CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH Instructional Goals 1. To generate To generate interest in research for the students by driving home the point that successful managerial problem solving is nothing other than understanding and analyzing the situation at hand, which is what research is all about. 2. To help students differentiate between differentiate between research-based problem solving and “going by gutfeeling”, the latter of which might sometimes help to solve problems in the short term, but might lead to systemic long-term adverse conseuences. !. To create an appreciation in students that research is useful for solving problems in "## areas of business. $. To help students develop an appreciat app reciation ion of the role of the manager in facilitating the researcher or the consultant%s consultant%s wor&. '. To stress the importance of skill development in research, as opposed to mere gathering of &nowledge about research. (. To To emphasize that research and &nowledge about research resear ch enhance managerial effectiveness. ). To To sensitize students to ethical conduct in business research.
Discussion Questions 1. Wh shoul! a "ana#er $no% a&out research %hen the 'o& entails "ana#in# (eo(le) (ro!ucts) e*ents) en*iron"ents an! the li$e+
The manager, while managing people, products, events, and environments, will invariably face problems, big and small, and will have to see& ways to find long lasting, effective solutions. This can be achieved only through &nowledge of research even if consultants are engaged to solve problems. ,. -or %hat s(eciic (ur(ose is /asic research i"(ortant+
*asic research is important for generating and building upon the e+isting &nowledge in the areas of interest. t offers the foundation for applied research by which one can circumvent reinventing the wheel. 0. When is A((lie! research) as !istinct ro" /asic research) useul+
"pplied research is useful in solving specific problems in particular situations where early action might be needed to solve problems in organizations.
. Wh is it i"(ortant to &e a!e(t in han!lin# the "ana#er2researcher relationshi(+
The manager who &nows how to relate to researchers facilitates the problem solving process and benefits the research team as well as the organization. organization. ne who is not adept at this will frustrate and be frustrated during the research process and thereafter. *eing capable of handling the manager-researcher relationship is thus a big advantage and some of the nuances of handling research teams are /i0 nowing how much and what information to give to the team /ii0 3eaningful and purposeful interactions with the team members /iii0 4tating from the outset what records of the company will and will not be accessible to the team members and e+pressing the core values of the system.
3. E4(lain) #i*in# reasons) %hich is "ore i"(ortant 5 A((lie! or /asic research+
*oth are eually important. 5ithout basic research, applied research cannot wor& as well, and if the results of basic research are not applied, such research would be futile. 5hereas basic research is the foundation of &nowledge, applied research is its practical application and helps to provide the additional information base for theory building and further generation of &nowledge. 6. Gi*e t%o s(eciic instances %here an e4ternal research tea" %oul! &e useul an! t%o other scenarios %here an internal research tea" %oul! &e !e(loe!) %ith a!e7uate e4(lanations as to %h each scenario is 'ustiie! or an e4ternal or internal tea".
The answers will wil l vary. 6or the external team, the suggestions could be ". to help non-tech companies to build up sophisticated technology in their environment /only those with specialized &nowledge of technology can help nontech companies0. *. to evaluate the successful and deficient operations of the company /to avoid bias of internal team members0. 6or the internal team, it could be ". to figure out how the companies affected by the 4eptember 11th disaster can rebuild themselves /internal team would be more &nowledgeable about the company and could rebuild faster0. *. to solve the problem of consistent losses of a small division of a large company /only a small poc&et of a large company is involved and the situation can be rectified by the internal team0. 8. Descri&e a situation %here research %ill hel( ou as a "ana#er to "a$e a #oo! !ecision.
"gain, the answers will vary. ne scenario is that a wor& team fails to deliver results time and again. 9. Gi*en the situations &elo%) :a; !iscuss %ith reasons) %hether the %ill all into the cate#or o A((lie! or /asic research) an! :&; or scenario 1 e4(lain) %ith reasons) %ho %ill con!uct the research.
Scenario 1
7ompanies are very interested in acuiring other firms even when the latter operate in totally unrelated realms of business. 6or e+ample, 7oca-7ola has announced that it wants to buy 7hina 8uiyuan 9uice :roup in an effort to e+pand its activities in one of the world%s fastest-growing beverage mar&ets. 4uch acuisitions are claimed to to “wor& miracles.” 8owever, 8owever, given the volatility of the stoc& mar&et and the slowing down of business, many companies are not sure whether such acuisitions involve too much ris&. "t the same time, they also wonder if they are missing out on a great business opportunity if they fail to ta&e such ris&. 4ome research is needed here; This is a general issue that relates to all or most companies contemplating acuisitions. f course, the results of the study are li&ely to be useful to, and applied by b y, all the concerned companies. This could fall into the realm of basic or applied research, depending on who sponsors the study. f one company or a consortium of companies investigates the issue to find an answer for immediate application, then it will be applied research n the other hand, if a 6inance professor in a university underta&es the study as a matter of academic interest, it will be basic research.
" university professor wanted to analyze in depth the reasons for absenteeism of employees in organizations. 6ortunately, 6ortunately, a company within 2= miles of the campus employed her as a consultant to study that very issue. The basic research aspiration of the professor has ta&en the form of applied research in this particular system, where they would apply the findings of her research to solve the problem. >o >o doubt, the professor would continue her research in a variety of organizations to add to the e+isting base of &nowledge on absenteeism and continue the topic as a basic research pro?ect. Scenario 0 Eects o Ser*ice Reco*er on Custo"er Satisaction
" research scientist wants to investigate the uestion 5hat is the most effective way for an organization to recover from a service failure@ 8er ob?ective is to provide guidelines for
establishing the proper AfitA between service failure and service recovery that will generalize across a variety of service industries. This will be a case of basic research, the purpose of which was to study the efficacy of different service recovery strategies and add to the body of e+isting mar&eting &nowledge.
CHAPTER , SCIENTI-IC IN
Discussion Questions The first two uestions are straightforward and the answers may be e+tracted from the te+t. 0. One hears the %or! research &ein# "entione! & se*eral #rou(s such as research or#ani=ations) colle#e an! uni*ersit (roessors) !octoral stu!ents) #ra!uate assistants %or$in# or acult) #ra!uate an! un!er#ra!uate stu!ents !oin# their ter" (a(ers) research !e(art"ents in in!ustries) ne%s(a(er re(orters) 'ournalists) la%ers) !octors) an! se*eral other (roessionals an! non(roessionals. In the li#ht o %hat ou ha*e learne! in this unit) ho% %oul! ou ran$ the aore"entione! #rou(s o (eo(le in ter"s o the e4tent to %hich the "i#ht &e !oin# >scientiic? in*esti#ations+ Wh+
To the e+tent that any of the above groups conforms to the hallmar&s of science, they would be doing scientific investigation. t is uite possible that poor research is done by research agencies, and e+cellent research is conducted by a graduate assistant. The ultimate test is the rigor of the research which would lend itself to testability, replicability, accuracy and precision, generalizability, ob?ectivity, and parsimony. Besearch organizations and research departments in industries engage themselves in both basic and applied research and usually have the resources reuired to conduct scientific investigations using rigorous data collection methods, sampling designs, and data analysis. 3ost professors in colleges and universities are well trained to conduct scientific investigations, though their resources may not, in most cases, be as plentiful as that made available in research organizations and research departments. *ecause of restricted resources, professors may have to compromise somewhat on methodological rigor /e.g. use a small sample0 which might restrict the generalizability of their findings. 8owever, their research might otherwise be scientific. "pplied researchers doing action-oriented research, are somewhat restricted in even disseminating information about their findings due to the localized nature
of their inuiry which may not pass many of the criteria of the hallmar&s of science. Coctoral dissertations conducted under able guidance and supervision uite freuently ma&e valuable contributions to the body of e+isting &nowledge. 3uch of this research is later published as ?ournal articles, and some get published as boo&s because of their contributions to &nowledge. 4tudents% term papers are meant to be e+ercises in s&ill development for integrating materials and communicating ideas in written form. <+ceptional research papers, when refined and published, could ualify for being termed as scientific investigations. >ewspaper reporters and ?ournalists may obtain e+tensive primary and secondary data but their investigations are confined to a narrow range of current incidents, events, or individuals, which are of passing interest with little generalizability to other times, events or individuals. 8ence, they cannot ordinarily be termed scientific investigations. 4ome newspaper articles, however D as for instance, economic and environmental investigations D provide data, analysis of data, and valid conclusions drawn there from, which might later be used as secondary data by other researchers. These would be categorized as more scientific in contrast to articles or editorials in the paper. "cademic ?ournals usually publish articles that are scientific and some of the practitioner-oriented articles are probably somewhat less scientific than the academic articles in terms of rigor and generalizability. To the e+tent that lawyers, doctors, professionals and nonprofessionals present their findings that have wide testability, replicability, generalizability, accuracy and precision, ob?ectivity, and parsimony, they will be scientific. 8owever, if these investigations are confined to single cases, incidents, or individuals, they cannot be called scientific investigations despite the fact that they may be found useful. . E4(lain the (rocesses o !e!uction an! in!uction) #i*in# an e4a"(le o each.
The hypothetico-deductive method of research helps the researcher to deduce or infer from the results of data analysis and hence is the deductive process. 6or e+ample, if as a result of analysis of data collected, one infers that the problem of turnover can be minimized by three important factors /i0 fle+ible wor& hours /ii0 recognition of superior performance of wor&ers through suitable merit pay raises and /iii0 enriching certain types of ?obs, this is the deductive approach. nduction is a process of drawing inferences from observed phenomena which may subseuently be put to the test through hypothetico-deductive method of research. 6or instance, if a manager observes that people residing at distances beyond '= miles from the wor&place remain absent more freuently than those he &nows to reside close by, and infers thereby that distance is a factor in absenteeism, this is an inductive process. 3. I research in the "ana#e"ent area cannot &e 1@@ (ercent scientiic) %h &other to !o it at all+ Co""ent on this state"ent.
Besearch in the management area dealing with human behavior cannot be 1== percent scientific. 8owever, such research is necessary and useful for detecting problems and coming up with solutions to
ensure that problems do not get out of control. 3anagement research ma&es a valuable contribution inasmuch that it can help organizations function smoothly and effectively and help managers and individuals at all levels in organizations e+perience and en?oy a better uality of life. 6. Criti7ue the ollo%in# research !one in a ser*ice in!ustr as to the e4tent to %hich it "eets the hall"ar$s o scientiic in*esti#ation !iscusse! in this cha(ter. The -rien!l Tele(hone Co"(an
7ustomer complaints were mounting, and letters of complaint regarding the problems they e+perienced with the residential telephone lines were constantly pouring in at the 6riendly Telephone 7ompany. The company wanted to pinpoint the specific problems and ta&e corrective action. Besearchers were called in, and they spo&e to a number of customers, noting down the nature of the specific problems they faced. 4ince the problem had to be attended to very uic&ly, they developed a theoretical base, collected relevant detailed information from a sample of 1== customers, and analyzed the data. The results are e+pected to be fairly accurate with at least an E'F chance of success in problem solving. The researchers will ma&e recommendations to the company based on the results of data analysis. The hallmar&s of science are purposiveness, rigor, testability, replicability, precision and confidence, ob?ectivity, generalizability, and parsimony. This study meets the basic criterion of purposiveness. t cannot be called a rigorous study inasmuch as a theoretical framewor& seems to have been formulated merely on the basis of conversation with a number of customers and no scientific data seems to have been collected thereafter. 6or this reason, the replicability and generalizability criteria also suffer. 5ith customer complaints mounting, an E'F confidence level may not suffice. Gnless we &now the theoretical base, we cannot be sure that the criterion of parsimony is met. "ll in all, this is a good e+ample of a non-scientific investigation. 8. Strictl s(ea$in#) %oul! case stu!ies &e consi!ere! as scientiic research+ Wh or %h not+
7ase studies cannot be considered scientific since they do not subscribe to most of the hallmar&s of scientific research. Though they may be purposive and parsimonious, they are not rigorous. Testability and replicability are difficult and generalizability is virtually non-e+istent since each case situation is uniue. 9. What is Action Research+ Descri&e a s(eciic situation %here action research %ill &e %arrante!.
