MEMORANDUM ON THE
CENSUS OF BRITISH INDIA OF
1871-72 Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Comma nd ndo f Her Majesty London: PRINTED BY GEORGE EDWARD EYRE AND WILLI AM SPOTTISWOODE, PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN'S MOST M OST EXCELLE EXCELLE NT MAJEST MAJESTY Y FOR HER MAJESTY'S MAJESTY'S STAT S TATIONARY IONARY O FFICE LIST OF CONTENTS
Page
Census taken in 1871-72
5
Imperfection of the Census
5
Density of the Population
6
Increase or Decrease of the Populati Population on
8
Houses
10
Villages and Towns
11
Sex and Age
13
Religion
16
National ationaliity, ty, Langu Language, age, and Caste Caste
19
Proportion of Sexes and Ages, in Religions and Caste divisions
29
Female Infanticide
31
Occupation
32
Infirmities
37
Education
37
Incidence of the Land Revenue
37
Mode in which the Censes was effected
40
General success of the Census
41
Cost of o f the the Censu Ce nsuss
42
TABLES (not currently available online:- PGF) 1.
Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in British India
43
2.
Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Bengal
43
3.
Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Assam
44
4.
Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in North- West Provinces
44
5.
Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Ajmere
45
6.
Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Oude
45
7.
Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Punjab
46
8.
Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Central Provinces
46
9.
Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Berar
47
10. Ar Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Mysore
47
11. Ar Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Coorg
47
12. Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in British Burma
48
13. Ar Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Madras
48
14. Ar Area, Villages, Houses, and Population in Bombay
49
15. Towns and Villages in British India, classified according to population
49
16. Population of British India, class. according to Sex and Age
50
17. Population of British India, class. according to Religion
50
18. Hindoo and Sikh Pop. of British India, class. acc. to Sex and Age
51
19. Mohomedan Pop. of British India, class. acc. to Sex and Age
51
20. Buddhist Pop. of British India, class. acc. to Sex and Age
52
21. Christian Pop. of British India, class. acc. to Sex and Age
52
22. O ther Pop. of British India, class. acc. to Sex and Age
53
23. Population of British India, class. according to Cast and N ationality
53
24. Asiatic N on- Indian Pop. of British India class. accord. to Nationality
54
25. Mixed Races of British India, classified accord. to N ationality
54
26. N on- Asiatic Pop. of British India, class. accord. to N ationality
55
27. Adult Male Population of British India class. accord. to O ccupation
55
28. Detailed Statement of O ccupations of Male Pop. of British India
56
29. Adult Female Population of Bengal, Assam, and Bombay, class. O ccup.
60
30. Detailed Statement of O ccup. of Female Pop. Bengal, Assam & Bombay
61
31. Po Population of British India subject to Infirmities
63
32. Population of British India able to read and write, or under instruct.
64
33. Statement of the pop. of British India with reference to C ultivation of the Land and the Land Revenue
65
Memorandum on the Census of British India of 1871-72. Census take n in 1871-72.
In the year 1871-72 the first approach was made to the taking of a general census for the whole of India at a given date. Enumerations of the people had already been made in the North-West Provinces in 1853 and 1865, in Oude in 1869, in the Punjab in 1855 and 1868, in the Hyderabad Assigned Districts in 1867, and in the Central Provinces in 1866; while in Madras quinquennial returns have been prepared since 1851-52 by the officers of the Revenue Department, giving with more or less accuracy the numbers of the people in each district, and in British Burma also a tolerably correct census is made each year for the purpose of the capitation rate. Nor was the Government supposed to be without some means of forming an estimate of the numbers under its rule in Bengal, in Bombay, or in the minor provinces, though in Bengal at least the estimate has been found to have been utterly wrong. The Census of 1871 was, however, an attempt to obtain for the whole of India statistics of the age, caste, religion, occupation, education, and infirmities of the population; and the results, for their respective provinces, have been carefully analysed in the reports written by Mr. Beverley for Bengal, Mr. Plowden for the North-West Provinces, Mr. Neill for the Central Provinces, Surgeon-Major Cornish for Madras, Surgeon-Major Lumsdaine for Bombay, Mr. M`Iver for British Burma, and Major Lindsay for Coorg and for Mysore, which State, though administered for its Native Prince, may for present resent purposes purposes be treated treated as part of Briti British sh India. India. Imperfection in the Census.
Unfortunately the enumeration was not carried out in all the provinces, it being thought undesirable to incur the expense or disturb the people in the Punjab, Oude, and Berar so soon after the last census taken in those parts of the country. In the following endeavour, therefore, to bring into one view particul articulars ars relati relating ng to the the whol wholee populati population on of Briti British sh Indi India, a, itit wi will be necessary necessary to use use for for those those provi provinces returns returns whi which are are from from three three to six six years years antecedent in date to the general census of 1871-72. The following Statement gives the Area and Population of British India as shewn in the various Census Reports, with the best information available relating to the Native States:Unde r Britis h Adminis tration Provi ovinces
Government of India
Fe udatory State s
Total
Area in Squ Square are Mil Miles. Popu opulati ation. on. Area in Squ Square are Mil Miles. Popu opulati ation. on. Area in Squ Square are Mil Miles. Popu opulati ation. on.
Ajmere
2,661
316,032
-
-
2,661
316,032
Berar
17,334
2,231,565
-
-
17,334
2,231,565
C oorg
2,000
168,312
-
-
2,000
168,312
Mysore
27,077
5,055,412
-
-
27,077
5,055,412
C entral India and Bundelkund -
-
81,140
7,699,502
81,140
7,699,502
Hyderabad
-
-
78,003
10,666,080 78,003
10,666,080
Munnipoor
-
-
7,584
126,000
7,584
126,000
Rajpootana
-
-
118,947
8,981,588
118,947
8,981,588
Bengal
157,598
60,467,724
39,321
2,212,909
196,919
62,680,633
Assam
53,856
4,132,019
-
-
53,856
4,132,019
North West Provi Provinces
81,403
30,781,204
5,445
907,013
86,848
31,688,217
O ude
23,992
11,220,232
-
-
23,992
11,220,232
Punjab
101,829
17,611,498
114,358
5,299,448
216,187
22,910,946
C entral Provinces
84,963
8,201,519
28,834
1,049,710
113,797
9,251,229
British Burma - -
88,556
2,747,148
-
-
88,556
2,747,148
Madras
138,318
31,281,177
9,810
2,027,048
148,128
33,308,225
Bombay
124,462
16,349,206
63,253
9,298,612
187,715
25,647,818
Total
904,049
190,563,048 54 546,695
48,267,901 1, 1,450,744
238,830,958
*Excluding the Cachar and Luckimpoor Hills, of which the population was not counted, the area of Assam is 41,798 square miles. According to the most recent information from India, the area of one or two of the provinces differs slightly from that above given,* the correction being due either to more accurate survey or to the transfer of territory from one admini -
stration to another. It has, however, been thought desirable to adhere in this Memorandum to the figures of the census. The outlying station of Aden in Arabia, with a population of 22,507, and the penal settlement in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, of which the population is returned as 8,643, have been omi omitted, as not not being being strictl strictly y wi withi thin Indi Indian an lilimits. In a few few inst instances ances fairl airly y accurate accurate stati statisti stics cs have have been obtained obtained for for the the Native Native Feudatory Feudatory States; but as a rule the numbers can only be accepted as estimates, and the present review will, therefore, be limited to those relating to British India. Density of population.
The density of the population throughout the whole of British India and the Feudatory States averages 165 to the square mile, or, if the districts under direct British Administration alone be considered, there are 211 persons to each square mile on the average. Taking those under British rule, the density is,In Oude
468
In Bengal
397
In North West Provinces
378
In Madras
226
In Mysore
187
In Punjab
173
In Bombay
131
In Berar
129
In Ajmere
119
In Assam (excluding uncensused hill country)
99
In Central Provinces
97
In Coorg
84
In British Burma
31
It may be interesting to compare this table with the figures in the margin, shewing the density in certain European countries.
Population per Square Mile.
Population per Square Mile.
Belgium
447
Switzerland
175
England
422
Ireland
169
England and Wales
390
Bavaria
167
Saxony
377
Austria Hungary
158
Netherl etherlands
291
France France
150
Great Britain and Ireland
265
Denmark
111
Scotland Sc
109
Italy
237
Portugal
108
German Empire
193
Spain
90
Prussia
l80
Greece
73
In particular districts of India, the density of the population is very remark- able. In the Report on the Census of England and Wales for 1871 it is observed obs erved that "any density "of "of a large country " approac app roachi hing ng 200 to a "square mile mile impli implies es mines, mines, manufactures, manufactures, or the industry of cities." cities." A popul pop ulation ation of 500 to the square mile over any but a small area is very dense. In England (excluding. the three Metropolitan Districts, which have an area of only 118 square miles between them,) there are but seven counties with such a population, namely,Square Miles.
Average Population.
Lancashire
1,888
1,493
Middlesex (extra Metropolitan)
234
1,082
Staffordshire
1,144
750
Warwickshire
885
717
West Riding of Yorkshire
2,766
678
Durham
1,012
677
C heshire
1,102
509
As a rule, the districts of India are much larger than English counties, and there are no less than 132 with a greater area than the West Riding, which is the largest English County Division. Yet, though the space over which the calculation is spread is so much greater, a density of 500 to the square mile throughout a district is not at all unusual in Northern India. Of the 43 districts in Bengal, seventeen come up to that standard;Square Miles.
Average Population.
Hooghly (with Howrah)
1,424
1,045
24 Pergunnahs (with Calcutta)
2,796
951
Sarun
2,654
778
Patna
2,101
742
Square Miles.
Average Population.
Tirhoot
6,343
691
Furreedpoor
1,496
677
Dacca
2,897
640
Rungpoor
3,476
619
Pubna
1,966
616
Rajshahye
2,234
587
Tipperah
2,655
578
Burdwan
3,523
577
Jessore
3,658
567
Nuddea
3,421
530
Moorshedabad
2,578
525
Beerbhoom
1,344
518
Midnapoor
5,082
500
The average population of the whole province, excluding the almost uninhabited jungle of the Sunderbuns, is 397 to the square mile, whereas the populati opulation on of Engl England and and and Wales, Wales, whi which a little ttle exceed exceed one-thi one-third of the the size size of Bengal Bengal,, averages averages only only 390 to to the the square square mi mile.
In the North-West Provinces the districts are much smaller than in Bengal, but larger than most English counties. Thirteen out of the 35 come up to the before-men efore-menti tioned oned standard standard of dense popul population: ation:— — Square Miles.
Average Population.
Benares
996
797
Jounpoor
1,556
659
Ghazeepoor
2,168
621
Azimgurh
2,565
597
Agra
1,908
575
Shahjehanpoor
1,723
551
Muttra
1,612
551
Allygurh
1,964
547
Meerut
2,360
541
Bustee
2,789
528
Furruckabad
1,745
527
Allahabad
2,747
508
Bareilly
2,982
505
The average for the whole territory (which is about half as large again as England and Wales) is 378, and that of the plain country, (excluding, that is to say, Kumaon and Gurhwal,) 430 to the square mile. The excessive density of population in the valley of the Ganges and the neigh- bouring districts may be illustrated in the following manner. Taking the three provinces of Bengal, Oude, and the North-West (with the exception of the out- lying districts of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Cooch Behar, and Kumaon, on the north, and the Sunderbuns, Chota Nagpoor, and Jhansi, on the south), we have an area of 201,581 square miles, and a population of 96,788,049, giving an average of 480 to the square mile; that is to say, over a country larger than Spain and little less than France, there is an average populati opulation on exceedi exceeding ng that that of Belgi Belgium um by more more than than 7 per per cent., cent., and and that that of Engl England and by nearl nearly 14 per per cent., cent., those those being being the the two two most most densel densely y popul populated countries in Europ Europe. e. This density is, moreover, not due to a great concourse of inhabitants in large cities, seeing that there is a very general spreading of the people over the country, as will appear from the following comparison. The total population of England and Wales is about 22¾ millions, of whom 9½ millions (or 42 per cent.) live in towns with upwards of 20,000 inhabitants, leaving 13¼ millions (or 58 per cent.) for the villages and country. In the Census of India the urban population is taken to comprise those living in towns of 5,000 (not 20,000) or upwards; yet, even with this great extension of the term, there are little above 3 millions (or 5 per cent.) of the people in Bengal who can be said to live in towns, about the same number (3 millions, or 10 per cent, of the total population,) in the North-West Provinces, and less than 800,000 (or 7 per cent.) in Oude. The average for this part of the country is therefore about 7 per cent, of urban and 93 of rural population. In Oude, 7 of the 12 districts have a density exceeding 500:— Square Miles.
