WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? A Basic Guide to Legal Standards and Practice March 2000 La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights
% 2000 &! the La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights All Rights Reser'ed Printed in the (nited States o$ A#erica La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights Since )*+, the La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights has or-ed to .ro#ote international hu#an rights and re$ugee la and legal .rocedures in the (nited States and a&road/ The "hair#an o$ the La!ers "o##ittee is Willia# a&el/ Michael H/ Posner is its 1ecuti'e 3irector/ George Blac- is Research and 1ditorial 3irector/ This guide as originall! .re.ared &! 4elena Pe5ic in )**6/ It as u.dated &! 7anessa Lesnie in )***/ "o.ies o$ this re.ort are a'aila&le $ro#8 La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights 999 Se'enth A'enue: )9th $loor ;e
,6@620 $a8=2)2> ,6@62** e@#ail8 co##lchr/org )00 Mar!land A'enue: ;1 Suite 600 Washington: 3" 20002 (SA tel8 =202> 6+@6*2 $a8=202> 69@6*** e@#ail8 dclchr/org /lchr/org /itness/org
% 2000 &! the La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights All Rights Reser'ed Printed in the (nited States o$ A#erica La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights Since )*+, the La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights has or-ed to .ro#ote international hu#an rights and re$ugee la and legal .rocedures in the (nited States and a&road/ The "hair#an o$ the La!ers "o##ittee is Willia# a&el/ Michael H/ Posner is its 1ecuti'e 3irector/ George Blac- is Research and 1ditorial 3irector/ This guide as originall! .re.ared &! 4elena Pe5ic in )**6/ It as u.dated &! 7anessa Lesnie in )***/ "o.ies o$ this re.ort are a'aila&le $ro#8 La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights 999 Se'enth A'enue: )9th $loor ;e ,6@620 $a8=2)2> ,6@62** e@#ail8 co##lchr/org )00 Mar!land A'enue: ;1 Suite 600 Washington: 3" 20002 (SA tel8 =202> 6+@6*2 $a8=202> 69@6*** e@#ail8 dclchr/org /lchr/org /itness/org
TABL1 CF "C;T1;TS PR1FA"1//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ////////////////////////////////////////// i I/ I;TRC3("TIC; ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ////////////////////////////// ) II/ BASI" FAIR TRIAL "RIT1RIA ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 2 A/ PR1@TRIAL RIGHTS //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ///////// )/ The Prohi&ition on Ar&itrar! Arrest and 3etention/////////////////////////////////////// 2/ The Right to Dno the Reasons $or Arrest//////////////////////////////////////////////////// 6 9/ The Right to Legal "ounsel /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 6 / The Right to a Pro#.t A..earance Be$ore a 4udge to "hallenge the La$ulness o$ Arrest and 3etention ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 6/ The Prohi&ition o$ Torture and the Right to Hu#ane "onditions during Pre@trial 3etention////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// //////////////// , / The Prohi&ition on Inco##unicado 3etention//////////////////////////////////////////// )0 TH1 H1ARI;G /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ////////////////// )) 1Eual Access to: and 1Eualit! &e$ore: the "ourts//////////////////////////////////////// )) The Right to a Fair Hearing ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// )2 The Right to a Pu&lic Hearing ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// )2 The Right to a "o#.etent: Inde.endent and I#.artial Tri&unal 1sta&lished &! La /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// /////// )9 6/ The Right to a Presu#.tion o$ Innocence//////////////////////////////////////////////////// )6 / The Right to Pro#.t ;otice o$ the ;ature and "ause o$ "ri#inal "harges//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ///////////////////////////// )6 +/ The Right to AdeEuate Ti#e and Facilities $or the Pre.aration o$ a 3e$ense//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ///////////////////////////// ) ,/ The Right to a Trial ithout (ndue 3ela!/ ///////////////////////////////////////////////// ) */ The Right to 3e$end Cnesel$ in Person or through Legal "ounsel/ //////////// )+ )0/ The Right to 1a#ine Witnesses///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ), ))/ The Right to an Inter.reter//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// /// )* )2/ The Prohi&ition on Sel$@ incri#ination/ //////////////////////////////////////////////////////// )* )9/ The Prohi&ition on Retroacti'e A..lication o$ "ri#inal Las /////////////////// 20 )/ The Prohi&ition on 3ou&le 4eo.ard!/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 2) )/ 2/ 9/ / PCST@TRIAL RIGHTS //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ///// 2) )/ The Right to A..eal/ /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ///////// 2) 2/ The Right to "o#.ensation $or Miscarriage o$ 4ustice/ ///////////////////////////// 22 B/ "/
III/ TRIAL CBS1R7ATIC; /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ///////////// 22 )/ "hoice o$ Trials///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// /////////////// 29 2/ Selection o$ Trial C&ser'er/ ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 29 9/ In$or#ing the Go'ern#ent///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// // 29 / Brie$ing/ ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ////////////////////////////// 2 6/ Translators//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// //////////////////////////// 2 / Tra'el and Housing Arrange#ents 7isa and 1ntr! For#alities ///////////////// 2 +/ Pu&lic State#ents Be$ore: 3uring and A$ter a Mission/ ////////////////////////////// 2 ,/ "ontacts and Inter'ies 3uring the Mission/ ////////////////////////////////////////////// 26 */ Seating in the "ourtroo# ;otes////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 26 )0/ C&ser'ers Re.ort/ /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ///////////// 26 I7/ "C;"L(SIC; //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// //////////////////////////// 2+ APP1;3I8 ;CT1 C; SC(R"1S //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 2* A/ Treaties/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ////////////////////////////////// 2* B/ Cther International Standards ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// / 2* "/ 4uris.rudence ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ////////////////////////////// 90 3/ International "ri#inal Tri&unals////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 9) 1/ Cther Re$erence Materials ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ////// 9)
PR1FA"1 PR1FA"1 This guide deals ith to se.arate &ut lin-ed issues that the La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights and other ;GCs $ace in their trial #onitoring acti'ities/ The $irst is the Euestion o$ hat are the &asic legal standards that should &e used in e'aluating the $airness o$ a trial/ The second is ho a trial o&ser'ation #ission should &e .re.ared and carried out in .ractice/ Since trial o&ser'ers #a! &e&ut o$ten are notlitigation la!ers: this guide has &een ritten and structured so as to .ro'ide &rie$ !et clear guidelines on ho to conduc t a trial o&ser'ation #ission: in &oth su&stanti'e and .ractical ter#s/ It does not deal ith the additional issues that #a! arise hen a trial ta-es .lace in a #ilitar! tri&unal/ The #ain .ur.ose o$ this guide is to assist La!ers "o##ittee trial o&ser'ers/ We ho.e: hoe'er: that it ill &e o$ use to other ;GCs engaged in trial #onitoring: so#e o$ hich ha'e sought the assistance o$ the La!ers "o##ittee in this area/ We ould 'er! #uch elco#e an! suggestions $or i#.ro'e#ents that ;GCs and indi'iduals ith trial #onitoring e.erience #a! ish to #a-e/ ;e
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? I/ I;TRC3("TIC; The right to a $air trial is a nor# o$ international hu#an rights la designed to .rotect indi'iduals $ro# the unla$ul and ar&itrar! curtail#ent or de.ri'ation o$ other &asic rights and $reedo#s: the #ost .ro#inent o$ hich are the right to li$e and li&ert! o$ the .erson/ It is guaranteed under Article ) o$ the International "o'enant on "i'il and Political Rights =I""PR>: ) hich .ro'ides that Je'er!one shall &e entitled to a $air and .u&lic hearing &! a co#.etent: inde.endent and i#.artial tri&unal esta&lished &! la/K The $unda#ental i#.ortance o$ this right is illustrated not onl! &! the etensi'e &od! o$ inter.retation it has generated &ut: #ost recentl!: &! a .ro.osal to include it in the nonderoga&le rights .ro'ided $or in Article =2> o$ the I""PR/ 2 The right to a $air trial is a..lica&le to &oth the deter#ination o$ an indi'iduals rights and duties in a suit at la and ith res.ect to the deter#ination o$ an! cri#inal charge against hi# or her/ The ter# Jsuit at laK re$ers to 'arious t!.es o$ court .roceedingsincluding ad#inistrati'e .roceedings: $or ea#.le&ecause the conce.t o$ a suit at la has &een inter.reted as hinging on the nature o$ the right in'ol'ed rather than the status o$ one o$ the .arties/ 9 For the .ur.oses o$ this guide onl! .roceedings in'ol'ing cri#inal charges ill &e considered since non@go'ern#ental organiations =;GCs> t!.icall! #onitor cri#inal trials or: #ore .recisel!: cri#inal trials in'ol'ing J.oliticalK o$$enses/ 3ue to the s.eci$ics o$ each indi'idual case and the interests o$ #onitoring organiations: a detailed rendition o$ trial o&ser'ation ai#s is not $easi&le/ The -e! general goals #a! &e su##aried as $ollos8 to #a-e -non to the court: the authorities o$ the countr! and to the general .u&lic the interest in and concern $or the trial in Euestion to encourage a court to gi'e the accused a $air trial/ The i#.act o$ an o&ser'ers .resence in a courtroo# cannot &e e'aluated ith #athe#atical .recision/ Hoe'er: &oth o&ser'ers and de$ense attorne!s ha'e .ointed out that a #onitors ) International "o'enant on "i'il and Political Rights: (; General Asse#&l! resolution 2200A =I>: 3ece#&er ): )*: entered into $orce March 29: )*+ Nhereina$ter I""PRO/ 2 See 3ra$t Third C.tional Protocol to the I""PR: Ai#ing at Guaranteeing (nder All "ircu#stances the Right to a Fair Trial and a Re#ed!: Anne I: in8 JThe Ad#inistration o$ 4ustice and the Hu#an Rights o$ 3etainees: The Right to a Fair Trial8 "urrent Recognition and M easures ;ecessar! $or Its Strengthening:K Final Re.ort: "o##ission on Hu#an Rights: Su&@"o##ission on Pre'ention o$ 3iscri#ination and Protection o$ Minorities: th Session: 1";/Su&/2)**2: 4une 9: )** Nhereina$ter The Final Re.ortO: at 6*@2/ =htt.8/unhchr/chHuridocdaHuridoca/ns$TestFra#ed,*2692,e)+,$,+,026+9d006* *&,)?C.endocu#e nt>/ 9 See 3o#inic McGoldric-: The Hu#an Rights "o##ittee: Its Role in the 3e'elo.#ent o$ the International "o'enant on "i'il and Political Rights ="larendon Press: C$ord8 )**>: at )6/ There is: at .resent: no .ositi'e de$inition o$ hat constitutes a J.olitical o$$enseK and there$ore little guidance on hich .roceedings #a! &e dee#ed J.oliticalK in nature/ In this contet it should &e noted that trial o&ser'ation is a 'er! use$ul #echanis# $or the .re'ention o$ hu#an rights a&uses &ut one that: necessaril!: de.ends on the illingness o$ a go'ern#ent to conduct a trial in the $irst .lace/ As is ell -non: in #an! areas o$ the orld indi'iduals are still &eing arrested: i#.risoned and eecuted ithout an! trial at all/ )