"ction research is underta&en when incremental planned changes are contemplated in a system. t is a process of trial and error where tentative solutions are generated to test out how well they wor&. 3odifications are underta&en as each step in the change process and its conseuences are evaluated. "n e+ample would portray that of an organization wanting to attain a certain goal /shooting for a star0 and ta&ing incremental steps to reach the goal, one step at a time. 4pecifically, a company could be
aiming for near zero turnover of its staff. t could try increasing the per&s by first offering day care facilities and watch its effects. Then it might give more vacation time, and then enhance pay, and so on.
The Dile""as o Doroth Dunnin# Corothy Cunning, 7hief Hroduction 3anager, was on top of the world ?ust two years ago. n her nontraditional ?ob, she was cited to be the real bac&bone of the company, and her performance was in no small measure responsible for the mergers the institution was contemplating with other well-&nown global corporations. f late though, the products of the company had to be recalled several times owing to safety concerns. Iuality glitches and production delays also plagued the company. To pro?ect a good image to consumers, Cunning developed a very reassuring web site and made sweeping changes in the manufacturing processes to enhance the uality of the product, minimize defects, and enhance the efficiency of the wor&ers. " year after all these changes, the company continues to recall defective products; 7reating a web site and ma&ing sweeping changes has not produced the desired results. The real problem is undetected and can only be identified through research. 3aybe, the problem is not in the manufacturing processes, but the low motivation of employees; " scientific research of the problem situation will help to pinpoint the problem and solve it.
CHAPTER 0
THE RESEARCH PROCESS THE /ROAD PRO/BE AREA AND DE-INING THE PRO/BE STATEENT Instructional Goals 1. To clarify to the students that though the Besearch Hrocess has distinct phases, some of the steps follow an iterative, rather than a linear process. 6or e+ample, the problem statement could be redefined after the theoretical framewor& is conceptualized, after data analysis, and in fact, at any of the stages in the process. 2. To illustrate that identifying the *road Hroblem "rea sets the stage for focusing on literature search and subseuently clearly defining the problem. !. To emphasize that preliminary data collection through interviews offers a great opportunity to narrow down the problem and identify the prospective variables influencing it. $. To develop interviewing and problem identification skills in students. '. To create a mindset in students of viewing a problem as a gap between desired and actual state of things in a system, and a solution as narrowing this gap. (. To encourage students to develop bibliographies by accessing available on-line data bases. ). To require students to write a good literature review in the areas of their research interests and to ma&e them aware that most class term papers could use this type of introduction to enhance their value.
Discussion Questions 1. Ho% %oul! ou !escri&e the research (rocess+
The research process includes a series of steps in identifying the variables to be studied and the method for conducting the study. The problem statement is a critical aspect. Though it is generated by having a good feel for where the gap between a desired state and the actual state e+ists in the system, the problem statement can be repeatedly honed and made more precise at various stages in the research process. The theoretical framewor& and hypotheses are important parts of the research process since these focus on finding the answers to the research uestion. :ood research design helps in finding reliable answers to the problem that is investigated. ,. E4(lain the (reli"inar !ata collection "etho!s.
Hreliminary data can be obtained through interviews andJor through literature search. These processes help to define the problem statement precisely and to formulate the theoretical framewor&. nterviews conducted at various levels are aimed at obtaining bac&ground information on the system that is investigated, the structure and processes that operate in the system, the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors of the people in the institution, and other related matters. The literature search will be based
on the factors that seem pertinent to the problem that is investigated. "fter locating all the references in the area, the wor& relevant to the problem at hand will be studied and a literature review written up. 0. Wh is it i"(ortant to #ather inor"ation on the &ac$#roun! o the or#ani=ation+
The bac&ground information of the company is li&ely to offer the researcher several clues on when the problems that are currently e+perienced by the company could have started and how they could have originated. ne can also assess how the other companies operating in similar types of environment in the industry might be different and in what way. 4ince multiple factors can influence the problem, the possibility that some of the bac&ground features of the company are influencing the situational problem cannot be ruled out. "dditionally, the bac&ground factors offer the researcher a good idea of how the philosophy and culture of the company are shaped, and to what e+tent they can be changed, if necessary. 7ollecting bac&ground information also helps to focus on critical issues and raise appropriate uestions during the interview process. <+amples of this are provided in the boo&. . Shoul! a researcher always in! inor"ation on structural an! 'o& characteristics ro" those
inter*ie%e!+ Gi*e reasons or our ans%er %ith e4a"(les.
t is almost always advisable for the researcher to gather some information on the structure and ?ob characteristics even though it may appear that the problem may not be related to either of these factors. 6or e+ample, the problem of not meeting the production deadlines may be directly related to the delayed deliveries of the raw materials by the suppliers. n such a case, the tendency might be to focus the data collection mainly as it relates to suppliers. 8owever, interviewing the employees and ascertaining their reactions to their ?ob, wor&-flow interdependencies, structure, and the li&e, might offer the solution that deadlines can be met even with delayed raw material supplies by changing the wor&flow patterns, or other structural aspects. t is for such reasons that some time should be spent on finding the ?ob and structurerelated information. There is also another way of loo&ing at this. 8uman beings operating in organizations face a multitude of factors surrounding them, many of which, directly or indirectly, influence their operating effectiveness. The structural factors such as policies and procedures, reward systems and ?ob factors do play a critical part in how outcomes for the organization are achieved. *ecause of this, it certainly helps to get a feel for these factors. f course, there is no need to spend a great deal of time on these unless there is some indication that there could be problems in these areas. "s an e+ample, it is possible that the age of the machinery could be blamed for low production, and sophisticated machinery might be installed without any appreciable difference in the results. 6urther investigation might throw light on the fact that the current incentive system does not encourage high levels of production, and this fact, rather than the type of machinery used, is the problem. >ot finding this before investing heavily on new euipment would be a costly mista&e;
3. Ho% %oul! ou #o a&out !oin# a literature sur*e in the area o &usiness ethics+
would first obtain all the references and abstracts relating to the area of business ethics through online systems, then organize the studies based on the particular aspects they address, and finally, write up a review of the available literature. 6. What is the (ur(ose o the literature sur*e+
*asically to ma&e sure that none of the important variables are left out in the study and to generate a parsimonious set of factors which would help to e+plain or predict the phenomenon under investigation. 8. Wh is a((ro(riate citation i"(ortant+ What are the conse7uences o not #i*in# cre!it to the
source ro" %hich "aterials are e4tracte!+
3ost published articles are copyrighted. There are rules as to how much can be uoted from the original te+t without obtaining the ?ournal%s and the author%s permission. f permission is not obtained for uotes e+ceeding the authorized limit, the individual uoting the material is liable to be sued for plagiarism and can even be e+pelled from the professional society to which he or she belongs. 9. >The (ro&le" !einition sta#e is (erha(s "ore critical in the research (rocess than the
(ro&le" solution sta#e?. Discuss this state"ent.
6inding the right solution to an incorrectly identified problem helps no one because the original concerns will still continue to e+ist. 8ence, pinpointing where e+actly the gap lies, for which a solution is needed, is critical. . Wh shoul! one #et hun# u( on (ro&le" !einition i one alrea! $no%s the &roa! (ro&le"
area to &e stu!ie!+
4ince a problem statement is a clear, precise, and concise statement of the issue to be researched, it offers a focus and direction to the research. n other words, it sets out the e+act purpose of the research and clearly states the uestion to which we are trying to find an answer. The broad problem area, however, due to its vagueness and wide scope of the issues that could be involved, leaves the focus of the research undetermined, and hence offers no sense of purpose or direction to the research. To put it differently, a broad problem area does not highlight the specific problem that e+ists. Gnless the precise problem is identified, a solution to it cannot be found. This is a&in to an individual going to a doctor saying he is losing weight /broad problem0. Gnless the physician can locate the reason for this weight loss /define the problem0, the situation cannot be rectified. 1@. Oer a clearl ocuse! (ro&le" state"ent in the &roa! area o cor(orate culture.
5hat constitutes corporate culture@ r, 8ow does corporate culture influence employee performance@
11. Ater stu!in# an! e4tractin# inor"ation ro" all the rele*ant %or$ !one (re*iousl) ho%
!oes the researcher $no% %hich reerences) articles) an! inor"ation shoul! &e #i*en (ro"inence in the literature sur*e+
The mass of information e+tracted from the various published research and technical and other reports, will indicate to the researcher the &ey variables that need to be considered in the particular situation where the problem has been identified. The choice of the variables for inclusion in the study will be a function of the freuency with which they are repeatedly found to be significant in the various research studies, the relevance of the variables to the current research conte+t, and considerations of parsimony. 8aving decided on the &ey variables for inclusion in the study, the researcher can then integrate the information found in the studies that discuss these variables. ther studies which had eually relevant variables but which had to be e+cluded from the current research for certain valid reasons should also be briefly discussed. The reasons for their e+clusion should be e+plicitly stated in the literature survey section. 1,. /elo% is the #ist o an article ro" /usiness Wee$. Ater rea!in# it) :a; i!enti the &roa! (ro&le" area) :&; !eine the (ro&le") an! :c; e4(lain ho% ou %oul! (rocee! urther.
5hile 7hrysler%s minivans, pic&ups, and sports utilities ta&e a big share of the truc& mar&et, its cars trail behind those of :3, 6ord, 8onda, and Toyota. Iuality problems include, among other things, water lea&s and defective parts. a. The broad problem is that the 7hrysler cars are lagging behind in mar&et share. b. Problem statement: 8ow can the mar&et share of 7hrysler cars be improved@ c. t is best to interview the users of :3, 6ord, 8onda, and Toyota car users and obtain from them their reactions D both positive and negative - to the cars they use and why they prefer them. 4imilar reactions from the users of 7hrysler cars should also be gathered. ne should proceed further based on the analysis of these responses. 10. Co""ent on the ollo%in# -ro" 10, to 18,) a research stu! %as con!ucte! in Tus$e#ee) Ala&a"a) to chart the eects o %ithhol!in# treat"ent to Arican A"erican "en %ith s(hilis.
This research smac&s of a totally unacceptable and unethical approach to the investigation. 1. What is the (ro&le" state"ent in the ollo%in# situation+
E"(loee Boalt 7ompanies benefit through employee loyalty. 7rude downsizing in organizations during the recession crushed the loyalty of millions. The economic benefits of loyalty embrace lower recruitment and training costs, higher productivity of wor&ers, customer satisfaction, and boost the morale of fresh recruits. n order that these benefits may not be lost, some companies, while downsizing, try various gimmic&s.
