Program Goal IV: Instructional Strategies — Education Department — CSB/SJU
Page 1
Education Educati on Department > Knowledgebase for Teacher Teacher Educati Education on > Program Goal IV: Instructional Strategies
Program Goal IV: Instructional Strategies An important aspect of our departmental philosophy is the fundamental belief that that all students students can learn. We realize, however, that students learn in different ways and at different rates. Therefore, we agree with Joyce , Weil and Calhoun (2004 (2004)) that teachers must not not only be knowledgeable about about the content they teach , but must also know know and be committed to making decisions that involve the use of a variety of instructional strategies and approaches appropriate to to the diverse learning needs of students. This document describes the models and techniques that we find most important. important. Models of teaching : Drawing from the major philosophical and psychological beliefs regarding how humans
learn, Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2004) (2004) have described four families of instructional strategies : The Informational-Processing -Processing Family Family,, The Personal Family, Family, The Social Family, and the Behavioral Systems Family Famil y. Thes These e famili families es of strategies strategies are merged below with with the more tradit traditional ional termi terminolog nology y of cognitivism, cogniti vism, humanism and behaviorism. behaviorism. Cognitive Cognit ive Approaches : Joyce Weil, and Calhoun's Calhoun's Information-Processing Information-Processing Family consists consists of techniques
that are clearly cognitive in nature. They emphasize ways of enhancing students students ’ innate desire to make sense of the world by acquiring and organizing information, solving problems, problems, and developing concepts and language for conveying them. Though constructivism is often considered separately from information processing approaches, it is clearly a cognitive teaching technique and, therefore, will be described within this category . Other techniques consistent with cognitivism are discovery discovery learning learning,, reception learning, and reciprocal teaching. These techniques are also described below. Discovery Discov ery Learning : Often associated with the work of Jerome Bruner (1966 (1966)) and Jean Piaget
(1960), discovery learning refers to the process of obtaining knowledge through one’s own efforts . In the classroom, this form of learning often occurs though structured structured or directed activities that require students to manipulate, manipulate, investigate, and explore materials that may lead lead them to discover important principles principles or relationships. relationships. (Schunk, 2000). Therefore, students are not presented with concepts and ideas in their final form form,, but rather are required to formulate them for themselves. Constructivism : Though structured discovery learning has long been a part of the science
curriculum, the latest trend in discovery-based teaching, constructivism , has resulted in renewed and multidisciplinaryinterest in discovery-based learning. Constructivism holds that meaningful learning occurs when students construct and give their own meaning meaning to knowledge based on their prior experiences experiences and background knowledge (Fosnot, 1996 1996). ). It also recognizes that challenging and helping students to correct their preconceptions preconceptions /misconceptions is essential to effective learning (Schunk, 2000). 2000). Ryan and Cooper (2004 (2004)) noted that when effectively utilizing constructivism, teachers actively involve students in real situations, activate students’ prior knowledge before presenting new information, information, question to provoke students’ thoughts , and structure experiences so that new information is available in readily readily accessible forms (p.288). Reception Learning , often associated with the ideas of David Ausubel (1963), this form of
learning involves receiving receiving and processing structured information that has been presented presented by the instructor. As described by Lefrancois (2000), the associated technique of expository teaching emphasizes that for the most effective learning learning,, teacher presentations should be organized from general to specific (subsumption) and include the use of advance organizers (introductory information designed to to help students prepare for learning and rememberingnew information information), ), expository organizers (descriptions of key concepts ), and comparative organizers (an emphasis on similarities and differences between new and previously-learned material material). ). Reciprocal teaching , an approach designed to increase comprehension of expository material,
draws heavily from information processing theory. This approach teaches students the cognitive techniques of questioning questioning,, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting in order to promote reading comprehension (Lefrancois, 2000 2000). ). Humanism : Joyce . Weil, and Calhoun's Calhoun's (2004) personal and social families are consistent with humanism’s
emphases on holistic learning and the development of human potential. As these authors noted , "The personal models models of learning begin from the perspective of the selfhood of the individual. They attempt to shape education so that we come to understand ourselves better better , take responsibility for our education education , and learn to reach beyond our current development to become stronger, more sensitive, and more creative in our search for high quality teaching" (p. 8). In describing the social family family,, these authors noted that working together often generates a collective energy called synergy. "The social models of
