Didáctica (&oguo Literatura) ISSN: 1130 1130-0531 -0531
¡2:: 21-41 ~0O0 ¡2
An ApproaCh An ApproaCh to tite Integration of SkilIs in English Teaching Miguel Ángel
ALMARZA SÁNCHEZ Universidadd Complutense de Madrid Universida
Resumen frecuencia, las destrezas de comprensión y expresión en la clase de lengua extranjera se han ven venido ido practicand enfo-practicandoo como compartimento compartimentoss esta estanco. nco. Estos enfo ques han producido una sepa separació raciónn entre la realidad del aula y la que nos encontramos en la vida real, produciendo una artificialidad nada propia de la práctica comunicativa. nicat iva. Este artículo pretende hacer hincapié en las prácticas integradas de las cuatro destrezas, para convertir las clases en un escenario más auténtico desde el punto de vista de la enseñanza y el aprendizaje, y más significativo y motivador para profesores y alumnos. Se trata de ofrecer una base para la práctica contextuacontenidos dos lingílístico lingílísticos. s. lizada de los conteni Con
PALABRAS CIA VE: Integración, destrezas, comprensión, producción.
Abstraet Receptive and productive skills have frequently been practised in isolation within teaching syllabuses. Such approaehes have in man>’ ways made an articificial distinetion between in-classroom and out-of-classroom realities, which is not inherent to communicative praetice. This article will focus on how the integration of alí four skills can contribute towards a more real-life environment for both teachers and leamers, as well as more meaningful and motivating. The basic idea is to offer a common ground for linguistie content to be fully contextualised. KEY WORDS: Integrauion, skills, receptive, productive.
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Miguel Ángel Alrnarzo Soinchez
An Approach te tIte lnlegration o it SkilIs in
Englisli Teaclñng
Résumé Fréquemrnent les habiletés de compréhension et expression ont été considérées dans la classe de langue étrangére eomme des eompartiments étanches. Ce s pratiques de classe ont produit une sépar séparation ation entre la réalité de la classe et celle que nous trouvons dans la vie réelle, produisant, dan danss le pre premie mierr cas, une séparation artificielle inexistante dans la communication authe authentique ntique.. Le propos propos de cet artic article le es estt d’insister sur l’intégration des quatre compétences pour faire de la classe de langue un endroit plus authentique du point de vue dc 1 ’ enseignement ¡ apprentissage et pl plus us significatif et motivant pour professeurs et éléves et de présenter une démarche pour la pratique contextualisée des éléments du systéme de la langue. MOTS CLÉS: Intégrarion, compétences, compréhension, production.
1.
Introduetion
When we are teaching a second language we are trying to develop in the learner not just grammatical competence in the Chomskyan sense, but communicative competence. Th Thcc leamer must, it is tr true ue,, dcvelop th thee ab abil ilit ity y to produce and must st be able able to distinguish grammatical understand grammatical utterances, he mu from ungrammatical sequences, bu butt he mu must st also kn know ow when to select th thee on onee which is appropriate to the eontext, both linguistic and situational. Therefore, the language data to which the learner is exposed should be presented «in eontext». ELT T do does es no nott on only ly involve the teaching of the Eng If EL English lish soun soundd system. grammatical structures or vocabulary, but the practice of the contexts in which they producing ucing langua language-, ge-, teachers will have a occur —that is, understanding and prod fundamental ta task sk in providing the students with texts, texts, oral passages and situations for the students to communicate both in the written and the spoken form. These ar aree the so-called four skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. The work presented here intends to show an integrative approach to th thee mmdd that the language teaehing and practice of the language skills. bearing in mm class will become more purposeful and mcaningful for the learner at alí levels if we do so. Th Thcc metho methodolog dological ical princip principies ies behind this approach are equally English.. English for specitic purposes, or th thee Primary applicable lo general English English classroom. outt th that at ma many ny ta task skss in task-based courses are Ewen Arn Arnold old (199 (1993) 3) points points ou because se nothing is done with the students’ output and it does not lead purposeless becau anywhere. The idea is to make the classroom contexts and situations come closer Didácti<.a (Le”gua y Literatura)
2000, 1 2 : 21-41
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lÁngelAhnarza Sánchez Migué- lÁngelAhnarza
An Approoch tú th é - Integrotion o f SIdlls in English Teaching
real-life ones, no matter how artificial or simulated we ma>’ think that the teaching and learning environment is. It is a matter of linking tasks; by way of example, when we deal with an answerphone message (listening), we often have to use this information in the spoken or written form (by ealling someone back or note).. writing a note) Our primar>’ eoncern as teachers is to activate strategies for learning in the students. as well as providing student-centred materials which focus on the process of communication. Let us see in which way the integration of skills contribute to thc task of facilitating second langua language ge learning. learning. to the
2.
Why should we integrate skills?
lf we as ask, k, «What is the ultimate ai aim m of language teachingt> most teachers would probabí>’ agree that one answer is that students should be able to understand aud produce the language tha thatt the they y need —in other words, we wa want nt th them em to develop their autonomy in language use, that is, a kind of freedom in their choice of language and manner. By integrating skills we are providing a certain input that becomes a bas basis is for fur furthe therr out output put,, whi which ch in turn will be new inp input, ut, and so on. on. In thiss way the stu thi studen dents’ ts’ contribut¡ons tu turn rn ou outt to be pafl of the process in which language is generated. ways ys of controlling the language an and d id idea eass th that at Rather than focusing on wa
should uld alw always ays be looking fo forr wa ways ys to free things up. students produ students produce, ce, we sho Similarly, we should mo move ve th thee students from th thee ro role le as consumen in th thee aree also likely to move classroom towards ihe role as producers. By doing this, we ar away from «language specific» work and instead involve the students in broader educational processes. Some teachers will actually say that they are only and d no nott for th thee ge gene nerral educational responsible for teaching the language, an development of the students. l-lowever. as noted by Andrew Littlcjohn (1998: lO): Whcther wc ar aree aw awar aree of it or not, students will alwa always ys lcarn more u their language classes thao jusí language. Thcy will also also lcarn their role u Ihe classroom aud tío a greater or lesser extentí pick up values aud attitudes from Ihe texts they use. Thcv wil als also o le lear arn n a lo lott ahout theniselves as learn learners ers .and about what language learning involves.