Average Population.
Lucknow
1,392
697
Barabunkee
1,348
649
Fyzabad
2,332
616
Sultanpoor
1,570
592
Roy Barely
1,350
580
Pertabgurh
1,724
543
O onao
1,349
537
The average throughout the province is no less than 468, the area being about two-fifths the size of England and Wales. When, however, we quit the valleys watered by the great rivers, the Brahma- pootra, Ganges, and Jumna, the Gogra and the Goomtee, we find a much more sparsely populated territory. Out of the 32 districts of the Punjab, there are only three in which the average of 500 is exceeded (excluding Simla, which for each of its 18 square miles has 1,889 persons):Square Miles.
Average Population.
Jullundhur
1,333
596
Umritsur
2,036
532
Sealkote
1,970
510
The average throughout the Punjab is 173; the area of the province exceeds that of England and Wales by about 75 per cent. On the north-east of Bengal, the newly formed Chief Commissionership of Assam (which is little less in size than England and Wales) has one district, Sylhet, with 312,but no other with more than 160 to the square mile; and the average, even when the wild hill country of Cachar and Luckimpoor is excluded, is only 99. Nor is is the the case diff differen erentt when when we turn turn to the the territori territories es on the the south south and west west of Bengal Bengal.. In the the Central Central Provinces Provinces,, the the most most popul populous distri district, ct, Nagpoor, Nagpoor, has only 169 to the square mile, the average of the whole province being 97; that is to say, over a territory exceeding the total area of England and Wales by about one half, the population is not on the average denser than that of Westmoreland (the least thickly peopled of English counties). Berar (or the Assigned Districts of Hyderabad) is about one-fifth of the size of the Central Provinces, and is somewhat more thickly populated, there being eing in one one distri district, ct, El Ellichpoor, 271 persons persons to the the square square mile, and 129 on the the averag averagee throug throughou houtt the the provi province. The two districts of Ajmere and Mhairwarra are situated in the midst of the Native States of Rajpootana. They are together somewhat larger than Devon- shire, and have a population of 119 to the square mile, or about half the average of that county. Setting aside the 27 square miles which constitute the city and suburbs of Madras, the Presidency of that name has only one district coming up to the standard of 500 to the square mile, namely, Tanjore, in which there is an average of 540 persons throughout its area of 3,654 square miles. The next in order is Malabar with 377; and the average of the Presidency is 226. Its size is nearly 2½ times as great as that of England and Wales. In Bombay also, of which the area is rather less than that of Madras, there is, besides the island containing the capital, only one district coming up to the above assumed standard of excessive population, namely, Kaira, which contains 1,561 square miles, with an average of 501 persons. In Sind, the populati opulation on is is very very sparse, the the averag averagee of its fi five distri districts cts being being respectivel respectively y 88, 80, 47, 30, and and 14 to the the square square mi mile. In Mysore, there is no district with more than 284 to the square mile, and in Coorg none with more than 164; the two together are just half the size of England and Wales. British Burma, which is three times as large as the united areas of Mysore and Coorg, is still less thickly populated, the densest district having 115, while there are one with 7 and two with only 6 to the square mile. Increase or decrease of the population. In connexion with this branch of the subject, the very interesting question arises, whether there is reason to consider the population of India as on the increase, and, if so, at what rate. The absence of trustworthy data in most of the
provinces rovinces renders renders itit very very dif difficul ficultt to to form form a confi confident opini opinion on on thi this point point,, and, even in those those territori territories es for for whi which a census census has has been previ previously ously taken, taken, itit must be borne in mind that a portion of the increase shewn by the figures may be attributable to more perfect registration. In Bengal, the estimates which have been formed at various times have been usually suspected to be very inaccurate, and in some cases have hardly pretended retended to be more more than than a mere guess guess.. The The one excepti exception is is the the attem attempt made made by Dr. Buch Buchanan anan,, between between 1807 and and 1814, to comput computee the the populati population on in the northern districts of Bengal and a portion of Behar. The mode which he adopted was to ascertain the extent of cultivation, and, allowing five or six acres (according to the character of the district) to each plough, which he assumed to represent five persons of all ages, to calculate the aggregate agricultural population, whence, by consulting the most intelligent inhabitants as to the proportion which the agriculturists bore to other classes in that district, he arrived at the total number. This rough estimate was in some cases checked by ascertaining the aggregate agricultural produce, and, after abatement for exports, calculating the number of mouths for which the remainder would suffice. The result of Dr. Buchanan's survey was that, in an area of 36,784 square miles, he reckoned the population to be 15,443,220, giving 420 persons to the square mile, an average which must be corrected to 412, as the country embraced in the maps accompanying his description is now found to comprise 37,425 square miles. The population of this tract by the last census was 14,926,337, or 399 to the square mile, exhibiting (so far as reliance is to be placed on the earlier figures) an average decrease in the districts to which they refer of 13 persons to the square mile during 60 years, or 1/2000th annum. That Dr. Buchanan's mode of calculation, rough as it seems, was not a bad one for the purpose appears likely from the following consideration. In the thickly populated districts of the North-West Provinces and Oude the cultivated land is about five-eighths of the entire territory, and the proportion in similar parts of Bengal may be assumed to be much the same; so that we might expect to find, in the districts surveyed by Dr. Buchanan, a population of about 5/8ths (37,425 X 240), or 14,989,600, which differs very slightly from that shewn by the census, namely,14,926,337; and, conversely, we should find the area to be 8/5ths (14,926,237/646), or 37,316 square miles, which is within one third per cent. of the truth. The inference, then, may perhaps be drawn, with reference to the; particular territory surveyed by Dr. Buchanan, that the area of cultivation has not materially increased since the early part of the century, or, at any rate, not to a greater extent than is counteracted by the increased facilities for exporting produce; and that that,, the the country country being being already already as thi thickly ckly popul populated as itit woul would d bear, the the num number of inhabi nhabitan tants ts has has remai remained ned alm almost stati stationary onary.. In most cases the alterations which have taken place in the boundaries of the districts during this century render it impossible to compare the estimates of their population made from time to time with the results of the census. The following instance seems, however, confirmatory of what has been said above respecting the inferences to be drawn from Dr. Buchanan's figures. In the year 1813, Mr. Butterworth Bayley, at that time the Judge and Magis- trate of Burdwan, endeavoured to ascertain the population of his district. By inquiries among the Native proprietors of estates and European residents, he satisfied himself that an average of 5½ persons should be allowed for each dwelling, and that the number of houses might be taken at 262,634, which gave a population of 1,444,487. The territory comprised in the district as
then con- stituted appears from the recent census to contain 322,830 houses, with a popu- lation of 1,305,316 souls, or 4½ to each house. The diminution, both in the actual numbers and in the average of residents in each house, is such as may well be ascribed to the ravages made by the epidemic fever which had pervaded Burdwan for several years, till it was checked by the dry season of 1873-74, coupled with the sanitary measures adopted by the Government. In the outlying districts, and those which more especially suffered from the disorders prevailing before the firm establishment of British rule, there must undoubtedly have been a large increase both of cultivation and of population, but no general estimate can be made, with any pretension to accuracy, of the addition which has taken place. The calculations given at various times for Orissa shew a curious variation. At the beginning of this century, when it came under British government, the country had been well nigh depopulated; and in 1822 the inhabitants were reckoned to amount to less than 1,300,000. In 1855 this estimate was more than doubled; and in 1866 the population was thought to be at least 3,015,826. The Commissioners who inquired into the circumstances of the terrible famine in that year were of opinion that one-fourth of the people had been swept away by the calamity, and their inquiries shewed only 2,086,288 survivors. Yet, five years afterwards, the population was found by the census to have risen to 3,034,690. In the North-West Provinces the census of 1865 exhibited a falling-off in population since 1853 by somewhat less than three-fourths per cent., a result which was attributed to inaccuracy in the earlier return. The census of 1872 shews an increase on that of 1865 by about 3¾ths per cent. In some districts this may be due to the natural progress of a fairly well-to-do agricultural population; and, in writing of Moozuffernuggur, the Settlement Officer expressly points out that the figures "tend at least to prove that canal irrigation does not necessarily lead to a decrease of population." In most cases, however, the apparent increase is attributed by the officers to more accurate registration on the present occasion, especially with regard to the female populati opulation. on. The The retu returns rns shew an incr increase ease in in most most of the the divi divisi sions, ons, thoug though h in in some some parts the the effec effectt of the the fam famiine of 1868-69 is seen in the the less less rapid rapid increase or even actual decrease. This is especially apparent in Jhansi, where the falling off is nearly 7 per cent. Yet more sad is the tale revealed by the census of Ajmere and Mhairwarra. In 1865 these districts belonged to the North-West Provinces, and, according to the enumeration then made, they contained a population of 426,268, or 160 to the square mile. Having since been placed under a Commissioner directly responsible to the Government of India, their condition was tested by a separate census, taken on the 1st of May 1872, when the number of inhabitants was found to be only 316,032, or 119 to the square mile, the figures shewing a decrease of more than one-fourth of the populati opulation, on, attri attribut buted ed to the the fam famiine of 1868-69 and the the epidem epidemiic diseases diseases whi which ch fol folllowed it. it. In the Central Provinces the returns shew an increase in the population amounting, in the six years since the last census, to 185,191, or 2 per cent. The emigration of the people from their homes to other places has in some districts led to an increase, and in others to a decrease; in the Upper Godavery District there has been a falling-off of no less than 60 per cent., attributed partly to the stoppage of the navigation works and partly to the emigration of the Koees into the country of the Nizam. The returns for British Burma gave a population in 1862 of 2,020,634, and in 1872 of 2,747,148; in the former case the counting was not made by a systematic census, and was manifestly too low, but, allowing for the omission of perhaps 5 per cent, on that occasion, we find an increase of 625,000 persons, ersons, or 30 per cent, cent, on the the num numbers exi existing sting ten years years ago. ago. Thi This shews shews a progre progressi ssive ve expans expansiion at the the rate of 3 per cent, cent, per annu annum m, an improvem provement doubtless due to the better administration of the country since it came under the British rule. No good resul result woul would d apparentl apparently y be obtai obtained ned by an attem attempt pt to compare compare the the num numbers reported reported for for other other provi provinces wi with the the estim estimates of a more more or less less vague character which were made on previous occasions. Houses.
The number of inhabited houses enumerated in British India is 37,041,468, which gives an average of 41 houses to the square mile, and of 5 14 persons to a house. In 1831 the average number of houses to a square mile in England and Wales was 42.6, and there were 5.41 persons to a house; but a great increase has taken place in the number of dwellings since that date, and the census of 1871 shewed 73 houses to the square mile with 5.33 persons to the house. Number umber of inhabi nhabited ted houses houses per square square mi mile. Bengal
69
Bear
29
Assam
24
rMysore
37
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
78
Coorg
11
Ajmere
33
British Burma
6
O ude
102
Madras
42
Punjab
41
Bombay
26
C entral Provinces
20
Average for British India
41
The pro-portion of houses to the area in India varies very greatly in the different provinces; in Oude there is an average of 102 to each square mile, in the North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces it is is 78, in in Beng Bengal al 69, in in Madras Madras 42, in in the the Pun-jab Pun-jab 41, in in Mysore Mysore 37, in in Ajm Ajmere ere 34, in in Berar Berar 29, in in Bom Bombay bay 26, in Assam Assam 24, in in the Central Provinces 20, in Coorg 11, and in British Burma only 6. The average of five persons to a house represents fairly the condition of matters throughout the country, since, out of the 236 districts, only 10 have an average so high as
seven, and 18 between seven and six, while in only 15 does it fall below if our. Coorg is remarkable for the closeness with which its people pack themselves in their habitations, in one district the average being 9.76, in another 8.67, and that for the whole province 7.35; the average in Bombay Island is 20.49; that in Calcutta is 11, and that in the City of Madras 8. The lowest averages are those for Ajmere and Mhairwarra 3.47; for Jullundhur, in the Punjab, 3.28; and for Ahmedabad, in Bombay, 3.18. Contrary to the experience of other countries, it is found that in India the proportion of persons to each house is, as a general rule, less in the towns than in the country, the reason assigned being that in towns most of the houses are shops, and many of the shopkeepers are traders from a distance whose families do not reside with them. With regard to the average number of persons in a house, Mr. Neill, referring to the condition of affairs in the Central Provinces, observes that, while the figures do not suggest the idea of overcrowding, a knowledge of the way in which the five human beings share their dwelling with buffaloes, cows, or goats, interferes with the view which might otherwise be formed respecting the standard of comfort among the people. An attempt was made in the census of 1872 to distinguish between the better class of houses, or those built of masonry and tiled, and the inferior sort, constructed of mud and thatched. Number of Houses and of their Inmates in each Presidency and Province.