file://localhost/C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Khair/My%20Documents/E-Book/Instructional%20Strategies.mht
25/08/2008 10:02:28 PM
Program Goal IV: Instructional Strategies — Education Department — CSB/SJU
Page 2
teaching are constructed to take advantage of this phenomenon" phenomenon" (p. 9). Cooperative Cooperative learning, learning, discussion-based learning, confluent education, and thematic teaching are specific teaching techniques associated with humanismas well as the personal and social families. These approaches are summarized below: Cooperative Coopera tive Learning : Cooperative learning is an instructional method in which "students "students work
together in small groups so that that each memberof the group can can participate in a clearly assigned, collective task" (Lefrancois, 1999, p. 539). 539). As noted by Putnam (1997), (1997), these these tasks "engage students in discussions discussions with others, enable students to participate in authentic learning activities relevant to real life, and encourage students to teach one another" (pp. 8 & 9). In order for cooperative learning activities to be successful , they must contain five critical components: components: positive posit ive inte interdepe rdependen ndence, ce, indivi individual dual accou accountab ntability ility , coope cooperativ rative e skills, face- to-face inte interacti raction, on, and group reflection and goal setting (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). The various approaches to cooperative learning include Donald and Roger Johnson's Johnson's Learning Together (Johnson & Johnson, 1994); Teams -Games -Tournaments , developed at John's Hopkins University (Slavin, (Slavin, 1995); and Classroom m , developed by Elliot Aranson (2000). the Jigsaw Classroo (2000). Research on cooperative learning has
consistently shown such benefits as improved self-esteem, acceptance acceptance of students students with academic disabilities, better attitudes toward school, and enhanced abilities to work cooperatively (Slavin, 1995). 1995). Though cooperative learning is most consistent with the humanistic model, it is employed by educators with other perspectives as well. Discussion -Based L earning : According to Kindsvatter, Wilen, and Ishler (1996), teaching through
discussion, as opposed to recitation, involves the facilitation of student-to-student interaction and conversation related to instructional outcomes. These authors described three types of discussion: guided discussion (promoting student understanding through processing information), information), reflective discussion (stimulating critical thinking about issues and problems), problems), and small-group -group discussion (in which students assume responsibility responsibility for their learning). learning). Phases of discussion include entry (identification of a problem, problem, issue, or topic ), clarification (establishment of procedures and definition of terms and concepts related to the topic ), investigation (questioning, (questioning, maintaining discussion, and requesting students students to support their opinions), and closure (summarizing, connecting discussion to the lesson, and applying discussion outcomes to other situations) (Kindsvatter, Wilen, and Ishler, Ishler, 1996). Research on the effective use of discussion indicated that this technique is as effective as other teaching techniques and may be more effective in achieving higher-level higher-level outcomes . (Kindsvatter, Wilen, and Ishler, 1996). 1996). While nearly all cooperative learning activities involve discussiondiscussion- based learning, only those activities that require students to work toward the accomplishment of a mutual or collective task could be classified as cooperative learning. Confluent Education : Based on the work of educators such as George Brown Brown (1971), (1971), confluent
education involves instruction instruction that integrates the affective and cognitive cognitive domains within the same lesson. Therefore, it focuses on students’ feelings and values values as they relate to the content being taught taught and is an important means of promoting holistic learning and the development of students’ full potential (Lefrancois , 1999). Thematic Teaching : This strategy for interdisciplinary teaching, which involves connecting
academic disciplines through a central theme or topic, is an important means of implementing holistic development. A detailed description of thematic teaching is provided within Goal I: Subject Matter. Behaviorism : Drawing particularly on the the work of B. F. Skinner, Skinner, the behavioral systems systems family consists of
techniques designed to take advantage of human tendencies to modify behaviors based on experiences experiences and related positive and negative consequences . The Madeline Hunter Hunter (1980) (1980) model, model, Instructional Theory into Practice (ITIP), draws heavily upon behaviorism, particularly the operant conditioning instruction on , involves the use of an anticipatory set to paradigm paradig m. This model, which is often c alled direct instructi
