The Roman World tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento (hae erunt artes), pacique imponere morem, parcer parcere e subi subiect ectis is et debell debellare are super superbos bos.. . . . You, Roman, remember to rule the peoples with power (these will be your arts), to graft custom onto peace, to spare the conquered, and to subdue the proud. . . . —Anchises to Aeneas, Virgil's TheAeneid, 6.851-3, Translated by Sue il!ore
A
lthough the quotation above appears in Latin and English, its source, The
Aeneid, Aeneid, combines a Greek story from Homer with settings in Southwest Asia, orth orth Africa Africa,, Sicily Sicily,, and, and, final finally ly,, the the !talian !talian "eninsul "eninsula# a# $his $his epic epic by the %oman %oman poet &irgi &irgill thus thus bring bringss togeth together er in in one one work work many many of the cultural cultural combina combination tionss presented in the previous previous chapter# chapter# Additionally Additionally,, the epic accurately accurately forecasts forecasts the cultural, political, and military legacies of the %oman Empire, continuities still apparent in much of the world# w orld# The Aeneid displays for the reader &irgil's ideal of leadership, an ideal he was an(ious to pass on to his patron, Augustus Augustus )aesar# &irgil's lessons might have helped the %oman Empire survive had it been followed by all the %oman emperors#
Rome as a Monarchy (c. 753-509 B.C.E.) Like the earlier Greek civili*ation, %oman civili*ation developed on a giant peninsul peninsula# a# +ut while while geograph geography y hindered hindered Greek Greek unity, unity, it did not prevent prevent !talia !talian n unity unity## or e(ample, e(ample, the Apennine Apennine Mountains, Mountains, which run the length of that peninsula, are less rugged than the mountains of Greece# $he Apennines did not prevent trade or travel in ancient times# Etruscans and Latins $he city of %ome owes much of its early history to the combining combining of three groups, often warring but sometimes collaboratingcollaborating Etruscans, Latins, and Greeks# $he Etruscans were settled in the northern !talian "eninsula when %ome was yet a village on seven hills# $hey later mingled with the less advanced Latins of central !taly# $hey gained an alphabet from the Greek colonists of southern !taly, with whom they traded#
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As shown by the remarkable tombs still e(isting in !taly, Etruscan skills included building with stone# $he Etruscans mined iron, copper, and tin and made metal weapons and tools# Similarly, Etruscans were probably responsible for the roads and temples of this early %oman period, as well as for military tactics displayed in battles# Political Traditions According to tradition or myth, the village on seven hills that would become Rome was always welcoming to outcasts and outsiders, and it grew accordingly# $radition also suggests that local tribes agreed to have a rotating kingship, which began with %omulus .the supposed son of the war god /ars0# According to legend, %omulus killed his twin brother %emus after an argument about where to locate the new city, and gave his name to the city in123+#)#E# /ore certain than these stories are the accomplishments of the early %omans# $hey drained swamps, which gave them a large amount of fertile land, significantly more than the Greek city4states had# $hey found nearby sources of drinking water and metal ores# $he site that became %ome, 52 miles up the Tiber River from the Tyrrhenian Sea, was good for trade and yet far enough from the ocean to be easily defended against sea4borne attackers# !t would soon become the central point for interaction with other settlements in !taly# o!4aring arly 0or!s o oern!ent Ciili!a"ion
#orm o$ %oernmen"
&eadin' ndiidal or Body
Charac"eris"ics
Rela"ionshi* Be"+een %oernmen" and Reli'ion
E'y*", Middle in'dom
(ynasty, highly centrali7ed
haraoh
)ierarchy o a44ointed oicials under the 4haraoh
haraoh as seen as both a ruler and a god
%reece, A"hens Ci"y"a"e
(irect de!ocracy, highly decentrali7ed
9 The Asse!bly :all citi7ens; 9 ouncil o 5<< :chosen by lottery; 9 ourts :!agis trates chosen by lottery;
2ales oer 18 ere considered citi7ens, and they could 4artici4ate in goern!ent
&eligion as se4arate ro! goern!ent but inluential
China, /an ynas"y
(ynasty, centrali7ed
!4eror ith adice ro! oicials
%icials chosen by !4eror based on s=ill and =noledge olloing onucian ideas
&eligion as !ostly se4arate ro! unctions o goern!ent
Rome, Re*1lic