ni> ’ view. when we integrate skills we are thinking beyond language alone and refiecí on how our teaching does. or does not, enrich the lives of the students; and.. mos and mostt imp import ortant antly, ly, we are using using the target language and culture to do so so.. In
23
I)~dá lico (Le,;g,
MiguelÁngelAlroarza Sánchez
Att A pproach
tú tIte
SkiIIs ht English Teachiu’g Integration of SkiIIs
Littlewood aLo mentions a nutnber of principies that ~find useful as a starting point to pla lan n a series of lessons or coursebook units if we are are to analyse the teaching of skills from a holistie point of view:
Making teaching eoherent means to ensure that tasks link together around a common topie which lasts a whole whole lesson lesson or extends over a series of lessons. In this way the content will sta > ’ with the leamer longer —and with itit,, the language. Otherwise, a random choice of topic to exemplify a language form makes it more difficult to learn the language. as there is nothing coherent to make it memorable. •
Another way to enrich our teaching of ski skills lls and mak makee lan langua guage ge learning more cifective is to use eontent wortb learning about. We should expose the students to bits of language (through Reading or Listening) that are significant for the students to produce their own language (in Writing or Speaking) •
want to make language leaming Using the students’ intelligence: If we want more challenging and motivating, we should use what Chih-Hua Kuo (1993) calís process-oriented materials. The type of activities involved in th thee us usee of thcs thcsee materials ar aree unprcdictable in nature an and d th thee learner mus mustt interp interpret ret and make inferences and decisions, si sinc ncee th they ey ar aree cognitivel>’ demanding. They facilitate interaction and th thee development of both linguistie knowledge and communication skills. Th Thee integration of skills comes more naturalí>’ if we accept that the students’ planning, reviewing and evaluating of their work is more motivating than a mere pattern practice practice,, ma matching tching or repetition. •
Fostering autonomy: Oní>’ when the students ar aree ab able le to understand or express the language that they need or want, can we think that there is a sense of aehievement, which is essential in the Iearning process. •
somee wor work k group of EOI teachers in Barcelona have recently published som (1998) on the analysis and exploitation of authentic audiovisual materials. Thcir eonclusions point to the neccssity to make the students aware that if there is a task to carry ou out, t, Ih Ihei eirr outcome should be relevant for them to ap appl ply y in other inclassroom situations, as well as outside the classroom. Obviously the objective for En Engli glish sh la lang ngua uage ge lea leam mer erss must be better peer ers, s, wi with th sources of communication; better communication with their pe information and other leaming resources, su sueh eh as literature, son songs gs or Int Intern ernet et materials. It is here, in a dynamic learning environment where the integration of withi thin n a lesson lesson or within a block of les lesson sons, s, mak makcs cs it easier for the skills, either wi A
Didáctico
2000,12:21-4]
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Migad Áng Ángel el A/marza A/marza Sánchez
Approach tú tIte Integration A n n Approach
of Skills in English Teaching
students to work towards a project or final product, i.e. a certain language task for which the learners are asked to produce something in English —either a letter, a poster to displa>’ in th thee classroom. a le leaf afle let, t, an advertisement, a surve>’, an panel. el. The important thing is that that th they ey ar aree using the interview or a discussion pan skills lls are involved in thc process. language they need naturally and that different ski In sum, apart from the ab aboye oye mentio mentioned, ned, skill-integration mates learning more meaningful and purposeful, because the students can see that what they are learning or practising leads to some other task. It also introduces var variet iety y in the the elassroom understanding ding of language areas and vocabular>’ fie fields lds to dynamics and facilitates understan be dealt with in an oral or written pas passag sagee at later stage stages; s; for these reasons, we should also provide pre and post session activities to contextualise and extend the content of receptive skills.
3.
Communication skills and eommunieation activities
Language skills cannot be learnt in isolation. Wbile the classification of the fi-mr skills has sor sorne ne value it we look at language activity from the outside, the definition of language implied by this division ignores the function of language altogether the four categories describe things which happen. but oní>’ as external, unmotivated activities. Thus, we require a different speeification of objectives if we want to enable learners to develop their capacities in the way thcy are described by the lan langua guage ge acqui acquisitio sitionn theory. There are interco interconnectio nnections ns betwee etweenn the tra(litiona itionall four skills, and these will be dealt with in activities described by the tra(l greater detail below. It seems to be reasonable to suppose that many of the difficulties that learners have had in the past derive directly from the teaehing that has been impo imposed sed upon them. This has tended to repres represent ent langua language ge as a set of forma formall elem elements ents to be manifested and apprehended by means of linguistie skills outside a real communicative context and without a real coifimunicative purpose. Such a model of language is remote from the learner’s own experienee and it is no wonder that they have difficulties in acquiring itit.. The suggestion her heree is to lin link k the stu studen dents’ ts’ communicative abilities in their own language to a realization of these abilities in the language they are leaming. Wc need to associate the Iinguistic skills in the mother tongue with the ones in the foreign language. hass been taken as re read ad th that at once the linguistie ski skills lls are Traditionalí>’, it ha will ll fo foll llow ow as a mo more re or less automatic acquired. the communicative abilities wi 67)) expressed a very differcntview on the matter: consequence. Widdowson (1978: 67 25
(Lengua y Literatura) Didáctica (Lengua 2000,12: 2l-4l
Miguel Ángel Altnarza Sánchez
An Apprúach tú tIte Inté-gratian
úf Skills Skills in
English Té-aching
The acquisition of linguistie skills does not se seetn etn tú guarantee the consequent acquisition of communicaíive abiliries in a language. On the contrary, it would seem thatt an overemphasis on drilís and exercises for Ihe production and tú be the case tha reception of sen senten tences ces tend tendss tú inhibil the development of communicative abilities. (...) The abilities include the skills: une cannot acquire the former without acquiring Ihe lattet The question is: how can rhe sk skil ills ls be taug taught ht,, no nott as a self sufficient achievement buí asan aspect of communicative competence? work, k, tha thatt is, ac acts ts we majorr activitie activitiess in language wor seem to be four majo perform through language: 1 ) conversation or diseusston Ihere
2 ) comp comprehen rehension sion (eithcr of speech or writing) 3 ) exten extended ded writin writingg 4 ) extended speaking. Brumfit (19 (1984: 84: 70) eonsiders tha thatt the fourth fourth act activi ivity ty should be treated as an independent problem, since it occurs only at advauced levels an and d it is is no nott an aetivity that alí native speakers actualí>’ use or require. The argument for reclassifying the «four skills» in this way is, first, that the new inte in tegr grat ates es ea eaeh eh aetivity wi with th eo eomm mmun unic icat atio ion, n, wh wher erea eass th thee aree of listening/speaking distin distinction ction partic particularly ularly separ separates ates activities wbich ar ofte ten n in practice simultaneous and interdependent. Also. it focuses attention on meaning rather analysable sable formal formal element elements. s. Brumftt goes beyond the the traditional approaeh: than on the analy elas el assi sifi fica cati tion on
traditional emphasis on the four ski skills lls has frequently reduced «writinga tú a concern with handwriting and transfer or spokcn tú written form with little attention tú discourse structure, and listening tú a concem with minimal pairs or comprehension of isolated sentences. This alíernative proposal also corresponds tú common-sense assessments of what W c do with language, in thaI each of the four activities listed is observably different from the others, and requires response to different conventions’ The
The same author justifies the inclusion of the comprehension of speech ané duee to th thee increasing evid evidenee enee tha thatt the distinction between writing together, du spoken and written forms is not as important as the choice of content or genre in the organisation of continuous text. Ih does es no nott Ihe e process of planning a speech do differ greatly from that of drafting an extended written text. Thc planning of extended speaking may be treated as a development from the planning of extended writing. Brumfit, C. (1984): Cú,nrnunicative tnethodolúgv in tan guage leaching.