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? .resence o$ten changes the at#os.here in the courtroo# and $acilitates de$ense &!: inter alia: #a-ing the court #ore cogniant o$ the de$enses argu#ents: encouraging de$ense counsel and the de$endant to &e #ore $orce$ul in contesting the .rosecutions clai#s: in attracting #edia attention to the trial: etc to o&tain #ore in$or#ation a&out the conduct o$ the trial: the nature o$ the case against the accused and the legislation under hich she is &eing tried and to collect general &ac-ground in$or#ation a&out the .olitical and legal circu#stances leading to the trial and .ossi&l! a$$ecting its outco#e/ 6 In the &roader sense: trial #onitoring consists not onl! o$ an o&ser'ers .h!sical .resence in the courtroo# during at least .art o$ the .roceedings &ut: 5ust as i#.ortantl!: o$ the dut! .ro#.tl! to .re.are a re.ort $or the organiation he or she re.resents: ith conclusions on the $airness o$ the trial o&ser'ed/ The .u&licit! hich this re.ort recei'es #a! ser'e in the short ter# to enhance a de$endants chances o$ ha'ing hisher case $airl! re'ieed on a..eal/ The lasting ai# is to in$or# the go'ern#ent and the general .u&lic o$ .ossi&le irregularities in cri#inal .rocedure and to .ro#.t action to &ring .ractice into line ith international hu#an rights standards/ The &asic criteria according to hich the $airness o$ a trial #a! &e assessed is the $irst issue that ill &e dealt ith in this re'ie/ The second is ho a trial o&ser'ation #ission is t!.icall! carried out/ II/ BASI" FAIR TRIAL "RIT1RIA The standards against hich a trial is to &e assessed in ter#s o$ $airness are nu#erous: co#.le: and constantl! e'ol'ing/ The! #a! constitute &inding o&ligations that are included in hu#an rights treaties to hich the state is a .art!/ But: the! #a! also &e $ound in docu#ents hich: though not $or#all! &inding: can &e ta-en to e.ress the direction in hich the la is e'ol'ing/ In order to a'oid .ossi&le challenges to the legal nature o$ the standards e#.lo!ed 6 See International "o##ission o$ 4urists =I"4>: JGuidelines $or I"4 C&ser'ers to TrialsK =I"4: Gene'a8 )*+,>/ ;on@&inding docu#ents o$ rele'ance to the conduct o$ cri#inal .roceedings and to ascertaining $air trial standards include8 the Basic Princi.les $or the Treat#ent o$ Prisoners: (; General Asse#&l! resolution 6))): 3ece#&er ): )**0 Nhereina$ter Basic Princi.les on PrisonersO Standard Mini#u# Rules $or the Treat#ent o$ Prisoners: (; 1cono#ic and Social "ouncil resolution 9 " =I7>: 4ul! 9): )*6+ and resolution 20+ =LII>: Ma! )9: )*++ Nhereina$ter Standard Mini#u# RulesO Bod! o$ Princi.les $or the Protection o$ All Persons under An! For# o$ 3etention or I#.rison#ent: (; General Asse#&l! resolution 9)+9: 3ece#&er *: )*,, Nhereina$ter Bod! o$ Princi.lesO Basic Princi.les on the Role o$ La!ers: ado.ted &! the 1ighth (nited ;ations "ongress on the Pre'ention o$ "ri#e and the Treat#ent o$ C$$enders: Ha'ana: "u&a: August [email protected]#&er +: )**0 Nhereina$ter Basic Princi.les on La!ersO Basic Princi.les on the Inde.endence o$ the 4udiciar!: (; General Asse#&l! resolution 092: ;o'e#&er 2*: )*,6 and resolution 0): 3ece#&er )9: )*,6 Nhereina$ter Basic Princi.les on the 4udiciar!O (; Standard Mini#u# Rules $or the Ad#inistration o$ 4u'enile 4ustice: (; General Asse#&l! resolution 099: ;o'e#&er 2*: )*,6 "ode o$ "onduct $or La 1n$orce#ent C$$icials: (; General Asse#&l! resolution 9)*: 3ece#&er )+: )*+* Guidelines on the Role o$ Prosecutors: ado.ted &! the 1ighth (nited ;ations "ongress on the Pre'ention o$ "ri#e and the Treat#ent o$ C$$enders: Ha'ana: "u&a: August [email protected]#&er +: )**0 Princi.les on the 1$$ecti'e Pre'ention and In'estigation o$ 1tralegal: Ar&itrar! and Su##ar! 1ecutions: (; 1cono#ic and Social "ouncil reco##ended resolution
)*,*6: Ma! 2: )*,* Basic Princi.les on the (se o$ Force and Firear#s &! La 1n$orce#ent C$$icials: ado.ted &! the 1ighth (nited ;ations "ongress on the Pre'ention o$ "ri#e and the Treat#ent o$ C$$enders: Ha'ana: "u&a: August 2+Se.te#&er +: )**0 (; Rules $or the Protection o$ 4u'eniles 3e.ri'ed o$ Their Li&ert!: (; General Asse#&l! 2
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? in e'aluating the $airness o$ a trial: #onitors should re$er to nor#s o$ undis.utedl! legal origin/ These are8 =i> =ii> =iii> the las o$ the countr! in hich the trial is &eing held the hu#an rights treaties to hich that countr! is a .art!: and nor#s o$ custo#ar! international la/ + Be$ore o&ser'ing a trial: a #onitor should read rele'ant #aterials .ertaining to do#estic legislation/ 3ue to the 'arious legal s!ste#s and legal orders in'ol'ed: as ell as the di$$ering stages o$ their de'elo.#ent: it is not .ossi&le to de'ise a co#.rehensi'e list o$ essential tets/ A #ini#u# list ould co#.rise8 i> a states "onstitution: es.eciall! its .ro'isions on hu#an rights and the 5udicial s!ste# ii> its "ri#inal "ode and "ode o$ "ri#inal Procedure statutes on the esta&lish#ent and 5urisdiction o$ the courts and on the .u&lic .rosecutors o$$ice: and iii> land#ar- court decisions .ertaining to hu#an rights: .articularl! in co##on la countries/ The ai# o$ an o&ser'er at this le'el o$ ea#ination is to assess hether the a..lica&le .ro'isions o$ do#estic la guaranteeing a $air trial ha'e &een i#.le#ented and: i$ so: to hat etent/ It is ell -non that hile constitutions and statutes generall! .ro'ide $or so#e #easure o$ $airness in cri#inal .roceedings: i#.le#entation &! the courts is o$ten not adeEuate/ Be$ore underta-ing a trial o&ser'ation #ission: a #onitor should $ind out to hich hu#an rights treaties the res.ecti'e state is a .art!/ The #ost i#.ortant o$ these is the I""PR: hich contains se'eral rele'ant articles in assessing the $airness o$ a trial/ , resolution 6))9: 3ece#&er ): )**0 etc/ Also rele'ant is the 3ra$t Bod! o$ Princi.les on the Right to a Fair Trial and a Re#ed!: Anne II: in The Final Re.ort: su.ra note )/ For trial o&ser'ation in CS"1 countries the hu#an rights .ro'isions o$ the $inal docu#ents $ro# re'ie con$erences ould also &e i#.ortant as a source o$ standards =see /osce/org>/ See the A..endi to this re.ort8 J;ote on SourcesK $or hints on ho to $ind these docu#ents/ + The .ro'isions o$ the (ni'ersal 3eclaration o$ Hu#an Rights: =(; General Asse#&l! resolution 2)+A =III>: 3ece#&er )0: )*, Nhereina$ter (3HRO>: are $or the #ost .art considered declarati'e o$ custo#ar! international la and #a! &e o$ .ara#ount i#.ortance i$ a state has not rati$ied or acceded to the I""PR: the "on'ention against Torture and Cther "ruel: Inhu#an or 3egrading Treat#ent or Punish#ent: =(; General Asse#&l! resolution 9*: 3ece#&er )0: )*,: entered into $orce 4une 2: )*,+ Nhereina$ter Torture "on'entionO>: or an! regional hu#an rights instru#ent/ The #ost directl! rele'ant articles o$ the (3HR are 6: *: )0 and ))/ As custo#ar! international la ill #ost .ro&a&l! &e used as a su..le#entar! source o$ a states o&ligations in ensuring the right to a $air trial: it ill not &e $urther considered/ , The e& site o$ the (; High "o##issioner $or Hu#an Rights has a list o$ those nations that ha'e rati$ied the I""PR at htt.8/un/org3e.tsTreat!$inalts2ne$iles.artQ&ooi'Q&ooi'Q/ht#l/ 3e.ending on the regional hu#an rights instru#ent=s> that a state is &ound &!: the corres.onding .ro'isions o$ such treaties should &e ta-en into account as ell/ For 1uro.ean states the #ost i#.ortant instru#ent ould &e the 1uro.ean "on'ention $or the Protection o$ Hu#an Rights and Funda#ental Freedo#s: ;o'e#&er 6: )*60 Nhereina$ter 1uro.ean "on'entionO =htt.8/coe/$renglegaltt6e/ht#>/ For Latin and ;orth A#erican states it ould &e the A#erican "on'ention on Hu#an Rights: ;o'e#&er 22: )** Nhereina$ter A#erican "on'entionO =htt.8/cidh/oas/orgBsicosBasic203ocu#entsen&as9/ht#>: hile $or the A$rican states it ould &e the A$rican "harter on Hu#an and Peo.les Rights: ado.ted 4une 2+: )*,): entered into $orce Ccto&er 2): )*, Nhereina$ter A$rican "harterO =htt.8/oau@oua/orgoauQin$orights/ht#>/ 9
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? The right to a $air trial on a cri#inal charge is considered to start running not Jonl! u.on the $or#al lodging o$ a charge &ut rather on the date on hich State acti'ities su&stantiall! a$$ect the situation o$ the .erson concerned/K* This could o&'iousl! coincide ith the #o#ent o$ arrest: de.ending on the circu#stances o$ the case/ Fair trial guarantees #ust &e o&ser'ed $ro# the #o#ent the in'estigation against the accused co##ences until the cri#inal .roceedings: including an! a..eal: ha'e &een co#.leted/ The distinction &eteen .retrial .rocedures: the actual trial and .ost trial .rocedures is so#eti#es &lurred in $act: and the 'iolation o$ rights during one stage #a! ell ha'e an e$$ect on another stage/ Hoe'er the #ost rele'ant articles o$ the I""PR can &e loosel! di'ided into those three categories and the se.aration is so#eti#es hel.$ul $or the .ur.oses o$ identi$!ing hich issues ill &e o$ .articular interest during di$$erent ti#e .eriods o$ the trial .rocess/ A/ PR1@TRIAL RIGHTS )/ The .rohi&ition on ar&itrar! arrest and detention Article *=)> o$ the I""PR)0 .ro'ides that Je'er!one has the right to li&ert! and securit! o$ .erson/K The li&ert! o$ a .erson has &een inter.reted narrol!: to #ean $reedo# o$ &odil! #o'e#ent: hich is inter$ered ith hen an indi'idual is con$ined to a s.eci$ic s.ace such as a .rison or a detention $acilit!/ )) Securit! has &een ta-en to #ean the right to &e $ree $ro# inter$erence ith .ersonal integrit! &! .ri'ate .ersons/ (nder Article *=)> J;o one shall &e su&5ected to ar&itrar! arrest or detentionK and J;o one shall &e de.ri'ed o$ his li&ert! ece.t on such grounds and in accordance ith such .rocedure as are esta&lished &! la/K The .rinci.le o$ legalit! e#&odied in the latter sentence &oth su&stanti'el! =Jon such groundsK> and .rocedurall! =Jin accordance ith such .rocedureK> #andates that the ter# JlaK should &e understood as re$erring to an a&stract nor#: a..lica&le and accessi&le to all: hether laid don in a statute or $or#ing .art o$ the unritten: co##on la/ The .rohi&ition o$ ar&itrariness #entioned in the .re'ious sentence ser'es to ensure that the la itsel$ is not ar&itrar!: i/ e/ that the de.ri'ation o$ li&ert! .er#itted &! la is not J#ani$estl! un.ro.ortional: un5ust or un.redicta&le: and NthatO the s.eci$ic #anner in hich an arrest is #ade #ust not &e discri#inator! and #ust &e a&le to &e dee#ed a..ro.riate and .ro.ortional in 'ie o$ the circu#stances o$ the case/K)2 * Man$red ;oa-: (/;/ "o'enant on "i'il and Political Rights: ""PR "o##entar! =;/P/ 1ngel: Arlington8 )**9> Nhereina$ter ;oa- "o##entar!O: at 2/ )0 See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 6=)> A$rican "harter: su.ra note ,: Article A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article +=)>@=9> and Statute o$ the International "ri#inal "ourt Nhereina$ter I"" StatuteO: Article 66=)>=d>/ The I"" Statute esta&lishes a .er#anent institution $or the .ur.oses o$ tr!ing .ersons $or the #ost serious international cri#es =including genocide: cri#es against hu#anit! and ar cri#es> here a national legal s!ste# has $ailed to do so/ The Statute as a..ro'ed on 4ul! )+: )**, &ut ill not co#e into $orce until 0 nations ha'e rati$ied/ As o$ Fe&ruar! ): 2000: * countries had signed the Statute &ut onl! se'en countries had rati$ied it/ )) The ensuing inter.retation o$ the I""PR is .ri#aril! &ased on the ;oa- "o##entar!: su.ra note */ )2 ;oa- "o##entar!: su.ra note *: at )+9/
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? 2/ The right to -no the reasons $or arrest Article *=2> o$ the I""PR)9 .ro'ides that JAn!one ho is arrested shall &e in$or#ed: at the ti#e o$ arrest: o$ the reasons $or his arrest and shall &e .ro#.tl! in$or#ed o$ an! charges against hi#/K These .ro'isions ha'e &een inter.reted to #ean that an!one ho is arrested #ust &e in$or#ed o$ the general reasons $or the arrest Jat the ti#e o$ arrest:K hile su&seEuent in$or#ation: to &e $urnished J.ro#.tl!:K #ust contain accusations in the legal sense/ ) Hoe'er there #ust &e su$$icient in$or#ation to .er#it the accused to challenge the legalit! o$ his or her detention/ )6 A ritten arrest arrant is not unconditionall! reEuired: &ut the lac- o$ a arrant #a!: in so#e cases: gi'e rise to a clai# o$ ar&itrar! arrest/ The reasons $or arrest: and the e.lanation o$ an! other rights =$or ea#.le: the right to legal counsel>: #ust &e gi'en in a language that the .erson arrested understands/ ) Accordingl!: the accused has a right to a co#.etent inter.reter in the e'ent that he or she does not understand the local language/ )+ This right etends to all .re@trial .roceedings/ ), 9/ The right to legal counsel The right to &e .ro'ided and co##unicate ith counsel is the #ost scrutinied s.eci$ic $air trial guarantee in trial o&ser'ation .ractice: &ecause it has &een de#onstrated to &e the one that is #ost o$ten 'iolated/ Princi.le ) o$ the Basic Princi.les on La!ers states that JNaOll .ersons are entitled to call u.on the assistance o$ a la!er o$ their choice to .rotect and esta&lish their rights and to de$end the# in all stages o$ cri#inal .roceedings/K This right is .articularl! rele'ant in case o$ .re@trial detention)* and is discussed in that contet in this section/ Hoe'er the right to counsel is also an i#.ortant ele#ent o$ the right to adeEuate )9 See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 6=2> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article +=> Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le )0 )**2 Resolution on the Right to Recourse Procedure and Fair Trial o$ the A$rican "o##ission on Hu#an and Peo.les Rights Nhereina$ter A$rican "o##ission ResolutionO: Paragra.h 2=B> =htt.8 )/u#n/eduhu#anrtsa$ricaach.r))resrecourse/ht#l>/ ) See in$ra notes +9@+ and acco#.an!ing tet/ )6 For ea#.le: the 1uro.ean "ourt o$ Hu#an Rights has held that Article 6=2> o$ the 1uro.ean "on'ention #eans an arrested .erson should J&e told: in si#.le: non@ technical language that he can understand: the essential legal and $actual grounds $or his arrest: so as to &e a&le: i$ he sees $it: to a..l! to a court to challenge its la$ulnessU/K Hoe'er: the "ourt also held that it as not necessar! to gi'e a $ull descri.tion o$ the charges at the #o#ent o$ arrest =Fo: "a#.&ell and Hartle! =),)*,*)+,29@29>: August 90: )**0: .ara 0>/ ) 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 6=2> Hu#an Rights "o##ittee General "o##ent ;o/ )92) o$ A.ril )2: )*, Nhereina$ter General "o##ent )9O: .ara , A$rican "o##ission Resolution: su.ra note )9: Paragra.h 2=B> Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le ) and I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article +=)>=a>/ )+ Princi.le ) o$ the Bod! o$ Princi.les sets out the right to an inter.reter in all legal .roceedings su&seEuent to arrest/ Article +=)>=$> o$ the I"" Statute guarantees the right to a Jco#.etentK inter.reter/ ), Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le )/ )* The Hu#an Rights "o##ittee has stated that Jall .ersons ho are arrested #ust i##ediatel! ha'e access to counsel/K ="oncluding C&ser'ations o$ the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee: Georgia: (; 3oc/ ""PR"+* Add/+6: A.ril ): )**+ .ara 2+> Nhereina$ter "oncluding C&ser'ations o$ the HR"O/ See also the Re.ort o$ the S.ecial Ra..orteur on the Inde.endence o$ 4udges and La!ers regarding the Mission o$ the S.ecial Ra..orteur to the (nited Dingdo#: (; 3oc 1";/)**,9*Add/: March 6: )**,: .ara +/ 6
