m e d i a l c o m p r e s s i o n b e y o n d a m i n im a l v alu e, n i h e i w l s i th e (iloltls h e r o i n e s to o w id e , a n d t h e v o c a l fo ld s i a n n u l lie I hi o w n Into \ 11u a lio n by t h e air. In th is re g is te r , t h e v i b r a t o r y p a t i n n v I n t n i n n l l a l i a m p l i t u d e s , an ti s h o r t c l o s u r e ol t h e hIoIIIh i l t n l n y th e t yt It a n ill I n m i n e d by th e ho tly ol th e voi al lolils .nul by 11H it m m i n r I In a i l | u s t m e n t a n d t h e p a t t e r n s h a v e a m i x e d ■lim ai I n
1 .
290
The Structure o f Singing
Although m uscle adjustm ent is gradual, certain laryngeal m uscle coor dinations m ust at som e point in the ascending scale be superseded by others. Luchsinger and Arnold (1965, p. 97) state that vocal-fold vibrations follow d ifferent patterns in different registers. During the production o f low pitches, the folds appear rounded, full, and relaxed; in high pitches they are sharp-edged, thin, and taut. The partner-opponent relationship b etw een the thyroarytenoids and the cricothyroids is o f increased im portance in registra tion action during singing. In rising pitch, the stretching force o f the crico thyroids cannot be resisted by the thyroarytenoids to the sam e degree as in low or m iddle pitch without strenu ous m uscle con flict ensuing— a sorry condition for ease in singing. This view point is further supported by van den Berg (1968c, pp. 132-134): When the subject sings un ascending or a d escending scale w ith no appreciable transition in sound quality, h e n eed s to change gradu ally from on e type ol adjustm ent to the other. That m eans that the antagonistic active tensions in the vocalis m u scles and the passive tensions in the vocal ligam ents, together w ith the adduction of the glottis and the value o f the flow of air, n eed to b alance sm oothly and grndiiullV' Vim den liei )' points out that som e pitches that lie in a region w here over lapping ol linn lion may occur can be sung in several ways. I’ledom muliiip, thyroarytenoid contraction is described by Briess (1964, p. .’ S ')) .is "the lull vibration" function o f the folds, producing a "robust” chui actci o f voice; a "delicate” character o f v o ice is characterized by pre dom inating cricothyroid function, Briess says. At the identical pitch, varying ratios o f thyroarytenoid or cricothyroid function m ay occur. V oice teachers w ho recognize registration events in singing designate B riess’s "robust” qual ity as ch est voice. R obust quality is appropriate to th e low range o f the sing ing voice; the thyroarytenoids are shortened and thickened. The am plitude o f vibration is greater in low register b ecau se the glottis opens widely, and there is a full vibratory sw eep o f the folds aw ay from the param edian posi tion. The cricothyroid m u scles do not offer very great antagonism to the thyroarytenoid m uscles in this range, and therefore there is lim ited resis tance to the airstream (Vennard, 1967, pp. 66-67). As pitch rises, the folds elongate. With the ascent o f pitch from low to m iddle voice, the relationship b etw een the thyroarytenoid m uscles and the cricothyroid m uscles changes in favor of Briess’s m ore “delicate” ratio. If the folds rem ain too thick, an increase in breath pressure is required for phona tion. If this thickness rem ains during further progression up the scale into upper-m iddle voice, there will arrive a point at w hich the d egree o f m uscle tension and breath pressure can no longer be m aintained w ithout a sudden alteration o f this adjustm ent. U nless som e gradual reduction o f m uscular antagonism has previously b een m ade, the voice will either "break” or sq u eeze off. S m ooth entrance into m iddle and upper voice requires flexible balance o f th e laryngeal m uscles, vibrating vocal-fold m ass, subglottic pres sure, and air flow rate.
■ The Physical Factors o f Vocal Registration
291
E X T E R N A L FR A M E FU N CTIO N I'actors not directly related to internal laryngeal lu nctiou play a role in determ ining events o f vocal registration. The external structure surrounding the larynx and con n ectin g the neck to the head and to the torso can be directed tow ard pitch change. B ecau se the cricothyroid joint is not .it .1 lixed position, the thyroid and cricoid cartilages have several possibilities ol m ovem ent in relation to th e spine and to each othei ..........linen, I'ifiK, p HO) Sonninen, in a study o f th e effec ts o f external fram e musi u la tu ic on pin h control (1968, pp. 68-89), describes an external m echanism consistai)' of im ultaneous contraction o f the sternohyoid m uscles and ol the thvroman dibular m u scles (w hich attach to the thyroid cartilage, to the livold hone, and to th e jaw); th ese m u scles can pull the thyroid cartilage in .1 lot w aul direction. In addition, "The cricopharyngeal m uscles act in .1 tlorso 1 1 am . 1l direction and thus shorten the vocal folds. This occu rs only, how ever, when the larynx is in a low position and w hen there is n o anterior pull on the thyroid cartilage.” This effect b ecom es w eaker as the larynx is raised (Sopninen, 1968, p. 80). Other factors that m ay act on the m echan ism s o f pitch are the position ol the ventricular (false) folds, the position o f th e epiglottis (Zenker, 1964b, 11 28), the extent o f esophageal opening, and the degree o f tracheal bending (Sonninen, 1968, p. 75). The supportive m u scles o f the neck structure conIrlbute to the character o f vocal tim bre (Zenker and Zenker, 1960, pp. 32-33). 11 lie exact nature of external fram e function as contributor to vocal regis11 at ion should receive further study.) Individual anatom ical structure and orientation in vocal technique probably determ in e sp ecific external fram e contributions to registration practices.
DA M PING I tamping is an acou stical term that describ es the p rocess by which energy is lost in a vibrating system through d ecrease in am plitude. As considered here, dum ping refers to a sp ecific registration phenom en on in which there occut s a d ecrease or cessation in the am plitude o f vocal fold vibration as a result ol 111 essure exerted on the fold during rapid vibration at high pitch In addition In vocal-fold elongation and corresponding reduction in mass, dam ping In n m ethod for pitch adjustm ent. Ilricss (1964, p. 268) describes what occurs in phonation d in in g ioiuII l i o n s o f extrem e hyperfunction o f the cricothyroid mum les without piopei 111111 iterpull o f m uscle antagonists. Damping action begin* at Ilit-1 po*leiioi ■uds ol the folds, with forceful approxim ation, as pin h ils. the poillu n ol l i n area that is dam ped becom es greater, pi ogi r s n l n g tin leilo i Iv; all pie* .m e Increases with increase in dam ping Hi l e s s s t a l e s ihal m u h u u d e n l i u h l i phonation often is to be found in sei earning 1 lilldi e u and In lem alr ningei s
292
The Structure of Singing
with ab usive singing techniques. “In su ch instances, the vocal cords are dam ped over alm ost their entire length, with the exception o f a sm all orifice anteriorly. S oun d can be produced only under ex cessiv e air pressure” (Briess, 1964, p. 268). E xcessive dam ping is to be avoided. H ow ever, progressive dam ping appears essential in ascending pitch in the upperm ost range of the singing voice; som e pitches in the flageolet voice (see Chapter 10) are not physiologi cally possible unless the folds are heavily damped.
SU M M A RY O F PH Y SICA L A SPEC TS O F R E G IST R A T IO N V ocal registers appear to be d eterm ined by actions o f the intrinsic m uscles o f the larynx, by actions ol the cricothyroid m u scles in altering relationships b etw een the laryngeal m uscles and the laryngeal cartilages, by actions of certain neck m u sd cs that function as an external fram e to the laryngeal m usculature, by sub^lollii pressure and breath flow rate, possibly by the extent o f Inn heal pull, by coupling b etw een the larynx and the resonators ab ove the larynx, mul, al least in som e voices, by the degree o f vocal fold damping (Jtii s lio iis important to vocal pedagogy can be posed. W here do register events most com m only occu r in a particular category o f voice? At what point -.111111111 tin- lu uvici m echanical production give w ay to a lighter m ech...... al .u tion ' I low .ii c i c a s te r s mixed? H ow best can the voice be trained to produce ;i unified scale without audible registration dem arcations? Answers to these questions differ rem arkably am ong pedagogies (Miller, 1477, pp. 99-136). The effectiven ess o f vocalises in Chapters 10 and 11 can best be determ ined in light o f w hat is understood about the physiology of vocal registration.
