Environ nvi ronmental mental Standa Standards rds Materi aterial al Re Recovery co very and Recyclin ecycl ing g of o f Wast Waste e
KSA
Presidency of Meteorology and Environment
PME Reference
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia National Environmental Guidance Material Recovery and Recycli ng of Waste
Art ic le I – Pr eli mi nar y
1)
“ PME” refers to the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, which is designated as the responsible authority for the protection of the environment and the development of environmental protection standards in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Definitions “BPEO” means Best Practicable Environmental Option; this is the option that provides the most benefits or least damage to the environment as a whole, at acceptable cost, in the long term as well as in the short term.
“recyclable materials” refers to post-use materials that can be recycled for their original purpose or for different purposes.
“CFCs” refers to chlorofluorocarbons.
“recycling” is the separation and collection of wastes materials for the subsequent transformation or remanufacture into usable or marketable products or materials.
“Competent Agency” where referenced, refers to the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment or its designated representative. “disposal” means the discharge, deposit, injection, dumping, spilling, leaking, or placing of any waste into or on any land or water so that such waste or any constituent thereof may enter the environment or be emitted into the air or discharged into any waters, including ground waters.
“storage” means all operations intended to keep or contain wastes and other hazardous, toxic or radioactive substances for the purpose of treatment, transportation, recycling or disposal. “transporter” means a person engaged in the offsite transportation of waste by air, rail, highway or water and is anyone who transports the trackable waste from its place of production or storage to another location.
“feedstock” refers to the raw material required for the process. “Generator” is a commercial or industrial organisation which produces or stores trackable waste and arranges for this waste to be sent for storage, recycling, treatment or disposal at another location via an authorised transporter.
“treatment” is any means or technique of altering the physical, chemical or biological properties of wastes used to neutralize such wastes; utilize substances or energy contained therein or released by them; and transform the hazardous wastes into wastes that are non-hazardous, less hazardous or safer when transported, stored, disposed of, prepared for storage, or reduced in volume.
“ GER” refers to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s General Environmental Regulations 2001. “HCFCs” refers to hydrochlorofluorocarbons. “hazardous waste” is a waste with properties that make it dangerous or capable of having a harmful effect on human health and/or the environment.
2)
a) This document may be cited as the National Material Recovery and Recycling of Waste Guidance Document for KSA. This guidance standard revises the current General Standards for the Environment (specifically document number 1409-01) issued by the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME).
“KSA” refers to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. “ MRF” refers to Materials Reclamation Facility. “mulch” is any loose material placed over the soil to control weeds and conserve soil moisture. Usually this is a coarse organic matter, such as leaves, clippings or bark, but plastic sheeting and other commercial products can also be used. “ parameter” shall refer to a chemical, physical or biological measurement factor as listed.
Citation
3)
Timescales for implementatio n a) The effective date of this standard is 01/05/1433H corresponds to 24/03/2012G.
‘plant’ shall refer to the equipment, including machinery, tools, instruments, and fixtures and the buildings containing them, necessary for an industrial or manufacturing operation
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subject to the appropriate consultation and will be notified to facilities by the Competent Agency.
Purpose a) This Guidance Document has been compiled to provide PME with a foundation on which to develop an effective programme to implement best practice initiatives in relation to recovery and recycling of waste materials within KSA. b) Diverting waste for recovery or recycling, where possible, not only reduces the environmental impact of waste but also reduces demand on natural resources. Recycling and recovery are therefore an important part of the progressive transition towards better resource management. c) PME is charged with protecting the natural environment and therefore is obliged to issue controls over waste activities in KSA. This guidance document aims to assist in minimising harm and ensuring the protection of the environment, taking account of what is affordable and practicable.
Ar ti cl e II – Why Int ro du ce Reco ver y and Recy cl in g Initiatives? a) Recycling is a series of activities that includes collecting recyclable materials that would otherwise be considered waste, sorting and processing recyclables into raw materials and manufacturing raw materials into new products. b) Recovering and making ongoing use of our resources makes good sense for the KSA economy. Finding new uses for recovered materials creates jobs and income for KSA. It also reduces costs to rehabilitate the environment, reduces disposal and other costs of managing waste. c) The recovery and recycling of waste materials has the following resultant benefits;
5)
Scope a) This Guidance Document relates to the recovery and recycling of waste materials and follows the internationally recognised waste management ‘hierarchy’ of;
6)
i)
prevention (incorporating avoidance and waste reduction);
ii)
recycling (incorporating reuse, recovery and waste utilisation);
iii)
treatment;
iv)
disposal (as the last resort).
waste
i)
preserves raw resources;
materials
ii)
reduces the amount of waste that requires disposal;
iii)
reduces energy pollution;
iv)
provides business and job opportunities;
v)
reduces greenhouse gas emissions;
vi)
reduces pollution associated with use of virgin materials.
use
and
and
natural
associated
b) Therefore, PME should consider the implementation of initiatives on waste prevention and waste minimisation as a first step before relying on waste recovery and recycling schemes to divert waste from disposal.
d) Recycling should be practised whenever waste prevention is not possible, provided that any such recycling is cost effective, taking into consideration environmental benefits, financial costs and community wishes.
c) This Guidance Document extends to municipal, commercial, institutional and industrial wastes (see Waste Classification Standard) so as to provide PME with a holistic picture on which to consider the introduction of recycling and recovery initiatives across KSA. Preventing waste and making better use of resources requires varied approaches and by necessity must include the waste collected under the control of the municipalities if recovery and recycling are to be realistic options for waste diversion in KSA.
e) The effectiveness of recycling schemes depends on demand for returned material and an adequate supply of recyclable waste.
