ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA ————— 219 —————
SEALS AND SEALING PRACTICES IN THE NEAR EAST Developments in Administration and Magic from Prehistory to the Islamic Period Proceedings of an International Workshop at the Netherlands-Flemish Institute in Cairo on December 2-3, 2009
edited by
ILONA REGULSKI, KIM DUISTERMAAT and PETER VERKINDEREN
UITGEVERIJ PEETERS en DEPARTEMENT OOSTERSE STUDIES LEUVEN – PARIS – WALPOLE, MA 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS Contributors to this volume
vii
Programme of the conference
ix
Preface
xi
I. Regulski Introduction K. Duistermaat Which Came First, the Bureaucrat or the Seal? Some Thoughts on the Non-Administrative Origins of Seals in Neolithic Syria
xiii
1
V. Müller Do Seal Impressions Prove a Change in the Administration during the Reign of King Den?
17
H. Tomas The Transition from the Linear A to the Linear B Sealing System
33
U. Dubiel Protection, Control and Prestige – Seals among the Rural Population of Qau-Matmar
51
K. Vandorpe and B. Van Beek “Non Signat Aegyptus”? Seals and Stamps in the Multicultural Society of Greco-Roman Egypt
81
N.C. Ritter On the Development of Sasanian Seals and Sealing Practice: A Mesopotamian Approach
99
B. Caseau Magical Protection and Stamps in Byzantium
115
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
J.-Cl. Cheynet and B. Caseau Sealing Practices in the Byzantine Administration
133
C. Kotsifou Sealing Practices in the Monasteries of Late Antique and Early Medieval Egypt
149
P.M. Sijpesteijn Seals and Papyri from Early Islamic Egypt
163
E. Fernández Medina The Seal of Solomon: From Magic to Messianic Device
175
S. Dorpmüller Seals in Islamic Magical Literature
189
K.R. Schaefer Block Printing as an Extension of the Practice of Stamping
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THE SEAL OF SOLOMON: FROM MAGIC TO MESSIANIC DEVICE * ESTHER FERNÁNDEZ MEDINA
In the present paper I would like to present some magical practices related to the seal of Solomon (ãͫ tim Sulaymãn) among the Moriscos in early modern Spain. I will propound it as a case study of the synthesis of different religious traditions operated by magic. The Moriscos were the “new Christians” of Muslim origin forcibly converted to Catholicism at the beginning of the 16 th century in Spain. The seal of Solomon, as I will show, was a symbol shared by Spain’s cultural traditions: Christians, Jews, and Muslims, the three main religious groups of Iberia. But it turned to fulfill the hopes and to ease the misfortunes of Moriscos living among the old Christian population. The seal of Solomon is also a device that expresses various levels of meaning.
First it is an object that has its own history expressed in Quranic exegetical literature as well as in historical accounts and tales. Solomon (Sulaymãn) is a wise king and one of the prophets of Islam as he predicted the arrival of the prophet Mu ͥammad. His seal granted him authority and gave him supernatural powers. The earliest records on Solomon’s presence in Iberia go back to the Arab conquest of al-Andalus. The Arab chronicles depict this conquest under a halo of legend. As in the Thousand and One Nights, the westernmost part of the known world is portrayed as a continuum of mythical elements. Ibn ͤab č b, the 9th-century Muslim chronicler of al-Andalus, placed the jars inhabited by demons and sealed by Solomon on the Atlantic coast of Africa, where he also located the mythical Copper City, supposedly built to his command. In the Arab myths of the conquest of Spain, the objects attached to
*
I thank my thesis director Mercedes García-Arenal and Fernando Rodríguez Mediano for the invaluable guidance and assistance when writing this article, which was made possible with the support of the research project: “Orientalismo e historiografía en la cultura española del Barroco”, HUM 2007-60412.
