The Translation of Arabic Collocations Into English
Tantroccaya of Abhinavagupta - English Translation By Franscesco SferraFull description
English translation of the four books of the Hindu Veda
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couterre traducida al inglés!
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English translation of Origines Ariacae.
28th chapter of Abhinavabharathi in English translationDescripción completa
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English Translation of 700 verses to Durga to ease difficulties. from sanskritdocuments.org
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Kalabhairavasthakam With English Telugu Translation, Sri Sri Sri Siddheswarananda Swamy, Sri HH Sridhar Swami, Bhairava, Lord Shiva, Kali, HinduismFull description
THE SACRED KURAL OR The Tamil Veda of Tiruvalluvar Selected and Translated with Introduction and Notes BY H. A. POPLEY, B.A.
English Translation of Qasidah Banat Su'ad by Dr. A. R. Ashraf Baluch, Retired professor of International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan. Request for prayers from readers of this g…Full description
Harry Wong
The frst English English translation translation o Riemann's Riemann's 1866 essay essay on the ear and and the methodology o science. The Mechanism Mechanism O the Ear by Bernhar Bernhard d Riemann (1866 (1866 This is the frst English English translation o Riemann's 1866 essay on the ear! "hich "hich "as frst #$blished as %Mechani& des Ohres% in enle and e$)er's *eitschrit $r rationelle Medicin! +rd ,eries! -ol. /! ##. 1/01+. 2t later a##eared in the collected "or&s o Riemann! 3esamelte Mathematische 4er&e $nd 4issenschatliche 5achlass! edited by einrich 4eber "ith the assistance o Richard ede&ind (5e" 7or& 7or& o9er $blications! $blications! 1/:+! ##. ++80+:;. ++80+:;. 2ntrod$ction to the 3erman Edition The great mathematician Riemann! torn by #remat$re death rom o$r $ni9ersity and rom science itsel! "as s#$rred by elmholt<'s ne" theory o the sensations o tone to de9ote the last months o his lie to the theory o the organ o hearing. The material on this s$b=ect o$nd among his #a#ers and comm$nicated here! o co$rse! to$ches on only a small and elementary #art o the #roblem. 7et the #$blication o this ragment is do$btless =$stifed>gi9en =$stifed>gi9en the stat$re stat$re o the a$thor a$thor and the 9al$e o his dissertations>as dissertations>as his e?am#le o the correct methodology or the treatment o the s$b=ect. The frst section and the greater #ortion o the second "ere let by the a$thor in a air hand. The close o the second! rom rom last #age @ #aragra#h A on"ards! "as assembled rom scattered #ages and notes in "hich Riemann c$stomarily set do"n his frst drat. The remar&s declaring his o##osition to elmholt<'s theory o the ear's motions "o$ld only ha9e become clear had he carried thro$gh on this "or&. Riemann's s#o&en 9ie"s gi9e $s gro$nds to s$##ose that the di)erence bet"een the t"o a##roaches "o$ld only ha9e frst come into oc$s o9er the #roblem o transmission o so$nd "a9es to the organs o the cochlea! and that Riemann tho$ght that the mathematical #roblem to be sol9ed "as in act a hydra$lic one. 1. On the Method ##licable to the ,t$dy o The hysiology o the Ciner ,ense Organs Cor the st$dy o #hysiology o a sense organ! there are> aside rom the $ni9ersal la"s o nat$re>t"o necessary s#ecial o$ndations one #sycho#hysical! the em#irical determination determination o "hat the organ accom#lishesD the other anatomical! the in9estigation o its constr$ction. ccordingly! there are t"o #ossible "ays o ac$iring &no"ledge o its $nctions. Either "e can #roceed rom the