Bengal
-
-
-
-
10,481,132
60,467,724
5.77
Assam
-
-
-
-
670,078
4,132,019
5.73
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
478,047
2,274,219
5,881,045
28,494,837
6,359,092
30,781,203
4.84
Ajmere
-
-
-
-
91,199
316,032
3.74
O ude
-
-
-
-
2,438,006
11,220,232
4.60
4,124,857
17,611,498
4.27
Punjab C entral Provinces
40,924
224,617
1,633,367
7,976,902
1,674,291
8,201,519
4.90
Berar
-
-
-
-
495,760
2,231,565
4.70
Mysore
30,213
192,446
982,525
4,862,966
1,012,738
5,055,412
4.99
C oorg
862
12,560
22,038
155,752
22,900
168,312
7.35
British Burma
71,745
400,111
463,788
2,347,037
535,533
2,747,148
5.13
Madras
863,760
5,199,366
4,888,837
25,391,540
5,857,994
31,281,177
5.60
Bombay
347,703
1,954,619
2,929,976
14,393,910
3,277,679
16,349,206
4.99
It is doubtful whether the line has been drawn between the two kinds with any great accuracy, and, indeed, the mud houses of the higher class of landholders are far superior as dwellings to the di- lapidated brick houses in some of the towns. So far as the returns go, however, they shew that, in the seven pro-vinces to which they re-late, nearly one-ninth of the inhabitants live in houses of the better class. Villages and towns.
The 37 millions of houses are grouped into 493,444 villages or townships, giving an average of 75 houses to each, with a population of 386 persons. Taking the whole of India, there is rather more than one such village or town for every two square miles, the proportion varying from 1.16, 1.11, and 1.03, to the square mile, in Bengal, the North-West Pro- vinces, and Oude, to .25, .21, and .16 in Coorg, Bombay, and British Burma. Average Number of Villages, &c., per Square Mile.
Bengal
1.16
Berar
.33
Assam
.39
Mysore
.72
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
1.11
Coorg
.25
Ajmere
.35
British Burma
.16
O ude
1.03
Madras
.40
Punjab
.35
Bombay
.21
C entral Provinces
.37
Average for British India
.55
The presidency of Bombay contains the high average of 614 persons to each village or town, a result which is in part due to the circumstance that the whole island of Bombay, covering 19 square miles, and con- taining one twenty-fifth part of the inhabitants of the Presidency, is reckoned as a single township; in the remainder of the Presidency, including: the cantonments situated in Native territory, the average is 589 to each town or village, a rate which, coupled with the comparative scarcity of the townships, seems to imply that the term has in this Presidency received a somewhat wider
application than in other parts of the country. Average Number of Persons per Village or Town
Bengal
338
Be Berar
392
Assam
359
Mysore
258
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
339
Coorg
340
Ajmere
342
British Burma
195
O ude
453
Madras
564
Punjab
493
Bombay
614
C entral Provinces
260
Average for British India
386
In Madras, the proportion is 564; in the Punjab, 493; in Oude, 453; in Berar, 392; in Assam, 359; in Ajmere, 342; in Coorg, 340; in the North-West Provinces, 339; in Bengal, 338; in the Central Provinces, 260; in Mysore, 258: and in British Burma, only 195. The average for the whole of British India is 386. Of the total number of 493,444 towns and villages in British India, there are 480,437 recorded as having a population of Less than 5,000, besides 11,517 others in Oude and Madras, of which the particklers are not stated, but by far the greater part of which, if not all, must con- tain less than that number of inhabitants. Thus only 1,490, or about three in a thousand, are towns with a population ex- ceeding 5,000; 1,070 of these contain less than 10,000 persons, 374 between 10,000 and 50,000, and 46 (or, reckoning Calcutta and its suburbs as one, 44) above 50,000,—a number which, to compare Indian towns with those in England and Wales, is to be found in such places as Croydon, Bath, Southampton, Derby, and Merthyr Tydfil. No. Towns and Villages having above N o. 50,000 inhabitants
46
Between 10,000 and 50,000 ditto
374
Between 5,000 and 10,000 ditto
1,070
Under 5,000 ditto
480,437
Not specifi specified ed
11,517
Number umber of Towns Towns and Vi Villages in Bri Briti tish sh Indi Indiaa
493,444
Foremost in India, and second only to London in the British Empire, is Cal- cutta, which, notwithstanding the imperfection of the census taken by the municipal authorities, is recorded as comprising, with its suburbs, a population of 795,000 (without reckoning nearly a hundred thousand more in Howrah, the Southwark of the city). Not far behind Calcutta comes Bombay, with 644,000 inhabitants, or about 150,000 more than Liverpool; and next, though with a long interval, is Madras with 398,000. Among English cities, Manchester and Birmingham have each about 350,000, Leeds and Sheffield 250,000, inhabitants: between these, in size, comes the fourth city of India, Lucknow, with 285,000. There are twelve other towns, with a populati opulation on exceedi exceeding ng 100,000, in in Bri Briti tish sh India: India:—Ben —Benares ares the the hol holy, y, wi with 175,000; Patna, Patna, the the capital capital of Behar Behar under under Mahom Mahomedan edan rul rule, e, with with nearl nearly 159,000; Delhi, the royal city of the old Mogul Empire, with 154,000; Agra the former, and Allahabad, the present, seat of Government in the NorthWest Provinces, with 149,000 and 144,000 respectively; Bangalore, the chief town in Mysore, which with its large cantonment contains 143,000; Umritsur, the sacred city of the Sikhs, with 136,000: Cawnpoor, the frontier cantonment of the British forces when warlike Oude still retained her independence, with 123,000; Poona, the summer residence of the Bombay Government, and the principal cantonment in the west of India, with 119,000; Ahmedabad, once the capital of Guzerat, with 117,000; Surat, the commercial mistress of the West before the rise of Bombay, with 107,000; and Bareilly, the chief town in Rohilcund, with 103,000. Besides these large cities, cities, the followin following, g, of a smaller smaller size, are worthy of enumeration enumeration on o n account acc ount of the number number of their inhabitants: inhabitants:—Lahore, —Lahore, Rangoon, and Howrah, with upwards of 90,000: Nagpoor and Meerat, with more than 80,000; Furruckabad, Trichinopoly, and Shahjehanpoor, with a population exceeding 70,000; Bhaugulpoor, Dacca, Mirzapoor, Gya, and Moradabad, with above 60,000; and Monghyr, Muttra, Peshawur, Allyghur, Mysore, Mooltan, Jub- bulbar, Karachi, Shoal-. poor, Tanjore, Madera, Bellary, Goruckpoor, Cut- tack, and Salem, all of which have upwards of 50,000 inhabitants. The population of these 44 great cities is not much more than five and a half millions, or less than 3 per cent, of the total po- pulation of British India; while the number of inha- bitants of the 34 towns in England and Wales which have more than 50,000 residents exceeds 7¼ mil- lions, or 32 per cent, of the total population,—another striking proof of the re- lative excess of the rural community in India. Towns
Population
Towns
Population
C alcutta
794,645
Trichinopoly
76,530
Bombay
644,405
Shahjehanpoor
72,136
Madras
397,552
Bhaugulpoor
69,678
Lucknow
284,779
Dacca
69,212
Benares
175,188
Mirzapoor
67,274
Patna
158,900
Gya
66,843
Delhi
154,417
Moradabad
62,417
Agra
149,008
Monghyr
59,698
Allahabad
143,693
Muttra
59,281
Bangalore
142,513
Peshawur
58,555
Umritsur
135,813
Allyghur
58,539
C awnpoor
122,770
Mysore
57,815
Poona
118,886
Mooltan
56,826
Ahmedabad
116,873
Jubbulpoor
55,188
Surat
107,149
Kurrachee
53,526
Bareilly
102,982
Sholapoor
53,403
Lahore
98,924
Tanjore
52,175
Rangoon
98,745
Madura
51,987
Howrah
97,784
Bellary
51,766
Nagpoor
84,441
Goruckpoor Goruckpoor
51,117
Meerut
81,386
Cuttack
50,878
Furruckabad
79,204
Salem
50,012
Total Populati Population on of the 44 largest towns 5,594,913 5,594, 913
Sex and age.
Turning next to the question of the division of the population according to sex and age, we find in British India 98 millions of males and 92½ millions of females, or about 100 males to 94 females. The number of adults above the age of 12 is about 123 millions, and that of children under 12 nearly 67 millions, (while three-fourths of a million are unspecified), giving a proportion of 100 adults to 54 children. The adult males are 617/8 millions, the adult females a little over 61 millions, or not quite 99 females to 100 males. The children are divided into 35¾ million boys and 311/8 million girls, giving a little over 87 girl girlss to each e ach 100 boys. Males : Under 12 years
35,719,264
Above 12 years
61,858,494
Age unspecified
476,645
98,054,403
Females : Under 12 years
31,125,079
Above 12 years
61,070,618
Age unspecified
305,868
92,501,565
Both Sexes : Under 12 years
66,844,343
Above 12 years
122,929,112
Age unspecified
782,513
Sex and age unspecified
7,080
190,563,048
In this country it is found that the male births are very slightly (about 1 per cent.) more numerous than those of females, and that for the first few years there is a small excess of surviving boys over girls, but that, after the age of 20, the number of females considerably preponderates over that of males, and that, taking all ages together, there are nearly 105 females to every 100 males. The discrepancy is attributed by the writers of the Report on the Census of England and Wales for 1871 to emigration to the British Colonies and the United States of America; "the equality of the two sexes is," they remark, "maintained by "nature, and the disparity arises almost entirely from displacement." In India there are scarcely any centres of mining or manufacturing industry to withdraw the male population from their homes; and the annual emigration of even a hundred thousand persons to the British and French colonies would not have any great effect on the proportion calculated on numbers little below elow one one hundre hundred d mi millions of each sex. It mi might, ght, there therefor fore, e, be expected expected that that throug throughou houtt the the country country the the natur natural al equali equality between between the the two two sexes sexes woul would be maintained, and that the excess of female population observable in England would vanish when the census of India was examined. This is indeed the
case, but the balance is thrown with violence to the other side, and there is in the whole of British India, so far as the returns are to be credited, an excess of 5½ millions of males over females, or nearly 6 per cent. Physiological reasons have been assigned for this excess, such as the asserted tendency of a hot climate to produce an excess of male births, and the possibi ossibillity of a sim similar resul result ensui ensuing ng from from early early marri marriage age of the the girl girls, s, and and consequen consequentt greater greater maturi aturity ty of the the husbands husbands.. A thi third rd reason may also also be gi given, ven, namely, that perhaps the excess of males is to a large extent only apparent, being due either to the omission of females owing to the low estimation in which they are held, or to their systematic concealment in consequence of the reticence practised in an Oriental country on all matters connected with female relations. To ascertain how far this is likely to have been the case, it will be necessary to examine the statistics of the chief provinces separately. In Bengal the sexes may be considered to be on an equality, there being 100 males to 100.14 females; and, if the examination be made more minutely, whether by the district or by religion, it is found that the disparity of sexes, one way or the other, is, with a few exceptions, only such as may be readily accounted for by peculiar circumstances, and is not in real opposition to the general rule of equality. Bengal: Males
30,210,956
Females
30,256,768
In Assam there are only 94 females to every 100 males, but this is a not unnatural result of the immigration of Coolie labour into the province for work on the tea plantations. Assam: Males
2,125,527
Females
1,999,412
In Mysore, the equality of sexes is very nearly maintained, there being 99.35 females to 100 males, and the slight variations in the several districts appear to be due to the demands of the coffee plantations for labour. Mysore: Males
2,535,924
Females
2,519,488
In Madras, there are 99 females to every 100 males, and in seven of the twenty-one districts the former are in excess Indeed, so convinced is SurgeonMajor Cornish that the proportion between the sexes to he found in Europe may also be expected in India, that he considers that a judgment may be formed of the general accuracy of the census in any district from the way in which the proportion of the sexes has been recorded. Madras: Males
15,722,306
Females
15,558,871
In these four provinces, then, which comprise 101 out of the 190 millions of British India, the returns show the females as being not above 1 per cent. less than the males, which, in the circumstances of the country, may be considered a very near approach to equality, and seems to be fatal to the theories attributing to climatic or physiological causes an abnormal excess of male over female births. It has, however, been observed that in the large Lying-in Hospital at Madras there are 112 boys born to every 100 girls; and, if anything like this proportion prevailed throughout India, the fact would go far to account for some excess of the male over the female population. Mr. Neill, on the other hand, in writing of the Central Provinces, says that the general impression among natives is that more girls are born than boys; and he refers to a remark made to him by an intelligent native gentleman, that the greater number of female births was a wise provision of nature, to enable the classes to whom a plurality of wives is allowed to enjoy that indulgence, without interfering with their monogamous brethren. Certain it is that in the other divisions of the country, comprising nearly two- thirds of the area and not quite half the population of Native India, the female sex is in a remarkable minority. In the Central Provinces there are to every 100 males 96½ females, in Berar 93½, in Oude 92¾, in British Burma 911/3, in Bombay 91, in the North-West Pro- vinces 87½, in the Punjab 83½, in Coorg 78¼, and in Ajmere only 49½.