&e4ublic, centrali7ed
!4eror and Senate
iti7ens elect senators
&eligion as se4arate ro! goern!ent but inluential
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#rom Monarchy "o Re*1lic Government in %ome evolved as a practical response to both improvements and domestic pressure for protection# +y the early 266s, when $arquinius Superbus .$arquin the "roud0, ruled the city, he was a tyrant# He was also the final monarch of early %ome# 7pposition to his rule arose among the patricians, or wealthy landowners# !n 268 +#)#E#, they overthrew him# +ut instead of creating another monarchy, they established a government of elected officials9a republic. !t was a representative government, not a direct democracy like Athens had for a while# At first, only the wealthiest and the most prestigious %oman citi*ens were represented in the Senate. Holding tenure for life, senators increased in number to about 366 during the fourth ce ntury +#)#E# Plebeians and Magistrates /ost %omans were plebeians 9small farmers, tradespeople, craftsworkers, and common soldiers# Gradually, they began to call for political reforms so they could have a s ay in government# !n :;1 +#)#E#, they won the right to be full citi*ens# $hey got their own assemblies9the Assembly of $ribes and the Assembly of )enturies9where plebeians could pass laws and select magistrates, officials who carried out the day4to4day operations of government# $he Senate and the assemblies also acted as courts, deciding disputes between people and trying individuals accused of breaking the law# Tribunes Additionally, new officials called tribunes were elected to represent the plebeians# $hey could e(ercise veto power in the Senate, although the ever4practical senatorial politicians often included these representatives of the
26 +#)#E#0# "utting written laws in the full view of the public provided a check on the in?ustices of the ?udiciary system, an important concept built into numerous later constitutions# $he Laws of the $welve $ables dealt with almost every aspect of life9including business transactions, property boundaries and 72
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penalties for crimes# /ore laws and political institutions evolved as the need for them arose# (Test Prep: Create a table comparing the Laws of the $welve Tables with the Code of Hammurabi. See page :5#0 %ule of law created a career path for lawyers# %ich and powerful senators and merchants brought legal cases, often against corrupt officials# 7ne of the greatest members of the legal profession was icero, trained in writing and oratory by Greek teachers as well as %oman ones# His elegant writing is still studied today for its clarity, preciseness, and persuasiveness# $he e(istence of courts, references to legal terms, and entire orations given in the course of lawsuits testify to the significance of the rule of law in the %epublic#
Roman E:*ansion After overthrowing its own king, %ome encouraged central !taly's other city4 states to revolt against the Etruscans# After the city4states were free of Etruscan rule, the %omans conquered them# +y :12 +#)#E#, %ome controlled the entire !talian "eninsula# Adept leaders and smoothly organi*ed armies became the %oman trademark# Equally helpful in running the large area they had conquered was the e(tension of privileges to the conquered peoples# )iti*enship was often the reward for supplying troops and tribute to %ome# Later, small !talian cities demanded the privilege of providing soldiers and money so their residents could become %oman citi*ens# reece and aul As %ome e(tended its power into southern !taly, it developed conflicts with Greeks over control of Greek colonies# !n :12 +#)#E#, the %omans defeated a Greek army that had invaded !taly to protect the Greek colonies there# $hen, in a series of four wars between :52 and 5>; +#)#E#, %ome defeated /acedonia, in northern Greece# $he %omans went on to take control of what remained of the empire created by Ale(ander the Great# !n addition, the %omans moved north and west to conquer parts of Gaul, a territory that is part of what is now rance# Carthage and !e"ond 7ne of %ome's largest conflicts was with arthage, a city4state across the /editerranean on the north coast of Africa# )arthage had once belonged to the "hoenician Empire but had since created its own empire by conquering parts of Spain# %ome and )arthage both wanted to control the /editerranean trade# $hey fought a series of three wars between :@> and 5>@ +#)#E#, the #unic $ars. hen the %omans finally captured )arthage in 5>@ +#)#E#, they destroyed the city, enslaved its population, and, according to legend, salted the land to make it infertile, thereby condemning )arthage to poverty for years to come# $oday, ending a war with the complete destruction of an enemy is known as a arthaginian peace. $he victory over )arthage gave %ome control of a large empire, including orth Africa, Spain, and Sicily# $he %omans later rebuilt )arthage and maintained a colony there# !t became the empire's fourth4largest city# %oman armies also conquered swaths of modern Syria, Egypt, +ritain, and Germany by the middle of the first century )#E# T/E RMA6 WR&