focus student attention , behavioral objectives to specify outcomes, modeling or demonstrating demonstrating,, checking for understanding, understanding, guided practice , independent practice practice , and closure (Kellough and Roberts, 1991). 1991). According to Joyce , Weil, and Calhoun (2004 (2004), ), "Direct instruction plays a limited but important role in a comprehensive education program" (p.313). Similarly, Ryan and Cooper (2004) contend that behavioral psychology is not as evident in today's classrooms as in decades past. Never the less, the behavioral modell rema mode remains ins usef useful ul in teaching teaching basic skills as well as in special special education education and remedial remedial sett settings. ings. As noted earlier in this document, no one instructional model or approach is best for all learners or all all situations. Therefore, it is important for teachers to be knowledgeable of techniques from all of Joyce , Weil, and Calhoun' Calhoun's s families when making decisions about instruction . Furthermore, Furthermore, teachers need to understand the principles behind a particular strategy in order to to provide a rationale for its use. Only after teachers have mastered several approaches will they will be able to combine them to benefit a
file://localhost/C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Khair/My%20Documents/E-Book/Instructional%20Strategies.mht
25/08/2008 10:02:28 PM
Program Goal IV: Instructional Strategies — Education Department — CSB/SJU
Page 3
diverse range of learning styles and provide learners with multiple entry points to understanding (Gardner, 1999). Differentiated Differe ntiated Instruction : Not necessarily directly associated with any of the above models or "families,"
differentiated instruction is an important aspect of effective teaching. Though the term is fairly new, educators have long recommended that teachers know and use a variety of techniques to adapt instruction to the individual developmental levels and learning styles of their students students . We concur with Ryan and and Cooper (2004) (2004) that differentiated instruction is a commitment on the part of the teacher to find a match between between the learner and instructional instructional content . Carol Ann Ann Tomlinson (1999 (1999)) contends that in order to effectively differentiate instruction, teachers must be be committed to knowing their their students students ’ interests, readiness levels, and learning styles. With this knowledge knowledge,, teachers teachers can effectively differentiate content , process, and product. Tomlinson maintains that while the core of the the content must remain the same, same, the manner that students are engaged in learning learning varies depending on learning styles and the readiness of the student. The end product, how the student student demonstrates what is learned,, may also be varied. learned varied. Effective differentiated instruction often involves the use of scaffolding , a process in which students are given various various forms of support or assistance while learning learning new or difficult tasks (Larkin, 2002). 2002). The amount and form of scaffolding must be varied depending on the students ' individual indivi dual nee needs. ds. Instructional Technology : As school districts embrace the the use of technology , particularly computer computer
technology, it is increasingly important that beginning teachers have sufficient knowledge and skills to effectively use this this teaching teaching tool. That meaningful learning can occur when the use use of instructional technology is based on sound instructional decisions is not in dispute. Research emerging in recent recent years is helping us map out the terrain of "best practices " to guide the novice teacher ’s use of computers and related devices. Summariesof such research and practice describe the types of learning, the nature of learners, and the instructional settings that may influence decisions about the use of instruction mediated by computer technologies. For example, Kimble (1999 (1999)) examined a collection of research studies and concluded that teachers trained to make optimal use of the software available to to them can help their students students experience greater efficiency in "drill and practice " learning as well as greater effectiveness effectiveness in developing critical thinking skills.. Reviewing some of the same studies skills studies as examined by Kimble, Schacter (1999 (1999)) concluded that thoughtful use of computer assisted or computer mediated instruction generally encourages student learning learn ing at a rate greater than than for those without without acce access ss to such technology. technology. Not all who explore this area take such an optimistic view. Fleming and Raptis (2000) (2000) offered a somewhat more pessimistic perspective in their review of educational educational technology research during the past decade . Working from a topographic analysis of 307 articles describing possible effects of educational technology on the learning of preschool through high school students , these authors found that only one-fourth of these these articles offered empirical support. Fewer still examined students’ education in school settings. In summarizingthe body of literature they reviewed, Fleming and Raptis concluded concluded that most of the literature written during the period from 1990 to 1999 consists of academic and anecdotal discussion, global input-output input-output program descriptions, and attitudinal attitudinal surveys. Even the majority of empirical studies consist mainly of methods comparisons, comparisons, global measures measures of academic achievement, and attitudinal attitudinal changes rooted in a behavioral behavioral framework framework of analysis. These findings compel Fleming and Raptis Raptis to conclude that without meaningful empirical explorations of how key features or traits of educational technology influence learning, learning, "no strong or coherent argument for educational technology ’s use in schooling may be found in the literature of recent years (p. 6)." Adding to a more cautious