constr$ction o the organ and rom there see& to determine the la"s o the m$t$al interaction o its #arts as "ell as the res$lt o e?ternal stim$li! or "e can begin "ith "hat the organ accom#lishes and then attem#t to acco$nt or this. By the frst ro$te "e iner the e)ects rom gi9en ca$ses! "hereas by the second ro$te "e see& ca$ses o gi9en e)ects. Collo"ing 5e"ton and erbart! "e can call the frst ro$te synthetic! and the second analytic. ,ynthetic Ro$te. The frst ro$te is most amiliar to the anatomist. ,ince he m$st concern himsel "ith the in9estigation o the indi9id$al com#onents com#onents o the organ! the anatomist eels obliged to in$ire o each #art! "hat inF$ence it might ha9e $#on the acti9ity o the organ. This ro$te co$ld also be ta&en "ith e$al s$ccess "ith res#ect to the #hysiology o the sense organs! as "ell as the #hysiology o the
organs o locomotion! #ro9ided that the #hysical characteristics o the indi9id$al #arts o s$ch organs co$ld indeed be determined. B$t the determination o these characteristics rom obser9ation o microsco#ic ob=ects is al"ays more or less $ncertain! and is! moreo9er! highly im#recise. Thereore! in order to com#lete s$ch an in$iry! "e are com#elled to resort to analogy or teleology! "hich $na9oidably in9ol9es e?treme arbitrarinessD or this reason! the synthetic a##roach to #hysiology o the sense organs leads to res$lts that are seldom correct and ne9er all that certain. nalytic Ro$te. By the second ro$te "e see& to acco$nt or "hat the organ accom#lishes. There are three com#onent #arts to this b$siness. (1 The search or an hy#othesis "hich is s$Gcient to acco$nt or "hat the organ accom#lishes. ( 2n9estigation o the e?tent to "hich this is a necessary hy#othesis. (+ Hom#arison "ith e?#erience in order to 9eriy or correct it. 2. 4e m$st! as it "ere! rein9ent the organ! and! insoar as "e consider "hat the organ accom#lishes to be its #$r#ose! "e m$st also consider its creation as the means to that #$r#ose. B$t this #$r#ose is not o#en to s#ec$lation! b$t rather is gi9en by e?#erience! and so long as "e disregard ho" the organ "as #rod$ced! "e need not bring into #lay the conce#t o fnal ca$se. 2n order to acco$nt or "hat the organ act$ally accom#lishes! "e loo& to its constr$ction. 2n o$r search or this e?#lanation! "e m$st frst o all analy
&no"ledge o the la"s o nat$re! as "as the case! or e?am#le! "ith E$ler's e)orts to acco$nt or achromatism o the eye. These t"o diametrically o##osed in9estigati9e a##roaches! "e might add! only corres#ond a #otiori to the designations %synthetic% and %analytic.% $rely synthetic and #$rely analytic research! "hen ta&en in the #recise sense o these terms! is an im#ossibility. E9ery synthesis rests $#on the res$lts o a oregoing analysis! and e9ery analysis re$ires a s$bse$ent synthesis so that it may be confrmed or corrected "ith reerence to e?#erience. 4ith the ormer! synthetic #roced$re! the $ni9ersal la"s o motion are sim#ly the res$lt o a #re9io$s! ass$med analysis. The frst! chieFy synthetic #roced$re sho$ld thereore not be $tilias 5e"ton #ro#oses>com#letely re=ect the $se o analogy (the %#oetry o hy#othesis%! b$t rather ater"ards em#hasi