Didáctica (Lengua y Literatura)
2000,12: 21-41
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Cambridge, CUP, pág. 70.
Sánchez ez Miguel Ángel A/marza Sánch
Mt
Apprúach tú tIte I~iregratiún úf 5/6/ls 5/6/ls in Englis!’ Teaching
Michael Branen Branenbr braun aun (1997) also prefers to referto activities rather than skills, regarding them as more pragmatic and realistie, since language users hardí>’ ever use language skills isolatedí>’. Therefore, we ar aree engaged in comprehension (whieh includes Listening and Reading), composition (present both in Spcaking and Writing) and conversation (Listening and Speaking combined). He fi find ndss the splitting of skills idie and counterproductive and points out that testing must remain loyal to learning, rather than teaching. Tests will then be better and more informative of the students’ level if they they have a direct bearing on what the students do with the language. Potential futur Potential futuree trend trendss in testing testing teehni teehniques ques suggest, there therefore, fore, that integr integrating ating skills will bring us toan exam format inwhich there is no more more than an input, an output and a combined exercise to evaluate a candidate’s language proficiency. However, the area of testing testing is is not the core of these refle reflections ctions here and now, although it seems tobe inevitable to mention itit,, when it comes to analysing the intereonnections of skills and aree shown by language leamers ¡ exam candidates. how they ar
4.
SkiIl
getting and skill nsing; their iniplications fo r testing
Knowledge of a language implies possessing the means to put a number of
different skills into praetice. Each skill depends on the facility to manipulate a multiplicity of small elements which are closely interrelat interrelated ed in actu actual al lan langua guage ge use. On the other hand, control of a language means being able to use it in an integrated, global fashion for understanding and communicating (in either the aural-oral or the graphic mode) in a native-like way —an imitation of it—, respecting the sane social conventions and cultural val values ues.. Suc Such h two concepts equal the so-called linguistic and communicative competence. If we aceept that the aequisition of a seeond langua language ge is a highly complex process, we will assume that it involves both skill getting and skill using. Students need the knowledge of man>’ small details ané a certain faeility in activating this certai tain n fluency and coherence in knowledge to perform in the language with a cer diseourse, if th they ey wish to keep their interlocutor’s attention. Language teachers can hardí>’ escape the routine of evaluating the learners performanee more or less formalí>’ and on a regular basis. Integra Integrated ted tests require the exereise of sever several al sk skil ills ls in interaction to analyse the total eommunicative effect, rather than specific discrete-point samples of a panicular course of training. That’s Tha t’s why they they are sometimes referred to as overalí language proficiency tests. Discrete-point tests test skill getting, while integrative tests test skill using. Both kinds of tests ha have ve th their eir place and serve specifie purposes at various levels. 27
Didáctica (Lengua y Literatura) 2000,
2: 21-41
Migué-/Ángel Alniarza Sánchez
Art Apprúach tú tIté- Inté-gration úf Ski/Is it aching it’ ’ Eng/ish T é - aching
thee Having made that point, highlighting the reflection that L2 leaming has in th design of tes tests, ts, it is time to move a step forward in order to unveil some common aspects that seem to affect the Iearning process itself.
5.
Order of learning
ledd The divergent attitudes towards various aspeets of language learning have le Thee formalist to a very different order of priorities in the teaehing of the four skills. Th tends to pla place ce hig highh va value lue on skill in reading and aceurate writing. Communieative approaches lay emphasis on the spoken language and consider praetice in oral original al communication to be a neeessary accompaniment to fluent reading and origin writing. Whether foreign-language skills should be leamt in the order in whieh ehildren learn their native langua hass be been en a matter of controversy bet betwee ween n app applie lied d language ge ha both th ty type pess of learners is dissimilar in man>’ ways: linguists. The situation of bo whereas children ar aree forming coneepts and acquiring language at the sanie time. speech ch of their Thmily group, foreign language students already surrounded by the spee another, r, they must limit possess an effective means of eommunication; to leam anothe themselves and embarrass themselves by their obvious incapacity to express their real meaning. For man>’ of the latter, alí this language-lea language-leaming ming business is merel>’ a classroom activity. Since mother tongue acquisition differs markedly from second-language study, the order of leaming language skills cannot be justified, then, merel>’ by analogy with native-language learning. As Rivers (1981) suggests, the basic question for th thee teacher is not one of nature or logie but of the best order of presentation from the pedagogical point of view. Many different combinations of skills seem to hav havee been successful in introducing the student to the language. It is what is done with the learned material to extend it as early as possible to active use that is crucial. Decisions on ordering of skills will largel>’ depcnd on the aims of the course. objective, listening and speaking seem the Where communication skills are the main objective, a > ’ be tackled objective, ive, texts m a> obvious place to begin. lf reading is the primar>’ object directí>’ through deeiphering techniques. From the point of view of motivation, the aural-oral skills ar aree a good st star arti ting ng point for an>’ gener general al cours coursee because most notion that langua language ge is something students cometo their first language elass with the notion thatt one hea tha hears rs and speaks. speaks. Suc Such h an approach is more likcly to keep the students’ interest, since it iends itseif to more activity and participation by fue stuuenrs. rew people wo woul uld d ar argu gucc ag agai ains nstt the fundamental role played by the subject’s own personal involvement in linguistie tasks. Didáctica (Lengua y Literatura) 2000,12:21-41
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Miguel Ángel A/marza Sánchez
Att Apprúach tú tIte Inté-gratian
Skil/s in úf Skil/s
English Teaching
Nevertheless, many experienced teachers have objeeted that sorne students feel very insecure when they are forced to depend on the car alone. It may be thought that it is betíer for the students to see the eorreet, aceepted version of the written usee it as a hel help p an and d support for learning and language atan carlier stage and learn to us practice. In my view, though, it seems a reasonable approach to present alí new first st in oral oral form, especialí>’ in the elementar>’ seetio seetions ns of the the eourse; to material fir give thc students practice in working with Ihis material orally until they can handle thcn n to tra train in the them m with the scrip script. t. After the students have received some help itit;; thc from the printed version, they should be given opportunities to practise the material oralí>’ until they can demonstrate tbat they have leamt it thoroughly and are able to apply it to their own situations. The matter of encoding and decoding messages through the use of the skills in a second lan langua guage ge is connected with certain verbal abilities aequired in the mother tongue: however. the instruetion tn a secondlanguage wiIl need to re-teach, to some extent, what was learnt in one’s own language. In Pit Corder’s words (1973: 116): learning to read Ihee read and wri write te presupposcs (at ]east, ]east, in aH normal people) Ih ability to sp speak eak and hear; in other words, it requires the posscssion or some verbal behaviour. Thus, the language teacher is concerned not wit with h teaching speaking and hearing, etc it’ ’ Ere Erench nch,, ar reading Gercuan úr hearing ltalian.The etc,, but speoking it teacher does ot teach language skills Irom scratch but rather modifies or extends these skills in some perhaps relatively superficial fashion. (...