6le+ leave, for instance, is one. This helps employees receive 2=F of their salary, plus employer provided benefits while they ta&e a (-12 month sabbatical, with a call option on their services. thers try alternatives li&e more communication, handholding, and the li&e. Problem statement. 8ow can employee loyalty be maintained during periods of downsizing@ 13. Ho% %oul! ou !eine the (ro&le" in the ollo%in# case+
Accountin# Gets Ra!ical The :""H /:enerally "ccepted "ccounting Hrinciples0 do an unacceptable ?ob of accounting for the principal activities of the nformation "ge companies. Today, investors are in the dar& because the accounting is irrelevant. The basic purpose of accounting is to provide useful information to help investors ma&e rational investment, credit, and similar decisions, but today%s most important assets and activities D intellectual capital and &nowledge wor& D are totally ignored. Hrofessor Bobert ". 8owell wants to reform the accounting system with the goal of ma&ing clear the measurement of how companies produce cash and create value. Problem Definition: 5hat is the best way to improve the accounting system in the nformation "ge that would furnish useful data and information to investors to ma&e rational decisions@
Practice Pro'ects "nswers will vary.
A!!itional To(ics -or /i&lio#ra(h Biterature Sur*e "bsenteeism 6inancial 3ar&ets "lienation nterpersonal 7ommunication "ppraisal 4ystems #everage *uyout 7onflict Hrice 5ars 7ontrol 4ystems in rganizations Bole "mbiguity 7ommunication Bole 7onflict 7ompetence 4ense of 7ompetence Crug "buse and "lcoholism in ndustry 4tress <+ecutive 4tress Ta+ Beforms
CHAPTER THE RESEARCH PROCESS THEORETICAB -RAEWORF AND HPOTHESES DE
Discussion Questions 1. /ecause literature sur*e is a ti"e2consu"in# e4ercise) a #oo!) in2!e(th inter*ie% shoul! suice to !e*elo( a theoretical ra"e%or$. Discuss this state"ent.
#iterature survey is an important though time-consuming e+ercise and has to be done for several reasons.
There is no relationship between the uality of a model and the comple+ity of a model. Becall that parsimony is one of the hallmar&s of scientific research 4implicity in e+plaining the phenomena or
problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to comple+ research framewor&s that consider an unmanageable number of factors. " good theoretical framewor& identifies and defines the important variables in the situation that are relevant to the problem. 3oderating and mediating variables may or may not be important to the problem. " good model does not necessarily include moderating and mediating variables. 0. Aca!e"ic researchers usuall !e*elo( "ore co"(le4 an! ela&orate "o!els than a((lie! researchers. Discuss this state"ent.
>o. The comple+ity of a model is not related to type of research in terms of basic versus applied research. "gain, parsimony is one of the hallmar&s of scientific research. The term scientific research applies to both basic and applied research. . In an a((lie! research conte4t ou !o not nee! to e4(lain the relationshi(s &et%een the *aria&les in our conce(tual "o!el. Discuss this state"ent.
" theoretical framewor& is the foundation of hypothetico- deductive research as it is the basis of the hypotheses that you will develop. " theoretical framewor& represents your beliefs on how certain phenomena /or variables or concepts0 are related to each other /a model0 and an e+planation on why you believe that these variables are associated to each other /a theory0. *oth the model and the theory flow logically from the documentation of previous research in the problem area. ntegrating your logical beliefs with published research, ta&ing into consideration the boundaries and constraints governing the situation, is pivotal in developing a scientific basis for investigating the research problem. " good theoretical base thus adds rigor to a purposive study. Bigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of e+actitude in research investigations. Bigor is one of the hallmar&s of scientific research which pertains to both basic and applied research. 3. There is an a!*anta#e to statin# the h(othesis &oth in the null an! the alternate it a!!s clarit to our thin$in# a&out %hat %e are testin#. E4(lain.
The null hypothesis is set so that the alternate hypothesis becomes testable. 5hen the observed K value is greater than or eual to the critical K value for a given confidence level /usually L' percent0, then we &now that we ought to accept the alternate hypothesis. f, however, the critical K value is more than the observed K value for a given level of confidence, we would be inclined not to re?ect the null but to re?ect the alternate. 4etting up the null thus helps us to understand that though the null hypothesis itself is not testable, it helps to decide whether we should accept or re?ect the alternate. 6. It is a!*anta#eous to !e*elo( a !irectional h(othesis %hene*er %e are sure o the (re!icte! !irection. Ho% %ill ou 'usti this state"ent+
n a directional hypothesis we might con?ecture, on some sound and logical basis, that variable M is greater than variable N. n the non-directional hypothesis we merely con?ecture that M and N will not be
eual, meaning that either can be greater than the other. The directional hypothesis involves a onetailed significance test, and the non-directional involves a two-tailed test. To reach a level of significance pO.=', the critical value of the observed K should be 1.($ for a one-tailed test, and 1.L( for a two-tailed test. 4upposing the true observed K value in a particular case is 1.)2, then we would accept the hypothesis if it was stated directionally, and re?ect it if it was stated nondirectionally. n a sense, the two-tailed test is more conservative but a hypothesis that is logically derived as a onetailed test would be re?ected if it is non-directionally stated, and we would be incorrectly re?ecting a hypothesis that is true, thus committing a Type error. t is for this reason that we should state a directional hypothesis when we are sure of the predicted direction based on good theory and logic. 8. In recent !eca!es) "an ser*ice "ar$ets ha*e &een li&erali=e!. -or this reason) incu"&ent ser*ice ir"s are acin# ne% co"(etitors an! "ust a!!ress custo"er s%itchin#. ou are !iscussin# the !eter"inants o custo"er s%itchin# %ith a ser*ice ir" "ana#er. She &elie*es that (ro!uct 7ualit) relationshi( 7ualit) an! s%itchin# costs are i"(ortant !eter"inants o custo"er s%itchin#. ou a#ree %ith the contention that (ro!uct 7ualit an! relationshi( 7ualit are i"(ortant !eter"inants o s%itchin#. Ho%e*er) ou &elie*e that s%itchin# costs moderates the relationshi(s &et%een (ro!uct 7ualit) relationshi( 7ualit an! custo"er s%itchin#. Pro*i!e ar#u"ents or this contention.
4witching costs include the time, money and effort the customer perceives when changing from one provider to another. 5e e+pect that switching costs do not directly affect customer switching. That is, we posit that a customer will not switch service providers because the switching costs are low or high. nstead, we propose that the negative relationship between product and relationship uality and customer switching is stronger in situations with low switching costs. 5hen switching costs are low customers switch service providers when the relationship uality and product uality is low. 8owever, when switching costs are substantial, customers are li&ely to maintain business relationships with e+isting service providers even when the relationship and product uality is low. 9. -or the ollo%in# case title! Slee(less Ni#hts at Holi!a Inn :(u&lishe! in Business Week an! a!a(te! here;
a. dentify the problem b. Cevelop a theoretical framewor& c. Cevelop at least four hypotheses. Slee(less Ni#hts at Holi!a Inn
9ust a few years ago, Tom liver, the 7hief <+ecutive of 8oliday 8ospitality 7orp., was struggling to differentiate among the variety of facilities offered to clients under the 8oliday flagship D the oliday !nn "elect designed for business travelers, the oliday !nn #xpress used by penny pinchers, and the
$rowne Plaza otels% the lu+urious hotels meant for the big spenders. liver felt that revenues could be uadrupled if only clients could differentiate among these. een on developing a viable strategy for 8oliday 8ospitality which suffered from brand confusion, Tom liver conducted a customer survey of those who had used each type of facility, and found the following. The consumers didn%t have a clue as to the differences among the three different types. 3any complained that the buildings were old and not properly maintained, and the uality ratings of service and other factors were also poor. 6urthermore, when word spread that one of the contemplated strategies of liver was a name change to differentiate the three facilities, irate franchises bal&ed. Their mi+ed messages did not help consumers to understand the differences either. liver thought that he first needed to understand how the different classifications would be important to the several classes of clients, and then he could mar&et the hec& out of them and greatly enhance the revenues. 4imultaneously, he recognized that unless the franchise owners fully cooperated with him in all his plans, mere face lifting and improvement of customer service would not bring added revenues.
Pro&le" State"ent 8ow can brand awareness be brought about to increase the revenues of 8oliday nn@
Theoretical -ra"e%or$ nly after liver has understood how the different classifications would be important to the three classes of intended clients through survey data, can a meaningful theoretical framewor& be developed. *ut, based on what information is currently available, the following framewor& can be attempted. The nature of the building facilities, how the buildings are maintained, and the uality of service provided D the three independent variables D would differentiate the three distinct types of 8oliday nn facilities and increase brand awareness among the users. The better the buildings, the better their maintenance, and the more differentiated the services provided, the greater will be the perceived differences in the three types of 8oliday nn facilities by clients. 8owever, if the 6ranchise owners do not cooperate in highlighting these differences to clients, no amount of the improvements made in the independent variables will help to increase the brand awareness. t is only when the 6ranchise owners actively promote the idea of differentiated facilities- the moderating variable D can the brand awareness be increased, and as a conseuence, the revenues.
H(otheses 1. The more differentiated the building facilities, the more the brand awareness. 2. The more differentiated the maintenance of the facilities, the more the brand awareness. !. The more differentiated the services to the clients, the more the brand awareness. $. Cifferentiated building facilities, maintenance, and service will influence brand awareness only if the 6ranchise owners cooperate and actively promote the idea of differentiation. f they don%t, no
amount of differentiation of the three independent variables will help clients to understand the differentiation /increase brand awareness0. . De*elo( a conce(tual "o!el or the scenario &elo%. Inci!ence o s"o$in# in "o*ies has starte! to increase a#ain) ater ha*in# !ecline! or se*eral !eca!es. Accor!in# to the National Cancer Institute s"o$in# is seen in at least three out o our conte"(orar &o42oice hits. Whats "ore) i!entiia&le ci#arette &ran!s a((eare! in a&out one2 thir! o all "o*ies in ,@@9. E4(osure to s"o$in# in "o*ies is an i"(ortant (re!ictor o a!olescent s"o$in# initiation s"o$in# in "o*ies has &een sho%n to aect a!olescents intentions to start s"o$in#. In turn) the intentions to start s"o$in# are !eter"ine! & a "ore (ositi*e attitu!e to%ar! s"o$in# ater seein# a il" character s"o$e. Recent research has re*eale! that the relationshi( &et%een seein# a il" character s"o$e an! the attitu!e to%ar! s"o$in# is stron#er %hen a (ersons i!entiication %ith a il" character increases. These in!in#s are consistent %ith social learnin# theor) %hich (re!icts that attitu!es an! &eha*iors are "o!ele! & o&ser*in# the &eha*iors o others.