APPENDIX 5
Influences of Various Voiced and Unvoiced Consonants on Resonator Adjustment
The articulatory system coordinates and m odifies actions initialed by lln i espiratory—phonatory m echanism . C onsonantal m aneuvers bring about changes in th e configuration of the resonator tube. Any consonantal |>ln> n em e can be identified as a m em ber o f on e or m ore fam ily groups, yet Ilie possible overlapping o f articulatory m odifiers o f vocal sound com plicates .li ingent codification o f each variant. C onsonants m ay be grouped according to the extent o f airflow during phonation (Klatt et al., 1968, pp. 46-51). N ot surprisingly, airflow rates are ■.iniilar in the nasal con tinu ants [m] and [n], and in v ow el sounds. T he co n sonants [r] and [1] u se a slightly low er rate o f airflow than do the nasals and vowels, but not significantly so. The p hon em e [h] has a high rate o f airflow. C onsonants [v], [z], and [ô] are voiced through out their durations, with a higher d egree o f laryngeal resistance to airflow than is found in the voiceless 11 n atives. B eca u se o f glottal involvem ent, voiced fricatives have a low er airllovv rate than do the voiceless fricatives [f], [s], and [0], but a higher rate o f Ilow than vow els. In the ca se of con son ants [b], [d], and [g], the singer often is aw are o f the loppage o f air and its subsequent sudden release. This burst o f air, a result ni the su dden release o f m outh pressure, can be significant in locating ai lit nlatory sensation for the singer. .......-what C onsonants [p], [t], and [k] indicate a fast burst release with .i % ■.lower return to airflow characteristics o f the subsequent vowel In piodm Inc. this set of consonants, airflow rate is high, similai to that lounil In lln phonem e [h]; according to Klatt et al. (1968, p. 48), during lln Intel val "I i .piralion, the vocal folds gradually begin to a p p io x lm a l., and vlhi allon h . .bservable just shortly before the flow levels oil to ,i i. lallveK i. mis i it. When a consonant o f this type occurs al the c I o n c ol a «.vllnlile, II Ini', i .oiiiewhat sm aller peak in airflow rate, and slio ilei duiailoii'. ..I high ,.n llow, probably b ecau se the vow el that follow* cun be ptodiii n l with lo w n nbglotlic pressure (Isshiki and Rlngel, I 9f t 4, p .’"III Isshiki and Ringel (1964, p. 241 ) established that tin Mow . ali .Ini Ing . ir.i,uni'd phonation depends on (I) cxp liatm y rllm t and (•') iIi*>m*•« nl i I ’.lslance within the vocal trad. I adeloged ( I'JftJu, pp .MM ' l'>) i . p. n I , .lin lliit conclusions, as d o es S ch u tlc ( 1980, p IM ) Mow ia le ii gii ,ilri lot volii
2‘H
294
The Structure of Singing
less con son an ts than for voiced b ecau se it is essen tial for the glottis to clo se in voicing and to be abducted in unvoiced consonants. R egarding intra-vocal tract pressure, the pressure for a voiceless co n sonant is greater than that for its voiced counterpart, w hich partially explains the high airflow rate during voiceless con son ant production (Isshiki and Ringel, 1964, p. 243): The volu m e o f th e cavity behind the points o f vocal tract closure in w hich pressure m ounts up is com p osed o f the supra- and subglottal cavities during the production o f voiceless consonants. In the case o f the production of the voiced consonant the cavity behind the closure consists o f the supra-glottal cavity. This difference in the size o f the cavity ("capacity o f condenser,” after Fant) m ay also con tribute to the d ifference in flow rate b etw een the voiced and v o ice less consonants. Il also appears logical to assu m e that the air supply from the lungs through the glottis is greater, d ue to the lack o f glot tal resistance, during the period o f explosion o f a voiceless stop co n sonant than dm ing similar period o f a voiced consonant. This factor also influences the Mow pattern o f the various stop consonants. In all probability, the speed and degree o f release o f th ese points o f stric ture, suggest Isshiki .mil Ringel, is inversely related to airflow rate. S o m e consonantal cliiu iu lei istlcs related to airflow rate and to stricture points have direct m lluencr on resonator adjustm ents for singing, and on that account nerve teaching purposes. Several team s ol researchers have con clud ed that th e intranasal sound pressure for nasal consonants is m arkedly high and that th e pressure for preceding w aves o f |r | or voiced consonant syllables is considerably m ore p ronounced in the nasal cavity than in the front o f th e m outh (Hirano et al., 1966, p. 378). Hirano, Takeuchi, and Hiroto rem ark that internal pressure d ecreases with the elevation o f the soft palate, and that there w ould appear to be som e discrepancy betw een the low velum (a ca u se o f nasalization) and the high level o f intranasal pressure: H ere it is su ggested that d ifferen ces in intranasal pressure in pro n ou n cin g vow els are m ainly due to factors other than an elevation o f the soft palate. . . . [IJntranasal sound p ressure varies according to different vow els b ecau se o f d ifferen ces in internal im pedance of the vow el tract for vowels. (Im pedance is an acou stic term that refers to the ratio o f the pressure to the volu m e displacem ent at a given su rface in the m edium that transm its sound.) The sam e source concludes: The present experim ents revealed a pronouncedly high intranasal sound pressure for the preceding R /so u n d and voiced consonant syllables. This su ggests that a nasopharyngeal closure fails to reach its m axim um w hen the preceding w ave is uttered. During this period o f speech sound production the vocal tract is obstructed at
Influences o f Voiced a n d U nvoiced Consonants
295
the articulatory region, e.g., the lips for labial sounds, the alveola for dental sounds and the palate for palatal sounds. Therefore, it is understood that energy is chiefly released through the nasal cavity, resulting in high intranasal sound pressure. The coupling o f th e front vow el |i| with the misai con tinu ants is com mon practice in teachin g reson an ce balancing in sinp.iiiK, lom b in ln n the sen balance Nations o f th e op en throat (gola aperta) and good le s o i......
(impostazione). Bôhm e et al. (1966, p. 9) con d ucted a series ol investigations un .u I..... .. of the levator and ten sor veli palatini on the velum . The m tlvltv ol those m uscles w as sum m arized as follows: "Our investigation show s tlinl i p ic phonatory phase varying in length occurs in both m uscles. Aniony the vow els it is [i] w hich sh ow s th e greatest activity o f the tensor veli pnl.itIni In general a com plex functioning o f Mm. levator and tensor palatini in vowel production can be dem onstrated from our investigations." The coupling ol nasal continuant and high form ant vow el, su ch as [i] or [e], so typical ol the Italian School, is an im portant p rocedure in inducing laryngeal as well as vocal tract action favorable for vocal tim bre in singing. Although even slight nasality is produced by coupling the nasal reson a tor to the oral and pharyngeal cavities, considerable evidence indicates that vocal-fold activity during nasality differs som ew h at from non-nasal activity. I lie recent techn iqu e o f flexible fiberoptic exam ination o f the larynx (fiber optic nasopharyngolaryngoscopy) (Silberm an et al., 1976, pp. 640-646), w hich permits the vocal folds to be observed during nearly optim al conditions for • inging, supports the assum ption that certain laryngeal configurations appear to accom pan y nasality. A brief su rvey o f literature sou rces dealing with possible laryngeal contribution to nasality is offered by Zem lin (1981, pp. 224-225). Thus the considerable controversy over w hether vocal timbre, which is perceived by som e singers and listeners as being m arked by “nasal leso n a n ce” but free o f "nasality,” m ay also depend on laryngeal configura tion as w ell as on internal vocal tract im pedance. Reporting on an alog stud ies o f nasalization o f vow els (as opposed to events that take place in th e nasal continuants them selves), H ou se and Stev ens (1956, p. 230) co n clu d e that coupling the nasal cavity to the vot ai lia i I lesults (in all probability) in the following: I
a differential reduction in the am plitude o f the first lon nan t ol vallons vowels, with a concom itant increase in formant bandwidth and an upward shift in the center frequency o f the formant;
),
a reduction in the over-all level of the vowel;
'
various "secondary” effects on the spei lin m (notably tin IiiI h h Iiii lion ol an anti-resonance, the elim ination ol Ilie lliii d loi ninitl .mil li i e^ulni ities in upper form ants, as well as the possible Inliodm lion ol ailill lional spectral peaks);
I
the perc ep tio n of "nasality" w h en the majoi ollet is oil I lie m oti*lli o u tp u t re a c h a p p r o p r ia te magnitude*.
296
The Structure of Singing
Other reports confirm the effect o f even slight nasalization on form ant rela tionships, a m atter o f vital im portance in the teaching o f singing. A ccording to Fant (1964, p. 232): The effect o f a slight nasalization (velopharyngeal coupling area on th e order o f 60m m 2) as in norm al sp eech in segm en ts close to nasal con son ants is primarily the reduction of the first form ant level ver su s other form ants. There also appear extra form ants and spectral m inim a. The split o f the first form ant into tw o peaks is a typical effect. Fant m en tion s tw o other m atters that may help explain th e v o ice tea ch er’s nearly universal urge to couple nasal continuants with other phon em es as vocalization patterns for resonance adjustment: 1. The assim ilated nasality on both sides o f a nasal con son ant in con n ected sp eech affects a larger pari ol the speech before the nasal consonant than after the nasal consonant. I'.ven unvoiced stops and fricatives m ay be affected to som e extent without serious effects on sp eech quality as judged by trained lislenei s 2. The e lic i t ol an extrem ely large degree o f nasalization, in w hich the velum may ap pioai h the back o f the tongue and the velopharyngeal co u pling, at ea i n ol Ihe order of 250 mm, is a shift dow n in th e frequ en cy o f the first loi i ii.n il .ind .i i el. Hi vc dci i ease o f the levels o f the seco n d and third form ants. An additional ( losing ol the nostrils cau ses an increase in the relative level ol the IiinI formant (low frequency resonance). I ant (1964, pp. 223-233), in discussing the degree o f nasalization in n on nasalized sounds, adds: "A relatively prom inent secon d harm onic, p resum ably originating from the glottal source, can be apparent in nasalized as w ell as non-nasalized parts o f the utterance.” The several contributive factors to nasality and to "nasal resonance" (a tim bre perception that is for m ost schooled listeners not the sam e as nasality) in singing require additional investigation.
APPENDIX 6
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Symbols
'I'hc m ost logical phonetic system is one, developed ovei scv cia l »!•*« .idc'., which enjoys universal accep tance. Although not perfect in compiuiiiK sounds from one language to another, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) sym bols accurately identify the sou nd s o f speech. The system is ludls pensable in the vocal studio. The m ost frequently en cou n tered IPA sym bols are presented here in a correlative fashion, w ith m odel w ords in English, German, Italian, and French.