)
Wecan no w tate an overview at some of th thee different possibilities and conneetions for an effective teaching of tIte skills to take place in our class classroom room situa situations. tions.
6.
and d other skills Writing an
Writing is not a skill which can be leamed in isolation. In the apprentice stage of writing, what tIte student must learn, apart from the peculiar difficulties of scri ript pt,, is a counterpart of what has to be learnt for tIte mastery of spelling or sc
listening comprehension, speaking and readiííg —a nucleus of linguistic knowledge. Thc aetivity of writing hel helps ps to consolidate the knowledge for use in area eas, s, si sinc ncee it gi give vess th thee student practice in man manipulating ipulating structur structures es and other ar selecting and combining lexical elements. Written questions based on a reading passage eneourage the student to read Ihe text more attentively and discover areas which were misinterpreted on tIte first reading. Oní>’ by hearing and reading a great deal of thc language as it is spoken and written by native speakers can language learners acquire that feeling 29
Didáctica (Lengua y Literatara) 2 0 0 0 , 12 : 21-41
Miguel Ángel A/marza Sánchez
S kilLv in Eng/ish Teachi~ig An Apprúach tú tIte IntegraIiút~ of SkilLv
basic to for the appropriate use of langua language ge forms and combinations, which is basic expressive writing. Ihe Ih e most effective writing pract practice ice will have a close conneetion with what is aware, re, though, though, tha thatt uot being practised in relation to other skills. We should be awa everybody wi will ll reacI reacItt a It Itig igh h standard in composition. Interferenee of tIte first language explains the unaceeptable forms that many produce in the written forín, tIte construetion of hybrid phrases wi with thou outt re real alisi ising ng that these are íncomprehensible in the context of thc new language. enco cour urag agee th thee le lear arne ners rs to us usee struetures and Attempts should be made to en expressions tIte> ’ have aIread>’ leamed in oral practice and in reading, creating so,, tIte> ’ will be using interesting and amusing pieces of expressive writing. By doing so much language material which otherwise would escape from their active memory. More Mo re effec effectiv tivee results will be achieved in writin writingg exercis exercises es if there is a continual integration of practice in alí tIte skills. When tIte students Itave read. heard an and d sa said id to themselves or others what tIte> ’ are expected to write, they are more likely to write it correctí>’. WIten dictation procedures are employed for reproduetion, two skills are being exercised at once: Iis Iisten tening ing and wri writin ting. g. TIte dict dictati ation on pra practice ctice will tIten be reinforcing practice in listening comprehension, as weIl as providing practice in accurate writing. As students advance in language leaming, phrases dietated will gradualí>’ be lengthened, until students are eventualí>’ ab able le to retain complete immediate te memor>’ and write them down correctí>’. sentences in their immedia Notetaking and tIte writing of reports can be further develop developments ments from exereises in listening comprehension. Anything available in the recorded form or can n be tIte ba basi siss fo forr wr writt itten en composition. Similarí>’, wide lectures thems themselves elves ca reading and practice in putting some of tIte material rea read d into an an uncomplicated students’ nts’ familiarity with many language items written form will consolidate the stude and mate thesemore available for selection in oral expression. E > ’ integrating skills we ar aree al also so giving the learners more opportunities to understand and broaden cultural concepts, since these happen tItrougIt a wide variety of ehannels. both written and oral —apart from a wide range of visual ones In order to ensure the potent potential ial contribution of other skill areas, the teacher diseussio ussionn of what what ha hass been he hear ard d or read and should promote active class dise encourage the presentation of sh shor ortt or oral al re repo port rts. s. This will follo low w th thee communicative comm unicative principie of task-dependeney, wh whic ich h is es esse sent ntia iall to make tIte lessonss mean lesson meaningful ingful from tIte students’ point of view. A st stor ory y ma>’ be rewritten in dialogue form, or a dialo dialogue gue rewrit rewritten ten as a narrative. Wc should, however, remember that not alí students have arcad>’ flow of ideas when asked to writc. even in their native langua language. ge. Thcrefore, composition Didáctica (Lengua y Literatura) 2000, 12 : 21-41
30
Miguel Ánge/ Aln,arza Sánchez
An Apprúach tú tIte ./nté-gratiún of 5l6/ls 5l6/ls ir English
Té-aching
exereises should not be designed so th that at tIte> ’ become tests of originality and invention (although imaginative studcnts should not be discouraged to go beyond what is required). TIte writing of an original dialogue, using the vocabular>’ area of some recent writing, kecps tIte studcnt praetising in tIte stylc of spoken language. link nked ed with assignments for Composition exercises may profitably be li extensive reading. This composition ma>’ consist of a summary of the contents with a personal eommentary or tIte narration of some aspect of tIte story assigncd previously by the teacher. The students will then be encouragcd to selecí thcir own approaeli and demonstrate thc level of exprcssion of whieh tItey are capable.
‘7 .
Listening ami other skills
tntegrating tIte listcning luto a longer sequence of work demonstrates to the that at th thee effort they have put into understanding is no nott wastcd. For a students th number of reasons, the skill of listening could be regarded as tIte most difficult to develop. whethcr we look at it from a cognitive perspectivc or due to tIte addcd difficulties that derive fr from om th thee acoustics. Help Helping ing stud student entss to improve their of tIte tIte teacher’s job. TIte better studcnts listcning to spoken English is a vital pan of understand wItat they hear, thc better they will take pan in spokcn interaetions. comprehen prehension sion activit activities ies should spring naturalí>’ from, or provide Listening com material for, oral practice or reading; thcy can also provide a stimulus for writing activities. TItis idea is also expressed by Rivers (1981:167): Wben various skills are integrared jato free-Oowing activities, in which one provides prov ides mat material erial (br the other, students learn to operate confidently within the language, easily easily transferring knowledge knowledge acquired in one area m r active use in another. It is most irnporranr ¡hat ihe leacher aol compartamentalize tite learning (...)
