as well as those of retail and wholesale trade. Basic elements of Christaller theory are  A central good  A central place  A complimentary region     

A region can be served by goods of various types if central places producing different ranges of goods are evenly distributed Central places will be regularly spaced clusters located within hexagonal trading areas and will together form triangular lattices Lower order centers will be located at the gravity centers of the triangles formed by next higher order centers Distances separating the centers will be greater in case of higher order centers and proportionally less for lower order centers All the central places constitute a hierarchy of the smallest villages to the largest town of national importance

In the Central Place Theory (CPT) of Christaller, centrality means importance. It is manifested by the quantity and quality of different services and functions provided by the settlement. It is defined as the functional importance of settlement of the central place. Functions determine the centrality of the centre and not the location. One of the most important characteristics of a central function is that it generates spatial interactions, through the movement of men, materials and ideas between the center place and the complimentary region surrounding it. Rare the function, the higher the range of the interaction.



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Each center has its complimentary area and from the center emanates the centrifugal or distributive functions and from the complimentary areas to the center gravitate centripetal activities or activities of collection. Assumptions of Central Place Theory CPT is not based upon the actual pattern of settlements, but it a geographers dream about the ideal hierarchy as they would like to see and present it on a map. The Central place theory assumes certain situations related to settlements – hamlets, villages, homesteads and cities. These assumptions are: (1) The Landscape is even with an even distribution of natural resources and an even spread of population – invariably assumed to be farmers. “People do the marketing in a circular area”. (2) The radius of the circle of the marketing i.e. ‘the extent of the market’ is the function of transport cost. The circles so overlap that the common areas of overlap provide hexagonal shapes, and all consumers and area are served by various centers. (3) Population is evenly distributed in all the directions and the movement of people in all the directions is unimpeded and involves equal unit transport cost. (4) All people are rational: they want to minimize cost (transport cost and the time cost of traveling in particular) and maximize gains. (5) All the consumers have the same purchasing power (6) Lower order functions are available at lower order places and higher order functions at higher order places, though higher order settlements have many lower order functions also. (7) The relationship between settlement nodes is orderly and not disorderly. There is a hierarchy of functions related to the hierarchy of settlements. In a small village there will be a rural post box and a delivery postman while in a big city most developed modern electronic facilities are available. In every field there are facilities ranging from the lowest to the highest order. (Primary school to institutes to specialize learning and research; village dispensary to specialized institutes of surgery / medical treatment; one counter bank to big banks using computers and exchanging of currency in the world). (8) Each lower or higher order service requires threshold population. A cinema hall will require a minimum film–viewing public to (say) 500 members per show. A threshold population and efficiency of transport system (Low transport cost) will sustain a facility.

Now let us assume a farmer selling his produce at point A as in the diagram. Other farmers are willing to travel distance ‘a’ to purchase from this farmer. Since we have assumed that travel is equally easy in all directions, the market area for the farmer at A is given by the circle with radius ‘a’. In time more producers may develop their own separate market areas as shown in the diagram. With the development of transportation and communications the market areas will expand and there will be an attempt to cover the maximum possible space. With circular market areas we can have a situation as in the diagram. While in the diagram there are several unserved areas (the shaded region in the figure), in the diagram there is considerable overlapping. Neither of these instances gives a stable result. While in the former case the unserved areas will have to be split equally between neighboring areas, in the latter consumers in the shaded region will tend to choose the nearest centre. Ultimately hexagonal market areas will emerge as given in the diagram. It is only this hexagonal arrangement that ensures an efficient division of space between a number of central places.



