ANCIENT EGYPT
EGYPTOLOGY
T.D. VAN BASTEN © 2016 All Rights Reserved
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INTRODUCTION Our fascination with ancient Egypt actually extends back to the dynastic periods itself. Royal family members and key princes during some New Kingdom eras were very interested in the mysterious and storied history of their home land and worked to preserve monuments, stories, temples, etc. When the Arabs finally ended the Egyptian culture, for all intents and purposes, the interest in the history of the nation did not die with the end of dynastic Egypt. The Arabs themselves were highly fascinated with the enduring and rather strange culture they bore witness to. What most of us would consider to be the academic study of ancient Egypt, Egyptology, is thought to have begun during the invasion of Napoleon and the French. We know that Napoleon had a keen interest in ancient Egypt and after his successful invasion, he wished to learn as much about this mystical land as he could. He sent out a bevy of scholars and researchers to document everything they could about the monuments, culture, and administration of this land. The lack of ability to understand the written Egyptian language made it difficult to do much more than try to make assumptions about these peoples based on context. We could derive some logical conclusions from grave goods, monuments, art work, etc., but actual details about ancient Egypt was more the stuff of speculation before the discovery and subsequent deciphering of the Rosetta Stone, which allowed us to begin to read the words of the ancient Egyptians themselves. Napoleon’s love for Egypt quickly spread with the publication of The Description of Egypt, which was the culmination of the research done by his men. This allowed the western world its first tantalizing glimpse into the majesty of ancient Egypt and we were immediately hooked. This book is thought to have sparked off the phenomena called Egyptomania, which can really be said to continue to this day. The 19th and early 20th centuries were seen by some as the heyday of Egyptology. It was during this time that massive and sophisticated constructions were excavated from the sands of the desert. We found amazing towns, temples, and other complex structures that still baffle many scholars to this day. With the improvement of archaeological practices, we learned the value of careful and thorough investigation of sites as this would add to the richness and depth of our understanding. Now, in the 21st century, much about the ancient Egyptians is still not known. As our technology advances, particularly DNA analysis and non-invasive scanning, we are
learning even more about this magical land. These technologies have given us glimpses into the lives and deaths of the Egyptians in a way that simply could not have been imaged a few hundred years ago. Our scans are showing a number of interesting anomalies that beg for further investigation, as well as the tantalizing clues to, perhaps, a previously undiscovered chamber in the tomb of the boy-King Tut, It is certainly an exciting time to be a scholar of ancient Egypt.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction I: The Foundations of Egyptology II: Origins III: The Development The Initial Findings A Scientific Focus A Business Focus
IV: Recent Achievements V: A Living Science of Death Conclusion A Note from T.D. van Basten About the Author Ancient Egypt Biographies
I
THE FOUNDATIONS OF EGYPTOLOGY Most people understand Egyptology to be a field of study that is concerned with the dynastic historical periods of ancient Egyptian history which includes the Old Kingdom, Intermediate Periods, and New Kingdom. This is an accurate assumption, but the field of study actually includes a varied number of interdisciplinary approaches. The study of Egyptology is mainly concerned with the region of the Nile Delta from the 5th century B.C to the 7th century A.D. This encompasses the dynastic period up until the conquest by the Arabs. Traditionally, Egyptology is seen as either a philosophical area of study or an archaeological one. There are actually a number of different disciplines that are included within the field of Egyptology and a wide array of skills that the average Egyptologist must possess in order to do their job. While it may, at first, feel like a fairly narrow focus of study, one finds that Egyptology is actually incredibly multifaceted. While we think of Egyptology as a western pursuit, it actually has far older roots. We see an interest in the study and preservation of ancient Egyptian history even back during the New Kingdom dynastic times and after the takeover by the Greeks. Pharaohs such as Thutmose IV are said to have restored the Sphinx (one of many times this world treasure was dug out of the sands and repaired in various ways). One of Ramses the Great’s many sons was known to have a passion for the restoration and preservation of the history of his nation and was involved in the repair and restoration of many different monuments, including the pyramids at Giza. Even Egypt’s royal families during the New Kingdom had a fascination with their roots and history.
1 The Pyramids of Giza, vintage engraved illustration. One of Ramses the Great’s many sons was known to have a passion for the restoration and preservation of the history of his nation and was involved in the repair and restoration of many different monuments, including the pyramids at Giza. In an academic sense, the earliest roots of the study of ancient Egypt and its storied history came with the invasion of the Greeks. A number of famous Greek historians and philosophers wrote about Egypt. The so-called “father of history,” Herodotus, wrote of Egypt, as did Strabo. Perhaps most famously of all the Greek writers of Egyptian history is the Ptolemaic priest, Manetho, who’s history still provides the base of a good deal of study of ancient Egyptian history. Although, through the words of other historians, because sadly, the writings of Manetho were lost in history. We only have others accounts of Manetho’s works to base our understanding of this time on, but these, while they may be incomplete, have proven invaluable in our understanding of these ancient peoples. With the Arab conquest and the “close” of traditional ancient Egyptian history, there was even still an interest and effort in studying the history of the country. Professors in Cairo’s Arab academic institutions wrote of Egypt’s history and many wonders.
We know that many people may see academic Egyptology as a western pursuit, most would mark the beginning of the field of study we call Egyptology at some time after the first Europeans began to visit and write about the history and monuments of the nation. Beginning in the 13th century A.D., we start to see the first writings about ancient Egyptian history written by Europeans. For the most part, the “study” was relegated to basic descriptions of wondrous architecture, as well as the writing down of stories and mythologies they were able to recover from the local people, though these were not always reliable. Over time, the study of ancient Egypt would become more professional, rigorous, and scientific. The first real attempt at a scientific study of ancient Egypt that we know of was that of John Greaves. In the 17th century A.D., Greaves would undertake measurements of the pyramids, and these findings would culminate in an illustrated book of his findings. This provided unbiased data and illustration that could be utilized by many other historians and Egyptologists who wished to interpret the meaning of the monument. The so-called “father of Egyptology” is, for many, a Jesuit priest by the name of Athanasius Kircher. It was he who speculated that hieroglyphics held a deep importance and significance in Egyptian culture, that they were more than mere ornamentation. He was to associate that later version of ancient Egyptian, Coptic, to the earlier forms of Egyptian writing. Perhaps he was inspired by readings of Ibn Wahshiyya the Chaldean, who was studying the hieroglyphs earlier before him in the 10th century. Seeing these connections is seen by many as the start of the understanding of the long, consistent, and culturally resilient history of the ancient Egyptians. Napoleon also took a keen interest in Egypt and its history. During his periods of conquest, he sent a number of expeditions to the lands of Upper and Lower Egypt in attempt to unlock all of the supposed secrets that the ancient land held. Many findings were done in this particular expedition, one of the most important discoveries was the Rosetta Stone. When the British defeated the French and took possession of Egypt, they also took possession of the Rosetta Stone, which would prove invaluable in the deciphering of the hieroglyphic language. Though, perhaps ironically, it would ultimately be a Frenchman who deciphered this important stone. Egyptology, in the modern sense, really “came of age” somewhere around 1822. This was when more professional and thorough studies of ancient Egyptian monuments and culture began to flourish. It was after this time that famous monuments were discovered and documented in great detail. The study really took a huge leap forward when the Frenchman, Jean-Francois Champollion began to decipher hieroglyphics.