Periodic review a) As a minimum, the Competent Agency shall undertake a periodic review of this standard every 5 years.
f) Where recycling and recovery are the Best Practicable Environmental Option for particular waste streams, then these options should be encouraged by PME. This is achieved by encouraging development of recycling infrastructures, developing the generator responsibility initiative, reviewing manufacturing and purchasing standards to ensure that they do not unnecessarily discriminate against recycled materials.
Ar ti cl e III – Con si der ati on s in Desi gn in g Reco ver y and Recycling Programmes
b) Where new information suggests that adjustments are required to this standard, all changes will be
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involved in recycling versus treatment and disposal should therefore be made. This is explained in the Guidance Document ‘Best Practicable Environmental Option for Waste Disposal’.
Approach a) No single approach can be applied universally across all sectors or waste streams. Geographic location, population numbers and density, existing infrastructure and socioeconomic circumstances all affect programme design and performance.
b) A range of economic instruments should be introduced to encourage diversion of waste from landfill and incineration and to develop more waste recycling. These may include landfill taxes, incineration taxes, direct waste charging schemes and tradeable waste allowances. Increasing the costs of waste disposal to the manufacturer through increased waste disposal costs or the setting of regulatory recycling targets encourages the development of low-waste-producing processes and is an incentive to recycle.
b) In a country such as KSA with large distances and a relatively low population density, local and regional approaches are preferred where possible. Systems need to balance the desirability of resource recovery and re-use against the environmental, economic and social disadvantages of transporting products and materials long distances for treatment, recovery or sale. c) Designing an efficient recycling programme requires a systems approach. Decisions about collecting, marketing, and processing recyclables are interrelated. Making a decision about one component of a recycling programme without taking into account the impact of that decision on other components may lead to an inefficient and overly expensive programme, prone to public criticism and low participation. Since the public (citizens, families, and businesses) must be relied on to participate by separating a high percentage of uncontaminated recyclable materials, the programme must be designed with public convenience and support as a primary objective.
c) The recyclable components of waste include paper and cardboard, plastics, glass, metals and organic or putrescible materials, made up of garden and food wastes, which are suitable for composting. However, it is not technically feasible or economically desirable to recycle all the components of waste. Detailed analysis of the solid waste producing sectors can highlight the potential areas where recycling of specific materials would be most beneficial.
3)
Promotin g Demand for Waste Material a) If recycling is to be viable, industries able to use secondary or recyclable materials must be identified in KSA.
d) Comprehensive publicity and information campaigns, addressed at householders and individuals in companies, are essential to encourage the separation of recyclable material from waste and also to ensure a high quality of sorted waste with the minimum of contamination by incorrectly placed materials.
b) The fundamental approach in recycling must be to foster an environment in which development and the commercialisation of recycled products are encouraged. c) Actions to promote recycling and increasing demand for recyclable products in KSA may include;
e) Designing an effective recycling programme requires a careful analysis of the variety of technical options available in light of the resources and goals specific to a community. f) Each community is unique; others can provide ideas, but each community or regional cooperative should develop its own programme. Community decision making should follow a coordinated process. Following a sequential approach reduces the likelihood of overlooking an essential issue or giving it insufficient attention. The long-term success of a programme can be jeopardized by inadequate planning or poor implementation. g) For recycling to work, everyone has to participate in each phase of the loop. From government and industry, to organisations, small businesses, and people at home, every Saudi citizen can make recycling a part of their daily routine. 2)
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i)
governmental assistance to provide incentives to develop technology which can use waste and ensure its introduction in KSA; particular attention should be given to establishing viable recycling industries in regional areas;
ii)
the promotion of research and development into recycling of materials;
iii)
co-operative action with industry associations to establish guidelines for industry practice which encourage voluntary selection of products with recycled content;
iv)
the implementation and operation of a Waste Exchange Register or an Industrial Symbiosis Programme.
Key Issues a) Recycling may not always be the best environmental or economic option for a particular type of waste and a full analysis of the processes
4)
Overcoming Resistance to Recycling
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Where technologies to recycle materials exist but are not fully used, incentives should be used to encourage their use. Providing information to industry about the availability of wastes suitable for recycling is necessary and waste exchange registers can be effective in this regard. b) Industry waste reduction targets and agreements may also have advantages and these should be reviewed for potential application in KSA.
c) The collected materials are taken either directly to a materials reprocessor or to a MRF where further processing takes place to sort, clean and grade the waste before transfer to the reprocessing plant.