A C O N C ISE C O R R E L A T IV E PR O N U N C IA TIO N G U ID E I lie close vow el sou nd in non-English languages is in general m uch closer than sou nd s in A m erican speech. Both close and open vow els in the K om ance and G erm anic languages are “higher” than in A m erican English, Including so-called "Standard Am erican Speech .” W hen singing English, most singers introduce closer vow el sou nd s than w ould be u sed in spoken I nglish. The sam e considerations, how ever, apply to singing foreign lan guage sounds. W ords that serve as pronunciation keys are indicated in the follow ing list, using sym bols o f the International P honetic Alphabet. No attention has been given to vow el duration, w hich is a distinguishing characteristic ol vowel sou nd s in several languages. Although the IPA sym bols show co n v ia lion betw een English, French, Italian, and Germ an sounds, such corrélation i . by no m eans absolute.
297
298
The Structure of Singing
IPA SY M B O L S F O R V O W E L S, SE M I V O W E L S, AND F R E N C H V O W E L SO U N D S IPA Symbols
English
German
Italian
French
V ow els [i] [i] [e] [e]
keen thin chaos bet
Liebe ic ¥ Lcben Belt, Gaste,
prima
lis
pena tem p o
été, crier êtes, père neige
[*] [a] [a] [D] fc>]
bat task (American) father hot (British) soft, all
Stadt
cam era
ras, âge
Son ne
m orto
[o]
note
Sohn
non
som m e, joli, votre beaux, pauvre, gros
["1 [u] 1À 1 M [»] [yl M 101 [« ]
tio< >k gllll, IlMtl up ( hi Iiwii) ahead (approxim ates (approxim ates (approxim ates (approxim ates
Mutter Mut
uso
ou
parle
getan |i| plus [u]) m üde 111 plus [u]) Glück jc] plus [o]) schon |c] plus [a]) Kôpfe
dem ain une, peu, heure,
S em i V ow els ((H ides) a n d D ip h th o n g s [j] [w]
v_es wish
[ai] nice [au] hou se [ei] w ay [pi] boy [ou]
la
[° e] [ao]
Mai, Ei H aus
[001
Hauser, Kreuz
lion, pied
pm, pieno uom o, guida [ai] m ai [au] aura [ei] d o v d [ai] vuoi
so
V o w el S o u n d s P e c u lia r to th e F r e n c h L a n g u a g e [a]
m [8]
[œ]
tem ps faim , vin, no m , long parfum jeun
299
International Phonetic A lphabet (IPA) Sym bols
IN TER N A TIO N A L PH O N E T IC A L PH A B ET SY M B O L S FO R CO N SO N A N T SO U N D S Pairs of consonants, one voiced and the other unvoicod, a rc e x e c u te d with similar tongu e and lip positions. Voiceless Ini W
pope tote
IM in mi i»i
coke fife think cease Sh!
iji
|t / l
ich (German) ach (German) ha-ha! (aspirate) chase
M
tsetse
[Ç] 1*1
[HI
Classification by Formation bilabial linguaalveolar velar labiodental linguadental dental linguaalveolar palatal velar glottal linguaalveolar linguadental
Vain [b] |d |
llllll
di'iul
[g] M [Ô] M [3]
tflu|
[«] [?] [d3]
Paris (Frcr uh-oh! (stroked jud gm en t
[dz]
adds
valve the
lone» vision
A', just indicated, th e pairs are as follows: [pHb] [tHd] [kHg] [f>[v]
[6H8] [sHz] 1JH31 [ç]-
[ç] is generally believed lo hr
without a voiced coiiiileriHiH) [xH k]
[h>[?]
[tf]-[d3l [ts J—[d z]
NASAL CO N SO N A N TS in In | |l|| j it j Ini I
ma
no SOIljJ ogni (Italian), onion (English), ugnenn (I h i m Ii ) conforto (Italian)
t illiililiil a m id
lllvtilllM M il 'll Vi till lllind imlitinl nn-nl ....... d Uhlo ibhiitl
300
The Structure of Singing
OTHER VOICED CONSONANTS [X] [1] [j ]
[r] [f]*
foglja (Italian) lull rare (retroflex r, som etim es referred to as m id w estem r) very (single tap r, as in British speech) c a ir o (Italian); Grand (German) (alveolar trill)
'T he sym b ol [r] is u sed in this work, and in m any ph onetic sou rces, to represent the alveolar rolled r, b eca u se the IPA sym b ol for the trilled r [r], is u sed indiscrim inately in m any Am erican sources.
Glossary of Nonmusical Terms
abdom en: that part o f th e body (except i11).>, the bai k) tli.it In . I.. tw een Ihe pelvis and th e thorax; the cavity o f this pm i ol Ilu lot so, lined I>v the peritoneum , en closed by the w alls o f the hotly, Ihe dinplii iifçm, m i d <011 taining the viscera. abduction: action by w hich a pai l is drawn away from the m edian line (as in the opening o f the glottis), acoustics: the scien ce o f sound, including its production, transm ission, and effects; the sum o f the qualities (such as reverberation) o f an enclosure that determ ines the degree of distinctness o f sou nd generated within il. acrom ion: th e lateral, triangular projection o f the scapula that form s the point o f the shoulder, articulating w ith the clavicle, adduction: to draw tow ard a m edian axis (as in the closure o f the glottis), adltus: a passage for entrance (as in th e aditus laryngis). adrenaline: a h orm one naturally secreted by th e m edulla o f the suprarenal glands, w hich generally acts as stim ulant, aerodynam ics: pertaining to the force o f gases in m otion, to the force act ing on bodies m oving through gases, and to the forces involved w hen gases pass over bodies, ula (alae): w ing-like process or structure, as o f the thyroid cartilage, alveolar: sp eech sou nd produced w ith the apex o f the tongu e touching the upper alveolar ridge, alveolus (alveoli): an air cell of the lungs, anterolateral: in front and to the side. apex: the tip, point, or angular sum m it (as the apex o f the tongue), aponeurosis: thick and d en se deep fasciae that connect m uscle lo bone; a flat tendon m ay be called an aponeurosis (as in central tendon ol the tliaphragm). approximate: to co m e near to, to approach (as in vocal fold approxim ation) articulate: to join. articulators: the tongu e, the lips, the teeth, the sol I palnlr and Ilie liai d pal ate, w hich m odify the acou stic properties ol the voi nl Inn I nryeplglottlc: m u scles that form the sides ol the collai ol IIn* larynx, extending from the arytenoids to the sides ol the epIgM tl* arytenoid m uscles: the transverse arytenoid and llic oblique arvlcnold m uscles. arytenoids: paired cartilages to which the voi «I l o l d s are allai lied atm osphcrlc pressure: pressure exerted by the alm osplinr In every direc
tion, approximately
15
pound» per «quai l! Mil
Itn
h (ttl sea level),
302
The Structure of Singing
B ernoulli principle: air in m otion has less pressure or density than w hen im m obile, producing suction; if flow is constantly m aintained, air will speed up at a constricted area, with a d ecrease in p ressure occurring at that point. bilabial: con son ants form ed with the aid o f both lips (as in [p], [b], and [m]). bilateral: having tw o sides, bronchiole: a m inute bronchial tube, bronchogram : an x-ray picture o f the lungs and bronchi, bronchus (bronchi): a subdivision o f the trachea form ed by a bifurcation of the trachea. buccal cavity: cavity o f the mouth; oral cavity, buccinator: thin, broad m uscle form ing the wall o f the cheek, buccopharyngeal resonator: the resonator system form ed by the m outh and the pharynx. cartilage: nonvasculai connecting tissue that is m ore flexible than bone, caudal: situated in or near the tail; posterior. central tendon: laige tendon o f the diaphragm; diaphragm atic aponeurosis, collagenous: pertaining to collagen, the ch ief constituent o f the gelatinlike protein found in con n ective tissue, collar o f tin1 larynx: the vestibule o f the larynx; a m uscular ring com p osed o f the at veplglottk folds, the epiglottis, and the arytenoids. commlNNiirt': a joint, seam, or closure; an interstice, cleft, or juncture; a place w here purls ol the body meet, com plem ental air: ail' w hich can be inhaled in addition to that taken in during quiet breathing (also known as inspiratory reserve'air), constrictor m uscles: on e o f three pairs o f m uscles (superior, middle, and inferior) which form the pharyngeal walls, continuant: a speech sound that m ay be prolonged during one breath (as in nasal continuant). contraction: the shortening and thickening o f a m u scle fiber (or o f the entire m uscle) w hen activated, conus elasticus: a cone-shaped structure o f elastic tissue attached below the upper border o f the cricoid cartilage, in front o f the thyroid cartilage, and behind the arytenoid cartilages; it includes the vocal and cricothyroid ligam ents and is also called the cricovocal m em brane, corniculate: having horns or sm all hom -lik e processes, cornu (cornua): horn-shaped laryngeal cartilages, cortex: the ou ter or superior part o f an organ, costal: pertaining to a rib or costa. cricoarytenoids: m uscles w hich rotate the arytenoid cartilages on the.cricoid cartilage. cricothyroids: four m u scles w hich attach to the front o f the cricoid cartil age and w hich pull dow n on the thyroid cartilage, cricovocal membrane: see con u s elasticus. crus (crura): tendinous attachm ent o f the diaphragm to lum bar vertebrae, form ing the sides o f the aortic opening.