Once we were able to read and interpret the wealth of inscriptions and other written material, our knowledge and understanding of these ancient, enduring people began to become more clear. With the work of famous Egyptologists like William Flinders Petrie and Howard Carter, the academic, professional study of ancient Egypt really began to take hold in the popular culture. What Does It Include? It is easy to say that Egyptology is the study of dynastic ancient Egyptian history, but this simplifies the wide knowledge base that is truly required to make an academic study of ancient Egyptian history. The field of Egyptology requires an understanding of architecture, art, religion, general historical time lines (including details of ancient warfare), as well as ancient political and social administration. It requires broad understanding and integration of knowledge from seemingly disparate fields of study to fully understand this period and culture. How Does It Work? Noting that there are many sub disciplines that are involved in the academic study of Egyptology does little to clear the proverbial picture. Egyptology is an interdisciplinary field. That means that a number of different, even seemingly unconnected, fields of study come together to form our understanding of ancient Egypt. When most people think of ancient Egypt, they think about the consistent art and architectural styles that pervaded the thousands of years that encompass ancient Egyptian history. Or, perhaps, they think about the sophisticated and layered pantheon of gods and mythologies. Both of these areas - architectural studies or religious studies – represent entirely separate fields of study. There are many people who specialize in general ancient architecture, or ancient religion. For the Egyptologist, a general grasp of both of these fields of study is necessary to understand Egypt in context. There are many different skills that are required to understand the workings and belief systems of an ancient society that is so different from the world we currently live in. It shouldn’t be surprising then, that many people will specialize in a particular field within the broad umbrella of Egyptology and make an entire career out of it. There are many different areas of focus for the Egyptologist. These include field work,
religious study, art and architectural history, general history, language, or even a focus on a specific dynastic period of time. At any level and regardless of specialty, an knowledge of archeology, anthropology, and mythology are prerequisites to this field of study. For those who wish to do field work, training in archaeological practices is necessary, as well as a working knowledge of Arabic. Many recommend that Egyptologists learn either French or German (or both!) so they can read the original source documents in their native language. For those who wish to read tales of the afterlife and Egyptian history in its native tongue may study hieroglyphics, Demotic script, or Coptic script. Knowing these ancient languages can help with the direct translation of ancient written material. Due to the extensive Ptolemaic, or Greek-influenced, period of Egyptian history, many Egyptologists will also learn Greek so as to read the very earliest historical accounts of ancient Egyptian history. Some of the first unbiased historical descriptions of ancient Egypt were undertaken by the Greeks, who were themselves fans of history. These descriptions gave us some of the very first glimpses into the inner workings of Egyptian society. The Egyptologist who is focused on the language-related aspects of Egyptology is often referred to as an Egyptian philologist, whereas those who focus on art and architecture are called archaeological Egyptologists.
II
ORIGINS For as long as we’ve been documenting history, ancient dynastic Egypt has held our interest and fascination. This was an enduring empire with an incredibly stable culture with an organizational and belief system that demonstrates a keen understanding of their environment and the importance of cultural continuity. There is an air of mystery and exotic intrigue that has seemed to catch many people’s fancy throughout the course of history and will likely continue to enchant us for many years to come. Wonders of the world were constructed here, some of the most famous names in history lived and died here, and Egypt has long held an air of esoteric mystery, even to those we in modern times would consider ancient. This makes it difficult to truly pinpoint the “origin” of Egyptology, as even ancient Egyptians had a fascination with their own history. Such a long, enduring culture that spanned literally thousands of years is naturally something that would fascinate people within and without Egypt. The development of Egyptology as a field of academic study was a long evolution from personal interest to professional preservation practices. Even in dynastic times, Egyptians were interested in their long and storied history. They were interested in understanding their past, the meanings of massive constructions, and the preservation of their longstanding culture. By the New Kingdom, Egypt, as a stable culture, had been in existence thousands of years, an amazing feat for any civilization. The first people outside of Egypt to write extensively about the history and wonder of the land were the Greeks. Famous Greeks such as the “father of history” Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Strabo all wrote about ancient Egypt. Herodotus’ writings are seen as particularly important as he tried to make the understanding of history a more unbiased pursuit. Before Herodotus, most history was written in the form of an epic poem, such as the works of Homer. Herodotus, however, wanted a more straightforward, unembellished, linear account of history and this is what he sought out to do. He performed investigations and actually went to the places he wrote of, talked to the people, and tried to construct a more historically accurate version of history than we had previously seen. This, of course, would cost a lot more time and effort back in the days compared to the world we find ourselves in right now.
What we would call “western” Egyptology originated during the time of Napoleon. Napoleon, the famous conqueror, invaded Egypt between the years of 1798-1801. He was immediately enchanted with the land and storied history of Egypt. Accompanying him on his conquests was a group of scholars and researchers. He tasked this group with documenting and exploring Egypt’s long history. While he may have involved these scholars for more selfish personal interests, it dramatically expanded the western world’s familiarity and interest in this storied land. The culmination of these efforts resulted in the publication of the landmark book, Description de l’Egypte (Description of Egypt). This was the first time that a large amount of quality source material about ancient Egypt was available to the western world. So great was the ensuing interest in this storied land that it launched what has been referred to as Egyptomania. During the invasion by Napoleon, a French engineer discovered the famous Rosetta Stone. However, it would still be a few decades before the secrets of the Rosetta Stone were deciphered. This discovery, however, would prove to be one of the most important in the history of Egyptology. Without the Rosetta Stone, we may have never been able to decode the mysterious hieroglyphic language and learn, first-hand, about the life and times of these ancient peoples. It was due to the fact that we could not understand hieroglyphics that there was such a great aura of mystery surrounding ancient Egypt. There was a whole wealth of inscriptions, writings on papyrus, graffiti, and more, that we simply could not read or understand. This meant that we had no choice but to try to fill in the proverbial blanks with the paltry amount of information we had at our disposal. This lead to a lot of false assumptions and stories with large holes in them.