3)
a) Collecting and processing secondary materials, manufacturing recycled-content products, and then purchasing recycled products creates a circle or loop that ensures the overall success and value of recycling.
b) Wastes may be placed in one container for sorting after delivery to the MRF. Alternatively, waste may be segregated into separate containers or sections of a container.
Collection and Processing
c) The advantages of the collect system include convenience for the waste Generator and higher recovery rates of recyclable materials.
a) Collecting recyclables varies from community to community, but there are four primary methods: kerbside, bring centres, buy-back centres, and deposit/refund programmes. 4) b) Regardless of the method used to collect the recyclables, the next leg of their journey is usually the same. Recyclables are sent to a Materials Reclamation Facility (MRF) to be sorted and prepared into marketable commodities for manufacturing. Recyclables are bought and sold just like any other commodity, and prices for the materials change and fluctuate with the market. The recovery of waste materials may involve their transfer to a composting facility or a waste-to-energy facility.
5)
b) This system has the advantage of being low in capital costs, easily accessible and can also provide an easy method of segregating clean readily marketable materials. The disadvantage is that the acceptance of the schemes by the public can be low. Additionally, the sites may become unsightly with litter spillage and can be an attraction for vandalism.
Manufacturing a) Once cleaned and separated, the recyclables are ready to undergo the second part of the recycling loop. More and more of today's products are being manufactured with total or partial recycled content. b) Common items that contain recycled materials include newspapers and paper towels; aluminium, plastic, and glass soft drink containers; steel cans; and plastic laundry detergent bottles.
Bring System a) The ‘bring’ system involves the segregation of recyclable materials, for example, paper, plastic and glass bottles, from municipal waste by the public and delivery to a centralised collection site. The sites may be bottle and paper banks for the disposal of many types of material or the local s crap merchant.
Direct Recycling Industrial waste recycling includes direct recycling, where waste material is recycled back into the manufacturing process in-house within the factory. Consequently, the material does not enter the waste management process.
c) At the outset, collection programme developers must decide the best way for citizens, institutions and businesses to prepare recyclables for collection and the best way to collect the materials. Local conditions should be taken into account when designing a collection programme.
2)
Collect System a) The ‘collect’ system involves house-to-house kerbside collection of designated recyclable materials, source separated by the householder and placed in separate containers. Equally, recyclable commercial and industrial waste that has been segregated at source by the Generator from other non-recyclable waste streams may be collected directly from the waste generator’s premises.
Art ic le IV – Th e Recy cl in g Pr oc ess
1)
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c) Recovered materials are also used in innovative applications such as recovered glass in roadway asphalt or recovered plastic in carpeting, park benches and pedestrian bridges. 6)
Purchasing Recycled Product s Purchasing recycled products completes the recycling loop. By "buying recycled", governments, as well as businesses and individual consumers, each play an important role in making the recycling process a success.
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d) Alternatively, if a community’s goal is to preserve landfill space and conserve resources, the community may decide to strongly support source reduction and to collect a larger variety of items, even if collecting some materials results in higher unit costs.
Art ic le V – Pr epar in g an Eff ect iv e Recy cl in g Pr og ram me
1)
Twelve Component Process a) Regardless of whether or not national recycling legislation or standards are in place, developing and implementing a recycling programme should involve a 12-component process. By following this systematic approach, programme managers will improve the likelihood of programme success. The process consists of the following components: i)
identify goals;
ii)
characterize recyclable composition and accessibility;
iii)
assess and generate political support;
iv)
assess markets and market development strategies for recyclables;
v)
assess and choose technologies collection and processing;
vi)
develop budget and organisation;
vii)
address legal and siting issues;
viii)
develop start-up approach;
ix)
implement education programme;
3)
Characterise Material
Quantity
and
Composi tion
of
a) The cornerstone of successful planning for a waste management programme is reliable information about the quantity and type of material being generated and how much of that material collection programme managers can expect to prevent or capture. b) Without a good idea of the quantities that can be expected, decisions about equipment and space needs, facilities, markets, and personnel cannot be reliably made.
publicity c) This also identifies large weight and volume waste items to target for source reduction and recycling programmes and gives baseline data for assessing whether goals were achieved.
x)
begin programme operation;
xi)
supervise ongoing programme and continue publicity and education; and
xii)
2)
and
e) Once goals are determined, the scope of the intended programme must be defined. Will the programme be community wide? Will a regional approach cover all sectors, including residential, commercial, institutional and industrial sectors? By answering these questions, the proposed programme will be put into focus. Defining programme scope will help develop programme organisation and ensure waste characterisation analyses are useful and cost effective.
quantity,
for
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review and adjust programme.