Glossary o f N onm usical Terms
303
cuneiform cartilage: w edge-shaped pair o f cartilages lying in the aryepiglottic folds, know n as the "cartilages o f W risberg.” damping: dim inution in am plitude o f su ccessive oscillations or waves, diaphragm: organ com p osed o f m u scles and sinew s, IIn- partition betw een the ch est cavity and the abdom inal cavity (sep a ia les the respiratory and digestive system s). digastric: having tw o bellies; applied chiefly lo ..... si les that m e llesliy at each end with a tendon in the middle, digitation: a finger-like process (as o f the ribs), dorsal: directed tow ard the back. dorsum: the upper side or part o f an appendage (as in tin doi inn ol the tongue— the upper side behind the tip), dysphonia: im paired voicing. ectom orphic: o f light body build. edema: abnorm al accum u lation o f fluid in the tissues; sw elling (as ol ihr vocal folds). EGG: see electroglottography. electrode: either term inal o f an electric source; a plate through w hich d e c trical current is sent through a body structure, electroglottography (EGG): process for m easuring ch an ges in electrical im pedance (resistance) betw een tw o electrodes placed on opposite sides of the larynx, creating a w ave-form on a visual display, electrom yography (EMG): a process for recording electrical energy gen er ated by activated m uscles. EMG: see electrom yography. epiglottis: one o f the three single cartilages o f the larynx, located b etw een t he root o f the tongu e and the entrance to the larynx, epithelium : a cellular tissu e that covers free surfaces, tubes, or cavities of Ihe body, enclosing and protecting, exhalation (expiration): that part o f the breath cycle during w hich breath is emitted. expiratory reserve volum e: the am ount o f air w hich can be exhaled Irom the lungs beyond that exhaled in quiet respiration, extensors: m u scles w hich extend or straighten a part (as opposed lo flexors). external oblique m uscle: the fibers o f the external oblique m u ilnw iiw anl (in general), and they form layers o f the lateral w alls ol llic . 11<
Ituicai: narrow passage
f r o m m o u t h to t h e p l i m v i i i iiimIiiI b e t w e e n iln v e l u m a n d t h e b a s e o f t h e to n g u e ; t h e spa» < s m loui nl et ! In tin mil palate, t he p a l a t i n e a r c h e s , a n d t h e b a s e ol llir l o n g u e , also lei me i l (In i>>iIiiiiii ol
304
The Structure of Singing
Ihe f auces; the pillars o f th e fa u c es are tw o folds on either side, b etw een which lie the tonsils, fiber: o f a thread-like character; elongated strands o f con n ective nerve or m uscle tissue, fissure: a narrow opening b etw een parts. flexor: a m u scle that bends a part or limb (as opposed to extensor), formant: partials of a vocal tone that determ ine the characteristic quality o f a vow el; partial tones originated by action o f the breath on the reso n an ce cham bers that have regions o f prom inent energy distribution, fossa (fossae): a pit, cavity, or depression (as in nasal fossae, or as in the zygom atic fossa). frequency: n um ber o f vibrations or cycles per second; the greater the num ber o f vibrations per second, the higher the pitch, fricative: a sp eech sound (voiced or unvoiced) cau sed by friction as air passes through a narrow aperture (as in [f], [v], [s], [z], etc.) genioglossus: pair o f fan-shaped m u scles w ith fibers that radiate from the chin; th ese fibers insert on the hyoid bone, attach to the sides o f the pharynx, and insert into the tongue, geniohyoid: pair o f slender m uscles that arise from the m andible and insert on the hyoid bone, glottis: the sp an ' betw een the vocal folds. harm onic: .111 overtone or upper partial; vibration frequ en cy that is an integial m ultiple ol the vibration rate produced by the fundam ental frequency, hyoid bone: U shaped bone situated at the b ase o f the tongu e and above the larynx. hyothyrold: con n ectin g the thyroid cartilage o f the larynx and the hyoid bone, as the thyrohyoid m uscle and the thyrohyoid ligam ents, hyperfunction: u se o f the phonatory (or any) m echanism , or so m e part of it, w ith excessive tension, hypofunction: insufficient activity in the phonatory (or any) m echanism , or som e part o f it. hypogastrium : the low est o f three m edian areas into w hich the abdom en is divided by im aginary planes. Hz: unit o f m easu rem en t o f cycles per secon d (as in 440 Hz); nam ed for the physicist Gustav Hertz. ilium: the upper part o f the hipbone, inguinal: referring to the groin region. inhalation (inspiration): that part o f the breath cycle during which breath. enters the lungs, innervation: the distribution o f nerves in or to a part or organ, insertion: that part of a m uscle w hich is attached to the bone it m oves, inspiratory reserve volume: quantity o f air that can be inhaled beyond what is taken in during quiet breathing, intercostal: short external and internal m uscles betw een the ribs.
Glossary o f N onm usical Terms
305
internal oblique: abdom inal m u scles w h ose fibers run upward (in general); they form layers o f th e lateral w alls o f the abdom en, and fu se with the external oblique to form the linea alba, intrapulmonary: w ithin the lungs. intrinsic: on the inside; within (as the intrinsic m uscles ol the larynx), isom etric contraction: contraction o f a m uscle against .1 strong resistance, w hich perm its th e m u scle to shorten very little. jugular:
pertaining to the throat, neck, or jugulai vein.
labial: pertaining to the lips. labiodental: a sp eech sound form ed with the lowci lip and the uppei teeth (as in [f] and [v]). lam ina (laminae): a thin plate or sheet (as in the ( m o ld
306
The Structure of Singing
m ylohyoid: paired m uscle attached to the inside edge o f the m andible (lower jaw ) and to the hyoid bone, and form ing the floor o f the m outh, m yoelastic: the property o f elasticity in m uscles. m yoelastic-aerod ynam ic theory o f voice production: vocal fold vibration is the result o f m uscular tension and breath pressure. naris (nares): nostril. neural: o f or pertaining to nerves or the nervous system , neuron: a nerve cell, node: a knotty swelling. nodule: a lum p form ed by an aggregate o f cells (as on the vocal fold), occlusion: closure (as in glottal occlusion). om ohyoid: m uscle that arises from the upper border o f the scapula and inserts into the body of the hyoid. orifice: an opening o f relatively sm all size—often a passage b etw een tw o parts. oropharyngeal lsthimiit the pa . .age from the m outh to the pharynx; that part o f the ju n e tm e <>l m outh and pharynx w hich is visible w hen looking into the m outh oscillation: m oving Inn kwnrd and forward; vibration; pitch fluctuation; in singing, goneiallv i< lei to a w obb le—pitch variant that is too w ide and too slow ohhcouh: bony. ossify: to turn Into hone (as with cartilage, in aging). * overtone: on e ol the uppei harm onic partials that togeth er w ith the fun da mental m ake up a com plex m usical tone; th ese are integral m ultiples of the fundam ental frequency. palate: roof o f the m outh. palatoglossus: tw o m uscles w hich extend from the soft palate to the side of the tongue. palatopharyngeus: tw o m uscles w hich extend from the soft palate into the pharyngeal wall. Fibers join the salpingopharyngeus and reach as far as the thyroid cartilage, palatosalpingeus: the tensor veli palatini m uscle. paranasal sinus: sinus near the nose: ethm oid, frontal, maxillary, and sphenoid; all exhibit tiny apertures into the nasal cavities, pars: a part. pars obliqua: fou r m u scles attach to the anterior o f the cricoid cartilage: tw o o f these, the pars obliqua, are located at the sides o f the cartilage and have diagonal fibers that pull the thyroid cartilage dow n and also pull it forward. pars recta: four m uscles attach to the anterior of the cricoid cartilage: tw o o f these, the pars recta, are located in front and h ave vertical fibers that pull directly on the thyroid cartilage, partial: a com ponent o f a com plex tone, pectoral: pertains to the chest.
Glossary o f N onm usical Term s
307
pelvic fascia: fascia lining the cavity o f the pelvis, pelvis: the cavity o f the pelvis; the bony structure o f the low er trunk, pericardium: the con ical sac o f serou s m em brane enc losing th e heart and the roots o f the great blood vessels, perichondrium: th e m em brane form ed o f fibrous con n ective lissue invest ing the su rface o f cartilage, except at joints, period: interval o f tim e required for an oscillaiiny, body to com plete one vibratory cycle. peritoneum: serous m em brane that lines the abdom inal i avllv phonation: the p rocess o f voicing; sound produi ed by tin voi .il lolds phonem e: variant o f a speech sound. phrenic nerve: a n e r v e o f e a c h s i de o f t h e body, aiisitif, l i ...... t h e l o m l h cervical nerve and passing through I lu- thorax d ow n w in d to the ilia phragm; it is distributed chiefly over the low er surface ol the dtaphi anm piriform sinus: see pyriform sinus. platysma: broad, thin m uscle layer on either side of the neck urulei tin superficial fascia. pleura (pleurae): serou s m em brane that lines each half o f the thorax; tin cavity of the pleura contains serous fluid w hich renders the respiratory m otions frictionless. pleura costalis: delicate serous m em brane that adheres to the pericardium , to the side o f the thorax, and to the upper surface o f the diaphragm , pleura pulm onalis: the pulm onary layer, closely adherent to the lung, w here it is con tinu ous w ith the pleura costalis. plosive: a sp eech sou nd that is a com p lete stop, closure, and release o f air by either the articulators or the glottis (as in som e form s o f [p, b, t, d, k, g]). pom um Adami: laryngeal prom inence; A dam ’s apple, posticus: posterior cricoarytenoid m uscle. process: prom inence o f bone or cartilage (as in the vocal process), proprioceptive: designating stim uli produced within the organism by its ow n tension or m ovem ent, as in m u scle sense, pyriform sinus: th e sp ace b etw een the laryngeal collar and the alae o f the thyroid cartilage. quadrangular:
having four angles or sides.