<+posure to smo&ing in movies "ttitude toward smo&ing 4mo&ing intentions dentification with a film character 1@. De*elo( a theoretical ra"e%or$ or the ollo%in# case.
nce given, per&s are e+traordinarily hard to ta&e away without sapping employee morale. The adverse effects of these cuts far outweigh the anticipated savings in dollars. Besearch has shown that when the reason behind the cuts is e+plained to employees, morale does not drop. Her&s /P0 boost the morale of employees /CP0 while, understandably, withdrawing the same saps it. 8owever, if the reasons for the cuts in per&s /3P0 are e+plained to the employees, they see the logic behind the cuts and their morale is not affected. Thus, only when the reason for the cut in per&s is e+plained to employees, does their morale not sag. 11. Pro!uct (lace"ent is a or" o a!*ertisin# in %hich a co"(ans (ro!ucts an! na"e are intentionall (ositione! in "otion (ictures) tele*ision (ro#ra"s) ra!io &roa!casts) an! the li$e. Pro!uct (lace"ent can ta$e "an or"s *er&al "entions in !ialo#ue) actual use & a character) or *isual !is(las :or instance a co"(an lo#o on a *ehicle or &ill&oar!;. De*elo( a theoretical ra"e%or$ on this issue) &ase! on a re*ie% o the current literature. This ra"e%or$ shoul! inclu!e
- a s(eciication an! !einition o an a((ro(riate !e(en!ent *aria&le - a conce(tual "o!el that !escri&es the relationshi(s &et%een the !e(en!ent *aria&le) at least one in!e(en!ent *aria&le) an! either a "o!eratin# or a "e!iatin# *aria&le
- a theor on %h ou %oul! e4(ect these relationshi(s to e4ist
- an a((ro(riate nu"&er o testa&le h(otheses. "nswers will vary.
Ans%ers to E4ercises .1 To .1 in the Te4t /oo$
E4ercise .1 The dependent variable is organizational performance because it is the primary variable of interest to the applied researcher, who wants to increase the commitment of the members in the ban&.
E4ercise ., The dependent variable is product desirability.
E4ercise .0
Hroduction Cependent variable 3ain variable of interest 4upervision ndependent variable 8elp to e+plain the variance in production Training ndependent variable E4(lanation Hroduction is the dependent variable because the manager seems to be interested in raising the level of production of wor&ers. The manager wants to e+plain the variance in production levels through the two independent variables D supervision and training.
E4ercise .
:ains Cependent variable Pariable of primary interest *uying at right time ndependent variable <+plain the variance in gains 4elling at right time ndependent variable /i.e. benefit0
E4(lanation :ains or benefit from stoc& trading is the dependent variable. *uying stoc&s at the opportune time and selling them li&ewise, are the two independent variables because these two are e+pected to influence the gains /benefits0 derived from stoc& trading. That is, when stoc&s are bought and sold at the right times, there will be gains or benefits derived.
E4ercise .3
Hroductivity Cependent variable ff-the-?ob classroom training ndependent variable "ge 3oderating variable E4(lanation The main variable of interest to the manager is productivity - the dependent variable - the variance in which is e+pected to be e+plained by the independent variable, off-the-?ob classroom training. The
more off-the-?ob training given to the wor&ers, the greater their productivity. 8owever, only those who are under fifty years of age would increase their productivity with increased off-the-?ob training. This will not be true for those who are over fifty years of age since their interest in classroom training and the li&e will not be high. Thus age is the moderating variable.
E4ercise .6
4ales performance Cependent variable ntensity of <-*usiness adoption ndependent variable 3ar&et uncertainty 3oderating variable
E4ercise .8 Situation 1
3otivation to 5or& as an !ndependent Pariable The performance of employees is influenced by their motivation to wor&. Situation ,
3otivation to 5or& as an !ntervening Pariable
3otivation to 5or& as a &oderating Pariable The performance of employees with low levels of motivation to wor& will not improve despite increases in ?ob challenge.
E4ercise .9
Hroblems Cependent variable 6ollowing "ccounting Hrinciples ndependent variable 7onfusion ntervening variable <+perience in *oo& eeping 3oderating variable
E4(lanation The e+tent to which accounting principles are followed D the independent variable D e+plains the variance in the dependent variable problems for the organization. f individuals do not follow the accounting principles, confusion ensues /intervening variable that results as a conseuence of the independent variable at time T20. *ut the failure to follow the principles will result in confusion and problems only for those individuals who have no e+perience in boo& &eeping. Those who have
&nowledge of boo& &eeping will figure out ways to deal with the situation. 8ence, e+perience is the moderating variable.
E4ercise .
3orale Cependent variable 5or&ing conditions ndependent variable Hay scale ndependent variable Pacation benefits ndependent variable 4ide income 3oderating variable 8appiness ntervening variable
E4(lanation The independent variables of improved wor&ing conditions, better pay, and vacation benefits influence the dependent variable, morale. 5hen these three independent variables are high in a wor& situation, then morale is also high. 8owever, increased pay will not increase the morale of all wor&ers. nly those who do not have good side incomes will e+perience greater happiness /the intervening variable0 when their pay is increased, and their morale also increases. 6or others, the relationships between pay and morale will not hold good. The intervening variable, happiness, is a function of high pay /for those without side incomes0. t clarifies the relationship between pay and morale.
E4ercise .1@
Hroblem 4tatement 5hat are the benefits of using avatars as company representatives on commercial 5eb sites@
7onceptual 3odel nvolvement nformative 4ite 4atisfaction with "vatar Hresence the 7ompany
Theoretical -ra"e%or$ or E4ercise .11
7ancer patients% successful recovery is of main interest to the study, and successful recovery is e+pected to be predicted by three independent variables. Thus, recovery is the dependent variable in the study and the three independent variables are /10 uic& and correct diagnosis by the doctor /20 careful following of instructions by the nurses and, /!0 peace and uiet in the vicinity. "n intervening variable in the situation is rest, and a moderating variable is the stage of cancer. 5hen the disease is uic&ly and correctly diagnosed by the doctor as soon as the patient comes in for the initial chec&-up, the chances of the patient being successfully cured of cancer are greater, since the cancerous growth would then be arrested in time. "lso, when the nurses carefully follow the instructions of the doctor and administer to the patient the proper medicines at the right time, give them the diet as prescribed by the doctor, etc., the patients will recover without relapses. The human system needs certain medical, dietary and other aids to recover, which need to be administered at the right time and in the right uantities, and when this is done, the patients% recovery is almost assured. Heace and uiet in the vicinity of the patients will allow the patient to rest properly, without any disturbances, which in turn, would help the successful recovery of the cancer patient since the body would now have a chance to build new healthy cells through the rest created by the peaceful surroundings. Thus, rest is an intervening variable, which is facilitated by the peaceful and uiet surroundings. 5hile the three independent variables of diagnosis, following instructions, and peace and uiet would help the patients to successfully recover from cancer, these three will not influence the recovery for those patients who come for treatment at advanced stages. n other words, only those cancer victims who come for treatment at the early stages of the disease would be helped to recover successfully when the doctor diagnoses the disease correctly and uic&ly, the nurses follow the doctor%s instructions carefully, and the patients are &ept in uiet and peaceful surroundings. Those coming for treatment while in the advanced stages will not be helped.
E4ercise .1, 1. o: There is no relationship between wor&ing conditions and the morale of employees. ': f wor&ing conditions are improved, then the morale of the employees will also improve. 2. o: There is no relationship between vacation benefits and employees% morale. ': *etter vacation benefits will improve employees% morale. !. o: There is no difference in the relationship between pay and happiness among those who have side incomes and those who do not. ': nly those who do not have side incomes will become happier if their pay is increased. $. o: There is no relationship between happiness and morale. ': 8appiness and morale are positively correlated. '. o: 5or&ing conditions, vacation benefits, and pay have no influence on the morale of employees.
' 5or&ing conditions, vacation benefits, and pay all have a positive influence on morale.
E4ercise .10 Pro&le" State"ent 8ow can the ?ob performance /output0 of the employees be increased through enriched ?obs and rewards@
Theoretical -ra"e%or$ 9ob performance is the main variable of interest since the production manager is interested in increasing the output levels of employees. 9ob performance is, thus, the dependent variable. 9ob enrichment and rewards are the two independent variables which directly influence performance through the intervening variables of motivation and satisfaction. 8owever, the valence of rewards to the recipient moderates the relationship among rewards, motivation, satisfaction and performance. 5hen the ?obs done by the wor&ers are such that they are more challenging and utilize all the s&ills that the wor&ers have, then the wor&ers will be both satisfied that they are able to use the s&ills they possess, and be motivated to engage in wor& behavior. 5hen employees are thus motivated and satisfied, their performance levels will be high. "lso, motivation and satisfaction will mutually influence each other. That is, when satisfaction is high, motivation will be high, and the higher level of motivation will, in turn, increase satisfaction. Thus, the two will mutually influence each other, and both together will influence performance. f, on the other hand, the ?ob is dull and repetitive, employees will not derive any satisfaction at the wor&place since they will be bored, and their inclination to engage in wor& behaviors /motivation0 will be low. 5hen employee satisfaction and motivation are low, their levels of output /performance0 will also be low. ncreased rewards will also offer employees both satisfaction and motivation, because employees will &now that the effort put in by them is recognized and rewarded. This increased satisfaction and motivation will spur them on to perform even better since they will now have more zeal and enthusiasm. 8owever, the relationship between increased rewards and the intervening variables of motivation and satisfaction will hold good only for those who desire and value the rewards dispensed by the organization. Those recipients who do not find the rewards valuable or desirous will not be turned on by the rewards, and their levels of satisfaction, motivation, and performance will not be enhanced. The valence of rewards thus moderates the relationship between rewards and the intervening and dependent variables.
H(otheses 8"1 f the ?ob is enriched and utilizes all the s&ills possessed by the employee, then employee satisfaction will be high.
8"2 f the ?ob is enriched and utilizes all the s&ills possessed by the employee, then employee motivation will also be high. 8"! There will be a positive correlation between satisfaction and motivation. 8"$ :reater rewards will influence motivation and satisfaction only for those employees who find the rewards valent not for the others. 8"' 4atisfaction and motivation will positively influence performance. 8"( The more enriched the ?ob and the greater the s&ills utilized by the ?ob, the higher the level of employee performance.
E4ercise .1 Pro&le" State"ent 8ow can minority women be retained in organizations@
Theoretical -ra"e%or$ Betention of minority women is the main variable of interest to the study, and hence, is the dependent variable. The independent variables that are li&ely to e+plain the variance in the retention of minority women are /a0 influential mentors willing to help, /b0 informal networ&ing with influential colleagues, /c0 role models, and /d0 high visibility pro?ects. The intervening variable is satisfaction. 5hen influential officials in the system are willing to serve as formal or informal mentors minority women can learn the ropes for progressing in the organization. 5hen women can networ& with influential colleagues, they will learn a lot about the political system of the organization and &now where and when there are opportunities to advance. Bole models help women to emulate the characteristics necessary to climb the ladder of success in the system. 5hen women wor& on high visibility pro?ects, they attract the attention of those in power and are li&ely to be promoted to higher level positions. 5hen the above four factors are absent in the wor& environment, dissatisfaction results due to the frustration of not having avenues for advancement. Cissatisfaction, which surfaces as a function of the absence of the four independent variables, is then the intervening variable which enables us to see why women uit the organization. t should, however, be noted that not all dissatisfied minority women leave the organization. nly those who have the resources and confidence to start their own business leave the institution. The others remain trapped in the system. Thus, wherewithal to start own business becomes the moderating variable.
ore E4ercises on Theoretical -ra"e%or$ :%ith Ans%ers; >ote These can also be used as e+am uestions. I. Develop a theoretical framework for the following situation and state one testable hypothesis in the null and the alternate.
" school administrator is interested in finding how the threatened teachers% stri&e can be averted. 8e &nows that pay demands and the classroom%s physical environment are the two main issues in the situation. 8e, however, feels that these two are not ma?or concerns for the teachers who are e+tremely dedicated to teaching.