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Solomon are evidence of his previous passage through the Peninsula (Hernández Juberías 1996). The story of the seal of Solomon was known in Spain since the first contacts with Muslim culture. Andalusi and Morisco tales depicted Solomon’s stories in accordance with his portrait in medieval oriental sources. This popular literature of the Muslims develops the scarce amount of information contained in the second and thirty-eighth sŊrah of the Quran. Al-ήaɺlab č narrated how God sent down his hallmark with the angel Gabriel as a gift to Solomon with the wisdom he demanded. The ring and its signet represent power (mulk) over all creatures including the spirits ( jinn), the wind, the human beings, and the animals and birds, i.e., all of creation. This power is given by the inscription of the Greatest Name of Allah.1 The signet will thus be the sign of authority, but the story turns the authority into the magical power to control all natural and supernatural phenomena. This literature of Qi Σa Σ describes in detail how the seal is composed of different metals according to the nature of the being towards which its order is directed (ήaɺlab č 2002: 516), and how the seal had originally pertained to Adan (Kisãɹč 1997: 210).2
: The six-pointed star engraved on a gold ring with the Islamic šahãda in positive. Positive gravures on seals seem to be magic ones (Martínez Núñez 2007: 344 no. 212). ͥ There are 99 sacred Names to call Allah, such as al-W ã id ( the Unique ), alMuͥ yč ( the Giver of Life ), etc., and the nature of His attributes is developed in 1
Islamic theology (for a full list of authors and their different versions of the sacred Names see Gimaret: 1988). 2 The literary genre of qi Σa Σ al-anbiyãɹ (stories of the prophets) consists of traditional accounts developing Quranic stories about the prophets of Islam.
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In a second level of meaning, the seal of Solomon is a symbol, and we will now trace its Jewish origins. Victor Klagsbald explained the relationship of the Star of David or Shield of David ( magen David) with the rabbinic symbolism of the lily. The lily symbol is the representation of the people of Israel, and draws its messianic sense from a rabbi’s allegorical interpretation of the Song of Songs. This approach is instructive for the topic under examination since the authorship of the Biblical book is traditionally attributed to Solomon. The six-pointed star would originally be the sign announcing the coming of the Messiah of the lineage of David; therefore the conjecture supports the identification of that symbol with the announcement of a new era heralded by the wise king of Judaism and prophet of Islam. Whereas Islamic sources kept the six-pointed star related to their prophet, they called it “Seal of Solomon.” The Jewish, on the other hand, named it “Shield of David” or “Star of David” (Klagsbald 1997).
To some extent the seal is appropriated as a typically eschatological symbol and this is evidenced in the ͥadčί reproduced by Ibn ͤab č b al-Andalus č in the 9th century.3 This tradition relates how those convicted at Doomsday are identified by the seal of Solomon engraved on their foreheads, by contrast to Moses’ pole identifying the true believers (Ibn ͤab č b 2005: 129). Also a ͥadčί of al-άabar č or al-Ăazãl č ’s Durrat al-Fačͫ ra, in the 11th century, echoed this theme except for the symbols attached to it (Abel 1965: 72). The seal of Solomon thus might have assumed a negative meaning in Islamic eschatology at least in al-Andalus. However, there is clear evidence showing that the seal of Solomon took on a specific meaning in orthodox Islam. As Almudena Ariza has noted, the use of the seal in Caliphal coins of al-Andalus is due to a call of support to the berber population.4 The symbol had been already minted in the Idrisid coins of North Africa 3
A ͥadčί is a story on Muhammad’s sayings or actions transmitted within a chain of authority. 4 This is the original population of northern Africa. They usually supported š čԞč parties and were close to heterodoxy and messianic ideas.
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and used as a political instrument. It meant the adoption of the attributes of Solomon, wisdom and power, by the rulers; probably containing another hidden meaning to the population since the trend of the š čԞč current is based in the esoteric interpretation of the sacred book: the Quran (Ariza 2010).
: The six-pointed star in a dirͥam of andalusi provenience (Rodríguez Lorente 1991).