radiography: photograph m ade by roentgen (X) rays (nam ed l o i pin n i ,i W ilhelm Conrad Rontgen). nim us: the posterior, vertical part o f the jaw that ai lit -niâtes with Ilie sl< nil rtiphè: the seam -like union o f tw o lateral halves o l an o ir a n (as o l 111< tongue), having a ridge or furrow, rectus: any o f several straight m uscles (as the le e lu s ahdouilntt. and Ilit pars rectus). reclUH abdom inis: a l ong, Hal m u s c l e t o t a l e d o n eil hei stilt ol iln l i m a a l ba, extending t h e w h o l e l e n g t h ol t h e l i oi i l ol tin a b d o m e n , 11 mi ne s f r o m t h e p u b i c c r e s t a n d i n s e r t s Into t h e < at l l l u p , ol 111, ah fith a n d /lli libs; its u p p e r t h r e e f o u r t h s is e n c l o s e d In t h e i ci lie. s h e a t h lot ineil l>v t h e
30H
The Structure of Singing
aponeuroses o f the external and internal oblique m u scles ventrally, and the internal oblique and transversus abdom inis dorsally. recurrent nerve: branch o f the vagu s nerve that supplies all laryngeal m u s cles, except the cricothyroid m uscle, residual breath: breath that rem ains in the lung after the strongest possible (forced) expiration, respiration: the breath cycle; the exchan ge o f internal and external gases, respiratory passage: the nostrils, the nasal cavities, the pharyngeal cavities, the oral cavity, the larynx, the trachea, and the bronchial tubes, rhom boideus: a m uscle under the trapezius w hich joins the scapulae to the spine. rima: aperture (as in rima glottidis). rima glottidis: the opening betw een the true vocal folds, risorius: a narrow band o f m uscle fibers arising from the fascia over the m asseter m uscle, inserted into tissu e at the corners o f the mouth; a m u s cle of the cheek. scalenus: three d eep m uscles (scalenus anterior, scalenus m edius, scalenus posterior) on each side o f the neck, extending from the transverse pro c e sse s o f tw o or m ore cervical vertebrae to the first or secon d rib; a cces sory m uscles o f respiration, scapula: the shoulder blade. septum: a division betw een tw o cavities (as the septum o f the nose), serous fluid: thin, watery fluid found in cavities o f the body, serous membra»»-: thin m em branes (as in the peritoneum , pericardium , and the pleurae) that form a sac, lining a cavity or the organs in it. serratus: m uscles that arise from the ribs or vertebrae, sheath: con n ective tissue covering an elongated organ or parts (as in abdom inal sheath), sibilant: characterized by a hissing sound (as in [s] and [z]). sinus: a cavity, recess, depression (as in the sinus o f M orgagni or the paranasal sinuses), spectrogram: diagram o f a spectrum . spectrograph: apparatus for photographing the spectrum ; photograph or picture o f a spectrum , spectrum analyzer: a d evice that displays the relative am plitudes of all the overtones o f th e voice in a phonation; vow el definition is show n as spectral peaks, and the singer’s form ant is displayed as a region of strong acoustic energy. sphenoidal sinus: o n e o f tw o irregular cavities (of the sphenoid bone) that com m un icate with the nasal cavities, sphincter: a ring-like m uscle around an orifice, w hich is capable o f induc ing closure. squam ous epithelium : stratified epithelium which in its ou ter layers con sists o f sm all scalelike cells, sternocleidom astoid: a thick, superficial m uscle on each side o f the neck, arising from the sternum and the clavicle and inserting into the m astoid bone.
Glossary o f N onm usical Terms
309
sternohyoid: pertains to the sternum and the hyoid (as in the m uscle that extend s from th e m edial part o f the clavicle and the first segm ent o f the sternum to the hyoid bone), sternothyroid: pertains to sternum and thyroid (;»s in sternothyroid m uscle), striated m uscle: fibers bound together in bundles and cm losed in a sheath o f protective tissue, styloglossus: a m u scle con n ectin g the styloid process and Ilu* lou eu r stylohyoid: pertaining to the styloid process anil hyoid Ixiiir, Ilu- Mylohyoid m uscle. styloid process: a long, slender process found on Ilie lo w ii side ol llir Irm poral bone. subclavius: a sm all m u scle extending from the In ■! i ih to tin iimli i sut Iat r o f the clavicle, subglottic: b elow the glottis, superficial: on or near the surface, superior: upper. supplem ental air: air that can be expelled forcibly beyond what is exhaled during quiet breathing (also known as reserve air). supraglottic: ab ove the glottis, suprahyoid: above the hyoid bone. suprahyoid m uscles: geniohyoid, stylohyoid, m ylohyoid, and digastric m uscles. sym physis: point o f union o f tw o structures (as in the tw o halves o f the low er jaw). synapse: the area in w hich im pulses are com m u n icated b etw een neurons (the synapse is the selective elem en t o f the nervous system ; it d eterm ines w hether a nervous im pulse will pass through it to the next neuron), synergy: the w orking together o f tw o or m ore m u scles (or groups) or organs. synovia: a transparent, viscid lubricating fluid secreted by the synovial m em branes of articulations, bursae, and tendon sheaths, synovial: o f or pertaining to synovia; secreting synovia. tendon: a band o f dense, fibrous con n ective tissue that provides allai li m ent o f m uscle to bone, tensor: a m uscle that ten ses (as in tensor veli palatini), thorax: that part o f the torso w hich h ouses the organs ol Incalhlii^. mIii ated b etw een th e n eck and the abdom en, supported l*v the n l> \ l l u i o s l a l cartilages, and the sternum , thyroid cartilage: the largest single cartilage ol the lai yns thyroarytenoid m uscle: on e o f the tw o m uscles in Winy. below the thyroidal notch and inserted into each arytenoid, thyroepiglottic fibers: fibers o f the thyroid vtenolil that i ounei I llie thyroid cartilage and the epiglottis, thyrohyoid: see hyothyroid. lliyroniuscularls: external thyroarytenoid must le iliyrovocnlls: th e internal division ol the ihyroHi vtenold, also k now n as the vocalis muscle.
The Structure of Singing
310
tidal air: air exchan ged during quiet norm al breathing (sam e as tidal volum e). trachea: the windpipe; the m ain tubular system by w hich air passes to and from the lungs. transverse: in a crossw ise direction (as in transverse abdom inis, or trans verse arytenoid). transverse abdom inis: deep abdom inal m uscle that w orks synergistically w ith other abdom inal m uscles in breath m anagem ent; lies just beneath the oblique abdom inal m uscles, transverse arytenoid: a single m u scle located horizontally b etw een the tw o arytenoid cartilages, underneath the oblique arytenoid m uscles, trapezius: large, flat, triangular superficial m uscle on each side o f the upper back. umbilicus:
the navel.
uvula: fleshy pendant lobe located in m iddle of the posterior part of the soft palate. velum: a m em branous partition; the m uscular portion o f the soft palate, ventral: in hum ans, situated anteriorly. ventricle: a sm all cavity or pouch (as in th e ventricles o f M orgagni—the laryngeal sinuses), vestibule: the pm I ol the larynx above the false vocal folds, vestlglul: refers to som e part o f the body w hich \sv as m ore fully developed in .111 eai liei stayr, and that may now serve no purpose, viscera (viseerae): the soft internal organs o f the body, especially those of the trunk, such as the intestines, vital capacity: m axim um am ount o f air that can be expired after m axim um inspiration. vocal folds: vocal cords, vocal bands; the low er part o f the thyroarytenoid m uscles; the true vocal cords, vocalis m uscle: the internal thyroarytenoid. voiced: sou nd produced by vocal folds that have been set in m otion by airflow. xiphoid process:
the low est division o f the sternum .
zygom atic arch: the arch o f the b one that extend s along the front and side o f the skull, form ed by the union o f th e zygom atic p rocess o f the tem poral bone w ith the zygom atic bone, zygom atic bone: a bone o f the side of the face, below the eyes, zygom atic m uscle: a slender band o f m uscle on either side of the face, w hich arises from the zygom atic bone, and w hich inserts into the orbicu laris oris and the skin at the corners o f the m outh.
Glossary of Vocal Terms
attack ( attacco, Einsatz): on set o f voicing. aggiustamento: vow el m odification in singing; .1 le t 111 iu|iu* 101 .it hicvlng an even scale throughout the registers o f the singing voit t appoggio: the establishm ent of dynamic balance between ............\pu.itory, phonatory, and resonatory system s in singing Bauchaussenstiitze: distended abdominal "suppôt I," 111-
"cover.”
a term universally used to designate vocal category; type of singing
voice. fioriture: ornam ents, cadenzas, and florid passages flageolet voice: a register of the female voice of’fen extending more than a
perfect fifth beyond the normal pilches ol the head voice, the result of extreme vocal loltl damping.
311
M2
The Structure of Singing
(■lollltischlag:
stroke o f the glottis.
heavy mechanism: a term som etim es used to describe the predominant action of the vocalis muscle; chest voice. im posto (im postazione della voce): placem ent o f the voice. Intendant: general m anager of an opera theater. Knacklaut:
a glottal attack.
light m echanism : a term som etim es used to describe the predom inant action o f the vocal ligament as opposed to the predom inant action o f the vocalis muscle; head voice. lotta vocale (also lutta vocale, and lutte vocale): the vocal contest or struggle. marking: an international term for the technique of sparing the voice in rehearsal. m ask sensations: vibratory sensation in the zygom atic and nasal regions of the face, through bone conduction. m elism a (melism at ic); several notes to a single syllable (florid singing). oscillation (wobble): ill vocal pedagogy, generally refers to a pitch variant of the vibrato phenom enon that is too slow and too wide. panNngglo:
vocal register pivotal point (as in prim o passaggio, secondo
passannio). placement of the voice: ing singing.
a subjective term denotifig vibratory sensations dur
reglnter: a series of consecutive voice tones of equal (or similar) timbre, whic h can be distinguished from adjoining series of tones. Schnarrbass: a register in the m ale voice that lies below the norm al pitches used in speech or song. sostenuto: the sustaining of the singing voice. Sprengeinsatz: the heavy glottal stroke as a technique for vocal attack. straight tone: tone devoid of vibrato, in which the relaxant principle that pro duces vibrato is not permitted to function. Strohbass: see Schnarrbass. tremolo: in vocal pedagogy the term properly refers to a vibrato rate that is too fast and too narrow (in opposition to the w obble or oscillation). trill: a pitch variant o f a sem iton e or m ore in w idth, p rod uced by an intended oscillation o f the voice box. vibrato: a phenom enon of the schooled singing voice; a pitch variant pro duced as a result of neurological im pulses that occur w hen proper coordina tion exists betw een the breath m echanism and the phonatory mechanism; a n a tu ral r e su lt o f th e d yn a m ic b a la n c in g o f a irflo w and v o ca l-fo ld approximation.