Identify Goals and Scope of the Programme a) Each region or community should begin planning for source reduction and waste management programmes by first discussing the goals it is trying to achieve. b) A key goal should be source reduction which will eliminate the need to manage waste. There are also many other valid goals; these include protecting the environment, providing local business and job opportunities, and saving resources. c) By defining goals, each region or community can better determine the type of programme it wants. For example, if a community is interested only in the economic benefits of a recycling program, it may choose to recycle only the most cost-effective items, such as aluminium. Items that are more costly to collect or have low market prices such as plastic may be excluded from the programme.
d) Depending on the size of the programme and the resources available to the community, there are a variety of waste characterisation techniques that can be used. First, there are modelling techniques that apply generic waste generation rates and other community features to predict the waste quantities and types. These techniques are inexpensive and can provide a general idea of the quantities and types of waste expected for a programme just starting up. e) More accurate in describing the waste stream, but also more expensive and time consuming to implement, are the physical separation techniques. These techniques sample the community waste stream itself, using statistically significant sampling techniques to determine a community waste generation profile. Depending on community goals, both have a place in developing an effective waste management programme. f) Some form of waste characterization estimate is crucial to programme success, because later decisions will be based on this information. g) The waste management option being considered will help determine the degree of detail needed from the waste characterisation study. For a landfill
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project, only gross waste volume estimates are needed to help determine space needs. This is also true of estimating garden waste volumes for a windrow composting programme. h) For these types of management strategies, generic and historically based waste generation rates may provide acceptable accuracy. i) For other alternatives, accurate predictions of waste volumes and composition are crucial to longterm programme success. Accurate characterisation will allow certain waste to be targeted for source reduction efforts. Many facets of a recycling programme, including the size of an MRF, the volume of recyclable material to be sold, and equipment and personnel requirements for collection are dependent on accurate characterisation of the waste stream. j) For a waste-to-energy project, both sizing the facility and calculating the quantity of energy that the facility will generate are based on characterising waste volume and type. k) In the long term, the quantity of waste available for the facility will be affected by other options, including source reduction, recycling and composting. Inaccuracies in waste characterisation studies for these alternatives can severely and negatively impact the economic viability of the programme.
4)
Assess Markets and Market Strategies for Recyclables
Development
a) The ultimate success of recycling may be dependent on stable, reliable markets for recyclables. Unless a community has markets for the materials it collects, it may end up temporarily storing some materials and later landfilling some or all of them. b) If citizens are asked to separate materials for recycling and some are subsequently landfilled because markets are depressed or nonexistent, a negative political backlash may result; community support for recycling could fail and the program may be jeopardized. c) Securing stable, reliable markets for recyclables is a twofold process; i)
it requires marketing decisions based on a clear understanding of the infrastructure of recycling;
ii)
it demands that recycling planners, government officials and the public share responsibility with the private sector in adopting and implementing market development strategies.
d) In recycling, the market infrastructure includes two tiers: intermediate markets and end-use markets. Intermediate markets are commonly categorized as transporters, processors, brokers and converters.
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End-use markets use recovered materials feedstock to manufacture new products.
as
e) Transporters are companies that collect recyclables or are waste haulers who have expanded their business to include collecting recyclables from residents and businesses. Most waste transporters will accept unprocessed recyclables, either sourceseparated or mixed. These materials are commonly marketed to another intermediate materials handler or domestic market; collectors usually do not export materials. f) Processors accept and modify recyclables from residential or business sources by sorting, baling, crushing or granulating. Processors include local, private buyback centres and privately or publicly operated MRFs. These buyers sell to other intermediate buyers or domestic end-use markets and do not generally use export markets. Processors may be material-specific (for example, processing mixed paper into various goods). g) Brokers buy and sell recyclable materials, often arranging to have them shipped from one location to another by transporters or processors. The broker receives a fee for this service. Depending on the situation, some brokers provide processing services, while others only move pre-processed recyclables. Brokers generally sell to converters or to end-use markets and commonly export materials to foreign countries. The advantage of brokering is that brokers have a variety of markets available to them and can switch materials from one market to another depending on demand and other factors. Sometimes brokers are able to quickly market a slightly contaminated load for a lower price through other market contacts. Brokers may require all materials collected to be marketed through them so that they receive the more lucrative materials as well as materials with higher levels of marketing risk. h) Converters are companies that take recyclable materials in a raw form and alter them so they are readily usable by a manufacturer. An example of a converter is a company that produces pulp from paper; the pulp is then used by a paper mill. i) End-use markets are public or private sector entities that purchase recovered materials from a number of sources and use those materials as feedstock to manufacture new products. Communities may want to market some materials directly to end-use markets. Although direct marketing eliminates the need to pay a broker, the community assumes the risk if the buyer rejects a slightly contaminated load and there is no alternative market readily available. If, however, a community has a well-run programme producing high-quality recyclable material, direct marketing can work well. Direct marketing to end users can relieve the community of broad swings in market prices and provide benefits to local manufacturers. As with any operation of this kind, local marketing must be carefully developed and the materials value well publicised.