Integration of the various aspeets of language use requires careful preparation on the pan of tIte teacher, so that opportunities fér natural movement from one lesson. n. Task-based language modality to another evolve continually during eaeh lesso activities, such as labelling, form-filling, completing a grid, etc. rcflect much more type of response that might be given to a listcning experienee in realdosel>’ the type life. TIte>’ demand individual responses. Filling in forms, labelling diagrams or making choices obliges ever>’ leamer to try to make something meaningful of what they are hcaring. TItis is cspecially effcctive if tIte class is asked to work in pairs, sínce fosterin fosteringg cooperative cooperative learning should be one of our primar>’ objectivcs when wc design tIte ícaching syllabus. 31
Didáctica (Lengua y Literatura) 2000,12: 21-41
Miguel Ángel Almarza Sánchez
An Approach tú tIte
Skil/s i,i,’’ Eng/ish Teo.Iting 1ntegratio,~ of Skil/s
when en,, in fact, fact, it Many teachers tend to focus upon the product of listening. wh would be more illustrative to pa>’ attention to the process, that is, what is going on in th thee heads of our learners. Rivers mentions tha thatt sin sinee ee listening and reading would ld expect tIte development involve similar processes (speech perception), one wou carr rry y over to re read adin ing. g. of listening strategies thr throug oughh int intens ensive ive pra practice ctice to ca Furthermore, if there is a nucleus of linguistie knowledge of the structure and alí í the language skills, then it lexicon of the language, basic to the operation of al should not surprise us that practising this basic corpus in on e modality will make it more available for use in the other. psycholingu olinguistic istic resear research ch makes clear that listening and Conversely, psych spcaking are not deeoding-encoding proeesses which are mirror images of each other. In fact, we can se seee that that th thee knowledge of the language we require for comprehension of oral input may be quite different fr from om th that at required for listenin eningg (an (andd reading), exprcssing expr cssing our meaning in speech and writing. In list expectations and inference help us create a meaning from semantic clues, so that it is ofte oftenn unnece unnecessary ssary to recognise or comprehend the significance of morphological or syntactic elements. On the other hand, our own utterances will usualí>’ not be comprehensible, and will frequentí>’ be unacceptable, if we do not use these elements correctí>’ ourselves. It seems to be widely accepted tbat prediction is an extremely import important ant stage. It allows students to get interested in the topie and predict tIte kind of vocabulary they the y are Iikely Iikely to hear. It means, aboye alí, that tIte> ’ are not approaching tIte task from scratch. This ma>’ take the form of discussing the topie or showing pictures that tIte students interpret before tIte> ’ listen. We could also give them written and spoken versions of the same story and ask them to note tIte grammarical and lexical differences between them. There are, however, contrasted views on Itow to approacIt tIte post-listening stage. John Field (1998) mentions that it is worthwhile to pick ornan>’ functional language and draw learners’ attention to it I t > ’ asking them to remember tIte exact words for an invitation, apology, suggestion and so on. Rivers, however, thinks that asking the students to pay attention to the surface structure will distract them from overalí mcaning. Generalí>’ speaking, informa information-gap tion-gap activiti activities, es, in which tIte peers rs by completing a task, seem to be students check their understanding with pee sett some further work in which produetive output is effective. It is also desirable to se called for. We should encourage leamcrs to disagree witIt each other —thereby increasing motivation for a second listening and makin making g listening a mue mueh h mor moree interactive aetivity. The use of tIte students tirst language in tIte EFL class has been frowned upon b > ’ man>’ speeialists for the last few decades for a number of indisputable reasons. Didáctica (Lengua y Literatura) 2000, t2: 21-41
32
Miguel Ángel Almarga Sánchez
tIte Integratiún of Skil/s in Eng/ish Teaching An ApprúacIt tú tIte
ar e inclined to think that there can be no better teacher tItan a native few are speaker who never uses the students’ mother tongue in the classroom —regardless However, r, studi studies es on contrastive analysis have of his ¡ her teaehing background. Howeve focused on the importance for tIte foreign langua of tIte tIte language ge learner of being aware of similarities and differences between both languages. This has clear implieations for the teaehing and practice of listening skills. lf we want our students to get away from literal translations and mother tongue interference. an idea to he help lp th theem undcr undcrsta stand nd diffi diffieult eult patterns of diseourse isa a non-literal version of wItat follow~. we can dictate them a sentenee in Lí wItich is they are going to listen to in the the target language. We tIten ask them to locate (as they listen) and transcribe the exaet wor words ds use used d to phrase this idea in L2. Alternativel>’, we ma>’ have asked them before listening to give tIteir own version as they imagine this would be said in the oral form, and later compare thcir own version to the real oiw. By doing so, we would be giving them reasons for listening and, at the same time, the>’ wo woul uld d be focusing on specific language patterns that might othcrwise remain unattended or offer difficulties for understanding. Whatever we do, our true simply y to provid providee practice but to produ produce ce be better tter and more aim should not be simpl confident listeners. Quite a
8.
Reading ami other skills
Reading at advaneed levels m a> ’ be included as a reference tool, to provide material for more informed discussion of aspects of the target culture, but it should not be to the detriment of the time devoted to oral communication. It is preferable usee for this purpose articles from magazines and newspapers where reading is to us individual preparatory work, done out of tIte elassroom. It is useful in teaching reading to make a distinction between recognition and production grammar. TIte syntactie details the reader needs in order to extraet the important elements of the message are fewer and ma>’ be different from those aree important when producing onc’s own messages in speecIt or writi writing. ng. which ar Rivers (1981: 267) makes a clear distinetion be between tween proces processes ses in speecIt production and speech pereeption: Perception of spoken or written tnessages is prima primarily rily depende dependent nt on semamic ic meanin meaning, g, moving from what one perceives in the sound sound apprehension of semam sequence or in the writ¡en script to the idea idea,, with reenurse to knowledge of syntax syntax only wheo (he meaning is not clear or an ambiguity or misdirected interpretation is detected (.4 In production the speaker or writer expresses the intention or ide ideaa through the operation of the syntactic system.