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However, conquest was not permanent# or e(ample, centuries later, in >38 )#E#, the nomadic %andals 9who had invaded orth Africa from Spain9 took )arthage, and in >22 they conquered %ome itself# Soldiers All male citi*ens between ages 51 and >@ who owned land were required to serve in the %oman legions. $hese large armies were needed to fight wars and to guard the e(panding empire# /ost soldiers were poor farmers# hen they entered the army, many sold their small farms to wealthy patricians# $he patricians combined their purchases to create huge estates, known as lati!undia. hile some soldiers settled elsewhere in the empire once their services were complete, many others came to %ome# Around the time of Bulius )aesar, %ome's population was probably more than one million people and growing#
Roman ocie"y "atricians and plebeians were influential in %oman society# Less powerful were two other groups- slaves and women# Sla#es /ost slaves were foreigners captured during %ome's wars# $hey were brought to !taly to work in homes and on the large farms of wealthy %omans# $he latifundia of the patricians required an ever4increasing number of slaves# E(cept in poor families, raising and educating %oman children was carried out by slaves, often Greek ones# Among wealthy %omans, some slaves even ran the households# ith conquests increasing, the number of captives available for slavery grew# )onditions of slavery became harsher, especially after the Spartacus Rebellion in 13 +#)#E# when a slave named Spartacus led one of the largest slave revolts in history# %oman soldiers killed thousands of rebels before the revolt was crushed, and another @,666 slaves were captured and e(ecuted by crucifi(ion# $he e(istence of so many slaves slowed down growth and innovation in the %oman economy# Slave labor was so cheap that landowners had little incentive to develop new technology# $ecline of Small Landholders $he low cost of slave labor was one of two factors that caused a decline in the number of small landowners# !ndependent farmers and tenants could not compete successfully against production by slaves# !n addition, the years many small farmers spent in the military cost many of them their land# As time passed, large estates absorbed more and more of the holdings that had previously been farmed by the small landowners# %omen !n early %oman society, women faced many forms of discrimination# 7nly men could be citi*ens# omen could not vote# !n married couples, men owned all the family property and headed the households# However, young women of high social position usually received some level of education# urther, women could inherit property and other forms of wealth
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from their fathers, which gave them influence with their husband# .$est "reprite a paragraph comparing the role of women in %oman society with the role of women in classical !ndia# See page 82#0
Ciil Wars Strong %oman military leaders completed numerous conquests in the last two centuries +#)#E# Each leader raised armies through promises of landC these promises lead to %ome# or e(ample, &aius Marius, Lucius #ompey Magnus, and 'ulius aesar were all popular and successful generals whose troops were devoted to them# !n the following generation, the same would be true for Marc Antony and (ctavian .later known as Augustus0# )lashes between vying groups of %omans thus became civil wars in which generals opposed one another for leadership of the state# $he conflict between generals for power in %ome reached a decisive point in the first century +#)#E# 7ne general, /arius, was a @ +#)#E# He accomplished ma?or reforms such as revising the calendar, increasing the si*e of the Senate, e(tending citi*enship, and granting land to some poor veterans# )aesar also added conquests for %ome as far away as the German forests and Egypt# However, frightened by his power and influence, a group of conspirators attacked and killed him on the famous > +#)#E#0# )ompetition between the two remaining generals97ctavian and /arc Antony 9led to the downfall of the %epublic and the establishment of the %oman Empire# Having defeated conspirators at "hilippi .in /acedonia0, Antony and 7ctavian turned on each other, first temporarily dividing the %oman lands between them, east and west# However, at the )attle o! Actium on the !onian Sea in 35 +#)#E#, 7ctavian defeated Antony and proclaimed himself sole ruler of %ome#