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large companies to locate a plant in a given region by providing incentives.
j) Market development involves the attempt to create an even balance between the supply of recyclables and demand for products manufactured from those materials. Just as each recyclable material has unique marketing characteristics, so market development initiatives vary by material. Depending on the material, strategies can be demand or supply directed, require more stringent material specifications or be a combination of two or more types of strategies.
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i) More recent business development concepts for encouraging market growth focus on establishing local “linkages.” Linkage studies identify the flow of goods and services in a specified region. Conducting a linkage study is one of the first steps toward eventually encouraging existing industries to use recovered materials generated locally and to encourage new business start-ups to do the same. This market development concept also lends itself well to local economic development.
Developments and Improvements a) Part of an ongoing continuum, technology developments such as those described above depend on effective public/private partnerships that provide funding opportunities and guarantee supplies of recyclables. b) Consumer demand, government research and regulations, and private sector initiatives will necessitate continuing these efforts. c) Local governments can work with businesses to encourage them to adopt new technologies that will advance local recycling markets; providing financial assistance when possible will be an additional incentive. d) Guaranteed supplies of recyclables, along with guarantees from local governments or businesses to purchase products manufactured with local recyclables, can also be an incentive.
6)
Education Strategies a) Education is one of the most vital components to help foster market development among the public and private sectors. Educational programmes must involve every sector of the population, including government officials, industry representatives, transporters, haulers and processors of recyclables and the general public. b) PME officials responsible for setting solid waste policy at the local and national levels must be educated to understand the impact of policy decisions. Whether procurement of recycled products is mandatory or voluntary, government employees should be educated to pursue procurement practices favourable to recycled products whenever possible.
e) Development of better vehicle, rail and overseas transportation networks to move recyclables to domestic and export markets may strengthen markets for many recyclables.
c) Industry officials need to be made aware of the importance of recycling at their facilities and of using recycled products. Perhaps even more important, industry managers should be provided with information regarding available supplies of recyclables, developing recycling technologies and funding sources.
f) Three primary approaches to developing new markets for recyclables are generally associated with business development:
d) Creating a working group including industry and PME officials is an important mechanism to facilitate such information sharing.
i)
attracting an established recycling industry to locate a manufacturing facility;
ii)
encouraging existing local manufacturers to use or increase their use of recyclables; and
e) The transport and processing sector is a vital link to market development, since it is through this sector that a reliable supply of quality recyclables is generated. Education programmes geared toward helping transporters understand the importance of quality control at the kerb or bring sit es are vital.
iii)
assisting local entrepreneurs with the start-up of small-scale manufacturing businesses, which utilize recyclables.
f) Likewise, educating public and private sector processing facility employees is important to ensure that manufacturers’ specifications will be met.
g) However, it is important to note that most legitimate businesses will not be attracted or encouraged by a supply of recyclables alone; they need to know that sufficient demand for their products exists to make their operation financially viable.
g) The general public may be one of the most vital links to market development and educational programmes for this sector are, therefore, of utmost importance. The public must be educated to understand the importance of participating in recycling programmes and following local requirements regarding contaminants and acceptable materials.
h) The most traditional approach to recycling market and economic development has been to encourage
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h) In addition, efforts must be made to increase public awareness of recycled products sold at retail outlets.
7)
products. To simplify a discussion of these materials, the list can be grouped into six major categories of post consumer recyclables:
i) Finally, information about standardised definitions for “recycled” products needs to be disseminated to the public so individuals can understand and assess the environmental and recycled claims made by manufacturers.
i)
Plastics;
ii)
Paper;
iii)
Glass;
j) To implement an effective local education programme, it is useful to appoint an education committee to work with recycling staff or volunteers. Committee members should include representatives from the local Competent Agency, manufacturing industries, the commercial sector, recyclers (transporters/processors), and the public. The committee should devise a comprehensive local education strategy. The members will also educate the other members of their respective interest groups.
iv)
Metals;
v)
Tyres; and
vi)
Green waste.
Start-Up Approach a) After deciding what materials will be recycled and estimating the quantities of each, the community is ready to develop a basic programme design. For most communities, developing a design will involve making three important decisions; i)
ii)
the community must decide collection method(s) to use;
1)
Plastics a) Plastic polymers make up a high proportion of waste. There are two main types of plastic: i)
thermoplastics: these soften when heated and harden again when cooled; and
ii)
thermosets: these harden by curing and cannot be re-moulded.
b) Thermoplastics are the most common type of plastics and they are the most easily recyclable.
what
the community must decide how the mechanics of the collection system will work;
c) Table 1 shows typical applications of the main plastic types. Table 1: Primary Applications of Plastics
the community must decide what type of processing and storage facility is needed to prepare materials for marketing.
Plastic Type Thermoplastics High density polyethylene (HDPE)
b) To develop a unified, efficient programme, each decision must be made in relation to the others.