Glossary o f Vocal Terms
313
vocal fry: considered by som e as a register of the m ale voice; it resem bles a "frying” sound; considered by o th ers to be a prolonged, inefficient vocal onset. voce aperta: open, unskillful singing, voce chiara: clearly p roduced vocal tim bre. voce chiusa: well-balanced resonance in the singing vole <•; avoidance of voce aperta voce coperta: tim bre th at is equalized in the uppci laiiyes ihrouyli propei aggiustamento of the vowel so as to avoid slu ill 01 Mal.ml lim ine voce finta: feigned voice; a tim bre in the mule volte tli.it avoid-, the votv piena tim bre associated with the "well supported” voli e voce mista: a descriptive term that refers to llie vo< .il lim ine in the outi intermedia (zona di passaggio) w here elem ents ol votr ill lc\lti |',n a ll\ mod ify action of the "heavy mechanism ,” voce di petto: vocal tim bre produced largely by the vocalis .ullvily ol the vocal folds; the "heavy mechanism .” voce piena: “full” voice as opposed to voce finta and falsetto; the term does not refer solely to dynamic level, but rath er to tim bre as well, voce di testa: the “head voice” of the classic schools; there is a m arked dim inution of "chest voice” activity in this range. wobble:
undesirable oscillation of the singing voice.
zona di passaggio: that area of the voice w herein a num ber of tones can be sung by varying register principles; middle voice.
,
Bibliography
ARTICLES A c k e r m a n , E l l a L a u r e t t a (1 9 3 5 ).
"Action ol th e velum pulut iiiiiin o n th e
v e la r s o u n d s [k] a n d [g].” Vox, Hel l 1:6; 2:'> A g o s t o n i , E m il io (1 9 6 1 ). "A g r a p h ic a l a n a l y s i s o l ..........i c o a b d ......... .
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York: A ppleton-Century-Crofts. T r o ja n , F e l ix (1948). Der A usdruck von S tim m e un d Sprache. V ie n n a : V e rla g M a u d ric h . T r u b e t z k o y , N. S. (1 969). Principles o f Phonology, tr a n s i, b y C h ris tia n e A. M.
Baltaxe. Berkeley, CA: University of C alifornia Press. T r u s l e r , I v a n , and E h r e t , W a lter (1972). F unctional Lessons in Singing, 2 d ed . E n g le w o o d C liffs, NJ: P re n tic c llall T u r n e r , A. L., e d . (1927). Diseases of the Nose, Throat a n d Ear. N e w Y o rk : W illiam W o o d . T yn da ll , J o h n . S o u n d (1888). N ew Yoi k I) A p p le to n -C e n tu ry . U l r ic h , B e r n h a r d (1910). Concerning the Principles of Vocal Training in the
A Cappella Period, anti Until the lleginning of Opera (1474-1640), transi, by John Seale. Reprint, 197 ' Minneapolis, MN: Pro M usica Press. U r is , D o r o t h y (1971). To Sing ni I nglish New York: Boosey & Hawkes. v a n B o r r e , T h o o r is (1927), l e ( limit hum ain. Paris: M adédée Legrand. VAN DEINSE, J. B., AND G o si IN<.\ V U 0 ,(1 *>82). The Technique o f Singing: A Comparative Study lln H ap i. G overnm ent Publishing House. v a n DUSRN, ( K ( I 1'*1') lim n in g the Voice fo r Speech. New York: McGraw Hill Vannini, Vinc I n/
Vi nnaxm, Wii i iam ( I‘>
V iI'tor, Wli.Ml l.M (1918). Elem ents of Phonetics: English, French a n d Ger man, transi, by W alter Rlpman. New York: E. P. Dutton. VON Bi ki sY, GEORG (1960). E xperim ents in Hearing, tr a n s i, a n d ed . b y E. G. Weaver. New York: McGraw-Hill. v o n M e y e r , G e o r g H e r m a n n (1884). The Organs of Speech. New York: D. A ppleton-Century. V o o r h e e s , I r v in g W ilso n (1923). Hygiene o f the Voice. New York: Macmillan. W a r m a n , E. B. ( 1889). The Voice: H ow to Train It and Care for It. Boston: Lee and Shepard. W a t e r s , C ry sta l (1930). Song: The Substance o f Vocal Study. New York: G. Schirm er. W e a v e r , E. G., and L a w r e n c e , M. (1954). Physiological Acoustics. Princeton, NJ: P rinceton University Press. W e e r , R o b e r t L a w r e n c e (1948). Your Voice. L o s Angeles, CA: Privately published. W e is s , D. A., and B e e b e , H e l e n (1950). The C hew ing Approach in Speech a nd Voice Therapy. Basel: S. Karger. W e l l s , J. C., and C o l s o n , G reta (1971). Practical Phonetics. London: Pitm an Publishing. W e s t , R o b e r t ; An s b e r r y , M.; and C a r r , Anna (1957). The Rehabilitation of Speech. New York: H arper & Brothers. W e s t e r m a n , K e n n e t h N. (1949). E m ergent Voice. Ann Arbor, MI: Privately published.
Bibliography
W h it e , E r n e s t G. (1909). Science a n d Singing. R eprint,
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Subject Index Abdomen, 10, 12, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30,31,32, 33,38,41,42, 265, 277-78 “Abdominal” vibrato, 184, 185, 190, 191 Acoustic at-rest posture, 69, 97 Acoustic energy, 50 Aditus laryngis, 248 Aerodynamics, 2, 20, 22 aggiustamento, 150, 151, 155, 156, 157-60, 165 Agility, 19, 32, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43-47 Air pressure, 2, 20, 23 Airflow, 2, 7, 13, 14, 20, 22, 23, 37, 41, 48, 56, 152, 172, 257, 290, 292, 293 Alveoli, 269 Anal sphincteral closure, 38 Anterolateral abdominal wall, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 37, 94, 191, 275-78 Antihistamines, 230, 231 appoggio, 23, 24, 25, 29, 38, 41, 61, 126, 184, 186, 187 arrotondamento, 156, 158 Articulatory system, 48, 52, 53, 69, 293 Aryepiglottic folds, 245, 248 Arytenoid cartilages, 23, 48, 49, 245 Arytenoid muscle, 245 Associative function, 198 Atmospheric pressure, 20 Attack (see Onset) Auditory monitoring, 198 Axial alignment, 30 Baritone, 117, 119, 123, 125, 155 Bass, 123 basso profondo, 116 Bauchaussenstütze, 237-38 bel canto, 150, 194, 196, 216 Bell register (see Flageolet voice) Bellows analogy, 22 "Belly breathing,” 278 Bernoulli principle, 22, 23 “Breaks" and “lifts,” 15, 115, 118 Breath energy, 36, 108-109 Breath management, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 94, 114, 172-73, 270, 278 Breath mixture, 108, 119, 172, 177, 179 Breath renewal, 10, 12, 14, 25, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36 Breathiness, 3, 8, 15, 177 Breathing, 5, 12, 24, 26, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 38, 266, 267
B ronchi, 269 B u c cin ato r, 67 B u c c o p h a ry n g e a l p o stu re , SH, V), 60, 64, 74, 94 '
“Call” of the voice, 116-1H cantare come si parla, 74 Cervical vertebrae, 153, 154 Chest, open, 136 Chest mixture (female), 136 41 Chest posture, 29, 30, 278 Chest register (male), 116-17 Chest voice (female), 33, 115, 133, 136 Chest wall muscles, 23 Chewing, 233-35 Clavicular breathing, 28, 29, 267 Coloratura soprano, 133, 134, 148, 161, 178 Communication in singing, 201, 204 Complemental breath, 278, 279 Consonants, voiced and unvoiced, 293-96 Constrictor pharyngis, inferior, medius, and superior, 65, 285 Contralto, 133, 135, 136, 137 Conus elasticus, 246, 247 copertura, 156 Corniculate cartilages of Santorini, 245 Corniculate pharyngeal ligaments, 248 Costals, 22, 26, 34, 265 Coughing, 232-33 Counter-tenor, 123-125 Coupled consonants, 106-107 "Covering,” 150-151, 152, 153-55, 158 Cricoarytenoid muscles, 2, 244 Cricoid cartilage, 243, 244, 245, 285 Cricothyroid ligament, 67, 248 Cricothyroid muscle, 2, 27, 118, 133, 11ft, 184, 185, 192, 198, 244, 245, 255, 257, 287-90 Cricotracheal ligament, 24ft Cricovocal ligament, 24ft Cuneiform cartilages ol Wiishei g, 245 D am ping, 291 ‘>2 D eclcunn, 15ft D eltoid m ust If, 27 1 D iaphragm , 23, 24, 10, 33, *4, 40, 191, 262, 2ft4, 265, 267 Diet, 219, 237 tH Digiistiii imiNile, 249, 250, 251 D iplilhiingi/iitlun, 90 l)i h mil rnuHi U'H, 25, 38, 272