33
Didáctica (Le (Lengua ngua y Literatura) 2000,12:21-41
Miguel Angel A/marza Sánchez
Skil/s it it’ ’ Ettglixh Teaching An Apprúach tú tIte Integratiún úf Skil/s
Students should n o É be expected or encoaraged to stop whenever tIte tIte>> ’ meer a new or rather unfamiliar word to inse insert rt a native-language gloss between the lines. This habit must be discouraged if the they y ar aree to leam to think in a second langua language. ge. notebooks oks in which They could increase their vocabular>’ by keeping individual notebo copy y wor words ds tItey wish to remember These words should be copied down in tIte> ’ cop complete phrases or sentences, so tItat the students are reminded of tIte context in woul uld d be appropriately used, thus providing written practice from wIticb tIte> ’ wo reading input. Extensive reading fosters vocabular>’ growtIt and the acquisition of syntax in context. By reading, one ma>’ develop personal intuitions about what good writing looks like; practising and applying those intuitions in writing is probabí>’ thc best way for a student to become a good writer in a second langua language. ge. In fact, there are courses, programs and teaching practices whose rationale is based on the assumption that tbere is a strong relationstip between reading and writing. One of tIte fundamental principIes in second language acquisition is the claim obtain ain comprehensible input tItat people acquire a sccond language oní>’ if they obt whicIt whi cIt they they allow «in «in». ». TIte input hypothesis ma>’ als also o app apply ly to the acquisition of Krashe shen n and Terel Terelí í (1983) point out when they highlight writing competence, as Kra the fact that reading can serve as un important source of comprehensible input and ma>’ make a significant contribution to the development of overalí proficiene>’. TIte assumption underlying is that writing coínpetence is aequired subconciously. without readers being aware that tIte> ’ have acquired itit,, wItile tIte> ’ are reading. We could even go further to illustrate tIte connections between reading and wri writin ting. g. Foon Foongg (1988), poinis to tIte fact that studies Itave been conducted which find that those who get pleasure froín reading at alí ages, especilí>’ at high tIte poor writers seem to report «a lot» of writer ters, s, whi while le none of of tIte school, are better wri pleasure reading at high school. He concludes that persons with good writing ability do ‘flore reading than persons witIt poor writing ability. WIte WI ten n it comes to discuss discussing ing comp compreIte reItension nsion pro process cesses es thr through ough rece receptiv ptivee terms ms ~ ’ a fundamental rol role; e; the they y skills, the ter path thss to comprehension. Th They ey ar aree me meta tapI pItor torss wh whic ich h describe two different pa presuppose tItat we view compreItension in terms of hierarchy, witIt lower or Itigher levels of proeessing. Lower lev levels els rel relate ate to the sound or print stimulus and are concerned with recognising and decoding itit:: higher levels ar aree involved with comprehending and constructing th thee meaning of what is being Iteard or read. Hottom-up Hotto m-up proc processing essing suggests that lingui linguistie stie information is received and processed beginning with th thee smallest unit and ending with larger units of meaning. hass been Meaning, at any level, is accessed oní>’ once processing at previous levels ha completed. Top-do Top-down wn theor,es. in con contra trast. st. put forward a non non-li -linea nearr vie view w of the D dcíclica (Lengua y Literatura) 2000, 12:21-4l
34
Miguel Angel A/marza Sánchez
Att Apprúach tú tite Integration of 5/6/ls 5/6/ls in English Té-aching
begi gins ns wi with th the rea reade der’ r’ss or listener’s own contribution, process. Comprehension be making hypothesis ab abou outt wh what at is eomin eoming g ne next xt an and d confirming predictions. In listening. tIte quantity of incoming information mates it impossible for tIte human alíí of itit.. Amos Para Paran n (1997) mentions that tIte processing auditory system to process al of information when listening must be regulated by higher level cognitive processes. lncoming information is sampled and sampling is done on the basis of the listener’s expect-¿tions, previous knowledge, aud what has airead>’ been pro process cessed. ed. SucIt a statement seems to suggest that when reading, however. the actor of the moree con contro troll over the pace and can thcrefore var>’ the speed and tIte process has mor focus of the act activi ivity. ty. going back to previous units of meaning to facilitate comprehension or to reinforce ideas. This ínay explain the big difference in the construction of meaning between tIte skills of reading and listening. TIte different nature of Ihe processes wou would ld als also o aceount for the various degrees of linguistie reading. ng. challenge and would prove that listening ma>’ be more demanding than readi Nevertheless. it would be true to sa > ’ that the level of difficulty is also dependent on such faclors as subject matter, register, eomplexity of meaning relations or lexical items. context and so forth.
9.
Speaking and its implications
Rather than mecItanical drilís and repetitions, the purpose of this section is to focus on tItose situations where students use as much language as they can and where thee mes getting th messag sagee acr across oss is just as important as grammatical accuracy. lf no English course is completewithout writing or grammar,speaking is another essential strand of the lan langua guage. ge. Oral Oral spe speech ech is the students’ output, which can be based on thee previous written or oral input, or it can also lead to further acúvities in which th contin tinue ue to be involved. In botIt ca case sess we wo woul uld d be approaching the students con classroom reality in a realistie and motivating way by integrating tIte language skills. Speaking activities give learners a chance for rehearsal — practising the real skil sk illl of speaking as a preparation for using it outside the classroom. It also provides valuable feedback about their language knowledge, for both themselves and their teachers. Moreover. speaking activities also provoke genuine student involved lved witb tIte process of language engagement wItere tIte>’ really get invo learning in class. thatt wo work rk we well ll te teud ud to include a task with a clear, achievable end Activities tha product. II they are personalised and relevant to the students’ lives, they will see tIte link between what tbey are doing and life around them, whieh makes the whole process more meaningful. The tas tasks ks sIt sItould ould have a purpose whieIt is not purel>’ 35
Didác:tica (Lengua y Literatura) 2000. 12 : 21-41
A/marza Sánchez Miguel Ánge/ A/marza
Att Apprúach tú tú tIté- tIté- .tnregrotiún of 5 / 6 / l s in Eng/ish Teaching
linguistie —such as solving a problem or reacbing a decision aud sboníd maximise the range of language they wiIl have to use. Questionnaires, surveys and other information-gap activities are popular, generate genuine discourse praetices skills lls and and task dependency. They can and lend themselves to an integration of the ski help teachers to overcome what VaugItan and Spencer (1997) calI TA TAB B in teenage students (Task Avoidan Avoidance ce Behav Behaviour). iour). W e should engage the students by making them want to take part in a tangible task with a clear purpose. Discussions provide ideal opportunities for sp spea eaki king ng.. So Some me of th thee most enjoyable classes are ones where unplanned discussions suddenly arise on issues that matter to the students. As the studen students’ ts’ level progresses, we can gradualí>’ make tas tasks ks mor moree demanding by requiring a higIter level of performance bo both th in temis of aecuracy and fiucncy, as well as tIte vocabulary range used in class. can n be us used ed at an any y st stag age, e, no nott just at tIte end of a teaehing Speaking activities ca stud uden ents ts’’ performance th that at he help lpss th thee teacher to sequence. Sometimes it is the st tIte activities decide what to teach next. It is also good to explain tIte objectives of of tIte so that the students have visible, quantifiable progress; besides, feedback should be given after the task has been completed. Monitoring during th thee activity is tIte best way to identify problem areas. Pair and group work is vital to increase tIte studen studentt talking time and create a motivating collaborative atmosphere. As lessons become more interactive between seee th thee real teacher and student and betwee etweenn studen students ts themselves, they