view are the questions Jane Healy poses in her her article, “The Mad Dash to Compute”” (1999). Compute (1999). She questions the effects of extended computer use on children’ children’s s developing bodies and brains and asks at what age should this technology technology be introduced. Healy and other writers (Healy, (Healy, 1999;; Brabec, Fisher & Pitler, 2004) 1999 2004) have also noted that educators must keep keep in mind that technology is a only a tool and must be used both carefully and cautiously. It is not an end in itself. While it may not be possible to completely document how or why technology might influence students’ learning,, personal computers networked to the Internet are increasingly evident in the classrooms where learning the prospective educators we prepare will teach . Internet "sites" "sites" offer exciting connections between students and ideas that could never have been provided without the growing classroom and home use of interactive "te "telematics" lematics" that Thornburg (1999) (1999) believes will focus our efforts on three foundational skills: skills: how to find information, information, how to determine the relevance of that information to the task at hand, and how to determine if the the relevant information is accurate . Thornburg’s Thornburg’s future for elementary and secondary education suggests that empirical studies rooted in past notions of teaching and learning learning might not reveal much about the influence of connected , interactive electronic learning learning.. "Unless our thinking about education is transformed along with our continuing expansion of telematic technology in the classrooms, our technology investment will fail to live up to its investment" (p.1).
file://localhost/C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Khair/My%20Documents/E-Book/Instructional%20Strategies.mht
25/08/2008 10:02:28 PM
Program Goal IV: Instructional Strategies — Education Department — CSB/SJU
Page 4
Technological Literacy developed by the Keeping Thornburg's ideas in mind mind,, the Standards for Technological Technology for All Americans Americans International Technology Education Association (ITEA) and their related Technology Project (Dugger (Dugger,, 2001) 2001) are most helpful helpful.. Thousands of technology teachers , science and mathematics mathematics
teachers , and other experts collaborated collaborated on the development of these standards to guide the the education of all students in kindergarten through 12th grade. The twenty standards provide educators with a clear clear vision of what what students should know and and understand understand about technology. Each of the standards has been translated into a planned curriculum utilizing instructional activities activities centered on developmentally developmentally appropriate practices , a tremendous tremendous boon to educators seeking ways to make effective classroom decisions regarding the use of instructional technology (Dugger (Dugger,, 2001). References :
Anderson, L. M. (1989 (1989). ). "Learners and learning." learning." In Maynard C. Reynolds (Ed.), Knowledge base for the beginning teacher . (pp. (pp. 101-116). 101-116). Oxford: Oxford: Pergamon Pergamon Press. Aranson, E. (2000). The Jigsaw Classroom Classroom.. Wesleyan University: Social Science Network. Available at http://www.jigsaw.org/index.html Ausubel, D. D. (1963). The The psychology of meaningful learning learning.. New York: Grune and Stratton. Biehler, R. and Snowman, Snowman, J. (1997 (1997). ). Psychology applied to teaching (8th Ed). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Brabec K., K., Fisher K., K., & Pitler, Pitler, H. (2004 (2004). ). Building Better Instruction. Learning & Brown,, G. (Ed.) Brown (Ed.) (1971). (1971). Human teachings for human learning learning:: An introduction to confluent education . New York: York: Viking Pres Press. s. Bruer,, J. T. (1999 Bruer (1999). ). In search of…brain-based education. Phi Delta Kappan Kappan,, 80, (9), 648 to 652. Bruner, J. ( 1966 1966).Toward ).Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University. Dugger Du gger W. E. (2001 (2001). ). Standards for technological literacy. Phi Delta Kappan Kappan,, 82, (7), 513-517. 513-517. Egan, K. K. (2003 (2003). ). Start with what the student knows or what the student can imagine. imagine. Phi Delta Kappan, 84, (6). Fosnot , C. (editor) (1996). (1996). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives , and practice . New York: Teachers Teachers College Press. Gibbons,, M. (2004 Gibbons (2004). ). Pardon me, me, didn’t didn’t I just hear a paradigm shift? Phi Delta Kappan Kappan.. 85, (6), 461-467. Hardiman, M.M. (2001). (2001). Connecting brain research with dimensions of learning. learning. Educational Leadership, Leadership, 52-55. Healy, J. M. (1999 (1999). ). The mad dash dash to compute. Ryan & J. M. Cooper (Eds.) Kaleidoscope (pp 414-418) . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company Company.. Hunter, M. (1980). Teach more- faster. El Segundo, CA: TIP Publications. International Technology for Education Association (2003). Technology for all Americans Project. Available Availa ble at - http://ww http://www.iteawww.org/T w.iteawww.org/TAA/TAA.html AA/TAA.html Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. Learniong together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning. (4th ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Johnson , D. W., Johnson , R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991 ). Active learning : Cooperation in the college classroom . Edina , Minn.: I nteraction Book Company . Joyce , B. B. & Weil , M. (1986 ). Models of teaching . New Jer sey : Pren tice Hall .