Low density polyethylene (LDPE)
c) When analyzing available collection and processing arrangements, the interaction between the public and private sectors should be carefully considered.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polystyrene (PS)
d) A thorough analysis of potential collection and processing options should include an analysis of the benefits and costs associated with all public and private sector alternatives, including a combined approach.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Polypropylene (PP)
iii)
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e) Recycling collection and processing systems must be designed to incorporate the requirements of the provisions in national Waste Standards and Regulations, where relevant.
Thermosets Epoxy resins
Phenolics
Polyurethane
Art ic le VI – Was te Rec yc li ng Mater ial s The list of potentially recyclable materials is long and it continues to grow as technological developments enable more materials to be recycled into more
Polyamide Polymethylmethacrylate
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Typical Application Bottles for household chemicals, bottle caps, toys, housewares Bags, sacks, bin liners, bottles, cling film, containers Food trays, bottles, toys, cable insulation, flooring Egg cartons, yoghurt pots, drinking cups, tape cassettes Carbonated drinks bottles, food packaging Margarine tubs, crisp packets, packaging film Automotive parts, electrical equipment, adhesives Appliances, adhesives, automotive parts, electrical components Coatings, cushions, mattresses, car seats Packaging film Transparent all weather electrical insulators
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Styrene copolymers
General mouldings
f) Waste paper is graded by countries in Europe into different categories based on quality:
appliance
d) The market structure for plastics is the least developed among recyclables because of the recent development in recycling capabilities. However, most plastics can be densified locally by flattening, baling or granulating, and sold either to converters, where the resins are turned into pellets, or directly to domestic or export end users for remanufacture into such products as soda bottles, lumber, carpet and carpet backing, flower pots and insulation. e) In many countries, plastic is collected from commercial and industrial sources as separate plastic fractions, much of which is recycled back into the plastic product manufacturing process.
iii)
Group 3: High;
iv)
Group 4: Kraft (chemical sulphate pulp); and
v)
Group 5: Special.
k) Emissions to air and water and solid waste can be reduced when recycled paper is used in comparison to virgin paper. In addition, recycling can reduce energy requirements by up to 40% and water consumption by as much as 60%.
a) Recovered paper is classified as newsprint, cardboard, mixed paper (including magazines, junk mail and boxboard), high-grade de-inked paper (white office paper) and pulp substitute (usually mill scrap).
e) The use of recycled paper for quality printing and writing paper is low due to quality issues. The demand for recycled waste paper is very dependent on market conditions, particularly as waste paper is an internationally traded commodity.
Group 2: Medium;
j) Lower quality waste paper is used mainly for packaging material and constitutes the main route for recycled paper and cardboard.
Paper
d) The major use for recycled paper is in the packaging sector for such applications as packaging case materials, carton boards and wrappings.
ii)
i) Intermediate grades of waste paper, such as newspapers, require further processing to de-ink the paper and can be recycled back into the newspaper industry for newsprint.
h) Applications for plastic mixtures include plastic fencing, industrial plastic pellets, traffic cones, playground equipment and garden furniture.
c) Shredded paper can be used to make animal bedding, mulch, moulded pulp products, and cellulose insulation.
Group 1: Ordinary;
h) The higher quality grades collected, such as paper mill production scrap and office waste, require less processing and are used as a primary paper pulp substitute in applications such as printing paper and tissues.
g) The separated plastic material is processed by the end user by being granulated or pelletised, melted or partially melted, and extruded to form the end product. The recycled plastic may be added to virgin plastic during the process.
b) Paper mills, the most common end users of recovered paper, use the material as a feedstock to manufacture recycled paper and paper products, such as newsprint, corrugating medium and tissue products. Other uses of recovered paper include roofing felt and chipboard.
i)
g) Within each group the different categories of waste paper and board are designated using a standard numbering system. The degree of reprocessing of the recycled paper and board required depends on the grade of paper collected as waste and the end use.
f) The plastics in municipal waste are mainly in the form of plastic film and rigid containers. Plastic film is extremely difficult and highly impractical to recycle. However, plastic containers and bottles are more easily collected separately or segregated from the waste stream.
2)
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l) However, there is a practical limit to the number of times that paper can be recycled because the fibres eventually break down and become too small for the papermaking process. Estimates suggest that a maximum number of four recycles is possible.
3)
Glass a) Glass is made from the relatively cheap raw materials of silica sand, limestone and sodium carbonate. However, glass making is energy intensive and glass recycling can reduce the energy used, since recycled glass melts at a lower temperature than the raw materials. For example, increasing the amount of glass waste or ‘cullet’ in the furnace to 50% can result in a 15% savings in energy. b) Glass may therefore be typically broken for size reduction or crushed into cullet and ultimately sold to glass manufacturers as furnace-ready cullet after metal caps and rings, labels, and other contaminants are removed.