2 The Rosetta Stone. Without this stone, we may have never been able to decode the mysterious hieroglyphic language and learn, first-hand, about the life and times of these ancient peoples. After years of diligent work, Jean-Francois Champollion was able to begin deciphering the Egyptian language as he began to decode the Rosetta Stone. By 1822, he had completely deciphered the Rosetta Stone and allowed for a much more accurate and detailed understanding of Egyptians, their ancient culture, religious customs, means of political organization, and more. There was a huge wealth of information that could now be translated, thus dramatically raising our knowledge of these ancient people and taking us beyond the realm of speculation. Once we were able to understand the language, we became better equipped to understand the people and the context of the times they lived in. Knowing the language helped us to make more sense of the art and architecture of this ancient land. And while it certainly answered a lot of the enduring questions we had about ancient Egypt, deciphering the language also brought with it a whole new set of questions that we are, still to this day, trying to answer. Though these were certainly incredibly exciting times to be an Egyptologist, there was still so much more left to learn and discover. Our ability to decipher hieroglyphics was the tip of the proverbial iceberg.
3 Jean-Francois Champollion, vintage engraved illustration. By 1822, he had completely deciphered the Rosetta Stone and allowed for a much more accurate and detailed understanding of Egyptians, their ancient culture, religious customs, means of political organization, and more.
III
THE DEVELOPMENT Due to the continuity of the culture and all the mysteries that surround the life, art, and architecture, we have been fascinated with ancient Egypt for thousands of years. The development of our interest in Egyptology presents an interesting evolution of a curiosity into an academic discipline. When Egyptology first started, it was more an internal interest of noble Egyptians, as time progressed, it became a bastion for adventure seekers and lovers of mystery. As time passed, we realized the need to use professional practices and preservation efforts, and the interest in Egyptology became an academic, scientific field of study. It did not, however, start that way, and a lot of irreversible damage has been done as a result. Early excavators, before the field of archeology was really established with practices and procedures, used highly invasive ways of entering into burial chambers, old temples, and more. It was not unheard of to literally blow your way through the opening of a tomb to gain access to the interior. They did not have much care for the structures themselves, merely the potential treasure that may lie inside. Both foreign explorers and native opportunists are responsible for a large deal of degradation and destruction that we cannot even begin to quantify. Untold amounts of architectural material were destroyed, along with untold number of inscriptions and paintings. As the study has progressed, we have also seen a lot of infighting. There is a lot of heated debate over who the history of ancient Egypt “belongs” to. It has long been a predominately western field and a good deal of Egypt’s antiquities has found themselves in European and American museums, rather than in museums within Egypt itself. This has created a lot of tension and bitterness. This is coupled with the fact that in the earlier years of professional Egyptology, some didn’t have the professional scruples that are now required. This means that many had no issue with purchasing stolen or black market antiquities, as well as secreting them out of the country despite rules banning such activities. It is still a contentiously debated topic. Many westerners point to cultural and political instability as a key reason that antiquities should be kept by westerners, but this is also a rather unfair way to look at things. Since, at the outset of the more rigorous study of Egyptology, it was the pursuit of amateurs, rather than professionals, there was a lot of “bad archeology.” Many explorers were what some call “dynamite archaeologists.” This means what it sounds like, these explorers would literally blow their way into tombs to search for treasure or other finds
that might bring them fame or fortune. Because of these poor practices, as well as a lack of appreciation for more than just the possible finds of monetary value, a lot of history was destroyed or simply overlooked. A lot more was poorly cataloged and ended up in the private collections of wealthy westerners. There was little to no respect paid to the fact that these tombs contained remains of actual people and later archaeological digs would find human remains unceremoniously scattered and even defaced or intentionally broken up.
THE INITIAL FINDINGS As mentioned earlier, the study of ancient Egypt well predates the western interest in the subject. However, it can be fairly stated that during the 19th and 20th centuries, the study of ancient Egypt began to develop into a true field of academic study. As time passed, we saw better excavation practices being utilized that were far less invasive and destructive, causing much less “collateral damage”. With the introduction of western interest in Egyptology, information about this mysterious ancient culture began to be disseminated to other parts of the world. With lucky finds and rigorous study, we were able to unlock the secrets of the hieroglyphic language. This allowed the world a truly accurate and intimate glimpse into the life and times of the ancient Egyptians, as told in their own voices. This achievement alone is, perhaps, the most important in all of Egyptology, as we had direct source material about the belief systems, practices, administration, and more, of these ancient peoples. The new-found western interest in Egypt led to the categorization and documentation of many of the wondrous art and architectural achievements of the ancient Egyptians. It led to more and more people becoming interested in the academic study of these ancient people and performing these studies in a means that preserved the history and did not cause undue damage to the surrounding structures. Ultimately, this increase in interest made the field more accessible, but also more focused on preservation and reducing damage cause by excavation. With more and more money being poured into expeditions to Egypt to document and discover more about the mysterious history, the west became more and more entranced with the amazing accomplishments of peoples that thrived thousands of years before our time. It was during this time of great discovery that we began to learn about the secrets held within the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens. We were able to decipher the language and thus understand the vast array of inscriptions and other writings we had collected. It seemed that with each passing year, another key discovery was being made in the mid1800s through the 1920s. It was a time when we saw our understanding of these people and their history expand many times over. During this time, we uncovered the revolutionary and controversial city of Amarna, which was founded by the heretic king, Akhenaten. This gave us a glimpse into one of the most unstable and revolutionary times in Egyptian history. During the rule of the heretic king, the capital of Egypt was moved
and the entire religious structure of the country overhauled. This unwelcome change would mark the end of a golden age in Egypt that was never again attained. We started to uncover the massive constructions at the holy Karnak temple complex, as well as explore the internal structure of the great pyramids at Giza. This was the time when we began to uncover the prolific constructions of Ramses the Great from the temple complex at Abu Simbel, to the Ramesseum. We found the site of Hatshepsut’s famous and beautiful mortuary temple and learned of the unlikely leadership of a female pharaoh. It was during this time that Howard Carter uncovered the now-famous, mostly untouched, tomb of the boy-king Tut, who would go on to become one of the most well-known of all of ancient Egypt’s many pharaohs.
A SCIENTIFIC FOCUS Egyptology really began to flourish as an academic discipline after the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon and the French. Napoleon was well known to have had an intense fascination with ancient Egypt. Upon the invasion and control of the country, he sent out a team of explorers and scholars to document and learn as much about ancient Egyptian history and culture as possible. This can be seen as the “true start” of Egyptology as a less biased, more academic, field of study. One of the most influential early books about ancient Egypt, The Description of Egypt, was the culmination of the efforts of Napoleon’s researchers. This publication would bring some of the first source material to the western world about ancient Egypt. During this time, another discovery was made that would later become seen as the most important archaeological discovery in the history of Egyptology. This is, of course, the mentioned discovery of the Rosetta Stone.
