unit 1 - the evolution of language teaching

Unit 1. The evolution of language teaching. Current trends in the teaching of English as a foreign language language (EFL). The communicative approaches. 1.

INTRODUCTION. The present work aims to provide a detailed account of the evolution of language from

its origins, as an object of study, to a theory of language of language teaching. Subsequent sections will enable us to become better informed about the different methods, approaches and language acquisition theories on English teaching as a foreign language at different periods.

2.

THE OR ORIGINS OF OF LA LANGUAGE

TEACHING. It was around the fifth century B.C that in ancient India the early states of language were written down as a set of rules. This was, in fact, a grammar of Sanskrit whose effects went far beyond the original intentions of the authors. In the the seve sevent ntee eent nth h cent centur ury, y, Jan Jan Amos Amos Kome Komens nsky ky (159 (1592-1 2-167 670) 0),, comm common only ly know known n as Comenius, is often said to be the founder of the Didactics of Language; for him, the word “didactics” means “the art of teaching”. Language study and therefore, language teaching was to be promoted in subsequent centuries through the fields of philosophy, logic, rhetoric, sociology, and religion. 3. THE EVOLUTION OF EFL TEACHING TEACHING FROM EARLY TO CURRENT CURRENT TRENDS. 3.1 3.1.

Up to th the e eig eight htee een nth cent centu ury ry:: th the e sprea pread d of th the e Eng Englis lish lang langua uage ge teaching in Europe.

As previously stated, language teaching traces back to ancient civilizations. According to Richard Richard & Rodgers Rodgers (1992), (1992), the function function of the earliest educational educational systems was primarily primarily to teach religion and to promote the traditions of the people. Although there is no hard evidence of learning language procedures in ancient civilizations, it is thought that some of them –Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians- sent bilingual delegates, the equivalent to modern day ambassadors. For centuries, and mostly up to the end of the Middle Ages (14th – 15 th centuries) Latin was the dominant language of education, commerce, religion and government in the Western World. Therefore, it was only natural for Latin to be the most widely studied foreign 1

Unit 1. The evolution evolution of of language language teaching. teaching. Current Current trends trends in the teaching teaching of English as a foreign language language (EFL). communicative approaches.

The

language language.. The chief storehouse storehouse of learning learning were the monasteries monasteries,, in whose archives archives many many manu manuscr scrip ipts ts of the the prec preced edin ing g class classic ical al cultu culture ress were were pres preser erve ved; d; durin during g this this peri period od universities were established in several countries, c ountries, such as Italy, Spain, France and England. Latin was taught mainly through rote learning of grammar rules, study of declensions and conjugations, translation and practice in writing sample sentences. Such methodology, as will be seen below with the Grammar-Translation Grammar- Translation method, would remain largely unmodified unti untill the the mid-t id-twe wen ntiet tieth h cent centu ury. ry. When hen the the need eed of lear learni ning ng Lati Latin n as a means eans of communication diminished, the study of classical Latin and the analysis of its grammar and rhetoric became the model for foreign language study from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. When modern languages began to enter school curricula of European schools in the eighteent eighteenth h century, century, they were taught using the same basic procedures procedures that were used for teachi teaching ng Latin Latin.. Textb Textbook ookss consis consisted ted of statem statement entss of abstrac abstractt gramm grammar ar rules, rules, lists lists of vocabulary and sentences for translation. The goal of language teaching was to enable students to read Latin, hence oral practice was inexistent. The sentences and texts used for education education had no relation to the language language of real communicatio communication., n., especially if we take into account that nobody spoke Latin any longer.

3.2.

The Th e ninetee teenth century: appro proaches and and meth ethods on lang anguage age teaching.

3.2. 3.2.1 1.

The Th e Gram Gramm mar-T ar-Tra rans nsla lati tio on Meth Method od..