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HIERARCHY OF SETTLEMENTS Theoretically, human settlements in a region can be classified into different categories and planners to these categories give different names. Some call them as growth point, growth center, growth pole, etc. depending upon their population, function and location. Others call them the village, town, city and metropolis, and still others use different name. Population size alone cannot decide the hierarchy of human settlements. The function of settlement is more important than the size of population. The absence of more towns may make a town serve a wider area and closer proximity of more towns in an area may force some big towns to remain only trading towns and be in a lower order of hierarchy. REGIONAL PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT A village is the center for many of the activities of its countryside, that the town is the center for an area within a radius of about 10 to 15kms, and a great city for a still wider area, which it serves a s a regional center of economic and social organization. Industrial revolution has caused certain towns to grow very rapidly without organic relation to countryside and the services have tended to concentrate in a few centers. DELINEATION OF REGION  Delineation of formal regions: Grouping together of local units with similar characteristics according to certain clearly defined criteria, but which differ significantly from units outside the region on the basis of chosen criteria  Delineation of functional region: Involving grouping together of local units that display a considerable degree of interdependence.



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CHARACTERISTICS OF “GROWTH CENTER” IN REGIONAL PLANNING  Every town or village is in more or less degree a regional capital  Each town works as a service center for the neighbouring area; it is the seat of regional integration for the area around it  Present day activities are to be concentrated in some central area  Consumer markets govern the location of industries, which in turn depend on the population of the town and its environs  Population size aloe cannot decide the hierarchy of human settlements  The function of settlement is more important than the size of population  The absence of more towns may make a town serve a wider area and closer proximity of more towns in an area may force some big towns to remain only trading towns and be in a lower order of hierarchy PLANNING REGIONS OF TAMILNADU With a view to arrive at viable planning regions for the area covered by the state, a series of studies were made using available data and statistics. These studies in spite of their being made in short time an on broad lines only, have nevertheless clearly shown that the state could be defined and delineated into a small number of viable regions suitable for planning purpose. As a first step contiguous areas with common characteristics relating to:  Physical feature  Economic characteristics, particularly a. Agriculture – deltaic regions, irrigation basins and special crop areas b. Industry – Industrial concentrations c. Mineral resources  Demographic characteristics particularly o Population pressure – land/man ratio o Metropolitan and chief urban concentrations, were identified and marked on a state map Next boundaries were drawn to include areas of common characteristics entirely within one region. The dividing line was taken where there was a definite break in the continuity of characteristics or where the continuity was not very much marked. Thus it was possible to identify the following regions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Madras metropolitan region Area covered by Chingleput District and palar basin in the north arcot district Vellore Region i.e. the remaining parts of the north arcot district South arcot region including cuddalore – neyveli lignite are and ponniar basin Salem region Coimbatore region Nilgiris region Tiruchirapalli – Thanjavur region or cauveri delta region Madurai region Tirunelveli region including kanyakumari



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Regional planning is a category of planning and development that deals with designing and placing infrastructure and other elements across a large area. Regional planning zones may encompass several towns, cities or even parts of different states, each of which could have their own planning offices in the realm of "urban planning." The key to regional planning is anticipating the needs of a community or group of communities before those needs arise. Regional planning experts might try to predict how and where the population of a region is going to grow over the next decade and recommend the building of roads and other infrastructure to support that growth before it happens. Region means a tract of land; any area; a portion of earth’s surface. There are two aspects of Region 1) Spatial dimension-objective reality 2) Non spatial dimension-subjective idea-mental construct-spaceless Region-area larger than the community Three locality groups 1. Neighbourhood: A group of people experiencing social interaction with in a localized area with one or two social institutions as the local point or means by which the area can be identified physically is thus a neighborhood. 2. Community is the first social group in modern life that approaches self sufficiency (a group is self sufficient when it possess most of the (important) major social institutions. 3. Region Use of the concept1. To divide the space into relatively homogeneous units 2. To further our analysis and understanding of specific studies Purpose of the concept: 1. Delineation of the space into homogenous units 2. To study the human association with in a specific regional environment 3. To facilitate comparison