M ales. Ma
Females.
C entral Provinces
4,172,201
4,029,318
Berar
1,153,197
1,078,368
O ude
5,822,366
5,397,866
British Burma
1,435,518
1,311,630
Bombay
8,561,589
7,787,617
North West Provi Province
16,413,642
14,367,562
Punjab
9,595,434
8,016,064
C oorg
94,454
73,858
Ajmere
211,28
104,743
There would not, at first sight, appear to be any particular reason why the enu- meration should not have been carried out at least as accurately in provinces rovinces where where a census census had been been freque frequent ntlly taken taken as in in those those where where itit was was int introduce roduced d for the the fi first ti time; and, and, to ascertai ascertain n the the cause cause to whi which ch so excessive a disparity is to be attributed, it is necessary, in the first place, to examine the division of the population according to age. It might have been expected that the tendency, which is found in this country, to consider girls as adults at an earlier age than boys, though they may not have arrived at maturity, would be exaggerated in an Oriental people, even if a jealous care of the young women did not lead to their omission from the returns; and this feeling must have been enhanced by the ignorance of the people leading them, in some cases, to imagine that the object of the census was to secure wives for the European soldiers, a fear which, both in the Central Provinces in 1866, and in Oude in 1869, led to the actual marriage of many girls in order that they might escape the dreaded conscription. A remarkable falling off in the number of girls between 10 and 13 years of age has been observed observed in the the North-West North-West Provi Provinces, nces, but there there being being no correspon correspondi ding ng increase ncrease in in those those between between 13 and and 20 years years of age, thi thiss seems seems due to entire concealment, rather than to their return as adults. That some such considerations as have been mentioned, however, prevailed to a great extent seems clear, when it is found that, notwithstanding the general equality of sexes in Bengal, the number of boys under 12 exceeds that of the girls under that age by nearly two millions, the male adults falling below elow the the fem femal alee adults adults by a correspondi corresponding ng num number. In Assam the the resul result is is somewh somewhat at sim similar, for, for, whi while the the adult adult mal males es woul would, throug through h the the inf inflluence uence of immigration, be expected to be largely in excess of the adult females, and the children to be equally divided, it is found that the adults are very nearly on a par, and and that that the the boys boys outnu outnum mber the the girl girlss by 113,000, or about about 14 per cent cent.. So also also both in Mysore Mysore and in in Madras, Madras, the the adult adult fem femal ales es mal malee adults, adults, but but the boys are in excess of the girls. Provinces.
Boys.
Girls.
Male Adults.
Female Adults.
Bengal
11,304,521
9,451,607
18,906,435
20,841,161
Assam
809,970
697,097
1,315,577
1,302,315
Mysore
922,936
896,290
1,612,988
1,623,198
Madras
5,808,607
5,584,364
9,659,122
9,779,260
The same result is to be seen in the returns of the Central Provinces, where the male adults are very slightly more numerous than the females, but the boys exceed exceed the the girl girlss by 8 per cent. cent. Provinces
Boys
Girls
Male Adults
Female Adults
C entral Provinces
1,624,645
1,495,637
2,547,556
2,533,681
Berar
422,055
374,136
731,142
704,232
O ude
2,186,247
1,843,467
3,636,119
3,554,399
Bombay
3,129,892
2,798,292
5,431,697
4,989,325
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
5,585,710
4,650,269
10,817,153
9,711,415
Punjab
3,390,054
2,858,031
6,205,380
5,158,033
C oorg
28,641
26,440
65,813
47,418
British Burma
505,986
485,449
929,532
826,181
In Berar the excess of male adults is greater, they being 3½ per cent, more than the females, while the boys are 111/3 per cent, more numerous than the girls. In Oude the female adults are only 2¼ per cent. less than the male adults, while there are but 841/3 girls to 100 boys In Bombay there are 100 male to 92 female adults, but 100 boys to 89½ girls. In the North-West Provinces there are only 89¾ female adults to 100 males, and but 83¼ girls to 100 boys. In the Punjab, however, while there are barely 83 female to 100 male adults, there are 841/3 girls to 100 boys. The disparity of the sexes and the remarkably low percentage of children in Coorg are said to have been to a great extent accidental, owing to a large influx of male labourers from Mysore, in the month of November, to work on the coffee estates. In British Burma it is noteworthy that, contrary to all experience, the males outnumber the females at every period of age; but the total excess is unquestionably due in a great measure to the annual immigration of nearly 100,000 coolies from Upper Burma, Madras, or Chittagong, who do not bring their families with them in general, and most of whom return after a residence of from one to four years, leaving perhaps one-fifth of that number on an average each year to swell the male population; in one district, Tavoy, where there is little immigration, the females exceed the males. In the opinion of the Commissioner of the Tenasserim division, the paucity of women may be partly accounted for by the inhuman treatment the mothers receive at childbirth. With regard to the children also, he mentions that, after they are born, "they are placed laced before before a larg largee fi fire, and and li literall terally toasted toasted ti till there there "i "is lilittle ttle strengt strength h lef leftt in in them them," ," so that that "m "many of them them die, die, and others others become become "i "injur njured ed and fru fruiitless tless for the rest of their lives;" this, however, seems to relate to both sexes, and would not affect their relative numbers. Mr. M'lver considers it moderate to make a deduction of 80,000, or 7 per cent., for "the average population unprovided with females," an adjustment which would bring the proportion of
the sexes to within about 2 per cent. of an equality. The census of Ajmere was considered to exhibit so much want of accuracy that a fresh one was ordered, and very little reliance can be placed on the figures; as returned, the disproportion of sexes is astounding, there being rather more than twice as many males as females; the ratio of children to adults is also the lowest in any province except Coorg, there being 67½ per cent. of the latter, and 32½ per cent. cent. of the the form former; er; these these resul results, if if correct, correct, bear startl startliing evidence evidence of the the suffer sufferiings ngs of the the weaker classes classes duri during ng and aft after er the the fam famiine. We find, then, that, as a general rule, the number of girls is understated, even where there is no reason to suppose that they have been omitted from the census, the number of adults being proportionately increased. But in the North-West Provinces, Oude, and the Punjab, and to a less degree in Bombay, Berar, and the Central Provinces, there is an excess of boys over girls to a much greater extent than can be fairly attributed to inaccuracy of registration. On the probable cause of this excess much light will be thrown by a careful study of 3the classification of the people with reference to religion and caste; but, ut, before before deali dealing with with those those branches branches of the the subject, subject, there there is is one point point whi which demands demands considerati consideration, on, nam namel ely, y, the the rem remarkabl arkably y large large proportion proportion of children to adults in India, which, if an excess of male births be an established fact, will in itself tend to aggravate the abnormal excess of the male populati opulation on gener general allly. While there are in England about 41½ persons under the age of 12 to 100 above that age, in India the lowest percentage, that in Ajmere and Coorg, is about 48¾; in the North-West Provinces it is not quite 50; in Bengal 52, or still higher if the supposition that many girls have been reckoned as women be correct; correct; and and in in the the other other divi divisi sions ons 55 and upwards, upwards, the the Central Central Provinces, Provinces, with with 61½, holdi holding ng the the fi first place, place, a positi position on perhaps perhaps attri attribut butabl ablee to the the unusually prolific character of the aboriginal tribes, who form a large portion of the population Various suggestions are made to account for this large number of children,—the most probable being the almost universal custom of marriage, coupled with the practice ractice of contracti contracting ng a second second or thi third marri marriage age ifif no mal malee off offspring spring resul result from from the the fi first (one (one inst instance ance is given given of seven seven wi wives in Berar); Berar); but it may may be questioned whether union at a very early age would generally result in large families. Another view is that the proportion of children is excessive, owing to the greater mortality of adults in India than in colder countries. The inferences to be drawn from the tables of age have been worked out with great pains by Mr. Plowden, who is satisfied that, notwithstanding the notorious inaccuracy of Natives atives of India India on the the subj subject, ect, the the inf inform ormati ation on has has been obtained obtained wi with suff sufficient cient probabil probability to render render itit not not unsaf unsafee to deduce deduce gener general al conclusi conclusions; ons; and one which forces itself prominently on his mind is the very low rate of life, or rather the excessive mortality, which prevails in India, and which he considers to be about on a par with that found in Italy or Spain, and worse than in any other European country except Russia. Surgeon-Major Lumsdaine states the average age throughout the Bombay Presidency to be 11 or 12 years lower than the average in England; and he sums up the main differences between the population of Bombay and that of England with the observation that in the former the" children are "more numerous, they reach maturity earlier, and, as adults, they die earlier." Surgeon-Major Cornish expresses the same view when he says that" the aged are "rare, and youth superabundant, in an Indian community." Religion.