As we have stated before, as modern languages began to enter the curriculum c urriculum of European schools in the eighteenth century, they were taught using the same basic procedures that were used for teaching Latin. The emphasis was set on learning grammar rules, lists of vocabulary, and sentences for translation which usually had little relationship to the real world. Speaking the foreign language was not the goal, and oral practice was limited to students reading aloud the sentences they had translated. This method came to be known as the grammar-translation method. The grammar-translat grammar-translation ion method method was the dominant dominant foreign foreign language language teaching teaching method method in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s, and a version of it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world. The main failures failures of the method are that it does not sound natural to a native speaker; produces difficult mistakes to eradicate; tedious experience of memorizing endless lists of unusable grammar rules and vocabulary; and little stress on accurate pronunciation; and often creates frustration for students. 2

Unit 1. The evolution of language teaching. Current trends in the teaching of English as a foreign language (EFL). The communicative approaches.

3.2. 3.2.2. 2.

Indi Indivi vidu dual al refo reform rmer ers: s: Mar Marce cel, l, Pend Pender erga gast st and and Goui Gouin. n.

In the mid-la mid-late te nine nineteen teenth th centur century, y, incre increase ased d opport opportun unitie itiess for for commun communicat ication ion among among Europ European eanss create created d a demand demand for for oral oral profi proficie ciency ncy in forei foreign gn langu language ages. s. The The Gramm Grammar ar Translation method was challenged by new approaches to language teaching developed by indivi individu dual al langu language age teachi teaching ng specia specialist lists. s. Some Some of these these specia specialist lists, s, like like C. Marcel, Marcel, T. Pendergast, Pendergast, and F. Gouin, Gouin, did not manage, according to Richards & Rodgers (1992), to achieve any lasting impact, though their ideas are of historical interest. The Frenchman Claude Marcel (1793-1896) emphasized the importance of meaning in learning, proposing a rational method, and referring to child language learning as a model for language teaching. The Englishma Englishman n Thomas Thomas Pendergas Pendergastt (180 (1806-1 6-188 886) 6) crea create ted d a maste mastery ry syste system m on a structural syllabus to work on basic structural patterns occurring in the language. He was one of the first to record the observation of children in speaking. The Frenchman François Gouin is perhaps the best known of these reformers. Gouin’s approach to teaching was based on his observations of children’s use of language. They recognized the need for speaki speaking ng profi proficie ciency ncy rather rather than than readin reading g or writin writing, g, and there was an intere interest st in how children learn languages. 3.2.3. The Reform Movement: Movement: Sweet, Viëtor and Passy. The role of phonetics. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, teachers and linguists began to write about the need need for for new new appr approa oach ches es to lang langua uage ge teach teachin ing, g, and and thro throug ugh h thei theirr pamp pamphl hlet ets, s, book books, s, speeches, and articles, the foundation for more widespread pedagogical reforms was set up. This Reform Movement, as it is known, laid the foundations for the development of new ways of teaching languages within the Direct Method. From From the 1880s, 1880s, an intell intellect ectua uall leade leadersh rship ip gave gave greate greaterr credib credibilit ility y and and accept acceptanc ancee to reformist reformist ideas thanks thanks to linguists linguists like Henry Sweet (1845-1912) (1845-1912) in England, England, Wilhelm Wilhelm Viëtor (1850-1918) in Germany, and Paul Passy in Passy in France. Among the earliest goals of the asso associ ciati ation on,, we find find the the lead leadin ing g role role of phon phoneti etics cs within the teaching of modern languages; Sweet (1899) set forth principles for the development of teaching methods based on sound sound methodolog methodological ical principles principles (an applied applied linguist linguistic ic approach). approach). For Viëtor, Viëtor, whose name is directly associated with a phonetic method, method, speech patterns were the fundamental elem elemen ents ts of lang langua uage ge,, stres stressi sing ng the the valu valuee of trai traini ning ng teac teache hers rs in the the new new scie scienc ncee of phonetics . In general the reformers believed that grammar had to be taught inductively, translation avoided, and a language learning based on hearing the language first, before seeing it in written form. None None of thes thesee prop propos osals als assu assume med d the the statu statuss of a me metho thod, d, alth althou ough gh they they refl reflec ectt the the beginning of the discipline of applied linguistics. l inguistics. Parallel to these ideas there was a growing intere interest st in develo developin ping g princi principle pless for for langu language age teachi teaching ng from from natur naturalis alistic tic princi principle pless on 3


The

language learning, such as are seen in first language acquisition. All this led to natural methods and to what was to be known as the Direct Method. 3.2.4.