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? $acilities $or the .re.aration o$ a de$ense 20 and the right to a de$ense hich ill &e discussed later in this .a.er/ 2) Princi.le 6 o$ the Basic Princi.les on La!ers and Princi.le )+ o$ the Bod! o$ Princi.les s.eci$icall! .ro'ide that hen a .erson is arrested: charged or detained he or she #ust &e .ro#.tl! in$or#ed o$ the right to legal assistance o$ his or her choice/ Article + o$ the Basic Princi.les on La!ers reEuires go'ern#ents to ensure that all .ersons arrested or detained should ha'e access to a la!er ithin , hours $ro# arrest or detention/ 22 An indi'iduals right to choose counsel thus &egins to run hen a sus.ect or accused is $irst ta-en into custod!: regardless o$ hether she is $or#all! charged at that #o#ent/ Further#ore: i$ the accused cannot a$$ord his or her on counsel: the rele'ant authorities #ust .ro'ide a la!er $ree o$ charge i$ the interests o$ 5ustice so reEuire/ 29 Whether or not the interests o$ 5ustice reEuire such an a..oint#ent de.ends .ri#aril! on the seriousness o$ the o$$ence and the se'erit! o$ the .otential .enalt!/ 2 Princi.le , o$ the Basic Princi.les on La!ers reEuires the authorities to ensure that all arrested: detained or i#.risoned .ersons ha'e adeEuate o..ortunities to &e 'isited &! and to co##unicate ith their la!er ithout dela!: interce.tion or censorshi.: in $ull con$identialit!/ When the la!er and his or her client #eet the! #a! &e in sight o$ a la en$orce#ent o$$icial: &ut cannot &e ithin hearing range/ 26 / The right to a .ro#.t a..earance &e$ore a 5udge to challenge the la$ulness o$ arrest and detention Article *=9> 2 re$ers s.eci$icall! to the rights o$ a .erson arrested or detained on a cri#inal charge: ho Jshall &e &rought .ro#.tl! &e$ore a 5udge or other o$$icer authoried &! la to eercise 5udicial .oer and shall &e entitled to trial ithin a reasona&le ti#e or to release/K Pro#.tness has &een inter.reted &! the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee =HR"> to #ean 20 2) General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara */ See in$ra notes ++@,0: ,9@,* and acco#.an!ing tet/ 22 "o#.are Princi.le )6 o$ the Bod! o$ Princi.les: hich states that a detainee #ust &e a&le to co##unicate ith counsel ithin Ja #atter o$ da!s:K ith the Hu#an Rights "o##ittees state#ent that Jall .ersons ho are arrested #ust i##ediatel! ha'e access to counsel/K "oncluding C&ser'ations o$ the HR": su.ra note )*/ 29 Princi.les on the Role o$ La!ers: su.ra note : Princi.le Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le )+=2> I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article 66=2>=c>/ 2 For $urther the discussion on the right to counsel during the hearing see in$ra notes ,9@,* and acco#.an!ing tet/ 26 See Princi.les on the Role o$ La!ers: su.ra note : Princi.le 22 =JGo'ern#ents shall recognie and res.ect that all co##unications and consultations &eteen la!ers and their clients ithin their .ro$essional relationshi.s are con$identialK and Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.les )6 and ),/ 2 See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 6=9> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article +=6> A$rican "o##ission Resolution: su.ra note )9: Paragra.h 2="> and I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article 6*=2>=9>/ See $urther Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.les )): 9, and 9* and 3eclaration on the Protection o$ all Persons $ro# 1n$orced 3isa..earance: (; General Asse#&l! resolution +)99: 3ece#&er ),: )**2: Article )0=)>/
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? that the .eriod o$ custod!: &e$ore an indi'idual is &rought &e$ore a 5udge or other o$$icer: #a! not eceed Ja $e da!s/K2+ Article *=9> #a-es it clear that .re@trial detention Jshall not &e the general ruleK and i#.licitl! .ro'ides a detainee ith a legiti#ate clai# to release in echange $or &ail or so#e other guarantee o$ a..earance at the trial/ 2, Further#ore: Article *=9> states that i$ a trial does not occur ithin a reasona&le .eriod o$ ti#e then the accused #ust &e released $ro# .re@trial detention .ending trial/ 2* The .eriod o$ ti#e that is considered to &e Jreasona&leK de.ends on the circu#stances o$ the case/ The rele'ant $actors include the ris- o$ $light: the co#.leit! o$ the case: the nature o$ the o$$ence and the diligence o$ the in'estigating and .rosecutorial authorities in .ursuing the case/ 90 Without e.ressl! #entioning it: Article *=>9) .ro'ides $or the right to ha&eas cor.us: or a#.aro: that is: the right o$ an!one de.ri'ed o$ li&ert! &! arrest or detention to Jta-e .roceedings &e$ore a court: in order that that court #a! decide ithout dela! on the la$ulness o$ his detention and order his release i$ the detention is not la$ul/K In this contet it should &e noted8 i> that the ter# JcourtK signi$ies not onl! a regular court: &ut a s.ecial court: including an ad#inistrati'e: constitutional or #ilitar! court as ell 92 2+ Hu#an Rights "o##ittee: General "o##ent ;o/ ,: 4ul! 2+: )*,2: Nhereina$ter General "o##ent ,O: .ara 2/ The 1uro.ean "ourt has held that to hold a .erson $or $our da!s and si hours 'iolates article 6=9> o$ the 1uro.ean "on'ention =Brogan et al ' (nited Dingdo#: )0)*,+)99),@),+: ;o'e#&er 2*: )*,,: .ara 2>/ The InterA#erican "o##ission has held that a ee- is too long =Inter@A#erican "o##ission Se'enth Re.ort on the Situation on Hu#an Rights in "u&a: )*,9 C1A Ser L7)) )/doc 2* re' ): at )>/ 2, In General "o##ent ,: su.ra note 2+: .ara 9: the (; Hu#an Rights "o##ittee stated that JN.Ore trial detention should &e an ece.tion and as short as .ossi&le/K Further#ore: in the case o$ 7an Al.hen ' The ;etherlands: the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee stated that Jre#and in custod! #ust not onl! &e la$ul &ut necessar! in all the circu#stancesU$or ea#.le: to .re'ent light: inter$erence ith e'idence or the recurrence o$ cri#e/K 3etention $or the sole .ur.ose o$ $urther interrogation is not 5usti$ia&le/ ="o##unication 906)*,,: 29 4ul! )**0: )**0 Re.ort o$ the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee 7ol/ II: (; 3oc/ A60: at ))6>/ 2* See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 6=9> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article +=6> A$rican "o##ission Resolution: su.ra note )9: Paragra.h 2="> I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article 0=> and Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le 9,/ 90 The 1uro.ean "ourt has held that the authorities #ust eercise Js.ecial diligenceK in the conduct o$ .roceedings hen the accused is in .re@trial detention =see To#asi ' France: 2+)**)2+*960: 26 4une )**2: .ara , A&doella ' the ;etherlands: ))**29)*: 2, Ccto&er )**2: .ara 2>/ 9) See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 6=> A$rican "harter: su.ra note ,: Article +=)> =a> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article +=> and Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le 92/ 92 ;ote that re'ie &! a su.erior #ilitar! o$$icer: go'ern#ent o$$icial or ad'isor! .anel ould &e insu$$icient/ Regarding su.erior #ilitar! o$$icers: see 7uolanne ' Finland ="o##unication 26)*,+: + A.ril )*,*: )*,* Re.ort o$ the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee: (; 3oc/A0: at 26@26+> stating that re'ie o$ detention o$ a soldier &! a su.erior #ilitar! o$$icer does not satis$! Article *=>/ As to go'ern#ent o$$icials: see the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee in Torres ' Finland ="o##unication 2*))*,,: 2 A.ril )**0: )**0 Re.ort o$ the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee: 7ol II: (; 3oc/A60: at **@)00>: hich states that the o..ortunit! o$ an as!lu#@ see-er to a..eal to the Ministr! o$ the Interior does not satis$! Article *=> o$ the I""PR/ Regarding ad'isor! .anels: see the 1uro.ean "ourt in "hahal ' (nited Dingdo# =+0)**66+2: )6 ;o'e#&er )**: .aras )90@)99> hich decided that an
ad'isor! .anel hich did not disclose its reasons $or decision: had no &inding decision@#a-ing .oer and hich did not .er#it legal re.resentation did not satis$! Article 6=> o$ the 1uro.ean "on'ention/ +
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? ii> iii> that the courts decision .ertains onl! to the la$ulness o$ detention: and that hat constitutes Jdela!K #ust &e assessed ith regard to the circu#stances o$ the case/ The ha&eas cor.us .rocedures #ust &e si#.le: s.eed! and $ree o$ charge i$ the detainee cannot a$$ord to .a!/ 99 The detainee also has the right to continuing re'ie o$ the la$ulness o$ detention at reasona&le inter'als/ 9 Lastl!: Article *=6>96 .ro'ides that JNaOn!one ho has &een the 'icti# o$ unla$ul arrest or detention shall ha'e an en$orcea&le right to co#.ensation/K Such a clai# arises hen the arrest or detention has contra'ened the .ro'isions o$ Article *=)> to => andor a .ro'ision o$ do#estic la/ The a! in hich a clai# $o r co#.ensation is to &e i#.le#ented is not: hoe'er: e.licitl! s.elled out: &ut is generall! considered to re$er to an indi'iduals right to &ring a ci'il la suit either against the state or the .articular &od! or .erson res.onsi&le $or the rong$ul cond uct/ 6/ The .rohi&ition o$ torture and the right to hu#ane conditions during .retrial detention Article + o$ the I""PR .rohi&its tortureor cruel: inhu#an or degrading treat#ent or .unish#entand is a nor# o$ custo#ar! international la that also &elongs to the categor! o$ 5us cogens/ The de$inition o$ and .rotection against torture as ela&orated in the )*, "on'ention against Torture8 Art )=)>8 U the ter# JtortureK #eans an! act &! hich se'ere .ain or su$$ering: hether .h!sical or #ental: is intentionall! in$licted on a .erson $or such .ur.oses as o&taining $ro# hi# or a third .erson in$or#ation or a con$ession: .unishing hi# $or an act he or a third .erson has co##itted or is sus.ected o$ ha'ing co##itted: or inti#idating or coercing hi# or a third .erson: or $or an! reason &ased on discri#ination o$ an! -ind: hen such .ain or su$$ering is in$licted &! or at the instigation o$ or ith the consent or acEuiescence o$ a .u&lic o$$icial or other .erson acting in an o$$icial ca.acit!/ It does not include .ain or su$$ering arising onl! $ro#: inherent in or incidental to la$ul sanctions/ The de$inition o$ torture: hich is .rohi&ited &! the I"" Statute as a cri#e against hu#anit! hen co##itted on a ides.read or s!ste#atic &asis: is slightl! &roader in that Statute than in the Torture "on'ention/ (nli-e the Torture "on'ention: the I"" Statute de$inition includes acts co##itted inde.endentl! o$ an! .u&lic o$$icial =i/e/ &! .ri'ate indi'iduals ith .ri'ate #oti'es>/ 9 99 9 96 Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le 92=2>/ Id/: Princi.les ))=9>: 92 and 9*/ See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 6=6> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 26 and A$rican "harter: su.ra note ,: Article +=)>=a>/ 9 Article +=2>=e> o$ the I"" Statute de$ines torture as Jthe intentional in$liction o$ se'ere .ain or su$$ering: hether .h!sical or #ental: u.on a .erson in the custod! or under the control o$ the accused ece.t that torture ,