4 Napoleon, vintage engraved illustration. Egyptology, is thought to have begun during the invasion of Napoleon and the French. We know that Napoleon had a keen interest in ancient Egypt and after his successful invasion, he wished to learn as much about this mystical land as he could. Auguste Mariette, a French Egyptologist, established the Egyptian-based Antiquities Service, as well as founding a museum with which to house the collected discoveries of Egyptian history. Mariette was an early contributor to the field but seemed to have a keen understanding for the need to protect and preserve the amazing legacy of the ancient Egyptians. Unlike many that would follow, he would not try to secrete all his knowledge and findings out of the country, he set up his institutions within Egypt itself. In addition to the desire to preserve Egypt’s history, Mariette was also a strong proponent of nondestructive and minimally-invasive excavation procedures. Looking back on it now, many would argue that this was hardly a scientific time in the field of Egyptology, but the professional practices had to be developed from somewhere, from some experience, and it was these pioneers that helped establish said practices that would go on to be refined so as to better preserve the sites being excavated. In early archeology in Egypt, little heed was paid to the actual structure trying to be breeched. The main concern was the potential treasure inside. Thus, not much respect was paid to anything that was deemed invaluable, from countless inscriptions, to the actual remains of ancient Egyptians themselves. A good deal was destroyed by early invasive intrusions into ancient tombs or mortuary temples. As interest in Egypt increased, so too did the interest of treasure seekers who had heard the tales of the riches to be found in the many tombs of the ancients. The locals too were looking to profit off this new interest and the subsequent tourism it provided. There were many who helped with the evolution of the study of Egypt into an academic discipline. One of the most important early contributors was Jean-Francois Champollion. It was he who was ultimately responsible for the deciphering of the famous Rosetta Stone in the 1820s. This helped move forward our understanding exponentially as we could finally begin to translate and interpret the wealth of inscriptions and other written material that we had, to that point, been unable to read. Another important early Egyptologist was the Prussian, Heinrich Brugsch. It was Brugsch
who compiled the first Egyptian dictionary, providing a great resource to future scholars and students. He was also the first person to provide interpretations of some of the dynastic Egyptian texts uncovered at the time. One of the most famous, and arguably most important, early contributors to Egyptology, was Flinders Petrie, who would later be knighted and become Sir Flinders Petrie. In 1880, Petrie began what would be a storied 40-year career of excavation and writing about the history and architecture of ancient Egypt. He was one of the most prolific writers in early Egyptology. He sought to develop professional “best practices” so as to reduce damage to excavation sites and to enhance our efforts of historical preservation of the sites. He wanted to create a methodology that could be used across the field of historical archeology and his work did a lot to further this cause. German Egyptologist, Adolf Erman, was one of the first historians to cover the predynastic and very early periods of Egyptian history. He was the first westerner known to provide a chronology for the earliest known periods of predynastic and early dynastic times. Prussian Egyptologist, Karl (Carl) Lepsius was conscripted by the then-king of Prussia, Frederich Wilhelm IV. Lepsius was tasked with undertaking an expedition to Egypt for a historical study that was along the same lines as what we saw when Napoleon invaded the country. The result of this research trip was the publication of Denkmaler aus Aegypten und Aethopien (Monuments of Egypt and Ethiopia). This was a 12-volume series of books that was comprised of 900 different slides of Egyptian inscriptions with interpretations and descriptions also provided. This was such an important piece of source material on ancient Egypt that it was still used by students and scholars into the 20th century and is still referred to even to this day. French-born researcher, traveler, and historian, Emile Prisse d’Avennes wrote extensively about ancient Egypt, as well as the ancient Arabic world in general. Most famously, he is known for the acquisition of what would be dubbed the “Prisse Papyrus.” The Prisse Papyrus was obtained in Thebes (now Luxor) in 1856. The document is from the 12th dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. Though just a fragment, it contains part of the important text, Instructions of Kagemni. The instructions are a series of utterances and maxims pertaining to the development of virtue of character. This is one of the only known surviving fragments of this important document and is now housed in Paris at the Bibliotheque nationale de France. Another famous contributor to early unbiased study of Egyptology was the English writer Amelia B. Edwards. She wrote the famous travelogue, published in 1877, called A
Thousand Miles Up the Nile, which was a description of a trip she took between 18731874. In addition to writing about ancient Egypt, she also co-founded the Egypt Exploration Fund (now the Egypt Exploration Society) and served as its honorary secretary. She also gained notoriety after she went on a lecture tour across America, discussing her experiences in Egyptology. Gaston Maspero was a French Egyptologist – born Italian - perhaps best known for coining the term “Sea Peoples” to refer to the mysterious invaders that regularly came from the Mediterranean. He wrote extensively on ancient Egypt and is best remembered for his efforts to further the understanding of the complex ancient Egyptian religion and mythology. He found a number of French journals dedicated to Egyptology, as well as a repository of knowledge for French Egyptologists.