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Definition of region is limited by the purpose 1. A large tract of land; a country; a more or less defined portion of earth’s surface, as distinguished by certain natural features, climatic conditions, a special fauna and flora or the like. An area, space, or place of more or less definite extent or character.  Any portion of space considered as possessing certain characteristics-Mill  An area of earth’s surface differentiated (from adjoining areas) by one or more features or characteristics which give it a measure of unity, According to the criteria employed in differentiating regions are termed as physiographic regions, political regions and economic regions.  An area homogenous with respect to certain announced criteria-James  Any portion of earth’s surface where physical conditions are homogeneous can be considered to be a region in the geographic sense-Joerg  A region is a complex of land, water, air, plant, animal and human beings, having spatial relationship, which constitute a definite portion of earth’s surface-Herbertsor  An area with in which historical and environmental factors have combined to create relatively homogeneous social structure and a conciseness of individually. Identification of regions Special Regions (each one being unique) Generic Regions (containing a number of similarities) Synthetic Regions (made up of a number of contrasting though related parts) Homogenous Regions- based on the similarity of one or two or combination of phenomena, alike in all its parts; emphasis similarity-formal regions Nodal Regions-based on the centrality-emphasis interdependence-functional regions Programming/ Planning Regions-based on administrative convenience-emphasis uniformity and convenience, Planning and Programming Regions Elements of a region: 1.Relative homogeneity 2.Uniqueness, distinctiveness and identification 3.Blurred boundaries Types / Classification of regions 1. By using indicators Single factor regions e.g. Physiographic, Agriculture, Economics, Composite regions e.g. backward regions 2. Based on relationship A. Macro e.g. India B. Meso e.g. South India C. Micro e.g. Tamilnadu 3. Based on administrative convenience Region making forces 1. Geographic and physiography 2.History 3.Culture International Geographical Conference distinguished principal categories of regions delineated on the basis of different purposes. 1. Regions- areal units, including statistical areas (the basic tool for research) 2. Regions-tools for action (organizational, e.g. administrative or planning regions) 3. Regions- the goal and results of research i.e. objectively really existing regions which should be studied and delineated. Notes on Town planning and Human settlements


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There are two essentials stand out in the criteria of the region’s delineation; 1) an awareness of regional problems and opportunities, 2) and an anticipated capacity to do something about them through planning and development activities.” The following categories of regions are listed: 1. “Single purpose” or “limited purpose” regions are defined as areas of an intensive development of a specific natural resource-a river basin used mainly for the purpose of irrigation is given as the most typical example of such regions. e.g.Vaigai-Periyar Command Area 2. Frontier regions-usually sparsely populated areas having rich natural resources. An intensive explosion of these resources, creation of heavy industries and new towns are characteristic of the development of such regions (for instance, Guyana in South America, Aswan in Egypt. Etc). North-eastern Frontier Region. Arunachal Pradesh 3. Depressed regions-‘Problems areas” distinguished by much lower living standards than the country as a whole (North Eastern Brazil, South Italy, Comilla in Bangladesh).BIMARU States in India 4. Metropolitan regions and their hinterland (the Capital City Region-New Delhi). 5. Economic regions or administrative-territorial units established under a nationwide plan of regionalization. Export zones To conclude there is no universally acceptable methods of regionalization