Ans%er Theoretical -ra"e%or$ 4ince the administrator%s main concern is about the stri&e, teachers% stri&e is the dependent variable, and an interest is evinced in averting it. Hay and the physical environment of the classroom are the two independent variables, which influence the stri&e situation. The greater the pay demands made by the teachers, the greater the possibility of a stri&e, since the school administration will not easily give in to a high pay hi&e which would bring any current negotiations between the two parties to an impasse and would precipitate a stri&e. The more uncongenial the classroom physical environment, the more difficult it will be for teachers to do an effective ?ob in the classroom, and hence the greater the possibility of teachers going on stri&e to have the situation rectified. Thus, both pay demand and classroom physical environment would e+plain the variance in the probability of teachers going on stri&e. 8owever, this relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable will be true only for those teachers who are not dedicated to teaching for its own sa&e. The truly dedicated teachers would be more concerned about doing a good ?ob despite the hardships faced by them, and hence for them, the pay demands and the classroom environment will not be factors influencing their decision to ?oin the stri&e.
H(othesis 8=1 Cedication to teaching will not alter the relationship between the independent variables of pay and classroom environment and the dependent variable of teachers% decision to go on stri&e. 8"1 nly for those teachers who are not truly dedicated to teaching, will pay considerations and classroom environment be factors that would influence their decision to go on stri&e. 2. " factory foreman is concerned about the high rate of absenteeism of his wor&ers every 3onday morning. 8is hunch is that the wor&ers drin& too much during the wee&end, have a hangover on 3onday mornings and cannot attend wor&. 8e also feels that the high rate of pay they receive allows them to become lethargic. 6rom an informal tal& with his employees, the foreman finds that almost every single wor&er drin&s during the wee&end. 8owever, some said that they could handle drin&s very well and never had hangovers. “8a; >ow &now,” mused the foreman, “only those who do not have an adeuate tolerance level for alcoholic beverages suffer the effects of hangover and remain absent on 3onday mornings. f course, high pay may also be a reason.” :iven the above situation, answer the following
a. 5hat would be the problem statement@ b.
ANSWER a. Pro&le" State"ent
5ould pay and drin&ing influence absenteeism@ &. Theoretical -ra"e%or$ "bsenteeism is the dependent variable, the variance in which is to be e+plained by the two independent variables, pay and wee&end drin&ing. The more the pay received by wor&ers, the more they tend to be lethargic /intervening variable0, spending their time lazing around in the house, since they have enough money to ta&e care of their immediate needs without wor&ing. They thus tend to remain absent. <+cessive drin&ing during the wee&end also contributes to absenteeism on 3onday mornings, since the hangover from the wee&end drin&ing /the intervening variable0 would persist until late on 3onday, which would prevent them from going to wor&. 8owever, for those who have a high tolerance for liuor, hangover will not be a problem. n other words, tolerance for drin&s is the moderating variable which has a contingent effect on the relationship between the e+tent of drin&ing and the e+tent of hangover people have. 5hen people have hangovers, they will tend to remain absent since they will not be fit to perform their normal duties. n sum, pay and wee&end drin&ing will have an effect on the absenteeism of wor&ers. 8owever, only for those who have a low tolerance for liuor, will more drin&ing during the wee&ends result in their e+periencing hangovers on 3ondays, which would prevent them from attending wor&. Those who have high tolerance levels will not e+perience hangover and will not remain absent from wor&. c. H(otheses
8"1 The higher the pay of the wor&er, the higher will be the rate of his absenteeism from wor&. 8"2 nly for those who have a low tolerance for liuor, will heavy drin&ing lead to hangover, not for others. 8"! 8angover due to heavy wee&end drin&ing and absenteeism will be positively correlated. !.a. 5ith the following variables, develop a theoretical framewor&, using one of the variables /appropriately0 as an intervening variable, and one as a moderating variable. 10 9ob level /i.e., managerial versus non-managerial levels0 20 #oyalty /e+tent of loyalty felt for the organization in which the employee wor&s0 !0 "ge /of employee0 $0 #ength of service /of employees0 '0 Hride in wor&ing for the organization (0 rganizational commitment /involvement with the system0
)0 #ust for ?ob hopping. b. Cevelop three hypotheses based on the theoretical framewor&, one of which should include the intervening variable, and another the moderating variable. c. 5hat is the problem statement for which you have developed your theoretical framewor&@
Ans%er a. Theoretical -ra"e%or$ The four independent variables - ?ob level, age, length of service, and pride in wor&ing for the organization - influence the organizational commitment of the members in wor& systems. Hersons holding highly responsible positions tend to get committed to the organization since they help shape the organization through their policies and decision-ma&ing. :enerally, older persons tend to be more loyal to the place where they wor& since opportunities to move on to other organizations become limited. Those who have served for a long time in the organization would also be more loyal to the organization /P0 and hence get committed to it. f one is proud of being a member of the organization, naturally the individual%s loyalty to the system /of which he is a part0 would increase. 5e can also e+pect to find a correlation between length of service and employees% pride in wor&ing for the organization. The longer employees wor& for the organization, the more they would tend to feel that they are an integral part of the organizational system and feel they belong to it. These feelings, in turn, will develop a sense of loyalty and attachment to the system. nce loyalty is developed, commitment to stay in the organization and doing one%s best for the organization would increase. 8owever, high position, pride in wor&ing for the organization, age, and length of service, would not be instrumental in developing the organizational loyalty of such members as have a great adventurous spirit and a great desire to move from one ?ob to another in different organizations. Thus, lust for ?ob hopping would be the moderating variable which influences the relationship between the independent variables and the intervening variable, and thus, the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.
&. H(otheses 8"1 nly for those employees who do not have a lust for ?ob hopping, would ?ob level, age, length of service, or pride in wor&ing for the organization be correlated to their feelings of loyalty for the organization. 8"2 The more the employees are loyal to the organization the stronger will be their sense of commitment to the organization. 8"! The longer people wor& for the organization, the more their feelings of pride in wor&ing for the organization are li&ely to be.
c. Pro&le" State"ent 5hat factors would account for employees% commitment to the organization@
$. Cevelop a theoretical framewor& and three hypotheses for the following statement. Heople high in their >eed for "chievement />."ch0 and who have high Hrotestant 5or&
Ans%er Theoretical -ra"e%or$ >."chievement and wor& ethic values are the two independent variables that would account for the variance in the dependent variable of interestD?ob involvement. This relationship could be better understood through the intervening variableD motivation. That is, those who have a high need to achieve and accomplish things in their ?obs, would be motivated to engage in wor& behavior, which in due course of time will get them so absorbed in doing their ?obs that their egos will be tied to the ?ob. #i&ewise, those who have high wor& ethic values, would feel that unless they wor&, they are no good, and hence would &eep engaging in wor& behavior. This again is bound to increase their level of motivation to wor&. These freuent interactions with wor& will again get them ego-involved in their wor&. Thus, >."ch and wor& ethic values will motivate people to wor&, which in turn would get them ego-involved in wor&.
H(otheses 8"1 The higher the >eed for "chievement, the greater will be the level of motivation. 8"2 The greater the Hrotestant wor& ethic values people hold, the greater will be their level of motivation to wor&. 8"! The greater the motivation in individuals, the greater their level of ?ob involvement. '. 8ere are eight variables 10 Gnderstanding 4tudent >eeds /by teacher0 20 Ceveloping appropriate teaching strategies /by teacher0 !0 n-class e+amples and e+ercises $0 4tudent entry level s&ills '0 4tudent understanding (0 4tudent e+am performance )0 Cifficulty of e+am E0 4tress. a. 5ith these eight variables, develop a Theoretical 6ramewor&, treating variable Q$ as a moderator, and variable Q' as an intervening variable. b. Cevelop four hypotheses.
Ans%er Theoretical -ra"e%or$
a. The variance in the performance of students in the e+am can be accounted for by the four independent variables D teacher%s understanding of the needs of the students, the different teaching strategies developed by the teacher, the number of in-class e+amples and e+ercises that the teacher gives, and how difficult the e+am itself happens to be. 5hen the teacher understands students% difficulties and needs in terms of coaching and evolves appropriate teaching strategies in order to meet the needs of the students to understand what is being taught, student understanding will increase. n addition, if the teacher uses several e+amples to put across the points and gives e+ercises in class to test the e+tent to which students have understood, then the students% level of understanding of what is being taught will increase. 8owever, the entry-level s&ills of the students should be sufficiently adeuate to enable them to understand what is being taught. f the students% entry level s&ills and comprehension are very low, then no amount of the teacher ma&ing efforts to understand student needs, evolving strategies, and giving new e+amples and e+ercises, will help the student to understand better, since they do not have the basic prereuisite &nowledge for understanding what is going on in the class. f, however, the entry level s&ills are adeuate, then the teacher ta&ing all the above steps would help enhance student learning. 5hen students% level of understanding increases, their level of performance in the e+am will also be better. The level of difficulty of the e+ams is also another factor that would account for the variance in student performance. The more difficult the e+am, the more stressed the students will feel while answering the e+am, and the lower will be their performance level in the e+am. Thus, stress is the intervening variable here. n sum, the three variables of understanding student needs, teaching strategies, and in-class e+ercises and e+amples will help increase the level of student understanding, which, in turn, will enhance the level of their e+am performance. 8owever, the more difficult the e+am, the more the stress e+perienced by the students, and the lower their level of performance in the e+am.
&. H(otheses 8"1 nly for those who have the reuisite entry level s&ills, will more in-class e+ercises and e+amples help increase the students% level of understanding of the sub?ect taught. 8"2 The more difficult the e+ams, the greater the stress e+perienced by the students. 8"! The higher the level of stress e+perienced by the students, the lower their level of performance in the e+am. 8"$ 5hen students understand the sub?ect better, they will perform better in the e+am.
ar$etin# 1. -actors Inluencin# Decision to Purchase
The four independent variables - uality, price, felt need for the product, and brand name - influence customers% decision to purchase products. 5hen a product is of good uality, consumer confidence in the product grows /the intervening variable0, and the stronger becomes the decision of the consumer to purchase the product. " reasonable price and a good brand name also induces the consumer to purchase the product. f course, the more the consumer needs the product /such as basic needs or essentials0, and the better the price, the uality, and the brand name, the greater the prospect for the consumer ma&ing the decision to buy the product. Gsually, the better &nown the brand name, the greater the desire to purchase that product. 8owever if a prospective consumer happens to have a strong brand loyalty for a brand other than the one mar&eted, then, the brand name of the product will not influence the purchase decision. Thus, only for those who do not have a strong brand loyalty to a different product, will the relationship between brand name /P0 and purchasing the product /CP0 hold true. ,. -actors Aectin# Cou(on Re!e"(tion Rates
7oupon redemption, a strategy for spurring sales, is the variable of interest to this study. >eedless to say, this sales strategy will be effective when the distribution channels for the product in uestion are well planned, when there is sufficient advertising to let the consumers &now about the promotion, when the pac&age clearly indicates the coupon redemption scheme with the e+piration date, if any, and the pac&aging of the product is of the right size /neither too big nor too small to serve the needs of the consumer0. f course, all these factors will not help, unless there is an established freuent need for the product for consumers /3oderating variable0.
Accountin# 0. -actors Inluencin# the Selection o Au!itors & Co"(anies.