can se purpose of communication in tIte written and spo spoken ken mod modes. es. Nowadays, fewer teacIt tea cIters ers are reluctant to admit that communication is th thee primary purpose of General English language instruction. One of te tasks that ma>’ provide more genuine communieation and practice in alí the skills, especialí>’ at intermediate levels and aboye is the the us usee of students’ minilectures (5-10 minutes). It trains speaking and lis listen tening ing skills and helps the them m gain more flexibility in English using indirect input. Monika Gedicke (>997) describes ways wa ys of involving the who whole le class in student lectures. Sh decide ided d to ask some some Shee dec students to give short talks on books tIte> ’ had read or on various topies tIte> ’ would need as background information for further work. TIte students Itave tIte chance to experience peer-learn peer-learning ing and also lcam to speak freel>’ in front of a group. Things to avoid when conducting this type of task are tIte students’ reading out thee texts learnt by heart at a text they have previously written, or going through th home. What could also happen is that the listeners switch off or get bored when te aetivity is oní>’ good for the lecturer at the expense of valuable classroom time for the rest of the students in te room. To sustain te listeners’ int intere erest st and provoke active involv involvement ement tIte leeture one-way comínu comínunicat nication. ion. TIte Iiste Iisteners ners must ask quest questions, ions, eitIter as a cannot be a one-way Didáctica (Lengua y Lité-roturo) 2000, 12 : 21-41
36
An Apprúach tú tIte Integratian nf S/6l/s itt itt finglish finglish Teaching
Migué-lAn gelAlmarza Sánchez
group or as individua individuals, ls, determine what tItey want to find out about tIte subject matter, answer er questio questions nsasked asked by restate lecture content and offer comments. They must also answ the lec lectur turer er who who,, bef before orehan hand, d, ha hass prepared a ha hand ndou outt wit with h th thee ma main in ar argu gume ment nts, s,
explained essential vocabular>’ aná outlined the siructure of bis o r her lectxire. As a first step to this elassroom aetivity, teachers may model first, trying out own n te teet etur ures es so that that te students can ge gett us used ed to their new role as active their ow Thee Listeners ma>’ do some background reading froni listeners and speakers. Th coursebook texts and also take notes, tbis allowing to incorporate written English to the whole process. Language problems that arise can be dealt with in lat later er err error or correction, unless they stand in tIte way of communication. W c can always improve language tasks if we increase the demand for studentdesign ign of a tas task k we have have to look at two ele elemen ments: ts: generated ideas and language. in te des wbat, that is, the co how w (e.g. information-gap in pairs, cont nten entt or to topi picc an and d ho brainstorming with the wItole class, etc.). For each activity type we can see how much «freedom» or «control» there is for tIte student and pa>’ attention to tIte procedure. W e need to, progressively. mercase tIte amount of time we devote to «free» activities. The tea teacher cher’s ’s sele selectio ctionn of activities can oní>’ he determined by our understanding of tIte ultiínate goal and our judgement of wItere the learners stand 15)) makes this distiaction accoi-ding to tIte stage la relation lo it. Littlewood (1981: 15 of the cours coursee in whic which h we find find ourselves: course we may expose learners to tIte same basic linguistie material so that they can muye gradually towards the abitity so participase lo n~eaningful interaction. Later, learners wiIl have achieved greater indepeodence in thcir learning and use of language. They will therefore be able to move more swiftly from the initial learning of new language to the point where they have insegrated it into thcir repertoire and can use it in more indep independen endentt form formss of interaction. In the ea ear]y r]y
1 0.
stages
of a
Transitions between skills
piec ecee of text is an aetivity which tIte reader is able Reading and understanding a pi to perform because he or she can follow relationships of thoug thought, ht, understa understand nd cohesiv coh esivee fun functi ction ons, s, infe inferr tIte meaning of unk unknow nownn wor words, ds, and so on. TIte distinetion between receptive and productive performance comes from the fact tbat the participant ha hass to be able to understand more alternative possibilities tItan tbey Itave to produce. TItere is a general belief antongst teachers that tIte recognition of an item is casia tban its rerrieval ii iiii production. Curda (1973: 262) blames on tIte difficulty
3 ,7
Didáctica (Lengua y Literatura)
2000,12:21-41
Miguel Ángel Almarza Sánchez
Skil/x it Att Apprúach tú tIte lote gration of Skil/x itt t English Teaching
of devising means of studying receptive errors, whi which ch has prevented us from confirming tItese general impressions or from establishing the qualitative or quantitative relations between tItem: eould well be that that we overestimate the pupils receptive abilities simply because we cannot so readily deteer failures in comprehension. In any any ac actt of comprehension there is a major component supplied by the situatit,n and the hearer. It
The designing of syllabuses involves man>’ different eonsiderations, linguistie, aree to too o pedagogic, sociolinguistie, psyehologicaí. The number of variables ar numerous. Since we teach groups and not individuals there must be a compromise to integrate a parallel se sett of syllabuses: synta syntaetic, etic, phono phonological, logical, cultural and funetional, and, witItin each of these, a parallel set of learning tasks. The psycholinguistic processes which go on wben we perform receptivel>’ and expressively in the linguistie activities do not occur in isolation but in some sort of sequence of coordination. The efficient learnin learningg of reading may aNo involve writing or speaking. However, we must not falí into a confusion of ends and means. If the end is the the ability to speak, this does not rule out receptive activity or exercise as a means to that end. Some exposure to language is necessary in order to discover its rules, and consequentí>’ some Iearning of receptive skills must logicalí>’ precede produetive activity. W e must leam something of reading before we learn to write, something of comprehension before we Ieam to speat. What we aim for is a balanced method in whieh practice and development of a skill leads naturalí>’ to another one through through use useful ful and authentie eontexts, both for tberefore erefore be used as understanding and producing language. Languageinput should tb Thee final product should be seen as a a springboard for stu studen dents’ ts’ out output. put. Th consolidation of a l> tha thatt th thee students have learnt by working their way tbrou tbrougb gb a unit and notjust asan extra activity. One of the pí-inciples in whieh the transition between the skilís is contained is thaÉ of providing pre pre,, whil whilee and post activities in order to belp students to make sense of the texts an and d or oral al passages, deal with difficult language or unk unknow nown n vocabular>’ and develop tIteir own strategies. Besides, they are more likely to see tIte point in what tItey are doing when activities are linked together as part of a larger task. Writing at elementar>’ levels should be guided, as they cannot be expected to write something they bave not aIread>’ seen in a reading text. One of tIte of tIte best ways in which smooth transitions between sIllIs can be made is by approacbing reaching and learning beyond tIte sole linguistie purpose. W e should go beyond the artificial contents and modes of information deliver>’ so com common mon to language classes, and use tIte students’ interests to engage them in a personalisation Didáctico (Leogoa s ’ Literatura)
2000,12:21-41
38
Migael A ~ ~ g e J Alinarza Sánchez
AnApprúach tú ihe lntegraliún ihe lntegraliún úf Skills Skills in English Teaching
process. tt is a matter of using the foreign-Ianguage to LEARN about life, to inform, to entertain, to socialise. Bringing Ituman activities in into to th thee second language into a veh vehicl icle, e, a means, means, and notan end in itself; itself; classroom will contribule to turning it into just in the sanie way as the student’s mother tongue is for them. Therefore. we will decode ode messages in a differcnt language; a ereate a real necessity to encode and dec language whieh is seen as a whole, not as a set of individual eomponents. A final
11.