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Zoning Zoning is a device of land use regulation used by local governments in most developed countries. The word is derived from the practice of designating permitted uses of land based on mapped zones which separate one set of land uses from another. Zoning may be use-based (regulating the uses to which land may be put), or it may regulate building height, lot coverage, and similar characteristics, or some combination of these. Theoretically, the primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In practice, zoning is used to prevent new development from interfereing with existing residents or businesses and to preserve the "character" of a community. Zoning is commonly controlled by local governments such as counties or municipalities, though the nature of the zoning regime may be determined or limited by state or national planning authorities or through enabling legislation[4]. In Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth (federal) government is not subject to state planning controls. The United States and other federal countries are similar. Zoning and urban planning in France and Germany are regulated by national or federal codes. In the case of Germany this code includes contents of zoning plans as well as the legal procedure. Zoning may include regulation of the kinds of activities which will be acceptable on particular lots (such as open space, residential, agricultural, commercial or industrial), the densities at which those activities can be performed (from low-density housing such as single family homes to high-density such as high-rise apartment buildings), the height of buildings, the amount of space structures may occupy, the location of a building on the lot (setbacks), the proportions of the types of space on a lot, such as how much landscaped space, impervious surface, traffic lanes, and parking must be provided. In Germany, zoning usually includes building design, very specific greenspace and compensation regulations. The details of how individual planning systems incorporate zoning into their regulatory regimes varies though the intention is always similar. For example, in the state of Victoria, Australia, land use zones are combined with a system of planning scheme overlays to account for the multiplicity of factors that impact on desirable urban outcomes in any location. Most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances (exceptions to the zoning rules), usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question. Basically, urban zones fall into one of five major categories: residential, mixed residential-commercial, commercial, industrial and special (e. g. power plants, sports complexes, airports, shopping malls etc.). Each category can have a number of sub-categories. In Germany, e. g., each category has a designated limit for noise immissions (not part of the building code, but federal immissions code). In the United States or Canada, for example, residential zones can have the following sub-categories: 1. Residential occupancies containing sleeping units where the occupants are primarily transient in nature, including: boarding houses, hotels, motels 2. Residential occupancies containing sleeping units or more than two dwelling units where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature, including: apartment houses, boarding houses, convents, dormitories. 3. Residential occupancies where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature and not classified as Group R-1, R-2, R-4 or I, including: buildings that do not contain more than two dwelling units, adult care facilities for five or fewer persons for less than 24 hours. 4. Residential occupancies shall include buildings arranged for occupancy as residential care/assisted living facilities including more than five but not more than 16 occupants. Notes on Town planning and Human settlements


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Zoning types Zoning codes have evolved over the years as urban planning theory has changed, legal constraints have fluctuated, and political priorities have shifted. The various approaches to zoning can be divided into four broad categories: Euclidean, Performance, Incentive, and Design-based. Euclidean Named for the type of zoning code adopted in the town of Euclid, Ohio, and approved in a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court, Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co.[7] Euclidean zoning codes are by far the most prevalent in the United States,[citation needed] used extensively in small towns and large cities alike. Standard Euclidean Also known as "Building Block" zoning, Euclidean zoning is characterized by the segregation of land uses into specified geographic districts and dimensional standards stipulating limitations on the magnitude of development activity that is allowed to take place on lots within each type of district. Typical types of landuse districts in Euclidean zoning are: residential (single-family), residential (multi-family), commercial, and industrial. Uses within each district are usually heavily prescribed to exclude other types of uses (residential districts typically disallow commercial or industrial uses). Some "accessory" or "conditional" uses may be allowed in order to accommodate the needs of the primary uses. Dimensional standards apply to any structures built on lots within each zoning district, and typically take the form of setbacks, height limits, minimum lot sizes, lot coverage limits, and other limitations on the "building envelope". Euclidean zoning is utilized by some municipalities because of its relative effectiveness, ease of implementation (one set of explicit, prescriptive rules), long-established legal precedent, and familiarity to planners and design professionals. However, Euclidean zoning has received heavy criticism for its lack of flexibility and institutionalization of now-outdated planning theory. Euclidean II Euclidean II Zoning uses traditional Euclidean zoning classifications (industrial, commercial, multi-family, residential, etc.) but places them in a hierarchical order "nesting" one zoning class within another similar to the concept of Planned Unit Developments (PUD) mixed uses, but now for all zoning districts; in effect, adding a third dimension to flatland Euclidean zoning.[8] For example, multi-family is not only permitted in "higher order" multi-family zoning districts, but also permitted in high order commercial and industrial zoning districts as well. Protection of land values is maintained by stratifying the zoning districts into levels according to their location in the urban society (neighborhood, community, municipality, and region). Euclidean II zoning also incorporates transportation and utilities as new zoning districts in its matrix dividing zoning into three categories: Public, Semi-Public and Private. In addition, all Euclidean II Zoning permitted activities and definitions are tied directly to the state's building code, Municode and the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) assuring statewide uniformity. Euclidean II zoning fosters the concepts of mixed use, new urbanism and "highest and best use"; and, simplifies all zoning classifications into a single and uniform set of activities. It is relatively easy to transition from most existing zoning classification systems to the Euclidean II Zoning system.