The Direct Method. Natural methods – Sauveur and Berlitz.

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, An increasing attention to naturalistic principles of language learning was given by other reformers, In fact several attempts to make second language learning more like first language learning had been made throughout the history of langu language age teachi teaching ng.. These These ideas ideas spread spread,, and these these natur natural al langu language age learni learning ng princi principle pless cons consol olid idate ated d in what what be becam camee know known n as the the Direct Direct Method Method,, the the firs firstt of the the "natu "natura rall metho me thods ds”, ”, both both in Euro Europe pe and and in the the Unit United ed State States. s. It was was quit quitee succe successf ssful ul in priv private ate language schools, and difficult to implement in public secondary school education. Among those who tried to apply natural principles to language classes in America were L. Sauveur (1826-1907) and Maximiliam Berlitz who Berlitz who promoted the use of intensive oral interaction in the target language. Saveur’s method became known as the Natural Method and was seriously considered in language teaching. In his book “An Introduction to the Teaching of Living Living Lang Languag uages es withou withoutt Gramm Grammar ar or Dictio Dictionar nary” y” (1874 (1874), ), Saveu Saveurr describ described ed how their their students learnt to speak after a month on intensive oral work in class, avoiding the use of the mother tongue, even for grammar explanations. Berlitz, Berlitz, however, never used the term “natural” and named his method “the “ the Berlitz method” method” (1878), and it was known for being taught in private language schools, highmoti motiva vated ted clie client nts, s, the the use use of nati native ve-sp -spea eaki king ng teac teache hers rs,, and and no tran transla slatio tion n unde underr any any circumstances. In spite of his success, this method lacked a basis in applied linguistic theory, and failed to consider the practical realities of the classroom.

3.3. 3.3.

The twen twentie tieth th cent century ury:: a comm communi unicat cative ive approac approach. h.

During the twentieth century, different methods have resulted from different approaches to language and language learning, and also to the influence of fields such as sociology and psychology on the study st udy of language. 3.3. 3.3.1. 1.

The Th e Com Commu muni nica cati tive ve La Lang nguag uage e Tea Teach chin ing g Appr Approa oach ch..

In 1971 a system in which learning tasks are broken down into “units” is launched into the mark market et by a Brit Britis ish h ling lingui uist st,, D.A. D.A. Wilk Wilkin ins. s. It attem attempts pts to demo demons nstra trate te the the syste systems ms of mean me anin ings gs that that a lang langu uage age lear learne nerr need needss to unde underst rstan and d and and expr expres esss with within in two two type types: s: notional categories (time, sequence, quantity or frequency) and categories of communicative funct function ion (requ (requests ests,, offer offers, s, compla complaint ints). s). The The rapid rapid applica applicatio tion n of these these ideas ideas by textbo textbook ok 4