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? (nder Article 2=2> o$ the Torture "on'ent ion no ece.tional circu#stances hatsoe'er: Jhether a state o$ ar or a threat o$ ar: internal .olitical insta&ilit! or an! other .u&lic e#ergenc!K #a! &e in'o-ed as a 5usti$ication o$ torture/ 9+ States .arties are o&liged to ta-e e$$ecti'e legislati'e: ad#inistrati'e: 5udicial and other #easures to .re'ent acts o$ torture in an! territor! under their 5urisdiction NArticle 2=)>O/ Further#ore: according to Article 2=9>: su.erior orders #a! not &e in'o-ed as a 5usti$ication o$ torture/ Article )0 o$ the I""PR .ro'ides in .aragra.h ) that JAll .ersons de.ri'ed o$ their li&ert! shall &e treated ith hu#anit! and ith res.ect $or the inherent dignit! o$ the hu#an .erson/K9, It should &e stressed that: unli-e the .rohi&ition against torture in Article + o$ the I""PR: hich de#ands non@ inter$erence on the .art o$ state authorities: the right to hu#ane treat#ent i#.oses a .ositi'e o&ligation on states/ This o&ligation is intended to ensure the o&ser'ance o$ #ini#u# standards ith regard to conditions o$ detent ion and the eercise o$ a detainees rights hile de.ri'ed o$ li&ert!/ The line &eteen Articles + and )0 is: ad#ittedl!: so#eti#es hard to dra: as e'idenced &! the case la o$ the HR"/ In general: it #a! &e said that inhu#an treat#ent as re$erred to in Article )0 .ertains to a Jloer intensit! o$ disregard $or hu#an dignit! than that ithin the #eaning o$ Article +/K9* While the .rohi&ition o$ torture and other cruel: inhu#an or degrading treat#ent or .unish#ent co'ers s.eci$ic attac-s on .ersonal integrit!0 and a..lies to all .ersons: hether in an! $or# o$ detention or not: Article )0 relates #ore to the general state o$ a detention $acilit! andor the conditions o$ detention and is #eant to enco#.ass onl! the treat#ent o$ .ersons actuall! de.ri'ed o$ li&ert!/ According to the HR": States cannot in'o-e a lac- o$ adeEuate #aterial resources or $inancial di$$iculties as 5usti$ication $or inhu#an treat#ent and are o&liged to .ro'ide detainees and .risoners ith ser'ices that ill satis$! their essential needs/ ) For instance: detainees ha'e a right to $ood: 2 to clothing: 9 to adeEuate #edical attention and to co##unicate ith their $a#ilies/ 6 shall not include .ain or su$$ering arising onl! $ro#: inherent in or incidental to: la$ul sanctions/K 9+ See also Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le 8 J;o .erson under an! $or# o$ detention or i#.rison#ent shall &e su&5ected to torture or to cruel: inhu#an or degrading treat#ent or .unish#ent/ ;o circu#stance hate'er #a! &e in'o-ed as a 5usti$ication $or torture or other cruel: inhu#an or degrading treat#ent or .unish#ent/K See $urther " ode o$ "onduct $or La 1n$orce#ent C$$icials: su.ra note : Article 68 J;o la en$orce#ent o$$icial #a! in$lict: instigate or tolerate an! act o$ torture or other cruel: inhu#an or degrading treat#ent or .unish#ent: nor #a! an! la en$orce#ent o$$icial in'o-e su.erior orders or ece.tional circu#stances such as a state o$ ar or a threat o$ ar: a threat to national securit!: internal .olitical insta&ilit! or an! other .u&lic e#ergenc! as a 5usti$ication o$ torture or other cruel: inhu#an or degrading treat#ent or .unish#ent/K 9, See also A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 6 A$rican "harter: su.ra note ,: Articles Basic @6 Princi.les $or the Treat#ent o$ Prisoners: su.ra note : Princi.le ) and Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le )/ 9* 0 ;oa- "o##entar!: su.ra note *: at ),/ This ould include: $or ea#.le: acts that cause #ental su$$ering/ It ould also include .rolonged solitar! con$ine#ent/ See Hu#an Rights "o##ittee General "o##ent 20: =Fort!@$ourth session: )**2>: Nhereina$ter General "o##ent 20O: .aras 6 and res.ecti'el!/ ) See Hu#an Rights "o##ittee: General "o##ent ;o/ *): 4ul! 2+: )*,2/ 2 Standard Mini#u# Rules $or the Treat#ent o$ Prisoners: su.ra note : Rules 20 and ,+/ *
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? Generall!: the Standard Mini#u# Rules: Basic Princi.les on Prisoners and Bod! o$ Princi.les are i#.ortant re$erence tools regarding the rights o$ .risoners/ + / The .rohi&ition on inco##unicado detention The HR" has $ound that inco##unicado detention #a! 'iolate Article + o$ the I""PR hich .rohi&its torture: inhu#an: cruel and degrading treat#ent/ , Princi.le )* o$ the Bod! o$ Princi.les states that a Jdetained or i#.risoned .erson shall ha'e the right to &e 'isited &! and to corres.ond ith: in .articular: #e#&ers o$ his $a#il! and shall &e gi'en adeEuate o..ortunit! to co##unicate ith the outside orld: su&5ect to reasona&le conditions and restrictions as s.eci$ied &! la or la$ul regulations/K At a #ini#u#: the right to co##unicate ith the Jthe outside orldK includes the right to co##unicate ith a detainees $a#il!: a la!er and a doctor/ Princi.le ) o$ the Bod! o$ Princi.les reEuires that the $a#il! o$ an! arrested or detained .erson #ust &e noti$ied .ro#.tl! o$ the arrest and the location o$ their $a#il! #e#&er/ I$ the detainee is #o'ed to another $acilit! the $a#il! #ust &e noti$ied o$ that change/ * A detainee cannot &e denied the right to co##unicate ith his $a#il! and counsel J$or #ore than a #atter o$ da!s/K60 Further#ore: here the detainee is in .re@trial detention he or she is entitled to 'isits &! $a#il! and $riends: su&5ect onl! to restrictions Jnecessar! in the interests o$ the ad#inistration o$ 5ustice and o$ the securit! and good order o$ the institution/K6) Regarding access to la!ers: see section II/A/9/ o$ this re.ort: hich discusses access to legal counsel/ With res.ect to doctors: HR" General "o##ent 20: the Bod! o$ Princi.les 9 Id/: Rules )+: ),: and ,, Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.les )6@)/ Bod! o$ Princi.les $or the Protection o$ All Persons under An! For# o$ 3etention or I#.rison#ent: su.ra note : Princi.le 2 Standard Mini#u# Rules $or the Treat#ent o$ Prisoners: su.ra note : Rules 22@26: *) and "ode o$ "onduct $or La 1n$orce#ent C$$icials: su.ra note : Article =i#.osing a dut! on o$$icials to ensure the health o$ .risoners>/ 6 See $urther in$ra notes +9@+ and acco#.an!ing tet / See es.eciall! Rules ,@*9 and *6 regarding .ersons under arrest: aaiting trial and detained ithout charge/ Standard Mini#u# Rules: su.ra note / + All o$ these docu#ents can &e $ound on the e& site o$ the (; High "o##issioner $or Hu#an Rights at htt.8/unhchr/chht#lintlinst/ht#/ See $urther the A..endi to this re.ort: J;ote on Sources/K , See e/g/: Hu#an Rights "o##ission Resolution )**+9, .ara 20 holding that J.rolonged inco##unicado detention #a! $acilitate the .er.etration o$ torture and can in itsel$ constitute a $or# o$ cruel: inhu#an or degrading treat#ent/K See $urther: the Re.ort o$ the S.ecial Ra..orteur on Torture: (; 3oc 1";/)**69: .ara *2=d> and $indings o$ the Inter@A#erican "o##ission =Re.ort on the Situation o$ Hu#an Rights in Boli'ia: C1ASer/L7II/69: doc re'/2: ) 4ul! )*,) at )@2> and Inter A#erican "ourt =Sua'e Rosero "ase: 1cuador: )2 ;o'e#&er )**+>/ * See also Standard Mini#u# Rules: su.ra note : Rule *2/ 60 Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le )6/ 6) Standard Mini#u# Rules: su.ra note : Rule *2 =e#.hasis added>/ )0
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? and the Standard Mini#u# Rules all state that detainees #ust &e .ro'ided .ro#.t and regular access to #edical care/ 62 Finall!: i$ the detainee is a $oreign national: he or she #ust &e .er#itted to co##unicate ith: and recei'e 'isits $ro#: re.resentati'es o$ their go'ern#ent/ 69 B/ TH1 H1ARI;G Article ) o$ the I""PR is undou&tedl! the #ost .ertinent to this re'ie/ It s.eci$icall! .ro'ides $or eEualit! &e$ore the courts and $or the right to a $air and .u&lic hearing &! a co#.etent: inde.endent and i#.artial tri&unal esta&lished &! la: regardless o$ hether a cri#inal trial or a suit at la is in'ol'ed =.aragra.h )>/ The re#ainder o$ its .ro'isions .aragra.hs 2 to +contain a catalogue o$ J#ini#u# N.roceduralO guaranteesK &elonging to an indi'idual in the deter#ination o$ an! cri#inal charge against hi#her/ The $olloing section ela&orates the #eaning o$ the rights set out in Article ) in the order in hich the! arise/ )/ 1Eual access to: and eEualit! &e$ore: the courts The $irst sentence o$ Article )=)> .ro'ides that JAll .ersons shall &e eEual &e$ore the courts and tri&unalsK and has &een inter.reted to signi$! that all .ersons #ust &e granted: ithout discri#ination: the right o$ eEual access to a court/ This: on the one hand: #eans that esta&lishing se.arate courts $or di$$erent grou.s o$ .eo.le &ased on their race: color: se: language: religion: .olitical or other o.inion: national or social origin: .ro.ert!: &irth or other status ould &e a contra'ention o$ Article )=)>/ Cn the other hand: the esta&lish#ent o$ certain t!.es o$ s.ecial courts ith 5urisdiction o'er all .ersons &elonging to the sa#e categor!: such as #ilitar! .ersonnel: re#ains a thorn! issue/ According to the HR": this .ractice is not .rohi&ited under Article )=)> as long as the .rocedural guarantees set $orth in it are o&ser'ed in addition: the HR" has not ruled across the &oard that #ilitar! courts #a! ne'er tr! ci'ilians/ At the sa#e ti#e hoe'er: there is an increasingl! ides.read 'ie that the trials o$ ci'ilians &! #ilitar! courts lac- legiti#ac!/ This inter.retation: endorsed &! #an! hu#an rights ;GCs: is also su..orted &! the .ro'isions o$ the Basic Princi.les on the Inde.endence o$ the 4udiciar!/ Paragra.h 6 o$ the Basic Princi.les .ro'ides that J1'er!one shall ha'e the right to &e tried &! ordinar! courts or tri&unals using esta&lished legal .rocedures/KNe#.hasis addedO6 The second sentence o$ Article )=)> relates to the right to a $air and .u&lic hearing &! a co#.etent: inde.endent and i#.artial tri&unal esta&lished &! la/ It includes the &asic 62 See General "o##ent 20: su.ra note ): .ara )) Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Princi.le 2 Standard Mini#u# Rules: su.ra note : Rule 2/ 69 7ienna "on'ention on "onsular Relations: A.ril 2: )*9: Article 9 Bod! o$ Princi.les: su.ra note : Rule )=2> Standard Mini#u# Rules: su.ra note : Rule 9,/ 6 This .ro'ision raises the Euestion o$ the 'alidit! o$ a hearing &! a #ilitar! tri&unal/ The Hu#an Rights "o##ittee has raised serious Euestions a&out the 'alidit! o$ such tri&unals/ See General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara / A detailed anal!sis o$ this issue is outside the sco.e o$ this .a.er/ ))
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? co#.onents o$ due .rocess o$ la hich is: in cri#inal cases: $urther su..le#ented &! the other .ro'isions o$ Articles ) and )6/ 66 2/ The right to a $air hearing The right to a $air hearing as .ro'ided $or in Article )=)> o$ the I""PR enco#.asses the .rocedural and other guarantees laid don in .aragra.hs 2 to + o$ Article ) and Article )6/6 Hoe'er: it is ider in sco.e: as can &e deduced $ro# the ording o$ Article )=9> hich re$ers to the concrete rights enu#erated as J#ini#u# guarantees/K There$ore: it is i#.ortant to note that des.ite ha'ing $ul$illed all the #ain .rocedural guarantees laid out in .aragra.hs 2@+ o$ Article ) and the .ro'isions o$ Article )6: a trial #a! still n #eet the ot $airness standard en'isaged in Article )=)>/ The single #ost i#.ortant criterion in e'aluating the $airness o$ a trial is the o&ser'ance o$ the .rinci.le o$ eEualit! o$ ar#s &eteen the de$ense and the .rosecution/ =The s.eci$ic .rocedural rights constituting J#ini#u# guaranteesK o$ a $air trial ill &e #entioned later/> 1Eualit! o$ ar#s: hich #ust &e o&ser'ed throughout the trial: #eans that &oth .arties are treated in a #anner ensuring their .rocedurall! eEual .osition during the course o$ a trial/ It ould &e di$$icult to identi$! in ad'ance all o$ the situations that could constitute 'iolations o$ this .rinci.le/ The! #ight range $ro# den!ing the accused andor counsel ti#e to .re.are a de$ense to ecluding the accused andor counsel $ro# an a..ellate hearing hen the .rosecutor is .resent/ 9/ The right to a .u&lic hearing Article )=)> o$ the I""PR6+ also guarantees the right to a .u&lic hearing: as one o$ the essential ele#ents o$ the conce.t o$ a $air trial/ Hoe'er: it also .er#its se'eral ece.tions to this general rule under s.eci$ied circu#stances/ The .u&licit! o$ a trial includes &oth the .u&lic nature o$ the hearingsnot: it should &e stressed: o$ other stages in the .roceedings and the .u&licit! o$ the 5udge#ent e'entuall! rendered in a case/ It is a right &elonging to the .arties: &ut also to the general .u&lic in a de#ocratic societ!/ The right to a .u&lic hearing #eans that the hearing should as a rule &e conducted orall! and .u&licl!: ithout a s.eci$ic reEuest &! the .arties to that e$$ect/ The court or tri&unal is: inter alia: o&liged to #a-e in$or#ation a&out the ti#e and 'enue o$ the .u&lic hearing a'aila&le and to .ro'ide adeEuate $acilities $or attendance &! interested #e#&ers o$ the .u&lic: ithin reasona&le li#its/ The .u&lic: including the .ress: #a! &e ecluded $ro# all or 66 6 For an e.lanation o$ Article )6: see in$ra notes )02@)0 and acco#.an!ing tet/ See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article =)> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article , and I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article +=)>/ 6+ See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article =)> and A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article ,=6>/ )2