Joyce , B., B., Weil, M., Calhoun, Calhoun, E. (2004 (2004). ). Models of Teaching, Teaching, seventh edition. Boston: Allan and Bacon. Bacon. Kellough, R. and Roberts, P. (1991 (1991). ). A resource guide for elementary school teaching (2nd. Ed). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company Company.. Kimble, C. (1999 (1999). ). "The impact of technology on learning." learning." Aurora, CO: Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory. Available at www.mcrel.org
file://localhost/C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Khair/My%20Documents/E-Book/Instructional%20Strategies.mht
25/08/2008 10:02:28 PM
Program Goal IV: Instructional Strategies — Education Department — CSB/SJU
Page 5
Kindsvatter, R., Wilen, Wilen, W., and Ishler, Ishler, M. (1996). Dynamics of effective teaching ( 3 rd Ed.) White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers Publishers.. Larkin,, M. (2002). Using Scaffolded Instruction to Optimize Learning Larkin Learning.. The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education (ERIC EC). Arlington, Arlington, VA. Available at http ://ericec .org/digests/ e639.html\ Lefrancois, G. (1999). Psychology applied to teaching (10 th Edition).Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Mullin,, D. (2000). Education Department Technology Plan. St. Joseph, MN: CSB/SJU. Mullin Perrone, V. (2000). (2000). Lessons for new teachers . Boston: McGraw Hill. Hill. Piaget, J. (1960). The child’s conception of the world. London: Routledge. Putnam,, J. (1997 Putnam (1997)) Cooperative learning in diverse classrooms. Upper Saddle River, River, NJ: Merrill. Merrill. Ryan, K. K. & Cooper, J. M. (1995 (1995). ). Those who can , teach . Geneva, Illinois: Illinois: Houghton Mifflin. Mifflin. Rosenblatt, L. M. (1978). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary world. Carbondale:: Southern University Press. Carbondale Schacter , J. (1999). (1999). The Impact of education technology on student student achievement. Santa Monica, CA: Milken Exchange in Education Technology . Available at http://milkeschange http://milkeschange.org .org Schunk, D. (2000). (2000). Learning theories: theories: An educational perspective (3 rd Ed) Upper Saddle river, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Slavin, R.E. R.E. Cooperative learning: learning: Theory, research, and practice . (2nd ed). Boston: Allyn &bacon. Slavin, R. E. (1995 (1995,, October). Research on cooperative cooperative learning and achievement: What we know, know, what we need to know. A paper written written from the the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. department of Education. Tomlinson,, C. A. (1999 Tomlinson (1999). ). Mapping a route toward differentiated instruction . Educational Leadership, 57, 57, (1). Vygotsky, L. S. (1978 (1978). ). Mind in society : The development of psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Zemelman, S., Daniels Daniels,, H., & Hyde, A. (1998 (1998). ). Best practices : New standards for teaching and leaning in America’s schools . Portsmouth, Portsmou th, NH: NH: Heinemann. Heinemann.
Copyright © 2008 College of Saint Benedict (37 South College College Avenue , St. Joseph Joseph , Minnesota 56374; 320-363-5011) and Saint John's University (P.O. Box 2000, Collegeville , Minnesota 56321; 320-363-2011). All rights reserved . Affirmative Affirmativ e Action/ Equal Opportunity Employers . E-mail the CSB/ SJU W eb Coordina tor .
file://localhost/C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Khair/My%20Documents/E-Book/Instructional%20Strategies.mht
25/08/2008 10:02:28 PM