consists o the 9estib$le! the semicirc$lar canals! and the cochlea @Cig$re 1A. 4e #roceed frst by see&ing to iner rom the constr$ction o these elements! "hat each element might contrib$te to "hat the ear accom#lishesD then! or each indi9id$al element! "e #roceed rom the tas& or #roblem it m$st sol9e! and see& the conditions that m$st be met or a satisactory $lfllment o that tas&. . The Tym#anic Ha9ity 2t has long been recognies#ecially that o the $ns#oiled ear o the sa9age or desert0d"eller. 2 "e ta&e %timbre% to mean the $ality o so$nd! "hich is inde#endent o its intensity and direction! then this is e9idently comm$nicated by the a##arat$s "ith com#lete fdelity! so long as it transmits to the F$id o the inner ear the 9ariation in air #ress$re at e9ery moment at a constant ratio o am#lifcation. 2t is sae to ass$me that this is the #$r#ose o the mechanism! so long as "e do not at the same time neglect to determine rom the $nctioning o the ear! ho" ar "e are =$stifed>i.e.! com#elled>by e?#erience to #res$##ose the act$al $lfllment o this #$r#ose. This "e "ish to do frst beore see&ing a mathematical e?#ression or the nat$re o the #ress$re F$ct$ation $#on "hich timbre de#ends. The c$r9e that sho"s the s#eed o #ress$re F$ct$ation as a $nction o time! com#letely defnes the so$nd "a9e e?ce#t or its direction! and hence defnes the intensity and timbre o the so$nd. 2 "e ta&e! instead o the s#eed! the log o the s#eed! or i one #reers! o the s$are o the s#eed! "e obtain a c$r9e "hose orm is inde#endent o the direction and intensity o the so$nd! b$t "hich com#letely determines the timbre! and hence may be called the %timbre c$r9e.% 2 the a##arat$s #erormed its tas& #erectly! the timbre c$r9es o the inner ear F$id "o$ld com#letely coincide "ith the timbre c$r9es o the air. Beca$se o the sensiti9ity o the ear in the #erce#tion o so$nd! "e consider it =$stifed to ass$me that the timbre c$r9e is altered only 9ery slightly by the transmission. ence the ratio bet"een the synchrono$s #ress$re F$ct$ations o the air and o the inner ear F$id remains 9irt$ally constant d$ring a so$nd. grad$al 9ariation in this ratio @o9er a range o re$enciesA is thereore $ite consistent and #robable. This "o$ld only res$lt in a 9ariation in the ear's estimation o the intensity o so$nd! a hy#othesis not at all r$led o$t by e?#erience @Cig$re A. 4ere the timbre c$r9e noticeably altered! s$ch sensiti9ity o hearing as indicated by! or e?am#le! the #erce#tion o slight di)erences o #ron$nciation! "o$ld seem to me scarcely concei9able. The immediate =$dgment o sensiti9ity o #erce#tions o timbre! and es#ecially the estimation o the di)erences in the timbre c$r9e corres#onding to di)erences o timbre! is admittedly still $ite s$b=ecti9e.
i)erences o timbre also ser9e in =$dging the distance o the so$nd so$rce. Crom this di)erence o timbre "e can rec&on the mechanical originD i.e.! "e can rec&on the alteration o the timbre c$r9e as the so$nd #ro#agates thro$gh the air. 4e cannot #$rs$e this s$b=ect $rther here! and "ill only demand that the transmission mechanism itsel #rod$ce no gross distortions o timbre (altho$gh "e belie9e that its fdelity is m$ch greater than is $s$ally s$##osed. 2. The a##arat$s "ithin the tym#anic ca9ity (in its $ns#oiled condition is a mechanical a##arat$s "hose sensiti9ity is infnitely s$#erior to e9erything "e &no" abo$t the sensiti9ity o mechanical a##arat$ses. 2n act! it is by no means im#robable that it aith$lly transmits sonic motions that are so small that they cannot be obser9ed "ith a microsco#e. The mechanical orce o the "ea&est so$nds detectable by the ear can! o co$rse! hardly be estimated directlyD "e can sho"! ho"e9er! by means o the la" according to "hich the intensity o so$nd decreases "ith its #ro#agation in the air! that the ear does #ic& $# so$nds "hose mechanical orce is millions o times "ea&er than that o so$nds o ordinary intensity. 2n the absence o other obser9ations ree o methodological errors! 