product
Depending on Ihe level of the students, topic areas, as well as vocabulary and sett different tasks, some of which are presented below language presented. we can se aud can be exploited botIt receptively and productively, apart from involving a wide range of language sidUs: lett tter erss an and d messages; posters to be displayed; cartoon Tasks: le captions; advertisemenís and leaflets leaflets;; review reviews; s; summaries of elass readers: cssays; descriptions; (auto)biograpIties; survcys and questio questionnair nnaires; es; creativ creativee writing; narrative accounts. Written
Spoken Tasks: class surve>’s; interviews; role-pía>’ and simulations; group contests; diseussion pane panels; ls; prob problem-solv lem-solving ing activities; ran rankin kingg act activit ivities; ies; negotiation tasks and consensus consensus-reaching; -reaching; informa information-gap tion-gap and transfer
Whateva tasks we set, a factor that proves lo be of paramount importanee is the one of establisbing a good classroom dynamics and a cooperative environment, sinc si ncee so some me of the top principies of effective learning have something to do with group gro up coo coopcr pcrat ation ion.. Wb Wbet ethe herr we are looking at personal engagement, communication or motivation, anything we do as teachers of a foreign language must have team work as a basis for enjoyable ei eias asss work. work. By no means can we expe ex pect ct to Itave Itave interested individuals in ou ourr classes un unle less ss we gi give ve íItem clear usee language in a practical way, b > ’ imitating human activities thaI purposes to us thcc classrooín. resemble what happ happens ens outsid outsidee th Conclusions
12.
have tr triied to explore tIte theoretical background and analyse the methodological implications behind the approach of integrating tIte practice of 1
39
Didáctica (Lengua y Literatura)
2000,12:21-41
Miguel Ánge/A/marza Sánchez S ánchez
Ski/l.’ itt English Teaching Att Apprúac.It tú tite lr~tegratiún of Ski/l.’
four skills in the language classroom. The idea is to make the teaching and learning situation come closer to the way we do things in real life, in order to make classes more cballenging, motivating and meaningful for the learners of English as a second language. The underlying message is that foreign langua language ge teachi teaching ng must be learnercentred to make students better receivers and producers of language in context, bearing in mmd their needs and interesís in both written and spoken situations. W e, as teachers, must be concerned with reality: reality: with th thee reality of communication as it tates place outside tIte classroom. Because both of these realities —in and out-of classroom— ar aree so complex, nobod>’ wi will ll ev ever er produce a definitiv definitivee teachin teachingg metbodology. Our job will Iberefore be lo suggest 1 1 w besí possible lasks to heip students incorporate a new linguistie code that will have to be used in different or the same— stylistic, soc social ial and situational eontexts as their mother tongue. be abí bíee to extract ideas applicable to every AnotIter important thing is to be learning and teacIting environment possible and adapt thc approaches suggested needs,, interests and abilities, as well Itere to tIte different age groups, backgrounds, needs as syllabuses and resources that we must follow or make use of. Oní>’ in tItis way classroúm events come clo will we be able to make in-classroom and out-of classroúm closer ser fo forr the students to make the most of our work and the their ir own effort. the
References and other biblio bibliograp graphy hy
ANDERSON, A . & LvNcn, T. (1988): Listening, Oxford, OL P uthenticity ticity Re Revisited: visited: Húw Real ix Real? in English for Specitic ARNOLD, E. (1993): Authen Purposes, Vol. 12 , 237-243. testing,, not ready for tIte future yet, in Teachers’ ERANEMBRAWN, M . (1997): Lan g u a ge testing Forum, issue 69. BRETÓN, M . et al audiovisual visual auténtico, in ínter al.. (1998): Análisis y explútacion de material audio 14-21. 21. E. 0.1, ni’ 2. Barcelona. OUP, 14BRUMFIT,C. (1984): CúmmunicativeMethodúlogyin Longuage Teaching. Cambridge,CUP. CORDER, SP. (1973): ¡n ¡nll roducing Applied Linguistics, London, Penguin, 1993. FIELO, J. (1998): TIte changing face of /isíening, /isíening, in English Teaching Professional. Pp.. 12-14. London, issue 6, Pp FooNc, K.R (1988): TIte relationship between Reading an and d Writing in fing/ish as a Ihe e University of Texas at Arlington. secot,d language. UMI, Ih GEDICKE, M. (1997): Srudent lectures itt tIte classroom, in English Teaching Professional. London, issue4, ¡4-16. KRASHEN, 5. & TERna, T . (1983): TIte naíttral apprnach: language acquisitiún in tIte c.lassroúm. San Francisco, Aleman>’ Press. Didáctico (Lengua y Literotura)
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MiguelÁngelAlmarza SáncItez
Att Ap¡’ rúach tú tIte Inté-gratian of Sldl/s itt Eng/ish Teachi;ig
Kuo, CH. (1993): Problematic issues in ESTtnaterials development, in English for Specific Purposes. Vol. 1 2 , 171-181. LtrrLEItJHN, A. (1997): Making goad taslcs better, in English Teaching Professional. London, issue 3 , 28-30. (1998): Language learning tasks andeducation, in EnglishTeaching. London, issue6,
lo—II LITTLFWOOD, W. (1984): Communicatíve ¡.nnguage Teaching. Cambridge, CIJP, 1987. PARAN. A . (1997): Bottom-up and Top-dúwnprocetssing, inEnglish Teaching. Professional,
London, issue 3, p. II II.. Ríve Rí veRs Rs.. W. W.M. M. (19 (1981) 81):: Teaching foreigo-language
shlls. Chicago, The Univ Universi ersity ty of
Chicago Press. SPENCER, D. & VAUGHAN, D. (1997): TAB or ‘Why don’r my teenagers speak EnglishW, speak EnglishW, in English Teaching Prof Professi essional. onal. London, issue 3,12-13. Language WíDoowsoN, HG. (1978): Teaching Lan guage as Comniunication. Oxford, OUP
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Didáclica (Lengua y Literolur,,) 2000. 12 : 2l-4l