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a) Tyres represent a special challenge to solid waste and recycling managers. In the past most tyres were re-treaded but with the advent of steel-belted radials and cheaper new tyres, fewer tyres are being retreaded.
c) Waste glass bottles, jars and other containers comprise the main glass waste in municipal waste. The main system for collecting glass is through bottle banks, kerbside collection schemes and through MRFs.
4)
d) Municipal glass waste consists mainly of clear, brown and green bottles and jars and must be separated into the colour categories to avoid potential contamination. Glass waste in the form of mixed colour cullet is rarely recycled.
b) There has been growing resistance to landfilling of tyres, since tyres do not degrade easily in landfills as they are bulky and take up valuable landfill space while preventing waste compaction. They can also cause instability within the landfill and may ‘float’ to the surface of the landfill site.
e) Alternative markets for glass include road surfacing material, art glass, sandblasting grit and fibreglass insulation from post industrial window pane glass.
c) Open dumping and stockpiling of tyres creates the risk potential for accidental fires or arson resulting in high pollution emissions to the atmosphere and water courses.
f) Recovered glass markets usually opt for the least contamination. Recycling programme planners must address this concern for high-quality recovered glass, as well as for other materials.
d) Consequently, there is a requirement for an increase in re-use, re-treading, recycling and energy recovery from scrap tyres. e) Using chipped or shredded tyres as a fuel source is a growth area. Electricity generating facilities, pulp and paper mills and cement kilns are the most common processes to use scrap tyres in this manner.
Metals a) Scrap metals are derived either from industrial operations or as post-consumer metal products collected from the waste stream. b) The industrial operations scrap metal is a purer form of the metal since it comes directly from the manufacturing industry. It is usually of known quality and composition and often uncoated and is therefore readily recycled back into the metal production process. c) Scrap metal collected as post-consumer scrap is made up of discarded, used or worn-out products and, as such, usually contain residues of other contaminant components. d) Metals have the advantage over other recyclable materials in that the characteristics of the metal are not changed by the recycling process and metals can be recycled over and over again. e) Ferrous scrap derived from the recycling of iron and steel comes mainly in the form of bulky waste such as vehicles, household appliances, equipment, bridges, cans and other iron and steel products. f) Nonferrous scrap metals include copper, lead, tin and precious metals.
Tyres
f) Crumb is fine-grained or granulated tyre material obtained from the shredding and/or grinding of tyres. The main uses for rubber crumb are as children’s playground surfaces, sports surfaces, carpet backing and as absorbents for oils and hazardous and chemical wastes.
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Green Waste a) Green waste includes vegetation and plant matter from household gardens, municipal parks and gardens and commercial landscaped gardens. b) Composting of green waste is a viable alternative to landfilling. In addition to composting green waste, some sites may also accept source separated kitchen waste. c) Composting of green waste is not as widely used as it might be for two reasons in particular: i)
the low cost of landfill relative to composting: until recently, it has not been cost effective for waste management companies to select composting over landfill; and
ii)
the lack of a market for the product: the principal barrier to more widespread use is the negative perception of composted waste as a product and the problem of the absence of recognised standards for waste derived compost.
aluminium,
g) Both ferrous and nonferrous metals can be prepared for sale to markets through some combination of processing by flattening, baling and shredding of the material. In some cases, processors may melt the metal into ingots before selling it to enduse markets.
5)
PME Reference
d) Obtaining a consistent quality product from composting requires a consistent quality waste feedstock with little or no contamination. Countries with composting plants have frequently been beset
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Presidency of Meteorology and Environment
with problems over odour and public nuisance, particularly where controls on accepted materials and/or operational practices are inadequate.
exchanges and back-up power supplies. These can be considered in the same way as automotive batteries.
e) In order to ensure composting is a success it needs to be carefully managed. It can require expensive capital investment for shredders, plant, drainage, roofing and enclosed housing.
e) Consumer batteries can be categorised into s inglelife types such as zinc-carbon, alkaline manganese and various button cells, and rechargeable varieties such as nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride. Much of these types of batteries are disposed of as municipal wastes.
f) Alternatives for green waste include incineration with energy recovery and chipping or shredding to create mulches.
f) All batteries contain hazardous substances in various quantities. Where consumer batteries are not municipal wastes, for example batteries for business appliances, then they may be classified as hazardous waste (such as nickel cadmium batteries or mercury dry cells).
Art ic le VII – Hazar do us Wast e Recy cl in g a) Hazardous wastes do not cease to be dangerous simply because they are being reused, recycled or recovered. Many hazardous waste recycling operations may pose serious health and environmental hazards and must be subject to compliance with national Waste Standards and Regulations.
g) However, consumer battery recycling is restricted by the cost of collecting, segregation and recycling of the materials compared with their value. In the past there were also problems with hazardous components, especially mercury, in batteries which made recovery of other materials technically difficult.
b) Reuse, recycling and reclamation should be viewed instead as ways of managing hazardous wastes which, if properly conducted, can avoid environmental hazards, protect scarce natural resources and reduce reliance on raw materials and energy.
h) Recycling of batteries is becoming more commercially viable as mixed battery feedstock becomes mercury free. Further, clearer labelling of different battery types or standard colour coding can make segregation at source or after collection easier.
c) The list of potentially recyclable hazardous wastes is long and it continues to grow as technological developments enable more wastes to be recycled into more products. To simplify a discussion of these wastes, three categories of hazardous recyclable wastes: batteries, CFCs and waste oils, are provided as examples below. Other hazardous waste categories could be similarly analyzed.