2 reer to 5icholson's re#ort that the call o the ortsmo$th sentry is clearly a$dible at night at a distance o to : English miles! at Ride on the 2sle o 4ight. 4hen "e consider the contri9ances that Holladon o$nd necessary in order to detect the #ro#agation o so$nd thro$gh "ater! it "ill be conceded that "e cannot s#ea& o a s$bstantial am#lifcation o so$nd as it #ro#agates thro$gh "aterD indeed! the mechanical orce o so$nd in "ater is in9ersely #ro#ortional to the s$are o the distance rom the so$rce! and #robably diminishes e9en more ra#idly than that. ,ince a distance o to : miles is a##ro?imately !;;; times greater than a distance o 8 to 1; eet! the mechanical orce o the so$nd "a9es reaching the eardr$m is million times smaller than at a distance o 8 to 1; eet rom the sentry! and th$s the motion o the eardr$m is !;;; times smaller. dmittedly! in meas$rements o so$nd #erce#tion! "e fnd absol$tely no mention o ratios on the order o 1 to 1 billion or 1 to 1!;;;. B$t in light o recent in9estigations o the relationshi# o #sychological estimates o so$nd intensity to #hysical or mechanical meas$rement! this #oses no obstacle to the concl$sion "e ha9e =$st reached. This relationshi# o de#endence is #robably identical to ho" o$r estimate o the intensity or magnit$de o the f?ed stars is de#endent on the mechanical orce o the emitted light reaching $s. s is "ell &no"n! it has been concl$ded rom the calibration o stars that the mechanical orce o their light diminishes geometrically as their magnit$de decreases arithmetically. 2! analogo$sly! "e di9ide so$nds>rom amiliar intensity do"n to those barely #erce#tible>into eight magnit$des! then the mechanical orce o a so$nd o the second magnit$de "o$ld be abo$t 1J1;! the third 1J1;;!. . .!the eighth 1J1;.;;;.;;; >one ten0millionth the intensity o the frst magnit$deD "hereas the am#lit$de o motion or so$nds o the frst! third! fth! and se9enth magnit$des "o$ld be in the ratios o 1 1J1; 1J1;; 1J1;;;. ln my oregoing considerations o the so$nd "a9es reaching the ear! 2 sto##ed "ith the eardr$m! since some in9estigators ass$me a dam#ing o the more intense so$nds (beca$se o the tension on the dr$ms&inI.
2 m$st coness that this o#inion stri&es me as a com#letely arbitrary con=ect$re. 2t is #ossible! o co$rse! that #rotecti9e mechanisms do go into e)ect "hen a lo$d noise threatens to in=$re the membranes o the inner ear. B$t "ithin the nat$re o a$dible im#ressions 2 fnd nothing "hatsoe9er analogo$s to the eye's res#onse to the degree o ill$mination o the 9is$al feld! and ha9e no idea "hat a contin$o$sly 9ariable reFe? acti9ity o M. tensor tym#ani is s$##osed to contrib$te to the e?act com#rehension o a #iece o m$sic. + 2n my 9ie"! there is no basis to ass$me that at a distance o 1; eet rom the sentry! there e?ists a di)erent relationshi# bet"een the motion o air at the eardr$m and the motion o the stirr$# oot#late (sta#es! than at a distance o ;!;;; eetD and e9en i a rather s$bstantial 9ariation in the tension o the eardr$m is ass$med! this "o$ld in no "ay alter o$r concl$sions. 2! at a distance o 1; eet rom the sentry! the motion o the stirr$# oot#late is #robably still =$st barely #erce#tible to the na&ed eye! then this motion "o$ld be =$st as #erce#tible at a distance o ;!;;; eet "ith a !;;;0old magnifcation. 22. 2 the middle ear a##arat$s is to aith$lly transmit the slight motions that e?#erience sho"s it to do! the solid bodies that constit$te it m$st ft #erectly at their #oints o e)ecti9e contact! since ob9io$sly one body cannot transmit a motion to another i the distance se#arating them is greater than the am#lit$de o that motion. Moreo9er! only a small #ortion o the mechanical orce o the sonic motion is #ermitted to be lost thro$gh s$ch additional "or& as the tensing o fbro$s ca#s$les and syno9ial membranes o the =oints. ,$ch loss is minimian ass$m#tion that is #robably 9ery nearly satisfed. 4ith this la"! "e can ded$ce the changes in tem#erat$re rom the di)erences in the tem#erat$re o the tym#anic ca9ity and the brain. E9en i it