The Roman Em*ire (<7 B.C.E.-27; C.E.) ith the help of a Senate grateful for an end to the civil war, 7ctavian began to mold %ome into the image he wanted# His goals were to strengthen family values, keep the peace, and promote prosperity# $he result was a hugely
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successful, well4governed empire that e(tended throughout the /editerranean 7ne %oman historian quoted 7ctavian as saying, 3#0 Roads and $efenses %ome built a network of roads that made movement of trade goods, written orders, and soldiers and their provisions easier# !n addition, %ome built fortresses and walls to protect strategic cities and transportation points# Social Classes $he social and political hierarchy established in the days of the %epublic continued into the Empire "eriod# Some upward mobility was possible- a new e+uestrian class was available to male %oman citi*ens whose property was valued at >66,666 sesterces .at a time when %oman legionaries were making about 866 sesterces per year0# Equestrians could hold positions of authority in government but not ones as influential as those occupied by senators and their families# $he senatorial class became the instrument of Augustus and later rulers by which they directed the affairs of the empire# However, Augustus and his successors made clear that their will was absolute# Augustus offered a ta( bonus to members of this class who had more than two children because he wished to see the numbers of the aristocracy increase# $HE %7/A E/"!%E
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Lower classes, no longer as ably represented in their popular assemblies were nevertheless pacified by free games and grain and the possibility, however unlikely, of advancing in the social order# Slavery continued to increase as both businesses and large estates increased# Greek slaves were in high demand as physicians and teachers, maintaining the continuity of Greek culture# Slaves could sometimes buy their freedom, becoming newly rich
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Roman Reli'ion Syncretism played a key part in many aspects of %oman culture, including religion# or e(ample, they frequently fused local Latin deities with the Greek pantheon of gods# %oman homes had an altar for the local divinities, but the family also went to temples and state celebrations carried out under the auspices of the chief priest, or ponti!e* ma*imus. %omans required everyone to practice the state religion# However, like the "ersians, they tolerated the practice of additional religions as well# =nlike the "ersians, many of whom were monotheistic oroastrians, the %omans were polytheistic# State Religion "olytheistic and tolerant, %oman leaders praised their state gods such as Bupiter and /inerva for showing favor as they built their empire# $he temple to &esta, for e(ample, had a group of priestesses who guarded the sacred flame of %ome# Such priestesses grew wealthy and influential in the city# An additional aspect of state religion that would grow more apparent after the death of Augustus was worship of the emperor# Personal Religion Lares and "enates, old gods believed to protect the household, were still worshipped in the years of the %oman Empire# $hese gods were the ob?ects of various household rituals# +ut %omans who yearned for more spiritual beliefs also ?oined mystery cults, religious groups whose followers were promised an afterlife if they underwent secret rituals and purification rites# Some %omans ?oined in the rites called Eleusinian mysteries .originating in Greece0 and the cult of !sis .from Egypt0# 'ews nder Roman Rule $he Bewish religion consolidated in Berusalem in what is known as the Second $emple period .236 +#)#E# to 18 )#E#0# Bewish scholars codified the Hebrew scriptures, which included /esopotamian cultural and legal influences brought back to Berusalem from the +abylonian e(ile# $he %omans captured Berusalem in 31 +#)#E# )icero and other %oman writers of the late %epublic and early empire were interested in the religion of the Bews# hile %omans might have added the Bewish deity to their pantheon, they were not willing to give any deity e(clusive worship# )onflicts between Bews and %omans resulted in three Bewish rebellions in the first two centuries )#E# %oman victories, and resulting persecution of the Bews, caused many Bews to flee their homes in the region around Berusalem, continuing the diaspora begun in earlier centuries# $he situation of Bewish citi*ens was complicated by the %oman tendency to treat educated Bews with more deference than other