The influence of the reputation of the auditing firm, the fees charged, and the uality of service rendered, on the selection of the auditor for a firm is uite simple. The greater the reputation of the auditing firm, the more the li&elihood of its being selected, the better the uality of service rendered, and the more reasonable the fee that is charged, the more li&ely is a particular auditing firm going to be chosen. nteraction is the intervening variable that helps us to see how the pro+imity of the auditing firm to the business plays a part in auditor selection. f the auditing firm is pro+imal to the business, the closeness encourages freuent interactions between the two parties to have matters clarified at low cost. This, in turn, influences the business to choose an auditing firm that is pro+imal. 8owever, the very big business companies will not choose any but the big eight "ccounting firms. 8ence, for them, the choice of auditors from any but the big eight will not be influenced by the independent variables in the model. Thus, the size of the business firm becomes the moderating variable. . -actors that Account or the
*ad debt is the variable of interest to this study, the variance in which is theorized to be e+plained by the three factors of credit policy, monitoring of receivables, and pay-out period on installment loans. " sensible credit policy, no doubt, will reduce bad debt. " follow up on accounts receivable will further reduce bad debts by recovering as much as possible before things get out of control. The pay-out period will also have an effect on the amount of bad debt. f the pay-out period is too long /stretching over, say, several years0, there is li&ely to be a tendency to slac& off on the installment payments /the intervening variable0, especially if the value of the product depreciates substantially. 8owever, customers who consider their reputation for creditworthiness as paramount, will still honor their commitments despite the long drawn out payment periods. Thus, class of customer will moderate the relationship between the independent variable, pay-out period, and the intervening variable, slac&ing off on payments .-inance 3. What are the "ost i"(ortant actors that inluence the (roits o a ir"+ 6. Critical -actors that Inluence the
The value of the company%s shares is of interest to the study. f a company sustains its high earnings year after year, its credibility as a successful company would be enhanced and the public will believe it has further prospects for growth /intervening variable0. This will help to e+plain how sustained earnings will increase the stoc& value of the company. 6aith in the managerial competence of the &ey people in the company will hold the stoc& value high, even in times of mild recession. Thus the perceived managerial competence of the individuals in the company would influence the stoc& value. Gsually, the higher the dividends, the higher the stoc& value however, if the higher dividend declared is perceived as a stunt to hoodwin& the public, the stoc& value will not go up. nly when the public e+pects that the dividend policy will be maintained by management in the future /moderating variable0, will the stoc& value of the company be influenced by the higher dividends that are declared.
CHAPTER 3
THE RESEARCH PROCESS EBEENTS O- RESEARCH DESIGN Instructional Goals 1. To clarify the various components of research design as indicated in 6igure '.1 of the boo&. 2. To highlight obvious combinations in research design choices for e+ample, a lab or field e+periment is invariably conducted to establish cause and effect relationships a lab e+periment is always done in a contrived setting with ma+imal researcher interference and in a longitudinal fashion. !. To stress the importance of ma&ing optimal research design choices aimed at balancing scientific rigor and research costs /and feasibility0.
Discussion Questions 1. What are the &asic research !esi#n issues+ Descri&e the" in so"e !etail.
*asic research design issues are primarily a function of the purpose of the study /whether it is e+ploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing0, and relate to such aspects as the type of study to be done /causal or correlational0, the setting in which it will be done /natural or contrived0, how much researcher control will have to be e+ercised /very little in the case of field studies, to very much in the case of e+perimental designs0, how many times data will have to be collected /one shot versus longitudinal0, and the unit of analysis D i.e. the level at which data will be aggregated. 6or most correlational studies, the field setting with minimal researcher influence will be the choice. 3ost field stu 5hat are the basic research design issuesdies are generally cross-sectional, though some could be longitudinal. #ongitudinal studies, though better for understanding the dynamics of the situation fully, also consume more time and resources. Thus, the costs of a study also determine some of the design choices. The unit of analysis depends on whether the research uestion focuses on individuals, dyads, groups, or entire systems. ,. Wh is it i"(ortant to consi!er &asic research !esi#n issues &eore con!uctin# the stu! an! e*en as earl as at the ti"e o or"ulatin# the research 7uestion+
The research design ensures that the purpose for which a study is conducted is effectively addressed. 4ome studies are focused on finding results which will be highly reliable, whereas others might be interested in “getting some idea” of what is going on, rather than wanting to &now the “absolute truth”. f the rigor needed can be achieved at only high cost /e.g. more manipulation and control, conducting the study over an e+tended period of time with a big sample, etc0, and if this cost is considered too much, then the goals of research might have to be revised or even completely changed. Thus, thin&ing through the research design issues at the early stages helps in averting several problematic issues later.
0. Is a iel! stu! totall out o the 7uestion i one is trin# to esta&lish cause an! eect relationshi(s+
:enerally lab and field e+periments, rather than field studies, are useful for establishing greater internal validity, or faith in cause and effect relationships. 8owever, when longitudinal data are collected from field studies, or when particular types of statistical analyses are done on cross- sectional data gathered from field studies, it is sometimes possible to establish the e+istence of causal relationships. 3ore specifically, cross(lagged correlation analysis /not discussed in the boo&0 using data collected at more than one point in time, can indicate causal relationships. An e4(lorator stu! is 'ust as useul as a (re!icti*e stu!?. Discuss this state"ent.
5ithout e+ploratory studies, new areas of &nowledge cannot be developed.
The unit of analysis is an important issue to be considered to find the right answers to the research uestions posed. The unit of analysis also determines the sample size. 6or e+ample, if one is interested in researching the factors that influence the stoc& mar&et in three different
collection methods, etc. 6. Discuss the inter2relationshi(s a"on# non2contri*e! settin#) (ur(ose o the stu!) t(e o in*esti#ation) researcher intererence) an! ti"e hori=on o the stu!.
" non-contrived setting simply indicates that the research is conducted where the flow of events normally ta&es place D i.e. in the natural system. 4uch research could be either field studies or field e+periments. The purpose of the field study could be for e+ploration and understanding of phenomena, for describing phenomena, or for hypothesis-testing. The field study is a correlational study, and not usually initiated to e+plore cause and effect relationships. Besearcher interference in field studies is minimal. 6ield studies could be either cross- sectional or longitudinal. 6ield e+periments, on the other hand, are underta&en to establish cause and effect relationships, are longitudinal in nature, and researcher interference in field e+periments is much more than in field studies, since the independent variable will have to be manipulated. These are mostly hypothesis-testing studies, though they could be e+ploratory in nature, as well. 8. /elo% are three scenarios. -or each) in!icate ho% the researcher shoul! (rocee! %ith the ollo%in#) #i*in# reasons
a. The purpose of the study b. The type of investigation c. The e+tent of researcher interference d. The study setting e. The time horizon for the study f. The unit of analysis. Scenario A
&s. )oyce *ynn% the owner of a small business +a woman,s dress boutique-% has invited a consultant to tell her how she is different from similar small businesses within a /(mile radius% in regard to her usage of the most modern computer technology% sales volume% profit margin% and staff training.
Ans%er This will be a descriptive study /describing how she compares with the others0. Cata will be collected from small businesses on the use of computers, sales volume, profit margin, and training programs and comparisons made. 4ome of these descriptions might be ualitative, as for e+ample, in describing training methods. This will be a field study /using many similar small businesses0, and researcher interference will be minimal. t will be a one-shot study, and the unit of analysis will be small business systems. Scenario /
&r. Paul odge% the owner of several restaurants is concerned about the wide differences in the profit margins of the various restaurants. e would like to try some incentive plans for increasing the
efficiency levels of those restaurants that are lagging behind. 0ut% before he introduces this% he would like to be sure that the idea will work. e asks a researcher to help him on this issue.
Ans%er This would be a causal, hypothesis-testing study. t will be a field e+periment, using one or two restaurants to manipulate incentive plans and see if this causes an increase in profit margins in those restaurants. *ecause of the manipulation, there will be some researcher interference with the natural flow of events. The time horizon for the study would be longitudinal since data will be obtained on sales, profits, etc., both before and after the manipulation. The unit of analysis would be the restaurant. Scenario C
' manager is intrigued why some people seem to derive 1oy from work and get energized by it% while others find it troublesome and frustrating. This would be a correlational, hypothesis-testing, field study with minimal researcher interference. t will be a one-shot study and the unit of analysis will be individuals.
E4ercises Coing the e+ercises in the chapter will help the student to apply the basic elements of research design to different scenarios. 3ore in-class e+ercises are offered at the end of this chapter /with answers0, that can be used either in the classroom or as e+am uestions.
Answers to xercises in the Book
E4ercise 3.1 " foreman thin&s that the low efficiency of the machine tool operators is directly lin&ed to the high level of fumes emitted in the wor&shop. 8e would li&e to prove this to his supervisor through a research study. 1. 5ould this be a causal or a correlational study@ 5hy@ 2. s this an e+ploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing /analytical or predictive0 study@ 5hy@ !. 5hat &ind of a study would this be field study, lab e+periment, or field e+periment@ 5hy@ $. 5hat would be the unit of analysis@ 5hy@ '. 5ould this be a cross-sectional or a longitudinal study@ 5hy@ 1. This would be a causal study because the operator wants to prove to the supervisor that the fumes are causing operators to be low in their efficiency. n other words, the machine tool operator is trying to establish the fact that fumes cause low efficiency in wor&ers. 2. This is an analytical study because the machine tool operator wants to establish that fumes cause low efficiency and convince his wor&shop supervisor through such analysis /i.e. establish cause and effect relationship0.
!. This would be a field experiment. Though the study would be set up in the natural environment of the wor&ers where the wor& is normally done, the amount of fumes will have to be manipulated while other factors, such as atmospheric pressure, may have to be controlled. *ecause of the location of the study, it will be a field experiment. $. The unit of analysis would be the individual operators. The data will be collected with respect to each operator and then the conclusion will be made as to whether the operators are less efficient because of the fumes emitted in the wor&shop. '. This would be a longitudinal study because data will be gathered at more than one point in time. 6irst, the efficiency of the operators would be assessed at a given rate of fume emission. Then the fumes emitted would be manipulated to varying degrees, and at each manipulation the efficiency of the wor&ers would again be assessed to confirm that the high rate of fume emission causes a drop in operators% efficiency.
E4ercise 3., 3any were concerned about the operations of the infamous *77, the international ban&ing institution. f the :overnment had desired to probe into the details, would this investigation have called for 1. " causal or correlational study@ 5hy@ 2. "n e+ploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing study or case analysis@ 5hy@ !. " field study, lab e+periment, or field e+periment@ 5hy@ $. " cross-sectional or longitudinal study@ 5hy@ 1. This would have been a correlational study since the details desired are to be probed into without trying to establish cause and effect relationships. 2. t would be a descriptive study describing the operations of *77. !. This would be a field study since data will be collected in the natural environment. $. This will be a cross-sectional study since the data will be collected at only one point in time.
E4ercise 3.0 ou %ant to e4a"ine ho% e4(osure to thin or hea* "o!els in a!*ertise"ents inluences a (ersons sel2estee". ou &elie*e that the eect o e4(osure to "o!els in a!*ertise"ents !e(en!s on the e4tre"it o the "o!elJs thinness or hea*iness. Discuss the !esi#n !ecisions that ou as a researcher %ill "a$e to in*esti#ate this issue) #i*in# reasons or our choices. "n experimental study /causal study0 will be needed since the goal of the study is to test a cause-andeffect relationship.