may not be #ossible to determine the tem#erat$re di)erence bet"een the tym#anic ca9ity and the brain! there are still se9eral reasons or concl$ding that a noticeable tem#erat$re di)erence is highly #robable! 9i<.! the comm$nication "ith the o$tside air thro$gh the e?terior a$ditory canal or meat$s and the e$stachian t$be! as "ell as the manner in "hich blood is s$##lied to the tym#anic ca9ity. By contrast! the #yramid bone : #robably has a tem#erat$re 9ery close to that o the brain! since it contains the carotid canal (Han. carotic$s! and thereore "e m$st ass$me that the inner lining o the tym#anic ca9ity 6 is a 9ery #oor cond$ctor and emitter o heat. Regarding the other bones s$rro$nding the tym#anic ca9ity! it certainly cannot be claimed that their tem#erat$re is as high as that o the brain or the #yramid. 7et they do ha9e certain signifcant so$rces o heat in blood 9essels> large arteries and 9eins>and are! li&e the #yramid! #rotected by m$co$s membrane and #erioste$m rom loss o heat to the tym#anic ca9ity. ence "e may ass$me that their tem#erat$re is signifcantly higher than that o the tym#anic ca9ity. 2 the e?ternal tem#erat$re dro#s! then! in accordance "ith the abo9e0mentioned la"! the di)erence bet"een the tem#erat$re o the brain and e9ery"here else in the body "ill increase in the same ratio (1D the tym#anic ca9ity "ill as a res$lt cool noticeably! the s$rro$nding bones "ill cool only 9ery slightly! and the a$ditory ossicles "ill dra" together noticeably! "hile the "alls o the tym#anic ca9ity remain nearly $nchanged. O$r fnding that the a$ditory ossicles dra" together and cool do"n m$ch more than the "alls o the tym#anic ca9ity "ith a dro# in the e?ternal tem#erat$re is abo$t all that can be established regarding the inF$ence o tem#erat$re on the middle ear a##arat$s! gi9en o$r total ignorance o the thermal #ro#erties o its com#onents. 2-. 2 "ill no" attem#t to determine the changes in the #osition ass$med by the a$ditory ossicles as the e?ternal tem#erat$re dro#s! s$ch that all contig$o$s #arts o the a##arat$s contin$e to ft #recisely. The #art o the a$ditory ossicle system that is most frmly connected to the "all o the tym#anic ca9ity is the an9il0dr$m =oint.K ll distances "ithin com#osite! solid bodies become smaller "ith coolingD hence the distance bet"een this =oint s$race and the an9il stirr$# =oint becomes smaller. The $##er handle is #robably the #art o the hammer that is s$b=ect to the most minimal dis#lacement! at least #arallel to the ring o the eardr$m. ,ince "ith cooling the distance o the an9il0dr$m =oint rom the least mobile #oint o attachment o the $##er handle o the hammer at the eardr$m remains nearly $nchanged! "hile the distances o these #oints rom the an9il hammer =oint both decrease! the angle #rod$ced by the lines r$nning rom the an9il0hammer =oint thro$gh these #oints m$st become some"hat smaller. 4ith these t"o changes in #osition o the a$ditory ossicles! the hammer is rotated slightly in the anterior0 median #osterior direction! and sim$ltaneo$sly (in order to maintain the &nob o the an9il8 more slightly in the anterior s$#erior0#osterior direction. The long #rocess o the hammer! as a res$lt! "o$ld ha9e to be mo9ed at the fss$re / $#"ards and medially! i it is to maintain one and the same #osition "ith res#ect to the handle and head o the hammer. By the action o cooling! ho"e9er! its c$r9at$re increases and it dra"s closer to the hammer handle! so that d$ring a change o tem#erat$re it #robably only grad$ally dra"s a bit o$t o the fss$re.