Classified according to religion, the population of British India is, in round numbers, divided into 140½ millions of Hindoos (including Sikhs), or 73½ per cent., 40¾ millions of Mahomedans, or 21½ per cent., and 9¼ millions of others, or barely 5 per cent., including under this title Buddhists and Jains, Christians, Jews, Parsees, Brahmoes, and Hill men of whose religion no census was taken or no accurate description can be given. Hindoos
139,248,568
Sikhs
1,174,436
Mahomedans
40,882,537
Buddhists and Jains
2,832,851
C hristians
896,658
O thers
5,102,823
Religion not known
425,175
190,563,048
Thus, at least 19 in every 20 persons in India are either of the Hindoo or of the Mahomedan religion, and there are 7 of the former to 2 of the latter. The Hindoo element preponderates especially in the south. In Mysore, it comprises 95 per cent, of the whole popu- lation, and in Coorg and Madras about 92 per cent. ce nt. In Oude, the North-West Pro- vinces, vinces, Ajmere, Ajmere, and a nd Berar, it forms forms between 80 and 90 per cent, ce nt, of the the people. peo ple. Bombay Bombay contains contains 79½ per cent, of Hindoos, and the Central Provinces 7l½ per cent. In Bengal and Assam the percentage is about 64½, and in the Punjab 34¾ without, or 41¼ with, the Sikhs. In British Burma, the stronghold of Buddhism, there are only 11/3 per cent. of Hindoos. Hindoos:— Bengal
38,975,418
Assam
2,679,507
North West Provi Provinces
26,568,071
Ajmere
252,996
O ude
10,003,323
Punjab
6,125,460
C entral Provinces
5,879,772
Berar
1,912,155
Mysore
4,807,425
C oorg
154,476
British Burma
36,658
Madras
28,863,978
Bombay
12,989,329
Total
139,248,568
Conversely, the Mahomedans are found to be most numerous in the northern parts of India. In the Punjab they form the larger half, 53 per cent., of the populati opulation. on. In In Beng Bengal al they they amoun amountt to 321/3, 321/3, and and in in Assam Assam 26¾, per cent.; cent.; in Ajm Ajmere ere nearl nearly y 20, in in the the North-West North-West Provi Provinces 13½, and and in in Oude Oude 10½, per cent.; cent.; Bombay Bombay has has 17½ per cent, cent, of Mussul Mussulm mans; but in Berar Berar and and Coorg they they do not come come up to to 7, in in Madras Madras they they are are barely barely 6, and and in in Mysore, Mysore, British Burma, and the Central Provinces, they are only 4, 3½, and less than 3 per cent., respectively. It is remarkable that, of the 20½ millions of Mussulmans in Bengal and Assam (forming the larger moiety of the Mahomedan population of British India), 17½ millions are found in Eastern Bengal and the adjoining Districts of Sylhet and Cachar, where they amount to 49 per cent, of the total population; and in two districts, those of Bogra and Rajshahye, to about 80 per cent. In that part of the country they comprise the bulk of the cultivating Mahomedans: Bengal
19,553,831
Assam
1,104,601
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
4,189,348
Ajmere
62,722
O ude
1,197,704
Punjab
9,337,685
C entral Provinces
233,247
Berar
154,951
Mysore
208,991
C oorg
11,304
British Burma
99,846
Madras
1,857,857
Bombay
2,870,450
40,882,537
Chittagong and Noacully, they follow a seafaring life; and it seems probable that their preponderance is due to the conversion of the lower orders from the old Hindoo religion under which they held the position of out-castes. In Behar the comparatively few Mahomedans, some 13 per cent., belong to the upper classes as a rule, while the great majority of the people (nearly 84 per cent.) is Hindoo. In Orissa, the population is almost entirely Hindoo, more than 95 per cent professing that religion, and only 21/3 per cent, being Mussulmans. In Chota Nagpoor, where the aboriginal tribes are numerous, about 71 per cent. of the population are Hindoos, and not quite 5 per cent. Mahomedans. In Assam (excluding the hill tribes for which the particulars cannot be given given), ), 70 per cent. cent. are Hi Hindoos and and nearl nearly 29 per cent. cent. Mahom Mahomedans edans,, or, confi confini ning ng the the view view to to the the old old provi province of Assam with without out Sylhet Sylhet and Cachar, there are 88 Hindoos and from 9 to 10 Mussulmans in each hundred of the population. Passing up the valley of the Ganges, we find the relative excess of Hindoos over Mahomedans increase. In the Benares division there are 89 of the former to 11 of the latter, the percentage of other religions being inappreciable throughout the North-West Provinces; in Allahabad the proportions are 90½ to 9½, in Jhansi 95½ to 4½, and in Agra 91½ to 8½. In the two more northern divisions of Rohil- kund and Meerut, the Mahomedans are much more numerous than in the southern districts, the proportions being 79 and 77 Hindoos to 21 and 23 Mahomedans respectively; indeed, those two divisions contain more than half the Mussulman population of the North-West Provinces. In Kumaon, however, there are very nearly 99 Hindoos returned for every one of any other faith, though many of the former belong to the doubtful castes of which it is difficult to say where they should be classed. The Mahomedans in Oude are distributed pretty evenly through the province, the proportion being largest (14 per cent.) in the division of Lucknow, owing chiefly to the fact that two-fifths of the inhabitants of the capital profess that religion, and smallest (7½ per cent.) in Roy Bareilly, the division immediately adjoining the dense belt of Hindooism which runs through the Gangetic valley. In the central districts of Lucknow and Barabunkee 34 out of the 55 talookdars at the time the census was taken in 1869 were Mahomedans. In dealing with the population of the Punjab it is necessary to take into consideration a third religion, that of the Sikhs, who in this province form an
important element, though in the others they are so few as to be merely reckoned among the higher castes of the Hindoos. In every 100 persons in the Punjab there are, on an average, 53 Mahomedans, 34¾ Hindoos, and 6½ Sikhs. As might be expected, the Hindoos are most numerous in the more southern divisions bordering on the North-West Provinces; in Delhi, Hissar, Umballa, and Jullundhur, they comprise 68, 74, 56, and 58 per cent. of the people, eople, whi while in in Um Umritsu ritsurr they they onl only form form 24 per cent., cent., in in Mool Mooltan tan 17, in in Lahor Lahoree 15, in in Rawu Rawullpindee pindee 10, in the the Derajat Derajat 11, and in in Peshawu Peshawurr not not more more than 5 per cent. The returns vary, however, some comprising the sweeper castes among Hindoos, while some, treating them as out-castes, include them in the "other" population. The Mahomedans muster from 21 to 30 per cent, in the four lower divisions, but in Umritsur, Lahore, and Mooltan they come up to 51, 57, and 65 per cent.; in Rawulpindee and the Derajat they have 86 and 87, and in Peshawur no less than 93 per cent. of the population. The stronghold of the Sikhs is the country between the rivers Ravee and Sutlej, including the central districts of Lahore where they form 17, Umritsur where they are 13 per cent. of the people, Umballa where they amount to 9, and Jullundhur where they are 8 per cent.; in the other districts they range from 3 per cent. cent. to to 1 in in 300 of the the inh inhabi abitan tants. ts. There are not many Mahomedans in the Central Provinces, the proportion on the whole being under 3 per cent, of the population. In only one district do they muster so strongly as to form 10 per cent., namely Nimar, in which is situated Boorhanpoor, the seat of Government under the Mogul Emperors. The Hindoos are most numerous in the Nagpoor plain and Wurdha valley, where they form 85 per cent, of the people, while in the thinly inhabited eastern division of Chutteesgurh only 62½ per cent. are of that religion. The great extent to which the Madras Presidency is devoted to Hindooism is made more apparent by reference to the several districts. In those on the northern coast, Ganjam, Vizagapatam, and Godavery, from 97½ to 99½ per cent/ are Hindoos, and in Kistna, Nellore, Chingleput, Coimbatore, Salem, and North and South Arcot, 94 to 97 per cent., while the Mahomedans in these districts vary from 5½ per cent, to 1 in 300. In the southern districts, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura, and Tinnevelly, the Hindoos claim from 89 to 93, and the Mahomedans from 2½ to 6 per cent. The latter, however, have a larger proportion in the three central districts of Cuddapah, Bellary, and Kurnool, where they number from 7½ to 11 per cent. of the people, the Hindoos having 92 to 95 per cent. In the two districts on the west coast, the latter have a less preponderance; of the inhabitants of South Kanara, 84½ per cent. are Hindoo and 9 per cent. Mussulman, and of Mala- bar, 72½ per cent. Hondo and as many as 25½ per cent. Mahomedan. In the two small districts of the Neilgherries and Madras, the European population affects the percentages; the Hindoos amount to 86 and 77½, and the Mahomedans to 4 and 13 per cent., respectively. The statement that Bombay contains 79½ Hindoos and 17½ Mahomedans in each 100 of the population by no means gives an accurate idea of the distribution of the people throughout the Presidency; for, on examining the returns for the several divisions, it will be found that in Bombay proper, excluding Sind, the Hindoos are upwards of 89 per cent. and the Mahomedans only 8 per cent. The Hindoos are pretty evenly divided among the several districts, the percentage varying from about 95 in Poona and Sattara to 87 in Dharwar, Belgaum, and Surat, 86 in Ahmedabad, and 63½ in the island of Bombay. The Mahomedans have only from 3½ to 4¼ per cent. of the population in Sattara, Poona, and Nassick, while they are most numerous in Kuludghee and Dharwar, where they form 11 per cent., and Broach and Bombay Island, where they have 19¾ and 21½ per cent., respectively. It is, however, in Sind that they are to be found in the greatest numbers, three-fifths of the whole Mussulman population being included in that province, in each 100 of the inhabitants of which barely 18 are Hindoos, while 78 are followers of Mahomet. In some of the provinces, the Mussulmans have been divided into the two great rival sects of the Soonees who acknowledge the succession of the first three Caliphs, and the Sheeas who hold Ali, the fourth, to be the only rightful successor of Mahomet, and reject the Book of Traditions which the Soonees accept as canonical. Not many of the Sheeas are found in Bengal, but the numbers are not given; in Oude, also, the Soonees are by far the most numerous, though the Sheea tenets are those of the ex-royal family and the greater part of the higher classes. In Mysore about 93 per cent. of the Ma- homedans are Soonees, and in Coorg about 91 per cent. In Madras the pro- portion of Soonees is 89 per cent., to not quite 4 per cent, of Sheeas, the other 7 per cent. being unspecified. In Bombay the relative numbers are still more at variance, the Soonees in that Presidency amounting to more than 96½ per cent., while in Sind more than 99¼ per cent. belong to this sect. Very few persons have returned themselves as Wahabees, the puritan sect founded at the close of the last century by Abdul Wahab, an Arab of the province of Nejd, whose tenets were brought to India by Syed Ahmed in 1823, and caught up by the fiery Pathans of the north-west frontier: no classification by sects is given in the reports for the Punjab and North-West Provinces, and in other parts of India the Wahabees do not appear to be at all numerous. The Buddhist creed claims for its votaries throughout India less than three millions of people, of whom nearly two and a half millions, or 86 per cent., are in British Burma. Of those in India proper, numbering 385,000, many who have been so classed belong to the sect of Jains, a comparatively late offshoot from Hindooism which shares several of the tenets of the Buddhists. About half the number, or 190,000, are in the Bombay Presidency, chiefly in the districts of Belgaum and Ahmedabad, where they only amount to 11/6 per cent. of the population. Some 85,000 are returned in Bengal, consisting almost entirely of the Mughs in Chittagong. The Punjab and the Central Provinces each contain about 36,000, Madras has 21,000, and Mysore 13,000; but in these these three three last-nam last-named ed divi divisi sions ons they they are nearl nearly y all all Jains, Jains, and Buddh Buddhiism is practical practicallly exti extinct nct in South Southern ern Indi India. a. In no provi province nce except except Briti British sh Burm Burmaa and Bombay, is so large a proportion of the population as ½ per cent. returned as Buddhist. Buddhists and Jains: Bengal
84,974
Assam
1,521
Punjab
36,190
C entral Provinces
36,569
Mysore
13,263
C oorg
112
British Burma
2,447,831
Madras
21,254
Bombay
191,137
2,832,851
The Christian religion has throughout India not quite 900,000 believers, or less than one in two hundred of the whole popula- tion: and even of these some 250,000 appear to be Europeans, or to have European blood in their veins. About three-fifths of the Christians in India are in Madras, where, in addition to those in the Native States, they number about 534,000, or 1¾ per cent, of the inhabitants; the number of Roman Catholics is 416,000, while nearly 118,000 are en- rolled as Protestants. In Bombay there are 126,000 Christians, forming ¾ths per cent. of the population; of these, nearly 83,000 are returned as Roman Catholics(chiefly the Indo-Portuguese, of whom there are more than 23,000 in the city of Bombay alone), 24,000 as Protestants(of whom four-fifths belong to the Church of England, and the remainder are Presbyterians, Baptists, and Wesleyans, while a few Armenians and Greeks are included), and about 19,000 simply as Native converts, the sect to which they belong not being specified. In Bengal there are 90,000 Christians, who form only 1/7th per cent, of the population. British Burma has 52,000, or not quite 2 per cent, of her inhabitants; in the North-West Provinces and Punjab there are about 22,000 in each case, the per- centage being 1/14th and 1/8th respectively. In Mysore there are nearly 26,000, or ½ per cent., and in the little State of Coorg the 2,400 Christians are not quite 1½ per cent of the people. The numbers in the other provinces are such as to amount to from 1/8th to 1/25th per cent. of the population. C hristians: Bengal
90,763
Assam
1,947
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
22,196
Ajmere
249
O ude
7,761
Punjab
22,154
C entral Provinces
10,477
Berar
903
Mysore
25,676
C oorg
2,410
British Burma
52,299
Madras
533,760
Bombay
126,063
896,658
The 5 millions of "Others" are chiefly composed of the hill tribes and aborigines in the Central Provinces, Bengal and Assam, Berar, and British Burma; but it is is very very diff diffiicult cult to draw draw the the liline between between Hindooi Hindooism sm and the the rude rude rel reliigion gion of some some of these these tribes, tribes, and and very very possi possibl bly y many many have have been classed classed under under the one, when they might with equal propriety have been ranked in the other category. There are 69,000 Parsees, and not quite 7,600 Jews, almost all of both classes classes being being in the the Bom Bombay bay Presi Presidency; dency; whi while in in the the Punj Punjab ab 946,000 have have been entered entered as "Mi "Miscel scelllaneous" aneous".. O thers: Bengal
1,672,058
Assam
16,640
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
586
Ajmere
65
Punjab
945,919
C entral Provinces
2,041,276
Berar
163,150
Mysore
57
C oorg
10
British Burma
110,514
Madras
4,328
Bombay
148,220
5,102,823
Nationality, language and caste.