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? .art o$ a trial $or the reasons s.eci$ied in Article )=)>: &ut such an eclusion #ust &e &ased on a decision o$ the court rendered in -ee.ing ith the res.ecti'e rules o$ .rocedure/ The .u&lic #a! &e ecluded $or reasons o$ J#orals: .u&lic order =ordre .u&lic> or national securit! in a de#ocratic societ!: or hen the interest o$ the .ri'ate li'es o$ the .arties so reEuires/K The .u&lic #a! also &e ecluded Jto the etent strictl! necessar! in the o.inion o$ the court in s.ecial circu#stances here .u&licit! ould .re5udice the interests o$ 5ustice/K Moral grounds $or the eclusion o$ the .u&lic are usuall! asserted in cases in'ol'ing seual o$$ences/ The ter# J.u&lic orderK in this s.eci$ic contet has &een inter.reted to relate .ri#aril! to order ithin the courtroo#: hile reasons o$ national securit! #a! &e ad'anced so as to .reser'e #ilitar! secrets/ In &oth the latter cases: hoe'er: the restriction a..lied #ust corres.ond to the .rinci.les o&ser'ed in a de#ocratic societ!: Ne#.hasis addedO: a Euali$ication that see-s to .re'ent ar&itrariness in decisions to close trials/ The .ri'ate li'es o$ the .arties has &een inter.reted to denote $a#il!: .arental and other relations: such as guardianshi.: hich could &e .re5udiced in .u&lic .roceedings/ Lastl!: the .u&lic #a! &e &arred $ro# a trial in the interests o$ 5ustice: &ut onl! in s.ecial circu#stances and to the etent strictl! necessar! in the o.inion o$ the court/ 1#otional out&urst=s> &! the s.ectators o$ a trial has &een cited as an ea#.le o$ hen this .ro'ision could co#e into .la!/ While the nu#&er o$ instances that could #erit the closing o$ a trial are $airl! &road: this is not the case hen the .ronounce#ent o$ a 5udge#ent is in'ol'ed/ 6, (nder Article )=)> 5udge#ents Jshall &e #ade .u&licK ece.t here the interest o$ 5u'enile .ersons otherise reEuires or here the .roceedings concern #atri#onial dis.utes o$ the guardianshi. o$ children/ The .ossi&le ece.tions $ro# .u&licit! are thus de$ined #ore narrol! and .recisel!/ A 5udge#ent is considered to ha'e &een #ade .u&lic either hen it as orall! .ronounced in court or hen it as .u&lished: or hen it as #ade .u&lic &! a co#&ination o$ those #ethods/ In an! e'e nt: its accessi&ilit! to all is the deter#ining $actor/ The 5udg#ent #ust .ro'ide reasons su$$icient to .er#it the accused to lodge an a..eal: 6* and #ust &e deli'ered ithin a reasona&le ti#e o$ the hearing/ 0 / The right to a co#.etent: inde.endent and i#.artial tri&unal esta&lished &! la The &asic institutional $ra#eor- ena&ling the en5o!#ent o$ the right to a $air trial is that .roceedings in an! cri#inal case =or in a suit at la> are to &e conducted &! a co#.etent: inde.endent and i#.artial tri&unal esta&lished &! la NArticle )=)>O/ ) The rationale o$ this .ro'ision is to a'oid the ar&itrariness andor &ias that ould .otentiall! arise i$ cri#inal 6, This includes the deli'er! o$ 5udg#ents o$ #ilitar! courts and courts o$ a..eal/ See General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara / 6* The Hu#an Rights "o##ittee held that a 4a#aican court 'iolated Article )=)> &! $ailing to issue a reasoned ritten 5udg#ent =Ha#ilton ' 4a#aica =9++)*,*>: 2* March )**: Re.ort o$ the HR": 'ol/ II =A*0>: )** at +9/ 0 See "urne ' 4a#aica =9++)*,*>: 2* March )**: Re.ort o$ the HR": 'ol/ II =A*0>: )** at +9/ ) See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article =)> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Articles ,=)> and 2+=2> and A$rican "harter: su.ra note ,: Articles +=)> and 2/ )9
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? charges ere to &e decided on &! a .olitical &od! or an ad#inistrati'e agenc!/ A tri&unal should &e co#.etent and esta&lished &! la/ Both o$ these attri&utes are in $act as.ects o$ the sa#e reEuire#ent8 hile co#.etence re$ers to the a..ro.riate .ersonal: su&5ect@ #atter: territorial or te#.oral 5urisdiction o$ a court in a gi'en case: the court as such: including the delineation o$ its co#.etence: #ust ha'e &een esta&lished &! la/ The ter# JlaK denotes legislation .assed &! the ha&itual la@ #a-ing &od! e#.oered to enact statutes or an unritten nor# o$ co##on la: de.ending on the legal s!ste#/ In either case the i#.ortant $eature is that the la #ust &e accessi&le to all ho are su&5ect to it/ The general ai# o$ this .ro'ision is to assure that cri#inal charges are heard &! a court set u. in ad'ance and inde.endentl! o$ a .articular caseand not .rior to and s.eci$icall! $or the o$$ense in'ol'ed/ In order to &e inde.endent: a tri&unal #ust ha'e &een esta&lished &! la to .er$or# ad5udicati'e $unctions: i/e/ to deter#ine #atters ithin its co#.etence on the &asis o$ rules o$ la =su&stanti'e> and in accordance ith .roceedings conducted in a .rescri&ed #anner =.rocedural>/ 2 Inde.endence .resu..oses a se.aration o$ .oers in hich the 5udiciar! is institutionall! .rotected $ro# undue in$luence &!: or inter$erence $ro#: the eecuti'e &ranch and: to a lesser degree: $ro# the legislati'e &ranch/ The Basic Princi.les on the 4udiciar! set out in so#e detail the need $or and #echanis#s necessar! to achie'e that inde.endence/ So#e o$ the .ractical sa$eguards o$ inde.endence include the s.eci$ication o$ Euali$ications necessar! $or 5udicial a..oint#ent: the ter#s o$ a..oint#ent: 9 the need $or guaranteed tenure: the reEuire#ent o$ e$$icient: $air and inde.endent disci.linar! .roceedings regarding 5udges: 6 and the dut! o$ e'er! State to .ro'ide adeEuate resources to ena&le the 5udiciar! to .ro.erl! .er$or# its $unctions =$or ea#.le adeEuate salaries + and training , >/ 3e.ending on the circu#stances o$ a case: a courts inde.endence #a! also &e assessed on the &asis o$ its relationshi. ith .ro#inent social grou.s such as .olitical .arties: the #edia and 'arious lo&&ies/ While inde.endence .ri#aril! rests on #echanis#s ai#ed at ensuring a courts .osition eternall!: i#.artialit! re$ers to its conduct o$: and &earing on: the $inal outco#e o$ a s.eci$ic case/ Bias =or a lac- thereo$> is the o'erriding criterion $or ascertaining a courts i#.artialit!/ It can: thus: &e .ri#a $acie called into Euestion hen a 5udge has ta-en .art in the .roceedings in so#e .rior ca.acit!: or hen she is related to the .arties: or hen she has a .ersonal sta-e in the .roceedings/ It is also o.en to sus.icion hen the 5udge has an e'identl! .re$or#ed o.inion that could eigh in on the decision@#a-ing or hen there are other reasons gi'ing rise to concern a&out hisher i#.artialit!/ 2 9 The Final Re.ort: su.ra note 2: at +/ Basic Princi.les on the Inde.endence o$ the 4udiciar!: su.ra note : Princi.le )0/ Id/: Princi.le )2/ 6 Id/: Princi.les )+@20/ Id/: Princi.le +/ + Id/: Princi.le ))/ , Id/: Princi.le )0/ )
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? 6/ The right to a .resu#.tion o$ innocence According to Article )=2> o$ the I""PR J1'er!one charged ith a cri#inal o$$ense shall ha'e the right to &e .resu#ed innocent until .ro'ed guilt! according to la/K* As a &asic co#.onent o$ the right to a $air trial: the .resu#.tion o$ innocence: inter alia: #eans that the &urden o$ .roo$ in a cri#inal trial lies on the .rosecution and that the accused has the &ene$it o$ the dou&t/ +0 3es.ite the $act that Article )=2> does not s.eci$! the standard o$ .roo$ reEuired: it is generall! acce.ted that guilt #ust &e .ro'ed Jto the inti#ate con'iction o$ the trier o$ $act or &e!ond a reasona&le dou&t: hiche'er standard o$ .roo$ .ro'ides the greatest .rotection $or the .resu#.tion o$ innocence under national la/K+) The .resu#.tion o$ innocence #ust: in addition: &e #aintained not onl! during a cri#inal trial 'is 'is the de$endant: &ut also in relation to a sus.ect or accused throughout the .re@trial .hase/ It is the dut! o$ &oth the o$$icials in'ol'ed in a case as ell as all .u&lic authorities to #aintain the .resu#.tion o$ innocence &! Jre$rainNingO $ro# .re5udging the outco#e o$ a trial/K+2 It #a! also &e necessar! to .a! attention to the a..earance o$ an accused during a trial in order to #aintain the .resu#.tion o$ innocence: $or instance: it #a! &e .re5udicial to reEuire the accused to ear handcu$$s: shac-les or a .rison uni$or# in the courtroo#/ / The right to .ro#.t notice o$ the nature and cause o$ cri#inal charges In the deter#ination o$ an! cri#inal charge against hi#her e'er!one shall &e entitled: in $ull eEualit! Jto &e in$or#ed .ro#.tl! and in detail in a language hich he understands o$ the nature and cause o$ the charge against hi#/K+9 This dut! to in$or# relates to an eact legal descri.tion o$ the o$$ense =JnatureK> and o$ the $acts underl!ing it =JcauseK> and is thus &roader than the corres.onding rights granted under Article *=2> o$ the I""PR a..lica&le to arrest/ + The rationale is that the in$or#ation .ro'ided #ust &e su$$icient to allo the .re.aration o$ a de$ense/ When in$or#ation #a! &e dee#ed to ha'e &een J.ro#.tl!K su..lied: has not &een uni$or#l! inter.reted: &ut has generall! &een ta-en to coincide ith the Jlodging o$ the charge or directl! therea$ter: ith the o.ening o$ the .reli#inar! 5udicial in'estigation or ith the setting o$ so#e other hearing that gi'es rise to clear o$$icial sus.icion against a s.eci$ic .erson/K+6 The in$or#ation #ust also &e .ro'ided to the accused in a language hich she understands: #eaning that translation is #andated and that its $or#: oral or ritten: ill de.end on the #anner in hich the JchargeK is initiall! con'e!ed/ An indict#ent #ust: o&'iousl!: &e translated in riting/ + * See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article =2> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article ,=2> A$rican "harter: su.ra note ,: Article +=)>=&> and I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article =)>/ +0 See e/g/: I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article / +) The Final Re.ort: su.ra note 2: at +/ See also General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara + I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article / +2 General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara +/ +9 + I""PR: su.ra note ): Article )=9>=a>/ See su.ra notes )9@)6 and acco#.an!ing tet/ +6 ;oa- "o##entar!: su.ra note *: at 266/ + See su.ra notes )@), and acco#.an!ing tet on the right to an inter.reter/ )6
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? +/ The right to adeEuate ti#e and $acilities $or the .re.aration o$ a de$ense Article )=9>=&> o$ the I""PR .ro'ides that in the deter#ination o$ an! cri#inal charge against hi# or her e'er!one is entitled JTo ha'e adeEuate ti#e and $acilities $or the .re.aration o$ his de$ense and to co##unicate ith counsel o$ his on choosing/K++ The right to adeEuate ti#e and $acilities $or the .re.aration o$ a de$ense a..lies not onl! to the de$endant &ut to his or her de$ense counsel as ell+, and is to &e o&ser'ed in all stages o$ the .roceedings/ What constitutes JadeEuateK ti#e ill de.end on the nature o$ the .roceedings and the $actual circu#stances o$ a case/ Factors to &e ta-en into account include the co#.leit! o$ a case: the de$endants access to e'idence: the ti#e li#its .ro'ided $or in do#estic la $or certain actions in the .roceedings: etc/ The ter# J$acilitiesK has: a#ong other things: &een inter.reted to #ean that the accused and de$ense counsel #ust &e granted access to a..ro.riate in$or#ation: $iles and docu#ents necessar! $or the .re.aration o$ a de$ense and that the de$endant #ust &e .ro'ided ith $acilities ena&ling co##unication: in con$identialit!: ith de$ense counsel/ +* An indi'iduals right to co##unicate ith counsel o$ his or her on choosing: is the #ost i#.ortant ele#ent o$ the right to adeEuate $acilities $or the .re.aration o$ a de$ense/ ,0 ,/ The right to a trial ithout undue dela! In the deter#ination o$ an! cri#inal charge against hi#her: e'er!one shall &e entitled JTo &e tried ithout undue dela!K NArticle )=9>=c>O/ This .ro'ision has &een inter.reted to signi$! the right to a trial that .roduces a $inal 5udge#ent and: i$ a..ro.riate: a sentence ithout undue dela!/ The ti#e li#it J&egins to run hen the sus.ect =accused: de$endant> is in$or#ed that the authorities are ta-ing s.eci$ic ste.s to .rosecute hi#/K,) The assess#ent o$ hat #a! &e considered undue dela! ill de.end on the circu#stances o$ a case: i/e/ its co#.leit!: the conduct o$ the .arties: hether the accused is in detention: etc/ The right is: hoe'er: not contingent on a reEuest &! the accused to &e tried ithout undue dela!/ ;ote that a .erson ho is in .re@trial detention #a! &e entitled to release .rior to the co##ence#ent o$ the trial e'en i$ there has not &een undue dela!/ ,2 ++ See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article =9>=&> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article ,=2>=c> A$rican "o##ission Resolution: su.ra note )9: Article 2=1>=)> and I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Articles +=)>=&> and +=2>/ +, See Basic Princi.les on the Role o$ La!ers: su.ra note : Princi.le 2)/ +* General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara */ Basic Princi.les on La!ers: su.ra note : Princi.le 2)/ The 1uro.ean "o##ission has stated that this right .er#its the de$ense to ha'e reasona&le access to the .rosecutions $iles = ' Austria =+)9,+6>: 6 4ul! )*++: * 3R 60> &ut this #a! &e su&5ect to reasona&le securit! restrictions =Haase ' Federal Re.u&lic o$ Ger#an! =+)2+: )2 4ul! )*++: )) 3R +,>/ ,0 See su.ra notes )@), and in$ra notes ,9@,* and acco#.an!ing tet/ ,) ;oa- "o##entar!: su.ra note *: at 26+/ ,2 See su.ra notes )0@)2: 2@96 and acco#.an!ing tet/ )