" pretest will help you to select advertisements containing female models for the following four conditions moderately thin, e+tremely thin, moderately heavy, and e+tremely heavy - participants view an advertisement boo&let containing ads with female models. - participants rate each model in terms of size /-' Oe+tremely overweight, R' O e+tremely thin0 and attractiveness /-' O e+tremely unattractive, R ' O e+tremely attractive0. *ased on these scores, you will be able to select advertising models in each condition. >ote that models should differ from each other in terms of size but not in terms of attractiveness /you have to perform post hoc comparisons to test for this0. n the actual e+periment, participants must be randomly assigned to one of the four conditions of the 2 /model size thin vs. heavy0 and /e+tremity of model size moderate vs. e+treme0 between-sub?ects design. Harticipants are then provided with a boo&let containing ads ads with models, pertaining to their condition, and filler ads with no models /randomize the order of the ads0.
E4ercise 3. ou %ant to in*esti#ate the s(eciic eects o s(eciic e"otions on custo"ersJ &eha*ioral res(onses to aile! ser*ice encounters across in!ustries. Discuss the !esi#n !ecisions that ou as a researcher %ill "a$e to in*esti#ate this issue) #i*in# reasons or our choices.
*ecause it is difficult /and probably unethical0 to induce specific emotions in an e+periment a field study seems to be the more logical choice. >ote however, that when you use a field study, it is very important to control for variables that might potentially bias your results such as complaint success li&elihood and switching costs. The critical incident techniue is a method that may help you to collect a wide variety of negative e+periences with service organizations.
E4ercise 3.3 War on Cancer Cr. #arry >orton of 3emorial 4loan-ettering 7ancer 7enter predicts that cancer treatment will undergo ma?or changes. 4everal drugs are being developed to battle cancer without harming healthy tissues. t is a uestion of discovering which of these drugs does the ?ob best. Cesign a study that would help find which drug would do the tric&. "n e+perimental study /causal study0 of the 4olomon 6our-:roup design will be needed. " count of the healthy tissues in cancer patients at more or less the same stage of cancer progress will first be ta&en, with about 2= patients in each group.
different new drugs. The cancer cell count will be ta&en both before and after treatment for a period of time /say, ! to ( months0 to see which has the most beneficial effect. Thus it would be a longitudinal study with some manipulation /drug variation0 and control /matched or randomized groups0. The unit of analysis will be groups.
ore in2Class E4ercises on Research Desi#n :%ith Ans%ers; "everal situations are given below. 2or each situation% respond to the following research design questions. a. 3hat would be the nature of the study that would be designed ( #xploratory% descriptive% or hypothesis(testing4 b. 5ive reasons for your answer to +a- above. c. 3ould it be a 2ield study% $omparative study% *ab experiment or 2ield experiment4 d. 3ould it be a causal or correlational study4 e. )ustify the reasons for your answer to +d-. f. 3ould it be a longitudinal or cross(sectional study4 g. ow would you explain your answer to +f- above4 h. 3hat would be the unit of analysis4 i. Defend your answer to +h- above. 1. A researcher %ants to test the theor that lo% le*els o o4#en in the "ines is the sin#le "ost i"(ortant actor that tires "iners easil.
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would, in fact, cause tiredness in miners. c " 6ield <+periment, because there would be manipulation of the levels of o+ygen in the natural
environment of the wor&ers. ! e 7ausal study, because the researcher wants to see if low levels of o+ygen cause tiredness in
miners. 8e wants to establish a cause and effect relationship between the independent and the dependent variables. # t would be a #ongitudinal study because data on tiredness will be collected from the same
batch of wor&ers before and after each manipulation of the e+tent of o+ygen in?ected into the environment. h i The unit of analysis will be individual miners because the data will not be aggregated across
groups, but each individual miner%s level of tiredness will be recorded and used in data analysis. ,. An Au!itor is intereste! in $no%in# the relationshi( a"on# the three *aria&les 5 !e(reciation) assets accountin#) an! ta4es (ai!.
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a & 8ypothesis-testing, because the manager wants to analyze the correlations among the three
variables. c 7omparative 6ield study since the data will be gathered from several firms. ! e t will be correlational since the relationship /and not cause and effect relationships0 among the
variables is being studied. # 7ross-sectional since the data will be gathered only once. h S i Gnit of analysis will be the firms. 0. The hea!2nurse in a hos(ital %oul! li$e to ha*e a (roile o the (atients that co"e to her %ar!.
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patients who come to her ward. c 6ield study, since the people coming to her ward /natural setting0 will be studied. ! e t is a descriptive study, using merely freuency distributions and means and standard
deviations. t is thus neither a causal nor a correlational study. # 7ross-sectional, since data will be gathered from each person ?ust once to get the profile. h i Gnit of analysis will be individual patients since individual profiles will be studied. . A &asic researcher %ants to en#a#e in a research (ro'ect %hich %ill ena&le her to esta&lish the relationshi( &et%een certain (ersonalit characteristics an! the ris$ ta$in# ten!encies o stoc$ &ro$ers.
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type of personality characteristics that would induce stoc& bro&ers to ta&e more ris&s, and would want to test her hypotheses. c 6ield study since sub?ects will be studied in the natural environment in which they usually operate. ! e 7orrelational study since the relationships among the personality characteristics and ris&-ta&ing
are studied. # 7ross-sectional since data will be gathered at only one point in time. h i Gnit of analysis will be individuals /stoc& bro&ers0 since the data analysis will be done on each
individual%s responses without any aggregation across groups. Note This can also be set up as a #ab e+periment in which 6inance ma?ors are put in a contrived
setting and offered some investment assignments that call for ris& ta&ing. Their personality characteristics can be obtained through a uestionnaire survey, and their ris& ta&ing behavioral tendencies assessed by manipulating the level of financial ris& involved in the investments. 3. /o&s Nissan an! Toota !ealershi( is suerin# ro" a se*ere !ecline in the nu"&er o car sales. /o& !eci!es to test t%o a((roaches to sales. He ran!o"l assi#ns his 1, sales"en to t%o
#rou(s. He then trains one #rou( to use the >har! sell? a((roach an! the other to use the >sot sell? a((roach so that he can !eter"ine %hich "etho! is "ore eecti*e.
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sales approaches will help sell more cars /i.e. predict which sales approach is effective0. c 6ield e+periment since the independent variable “sales approach” is manipulated to be either hard or
soft sell and tried in the natural environment in which sales usually ta&e place and not in an artificial lab setting. ! e 7ausal study, since *ob wants to &now which approach would cause sales to increase. # #ongitudinal, because the sales levels, both before the manipulation and after, will be measured. h i Gnit of analysis will be groups since the sales of each of the two groups D “soft sell” and “hard
sell” salesmen D will be aggregated and compared. 6. A (ro!uction "ana#er %ants to see i) & (ro*i!in# enhance! auto"ation technolo#) the (ro!ucti*it o the %or$ers in the (lants can &e raise!. Ho%e*er) &eore trin# this %ith all the i*e (lants) she %oul! li$e to tr this %ith a #rou( o a((rentices %ho %or$ in one (lant.
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and effect relationship between enhanced automation and wor&er productivity. c 6ield e+periment, since the study will be conducted in the natural environment where events usually
ta&e place. ! e 7ausal study, since causal relationships are trying to be established. # #ongitudinal, since productivity measures will be ta&en from the same wor&ers before and after
the introduction of the enhanced automation. h i ndividuals will be the unit of analysis since there will be no aggregation of data across group
members.
CHAPTER 9 DATA COBBECTION ETHODS Instructional Goals 1. To develop interviewing s&ills in students
2. To help students become proficient in designing uestionnaires !. To introduce students to different methods of data collection including observational surveys, electronic surveys, and collecting information from unobtrusive sources $. To emphasize the advantages of obtaining data from multiple sources, and multiple methods of data collection '. To offer an idea of which data collection method would be appropriate during different stages of research.
Discussion Questions 1. Descri&e !ierent !ata sources) e4(lainin# their useulness an! !isa!*anta#es.
4econdary sources of data constitute all available sources from which e+isting information can be e+tracted. This could be published or unpublished information in the #ibrary, in :overnment or 7ompany records, in data tapes, on the internet, etc. Hrimary sources of data can be any source which provides information elicited directly for the first time. This could be organizations, individuals, trash cans, or whatever source from which the desired information can be obtained. 4econdary data sources are useful because they offer a base on which to build further research without having to reinvent the wheel. Hast findings can spur new research past data can also offer opportunities to analyze them from a different perspective or angle. Gnder certain circumstances, however, secondary data might be misleading if one does not ta&e the changed circumstances into consideration. 6or e+ample, if old archives of national data are utilized to e+amine and draw conclusions about gender differences at the wor&place, this might become an e+ercise in futility. The wor&place has changed much now compared to 2= years ago D there are more educated career women, their aspirations are different, their current e+pectations of life are in contrast to what they were two decades ago, etc. "s such, one has to be cautious while using secondary data sources. Hrimary data will offer more correct and up-to-date information when phenomena are investigated. 8owever, it costs more to collect fresh data, access to organizations is not always readily obtained, and people &nowledgeable in research have to be coopted. :enerally, data collected through unobtrusive methods are more reliable than data gathered through surveys. ,. As a "ana#er) ou ha*e in*ite! a research tea" to co"e in) stu!) an! oer su##estions on ho% to i"(ro*e the (eror"ance o our sta. What ste(s %oul! ou ta$e to alla their a((rehensions e*en &eore the research tea" sets oot in our !e(art"ent+
"s the manager, would inform the employees of the Cepartment, in a meeting called for the purpose, that unless we can turn around and ma&e some profits, the organization may have to lay off people. 4ince management does not see laying off personnel as an acceptable solution, at least at this stage, we
are inviting outside e+perts to e+amine our operations and give us some ideas on how we may be able to increase our profits. f we all cooperate with the research team that will be coming in shortly, and provide them with whatever information they might need, it would help the company to implement the steps and processes necessary to increase output, ma&e a profit, and retain the current employees. 0. What is &ias an! ho% can it &e re!uce! %hile inter*ie%in#+
*ias is any error that creeps into the information gathered. *iases occur whenever incorrect information is provided to the researcher by whoever offers the information. 4ometimes, genuine mista&es might be made and hence incorrect information could be provided. 8owever, biases freuently occur because the researcher phrases the uestion in a particular way, inflects the voice in a particular manner, or simply because the respondent, zealous of pleasing the researcher, provides an answer that the individual believes is what the researcher would li&e to hear, even though it is not factual. *ias can be reduced in interviewing by choosing the appropriate environment in which the interview is conducted, by establishing trust with the respondent, by phrasing uestions so that they do not lead the interviewee to respond in a particular manner, by clarifying issues when the respondent seems confused, by not coming across as evaluative or ?udgmental, and by not placing special emphasis on specific words. . E4(lain the (rinci(les o %or!in#) statin# ho% these are i"(ortant in 7uestionnaire !esi#n) citin# e4a"(les not in the &oo$.