Although nearly the whole of the inhabitants of British India can be classed under one or other of the two prevailing religions, it will be found that, when arranged according to nationality or language, they present a very much greater variety. The population of the single province of Bengal contains many races and tribes. Bengal proper, and some of the adjacent districts, are inhabited by the Bengali, living amid a network of rivers and morasses, nourished on a watery rice diet, looking weak and puny, but able to bear much exposure, timid and slothful, but sharp-witted, industrious, and fond of sedentary employment; employment; the Bengali-spe Bengali-speaking aking people peop le number number some 37 3 7 mill millions. ions. Allied Allied to these, both in language language and descent, desc ent, even e ven more timid, timid, conservativ co nservative, e, bigot igoted, ed, and and priest-ri priest-ridden, dden, are are the the Ooryas, or people people of Orissa, Orissa, num numberi bering ng four four mi millions. The The Assam Assamese, of whom whom there there are less less than than two two mi millions, speak a language very similar to Bengali, but have a large mixture of Indo-Chinese blood; they are proud and indolent, and addicted to the use of opium. The Hindustanis of Behar are hardier and more manly, have a less enervating climate, and use a more substantial diet; their language is Hindee, and, they number(in Bengal) some 20 millions. Besides these, there are the Sonthals, koles, Gonds, and other aboriginal tribes in Chota Nagpoor, the wild mountain races in Julpigoree, the inhabitants of the Garo, Cossya, Jyntea, and Naga Hills, and those in Tipperah and the Chittagong Hill tracts. In the North-West Provinces there is less diversity of language, Hindee being spoken by the great mass of the Hindoo cultivators, while in the towns and in those parts where the Mahomedan influence is chiefly felt the cognate dialect of Oordoo predominates. In the South of the Mirzapoor district the aboriginal tribes have a language of their own, and on the northern boundary are found the Bhooteeas, who act as carriers between India and Thibet. In Oude, Oordoo is the common language, but in some districts Persian, and in others Hindee words prevail. The Tharoo tribe, numbering about 6,000 in Oude, have a language of their own; they are also found in the Sub-Himalayan districts of Rohilkund, Goruckpoor, and Chumparun, and are by some beli elieved to to have have a Tartar Tartar ori origin. gin. In the portion of the Punjab east of the Indus, Hindee or Punjabee is spoken with varying dialect. A form of Thibetan is used in the Kangra highland of Lahoul and Spiti. Beyond the Indus, Pushtoo is spoken in the frontier villages to the north, and Beloochee to the south. Oordoo is used in the large cities, and Persian by the higher classes in Peshawur. About one half the inhabitants of the British territory in the central provinces speak Hindee, modified more or less in Nimar and Chutteesgurh by the mixture of Guzeratee words in the former, and those of the hill tribes in the latter case. Rather less than one-fourth of the people speak Mahrattee, which is used in the Nagpoor division; while the original language of the Gonds is spoken by a similar number. Ooriya is used in the Sumbulpoor district, bordering ordering on Orissa, Orissa, and and Teloogoo Teloogoo in in the the distri district ct of Upper Godavery Godavery.. In Mysore the prevailing language is Kanarese, but Tamil, Teloogoo, Hindu- stani, and Mahrattee are also spoken. In Coorg, besides the Coorg language, Kanarese, Malayalum, Tamil, Tulu, and Hindustani are used. The Madras Mad ras Presidency Pres idency comprises several s everal distinct distinct lingui linguistic stic divisions, divisions, but about abo ut five-s five-six ixths ths of the people peo ple use either either the Teloogoo language language which which is spoken from Vizagapatam to Nellore and North Arcot, or the Tamil which prevails from a few miles north of Madras to the extreme south of the continent. On the western coast Malayalum(the language used in the Native States of Travancore and Cochin) is also spoken in Malabar, Tulu in part of South Kanara, and Kanarese in the north of that district as well as in portions of other districts bordering on Mysore. In the extreme north, Ganjam, on the confines of Orissa, adopts Ooriya, the language of that province, while the Khond tribes in the hills have dialects of their own. The languages used in the Bombay Presidency are very numerous, the chief being Sindhee, Kutchee, and Guzeratee, in the north, Mahrattee, to which that of the Koncan is akin, in the chief part of Bombay proper, and Kanarese in the south. But, of all the divisions of India, there is perhaps in British Burma the most remarkable variety of race. There are the Burmese, Arakanese, and Talaings, in the plains; the Karens, Shans, Toungthoos, Khyengs, and other tribes, in the hills; while the growing numbers of the two mixed race, of Indo-Burmese and Chino-Burmese are worthy of attention, though not specially numbered in the census report. Great pains have been taken by the writers of the several reports in the classifi- cation of the population according to caste. The result, however, is not satisfactory, owing partly to the intrinsic difficulties of the subject, and partly to the absence of a uniform plan of classification, each writer adopting that which seemed to him best suited for the purpose. It has, indeed, been found possible to put together a few particulars which are mentioned in 'nearly all the reports; but these give little idea of the mass of detailed information which has been collected under this heading. The title of Hindoo, in the category of nationality and caste, includes many persons of Hindoo origin, who are no longer Hindoos by religion, such as Native ative Chri Christi stians ans,, or who who have have branched branched off from from its stri stricter cter use, use, such such as as Buddhi Buddhists sts and and Jains, Jains, or whose whose actual actual reli religion gion is is unknow unknown, n, such as the the aborigi aboriginal nal tribes. In this wider view of the Hindoo people, we find 149 mil- lions so designated, of whom about 101/8 millions are Brahmins, and 55/8 millions Kshatriyas and Rajpoots; 105½ millions belong to other castes; of nearly 790,000 the caste is unspecified; 8¾ millions are out-castes, or re- cognize no caste (as the Bud- dhists) ; not quite 600,000 are Christians (including it is preHindoos and persons of Hindoo origin:— Brahmins
10,131,541
K shatriyas and Rajpoots
5,641,138
O ther castes
105,545,557
C aste unspecified
786,311
O ut- castes, or not recognizing caste
8,712,998
Native ative Chri Christi stian. an.
595,815
Aboriginal tribes and semi- Hindooised Aborigines
17,716,825
Total
149,130,185
sumed, any converts from the Mussulman religion as well); and 17¾ millions are aboriginal tribes or semi-Hindooised aborigines. A slight notion of the great number of Hindoo castes prevailing in British India may be gathered from the following list showing the proportion in which those of most importance are scattered over Bengal and Assam:— Number umber of Specif Specified Castes.
Populati Population. on.
4 Superior
4,152,183
3 Intermediate
2,774,106
5 Trading
755,422
4 Pastoral
3,464,267
2 Engaged in preparing cooked food
830,176
10 Agricultural
6,573,563
7 Engaged in personal service
2,469,152
12 Artisan
4,175,302
5 Weaver
1,722,053
7 Labouring
457,198
3 O ccupied in selling fish and vegetables
140,845
6 Boating and fishing
2,186,107
1 Dancer, Musician, Beggar, and Vagabond
72,247
69 C astes specified
29,772,621
Mr. Beverley, however, says that the number of separate tribes and castes which have been found to exist in Bengal does not probably fall short of a thousand, while, if their subdivisions and septs or clans were taken into account, they would amount to many thousands. In the North-West Provinces the Hindoos arc divided into 291 specified castes, or, including those enumerated by nationality only, 307 distinctive appellations. In Oude 77 are mentioned, besides 29 other castes of religious mendicants and 12 aboriginal tribes. In the Punjab 19 castes are named; while there are some 40 different divisions in Mysore and Coorg. In Madras the classification has been made somewhat after the fashion adopted in Bengal, and the various castes of the Hindoos are arranged in 17 sets: — Priests
1,095,445
Warriors
190,415
Traders
714,712
Agriculturists
7,826,127
Shepherd and Pastoral C astes
1,730,681
Artisans
785,085
Writer or Accountant Castes
107,652
Weavers
1,071,781
Labourers
3,944,463
Potmakers
250,343
Mixed Castes
714,233
Fishermen
971,837
Palm cultivators
1,664,862
Barbers
340,450
Washermen
524,660
O thers
2,666,890
O ut castes
4,761,503
Total
29,361,139
A very similar division has been made in the Central Provinces, the 48 principal castes being divided into 11 groups, according to their general occupation. In Bombay about 140 Hindoo castes are mentioned in the account quoted by Surgeon-Major Lumsdaine from a work by Mr. Steele on the laws and customs of the Deccan; but the population has been enumerated according to the usual fourfold division of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Soodras, the last men- tioned comprising 86 per cent, of the whole. In all modes of classification, the first rank is held by the Brahmin or priestly caste; out, so far from us being confirmed to religious duties, there are few trades in which some of its members are not engaged. So minute and endless are the ramifications of caste, that, when Mr. Prinsep took a census of Benares in 1834, no less than 107 distinct castes of Brahmins were found in that one city. The number of per- sons throughout British India who have returned themselves as Brahmins a little exceeds ten millions, of whom there are in Bengal and Assam not quite 2½, and in the North-West Provinces 3 J millions; in Oude they number 1,400,000, in the Punjab 800,000, in Madras 1,100,000, and in Bombay 660,000, while the remaining half million are scattered through the minor provinces. Brahmins: Bengal
2,312,929
Assam
105,901
North West Provi Provinces
3,234,342
Ajmere
15,397
O ude
1,397,808
Punjab
800,547
C entral Provinces
287,168
Berar
49,843
Mysore
169,637
C oorg
3,270
British Burma
775
Madras
1,095,445
Bombay
658,479
10,131,541
Next in in rank rank come come the the Kshatri Kshatriyas, yas, Rajpoots Rajpoots of warrior warrior caste, of whom whom there there are.-somewh are.-somewhat at more more than than 5½ millions in the the provi provinces under under Bri British tish rul rule., e., Of these 1/14 millions are found in Bengal and Assam, 2,400,000 in the North-West Provinces, 660,000 in Oude, 720,000 in the Punjah (besides nearly as many more Rajpoots of the Mahomedan religion), and rather more than 600,000 in the other provinces. There are very few of this caste in Lower Bengal or in the southern Presidencies; Behar, the North- West Provinces, Oude, and the Punjab, are the homes of 85 per cent, of the Rajpoots. They are usually soldiers, landowners, or cultivators; not merely do they in large numbers swell the ranks of the armies in Bengal and Bombay, but they are also found in the service of Native Princes, or acting as overseers or retainers of the large landlords and bankers. K shatriyas and Rajpoots: Bengal
1,222,549
Assam
6,602
North West Provi Provinces
2,395,688
Ajmere
14,330
O ude
62,946
Punjab
719,121
C entral Provinces
176,948
Berar
36,831
Mysore
67,358
C oorg
2,800
British Burma
1,257
Madras
190,415
Bombay
144,293
5,641,138
The third of the primitive castes was the Vaisyas, who were occupied in agri- culture and trade, while the great majority of the Hindoo population was
indiscrim indiscrimin inately ately thrown together into the fourth, namely, namely, the Soodra Soo dra or servile servile class. c lass. This arrangem arra ngement ent has not, however, however , been b een maintained maintained in more more than one or two of the Census reports; and, instead of attempting to keep up the old distinction, it seems better to enumerate a few of the castes which, from numbers or for any other reason, are of most importance in the several provinces. Among the intermediate castes in Bengal and Assam may be mentioned the Babhans of Behar, 1,000,000 in number, claiming to be Brahmins and rivals of the Rajpoots, and the Kayesths or writers, 1,600,000, chiefly found in the Lower Provinces; among the trading castes, those who are specially termed Buniyas or shopkeepers, amounting to not quite a quarter of a million; among the pastoral castes, the Goallas, the great class of herdsmen, 3,500,000, two-thirds of whom are settled in Behar, where they are notorious as lathials or clubmen, ready to engage in any riot at the bidding of their employer; among the agricultural castes, the Kaibarthas, 2,700,000, of whom two millions are in the Lower Pro- vinces, and nearly half a million in Behar, where they take the title of Chasa,— the Koeries, 1,000,000, chiefly in Behar, where they are a hardworking quiet set of people, celebrated as spadehusbandmen,—the Koormees, 970,000, mostly in Behar and Chota Nagpoor,—and the Sadgops, of Lower Bengal, 660,000, who form the highest of the cultivating castes; among the artisan castes, the Telees or Kaloos, 1,400,000, makers and vendors of oil; and among the weaver castes, the Tantees, who, to the number of 820,000, are enumerated under this the generic term for their occupation. Many of those who in other provinces are classed among the lower castes of Hindoos are, in the Bengal report, reckoned as semi-Hindooised aborigines. Of these the most numerous tribes are the Chandals, a hardy race, chiefly found in the eastern districts of Bengal, aggerating about 1,650,000 besides esides 116,000 Mals, Mals, with with whom whom they they are are frequ frequent entlly ident identiified; fied; the the Chanar Chanarss or Muchees Muchees,, 1,180,000, of whom whom the the men men are are workers workers in in leath leather er and and the the women midwives; the Koch, Paliyas, and Rajbansis, an ancient people of Assam, whose orginal name is still to be traced in Cooch Behar, 1,560,000; the Dosadhs, the ordinary labouring class of Behar, who, though the bulk of them are said to be thieves, have so completely monopolised the office of the village watchman that their name is used as for chowkeedar, 950,000; the Bagdees, chiefly employed as fishermen, and labourers, 700,000; the Harees, a scavenger caste, 560,000; timid, but making aking good steady steady labourers, abourers, much much sought sought for work in in the the indi indigo go factori factories, es, 430,000; the the Dom Doms, s, an impure race, empl employed oyed by the the Hindoos Hindoos to to construct their funeral pyres, and remove dead animals, and also used as public executioners, 426,000; the Baurees, a hardy people, much employed in Lower Bengal as palkee-bearers, 405,000; the Bhimyas, supposed to have been formerly a powerful tribe in Behar, and also found largely in Chota Nagpoor, 398,000); the the Pasees, once once a celebrated celebrated nati nation on of archers, archers, now now chi chiefly efly occupi occupied ed in in the the sal salee of toddy, toddy, 134,000; the the Ahom Ahoms, s, a Shan Shan race race dominant in Assam for some 450 years, whose name is now supposed to be synonymous with Assamese, 129,000; the Binds, an inoffensive race of fishermen and labourers, 121,000; the Kandaras and Pans, chiefly found as weavers and agriculturists in Orissa, each mustering about 117,000; the Chains, a boating and fishing race, 109,000; and the Kaoras, an unclean pig-keeping caste, numbering 100,000. In the North-West Provinces the Buniyas amount to upwards of a million; the despised caste of the Chamars, or leather workers, number more than 3¾ millions; the Aheers, shepherds or cowherds, 2¼ millions; the Koormees, agriculturists, nearly