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? */ The right to de$end onesel$ in .erson or through legal counsel The right to counsel in the .re@trial stages o$ a cri#inal trial: as discussed earlier in this .a.er: is clearl! lin-ed to the right to a de$ense during trial as set out in Article )=9>=d> o$ the I""PR/ The .ro'ision states that e'er!one shall &e entitled: in the deter#ination o$ an! cri#inal charge against hi#her JTo &e tried in his .resence: and to de$end hi#sel$ in .erson or through legal assistance o$ his on choosing to &e in$or#ed: i$ he does not ha'e legal assistance: o$ this right and to ha 'e legal assistance assigned to hi#: in an! case here the interests o$ 5ustice so reEuire: and ithout .a!#ent &! hi# in an! such case i$ he does not ha'e su$$icient #eans to .a! $or it/K This .ro'ision includes the $olloing s.eci$ic rights8 ,9 =i> =ii> =iii> =i'> ='> the right to &e tried in ones .resence/ This is one o$ the #ore contro'ersial rights in ter#s o$ its inter.retation/ A literal reading ould not .er#it trials in a&sentia: hich is a 'ie consistentl! held &! #ost international hu#an rights ;GCs and: #ore recentl!: su..orted &! the Statute o$ the International "ri#inal "ourt/ , Hoe'er: according to the HR": trials in a&sentia are .er#issi&le in certain circu#stances i$ the state #a-es Jsu$$icient e$$orts ith a 'ie to in$or#ing the NaccusedO a&out the i#.end ing court .roceedings: thus ena&ling hi# to .re.are his de$ense/K,6 to de$end onesel$ in .erson to choose ones on counsel to &e in$or#ed o$ the right to counsel and to recei'e $ree legal assistance/ Their o.eration #a! &e su##ed u as $ollos8 J1'er!one charged ith a cri#inal . o$$ense has a .ri#ar!: unrestricted right / / / to de$end hi#sel$/ Hoe'er: he can $orego this right and instead #a-e use o$ de$ense counsel: ith the court &eing reEuired to in$or# hi# o$ the right to couns el/ In .rinci.le: he #a! select an attorne! o$ his on choosing so long as he can a$$ord to do so/ Should he lac- the $inancial #eans: he has a right to a..oint#ent o$ de$ense counsel &! the court at no cost: inso$ar as this is necessar! in the ad#inistration o$ 5ustice/ Whether the interests o$ 5ustice reEuire the state to .ro'ide $or e$$ecti'e re.resentation &! counsel de.ends .ri#aril! on the seriousness o$ the o$$ense and the .otential #ai#u# .unish#ent/K, ,9 , ,6 See su.ra notes )*@26 and acco#.an!ing tet/ I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article +=)>=d>/ See 3aniel Mongu!a M&enge et al/ '/ aire =))*++> =March 26: )*,9>: Selected 3ecisions o$ the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee under the C.tional Protocol: International "o'enant on "i'il and Political Rights: 7olu#e 2: Se'enteenth to Thirt!@second Sessions =Ccto&er )*,[email protected] )*,,>: (nited ;ations .u&lication: Sales ;o/ 1/,*/I7/): at +,/ , ;oa- "o##entar!: su.ra note *: at 26*@20/ For instance: the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee has held that an! .erson charged ith a cri#e .unisha&le &! death #ust ha'e counsel assigned =Henr! and 3ouglas ' 4a#aica =6+))**>: 2 4ul! )**: (; 3oc ""PR"6+36+))**: .ara */2/>/ Hoe'er: a .erson accused o$ s.eeding ould not necessaril! &e entitled to ha'e counsel a..ointed at the e.ense o$ the state =CF ' ;ora! =)6,)*,9>: 2 Ccto&er )*,: 2 Sel/ 3ec/>/ In the Inter@A#erican s!ste#: counsel #ust &e .ro'ided i$ it is necessar! to ensure a $air hearing =Inter@A#erican "ourt: Ad'isor! C.inion o$ August )**0: C" ))*0: 1ce.tions to the )+
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? According to the .re'ailing reading o$ the I""PR: the right to counsel a..lies to all stages o$ cri#inal .roceedings: including the .reli#inar! in'estigation and .re@trial detention/ ,+ Assign#ent o$ counsel &! the court contra'enes the .rinci.le o$ $air trial i$ a Euali$ied la!er o$ the accuseds on choice is a'aila&le and illing to re.resent hi# or her/ ,, "ourtVa..ointed counsel #ust &e a&le e$$ecti'el! to de$end the accused: that is: to $reel! eercise hisher .ro$essional 5udge#ent and to actuall! ad'ocate in $a'or o$ the accused/ ,* )0/ The right to ea#ine itnesses In the deter#ination o$ an! cri#inal charge against hi#her: e'er!one is entitled JTo ea#ine: or ha'e ea#ined: the itnesses against hi# and to o&tain the attendance and ea#ination o$ itnesses on his &ehal$ under the sa#e conditions as itnesses against hi#K NArticle )=9>=e>O/ *0 This right is an essential ele#ent o$ the .rinci.le o$ eEualit! o$ ar#s/ The ter#s Jto ea#ine: or ha'e ea#inedK should &e read as a recognition o$ the to #ain s!ste#s o$ cri#inal 5ustice: the inEuisitorial and accusatorial one/ It should &e noted that: according to the tet itsel$: the de$ense does not ha'e an unli#ited right to o&tain the co#.ulsor! attendance o$ itnesses on the de$endants &ehal$: &ut onl! Junder the sa#e conditionsK as itnesses against hi#her/ ;o such restriction a..lies to the .rosecution/ While a court is there&! gi'en a $airl! $ree hand in su##oning itnesses: it #ust do so in -ee.ing ith the .rinci.le o$ $airness and eEualit! o$ ar#s/ This: in turn: #andates that the .arties &e eEuall! treated ith res.ect to the introduction o$ e'idence &! #eans o$ interrogation o$ itnesses/ *) In addition: Article )=9>=e> has &een concretel! inter.reted to #ean that the .rosecution #ust in$or# the de$ense o$ the itnesses it intends t call at trial ithin a o reasona&le ti#e .rior to the trial so that the de$endant #a! ha'e su$$icient ti#e to .re.are hisher de$ense/ The de$endant also has the right to &e .resent during the testi#on! o$ a itness and #a! &e restricted in doing so onl! in ece.tional circu#stances: such as hen the itness reasona&l! $ears re.risal &! the de$endant/ In order to a'oid 'iolations o$ a de$endants right to ea#ine and ha'e ea#ined itnesses against hi# or her: courts should .articularl! scrutinie clai#s o$ .ossi&le re.risals and allo the re#o'al o$ de$endants $ro# the courtroo# onl! in trul! 'alid instances/ 1haustion o$ 3o#estic Re#edies: CASSer/L7III29 3oc )2 re' )**): .aras 26@2,>/ ,+ See ;oa- "o##entar!: su.ra note *: at 26 and The Final Re.ort: su.ra note 2: at +)/ See also Henr! and 3ouglas ' 4a#aica =6+))**>: 2 4ul! )**: (; 3oc ""PR"6+36+))**: .ara */2/ See $urther su.ra notes )*@26 and acco#.an!ing tet/ ,, See e/g/: the case o$ 1strella ' (rugua! =+),0> 2* March )*,9: at *6 here the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee held that a #ilitar! court had 'iolated the de$endants right to choose counsel &! li#iting hi# to a choice &eteen to a..ointed attorne!s/ See also Basic Princi.les on the Role o$ La!ers: su.ra note : Princi.le 6/ ,* General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara */ See also Princi.le o$ the Basic Princi.les on the Role o$ La!ers: su.ra note : hich re$ers to the right to Je$$ecti'e legal assistance/K *0 See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article =9>=d> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article ,=2>=$> A$rican "o##ission Resolution: su.ra note )9: Paragra.h 2=e>=9> and I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article +=)>=e>/ *) ;oa- "o##entar!: su.ra note *: at 22/ ),
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? Hoe'er: in no case #a! a itness &e ea#ined in the a&sence o$ &oth the de$endant and counsel/ Si#ilarl!: the use o$ the testi#on! o$ anon!#ous itnesses at trial is considered i#.er#issi&le: as it ould re.resent a 'iolation o$ the de$endants right to ea#ine or ha'e ea#ined itnesses against hi#her/ *2 ))/ The right to an inter.reter In the deter#ination o$ an! cri#inal charge against hi#her e'er!one is entitled JTo ha'e the $ree assistance o$ an inter.reter i$ he cannot understand or s.ea- the language used in courtK NArticle )=9>=$>O/ *9 The #ain issue raised &! this .ro'ision is hat inter.retation should &e gi'en to the ords Jused in court/K While the .hrase could o&'iousl! &e said to re$er to oral .roceedings: the right to translation o$ ritten docu#ents is not e.ressl! .ro'ided $or/ Both in scholarl! ritings and in the .ractice o$ hu#an rights &odies: hoe'er: the 'ie has consistentl! &een held that the right to an inter.reter includes the translation o$ all the rele'ant docu#ents/ * As alread! #entioned: the right to an inter.reter #a! also &e clai#ed &! a sus.ect or an accused &eing interrogated &! the .olice or &! an in'estigating 5udge in the .retrial .hase/ *6 The right to an inter.reter a..lies eEuall! to nationals and aliens: * &ut cannot &e de#anded &! a .erson ho is su$$icientl! .ro$icient in the language o$ the court/ *+ When granted: the right to the assistance o$ an inter.reter is $ree and can in no a! &e restricted &! see-ing .a!#ent $ro# the de$endant u.on con'iction/ )2/ The .rohi&ition on sel$@ incri#ination In the deter#ination o$ an! cri#inal charge against hi#her: e'er!one is entitled J;ot to &e co#.elled to testi$! against hi#sel$ or to con$ess guiltK NArticle )=9>=g>O/ *, This *2 The Final Re.ort: su.ra note 2: .ara 0=5>: at ++/ See e/g/: Hu#an Rights "o##ittees "oncluding C&ser'ations on "olo#&ia: (; 3oc/ ""PRc+*Add/ + ) A.ril )**+: .aras/ 2): 0 =criticis# o$ the "olo#&ian .ractice o$ su..ressing the na#es o$ 5udges: .rosecutors and itnesses in regional courts dealing ith certain drug: terroris#: re&ellion and ea.ons cri#es>/ ;ote hoe'er that the 1uro.ean "ourt .er#its anon!#ous itnesses in so#e li#ited cases such as during the in'estigati'e stage o$ a case/ See 3oorson '/ The ;etherlands: 2 March )**: 2 Ser A +0: .ara */ "o#.are the decision o$ the I"T< in Prosecutor '/ Tadic: Prosecutors #otion ReEuesting Protecti'e Measures $or 7icti#s and Witnesses )0 Aug/ )**6/ *9 See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article =9>=e> A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article ,=2>=a> A$rican "o##ission Resolution: su.ra note )9: Paragra.h 2=1> => and I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article +=)>=$>/ * For ea#.le: the Inter@ A#erican "o##ission considers the right to translation o$ docu#ents as $unda#ental to due .rocess =Re.ort on the Situation o$ Hu#an Rights o$ a Seg#ent o$ the ;icaraguan Po.ulation o$ Mis-ito Crigin: C1A Ser/L7))/2: doc/)0: re'/ 9: )*,9/ *6 See su.ra notes )@), and acco#.an!ing tet/ * General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara )9/ *+ See: e/g/: "adoret and Bihan ' France =22))*,+ and 929)*,,>: A.ril )): )**): Re.ort to the HR" =A0>: )**) at 2)*/ *, See also A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Articles ,=2>=g> and ,=9> I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Articles 66=)>=a> =.re@trial> and +=)>=g>/ )*
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? .ro'ision ai#s to .rohi&it an! $or# o$ coercion: hether direct or indirect: .h!sical or #ental: and hether &e$ore or during the trial: that could &e used to $orce the accused to testi$! against hi#hersel$ or to con$ess guilt/ Although the eclusion o$ e'idence o&tained &! such #eans is not e.ressl! co'ered &! this .ro'ision: it is a ell@esta&lished inter.retation that such e'idence is not ad#issi&le at trial/ ** The 5udge #ust ha'e the autho rit! to consider an allegation o$ coercion or torture at an! stage o$ the .roceedings/ )00 In addition: silence &! the accused #a! not &e used as e'idence to .ro'e guilt and no ad'erse conseEuences #a! &e dran $ro# an accuseds eercise o$ the right to re#ain silent/ )0) )9/ The .rohi&ition on retroacti'e a..lication o$ cri#inal las Although set $orth as last in the seEuence o$ the I""PRs .ro'isions relating to cri#inal 5ustice: Article )6=)> o$ the I""PR hich e#&odies the .rinci.le nullu# cri#en sine lege =a cri#e #ust &e .ro'ided $or &! la> )02 : can in $act &e ta-en as a .oint o$ de.arture in an! consideration o$ the $airness o$ a trial/ In the &road sense: it e.resses the .rinci.le o$ legalit!: according to hich J;o one shall &e held guilt! o$ an! cri#inal o$$ence on account o$ an! act or o#ission hich did not constitute a cri#inal o$$ence: under national or international la: at the ti#e hen it as co##ittedK NArticle )6=)>O/ In the narro sense: it is ai#ed at .rohi&iting the retroacti'e a..lication o$ su&stanti'e cri#inal la and thus chronologicall! .recedes a deter#ination o$ the .rocedural $airness o$ a trial .ursuant to Article )/ It is one o$ the $e non@deroga&le rights .ro'ided $or in Article =2> o$ the I""PR/ The .rinci.le o$ legalit! o&liges states to de$ine cri#inal o$$ences &! la: that is: in the $or# o$ a&stract nor#s laid don in statutes or &elonging to the &od! o$ unritten co##on la accessi&le to all/ It is i#.ortant to note that the .rohi&ition o$ retroacti'it! a..lies to all cri#inal o$$enses: hich #a! &e .ro'ided $or either in do#estic legislation or international la: &oth treat!@&ased and custo#ar!/ )09 The re$erence to international la as included to .re'ent indi'iduals $ro# esca.ing international 5ustice &! clai#ing that an act or o#ission did not constitute an o$$ense under national la/ Cn the other hand: it is also #eant to .rotect indi'iduals against the retroacti'e a..lication o$ international la/ 4ust as no one can &e $ound ** See the .rohi&ition on the use o$ e'idence in Article )6 o$ the "on'ention against Torture and Article )0 o$ the Inter@A#erican "on'ention on Torture/ See also General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara )/ See also the 1uro.ean "ourt in Murra! ' (nited Dingdo# ))**,,6+0: , Fe&ruar! )**: .ara 6/ )00 )0) General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara )6/ The Final Re.ort: su.ra note 2: Article 6,=&>: at +/ Article )=> o$ the I""PR .ertaining to the rights o$ 5u'enile .ersons has &een o#itted $ro# this re'ie/ )02 See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article + A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article * A$rican "harter: su.ra note ,: Article +=2> and I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article 22/ )09 The one ece.tion to the .rohi&ition o$ retroacti'e do#estic cri#inal legislation is contained in Article )6=2> o$ the I""PR8 J;othing in this Article shall .re5udice the trial and .unish#ent o$ an! .erson $or an! act or o#ission hich: at the ti#e hen it as co##itted: as cri#inal according to the general .rinci.les o$ la recognied &! the co##unit! o$ nations/K This .ro'ision has &een inter.reted to #ean that certain 'iolations o$ custo#ar! international la: such as ar cri#es: torture: sla'er!: etc/ #a! &e .unished &! states a..l!ing retroacti'e do#estic cri#inal las/ Hoe'er: in e$$ect: this .ro'ision si#.l! restates the .osition that .ersons #a! held accounta&le $or 'iolations o$ international custo#ar! la8 it #erel! $acilitates the a&ilit! o$ States to legislate to this e$$ect/ I""PR: su.ra note ): Article )6=2>/ 20