writers and its acceptance by teaching specialists gave prominence to what became the Communicative Approach or simply Communicative Language Teaching. Beginning in the mid-1960s, there has been a variety of theoretical challenges to the audiolingual method. Scholars such as Halliday, Hymes, Labov and the American linguist Noam Chomsky challenged previous assumptions about language structure and language learning, taking the position that language is creative (not memorized by repetition and imitation) and rule governed governed (not based on habits). habits). For Hymes (1972), the goal of language teaching is to develop a “communicative competence”, that is, the knowledge and ability a learner needs to be communicatively competent in a speech community. 3.3.2. The influence of sociology and psychology on language teaching. Since language is not an isolated phenomenon, we are committed to relate it to other aspects of society, behavior and experience through the development of a theory between linguistics and and othe otherr fiel fields ds of stu study. dy. Amon Among g all all of them them,, two two have have stro strong ngly ly cont contri ribu bute ted d to the the development of the study of language teaching, thus, sociology and psychology. The former, sociolinguistics studies the ways in which language interacts with society in relation to race, nationality, regional, social and political groups, and the interactions of individuals within groups. The latter, psycholinguistics , focuses on how language is influenced by memory, attention, recall and constraints on perception, and the extent to which language has a central role to play in the understanding of human development. Main researchers on the field of sociolinguistics of sociolinguistics are the American linguists Edwar Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield. These grammarians claimed that every language consists of a series of unique structures and that the construction of sentences follows certain regular patterns. patterns. However, Sapir points points out how linguisti linguistics cs and anthropology anthropology reflects reflects the social aspect aspect of langu language age when when dealin dealing g with with race, race, cultu culture re and langu language age,, wherea whereass Bloom Bloomfie field’ ld’ss contribution is more scientific, clearly influenced by psychology theories. In the field of psychology , behaviorism has had a great effect on language teaching. Theorists as Ivan Pavlov and Pavlov and Skinner, Skinner, believed that languages were made up of a series of habits, and that if learners could develop all these habits, they would speak the language well. From these theories arose the audio-lingual method. 3.3.3. Approaches and theories of language and language language learning. Within the study of language different methods resulted from different approaches as respon responses ses to a variet variety y of histor historical ical issues issues and and circum circumstan stances. ces. Lingu Linguists ists such such as Palme Palmer, r, Skinner, Skinner, Chomsky, Chomsky, and Krashen among others, others, have contributed contributed to this development development of present-day approaches which developed in current methods. Within a theory of language, at

5


The

least three different theoretical views provid providee curre current nt approa approaches ches and and me method thodss in language teaching. The first, the structural view, is the most traditional of the three. Within its theory, langu language age is a system system of struct structura urally lly relate related d elemen elements ts for the coding coding of me meani aning ng,, and is defined in terms of phonological and grammatical units, grammatical operations and lexical items. Some methods have embodied this particular view of language over the years. Thus Audiolingualism, and contemporary methods as Total Physical Response and the Silent Way, share this view of language. Supporters of this view are linguists such as Edwar Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield. From the second, the functional view, functional view, language is seen as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. A main tenet within this view is the notion of communication within a theory theory that emphasizes emphasizes the semantic and communica communicative tive dimension dimension rather than merely merely the grammatical characteristics of language. Content is also organized by categories of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar. The third, the interactional view, sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. In the words of Rivers (1981), the eclectic approach must be included on language teaching theory due to its prominence on our present educational system. For her, some teachers experiment with novel techniques for more successful teaching, retaining what they know know from from experi experienc encee to be effec effectiv tive. e. This This approa approach ch is suppor supported ted by Henry Henry Sweet Sweet and Harold Palmer. Its main tenets seek the balanced development of all four skills at all stages. Their Their methods methods are also adapte adapted d to the changin changing g object objective ivess of the day and to the types of students who pass through their classes. But these four approaches are incomplete in themselves and need to be completed by theories of language learning. Now we shall introduce some theories mostly based in the acquisition of language by children. The most prominent figures in this field are, among others, Stephen Krashen, Tracy D. Terrell and Noam Chomsky. Stephen D. Krashen distinguish distinguishes es two concepts: concepts: acquisition and learning, where acquisition is the unconscious development of the target language system as a result of using the language for real communication. Learning would be related to the conscious representation of grammatical knowledge and non spontaneous processes. He developed the Monitor Model on which the Natural method was built. Another theorist, Tracy D. Terrell Terrell is closely related to Krashen, since they both wrote a book named The Natural Approach (1983). Their learning theory is supported by three main principles. Firstly, they claim that comprehension precedes production; secondly, they state 6


that production may emerge in stages and students are not forced tospeak before they are ready; and thirdly the fact that the course syllabus consists of communicative goals. Chomsky demons demonstrat trated ed that that creati creativit vity y and indivi individu dual al senten sentences’ ces’ forma formation tion were were funda fundamen mental tal charac character teristi istics cs of langu language age and priori priority ty is given given to inter interacti active ve process processes es of communication. 3.3. 3.3.4. 4.