a million; the Kahars, another agricultural caste, threequarters of a million; the Jats, a brave hardy race, who are enterprising cultivators, about the same number; and the Kolees or Korees, who take the place lace of the the Jats in in the the sout southern hern divi divisi sions, ons, a lilittle ttle over over 700,000. The The devotee devotee and and reli religious gious mendi mendicant cantss amoun amountt to to more more than than 240,000, divi divided ded int into o 24 separate tribes. tribes. Next to to the the Brahm Brahmins, the the most most num numerous erous castes in in Oude Oude are, as in in the the NorthNorth- West Provi Provinces, nces, the the Aheers, Aheers, 1,170,000, the the Cham Chamars, ars, 1,030,000, and and the Koormees or Koombees, 765,000. The Pasees, who in Bengal are termed semi-Hindooised, while in the centre of India they are deemed an aboriginal tribe, and who once held a considerable portion of Western Oude, are now employed as watchmen, labourers, pig-keepers, cultivators, or hunters, and number 650,000; under the old Native Government they were chiefly thieves, thugs, and general plunderers. The Mooras, a large agricultural caste, with whom should perhaps be classed the Kisans and Malees, may also be mentioned, together numbering 460,000 persons. The Lodhas, 350,000, are inferior cultivators, and frequently mere woodcutters and labourers. In the Punjab the Jats are by far the most numerous caste, there being 1,876,000, while no other, except the Brahmins, contains so many as half a million; the Aroras number 477,000, and the Khatrees, who hold a very high social position, 385,000. In the Central Provinces the Koormees or Koombees are again prominent, exceeding 650,000; the Dhers, 590,000, are found especially in Nagpoor, where they are the chief thread-spinners and weavers of coarse cloth, as well as village watchmen and labourers; the Telees, or oil pressers, 448,000, are also hardworking cultivators; the Aheers number 362,000; the Chamars, 300,000; the Malees, 236,000; and the Lodhees, 222,000; the most important manufacturing caste is the Dheemar, numbering 238,000. In Berar the Koombees, 681,000, and the Malees, 153,000, are the only two of numerical importance. In Mysore the most numerous caste is that of the Wakkaleegas, or farmers, of whom there are 1,191,000, subdivided into 54 classes; the Kurubas, 371,000, are agriculturists and weavers; the Bedars, 262,000, occupy themselves in agriculture, labour, and Government service. In Coorg there are 28,000 Wakkaleegas, and 7,700 Kurubas. In the report on Madras the castes are (as already stated) arranged in a few great classes, according to their theoretical occupation, so that the numbers cannot be compared with those of the other provinces; it must not, however, be supposed that even a majority of any particular caste now follow the occupation according to which they are thus arranged. The trading castes, or Chetties, contain nearly 715,000 persons, subdivided under about 90 different designations, one of which is said to be again divided into upwards of 100 clans. Of the agricultural castes, the farming class of Vellalar is selected as the type, and in this category are entered more than a fourth of the Hindoo population of this Presidency (7,826,000); the Vellalars proper are a Tamil-speaking race, but at least half of those returned under this title are found in the northern or Teloogoo country. The agricultural labourers, or Vunniars, number nearly 4,000,000, many of whom are serfs of the soil, though a large number have freed themselves from bondage, and are cultivators on their own account. The Idaiyars, or shepherd castes, number 1,730,000, subdivided into 86 classes; they are mostly found in the
central districts, where the hilly waste land enables them to follow their occupation with advantage. The artisan castes, Kammalan, include 785,000 persons, ersons, ranged ranged under under 69 heading headings; s; they they clai claim m a social social rank rank not inferi nferior or to the the Brahm Brahmiins; about one hal halff of them them are workers workers in in metal metals, s, and and the the remai remainder nder carpenters and builders or labourers and cultivators. The writer or accountant caste is in Madras termed Kanakkan, and is small, numbering less than 108,000, and mainly confined to three or four districts, the duties having in many villages been usurped by the Brahmin and Vellalar. The weaving castes, Kaikalar, include 1,070,000; about half the males are employed in the construction of textile fabrics and dress, in which they are aided by their families; the business has for many years been in a decaying state, but, though the country has, it is said, been flooded with cheap Manchester goods, the Lancashire manufacturers do not yet produce cloth equal in strength and price to the products of the Indian handlooms. The Kusavan or potmakers are a quarter of a million; the occupation of the caste is to make bricks and tiles, as well as earthenware pots for household use. The fishing and hunting castes, named Sembadaven, include 972,000 persons, but, notwithstanding the long line of sea coast, they are most numerous in the inland districts of Bellary and Kurnool; it is a subdivision of this class, the Boees, which is so largely employed in domestic service, that the name, corrupted into the English "boy," has become the usual term for a servant in the Madras Presidency. The Shanars, or palm cultivators, number 1,665,000, and are most plentifully found in the 'Malabar Tinnevelly, South Kanara, and Godavery districts; they have the character- istics of an aboriginal tribe, and worship either devils or some local deities, but in Tinnevelly many have been converted to Christianitv. The barber castes, Ambattan, number 340,000, and are pretty equally distributed throughout the country; in addition to his duty of shaving, it is the part of the barber to collect the village news, and to be a go-between in the arrangement of marriages and other festivals. The Vannan, or washermen, are 525,000, about half of whom follow their trade occupation. Under the title of Satanee, or mixed castes, are ranged 714,000 persons who more or less ignore caste distinctions; the name is properly applied to a sect of reformers, the followers of a teacher of the fifteenth century named Chaitanya, and his disciple Sanatana, who appear to be identical with the sect of Baisnabs in Bengal. Of other castes there are 2,667,000, many of whom consist of the hill tribes in Ganjam and Vizagapatam, and the inhabitants of the mountains in the centre of the peninsula; in this number are also comprised the Koravars and other wandering tribes, and the dancing girl or prostitute castes. There is in Southern India, both in Mysore and in the Madras Presidency, a singular division of castes into the right-hand and the left-hand faction, which frequently frequently gives gives occas o ccasion ion to disturbance at publi p ublicc festivals. festivals. The origin origin of the distinction distinction is is lost in fable, fable, and a nd the separation sepa ration seems see ms very arbitrary; arb itrary; thus, thus, some weavers are found in the one faction, some in the other; the fisherman sides with the right hand, whilst the hunter ranges himself with the left; and, what seems yet more remarkable, the agricultural labourers' wives attach themselves to the left-hand, while their husbands take the right-hand side, and the shoemakers fight with the former, their wives joining the latter party. Many castes, however, occupy a neutral position, and take no part in these feuds. In the Bombay report the primitive division of the castes has been retained; 936,000 are shewn as Vaisyas, and 10,856,000 as Soodras. In British Burma', the numbers in the castes are so few as not to need special notice. Nearly early si sixty xty diff differen erentt tri tribes are specif specified among among the the aborigi aboriginal nal races to to be foun found d in in the the provi provinces nces or. Bengal Bengal and Assam Assam.. The The most most num numerou erouss are the the Sonthals, who are to be met with in almost every district, and of whom there are altogether nearly 850,000 under the direct British administration, exclusive of those in the Tributary Mahals. Under the generic name of Kol upwards of 300,000 are entered, principally in Choya Nagpoor; many of these are, however believed to be Mundas, of whom there are, however, believed to be Mundas, of whom there are also some 175,000 recorded, chiefly in the district of Lohardugga. Closely allied to them are the Bhumij, numbering 170,000. The Uraons or Dhangars, of whom there are upwards of 200,000 Abor boriginal Tribes bes and and Sem Semi-Hi -Hindooi dooissed Abor borigines : Bengal
11,116,883
Assam
1,490,888
North West Provi Provinces
377,674
O ude
90,490
Punjab
959,720
C entral Provinces
1,669,835
Berar
163,059
Mysore
89,067
C oorg
42,516
British Burma
1,004,991
Bombay
711,702
17,716,825
within British territory, are an industrious light-hearted race chiefly found in Lohardugga. The Cacharees, who are scattered throughout Assam, are reckoned at upwards of 200,000; the Cossyas at about 95,000. The numbers of the other tribes are all much less. Of the 16 aboriginal tribes enumerated in the North-West Provinces, altogether comprising about 380,000 persons, 243,000 are Bhars, and 93,000 Gonds, both found mostly in the Benares division, while there are about 28,000 Kols, chiefly resident in the district of Allahabad. The aboriginal tribes in Oude include only 90,490 persons, of whom about a third are the Bhars, believed to have once held sway in the centre and east of the province, but now nearly extinct in Oude, though numerous in the adjoining division in the North-West Provinces. The Doms have been already
mentioned as numerous in Bengal; in this province there are about 15,000. The Nats, numbering 13,000, are a tribe of jugglers, who profess to be Mussulmans, but have little idea of religion. In the Punjab nearly 960,000 persons have been placed under this head, but, with the exception of the Sansees, Bavrias, and Harnees, three tribes of professi rofessional onal thi thieves, togeth together er num numberi bering ng 63,000 persons, persons, there there is is no inf inform ormati ation on gi given respecting respecting them them.. Of the 1,670,000 aborigines in the Central Provinces, seven-eighths, or 1,437,000, belong to the ancient race of the Gonds, whose sway was predomi redominant nant in in thi thiss portion portion of India India before before the the incu incursi rsions ons of the the Mahratt Mahrattas. as. The The Koorkoos, who who lilive on the the Mahadeo Mahadeo hil hills, num number ber 60,000, and and the the remainder are Marias, Kols, Bheels, and other smaller tribes. Berar contains 163,000 of these and similar aboriginal races, the Gonds again being promi rominent nent wi with 68,500. Of the 89,000 aborigines in Mysore, the bulk are comprised in two wandering tribes, the Roracha or Korama, 36,600, and the Lambana, 33,000. About 42,500 persons have been placed in this class in Coorg, of whom rather more than 26,000 are the Coorgs or Kodagas who have given name to the territory, a compact body of mountaineers who from time immemorial have been lords of the soil. In British Burma there are, besides the Burmese proper, who number a million and a half, one million persons belonging to the various indigenous tribes. Of these the most numerous are the people of Arakan, differing very slightly from the Burmese of Pegu, from which country they probably migrated in past days; days; they they exceed exceed 330,000 in in num number. ber. The The Tal Talai aing ngss or Muns, Muns, who who in in the the last last centu century ry ruled ruled in in Pegu Pegu and and Martaban, Martaban, are a lilittle ttle over 180,000; after after the first Burmese war, in which they rendered cordial assistance to the English, they were cruelly treated after our retirement from the country, and their language has become nearly extinct; they are chiefly found in the Tenasserim division, and in Amherst and the town of Moulmein form a majority of the populati opulation. on. By By far far the the most most im important portant of the the hil hill tribes tribes is is that that of the the Karens, whose whose traditi traditions ons have have a very very sing singul ular ar Jewi Jewish ti tinge, nge, and and who who have have affor afforded ded to the American Baptist and French Roman Catholic missionaries a most successful field of labour; they are divided into two classes,—those in the hills above the Sittang and Salween rivers, numbering 100,000, living in a desultory roving fashion,—and those who have long been settled in the plains of Pegu, where they cultivate rice after the example of their Burmese neighbours, amounting to some 230,000. There are 36,000 Shans, most of whom are immigrants from their Native land since the British occupation of the province; the Toungthoos, numbering 25,000, and found chiefly in Amherst, are an isolated race, resembling the Shans in dress, but differing in most respects from the surrounding people, and having no written language. The Khyens, of whom there are upwards of 50,000, are an important tribe inhabiting the Yoma mountains which separate Pegu from Arakan. The Kwamies, or Dogtails, are 19,000 in number, of whom three-fourths are still in the hills, and the remainder have settled in the plains of Akyab. Eight or nine other tribes are also mentioned, but they are too small in number to require special notice. The report for Madras does not separate the hill tribes from the unclassified castes. They are chiefly the Khonds and Sowras in the mountainous country to the north of the Godavery; the Yenadies, Yerakalas, and Chentsoos, south of the Kistna; the Malayalies in Salem; the Mulcers and Kaders in Coimbatoor, Malabar, and Kanara; and the Badaghers of the Neilgherry hills; all over the plains also wandering tribes are met with, such as the Brinjaries and Lambadies, whose principal occupation is the carrying of produce from the coast into the interior, and others who practise juggling, snakecharming, bird-catching, or basket-making. About 712,000 aborigines are shown in the return for Bombay, of whom three-fourths are more or less Hindooised, and the remainder would properly be ranked ranked with with the the Mahom Mahomedans edans.. There There are some some 163,000 Bheel Bheelss in in Khandesh Khandesh and Nassick, Nassick, 68,000 Kolees Kolees in in the the latter latter distri district, ct, and and 73,000 Dooblas, Dooblas, 46,000 Dhodias, 19,000 Chobras, and 30,000 others, in Surat; in Sind, nearly 39,000 Beloochees (a race which in the Punjab is classed with the Mahomedan tribes), 42,000 Sindees, and 70,000 "low caste Sindees," are included in this category. Under the head of Out-castes, or those not recognizing caste, there are 8¾ millions of persons, of whom about 2½ millions are Buddhists and Jains, who as a rule have been ranked in this class, though in some provinces they have been included elsewhere. O ut- castes, or not recognizing caste: Bengal
650,477
Assam - -
22,067
Punjab - -
36,190
C entral Provinces -
407,939
Berar - -
301,379
Mysore - -
813,975
C oorg - -
34,100
British Burma -
1,585,532
Madras - -
4,782,757
Bombay - -
78, 582
Total -
8,712,.998
Omitting the Native Christians (who have been placed separately), and the Buddhists, those who in Bengal have rejected the trammels of caste are almost entirely composed of the sect of the Baisnabs, Baishtabs, or Bairagees, who profess to be followers of Vishnoo, and should, according to the teaching of their founder, lead a life of asceticism and celibacy; they number 540,000, and are principally found in Lower Bengal, particularly in the district of Midnapoor. In the Central Provinces there are two remarkable sects, the Sutnamees, numbering 266,000, and the Kubeerpunthees, 134,000.