Chris"iani"y !nto this Bewish community emerged the figure of 'esus, who challenged traditional religious leaders and was regarded as a troublemaker by %oman officials# ollowers of Besus spread his teachings throughout the %oman world# +y the end of the first century )#E#, hristianity was emerging as a =0
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distinct form of Budaism and was on its way to becoming a separate religion altogether# )hristianity was most popular among the urban poor, slaves, and women throughout the empire# Like the mystery cults and the philosophies of Epicureanism and Stoicism, )hristianity appealed to people hungry for answers about the harshness of life and hopeful of an afterlife# $he intellectual, political, and religious ferment of the first century )#E# was fertile ground for )hristian teachings# Source- $hiokstock
Source- $hbikstock
)hristianity emphasi*ed worship of God while +uddhism focused more inwardly# However, people in both traditions constructed solid, well4grounded buildings that represented their systems of belief as firm and dependable#
Peter and Paul 7ne of the people particularly important in spreading the ideas of Besus and shaping )hristianity was #eter .died in @> )#E#0 He knew Besus and was one of his first followers# "eter eventually came to %ome and is today regarded by the %oman )atholic )hurch as the first pope# According to the +ible, #aul was a Bew who had a sudden, dramatic conversion to )hristianity while traveling on a road leading into Damascus# T) &%2A/ $%&(
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$hough born during the lifetime of Besus, "aul probably never met him# "aul spread the gospel according to Besus around the /editerranean by preaching at many of the great Hellenistic cities such as Ephesus and )orinth# Educated in the Hellenistic tradition of argument and teaching, "aul inspired other preachers as well before he died around @2 )#E# )eatures of &mergent Christianit" 7ne trait of early )hristianity was a focus on living simple lives isolated from society# $his allowed members to concentrate on worship and reflection# 7ver time, some of these people ?oined together to form monasteries, buildings or collections of buildings where people devote their lives to the practice of a religion# A second trait was martyrdom, a willingness to die rather than give up one's beliefs# %omans allowed people to worship their own gods, but they required people to respect the deities of the official state religion# )hristians refused to do this, and thousands were imprisoned, tortured, and killed# Despite persecution, )hristianity grew stronger# !n 353 )#E#, the %oman Emperor onstantine declared the religion to be legal in the Edict o! Milan. )onstantine became the first )hristian emperor# !n 336 )#E#, he moved the seat of government to )onstantinople# =nder subsequent %oman emperors, the )hristian religion became the official religion of the empire# (Test Prep: 7utline the developments of )hristianity up to the +y*antine Empire# See pages 535453>#0 A third trait of early )hristianity was the appearance of written accounts about the development of the religion# $hese included four documents describing the life of Besus, now known as the Gospels according to /atthew, /ark, Luke, and Bohn# $hey also included several letters written mostly by "aul to early fellowships, advising the members and commenting on the teachings of Besus# $ogether, the Gospels and the letters form the core of what is now called the ew $estament, a significant part of the )hristian +ible# St. *ugustine As %ome entered its darker days, corruption, poor leadership, and encroaching barbarian hordes were common themes# !n the fifth century )#E#, a monk in %oman orth Africa who would come to be known as St. Augustine o! ippo .32>4>36 )#E#0 began to write the book ity o! &od. Although many written works of St# Augustine survive, this one is particularly important because it points out the e(istence of a duality- even though the city of God on earth .%ome0 might fall to