Lang La ngu uage age te teachi aching ng metho ethod ds.

The Oral Approach and Situational Language teaching method. This approach dates back to the 1920s and 1930s. Its most prominent figures are the British applied linguists Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby. It includes the following principles: •

language learning is habit-formation

•

mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits

•

language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written form

•

analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis

•

the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context The Audiolingual method. Toward wardss the the end of the the 1950 1950ss a new appr appro oach ach emerg erged under the the name ame of

Audiolingualism. It is based on structural linguistics (structuralism) and behaviouristic psycho psycholog logy y (Skinn (Skinner’ er’ss behavi behaviou ourism rism). ). The The audio audio-lin -lingu gual al me method thod aims aims at teachi teaching ng the language skills in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Students are given a stimulus, which they respond to. If their response is correct, it is rewarded, so the habit will be formed; if it is incorrect, it is corrected, so that it will be suppressed. Total Physical Response (TPR). This method is built around the combination of speech of speech and action and was developed developed by James Asher, Asher, a profes professor sor of psycho psycholog logy. y. For him, him, includ including ing movem movement entss within the linguistic production reduces learner stress, creating a positive mood which facilitates learning. The basic principles are: •

Second Second languag languagee learning learning is parallel parallel to first language language learning learning and should reflect the same naturalistic processes

•

Listening should develop before speaking

•

Children respond physically to spoken language, and adult learners learn better if they do that too 7


•

The

Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it.

•

Delaying speech reduces stress.

The Silent Way Caleb Gattegno introduced this classroom technique wherein the teacher remains silent while pupils output the language through simulated experiences using tokens and picture charts as central elements. Students are encouraged to produce as much language as possible and to self-correct their pronunciation errors through manual gesticulation on the part of the instructor. The greatest strength of this method lies in its ability to draw students out orally, while the teacher listens. Community Language Learning (CLL) It was developed developed by Charle Charless A. Curra Curran. n. It is known known as Coun Counsell selling ing-Le -Learn arning ing,, and and it redefines the roles of the teacher (counsellor) and learners (the clients) in the language classroom. One of its main tenets is for the student to develop his relationship with the teac teache her. r. This his proc proces esss is divi divide ded d into into five five stag stages es and and com compare pared d to the the onto ontoge gene neti ticc development of the child. Thus, 1. feelings of security are established; 2. achievement of independence from the teacher; 3. the learner starts speaking independently; 4. a sense of criticism is developed; and finally, 5. the learner improves style and knowledge of linguistic appropriateness. Suggestopedia In the 1980s and 1990s, an extremely esoteric method was developed by Georgi Lozanov. The The most most outst outstand anding ing featur features es of this this mystic mystical al me metho thod d are, are, its arcan arcanee termin terminolo ology gy and and neol neolog ogis isms ms,, and and seco second ndly ly,, the the arra arrang ngem emen entt of the the clas classr sroo oom m to crea create te an opti optima mall atmosphere to learning, by means of decoration, furniture, the authoritative behaviour of the teacher and specially, through the use of music.

3.

CONCLUSION.

As we have seen, many approaches and methods have been proposed through history to reach the perfect way to learn a second language, many of them based on the way children learn their mother tongue, that is, based on first language acquisition. Some of them have proved to be partly successful, some others not so much. The conclusion is that none of these methods has proved to be the best one, and the only one we should use. Maybe the best method method to use when teaching teaching a second second languag languagee might might be a mixed method that would would “pick 8


up” up” the most most succe successfu ssfull aspects aspects of the me metho thods ds we know know nowad nowadays ays always always introd introduci ucing ng innovations that might help to reach the goal of making our students proficient in the second language.

4.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

. - Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. 1992. Appro 1992. Approaches aches and and Method Methodss in Language Language Teaching. Teaching. - Howatt, A. (1984). A (1984). A history history of English English Languag Languagee teaching teaching . - Rivers, W. 1981. Teaching Foreign-Language Skills. Skills. - Krashen, S. D., and Terrell, T. D. 1983. The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom.

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unit 1 - the evolution of language teaching

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