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? guilt! o$ a cri#inal o$$ense hich as not laid don as such at the ti#e an act or o#ission too- .lace: so also: under Article )6=)> a .enalt! cannot &e i#.osed i$ it as not .ro'ided $or under national or international la at the ti#e the o$$ense as co##itted =nulla .oena sine lege>/ Moreo'er: under Article )6=)>: a .enalt! hea'ier than the one that as .rescri&ed at the ti#e o$ co##ission $or a s.eci$ic o$$ense #a! not &e i#.osed/ In -ee.ing ith a conte#.orar! understanding o$ the role o$ cri#inal sanctions: Article )6=)> also .ro'ides that states are o&liged to retroacti'el! a..l! a lighter .enalt! i$ it is su&seEuentl! .ro'ided $or &! la/ )0 )/ The .rohi&ition on dou&le 5eo.ard! J;o one shall &e lia&le to &e tried or .unished again $or an o$$ence $or hich he has alread! &een $inall! con'icted or acEuitted in accordance ith the la and .enal .rocedure o$ each countr!K NArticle )=+>O/ )06 The .rohi&ition o$ ne &is in ide# or o$ dou&le 5eo.ard! is ai#ed at .re'enting a .erson $ro# &eing triedand .unished$or the sa#e cri#e tice/ The issue here is hat is the rele'ant 5urisdiction/ According to so#e inter.retations: including that o$ the HR": dou&le 5eo.ard! a..lies onl! to .rohi&it a su&seEuent trial $or the sa#e o$$ense ithin the 5urisdiction o$ one state: &ut is not 'alid ith regard to the national 5urisdiction o$ to or #ore states/ )0 Cn the other hand: so#e hold the 'ie that this is Jtoo general and too a&solute/K)0+ An interesting Euestion raised &! the esta&lish#ent o$ the International "ri#inal Tri&unals $or the For#er O/ )0* The right to a..eal is ai#ed at ensuring at least to le'els o$ 5udicial scrutin! o$ a case: the second o$ hich #ust ta-e .lace &e$ore a higher tri&unal/ The re'ie underta-en &! such a tri&unal #ust &e genuine/ )0 The right to retroacti'e a..lication o$ a lighter .enalt! generall! a..lies onl! in cases here a .enalt! is irre'ersi&le: hoe'er so#e ece.tions include cases here the sentence is $or li$e: the death .enalt! or cor.oral .unish#ent/ See ;oa"o##entar!: su.ra note *: at 2+*@2,0/ )06 See also Article o$ Protocol + to the 1uro.ean "on'ention and Article 20 o$ the I"" Statute/ ;ote that Article ,=> o$ the A#erican "on'ention is di$$erent in that the .rohi&ition a..lies onl! i$ the accused has &een .re'iousl! acEuitted: &ut then the .rohi&ition is not li#ited to retrial on the sa#e chargeno charge arising out o$ the sa#e $acts =Jthe sa#e causeK> #a! &e .ursued/ )0 See ;oa- "o##entar!: su.ra note *: at 2+9/ )0+ Id/ )0, See I"" Statute: su.ra note )0: Article 20 Statute o$ the International "ri#inal Tri&unal $or =h> and A$rican "o##ission Resolution: su.ra note )9: .ara 9/ 2)
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? This: a#ong other things: #eans that a..eal .roceedings con$ined onl! to a scrutin! o$ issues o$ la raised &! a $irst instance 5udge#ent #ight not ala!s #eet that criterion/ ))0 A..eal .roceedings #ust also &e ti#el!/ The i##ediate e$$ect o$ the eercise o$ the right to a..eal is that a court has to sta! the eecution o$ an! sentence .assed in the $irst instance until a..ellate re'ie has &een concluded/ This .rinci.le a..lies unless the con'icted .erson 'oluntaril! acce.ts that the sentence &e i#.le#ented earlier/ The right to a..eal &elongs to all .ersons con'icted o$ a cri#e regardless o$ the se'erit! o$ the o$$ense and o$ the sentence .ronounced in the $irst instance/ ))) The guarantees o$ a $air trial #ust &e o&ser'ed in all a..ellate .roceedings/ 2/ The right to co#.ensation $or #iscarriage o$ 5ustice JWhen a .erson has &! a $inal decision &een con'icted o$ a cri#inal o$$ence and hen su&seEuentl! his con'iction has &een re'ersed or he has &een .ardoned on the ground that a ne or nel! disco'ered $act shos conclusi'el! that there has &een a #iscarriage o$ 5ustice: the .erson ho has su$$ered .unish#ent as a result o$ such con'iction shall &e co#.ensated according to la: unless it is .ro'ed that the non@disclosure o$ the un-non $act in ti#e is holl! or .artl! attri&uta&le to hi#K NArticle )=>O/ ))2 It should &e noted that co#.ensation $or #iscarriage o$ 5ustice #a! &e granted onl! a$ter a con'iction has &eco#e $inal and that the clai# #a! &e &rought regardless o$ the se'erit! o$ the o$$ense in'ol'ed/ There are three additional conditions that #ust &e cu#ulati'el! #et8 i> a #iscarriage o$ 5ustice #ust ha'e &een su&seEuentl! o$$iciall! ac-noledged &! a re'ersal o$ the con'iction or &! .ardon ii> the dela!ed disclosure o$ the .ertinent $act=s> #ust not &e attri&uta&le to the con'icted .erson: and iii> the con'icted .erson #ust ha'e su$$ered .unish#ent as a result o$ the #iscarriage o$ 5ustice/ The .hrase Jaccording to laK does not #ean that states can ignore the right to co#.ensation &! si#.l! not .ro'iding $or it: &ut rather that the! are o&liged to grant co#.ensation .ursuant to a #echanis# .ro'ided $or &! la/ ))9 III/ TRIAL CBS1R7ATIC; Regardless o$ the considera&le e.erience in trial o&ser'ation accu#ulated &! international and local ;GCs o'er the .ast $e decades: there are no ironclad rules as to ho #onitoring should &e carried out/ It is unli-el! that such nor#s can e'er &e de'elo.ed &ecause #onitoring is an acti'it! that needs to &e tailored to each .articular case/ Monitors need a certain $lei&ilit! and #ust use their on 5udge#ent in res.onding to the di$$erent situations the! #a! encounter/ This is not to sa! that a set o$ &asic directions $or trial o&ser'ation ))0 See $or ea#.le the concerns o$ the (; S.ecial Ra..orteur on etra5udicial: su##ar! or ar&itrar! eecutions in his )**9 Re.ort =+ 3ece#&er )**9: (; 3oc 1";/)**+ at .aras ))9 and 0>/ ))) ))2 General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara )+/ See also 1uro.ean "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article 9 o$ Protocol + and A#erican "on'ention: su.ra note ,: Article )0/ ))9 See General "o##ent )9: su.ra note ): .ara ),/ 22
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? co#.letel! lac-ing8 the ensuing section is &ased on guidelines .ertaining to the .ractice o$ trial #onitoring de'elo.ed and a..lied &! organiations ith etensi'e e.ertise in this area/ )) )/ "hoice o$ Trials The choice o$ a trial to &e o&ser'ed ill .ri#aril! de.end on the sending organiations general $ield o$ acti'it! and the interest it #ight ha'e in a .articular case/ Factors hich #a! in$luence a decision to send trial o&ser'ers are8 the stature o$ the .erson on trial: the .olitical or hu#an rights signi$icance o$ the .roceedings: the historical rele'ance o$ the trial: the #edia attention generated &! the case: antic i.ated irregularities in the .roceedings: etc/: or an! co#&ination o$ these and other concerns/ There si#.l! can &e no ehausti'e enu#eration/ 2/ Selection o$ Trial C&ser'er Regardless o$ the underl!ing reasons $or o&ser'ing a trial: crucial to the success o$ e'er! #ission ill &e the #onitors inde.endence: i#.artialit! and Euali$ications/ The di$$erent $actors #ost o$ten ta-en into account hen selecting an o&ser'er are8 the indi'iduals .restige: re.utation $or i#.artialit!: -noledge o$ do#estic la and international hu#an rights standards: $a#iliarit! ith a case: language s-ills: trustorthiness: a'aila&ilit! at short notice: etc/ I$ an o&ser'er is &eing sent to #onitor a trial a&road: his or her nationalit!: ethnicit! or gender #a! &e rele'ant criteria/ His or her a&ilit! to enter a .articular countr! ith or ithout a 'isa ill also &e signi$icant/ In the selection o$ o&ser'ers: ;GCs are $aced ith the o.tion o$ either sending a sta$$ #e#&er or engaging an inde.endent e.ert outside the organiation/ The ad'antage o$ the $or#er is that a sta$$ #e#&er ill #ost li-el! &e $a#iliar ith the case and can &e trusted to .resent a relia&le and ti#el! re.ort/ Hoe'er: the .resence o$ a .restigious inde.endent e.ert outside the organiation ill o$ten h #ore i#.act on the .roceedings/ a'e Si#ilarl!: an issue that needs to &e considered is the utilit! o$ engaging local la!ers hether sta$$ #e#&ers or outside e.ertsto o&ser'e do#estic trials/ While such la!ers #a! -no the legal s!ste# and &ac-ground o$ a case 'er! ell: this #a! in $act &e .ercei'ed as .otentiall! tainting their assess#ent o$ the $airness o$ the .roceedings and gi'e rise to clai#s o$ &ias/ Because o$ their .restige and lac- o$ national a$$iliation: $oreign la!ers are initiall! less o.en to such charges/ It should &e noted that se'eral international hu#an rights ;GCs: a#ong the# A#nest! International: ha'e e.licit rules against the .ractice o$ engaging local la!ers as trial o&ser'ers/ 9/ In$or#ing the Go'ern#ent The s.onsoring organiation should su..l! an o&ser'er ith se'eral co.ies o$ an Crder o$ Mission =Letter o$ "redentials> stating the .ur.ose o$ the #ission: the identit! and Euali$ications o$ the o&ser'er and reEuesting the coo.eration o$ the authorities/ It is standard .ractice to also in$or# the a..ro.riate &odies: such as the Ministr! o$ 4ustice: &! letter or other )) A#ong others: The International "o##ission o$ 4urists =I"4>: A#nest! International =AI>: The International Federation o$ Hu#an Rights =FI3H>: and The A#erican Bar Association =ABA>/ This sections also dras hea'il! on Pro$essor 3a'id Weiss&rodtss se#inal article JInternational Trial C&ser'ers:K Stan$ord 4ournal o$ International La: 7olu#e ),: Issue ): S.ring )*,2/ 29
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? #eans: o$ the no#ination o$ an o&ser'er and to reEuest that she &e etended the usual $acilities/ / Brie$ing Be$ore underta-ing an o&ser'er #ission: a #onitor should &e &rie$ed &! the sending organiation on i> the a..roach: .olicies and #ethods o$ the sending organiation ii> the &ac-ground o$ the case: including the rele'ant do#estic and international legal $ra#eor- a..lica&le in the .roceedings iii> the na#es: addresses and &ac-ground o$ la!ers: translators and other contacts during the .roceedings: as the situation #a! necessitate and i'> the #eans o$ a #onitors co##unication ith the organiation hile on the #ission/ 6/ Translators An o&ser'er should: a#ong other things: &e chosen $or hisher co##and o$ the language in hich the .roceedings ill &e conducted/ When such a .erson cannot &e $ound the o&ser'er should: ideall!: &e .ro'ided ith an inter.reter ho ill sit net to hi#her in the courtroo# and gi'e a si#ultaneous translation sotto 'oce/ The selection o$ an inter.reter is i#.ortant &ecause an o&ser'ers i#.artialit! could &e discredited i$ the inter.reter is .ercei'ed as &eing a$$iliated ith the .arties or .artici.ants in the .roceedings/ An inter.reter should: ideall!: ha'e the reEuisite legal -noledge: &e trustorth! and inde.endent/ / Tra'el and Housing Arrange#ents 7isa and 1ntr! For#alities I$ the trial to &e o&ser'ed is ta-ing .lace outside the seat o$ the sending organiation or a&road: arrange#ents should &e #ade $or the #onitor to &e assisted u.on arri'al &! a .erson not in'ol'ed in the .roceedings ho could .ro'ide hi#her ith an initial &rie$ing/ The o&ser'er should .re$era&l! sta! in a hotel: or other #ode o$ acco##odation: close to the court/ She should not ta-e u. o$$ers to &e hosted &! .ersons in'ol'ed in the .roceedings or their su..orters: as that could discredit hisher i#.artialit!/ I$ a trial is &eing o&ser'ed a&road: it ould &e logical to select as an o&ser'er a .erson ho does not need a 'isa to enter the countr! o$ destination or ho alread! has one/ I$ a 'isa is reEuired: an Crder o$ Mission =Letter o$ "redentials> should &e $urnished along ith the 'isa a..lication: stating that the .ur.ose o$ the 'isit is to attend the trial in Euestion on &ehal$ o$ the s.onsoring organiation/ +/ Pu&lic State#ents Be$ore: 3uring and A$ter a Mission There is little uni$or#it! o$ .ractice a#ong ;GCs as regards state#ents #ade &! an o&ser'er .rior to: during and a$ter a #ission/ While so#e organiations ill announce a #ission .recisel! in order to attract attention to a case: others ill decline to do so $or $ear o$ #a-ing it harder $or the o&ser'er to attend the trial/ In each instance o$ ad'ance announce#ent the e.ected &ene$its #ust &e eighed against the .ossi&le dra&ac-s/ There is also no co##on stand a#ong ;GCs ith res.ect to an o&ser'ers state#ents during a #ission/ Cn the one hand: state#ents #ight 5eo.ardie the #ission: the a..earance o$ neutralit! or e'en the 2