The Structure of Singing
l>i miml U soprano, 123, 133, 134, 137, I7H Dvimmic muscle equilibrium, 1, 2, 4, 5-9, 13, 23, 34, 37, 40, 128, 171, 172, 188, 193 Echo voice (see Flageolet voice) Edema, 224, 225, 232 Electromyography (EMG), 2, 8, 28, 264 Emphysema, 220 Epigastric-umbilical region, 10, 12, 24, 25, 30, 32, 33,41, 184 Epiglottis, 48, 49, 151, 152, 184, 193, 245, 247, 283, 285, 291 Esophagus, 49, 67, 291 Eustachian tube, 57 Expiration, 20, 28, 31, 34, 40 External frame function, 291, 292 External listening, 201 External oblique muscle, 25, 26, 29, 277 External thyroarytenoid muscle, 244 Externally applied vibrato (see "Abdominal” vibrato) Extrinsic laryngeal muscles, 249-52 Face, 75,.85, 202, 281-82 (See also Forehead, Nose, Lips) Fach (Fâcher), 161, 162, 178, 228 FuUetto, I, 117, ll<)-25, 132, 133, 179, I HI)
Faucon, V), ISS Fiberoptic examination, IH4, 193, 195 fioriture, 40 Flageolet voice, 122, 147-49, 292 Flanks, 25, 32, 265-66 Flute register (see Flageolet voice) flûte registre (see Flageolet voice) Forehead, 61 Formants, 50, 51, 56, 57, 70, 75, 150, 296 forte, 119 Freedom, 19, 108 Fundamental frequency, 50, 74, 75, 258 Geniohyoid muscle, 67, 251 Gesture of inhalation, 14 Glides (see Transition sounds) Glottis (see also Onset), 3, 4, 5, 8, 12, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 26, 29, 31, 32, 36, 37, 101, 114, 177, 191, 248, 287 Glottis respiratoria, 248 Glottis vocalis, 248 Kola aperta, 58, 59, 60, 103, 295 Growl register, 126 "Grunt," 3, 4, 8, 13, 18 Head mixture (female), 140, 142-43 Head register (male), 116, 118, 122 I lead voice (lemale), I 11
Heavy mechanism, 133 High-chest breathing (see Clavicular breathing) Hohe Quinta (see Flageolet voice) Horizontal transverse arytenoid muscle, 245 Hyoepiglottic ligament, 248 Hyoglossus muscle, 67, 251 Hyoid bone, 94, 155, 242, 244, 246 Hyothyroid membrane, 246 Hyperfunction, 1, 3, 19, 133, 136, 192-93 Hypofunction, 1, 3, 136, 192-93 Hypogastric distention, 37 Hypogastric region, 25, 30 Impedance, 294 impostazione della voce, 60, 61, 62, 63, 68, 295 imposto (see impostazione della voce) Inferior constrictor, 65, 67, 245 Inferior cornu, 243, 245 Infrahyoid muscle, 251 Infraspinatus muscle, 273 Inhalation, 1, 10, 12, 14, 24, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 39, 114, 153 Inhalation-exhalation cycle, 20, 30, 31, 32, 34, 38, 40 Inspiration (see Inhalation) Intercostal muscles, 22, 24, 26, 34, 262 Internal oblique muscle, 25, 26, 27, 277, 278 Internal thyroarytenoid (vocalis) muscle, 244, 252 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 3, 297-300 Intranasal sound pressure, 294 Intrapleural pressure, 20 Intrapulmonary pressure (see Intrapleural pressure) Intrathoracic pressure, 269 Intrinsic laryngeal muscles, 2, 187, 252, 257, 287 Italian School, 23, 33, 59, 61, 89, 115, 121, 167, 182 Jaw, 48, 51, 58, 59, 61, 69, 74, 75, 88, 95, 99, 185, 193, 281 Laryngeal cartilages, 242-46 Laryngeal depression, 58, 59, 88, 150, 152, 154 Laryngeal depressors (see Infrahyoid muscles) Laryngeal descent, 153, 291 Laryngeal elevation, 119, 185, 193, 291 Laryngeal elevators (see Suprahyoid muscles) Laryngeal function, 2, 37, 38, 40
Subject Index
L aryngeal innervation, 184-85, 198-200, 257-58 Laryngeal stabilization, 151, 153, 154 Laryngeal ventricles, 49 Laryngeal whistle, 132, 148 Laryngologist, 235-36 Laryngopharynx, 59, 285 Larynx, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 22-23, 41-42, 48, 58, 59, 94, 184, 241-58 Lateral cricoarytenoid muscle, 245, 253 Lateral hyothyroid ligam ent, 246 Latissim us dorsi, 273, 274 Legato, 40, 41 Legitim ate head voice, 120 Levator scapulae, 273, 275 L evator veli palatini, 67, 68, 284, 295 Lieder singers, 119, 177, 187, 188, 195 Light m echanism , 133, 148 Linea alba, 277 Lips, 31, 48, 51, 52, 56, 61, 69 Longevity (vocal), 238 Lungs, 27, 28, 34, 38, 39, 48, 59, 265, 267-69, 278 lutta vocale, 24, 39 M andible (see Jaw) Marking, 122, 222 masque (Mask), 57, 61, 84-87, 88, 99 Maxillary area, 75 Medial cricothyroid ligam ent, 248 Melismas, 40, 4l messa di voce, 171, 175, 181 mezza voce, 119, 188 Mezzo-soprano, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 161, 196 Middle hyothyroid ligam ent (m edium thyrohyoid ligament), 246 M odification (see Vowel M odification) M otor activity, 198 M outh, 48, 50, 57, 59, 73, 74, 75, 89, 148, 283, 286 Muscle antagonism , 24, 25, 26, 39 M uscle balance, internal-external, 24 M uscle synergism , 39, 40, 191 M usculus uvulae, 68, 185, 284-85 Mylohyoid muscle, 67, 251 Nasal cavities, 49, 81, 86, 89, 107, 281, 283, 294 Nasal continuants, 79-89, 91 Nasal resonance, 65, 89 Nasality, 88, 91, 295-96 N asopharyngeal coupling, 54, 59, 64, 65, 294 Nasopharynx, 49, 57, 59, 85, 100, 103, 285 Neck, 23, 30, 39, 154, 187, 270-71, 291 Neurological effects on phonation, 198, 199
369 Neurologicul so u rce of vibrato, 184, 185 "Noble" posture, 30, 32, 153 Non-nasal consonants, 90-107 Nordic Schools, 152, 153 Nose, 30, 48, 59, 61 Oblique arytenoid m uscle, 245, 253 O m ohyoid muscle, 252 Onset, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12-14, 18, 19, 41 Open chest, 136 Open o r w hite quality, 150, 153 Open th ro a t (see also golti apvrta), 29 O ral cavity, 53, 57, 81, 86, 107 Oral resonance, 65 O ropharyngeal isthm us, 283 O ropharynx, 57, 59, 154, 283 oscillazione, 182, 186, 187, 193 P alatal elevation, 53 Palatoglossus, 68, 283, 284 P alatopharyngeus, 65, 68, 284 Panting, 32, 40, 41 P aranasal sinuses, 283 Partials (harm onic), 50, 56, 155-56 P ectoral region, 24, 25, 29, 273 Pectoralis m ajo r and pectoralis m inor m uscles, 273 petit registre (see Flageolet voice) Pfeifestimme (see Flageolet voice) Pharynx, 48, 49, 50, 56, 58, 61, 65, 66, 67, 80, 107, 152, 285 Physical exercise, 238 piano dynam ic level, 119, 172, 174, 180 Piccolo range (see Flageolet voice) "Placem ent" (see also im postazione della voce), 58, 61, 88 Pleurae, 267-68 Posterior and lateral ceratocricoid ligaments, 248 Posterior cricoarytenoid, 245, 253 Posticus (see Posterior cricoarytenoid) P osture (see “N oble” posture) P rephonatory tuning, 2, 4, 7, 13, 36, l‘>, 40, 200 prim o passaggio, 115, 116, 117, l l ‘), 12 ', 126, 129, 131, 133, 136, 155, 156 Psychological control, l (>8 ')'> "Pushing” the voice, 177 Pyriform (piriform ) sinuses, 24H OuadriuiKuliii mem hi une, ,Mf> OuudrutuN luinbonim , 275 Kmigr extension, 161 169 Ket Ins abdom inis, 25, 277, 278 Kei Ins she»ill, Rei ill i n il Illi yiiKCtil nerve, 257
The Structure of Singing
370 Regional speech, 95 Register terminology, 115-126 registre de flageolet (see Flageolet voice) "Reinforced” falsetto, 117, 122 "Relaxation," 39, 192-93 Release, 6, 8, 9, 10, 18, 19 Residual breath, 278, 279 Resonator system, 48, 57, 61, 107 Respiratory-phonatory action, 32, 98, 293 Rhinolalia (see Nasality) Rhomboid muscle, 273, 275 Ribs, 24, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 259, 265-66, 278 Rima glottidis, 248 Ring (see also Singer’s formant), 56, I SO Rouladen, 40 Scaleni muscles, 275 Scapula, 273 Schnarrbass, 126 Schwa, 70 seconda passaggio, IIS, 116 I