The imprint
The seal of Solomon was shaped in Morisco books of magic, those written in Arabic and those written in aljamía (Spanish vernacular in Arabic script), ever present in charms and talismans ( ͥirz, herce) with prophylactic purposes, which clearly show its meaning in the practice of ritual magic in Spain. The aljamiado manuscript Junta 59, for instance, shows the seal of Solomon surrounded by the sacred Names of Allah, as a formula to reach an ecstatic state ( ikr ), common in mystical rituals and prayers. It is, then, a magical-mystical symbol that protects and blesses. This new version of the role of Solomon for Morisco population occurred in the gap of traditions and practices associated to him as there is indeed a shift in the conception of the Prophet and his seal in orthodox Islam and its most popular currents. Popular perception of Solomon’s wisdom and power will be adopted by the Spanish population as a whole, as we will see. Prophylactic practices ascribed to the power of Solomon are compiled in a Morisco codex from the 16 th century, the Ocaña
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manuscript called Misceláneo de Salomón, where recipes made from herbs and animal-based medicines are combined with religious phrases and magic signs. Here, the Prophet inquires into the illnesses caused by various demons and invokes them for their cures following the ancient exorcist scheme (Albarracín 1987; Torijano 2002).
: The seal of Solomon, Salomonic script and magic signs on a page of a Morisco manuscript from Ocaña, titled Misceláneo de Salomón (Albarracín Navarro and Martínez Ruiz 1987).
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Another Morisco manuscript contains magic recipes to cure illnesses and pains and also to seek love or dissolve it: the Libro de dichos maravillosos in the manuscript Junta 22 (Labarta 1996). In both manuscripts the prophet Solomon is the only one who has the control over supernatural elements that cause pain: the jinn. The magic signs accompanying the prayers and remedies for each purpose must be included in the production of the ͥirz (talisman) to accomplish the magic order directed to the jinn as if it were commanded by Solomon and sealed with his signet ring. 5 A good example of the interaction of Solomonic knowledge and its prophylactic uses also occurs in the translation of the Dioscorides’ Book of Simples by Alonso Laguna in 1555. In his elaboration, the author mentions a plant for women’s cosmetic use, the sellón de salomón or big seal of Solomon, whose properties and representation in folk medicine for women might explain its success (Gómez Moreno 2000: 111). 6 The seal-ring
Added to the traditional use of the seal-ring, provided with the royal authority of his owner, Solomon has the divine power to carry out his orders. The seal conferred super-natural powers to limit evil forces, and lock them up or subjugate them. Traditional tales show how demons would obey Solomon’s direct commandments; those which locked them in jars or forced them to build his Temple in just one week. Those tales are recounted in Jewish Agaddah,7 Islamic Qi Σa Σ or even represented in the Christian Cantigas of Alfonso X (Romero 1989; Ta‘lab č 2002; Albarracín 1999). As mentioned in the literature of Qi Σa Σ, the belief in the magical properties of the seal of Solomon lies in the existence of an inscription in its center, the Greatest Name of Allah. The common aim of Muslim thaumaturges was to find out which of the 99 Sacred Names would confer to the magician the power mastered by Solomon. In such direction, some authors like Ibn al- ãͤ jj al5
All those signs and the hexagram are called Sellos (seals) in this literature from 15 and 16th-century Spain. 6 It is worth mentioning that the sellón de Salomón in Laguna’s translation of Dioscorides was a lily species, a flower of six petals, and it may enforce Klagsbald’s theory on the supposed identification between the six-pointed star label and the lily symbol, but in 16th-century Spain. 7 The Agaddah is the Jewish genre of exegetical and traditional accounts developing biblical stories. th
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Tilimsãn č (10th century) and al-BŊn č (13th century) debated about the nature of the Greatest Name. Al- BŊn č is an Egyptian author who wrote a treatise on the science of the letters that became the basis for all kinds of magic, divinatory or preventive, related to the Names of Allah. In his dissertation he exposed the enigmatic Greatest Name on a stamp composed of seven signs, beginning with the command label of Solomon, occasionally represented as a pentagram (Doutté 1984).
: The seven signs of the Greatest Name of God.