a. The wording of the uestion and the level of sophistication of the language used are important. These are important because, if the respondent does not understand the words, obviously, he or she is not going to be able to respond to the uestions. "n underground coal miner and a top business e+ecutive may need to be as&ed some of the same issues differently. Thus, using words that fit the level of sophistication of understanding of the respondent is necessary. To ta&e an e+treme e+ample, to assess the e+perienced uality of family life, a poorly educated farm hand may be first as&ed to list the activities he normally engages in when he gets home from wor&, and then as&ed to rate the e+tent of satisfaction gained from each of these activities. "n inde+ of uality of family life might then be calculated by e+amining the family-related activities listed by the respondent. 5ith a business e+ecutive, on the other hand, the same concept can be tapped by as&ing the individual to rate his or her satisfaction to uestions such as *alance between wor& and family life the impact of travelling on e+periencing uality time with the family, and the li&e. b. *oth positively and negatively worded uestions need to be as&ed in the uestionnaire so that the respondent does not mechanically answer the items without much mental engagement. 6or e+ample, if one uestion as&s for the level of e+citement that a particular advertisement evo&ed, another could as& the e+tent to which that same advertisement seemed irrelevant. bviously, when both are tapped on the
same scale, the response to both cannot be the same. This brea& in the way the uestions are worded, both positively and negatively, helps to enhance the attention span of the respondents who might otherwise respond mechanically. c. Couble-barreled uestions should be avoided. f one as&s the uestion, “Co you value and manage a diverse wor&force well”@ there may be no clear response given to the uestion because one may value a diverse wor&force, but hardly &now how to manage it; n such cases, it would be better to as& two separate uestions rather than one. d. "mbiguous uestions should also be avoided. Iuestions such as “Co you discuss your wor& with the president regularly”@ or “Co you go to the movies freuently”@ are ambiguous, because the terms regularly and freuently are left open to the interpretation of each respondent. ne individual might discuss wor& with the president on a daily basis, and another every si+ months. *oth are “regularly” /or at regular intervals0 discussing wor&; *ut is this what the researcher is loo&ing for@ 4imilarly, freuently going to the movies might mean one movie every wee& to one person, one movie every month to another, and three times a wee& to a third person; 4ince these terms are not defined, biased data will be procured from the respondents. e. Becall-dependent uestions will also introduce biases. 6or e+ample, not many people remember when e+actly they started smo&ing, or why they uit a particular school and ?oined another when they were 1= years old. f. #eading uestions also result in biased responses because the interviewee might be led to believe that a particular type of answer is sought and might try to oblige the interviewer, even if the response is not what the individual believes to be true. "n e+ample of a leading uestion is Con%t you thin& that more women should be promoted to decision-ma&ing line positions in organizations@ 4uch a uestion is li&ely to elicit the obvious response, “4urely, Nes”; g. #oaded uestions should also be avoided because of the emotionality it invo&es, thus eliciting biased responses. "s an e+ample “Con%t you thin& that the #.".H.C. is biased against blac&s@” is a uestion with racial overtones which will bring forth emotional, rather than ob?ective responses to the uestion. h. Iuestions invo&ing social desirability will also produce biased responses. "n e+ample would be to as& if anyone felt that wor&force diversity is bad for the system. n the conte+t of the changing demographics of the wor&force, even if some felt that diversity at the wor&place is disastrous, they would tend not to disagree because it is not a socially acceptable response. i. t is also important to avoid lengthy uestions which might confuse the respondent and introduce several types of bias. "n e+ample of a long uestion is To what e+tent would as&ing for responses from different groups of employees, such as for instance, production, mar&eting, B S C, advertising, and sales, on such issues as the policy governing the organization, the organizational culture, staff
discipline and other related matters, provide valid data to the president, to enable him to ma&e some critical decisions on how to run the company effectively and efficiently@ 3. What are (ro'ecti*e techni7ues an! ho% can the &e (roita&l use!+
Hro?ective techniues help the respondent to offer answers to uestions which might otherwise be rather difficult or cumbersome to respond to. Hro?ective methods which include such techniues as word association, sentence completion, thematic apperception, and in&-blot tests, usually tap the deepseated motivations of the respondent and provide relevant answers to difficult uestions. 8owever, the responses have to be analyzed by individuals well trained in interpreting the answers if they are to be meaningfully utilized for research purposes. 3ar&eting research can benefit substantially by using pro?ective techniues, as for e+ample, in developing products, designing ads, and selecting appropriate media. 6. Ho% are "ulti(le "etho!s o !ata collection ro" "ulti(le sources relate! to relia&ilit an! *ali!it o the "easures+
f there is convergence or strong correlation among the data obtained from different data collection methods on the same variable, then one can establish convergent validity because the data converge even when collected by different methods. The same holds true when there is a strong and significant correlation between the data obtained on the same variable from different sources. Though reliability cannot be directly assessed from multi-methods or multi-sources of data collection, usually, since a valid instrument is reliable /though the converse may not necessarily be true0, one can presume reliability if validity is established through the multi-trait, multi-matri+ method. 8. E*er !ata collection "etho! has its o%n &uilt2in &iases. Thereore) resortin# to "ulti2"etho!s o !ata collection is onl #oin# to co"(oun! the &iases. Criti7ue this state"ent.
t is true that most data collection methods in the social sciences have their own built-in biases. 6or instance, interviews are susceptible to interviewer and respondent biases, observational data will have observer and actor biases, and so on. *ut when data are collected through multiple methods and compared, if the correlations among the several types of responses received through the different data collection methods are high, we can be fairly confident that the data have good validity and reliability D i.e. they are “good.” f the correlations are low, however, we would start wondering about the goodness of our data. 5e would then pay closer attention to the methods used. 6or instance, if respondents say that they e+perience a high level of meaningfulness in their ?obs when they are interviewed, and when the concept is measured through several items in the uestionnaire, we would be inclined to treat these as acceptable data even though both may have a low correlation to data obtained from a sentence completion motivational research. f, however, there is no correlation at all among any of the methods, the goodness of the data collected will be highly suspect.
Thus, multi-methods of data collection help us to ma&e certain ?udgments about the goodness of our data and serves to ma&e decisions on which sets of data may perhaps be more acceptable than others. 9. One %a to !eal %ith !iscre(ancies oun! in the !ata o&taine! ro" "ulti(le sources is to a*era#e the i#ures an! ta$e the "ean as the *alue on the *aria&le. What is our reaction to this+
5herever possible “ob?ective” data, through unobtrusive methods, need to be obtained. 6or instance, if an employee%s performance is to be measured, it is better to go through the person%s records and evaluation forms of the superiors /in case more ob?ective measures of output are not available0. 8owever, such records are usually confidential in nature and are not li&ely to be made accessible to the researcher. 8ence data will be sought from multiple sourcesDfor e+ample, from the sub?ect, the co-wor&ers, the immediate supervisor, other superiors, and perhaps even the subordinates. f there is not much consistency in the data obtained through these various sources, there is no option left but to average these. 8owever, the researcher should point out the biases inherent in this and ac&nowledge this limitation in the report. . Ho% has the a!*ance"ent o technolo# hel(e! !ata #atherin#+
8and-held computers used in field interviews are very useful for collecting and recording information from many individuals. The recorded information can be chec&ed for accuracy the same day. o% to uestion Q ', proceed to uestion Q 1L0. The only drawbac& is that people might ignore and not respond to electronic surveys, and some may not have the reuisite facilities. 1@. Ho% %ill ou use the !ata ro" o&ser*ational stu! to reach scientiic conclusions+
bservational studies have been profitably used for providing descriptive information. 8owever, by categorizing the responses in a meaningful way, and also developing ordinal or #i&ert-type scales therefrom, /e.g. 8igh 6reuency to #ow 6reuency, etc.0, scientific conclusions can be reached applying parametric or nonparametric statistics, as appropriate. 11. The e%er the &iases in "easure"ent an! in the !ata collection (roce!ures) the "ore scientiic the research. Co""ent on this state"ent.
This observation is correct. 5hen reliable and valid measures are used to tap concepts, and when the data collection methods have less built-in biases, we would have good data, provided that, of course, the sample is representative. Thus, replicability, accuracy and precision, and generalizability, become possible. The research then becomes more scientific.
E4ercises
E4ercise 9.1 A (ro!uction "ana#er %ants to assess the reactions o the &lue2collar %or$ers in his !e(art"ent :inclu!in# ore"en; to the intro!uction o co"(uterinte#rate! "anuacturin# :CI; sste"s. He is (articularl intereste! to $no% ho% the %oul! (ercei*e the eects o CI on
a. their future ?obs b. additional training that they will have to receive c. future ?ob advancement. Desi#n a 7uestionnaire or the (ro!uction "ana#er. !uestionnaire
7ria 4oftware
U 3achinist U #ess than 1 U Cay U 6itter U 1-! U ight U nspector U '-1= U 6oreman U ver 1= years U 4urveyor U ther
,. our O(inions re#ar!in# the ollo%in#.
Hlease circle the appropriate number for each of the following items using the scale below.
STRONGB AGREE 1 AGREE , NEITHER AGREE NOR DISAGREE 0 DISAGREE STRONGB DISAGREE 3
1. will need additional training to wor& in the changed environment. 12!$' 2. The new system will offer me better opportunities for advancement. 12!$' !. The opportunities for training will have to be enhanced with 73. 12!$' $. am not sure if 73 will need all the people we now have in this department. 12!$' '. feel that most of us may not have better opportunities for future promotions in the new manufacturing environment. 12!$' (. 3ost of us will need special training to wor& with 73. 12!$' ). am sure the future loo&s bright for most of us here. 12!$'
tems $ and ) measure opinion about their future ?obs 1, !, and ( measure perceived training needs 2 and ' measure ?ob advancement
E4ercise 9.,
"nswers may vary. E4ercise 9.0
"nswers may vary. E4ercise 9.
"nswers may vary. The uestionnaire should include valid and reliable scales measuring service uality, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty. E4ercise 9.3 Desi#n an inter*ie% sche!ule to assess the Intellectual ca(ital) as (ercei*e! & e"(loees) in an or#ani=ation ater i!entiin# the !i"ensions an! ele"ents.
The dimensions of intellectual capital would primarily comprise, among other things, the following The &nowledge-base of the employees Their &now-how
The patents owned by the organization The secret formulas utilized by the company /special formulas J manufacturing process, and the li&e0. The e+tent to which the company has an edge over others, in terms of specialized &nowledge and s&ills. The Gnstructured nterview 4chedule would basically as& for the employees% ideas as to what the term means and what they consider are the essentials of intellectual capital. The 4tructured nterview 4chedule will be on the following lines 1. Cepartment 2. >ature of ?ob !. "ge $. Cesignation '. To what e+tent do you thin& your organization depends on the &nowledge of operations of wor&ers for its success@ (. To what e+tent do you thin& the success of this organization is due to the specialized &nowledge and s&ills possessed by employees@ ). 4hould some of the employees leave this organization, how difficult will it be to recruit others with the same or similar &nowledge@ E. To what e+tent is the &now-how relating to certain operations confined to particular individuals who alone &now how to do their ?ob@ L. 8ow many patents have been owned by your company in the last ' years@ 1=. To what e+tent would you say your company has far more valuable patents than your competitors in the industry@
A!!itional E4ercises in Questionnaire Desi#n Two simple e+ercises on Iuestionnaire Cesign follow, and these can be used for class discussion after the students have individually wor&ed on them as homewor& assignments. Cifferent students can then be as&ed to write on the chal& board different parts of the uestionnaire D for e+ample, the introduction, instructions to respondents, measures for different concepts with scaling, and the end part of the uestionnaire. The class as a whole can then critiue the e+ercise on the board. 4ee also <+ercises 1=.1 to 1=.' in the *oo&. These can also be used for class discussions including discussions on possible ways of establishing reliability and validity for the measures. 6. The &arketing Director of a pharmaceutical company wants to examine the effects of number of sales personnel% population density% the average sales calls made to the doctors in the region% and the average monthly sales calls made on the chemists in the region% on the sales of the pharmaceutical products of the company. "he has six particular regions in mind. Design a questionnaire to do the study. 'lso discuss what sources of data you will gather information from.