-. 4e ha9e no" s#ecifed the conditions that are #robably met by the #ositions o the a$ditory ossicles! s$ch that they maintain #recise artic$lation contin$o$sly and hence! neither at the edge o the 9estib$lar membrane nor at the eardr$m! #rod$ce any signifcant asymmetric tension. 4e no" in$ire into the means by "hich the a$ditory ossicles al"ays achie9e and maintain the correct #osition. (This is accom#lished mainly thro$gh co$nter#osed orces! "hich achie9e a balance "ith the correct #osition o the ossicles and! i they become dis#laced! #$ll them bac& again. 2t is clear that these means m$st be so$ght in the t"o m$scles reg$lating the #osition o the a$ditory ossicles! in the =oint ca#s$les! ligaments! olds o m$co$s membrane! and the t"o membranes "ith "hich the a$ditory ossicles are bo$nd together. 2n this search or the origins o a s#ecifc e)ect $#on the a$ditory ossicles! "e are oten #resented "ith se9eral "ays to #rod$ce the same e)ect "hen the olds o m$co$s membrane are also considered. To identiy the most #robable o these 9ario$s #ossibilities! it is frst and oremost necessary to reach a##ro?imate concl$sions as to the elasticity and tension o the ligaments! membranes! and so orth! on the basis o anatomical in9estigations $sing reshly #re#ared s#ecimens. This is something 2 cannot do. B$t by care$lly de9elo#ing the conse$ences o the 9ario$s hy#otheses! "e may ho#e to hit $# against the im#robable ones and "eed these o$t. Cor o$r #resent in9estigation! it is a##ro#riate to disting$ish bet"een the alert ear! ad=$sted or #recise hearing! and the non alert ear! and>or certain $estions> bet"een the ear o the ne"born and the ear o the ad$lt. The distinction "e ma&e bet"een the alert and nonalert ear is de#endent $#on "hether or not the oot o the stirr$# is #ressed slightly against the inner ear F$id by tension o M. tensor tym#ani! so that the #ress$re at the inner ear F$id is slightly greater than that o the air in the tym#anic ca9ityD in this "ay the #arts o the solid bodies "hose contact is to be ens$red are #ressed slightly against each other. Those "ho thin& that any s$ch contin$o$s tension o the mechanism is im#robable (the eardr$m #erha#s e?ce#ted might consider that! "ith 9ariations in tem#erat$re! the a$ditory ossicles change their #ositions>thro$gh the e)ects o astening ligaments and =oint ligaments and the grad$al 9ariation o the contraction o m$scles>"itho$t being #ressed against each other. 4e ha9e o$nd! ho"e9er! that only thro$gh tension is #recise meshing o all #arts o the mechanism ass$red. O$r in9estigation is th$s 9alid or the alert ear>the ear deliberately #re#ared or #recise #erce#tion! "hile it still remains #ossible that the ear (o the normally a"a&e #ersonI is contin$o$sly ada#ted! i #erha#s only to a lesser degree. The a##arat$s o the a$ditory ossicles consists o a body com#osed o t"o #arts (hammer and an9il! that can rotate abo$t an a?is and a stam#er (the stirr$# "ith "hich it artic$lates! and "hich #resses in $#on the F$id at the o9al "indo". One end o the a?is o rotation! the short #rocess o the an9il! is astened by means o the an9il0dr$m =oint to the #osterior "all o the tym#anic ca9ityD the other end! the long #rocess o the hammer! s$rro$nded only by sot tiss$e! #ro=ects into a ga# bet"een the anterior0s$#erior end o the ring o the eardr$m and the #etro$s bone! and rests in a $rro" o this ring. (This is tr$e at least or the ear o the ne"born.