A BUSINESS FOCUS Not all endeavors into the study of ancient Egypt were undertaken for their academic, cultural, or social merit. It became clear pretty early on that there was a monetary aspect as well, and that the interest in Egyptology could actually be the basis for a whole business enterprise. The western fascination with ancient Egypt was seen as a potential monetary boon for people within and without of the country and they were quite right about this notion. Egypt was one of the first (but certainly not the last) historical regions that has been pillaged, plundered, and then slowly eroded as tourist traps. We see some of the first inklings of the business element of the fascination with Egypt shortly after the invasion of Napoleon and the French. As a wealth of new, exciting, and mysterious information about ancient Egypt became available to westerners, the trend of Egyptomania was sparked. This refers to the explosion of western interest in ancient Egypt that started with Napoleon’s conquests and could, arguable, still be said to be going on to the present day. Unfortunately, Egypt’s gift would also be Egypt’s curse. The storied history that was filtering into the western media was drawing interest from adventurers and treasure seekers alike. Wealthy explorers traveled to Egypt or funded expeditions and it was during this time that we started to see the removal of a vast amount of Egyptian cultural antiquities from their native land and taken back to various places in Europe. It was not just European explorers and treasure hunters who were responsible for the destructive pillaging that occurred in pretty much all of these ancient sites. As more and more westerners with expendable income flocked to Egypt, the financially-struggling locals saw an opportunity to better their plight. Natives have been looting royal and noble tombs since dynastic times. It was well known that pharaohs, royalty, and nobility were buried with untold riches, making them targets of grave robbery almost as soon as the person was entombed. As the nature of Egyptology began to change, locals began to see that westerners were willing to pay huge amounts of money for seemingly worthless antiquities and began to sell them on a very active black market. There were more tomb robbers than can ever be accurately accounted for. Some of them even went on to enjoy a marginal amount of fame for their exploits. Unfortunately, their plundering was done without care for the historical and religious value of the places they
were plundering. People were more than willing to skirt the law to find fame and fortune via ancient Egypt. Perhaps, most famously of the early westerners that became known for their lack of scruples, was Henry Salt. Salt was a wealthy English traveler, diplomat, and collector. During his career, he had been involved with a number of government-sponsored missions to various places in Africa such as Ethiopia, as a means to determine whether or not there was potential for political or economic relations with the local governments. In 1815, he was named British consul-general to Egypt and was stationed in Cairo. It was during his tenure as consul-general that he began to collect vast amounts of Egyptian antiquities. Most famously was the head of Ramses the Great from the megalithic construction, the Ramesseum. This artifact is now to be found at the British Museum. He is also known to have purloined Ramses III’s burial sarcophagus, which is now at the Louvre in Paris. Among other things, Salt was known for his willingness to circumvent legalities in his quest to collect ancient artifacts. He would benefit richly from the fame he obtained from the donations he made to various museums, as well as the monetary benefit he received as a result of selling portions of his vast collection to various antiquities collectors in Europe. In addition to exploring himself, he also funded the expeditions of others. During his first year in Cairo, Salt was fortuitously introduced to Giovanni Belzoni. Belzoni was a Venetian strong man turned explorer. He was commissioned by Salt to help with the physical movement of the giant head of Ramses from the site to the river where it could then be transported back to Europe. This was no small undertaking in those days. This was a 7 ton statue and there were no motorized machines that they could use to raise artifacts of this size. Belzoni was able to accomplish this daunting feat though. It took 130 men 17 days, but with levers, ropes, and pulleys, and a lot of elbow grease, Belzoni and his men were able to transport the giant head to the river for transport. While many in the western world see this as an amazing feat, many Egyptians were less enthusiastic with having their temples dismantled and removed from the country.
5 Giovanni Belzoni was commissioned to help with the physical movement of the giant head of Ramses from the site to the river where it could then be transported back to Europe. This was no small undertaking in those days. This was a 7 ton statue and there were no motorized machines that they could use to raise artifacts of this size He also entered the sepulcher of Seti I and the second pyramid at Giza, becoming the first westerner known to do so. He also found and cleared away the sand from around the famous temple complex of Ramses the Great at Abu Simbel. This temple complex remains one of the most iconic, known for its massive statues of Ramses that line the entrance of the temple. Due to the need to build the Aswan Dam, this site was later dismantled, piece by piece, and relocated and reassembled some hundred miles from its original location. While his finds were remarkable and contributed greatly to our knowledge of ancient Egypt, his methods were invasive and destructive. He had no respect for the native desire to retain their history in their home land. He was commissioned to do a job and he did it, without regard for the true meaning of what he was actually doing. The early days of Egyptology wrought untold amounts of destruction on ancient artifacts and even the ancient peoples themselves. Tombs, “worthless” artifacts, and even mummies were callously destroyed or cast aside to become victims of the ravages of time. A good
deal of ancient Egypt’s history is located in other parts of the world, not Egypt. Mummies, countless artifacts, and even monuments such as obelisks have been removed from their native lands and can now be found in various places throughout Europe and America. On the one hand, we can be thankful for the preservation of this history, on the other hand, we have to be sad for all that was destroyed through primitive and financially-motivated excavation efforts.
IV
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS It might seem like the heyday of Egyptology ended before the turn of the 20th century, but there were a great deal of discoveries that happened after the initial explosion of findings related to ancient Egypt. Even up through the present day, more of Egypt’s secrets continue to unfold as we discover more constructions, more about the lives and times of the people themselves, and this allows us to develop an even clearer picture of these mysterious ancient peoples. It might be fair to say that we will never fully understand the mystery and history of the lands of Upper and Lower Egypt. But with new technology, improved methods of study, and greater knowledge sharing, we can learn as much as is possible about a people so far removed from our modern times. While many mark the deciphering of the Rosetta Stone by Champollion as the greatest find in Egyptology, it is not the only find that dramatically moved our understanding forward. When it comes to ancient history, it can be difficult to separate fact from mythology. The more we learn, the deeper our understanding becomes, allowing us to separate fact from fiction – reality from religion. What we have found is that, though the technology was different, the social and religious customs quite foreign to what we have in the modern day, they were, in many ways, also not that different from modern people. They were law-abiding, god-fearing people who wanted to raise happy and healthy families, just like the people of today. But for all the similarities, they were also incredibly different from us in the modern world that they can almost seem alien. Some of the customs are still not understood, including the development of the Egyptian culture itself. For all intents and purposes, it appears that Egypt, as a culture, emerged fully formed from the sands of the desert at the banks of the Nile. Logic tells us that this cannot be possible, but even to this day, there is much to discover about ancient Egypt, both in its predynastic times, as well as during the period we are all so familiar with. With all that said, there have been a few discoveries that have really changed our understanding of these ancient people, or allowed us to add a richness to our understanding of their lives. What follows are just a few of the most important modern and recent discoveries about ancient Egypt. The findings discussed here are by no means the only ones of importance, however, they are the most well-known and accepted as having significantly furthered our ability to interpret the information and mythologies we found.
Perhaps the most well-known discovery during the modern history of Egyptology was the discovery of the relatively unsullied tomb of the boy-king Tutankhamen. Discovered by Howard Carter during excavations in 1922, this was one of the biggest finds in the history of Egyptian archeology. It was this discovery that reignited worldwide interest in ancient Egypt. The tomb yielded a wealth of luxurious grave goods and even the remains of the ancient pharaoh. This would give us amazing insight into the lives and burial practices of ancient royalty and also gave us some of the most iconic Egyptian artifacts ever found, such as King Tut’s famous gold death mask. Recent studies of King Tut’s chamber reveal exciting potential for future discovery and will be discussed in detail later on. One of the major, yet unsung, finds for modern Egyptologists came with the discovery of the town of Deir el-Medina. Deir el-Medina, which in ancient times was called Set Maat (“The Place of Truth”), was an artisan’s village. The inhabitants of this ancient village were the builders and artists who constructed the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, as well as their families. The village was inhabited continually for some 400 years during between the 18th and 20th centuries BC (during the New Kingdom). These were, for the most part, skilled workers and artisans, so they do not represent the peasant class of Egyptian society, however, they do give us a detailed and unparalleled glimpse into the lives of more “regular” citizens of the Egyptian empire, as opposed to simply the ruling class. Excavation of this village began in 1922 by Bernard Bruyere. Unfortunately, what should have been a landmark discovery was quickly overshadowed by the discovery of the tomb of King Tut by Howard Carter during that same year. This find has been unmatched and yet, to this day, is still a rather obscure finding. While it may not be as “sexy” as finding gold and other riches of a pharaohnic burial, it actually provides us with tangible information as to the daily lives of regular people. The excavation of this site gave us great detail and insight into the lives of everyday Egyptians (albeit upper middle class skilled workers). This was incredibly valuable information as a good deal of what we know about the people of ancient Egypt is limited to the royal class and the priestly class. To date, no other site like Deir el-Medina has ever been found.
