English 2 Sample of Review of related Literature and StudiesFull description
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Related Literature and studies: Most of the developing countries consist of mainly two S ystems of handling waste. The first is a formal system which is managed by the government. govern ment. It normally involves the cities’ municipalities whereby the municipality has the responsibility to ensure safe reliable and cost effective collection and final disposal of solid waste. This often re!uires large financial resources than in most cases allocated on the public budget therefore ma"ing it almost impractical to dea l with the e#tent of the problem of waste management.$%ombya &'''( In addition this type of system is fre!uently characteri)ed as inefficient and e#pensive. The second is the informal system which engages mainly private dealers such as communities of scavengers and private associations they represents a significant part of the economy as they recogni)e the potential part of certain materials such as plastic bottles bottles paper and cans for domestic purposes. In some areas this operation includes charging some amount of money to residents for pic"ing up their garbage. The involvement in municipal waste includes collecting sorting recycling and selling waste. $*+I,- &''( The two systems however are sub/ected to hav ing very little interference and cooperation in all aspects of waste handling ma"ing the problem of waste management even worse and persistent. $ Mungure &''0( 1 master’s master’s Thesis by 2ulianne Mungure entitled %overnanc e and community co mmunity participation in Municipal Solid 3aste 3aste management case of 1rusha and ,ar es Salaam Tan)ania Tan)ania the author au thor cited a study from 3orld 3orld 4an" 1ccording to the 3orld 4an" estimates of $566&( between '.7 and 5.0 8g per capita cap ita of waste is produced every da y in developed countries’ urban areas and appro#imately '.9 to '.6 "g is produced in the cities of developing deve loping countries. 3aste 3aste generation therefore tends to increases with an increase in p opulation and economic growth which together add up to the problem of waste management posed not only on the environment but also on the
public health. 3hile environmental problems are mostly related to the effect of waste pollution open landfills and bloc"ed drainage systems e#poses severe health problems to the population and especially the children in many developing countries. Most municipalities lac" the efficient collection techni!ues as a result not all of the waste generated is collected. This is further evidenced by the increasing dumpsites and abandoned wastes and deposit in the city streets and open places in residential areas. The uncollected waste piling up then becomes a breeding ground for disease carrying organisms leading to diseases such as cholera and malaria. $ Mungure &''0( Solid waste management is generally considered a local issue however the central government and national institutions play a big role and carry considerable responsibility in the whole system of municipal waste management.The central and local government relationship has an important implication in the governance of municipal solid waste management in terms of approval of laws and policies related to waste management and funds allocation. It is here where decentrali)ation of power from the central governments to local authorities and within local authorities themselves becomes viable $8ironde 5666(. 3aste management benefits the whole community in a particular area. veryone can en/oy the benefit of the service without causing additional cost to anyone else. Since it is a shared service and everyone is part of it it therefore can be viewed as a public commodity. The community then e#pects the authorities responsible for waste management to be responsible and "eep the environment clean. The success of municipalities in waste management is in most cases li"ely reflected on the availability of resources as well as presence of good governance. $8ironde L and ;hidego M 5667(
<%overnance and community participation in Municipal Solid 3aste management case of 1rusha and ,ar es Salaam Tan)ania. Mungure 2ulianne &''0. Master’s Thesis at ,epartment of ,evelopment and =lanning> http:??vbn.aau.d"?files?599@AA0'?BinalCThesis.pdf
Dountries have to build the capacities to ta"e on at competitive levels more comple# activities that use emerging technologies and sustain rising wages. This entails building the institutions and providing the support to create new s"ills information and capabilities. These ingredients of success are hardly a secret. E In all this countries need consciously to build their technological capabilities through concerted innovation and learning. To get the productivity gains promised by such efforts they need in addition to put in place the institutions to support their proactive integration into the global flows of trade capital and technology. $*+I,- &''(
To fully understand the fundamental problems in the management of solid waste it is important to scrutini)e on the governance atmosphere in connection with the policies structure implementation strategies as well as the economic framewor" of a country. Moreover some "ey elements in the process of governance which are essential for the performance of the management systems in use have to be considered these include the effectiveness of the managerial and organi)ational structure accountability and transparency in decision ma"ing. Burthermore the degree of participation with informal structures such as community based institutions the public and private organi)ations and the coordination between formal and informal structures for collection transportation and disposal of waste $-nibo"un et al 5666(.