The determination o the #osition o the a$ditory ossicles "ith res#ect to the tym#anic ca9ity is made m$ch sim#ler by means o enle's #roced$re o considering the tym#anic ca9ity rotated! so that the a?is o rotation r$ns hori
"ea&! and the so$nd "a9e #roceeds on"ard! nearly $nchanged. 2! on the other hand! the membrane is so ta$t that its mo9ements are only 9ery small in com#arison "ith the 9ibrations o the air #articles o the so$nd "a9e stri&ing it! it can im#art to the air beyond it only 9ery small mo9ements! and hence can modiy its #ress$re only slightly! and nearly the entire 9ariation in #ress$re on the ront o the membrane is absorbed by the tension o the membrane. 2n addition! "hen the membrane is stretched o$t in the o#en air! a reFected "a9e is #rod$ced. Th$s the #osition o the lensbone 11 relati9e to the 9estib$lar "indo" cannot remain in9ariableD b$t by rotation o the an9il abo$t its #oint o attachment (the dr$m0 =oint! the lensbone can only be dis#laced #arallel to the long a?is o the 9estib$lar (o9al "indo"! and th$s only in this direction is a rotation o the stirr$# abo$t the center o the an9il =oint s$race necessary to maintain the stirr$# oot#late at its #osition. ,ince it is only or this direction that a mechanism (M. sta#edi$s is a9ailable to reely rotate the stirr$# "ith res#ect to the &nob o the an9il! b$t not or the #er#endic$lar direction! one may thereore reasonably ass$me that s$ch a latter mechanism is not re$ired! since the &nob is already being maintained at an $n9arying height. -2. co$nterbalance or the tension o the tendon o M. tensor tym#ani is maintained by the attachment o the handle o the hammer to the eardr$m! and o the eardr$m to the s$lc$s tym#anic$s. The attachment o the eardr$m to the handle o the hammer reaches only slightly higher (according to Troltsch and Herlach than the #oint o insertion o the tendon! and its termin$s itsel lies higher than the termin$s o the s$lc$s tym#anic$s. Ob9io$sly! thereore! the astening o the eardr$m at the s$lc$s tym#anic$s to M. tensor tym#ani cannot by itsel maintain a balance. M$ch more is necessary or this balance o the hammer there m$st be e$ally large and contrary tor$es or the #art that lies abo9e the #oint o insertion! and or the handle that lies belo" it. 4e can loo& or this orce necessary to establish a balance (1 either in the binding o the dr$ms&in to the s$#erfcial layers o s&in o the e?terior a$ditory canal! ( or in the e)ect o the #osterior old o the eardr$m! (+ or #erha#s in the combined e)ect o the attachments o the hammer head to the "all o the tym#anic ca9ity by the an9il on the one side! and by the Lig. s$#erior rnoldi on the other. These attachments orm an angle e?tended some"hat to"ard the 9erte? o the short #rocess and! "hen $nder tension! #ress this 9erte? against the eardr$m. Reerences 1. Riemann defnes %lang% as %die Bescha)enheit des ,challes% (the $ality o the so$nd! "hich deri9es rom %the mechanical origin% o the so$nd. Thereore! "e translate lang as timbre! "hich reers to the relationshi# bet"een a tone and its harmonics as #rod$ced by a s#ecifc so$nd0so$rce. . The s#eed o #ress$re F$ct$ation sim$ltaneo$sly ca#t$res both the re$encies and intensities o a so$nd.
+. This reers to one o elmholt<'s instr$ctions to concert goers. . Riemann here reers to the ann$lar ligament attaching the sta#es to the o9al "indo". :. The sta#edi$s m$scle is attached to the #yramidal eminence or #yramid and to the nec& o the sta#es. 6. m$co$s membrane. K. The short #rocess o the an9il is bo$nd to the bony "alls o the tym#anic ca9ity or %dr$m.% Riemann $ses the image o the tym#anic ca9ity as a dr$m! the eardr$m as the dr$ms&in! and the ossicles as the mechanism thatdr$ms against the o9al "indo". 8. 2ts short #rocess. /. Bet"een the edge o the eardr$m and the #etro$s #yramid bone. 1;. Riemann's drat ends here. 11. That is! the sta#es oot#late.