6 Deir el-Medina, which in ancient times was called Set Maat (“The Place of Truth”), was an artisan’s village. The inhabitants of this ancient village were the builders and artists who constructed the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, as well as their families. To date, no other site like Deir el-Medina has ever been found. The so-called Khufu Ship was an incredibly important find made by Kamal el-Mallakh back in 1954. el-Mallakh discovered a pit at the base of the Great Pyramid at Giza that contained a huge boat, remarkably well preserved some three thousand years after it was placed in the ground. The discovery was important as it showed us just how advanced the ancient Egyptians understanding of the engineering of water vessels was, even back in Old Kingdom times. This made us rethink that relative sophistication and level of advancement we attribute to ancient Egyptians. The boat is said to be a rather remarkable feat of engineering, especially given the antiquity of the craft. In fact, the Khufu Ship is one of the oldest surviving boats we have from antiquity. Boating experts claim that the ship is of a solid design such that would allow it to safely traverse a river or lake, even today. It was not, however, designed for actual use, at least it does not appear so. It appears that the boat, dubbed a solar boat or
solar bark, was intended to be symbolic of the king’s journey across the sky, similar to the daily journey made by the sun. Evidence to support the idea that this was intended to be a symbolic vessel, not an actual water-going vessel, comes in the form of what is missing from the boat. There is no indication of any rigging for sails, nor is there any room for oars or paddlers. These things alone indicate that the boat was not actually used for travel. It does stand to reason, though, that they had an understanding of these concepts and thus, would have been able to build an equally well-built boat that was fitted with the proper equipment for actual use on water.
7 The so-called Khufu Ship was an incredibly important find made by Kamal el-Mallakh back in 1954. The discovery was important as it showed us just how advanced the ancient Egyptians understanding of the engineering of water vessels was, even back in Old Kingdom times. In more recent times, new technology has allowed us to gain greater insight into the life,
death, and inner details of the lives of ancient Egyptians. One field that has allowed us to make new discoveries is the field of DNA testing. For a long time, all we really had in terms of evidence to make sense of remains and other finds was contextual. Improvements in our ability to obtain DNA and make sense of it have allowed us to peer into the actual makeup of the ancient Egyptians. Through DNA sequencing and other genetic techniques, we can learn of an individual’s racial heritage, their general health, and even the means with which the mummy was embalmed. However, due to the possibility of modern contamination of genetic samples, making any major assumptions based on DNA sequencing data of mummies remains very controversial. One of the main ways we are learning about ancient Egypt during current times is through the use of various types of scanning and other non-invasive means of peering inside ancient monuments or underground. These scans have helped us to identify locations of ancient settlements, other monuments, as well as to alert us to a variety of anomalies present in some of the already discovered tombs and monuments which beg further investigation. Recent thermal scans of the Great Pyramid at Giza show some very interesting temperature anomalies that beg further study. These scans have shown that there are three adjacent cut stones at the base of the Great Pyramid that show significantly higher temperatures than the stones surrounding it. The two main proposed reasons for this anomaly are the presence of a chamber or air shaft, or, perhaps, the use of different materials (which radiate heat differently) in the construction of the monument. There were additional temperature anomalies found in the upper portion of the Great Pyramid too, leading to a wide array of theories as well as desire to probe deeper into these mysteries. Infrared satellite imaging has also helped further Egyptology in that it can pick up on underground structures that can lead archaeologists to good places for excavation. Recently, such satellite imaging has shown the presence of some 1,000 tombs, a number of new pyramids, and at least 3,000 different settlements. Initial excavations at these sites have confirmed the findings of the satellite images and further excavation of these sites is presently underway.
8 Recent thermal scans of the Great Pyramid at Giza have shown that there are three adjacent cut stones at the base of the Great Pyramid that show significantly higher temperatures than the stones surrounding it, leading to a wide array of theories as well as desire to probe deeper into these mysteries One of the more popularized discoveries from ancient Egypt during recent times came within just the last couple of years. British Egyptologist Nicholas Reeves performed some scanning in the internal structure of the burial chamber of King Tut and found what he thinks is evidence of an additional chamber within the tomb that has been undiscovered for many thousands of years. Reeves’ claims led the Egyptian Antiquities department to order more high tech scans of the tomb to see if there was anything to these claims. As it turns out, sophisticated infrared and laser scans appear to confirm Reeves’ claims that there is, indeed, another open space behind the walls of King Tut’s tomb. This finding has led to much speculation as to what may lie on the other side of this newly discovered doorway. Reeves and others claim that it may be the previously undiscovered remains of the famous, beautiful Queen Nefertiti, who was King Tut’s stepmother. Others think that the chamber may hold the remains of Kiye, who was another one of Akhenaten’s wives. Akhenaten was, of course, the heretic king and father of the boy-king Tut. The people who disagree with the assumption that a royal wife is to be found in this
newly discovered chamber. They claim that even a powerful Great Royal Wife like Nefertiti would never have been buried in the illustrious Valley of the Kings as that was against tradition, something the ancient Egyptians took very seriously. With the scans that seem to confirm Reeves’ initial findings of a previously unknown chamber, plans must be made to access said chamber to see what it contains. This has to be very carefully planned as excavation must proceed in such a way as to not damage any potential finds behind the wall or the exiting tomb of Tut itself.