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Performance Also known as "effects-based planning", performance zoning uses performance-based or goal-oriented criteria to establish review parameters for proposed development projects in any area of a municipality. Performance zoning often utilizes a "points-based" system whereby a property developer can apply credits toward meeting established zoning goals through selecting from a 'menu' of compliance options (some examples include: mitigation of environmental impacts, providing public amenities, building affordable housing units, etc.). Additional discretionary criteria may also be established as part of the review process. The appeal of performance zoning lies in its high level of flexibility, rationality, transparency and accountability.[citation needed] Performance zoning can avoid the sometimes arbitrary nature of the Euclidian approach, and better accommodates market principles and private property rights with environmental protection. However, performance zoning can be extremely difficult to implement and can require a high level of discretionary activity on the part of the supervising authority leading to the potential for disenfranchisement among negatively affected stakeholders. Incentive First implemented in Chicago and New York City, incentive zoning is intended to provide a reward-based system to encourage development that meets established urban development goals. [citation needed] Typically, a base level of prescriptive limitations on development will be established and an extensive list of incentive criteria will be established for developers to adopt or not at their discretion. A reward scale connected to the incentive criteria provides an enticement for developers to incorporate the desired development criteria into their projects. Common examples include FAR (floor-area-ratio) bonuses for affordable housing provided on-site, and height limit bonuses for the inclusion of public amenities on-site. Incentive zoning allows for a high degree of flexibility, but can be complex to administer. The more a proposed development takes advantage of incentive criteria, the more closely it has to be reviewed on a discretionary basis. The initial creation of the incentive structure in order to best serve planning priorities can also be challenging and often requires extensive ongoing revision to maintain balance between incentive magnitude and value given to developers. Form-based Form-based codes offer considerably more flexibility in building uses than do Euclidean codes. Form based zoning regulates not the type of land use, but the form that that land use may take. For instance, form based zoning in a dense area may insist on low setbacks, high density, and pedestrian accessibility among other things. As another example, in a largely suburban single family residential area, uses such as offices, retail, or even light industrial could be permitted so long as they conformed(setback, building size, lot coverage, height, and other factors) with other existing development in the area. Form-based zoning relies on rules applied to development sites according to both prescriptive and potentially discretionary criteria. These criteria are typically dependent on lot size, location, proximity, and other various site- and use-specific characteristics. Form based zoning also may specify desirable design features, however when form-based codes do not contain appropriate illustrations and diagrams, they have been criticized as being difficult to interpret. One example of a recently adopted code with design-based features is the Land Development Code adopted by Louisville, Kentucky in 2003. This zoning code creates "form districts" for Louisville Metro. Each form district intends to recognize that some areas of the city are more suburban in nature, while others are more urban. Building setbacks, heights, and design features vary according to the form district. As an example, in a "traditional neighborhood" form district, a maximum setback might be 15 feet (4.6 m) from the property line, while in a suburban "neighborhood" there may be no maximum setback. Notes on Town planning and Human settlements


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Since the concept of form based codes is relatively new, this type of zoning may be more challenging to enact. One version of form-based or "form integrated" zoning utilizes a base district overlay method or "composite" zoning. This method is based on a euclidian framework and includes three district components - a use component, a site component and an architectural component. The use component is similar in nature to the use districts of euclidian zoning. However, with an emphasis on form standards, use components are typically more inclusive and broader in scope. The site components define a variety of site conditions from low intensity to high intensity such as size and scale of buildings and parking, accessory structures, drivethrough commercial lanes, landscaping, outdoor storage and display, vehicle fueling and washing, overhead commercial service doors, etc. The architectural components address architectural elements and materials. This zoning method is more flexible and contextually adaptable than standard euclidian zoning while being easier to interpret than other form based codes. It has been utilized primarily for contemporary "conventional" standards and has not yet been fully developed for traditional standards



Regional Planning and Zoning

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