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? sa$et! o$ the o&ser'er &ut: on the other hand: the i#.act o$ .u&lic co##ents is usuall! the greatest hile the trial is still ta-ing .lace or i##ediatel! u.on its conclusion/ Cn a cautionar! note: it can &e said that an o&ser'er should generall! re$rain $ro# co##enting on a trial that is still un$olding unless there are ece.tional e'entssuch as a &rea-don o$ the 5udicial .rocesshich #erit i##ediate res.onse/ Si#ilarl!: i$ an o&ser'er is not s.eci$icall! authoried to issue a state#ent a$ter the end o$ hisher #ission he or she should generall! re$rain $ro# doing so unless there is an issue reEuiring #o#entar! reaction/ Practice has shon that it is o$ten &etter &oth $or the o&ser'er and $or the a..earance o$ hisher i#.artialit! i$ a state#ent is issued a$ter the o&ser'er has returned ho#e and has had ti#e $or re$lection: rather than i$ she co##ents on the trial hile at the trial site/ A case &! case a..roach is necessar! in this .hase as ell/ Throughout the .roceedings: hoe'er: a #onitor should &e $ree to in$or# the .ress a&out hisher .resence: the .ur.ose o$ the #ission and a&out the re.ort to &e dran u. $olloing the end o$ trial o&ser'ation/ She should also &e .re.ared to e.lain hisher authorit! to #a-e state#ents during and a$ter the trial or to decline $ro# co##ents/ ,/ "ontacts and Inter'ies during the Mission An o&ser'er should: i$ .ossi&le: tr! to #a-e contact ith the .arties to the trial and ith the .residing 5udge &e$ore the .roceedings &egin/ I$ hel.$ul: she sho uld also arrange to &e introduced in o.en court &! a neutral .art! so as to ena&le the .artici.ants and the .u&lic to ta-e note o$ hisher .resence/ 3e.ending on the sco.e o$ the o&ser'ers #ission: the circu#stances o$ the case and the o&ser'ers stature: he or she #a! also tr! to esta&lish contact ith other go'ern#ent o$$icials in order to collect #ore &ac-ground in$or#ation and to enhance his or her i#.act on the .roceedings/ An o&ser'er should also lea'e hi#hersel$ ti#e $or collecting docu#ents rela ted to the trial and other in$or#ation o$ rele'ance to an assess#ent o$ $airness/ Last: &ut not least: i$ .ossi&le: a #onitor should tr! to inter'ie the de$endant: in $ull con$identialit!: in order to o&ser'e hisher .h!sical and #ental condition and the circu#stances o$ detention/ */ Seating in the "ourtroo# ;otes With the .ri#ar! ai# o$ .reser'ing an a..earance o$ neutralit!: an o&ser'er should ideall! $ollo the .roceedings $ro# a .ro#inent &ut neutral .osition in the courtroo#/ The seating arrange#ent should not lead to an o&ser'ers &eing identi$ied ith .ersons .artici.ating in the .roceedings or attending it in so#e other ca.acit!: such as de$ense attorne!s or the .ress/ ;or should it detract $ro# hisher .restige: hich ould &e the case i$ she ere to sit in the section o$ the courtroo# reser'ed $or the general .u&lic/ While $olloing the trial the o&ser'er should &e seen ta-ing etensi'e notes/ This action not onl! signi$ies the close attention &eing .aid to the trial &ut: also: the creation o$ a record that ill &e used in co#.iling the $inal re.ort/ )0/ C&ser'ers Re.ort Pre.aring a re.ort u.on the co#.letion o$ a trial o&ser'ation #ission is the second hal$ o$ an o&ser'ers tas-/ I$ the #ission is to &e success$ul: the re.ort should &e dran u. as Euic-l! as .ossi&le so that the s.onsoring organiation #a! issue it hile the go'ern#ent and the general .u&lic are still res.onsi'e to the $indings/ Pro#.tness is 'ital/ 26
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? ;GCs ith etensi'e .ractice in trial o&ser'ation reco##end that a trial o&ser'ation re.ort &e co#.osed to include the $olloing headings =the list is not ehausti'e and ill o&'iousl! de.end on the circu#stances o$ the case>8))6 =i> =ii> =iii> =i'> ='> ='i> ='ii> the o&ser'ers instructions the &ac-ground o$ the case the $acts o$ the case as re'ealed at trial and &! inde.endent $act@ $inding: ith .articular e#.hasis on the .rosecution and de$ense e'idence the charges: a..lica&le las: .re@trial .rocedures: trial .rocess: 5udg#ent =i$ an!> and su&seEuent .roceedings the #ental and .h!sical condition o$ the de$endant and the conditions o$ con$ine#ent an e'aluation o$ the $airness o$ the .roceedings: a..lica&le las and treat#ent o$ the de$endant under national and international standards and a conclusion/ In addition a re.ort should: i$ .ossi&le: include the $olloing in$or#ation8 =i> =ii> =iii> =i'> ='> ='i> ='ii> ='iii> a co.! o$ the Crder o$ Mission co.ies o$ rele'ant .rocedural rules: court decisions and las co.ies o$ charges: transcri.ts and the courts 5udg#ent a descri.tion o$ the o&ser'ers #ethodolog!: including #aterial studied and .ersons inter'ieed sensiti'e #aterial hich should &e o#itted $ro# the .u&lished re.ort co.ies o$ nes.a.er articles re$erring to the trial or the o&ser'ers .resence: ith the na#es o$ the nes.a.ers and the dates o$ .u&lication additional in$or#ation not strictl! ithin the o&ser'ers #ission =such as in$or#ation a&out other .risoners: other trials and recent las> and .ractical o&ser'ations $or the guidance o$ $uture o&ser'ers/ When there is a .rotracted trial the o&ser'er ill usuall! attend onl! .art o$ the .roceedings/ In such a case she should send an i##ediate re.ort to the s.onsoring organiation and add to it later: in the $or# o$ a su..le#ent co##enting on the decision rendered at the end o$ the trial/ She should there$ore #a-e arrange#ents $or the o$$icial tet o$ the 5udg#ent and the sentence o$ the court to &e sent to the s.onsoring organiation either directl! or through the o&ser'er hi#hersel$/ C&ser'ers #a! include reco##endations to the go'ern#ent concerned or to the sending organiation on ho to o'erco#e the irregularities noted in the trial .rocedure andor on the action the s.onsoring organiation should ta-e in .ursuing this goal: de.ending: o$ course on the senders #andate/ ))6 This list is re.roduced $ro# Weiss&rodt: su.ra note )): at *9@*/ 2
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? Finall!: an issue that also needs to &e resol'ed &! the s.onsoring organiation is hether the re.ort ill &e con'e!ed to the go'ern#ent in Euestion $or co##ent and res.onse &e$ore it is #ade .u&lic/ This is a #atter o$ .olic! that ill hinge on the circu#stances o$ a case: the .ur.ose and $ocus o$ the re.ort and the go'ern#ents antici.ated reaction to it/ I$ the re.ort is $irst sent to the go'ern#ent it should contain .recise ti#e li#its $or a res.onse &e$ore .u&lication/ I7/ "C;"L(SIC; An ea#ination o$ the custo#ar! international la status o$ trial o&ser'ation is outside the sco.e o$ this re'ie/ Hoe'er: the .ractice o$ sending and recei'ing trial o&ser'ers is toda! so ides.read and acce.ted that it #a! alread! constitute a nor# o$ custo#ar! international la/ The ra.id de'elo.#ent o$ the institution o$ trial o&ser'ation o'er the .ast se'eral decades can &e attri&uted largel! to the -noledge and integrit! o$ the indi'iduals ho ha'e ser'ed as o&ser'ers/ In order $or this #ethod o$ hu#an rights #onitoring to e.and $urther: the high standards achie'ed so $ar #ust &e #aintained and continuousl! re$ined/ This: a#ong other things: #eans that the #onitors the#sel'es should increasingl! &e indi'iduals $a#iliar ith the intricacies o$ do#estic and international $air trial standards/ In .ractice: the! should &ring to the .er$or#ance o$ their tas- the 'er! Eualities the! #onitor8 $airness and hu#anit!/ 2+
WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL? 2,
APP1;3I APP1;3I8 ;CT1 C; SC(R"1S The section descri&es the di$$erent categories o$ sources used in this re.ort: and sets out the .ri#ar! instru#ents: the a&&re'iations used to re$er to those instru#ents in this re.ort: and the Internet re$erences/ Man! o$ the instru#ents #a! also &e $ound in Hu#an Rights8 A "o#.ilation o$ International Instru#ents: 'ol/ I =2 .arts>: (ni'ersal Instru#ents: (nited ;ations Pu&lication: Sales ;o/ 1/*9/I7/) and corrigenda/ Please contact us i$ !ou ha'e di$$icult! o&taining a co.! o$ an! o$ these #aterials/ A/ TR1ATI1S When a State has rati$ied a treat! it is &ound to co#.l! ith its .ro'isions: su&5ect to an! reser'ations it has #ade at the ti#e o$ rati$ication/ It is there$ore i#.ortant to chec- hether the State in Euestion has rati$ied the rele'ant treaties/ TR1AT< ;AM1 Interna tional "o'enant on "i'il and Political Rights A$rican "harter on Hu#an and Peo.les Rights A#erican "on'ention on Hu#an Rights 1uro.ean "on'ention $or the Protection o$ Hu#an Rights and Funda#ental Freedo#s "on'ention against Torture and Cther "ruel: Inhu#an or 3egrading Treat#ent or Punish#ent ABBR17IATIC; I""PR A$rican "harter R1F1R1;"1 htt.8/unhchr/chht#l #enu9&aQcc.r/ht# htt.8/oauoua/orgoauQin$orights/ht # htt.8/cidh/oas/orgB sicosBasic 203ocu#ent sen&as9/ht# htt.8/coe/$renglega ltt6e/ht# A#erican "on'ention 1uro.ean "on'ention Torture "on'ention htt.8/unhchr/chht#l #enu9&hQcat9*/ht# B/ CTH1R I;T1R;ATIC;AL STA;3AR3S 1'en i$ a State has not rati$ied the I""PR: Torture "on'ention or rele'ant regional instru#ents its treat#ent o$ its citiens #ust &e in accordance ith the nor#s o$ custo#ar! international la/ The .ro'isions o$ (ni'ersal 3eclaration o$ Hu#an Rights are: $or the #ost .art: considered to &e declarator! o$ custo#ar! international la and there$ore #a! &e o$ .ara#ount i#.ortance/ In addition: there are #an! other international instru#ents that de'elo. and elucidate the #ini#u# &asic standards set out in the hu#an rights treaties and the (ni'ersal 3eclaration o$ Hu#an Rights/ Although these instru#ents are not strictl! s.ea-ing &inding on an! one State: the! ha'e all &een ado.ted &! .olitical &odies o$ the (;: usuall! &! consensus: and are 2*
APP1;3I there$ore i#.ortant nor#ati'e docu#ents/ The! $or# .art o$ the general &od! o$ international hu#an rights la and: as can &e seen in this re.ort: the! are an etre#el! i#.ortant tool $or e.laining the .recise content o$ the right to a $air trial/ I;STR(M1;T ;AM1 (ni'ersal 3eclaration o$ Hu#an Rights Standard Mini#u# Rules $or the Treat#ent o$ Prisoners Basic Princi.les $or the Treat#ent o$ Prisoners Bod! o$ Princi.les $or the Protection o$ All Persons under An! For# o$ 3etention or I#.rison#ent Basic Princi.les on the Role o$ La!ers Basic Princi.les on the Inde.endence o$ the 4udiciar! ABBR17IATIC; (3HR Standard Mini#u# Rules R1F1R1;"1 htt.8/unhchr/chudhr langeng/ht# htt.8/unhchr/chht#l #enu9&hQco#.9/ht# htt.8/unhchr/chht#l #enu9&hQco#.96/ht# htt.8/unhchr/chht#l #enu9&hQco#.9/ht# Basic Princi.les on Prisoners Bod! o$ Princi.les Basic Princi.les on La!ers Basic Princi.les on the 4udiciar! htt.8/unhchr/chht#l #enu9&hQco#./ht# htt.8/unhchr/chht#l #enu9&hQco#.60/ht# "/ 4(RISPR(31;"1 The 5udg#ents and $indings o$ regional and international courts: co##issions and &odies also hel. inter.ret and elucidate the #eaning o$ &oth treat! .ro'isions and custo#ar! international la/ The General "o##ents o$ the Hu#an Rights "o##ittee are es.eciall! i#.ortant inter.retations o$ the I""PR: as are the "o##ittees decisions on indi'idual co##unications u nder the First C.tional Protocol to the I""PR/ 3ecisions o$ the regional courts and co##issions are authoritati'e inter.retations o$ the .articular treaties: hoe'er the 5uris.rudence o$ each regional institution #a! &e #ore &roadl! a..lied/ For ea#.le: hile a decision o$ the 1uro.ean "ourt o$ Hu#an Rights #ight not &e &inding on an A$rican State: that courts .ronounce#ents on the #eaning o$ Jundue dela!:K $or instance: #a! &e a use$ul tool in ea#ining length! detentions in A$rica/ I;STIT(TIC; ;AM1 Hu#an Rights "o##ittee: General "o##ents ABBR17IATIC; HR" R1F1R1;"1 htt.8/unhchr/cht&s doc/ns$ =see 3ocu#ent T!.e8 JGeneral "o##entsK o$ Treat! Bod!8 JHu#an Rights "o##itteeK> 90
APP1;3I Hu#an Rights "o##ittee: Indi'idual "o##unications HR" 1uro.ean "ourt o$ Hu#an Rights Inter@A#erican "ourt o$ Hu#an Rights Inter@A#erican "o##ission on Hu#an Rights A$rican "o##ission on Hu#an Rights 1uro.ean "ourt Inter@A#erican "ourt Inter@A#erican "o##ission A$rican "o##ission htt.8/unhchr/cht&s doc/ns$ =see 3ocu#ent T!.e8 J4uris.rudenceK o$ Treat! Bod!8 JHu#an Rights "o##itteeK> htt.8/echr/coe/int htt.8corteidh@oea/nu/ or/crciho#eQing/ht# htt.8/cidh/oas/orgco ##ission/ht# Li#ited #aterials can &e $ound8 htt.8)/u#n/eduhu# anrtsa$ricaco#ision/ht#l 3/ I;T1R;ATIC;AL "RIMI;AL TRIB(;ALS Although the International "ri#inal "ourt has not !et &een esta&lished: its statute o$$ers a ealth o$ inno'ati'e .ro'isions on .rotecting the rights o$ the accused as ell as 'icti#s and itnesses/ It also contains de$initions o$ international cri#es/ The statute is located at htt.8)/u#n/eduhu#anrtsinstreeRo#eQStatuteQI""Ro#eQI""Qtoc/ht#l/ Si#ilarl!: although the statutes o$ the International "ri#inal Tri&unal $or and the International "ri#inal Tri&unal $or Randa =htt.8/un/orgictr> are not generall! &inding: the! o$$er use$ul guidance on .rocedural rules in international cri#inal la/ 1/ CTH1R R1F1R1;"1 MAT1RIALS The #ost authoritati'e inter.retation o$ the I""PR is Man$red ;oa-: (/;/ "o'enant on "i'il and Political Rights: ""PR "o##entar!: ;/P/ 1ngel: Dehl@Stras&ourg@Arlington: )**9 =J;oa- "o##entar!K>/ For $urther detail a&out $air trial standards: the )*** A#nest! International JFair Trials ManualK is also use$ul =htt.8/a#nest!/orgaili&the#es$airtria/ht#>/ 9)
S ince )*+,: the La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights has or-ed to .rotect and .ro#ote $unda#ental hu#an rights/ Its or- is i#.artial: holding all go'ern#ents accounta&le to the standards a$$ir#ed in the International Bill o$ Hu#an Rights/ Its .rogra#s $ocus on &uilding the legal institutions and structures that ill guarantee hu#an rights in the long ter#/ Strengthening inde.endent hu#an rights ad'ocac! at the local le'el is a -e! $eature o$ its or-/ The "o##ittee also see-s to in$luence the (/S/ go'ern#ent to .ro#ote the rule o$ la in &oth its $oreign and do#estic .olic!: and .resses $or greater integration o$ hu#an rights into the oro$ the (; and other international &odies/ The "o##ittee or-s to .rotect re$ugees through the re.resentation o$ as!lu# see-ers and &! challenging legal restrictions on the rights o$ re$ugees in the (nited States and around the orld/ I$ !ou ould li-e #ore in$or#ation a&out the La!ers "o##ittee: rite us at8 "o##unications 3e.art#ent La!ers "o##ittee $or Hu#an Rights 999 Se'enth A'enue: )9th Floor ;e ,6@6200 Fa8 =2)2> ,6@62** 1@ #ail8 co##lchr/org htt.8/lchr/org htt.8itness/org