n"erre'ional Trade 6e"+or?s St# Augustine's work in %oman orth Africa illustrates the spread of )hristianity to all parts of the %oman Empire and beyond# )hristians also brought their religion to /esopotamia, "ersia, and !ndia and even into )entral Asia by way of the trade route connecting communities in Europe and Asia called the Silk Roads. $he overland roads were interregional in that they connected regions
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of various civili*ations over long distances# $hey took several different routes depending upon the climate, the friendliness of the territories being crossed' and the number of bandit attacks in a given period# /ost of the traders took routes through )entral Asian cities such as Samarkand and $ashkent Some went through !ndian cities such as "ataliputra and into the city of Fathmandu in epal# $raders often paid a portion of the goods as tribute to local lords to allow safe passage through their territories# 7verland routes from )hina separated at the desert town of Dunhuang, one going north, one straight west, and one to the south# $he routes overland generally converged at )onstantinople, and from there goods went to %ome either overland or by sea# .$est "rep- )reate a chart comparing the spread of )hristianity with the spread of oroastrianism and the spread of +uddhism# See pages @6 and 88#0 Sea Routes %ome also conducted e(tensive trade to the east across water# /aritime commerce continued across the !ndian 7cean as monsoons permitted# =p the %ed Sea, after touching at Africa, goods at last reached the port of %ome at 7stia# Although pirates were a constant problem, the waters of the /editerranean were more easily navigated than those of an ocean because of smaller distances and numerous island stopping places# $he %omans lacked sophisticated navigational equipment, but they still made truly ama*ing trips as far north as the Scylly !slands .the +ritish islands most southerly from the coast of ales0, from which %oman ships brought back tin# ew Technolog" and ew oods A ma?or advancement that made its way westward from )entral Asia was the stirrup for mounted warriors# Stirrups provided greater stability for riders, which made horses easier to ride and control and, hence, more useful# 7ther goods9silks and spices and especially gold9were much pri*ed by the upper classes of the %oman Empire# ot only did )hina grow wealthy from trade with %ome, but other cities along the Silk %oads .and increasingly on the trans4Saharan routes across northern Africa0 also benefited from that trade# $he markets of Samarkand, for e(ample, introduced new fruits and vegetables, as well as rice and citrus products from Southwest Asia, to Europe# !n East Africa, a large variety of imports and e(ports overlapped, suggesting a healthy trading economy# .$est "rep- rite a paragraph comparing the effects on trade of the stirrup and the camel saddle# Seepages 5@245@@#0
ecline o$ "he Em*ire rom its peak in si*e and strength, %ome began a slow, uneven decline that began after the third century )#E# or e(ample, the population of %ome declined from over one million to under 566,666# Population $ecline 7ne cause of the waning population was directly related to the empire's e(pansion# $he Silk %oad brought trade and wealth, but it also introduced devastating epidemics# !n the second century )#E#, %ome e(perienced a marked decline in population caused by plagues of smallpo(,
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and measles# Epidemics killed as many as one4quarter of the population in some cities# Diseases spread again in the third and fourth centuries, and yet again in the si(th century# ith the decline in population came a decline in trade, which led to slower economic activity and fewer ta(es for the %oman state# As ta( revenues dipped, %oman roads and aqueducts were not repaired as often and armies were not paid as regularly# Armies mutinied and trading became less safe, which continued the downward spiral of the empire's wealth and power# &n#ironmental Problems $he success of %oman culture led to population growth around the /editerranean region# !ncreasing demand for lumber, for buildings, and for fuel led to deforestation# !ncreasing demand for food led to overgra*ing and farming marginal lands, resulting in soil erosion# Challenges from +on,Romans $he growth