The ring of Solomon would supposedly have this label engraved from which its power originated. The essence of his seal would consist in its combination of the sacred texts of the three monotheistic religions. Al-B Ŋn č claimed that the two first signs corresponded to the Quran, that the stairs and the mč m8 were representative of the Gospel, and that the last three signs belonged to the Torah. The signs of the Greatest Name have correlated with ͥ the days of the week, the planets, the angels, demons, the fawãt č 9 , and the Names of God in a magic square reproduced by al-B Ŋn č . The magical literature and the production of talismans emanating from it are concerned with the signs and their astrological coordinates. The connection between the science of letters and the properties of the numeric value of the Name of God or the angels are also involved in the production of talismans and magical rings. The same devices were used in Jewish magic, in which the sixpointed star is also associated with the Names of God and the angels
8
The mč m is the 24th letter of the Arabic alphabet. The seven letters which are not contained inͥ the first Σurah (chapter) of the Quran, the f ãtiͥa, are commonly known as fawãt č though their correct name is sawãqiέ al-f ãtiͥa. 9
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in a kabbalistic way, as Sefer Raziel, a work attributed to Solomon that circulated around modern Europe, exemplifies. We also find the mention of a treatise attributed to Solomon in the work of Arnau of Villanova, a Christian physician from the 13 th century, Opera Medica Omnia (Vilanova 2005: 29-31). While in his Epistola Reprobatione he intended to refute necromancy, he mentioned one of the magic treatises that circulated in Europe: the work, called Annulis Salomonis, was a complete guide that provided the exorcism scheme for invoking demons and recipes to make the magic seal-ring and miter. 10 As it shows, the sovereignty granted to the King by his seal also bestowed power over the four princes of the jinn. The treatise was translated into Latin from the 13 th century onwards (Thorndike 1947: 250-1), and it supposedly had an Arabic source (Vilanova 2005: 32-3). However, the materialistic aim for making the magical seal-rings was treasure hunting, as this literature and numerous trials of the Inquisition show. Many other treatises proliferated following this trend and we can argue that the magical properties of the seal of Solomon were popularized in Spain and developed for this purpose (Tausiet 2007: 39-77). The spread of legends about ancient treasures hidden by Muslims before leaving Spain, and the belief in demons acting as guardians of these riches, caused the proliferation of ring manufacturing, as shown in a letter found by the Inquisition in 1532 to a Valencian Morisco requiring gold rings manufactured in Algiers of his partner (Labarta 2009: 207). The popularity of Muslims as wizards provided their productions with power (Thomas 1971: 231-4).
As I have attempted to show, the role that the seal of Solomon played in Spanish Islam blurred the boundaries between religious creeds while inspiring magic treatises and charms for materialistic objectives. But it also turned out to be the perfect instrument to help the Moriscos bear the obligation to convert to Catholicism in a less painful way. As the Rekontamiento de Sulayman from ms. 5305 of 10
The magic seal-ring is the symbol of Solomon’s power and knowledge, qualities that were to be closely linked and related to the immediate goals of ars notoria, the art of conjuring demons . The miter represents the role the priests acquired during the development of the exorcism.
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the Biblioteca Nacional of Madrid refers (Vespertino 1983), Solomon’s haughtiness caused him temporary misfortune. A Christian princess fell in love with him while he was wandering, and helped him to recover his throne and seal-ring. This story became a model and source of hope for every Morisco. At the same time, they could use their magic seal-rings and talismans to protect themselves (since they were forbidden to carry weapons), to avoid pain in case of torture by the Inquisition, or even to make themselves invisible. That the seal of Solomon is a symbol at the crossroads of diverse religious persuasions is particularly evident in the forgeries known as the Sacromonte Tablets. The Sacromonte Tablets are twenty-two lead books written in Arabic that appeared in Granada in the final years of the 16th century. The authors of the forgeries intended to make a cross-confessional synthesis that enabled the permanence of Islam in an attenuated form that would not clash with Catholicism. These books contain an apocryphal gospel written in Arabic that was supposed to have been revealed by the Virgin Mary to Arab Christian disciples. These disciples came to Spain with the Apostle James, and there they suffered martyrdom, becoming the first Christians Arabs of the Peninsula. The tablets pretended to be ancient Christian texts (although they made no mention of the Trinity or the divine person of Jesus) while presenting the Arabic language, which had been banned in Granada in 1567, as a vehicle of Christian revelation. Voices soon appeared trying to show the falsehood of these findings by demonstrating the anachronism exposed in the language and contents (García-Arenal and Rodríguez Mediano 