1)
PME Reference
i) Waste reduction (by volume and by hazardousness) might be achieved by greater use of rechargeable batteries and/or reducing the power requirements of battery driven appliances. j) As part of designing an effective recycling programme, assessment of the range of collection infrastructures and reprocessing options that might have the potential to recover large quantities of spent consumer batteries from industrial, institutional, commercial and municipal sources should be made.
Batteries a) Apart from a number of specialist varieties, batteries can conveniently be classified into two main types: automotive and consumer. The former can normally be recycled, but the vast majority of the latter are usually thrown away. b) The components of lead acid, automotive batteries can be separated for recycling purposes. The lead and acid contents of used batteries are classified as hazardous and whole batteries may be delivered to a central point for recovery. The lead plates can be sent to smelters for re-smelting, the polypropylene cases can be sent for recycling into other polypropylene items such as video casings, and the sulphuric acid can be re-used as low grade acid, regenerated or sent for neutralisation and disposal. c) There is generally an economic incentive for the recycling of lead acid batteries, due to the value of the lead metal in the battery plates. d) Similar lead acid batteries are used for purposes other than motor vehicles such as telephone
2)
CFCs (chlor ofluo rocarbo ns) (hydrochlorofluorocarbons)
and
HCFCs
a) Refrigerators and freezers contain dangerous CFC and HCFC gases that damage the ozone layer. They are found in both the cooling circuits and the polyurethane insulation foam. b) Each unit must be carefully processed to remove these compounds and to prevent their escape into the atmosphere. c) They should be taken away for degassing, where the coolant gases are removed and stored by a specialist for recycling. The compressor is drained and carefully removed and then the appliance is shredded. This enables the recovery and recycling of the steel, copper, aluminium and plastic components. d) The polyurethane foam can be powdered and degassed. It can then be used in a range of products.
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Presidency of Meteorology and Environment
PME Reference
Waste Oils a) Waste oils include waste mineral (petroleum) oils from automotive, industrial and other sources. Most lubricating oils contain additives which produce a specified performance from the oils. Additives may include rust inhibitors, detergents or alkaline compounds, and constitute between 5% and 25% of their formulation. Waste oils can contain traces of the additives and contaminants following use, including metals or combustion products. b) All waste oils are classified as hazardous waste (see the Waste Classification Standard). However, improved refining and formulation have reduced the hazardousness of many oil products. Oil is a highly polluting substance and is often responsible for more pollution incidents than any other group of substances.
h) Direct combustion of waste oils: waste oil is also burned in small space heaters without any pretreatment. i) Vegetable Oil from commercial and industrial waste origins is a relatively small source of waste oil. This should be dealt with through specialist contractors, who will normally pay for sufficiently large collections on the order of 80 litres or more. j) Oil Filter Recycling: Most garages and workshops should be able to send oil filters for recovery at specialist plants. The standard process is to compress the filters, squeezing out the oil, which can then be treated. The solid remainder, compressed into a block, can then be passed to metal reprocessing plants, although the contaminated nature of the filters means that the consignment has to be treated as hazardous waste.
c) There are a number of sources of waste oil, including: automotive engine, transmission and gear oils; industrial gear, hydraulic, compressor, transformer and cutting oils; and others including marine and aviation oils. d) There are three main waste management options for dealing with waste oils: regeneration; combustion after treatment; and combustion without treatment. e) Regenerating waste oil: waste industrial lubricants can be regenerated through laundering, reclamation or re-refining; i)
laundering is most appropriate for waste oils of a known composition. Laundering involves heating, filtration, de-watering and the addition of fresh additives before the oil can be re-used;
ii)
reclaimed waste oils can be used for secondary purposes, for example, as a mould release in foundries. Treatment may involve centrifuging and/or filtering to remove impurities;
iii)
waste oil can be re-refined into a base stock oil ready for blending. A number of processes are used, with varying success both in terms of environmental and economic performance.
f) Combustion after treatment: waste oil can be combusted after treatment. Different levels of treatment can be applied to the waste oil depending on the desired application. Low level treatment allows waste oil to be blended into fuel oil which, for example, can be used in road-stone plants to dry limestone for road construction. g) Waste oil can also be treated to produce a fuel with similar properties and emissions levels to that of virgin fuel. Waste oil is passed through a flash column to remove water, and then through distillation, sediments, heavy hydrocarbons, metals and additives are removed.
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