of the empire resulted in a larger area to defend# $he empire had traditionally been able to absorb non4 %omans, such as the Germanic &isigoths who settled in the empire and adopted an agricultural lifestyle in the second century# However, in the fifth century, the Huns led by Attila moved into Gaul from farther east# $heir westward progression forced other peoples9the &isigoths, 7strogoths, &andals, and ranks9ahead of them into the empire# $hese additional groups settled around estern Europe and orth Africa# $he turmoil from so much movement proved too widespread for %oman soldiers to handle# $he &isigoths even sacked %ome in >56 )#E# $he last %oman emperor was replaced by a Germanic ruler97dovacer9 in >1@# rom that period on, the remains of the empire were governed from )onstantinople# .$est "rep- rite a paragraph comparing the breakup of the %oman Empire with the breakup of the Han Empire# See page 562#0
&e'acies o$ "he Romans $he decline of the %oman Empire did not mean the end of their influence# $he empire divided into two parts under -iocletian .ruled :;>43620, with %ome remaining the capital of the western portion and +y*antium remaining the capital of the east# $he eastern portion flourished for many more centuries# 7nly the western portion continued to decline# However, %oman influence can be seen throughout the world today but most strongly in Europe, Southwest Asia, and the =nited States# Law and o#ernment 7ne clear inheritance from the %omans in the =nited States is the system of representative government with a Senate and House of %epresentatives as provided for by the =#S# )onstitution# $he writers of that document, such as Bames /adison, were students of %oman history, and they consciously adopted %ome as a model# 7ther institutions, such as checks on the legislators provided by the ?udiciary and independent courts abiding by the rule of law, can also be traced to the %omans#
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Architecture $he architectural feature known as the dome and paved roads are contributions of the %omans# %oman columns, temples, and amphitheaters can still be seen today throughout the world# /agnificent e(amples of aqueducts are scattered throughout Southern Europe and the /editerranean area# 7ther practical innovations include large urban sewers as well as under4floor heating in urban homes# E(cavations at two %oman cities, "ompeii and Herculaneum, attest to %oman building skills# $he %omans put their considerable e(pertise in engineering to work in both public and private buildings# hat remains of %oman structures reflects a solid style obviously built for permanence# /ilitary hen )aesar declared to the %oman Senate in his report on the success of war in Asia /inor, "%eni, vidi, vici .
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Historians have come up with many e(planations for %ome's decline# hy did a region of prosperity and innovation become one in which people had less wealth and less ability to overcome new problems 7ne !nternet site listed :56 reasons# Some historians argue that the empire grew too large to be governed with the technology of the time# 7thers argue that the empire's wealth was wasted by too many wars of conquest 7r that too many leaders became too corrupt# 7r that too many common citi*ens became too la*y#
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-mpact of Christianit" 7ne of the most provocative theories comes from the eighteenth4century English historian Edward Gibbon# He partially blames )hristianity, with its emphasis on peace, forgiveness, and devotion to God, for undermining the %oman values that built the empire- military conquest, ruthless destruction of opponents, and intense loyalty to the %oman leaders# $esire for Status )anadian historian Arthur +oak, in his 58:5 book A istory o! Rome to 010A.-., saw a wide4ranging
E4 TERM B4 T/EME iS .
TATE-B&6% &e4ublic Senate 2agistrates Tribunes onsuls
%ctaian ?attle o Actiu! Pa Romana onstantine !dict of "ilan St. Augustine
chec=s and balances as o the Tele Tables icero arthage unic $ars Vandals egions atiundia S4artacus &ebellion 2arius Sulla o!4ey 2agnus
se4aration o church and state E6R6ME6T A4ennine 2ountains truscans atins &o!e Tiber &ier Tyrrhenian Sea cata4ults siege deices stirru4
CA& TRCTRE 4atricians 4lebeians e@uestrian class C&TRE Virgil The Aeneid %id 4icureanis! Stoicis! Syncretis! pontife maimus !ystery cults esus eter aul hristianity !artyrdo!
ulius aesar 2arc Antony
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