V
A LIVING SCIENCE OF DEATH As with pretty much all other fields of study, the study of ancient Egypt has evolved greatly since its earliest days. While we know that there was interest in ancient Egypt back in dynastic times, as we have discussed along in this book, we most often consider the start of the study of ancient Egypt as a field of academic study, to have been around the time that Napoleon invaded Egypt and sent out a bevy of scholars to research and document their findings. While it may seem a bit macabre, much of what we know about ancient Egypt, we have learned from the dead and the customs that surround death and the afterlife. For ancient Egyptians, this was a key focus during their lives. Preparing for the afterlife was one of the most important and enduring activities undertaken throughout pharaonic times. Death, like birth, was seen as another beginning to the ancient Egyptians. There was a whole other “life” after the one we experience on the physical plane and so, naturally, there is a lot we can learn about the people based on these customs. It is fair to say that we probably know more about the death and afterlife of ancient Egyptians than we do about their actual daily life. So much of what has stood the test of time is either related in some way to death and rebirth, or it relates to the pantheon of varied gods worshiped by the ancients. So much about ancient Egyptian culture was different than our own, but this could especially be said when it comes to their feelings and practices surrounding death. In many ways, death was a series of tests, followed by something that was rather similar to actual life. When we first started documenting the monuments and artwork of ancient Egypt, it became clear that they had a sophisticated culture surrounding death and life after death. However, during the earliest times of Egyptology, we could only make assumptions based on what we could see, as well as whatever context we might be able to glean from the peoples who have long lived with these monuments. This meant that we made a lot of bad assumptions, but we did the best we could with the limited information we had available to us. After Champollion deciphered the Rosetta Stone, we were actually able to read the written word of the Egyptians and this allowed the field to become a more rigorous, scientific, and academic discipline. We had a huge wealth of different inscriptions and documents that we
had been unable to decipher until the time of Champollion. There was much work to be done to translate and interpret the wealth of written material we were beginning to discover. In the late 19th century, the archaeological element of Egyptology really began to come into its own. At first, our archeology was messy and destructive, but it was also still highly informative. Much of what we excavate is either tombs, thus related to death, religious monuments, and in some rare cases, actual villages and settlements of skilled Egyptian artisans. These discoveries gave us the bulk of the information we currently have related to ancient Egypt. As time progressed, our practices got more professional and standardized. This allowed for easier interpretation of information, as well as an increased ability to share research across nations. There were a great many amazing discoveries in the early 1900s that really showed us just how important preparation for the afterlife was to the Egyptians. We learned that one of the first orders of business for a newly crowned king was to begin to plan and execute his burial chamber. Even with this advanced planning, due to the variety of ailments and uncertainty of the times, many rulers had to be buried in tombs that were not finished. In many ways, it seems like the Egyptians saw the afterlife as rather similar to the life they lived here on Earth. The journey to the afterlife would be fraught with complications, trials, and tests. Once these proverbial (and sometimes literal) waters were traversed, one would settle into a life that had a lot in common with corporal existence. One still had to perform work, such as farming and daily house chores. This is markedly different than many modern ideas of the afterlife, but to the Egyptians, this made perfect sense and they took the preparations for their version of the afterlife seriously. A king would not like to find themselves without adequate levels of help when they become an Osiris in the sky of the afterlife. As no royal pharaoh would deign to take part in these humble activities of daily life, much of the grave goods they were buried with were effigies of servants, slaves, farmhands, etc., that would be animated and then perform the work needed for the maintenance of the king and his various needs. These were often called “ushabtis” and were generally made of wood. They believed that the dead needed to be buried with all they would need in the afterlife, which was much the same as what we need in this life: food, drink, a work force, clothing, and, of course, a few little luxuries to make your stay in the afterlife a little nicer. This meant that many graves were almost bursting at the proverbial seams with goods. This fact was well known by all and sundry, which is why the tombs were so often the target of tomb robbing mere years after the tomb was sealed with the king’s remains inside.
What started out as a merely observation-oriented field of study has become an increasingly-complex field of academic study where many focus on very specific subsets of the study of ancient history, such as focusing on the religious structure of Egypt, or the language of the nation. The professionalization of the field, coupled with advances in technology has really allowed us to expand our understanding and is still leading to the unweaving of ancient mysteries to this day.
9 Preparing for the afterlife was one of the most important and enduring activities undertaken throughout pharaonic times. Death, like birth, was seen as another beginning to the ancient Egyptians. There was a whole other “life” after the one we experience on the physical plane and so, naturally, there is a lot we can learn about the people based on these customs.
CONCLUSION We have come a long way in our understanding of ancient culture, but the more we learn, the more questions also seem to be raised. The study of ancient Egypt has been no different. This was an enduring, complex culture that had a remarkable degree of continuity that is pretty much unknown in any other time in history. There was a pride in tradition, in doing things as they had always been done since Zep Tepi (“the First Time” when the gods like Osiris ruled the land). This is something that has not been seen again in documented history, at least not to the same degree. Many other cultures have long been fascinated with Egypt. Many in ancient Greece thought that much knowledge and wisdom originated in ancient Egypt. This mysterious land was able to capture the fascination of a good many people. The first known inquiries into the history of ancient Egyptian history came during the New Kingdom dynastic times when princes and members of the royal family became more interested in the preservation of their cultural heritage. When the Arabs conquered the lands of Upper and Lower Egypt, they too became fascinated with the storied history and pursued their own study of the history and mystery of the lands on the banks of the Nile. What we would consider Egyptology really began with the French. Napoleon was enamored with ancient Egypt. So much so that after he conquered the country, he sent of retinue of scholars to document everything they could pertaining to ancient Egypt. These research efforts culminated in The Description of Egypt, a publication that would prove to be one of the most important in the spread of interest in Egyptology. So fascinated was the western world with this mysterious land that this publication sparked what has been dubbed “Egyptomania,” which was the fervent interest westerners developed in the study of ancient Egypt. After Napoleon’s conquest, the study of ancient Egypt had officially gained traction. Egypt attracted a good many different kinds of people: from those who were interested in history to those who saw the opportunity to make a fortune. This led to westerners heading to Egypt in droves to look for possible fame and fortune in the sands of Egypt. This would end up being both a good and a bad thing. It was good in that we really began to learn a lot about ancient Egypt with the discovery of monuments, goods, and other materials that we could use to glean information about these ancient peoples. However, many people did not appreciate anything outside of potential treasure. This meant that a
lot of the methods used were rather unprofessional, including the use of what has been called “dynamite archeology.” This type of excavation completely destroyed much of the structure itself (most often a tomb), as well as any information that might have been gleaned from wall paintings or inscriptions. As the field progressed, so too did the adoption of less invasive, standardized, professional practices for the excavation of tombs and other monuments. During this time, a great deal of Egypt’s storied history was spirited out of the country and into western museums and private collections, something that would cause there to be a lot of tension between western Egyptologists and native Egyptian Egyptologists. These tensions still pervades to this day as there is a lot of debate as to who really “owns” the history of these people. Once we learned how to read Egyptian hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic script, our understanding of the inner lives and customs of the Egyptians expanded greatly. It was after we could translate these documents that we really learned about the traditions, the continuity, the religion, and the administration of the lands of Upper and Lower Egypt. Being able to read the words of the Egyptians themselves allowed us an unprecedented glimpse into the lives of such a fascinating culture that thrived for thousands of years before western civilization emerged. With each passing year, we learned more and more about these people and also the importance of preserving their history for posterity. History is not only a rich, highly entertaining story, but it is a valuable lesson about where we came from and how we got to be what we are today. Hundreds of years have passed since the first westerners entered Egypt with the intent to uncover the secrets of this mysterious land. And while she has yielded some of her secrets, there is still a great deal to be discovered about Egypt, and also much that is probably permanently lost to the proverbial sands of time. A new resurgence in Egyptomania has spread throughout the world in recent years due to a variety of new and potentially dramatic discoveries. Our technology has significantly improved and this gives us new ways to glean information about people who lived long ago. From new, highly sophisticated, forms of DNA analysis, we can learn much about the racial history of the individual being studied, and even much about their health and cause of death. Non-invasive scanning procedures allow us to “look” through the ground or solid stone to see what might be potentially found within. Recent discoveries of temperature anomalies within various portions of the Great Pyramid at Giza has led to a new generation of people interested in uncovering the mysteries of this massive megalithic structure. Recent scans performed in the tomb of the boy-King Tut indicate the likelihood of the presence of additional chambers behind one of the walls that
was, until now, unknown. There is a lot of excitement surrounding this discovery as many scholars have speculated that there could be an undisturbed tomb behind these walls, perhaps even the tomb of the infamously beautiful Queen Nefertiti. The coming years prove to hold exciting things for the study of Egyptology.