I.M, I,’ft,
127, 129, I U , I 16, 155, I Vi, ISH S e n so ry reporting., 57, I'M, .'tin S rp m . i t i i mi «it i • i ’i h i v I U S e rra i u n iiiiiriiu i i m i n l r v } l \
Slinko ( w t 11i iilolo) Shi il I le^Ulei ( sec I luKeoIrl voic e) S houlder», <0, 271
Shouting, 118 Singer'll Formunt, 55, 56, 57, 158 Sinuses, 57, 61,81 Skull, 57 Smiling, 75 Smoking, 220-21 soprano lirico, 132 Sostenuto, 19, 37, 40, 41, 108-114 soubrette, 148, 178 Speech, 57, 115 Speech in relation to singing, 95, 132, 133, 137, 152 Speech vibrato, 190 Sphincter action, 38, 108 Staccato, 12-17, 33, 40, 41 Sternocleidomastoid muscle, 259, 270-71, 275 Sternohyoid muscle, 291 Sternothyroid muscle, 251 Sternum, 10, 24, 25, 29, 31, 32, 33, 38, 251, 259-62, 278 Straight tone, 9, 13, 41, 185, 188, 189-91, 194-95 Strohbass, 125-26 Styloglossus muscle, 65, 67 Stylohyoid muscle, 251 Stylopharyngeus muscle, 67 Subciavius muscle, 273
Subglotlic pressure, 2, 4, 7, 8, 13, 21-23, 36, 37, 38, 41, 56, 100, 108, 152, 171, 187, 195, 279, 290, 292 suono coperto (see voce coperta) Superior constrictor muscle, 65, 67 Superior cornu, 243 Superior laryngeal nerve, 257 Supplemental breath, 278-79 Supraglottal resonators, 23, 36 Suprahyoid muscles, 249 Supruspinatus muscle, 273 tenure leggiero, 118, 123, 162 tenore lirico, 116, 117, 132, 163, 164 tenorino, 162 Tensor veli palatini, 67, 68, 284, 295 l eres major and teres minor muscles, 273 tessitura, 108 Thorax, 20, 23, 25, 29, 39, 184, 259-62 Throat, open, 29 Thyroarytenoid muscle, 117, 133, 136, ' 252, 253,290 Throat "clearing,” 231-32 Thyroepiglottic ligaments, 247 Thyrohyoid membrane, 94, 246 Thyrohyoid muscle, 252 Thyroid cartilage, 49, 242-44, 247 Tidal breath, 278-79 Timbre concept, 205-6 Tongue, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 59, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 80-81, 92, 95, 100, 150, 154, 155, 184, 185, 193, 281 Tongue-point trill, 93-94 Torso, 10, 18, 22, 25, 29, 31, 32, 34, 37, 89, 114, 154, 187, 190, 273, 275-76, 291 Trachea, 23, 49, 242, 269, 291, 292 Transition sounds, 79, 91-92, 95 Transversus abdominis, 25, 277, 278 Trapezius muscle, 274-275 Tremolo, 182, 186, 191-93 Triticeal cartilages, 246 Trill (trillo), 40, 182, 195-96 Trunk, 23, 27, 94 "Twang,” 155 Umbilical-epigastric region, 12, 24, 30, 32, 33, 40,41, 191 U.S.A. Standards Association pitch designations, 9 van den Berg maneuver, 31 Velopharyngeal posture, 51, 63, 64, 66, 68
Velum, 51, 58, 59, 64, 68, 69, 80-81, 150, 283, 296 Ventricles of the larynx, 154
Nam e Index
371
Vestibule of the larynx, 248 Vibrancy, 9, 13, 14, 41, 182, 189 Vibrato, 13, 182-86, 187, 190-91, 193-94 Vibratory cycle, 12, 22 Vibratory sensation, 85 Vital capacity, 278, 279 Vocal fold, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 23, 37, 48, 50, 100, 118, 122, 123, 132, 133, 172, 184, 191, 253, 279, 287-90 Vocal fry, 126 Vocal ligament, 245, 289 Vocal rest, 229-30 Vocal tract, 10, 22, 30, 31, 36, 39, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 57, 61, 70, 74, 88, 158, 185, 283, 285 Vocalis muscle, 198, 252, 256, 257 voce acuta, 156, 158 voce aperta, 151, 155, 156 voce bianca, 151, 155, 156 voce chiusa, 151, 156 voce coperta, 151, 156 voce di campanello (see Flageolet voice) voce di petto, 115, 117, 136 voce di testa, 118, 143-47 voce finta, 119, 179, 180, 188
voce intermedia, 129 voce mis Ia, 118 voce piena, 122, 123, 171 voce piena in testa, 124 voix blanche (see voce bianca) Vowel differentiation, 76-78 Vowel formants, 50, 51, 70, 150, 295 Vowel modification, 150-60 Vowel tracking, 74, 158 Vowels, 14, 51, 53, 69, 70, 71-73 Weight, 236-37 Whispering, 1, 2, 3, 4, 13, 19 Whistle register, 132-33 White voice (see voce bianca) "Wobble" (see osci/lazione) "Woofy” sound, 156 Yawn, 58, 59, 60, 153, 155, 172 zona di passaggio, 109, 115, 116, 118, 123, 126, 128, 129 zona intermedia, 116 119 Zweite Hôhe (see Flageolet voice) Zygomatic arch, 281
Name Index Agostoni, Emilio, 22 Aikin, W. A., 50 Appelman, D. Ralph, 74, 150, 247, 252, 253 Arnold, Godfrey, E., 1, 3, 8, 50, 262, 265, 287, 290 Astraquillo, Corbelita J., 40, 41, 42, 277 Baer, Thomas, 48 Ballantyne, John, 220 Bartholomew, W. T., 56 Beebe, Helen, 234 Behnke, Emil, 266 Bishop, Beverly, 278 Bjoerling, Jussi, 121, 235 Bjorn, E, 80 Bjork, L., 64 Bloomer, Harlan H., 53
Bôhme, G., 295 Bouhuys, Arend, 172, 263 Breuer, Joseph, 26 Briess, Bertram, 1, 290, 291 Brodnitz, Friedrich S., 13, 120, 121, 151, 158, 219, 234 Brown, William Earl, 109 Browne, Lennox, 266 Bunch, Meribeth, 200, 243 44 Callander, C. Latimer, 268, 271 Campbell, C. J. Moran, 262, 273, 274 Carhart, Paul W., 79 Caruso, Enrico, 162 Comroe, J. H., Jr., 268, 269 Delattre, Pierre, 56 Domingo, Placido, 121
372 Faaborg-Andersen, Knud, 2 Fant, Gunnar, 64, 296 Farinelli, Giuseppe, 30, 31 Fillebrown, Thomas, 85 Fritzell, Bjorn, 64 Froeschels, Emil, 57, 233, 234, 235 Frommhold, W., 153 Garcia, Manuel, 121 Gedda, Nicolai, 122 Gigli, Beniamino, 122 Gold, Harry, 232 Gould, Wilbur J., 38 Graham, Martha, 239 Hammer, Russell A., 58 Helmholtz, Hermann, 8 Hering, Ewald, 26, 28 Hines, Jerome, 122 Hirano, Minoru, 72, 93, 25t>, 294 Hiroto, L, 294 Hixon, Thomas J., 2(vl Hollingsworth, II I ,, .M4 Hoppe, G, 15 < House, Art hi 11 S , ftV }')*< Hume, I’mil, ,’.’6 Isslllkl, N n ln ih lk u , 29 I, .’ 9-1 Junes, I1 W ood, 8(1
K.ill,me, Joel, 132 Kunlner, Claude E., 50, 72, 197 Kenyon, Elmer, 242 Klatt, Dennis H„ 293 Kraus, Alfredo, 121 Kryssin-Exner, K., 221 Kuhn, George F., 71
The Structure of Singing Moore, Paul, 288 Mori, Rachele, 120, 121 Nadoleezny, M., 287 Negus, Sir Victor, 241 Newsom Davis, J., 262, 279 Nimii, Seiji, 68 Piiec hierotti, Gaspare, 153 Puget, Sir Richard, 56 Pavarotti, Luciano, 121 Pelsky, Boris Lastotchkine, 56 Peterson, Gordon E., 72 I'roctor, Donald F., 118, 134 I’unt, Norman, 219 Rleci, Luigi, 223 Rlngcl, Robert, 293, 294 Rumyantsev, Pavel, 203 Schutte, Harm K., 172, 293 Sears, T., 279 Seashore, Carl E., 182 Selkin, Stuart, 193 Shipp, Thomas, 184, 185, 191, 192 Silberman, H. D., 295 Sonninen, Aatto, 291 Stanislavski, Constantin, 203 Stevens, E. L„ 65, 295 Sundberg, Johan, 55, 56, 74-75, 152 Tagliavini, Ferruccio, 122 Takeuchi, Y„ 294 Taylor, Robert M., 57 Tit/.e, Ingo, 132, 178, 256, 257 Tosi, Pier Francesco, 287 Trojan, Felix, 221
Ladefoged, Peter, 21, 22, 72, 257, 258, 293 Lamperti, Francesco, 24, 119 Lamperti, Giovanni Battista, 25, 32, 109, 199 Large, John, 120 Lawrence, Van, 219, 230, 231, 237 Lobl, Karl, 176 Luchsinger, Richard, 1, 3, 8, 50, 262, 265, 287, 290
van den Berg, Janwillem, 31, 34, 198, 289 Vennard, William, 23, 55, 116-117, 174, 245, 246, 290 von Békésy, Georg, 57 von Leden, Hans, 23
Meano, Carlo, 89 Miller, Richard, 60, 156, 158, 186, 193, 204, 278, 292 Minifie, Fred D., 48, 50, 70
Zemlin, Willard, 23, 120, 132, 148, 241, 242, 245, 246, 253, 295 Zenker, Wolfgang, 125, 248, 287, 291 Zwitman, Daniel, 64
Watson, Peter, 264 Weiss, D. A., 234 West, Robert, 50, 72, 197 Wyke, B. D., 2, 4, 199, 200, 262