<-nibo"un 1.%. and 1. 2. 8umuyi 5666: %overnance and waste management in 1frica. In: Managing the Monster: *rban 3aste and %overnance in 1frica 1.%. -nibo"un $ed.( International
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Responses when applied individually have been able to handle the issue of waste management only partially. Thus it becomes imperative to integrate efforts in a planned manner. Integrated waste management implies that decisions on waste handling should ta"e into account economic $including technical in relation to its costs( environmental social and institutional dimensions. conomic aspects may include the costs and benefits of implementation the available municipal budgets for waste management and spinEoff effects for other sectors in the economy in terms of investments.< 3aste Management =rocessing and ,eto#ification M.8.D. Sridhar 2oe 4a"er et. 1l Dhapter 5'> 3aste management problems are closely associated with society its beliefs and its attitudes. The flow of waste from the place of origin to the site of disposal has human dimensions besides the application of technology given the concept of a city or region functioning as an anthroposphere. ffective resource management must be prescribed to closely fit particular societal norms and values since governance is in constant flu# and operates in an FFestablished milieu’’ even in epistemic societies with the ultimate aim of e#ercising power in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development. Guman rights and individual liberty within the limits imposed by democratic principles must also be respected $+sirimovu 566A(. 8nowledge and attitudes govern the practices. There is need to motivate
change toward more environmentally sound attitudes at various levels for e#ample home school and wor"place. ducation plays a "ey role. 3hen developing educational programs to motivate changes in behavior it is important for their success to include sta"eholder input and to understand inEdepth behavioral aspects $-"pala 566@(. -bviously the methodology options will differ with sociocultural value content of each community and nation. %enerally but particularly in developing countries there are two sets of options for educating about waste clearance: formal and informal these being the incorporation of waste management into the curriculum on environment and sustainable development $for the formal( and the establishment of environment and conservation clubs $for the informal( $-"pala 566@( < 3aste Management =rocessing and ,eto#ification M.8.D. Sridhar 2oe 4a"er et. 1l Dhapter 5'> http:??www.millenniumassessment.org?documents?document.5A.asp#.pdf
There are two serious failures that arise in the management of solid waste. The first relates to the e#istence of negative e#ternalities in the individual decisionEma"ing over waste generation and disposal. 3hen individuals decide on how much to consume and what to consume they do not ta"e into account how much waste they produce. 4ecause the e#ternal costs of waste generation $such as air and water pollution( are ignored by individuals more waste is produced and disposed of than is socially optimal. The second serious failure relates to the ways in which waste collection services are typically financed. More often than not individuals pay for waste disposal in lump sums through general ta#es or flat payments to local governments or private collectors. Gence waste disposal costs are not fully reflected in the prices households face at the margin. ven if these flat charges included both the private and
e#ternal costs of waste production and disposal individuals would still face )ero prices for additional waste produced and would thus tend to produce $and dispose of( more waste than if they were to pay for the additional garbage according to its social marginal cost. $-D, &''0( The literature review also revealed that Hthe provision of an ade!uate infrastructure for recycling system that does not represent high opportunity costs to households are stronger influences on behaviour than environmental awareness $-D, &''&(. nvironmental pressure from households is pro/ected to significantly increase by &'' $-D, &''0a(. -ne of the "ey determinants of household consumption patterns is economic growth with the relative economic importance of countries such as Dhina and India increasing. Steep growth in the world population $from appro#imately @ billion in &''' to over 0.& billion in &''( will also be an important driver of consumption. The trend towards ageing of the population urbani)ation and changing lifestyles will influence the structure of consumption as well. 1 mi#ture of Hpublic and Hprivate considerations is li"ely to enter into households’ decisionEma"ing processes. Individuals’ actions can bring about benefits that will be en/oyed by individuals collectively $e.g. improved air !uality( in addition to private interests $e.g. considered best for themselves(. In the scope of this volume individual choices where both Hpublic and Hprivate benefits can be considered include the following types of decision: to recycle or notJ to buy a fuelEefficient vehicle or notJ to consume organic foods or not. Bor instance by recycling households may reduce wasteErelated environmental impacts $public benefits( and reduce their e#penditures on waste collection $private benefits( at the same time. In a similar way purchasing organic food products may result in lower use of pesticides $public benefits( and improved personal health $private benefits(J purchasing of a fuelEefficient vehicle may reduce emissions of greenhouse gases $public benefits( and reduce lifeEcycle vehicle costs $private benefits(. The purchase of
energy and?or water efficiency appliances may as well reduce pressure on the environment $public benefits( and e#penditures and water and?or energy use $private benefit(.