2006). The Sacromonte Tablets also mentioned the History of the seal of Solomon (Roisse 2006) in one of the enigmatic books described above. It narrates the sin of Solomon or how he fell from divine grace after making an image for one of his concubines, thus turning to idolatry. God, then, allowed a demon to steal his signet ring and occupy his throne. Solomon wandered for forty days around his kingdom until his redemption occurred with the casual discovery of the ring inside a fish. The story ends with the author’s mention of Solomon as the announcement of Jesus’ advent. The History of the Seal of Solomon followed the tendency of local prophecies, aiming to prevent the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain with an attempt of religious exaltation, thus turning to the first messianic meaning of the symbol in Jewish tradition, yet
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inscribed in the frame of the Morisco cultural knowledge and literature accounts such as the aforementioned Rekontamiento de Sulayman. “The books as a fruit of the culture of the Moriscos drew the attention of a much larger public than Moriscos had ever drawn before” (Wiegers 2010). The cultivated elite that participated in the translation of the Lead Books showed an interest in Morisco literature like the manuscript of Ocaña (Fig. 3) where the hegemonic relationship of the Islamic Prophet with the demons can be pointed out. As Wiegers notes, “the authors then connected these findings to the Lead Books, the subject of their study, stipulating that the said manuscript and the magical tradition exemplified by it can be found in them viz. the book called History of the Seal of Solomon” (Wiegers 2010). One of the Lead Books translators, the Morisco Miguel de Luna, in his report, speaks of the secret characters that are present in alBŊn č ’s work, similar to those found in the lead plates, so-called Solomonic script, hexagrams and stars, which he had found in Morisco magical Works (García-Arenal, Rodríguez Mediano: 2008). But, whereas Miguel de Luna was trying to prove the authenticity of the tablets, Marcos Dobelio, an Arab Christian scholar, was writing extensively in the first half of the 17 th century in order to refute them (García-Arenal, Rodríguez Mediano: 2006). His arguments were many and sound, but he also pointed to the risks and to the harmful consequences the findings were having among the population. He insisted on showing how exorcist formula of Islamic origin present in the Lead Books (even lã illãha illã Allãh, a part of the šahãda) were being used by the Christian population, even by the Archbishop of Granada himself, for exorcism. He also pointed to the widespread use of the seal of Solomon in amulets used by the old Christians or even painted on the walls or doors of their houses (García-Arenal and Rodríguez Mediano 2010). Another example of the symbol’s popularity among the Christians of Granada is the trial of a Christian silversmith by the Inquisition in 1626. He was found to be making crosses on which the shape of the seal of Solomon was engraved. It is a curious hybrid of Christian and Muslim symbols in a talisman whose protective function was related to the four paradigmatic uses of prophylactic magic: to avoid death by iron, seek love, avoid shipwrecks and lessen the pain. This talisman took part in the
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Christian symbol of the cross and the six-pointed star as an example of the synthesis of beliefs operated in magic. The sealstamped crosses were made of silver in series with astrological coordinates, along the lines of talisman manufacturing. 11 The success the Solomonic seal had and the widespread use of it as a magical and talismanic device beyond the Morisco minority in whose magical practices it had originated is quite outstanding. It can still be seen today in the walls of the Sacromonte Abbey, one of the most emblematic sites of Christian Granada (Harris 2007).
The trope of Solomon’s seal is documented in the Iberian Peninsula at least from the 10th century. In some cases it carried an eschatological meaning, in others, it was employed for exorcism. Similarly, there are records documenting its use for prophylactic magic in manuscripts, talismans and other objects by the three religions. In the last stage of the existence of Moriscos in Spain, the seal of Solomon, due to its eschatological meaning, was employed by the Moriscos to warn community members of the imminent final judgment, the coming expulsion. In light of the Moriscos’ marginal situation and the pressure they experienced, referencing the prophecy and redemption of the Prophet Salomon, after his apostasy, offered them a halo of hope. In a like manner, the conscience use of the seal in the forgeries of the Sacromonte attempts to deliver a message of religious syncretism to the entire population, which doubtlessly would have interpreted it according to its cultural ascendency and religious confession. Magic and messianism, both present in the seal of Solomon are also the privileged fields of hybrid encounters between Moriscos and Old Christians in Iberia (García-Arenal 2003).
11
Archivo Histórico Nacional, Inquisición, Leg. 1952/4I Relación de las causas despachadas en la Inquisición de Granada en el año de 1626, Diversos delitos, n. 18, D. Pedro de Arce Cabeza de Vaca.
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