A NOTE FROM T.D. VAN BASTEN Thank you very much for reading Egyptology, If you enjoyed it and found what you were looking for, please be so kind to take a moment to leave a review at your favourite retailer such as Amazon.
Leave a review I also welcome contact from readers. You can find me on Twitter, and I would be more than happy to get in touch with you. If you enjoy my books, you can also choose to follow me on Twitter or Amazon to be notified of new releases. ̶ T.D. van Basten
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR T.D. van Basten is a 25-year young man living in the Mediterranean region to follow his passion and explore the old historical areas. He is a passionate lover of history. Growing up, he has always loved to learn about the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and other historical events. With his power of imagination, he could almost live and see the world as how it used to be. After graduating from the University, he began to see and explore the world. Taking trips to various regions himself, such as Egypt to discover the pyramids and famous tombs. Followed by spending months in Spain and the surrounding areas, where he still lives. This allowed him to see the worlds that he loved first hand. Over the years, he has assembled an extraordinary collection of artifacts, and he is now ready to share the tales that he always loved with you. Visit the author page
ANCIENT EGYPT BIOGRAPHIES THE EGYPT OF CLEOPATRA
Cleopatra VII (69 BC - 30 BC), the last Pharaoh of Egypt, was a very educated, crafty, ambitious and clever woman. Her intellect and charisma – far greater than her beauty and sexuality - allowed her to keep the power for nearly twenty years by fighting against – and allying with - the greatest power at the time, Rome. Although her history was written by who defeated her and, therefore, modified according conveniences of them, there have been found, in recent archaeology researches, evidences of her intellect and achievements that portrayed her beyond her beauty and sexual power. She captivated the two greatest Romans of her time, and destroyed herself. Cleopatra was representing everything that the
Romans didn’t like. Not only was she a woman, but she was a woman with power.
THE EGYPT OF NEFERTITI
For centuries, the beautiful, mysterious Queen Nefertiti, has captured our imaginations. We do not know very much about the woman’s origins, or her demise, which only adds to her mysterious appeal. What we do know, however, is that she was the wife of one of the most controversial and radical of all of ancient Egypt’s Pharaohs. Her husband, Akhenaten, often referred to as the “Heretic King” started a revolution for the proto-monotheistic cult of Aten, the sun disk. This revolution led to dramatic social and political changes during what was later called the Amarna Period. From a huge upheaval in the traditional power structure of the nation, the outlaw of traditional gods, and even the relocation of the capital of the nation, there were actually deliberate attempts from the rulers who came after to erase this period of Egyptian history from the historical record. And they nearly succeeded.
THE EGYPT OF KING TUT
Upon the opening of the famous tomb of King Tutankhamen, Carter and his team found a huge array of sumptuous grave goods. However, they also found a very small tomb, lacking the well-known royal depictions and wide array of different paintings and inscriptions. Even the grave goods, while luxurious, did not seem fit for a king for his journey to the afterlife. The many mysteries surrounding Tut led to many fantastic rumors, including that of a curse on the tomb of the boy-king. Circumstances and seemingly sudden deaths, fueled by media coverage, helped ignite the rumor that there was a curse on the tomb and that those who worked within it or benefited from the goods within it would suffer a grisly fate. There were just enough bizarre coincidences to fuel the rumors and convince many of the existence of a curse on the tomb of King Tut.
THE EGYPT OF HATSHEPSUT
Hatshepsut was the first and arguably most powerful female to rule as pharaoh during its long and storied history. Her rule was highly unconventional, yet she had the support of the power brokers at the time. Somehow, during her long reign as pharaoh with her stepson, she managed to maintain positive relationships with the right constituency, as well as her co-ruler. It would seem likely that, if there was internal strife within the royal house as to the moves made by Hatshepsut, there would be some documentation or indication of this tension in the historical record. As of the time of this writing, no evidence of poor relations or civil strife has ever been found.
THE EGYPT OF RAMSES II
In all of Egypt’s long and storied history, Ramses the Great stands out as one of the best known and successful of all. Ruling the country for some 67 years, Ramses II ruled over Egypt during a time of stability and prosperity. His rule was marked by economic prosperity, successful military campaigns, and impressive building projects. He wanted from the very beginnings of his long reign, to ensure that his legacy was sealed, literally in stone, and that reminders of his rule were so ubiquitous that he would not be forgotten. In this, like many other elements of his kingship, he was highly successful and he has gone down in history as a legendary ruler.
THE EGYPT OF THUTMOSE III
Thutmose III was one of the most known and respected of all of Egypt’s pharaohs, regardless of dynasty or time period. He ruled during the New Kingdom, which is often seen as the “star-studded” dynasty in ancient Egyptian history because that’s the dynasty where many of the “big names” come from. He had the benefit of a lengthy co-rule that allowed him to develop and hone his military skills which would serve him incredibly well during his time in power. His early life and rule were rather unusual, and he was a powerful person, even when he was just a mere infant. He was the son of Thutmose II and one of his lesser wives of common heritage. Thutmose II was married to the incredibly powerful Queen Hatshepsut, but the two were unable to produce a male heir which meant they had to look to Thutmose II’s harem for a suitable successor. Thutmose III was the chosen successor.