The former arose about half a century ago, when Ghasee Doss, a Chamar of Chutteesgurh, withdrew himself for six months into the wilderness, and returned with a message to his people to renounce idols and worship only Sut Nam, the True One; he died in 1850, and his son, who succeeded to the office of high-priest, having offended the Rajpoots, was murdered in 1860, when his place was taken nominally by Ms son, but actually by his brother Agur Doss, who is now virtually high-priest, the sect is split up into two great factions, the smokers and the non-smokers, the former of whom assert that, although Ghasee Doss originally prohibited the use of liquor and tobacco, he, in consequence of a subsequent revelation, withdrew the prohibition of the latter article. The Kubeerpunthees are Hindoos who disregard caste, and believe in a deity named Kubeer, said to have dwelt on earth from the year 1060 to 1472, and to be destined to return again after an absence of some 1,100 years; the chief apostle, Purgutnam Sahib, resides at Kawarda, in Bilaspoor; they are met with in other parts of India, but are said to retain nothing good of the original teaching of their founder. In Berar the out-castes consist of 18 or 20 Hindoo tribes who fall under no caste classification, the large majority being Mhars, who are sometimes taken to he the same as the Dher caste already mentioned. Of those in Mysore and Coorg nothing is said, except that they may possibly be menial servants for whom no accurate designation could be found. The large number returned for British Burma is almost entirely composed of the Burmese; the remainder of the Buddhists in that province appear among the aboriginal tribes. In Madras, besides some 21,000 Buddhists, there is a very large population of Pariahs, reckoned at 4,760,000, who live on the outskirts of the villages, and endure the hatred and contempt of the higher classes; they are a laborious, frugal, pleasureloving people, omnivorous in diet, and capable of much hard work, and, notwithstanding their common classification as out-castes, they have been entered under upwards of 200 different subdivisions. Only 78,000 Hindoos are returned in Bombay as not recognizing caste; they are chiefly found in the districts of Tanna, Kanara, and Hyderabad. The number of Native Christians recorded in India is not quite 600,000, of whom very nearly five-sixths are in Madras, where they number more than 490,000, or 1½ per cent, of the whole population of the Presidency; they are also numerous in the French territory, and in the Native States of Travancore, Travancore, C ochin, ochin, and Poodoocotta. Pood oocotta. Native ative Chri Christi stians ans:: Bengal
47,828
Assam
1,293
North West Provi Provinces
7,648
Ajmere
249
Punjab
2,675
C entral Provinces
4,674
Mysore
18,104
C oorg
2,000
British Burma (e (exclud in ing Kar Karens)
2,304 304
Madras
490,299
Bombay
18,741
Total
595,815
In the British districts they are mostly resident in the extreme south, one-fifth of the number being in Tinnevelly, while there are many converts in Madura, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, South Kanara, and Malabar; the Roman Catholic Church claims 397,071, while 93,228 are Protestants. The ancient rulers of Western India are believed to have encouraged settlements of Persians or Manichaeans for centimes before the Portuguese established themselves on the coast, but under the rule of the latter the Syrian or Nestorian church suffered great depression and persecution. Its disciples now flourish chiefly in Cochin and Travancore, and in the south of Malabar, where there are 13,763 "Nazaranies." The Mussulman population contributes very few converts to Christianity; the bulk of them belong to the Pariahs or to the agricultural and cultivating castes, and that of the Shanars, or toddy-drawers. There are about 3,700 Brahmin and perhaps, 3,000 Kshatriya Christians in Madras. In Bengal, there are about 48,000 Native converts, who are chiefly found in the Presidency and Dacca divisions, and in Chota Nagpoor, where the preachi reaching of the the Gospel Gospel has been been atten attended ded with with much success success among among the the rude rude tribes tribes in in Lohar Lohardug dugga; ga; there there are several several missions ssions in in the the nei neigh ghbour bourhood hood of Calcutta, but only about 3,000 Native Christians are returned in the city itself. There is a Roman Catholic colony at Bettiah in Chumparun, and a mission of the same church at Patna; a Lutheran mission works in Tirhoot, and there are other missions in Bhaugulpoor and the Sonthal Pergunnahs. In Mysore the number of Native Christians is 18,000, of whom nine-tenths are Roman Catholics, while of the 2,000 in Coorg, no less than 1,900 belong to that church. Those recorded in the Bombay Presidency are chiefly found in the districts of Tanna, Belgaum, Rutnagherry, and Dharwar, and the island of Bombay. In Berar about 900 Christians are enumerated, but the Natives are not separated from Europeans or Eurasians. In British Burma the numerous Karen converts are not specified in the Census Report, and only 2,300 Native Christians have been entered; there are, however, 52,000 Christians in the province, rovince, and and in in the the Adm Admiinistrat nistratiion Expor Exportt the the total total num number of Native Native Chri Christi stians ans is is stated stated to be 34,310. The The Oude Oude report does not disti disting ngui uish sh between between Native ative Chri Christi stians ans and European Europeanss or Euras Eurasiians. A society was founded at Calcutta in 1830 by Rammohun Roy, with the view of reclaiming Hindoos from idolatry, and establishing a pure monotheism; in 1859 Keshub Chunder Sen was enrolled a member, and in 1866 he seceded from the original society, and formed a separate sect entitled the Brahmo Somaj, or, as the members call themselves in the Bombay Presidency, the Prathana Somaj. Very few persons have returned themselves as Brahmos in
Bengal, and only 92 in Calcutta, where there is a considerable community of them; they are, however, believed to have congregations in most of the districts. In the Bombay Presidency 221 Brahmos were enumerated, of whom 196 were in the district of Nassick. The caste system is, perhaps, almost as prevalent among the Mahomedans as among those professing the Hindoo religion, from which a large part of their number are probably converts, but it partakes rather of the nature of a tribal classification than of the exclusive character of what is commonly termed termed caste. c aste. Mahomedans: Syuda
790,984
Sheikhs
4,700,320
Pathans
1,841,693
Moghuls
219,755
O thers, or or un unspecified
32,674,800
40,227,552
The subdivisions, moreover, are by no means so numerous, and the returns have, as a rule, been prepared so as to show only the numbers of the four chief branches, the others being all classes together The figures do not, on most of the provinces, correspond with those shewn as Mahomedans under the heading of Religion, some of the tribes being classed among those who are not natives of India, while the Christians and others of Mahomedan origin, but not professi professing ng that that reli religion, gion, have have in in some some cases been included ncluded in in the the statem statement ent according according to nati national onaliity and catse, catse, Taki Taking ng the the whol wholee of Indi India, a, the the Syuds number 791,000, and are chiefly found in the Punjab, Bombay, and the North-West Provinces; the Sheikhs amount to 4,700,000, of whom upwards of two millions are in the North-West Provinces, one million in Bengal, and rather over half a million in each of the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay; the Pathans number 1,842,000, and the Moghuls 220,000, both classes being found chiefly in the North-West Provinces, the Punjab, and Oude. Of the unspecified castes, there are nearly 32¾ millions, of whom 18¼ millions are in Bengal, 8 millions in the Punjab, 1,712,000 in Bombay, 1,333,000 in the North-West Provinces, 1,190,000 in Madras, and 1,100,000 in Assam. The Julaha or weaving caste is a very numerous one in Lower Bengal, and in Chota Nagpoor, where they comprise not much less than half the whole number of Mussulmans in the division. The Mahomedan Rajpoots in the North-West Provinces number nearly 22,000, and are chiefly found in the Saharunpoor and Boolundshuhur districts. In Oude 35 of the lower castes have been specially enumerated, the most numerous being the Julahas and other weavers, the Dhuniyas or cotton cleaners, the Durzees or tailors, the Ghosees or milkmen, the Kunjras or greengrocers, the Manihars or bang ba nglle-makers, and the Kasaees or butchers. In the Punjab the Pathans are subdivided into many tribes, of whom the- largest are the Yoosoofzyes, residing chiefly in the Peshawur District, the Loohanees in Bunnoo, and the Khuttuks in Bunnoo and Kohat; the Mahomedan Rajpoots somewhat exceed 700,000, their two largest tribes being the Bhuttees, in the centre of the province, and the Ranghars, in the Delhi and Hissar divisions and the Umballa district; of the other tribes, the Jats are the most numerous, being upwards of 1,300,000, the Goojuns number 424,000, the Cashmerees 231,000, and the Meos 130,000, chiefly resident in Goorgaon. In Berar 28 subdivisions are mentioned, but, with the exception of nearly 1,900 Fakeers, none of them are of numerical importance. Of the 209,000 Mahomedans in Mysore, 198,000 are classed as Deccan Mussulmans, the remainder being Labbays or Moplas (an Arab race recruited by convert convertss from from Hindooi Hindooism sm,, under under the the persecuti persecutions ons of Hyder Hyder Ali Ali and Ti Tippoo), Pindaree Pindarees, s, and and Pinj Pinjarees arees or cotton cotton-clean -cleaners. ers. The The sam samee classi classifi ficati cation on has has been adopted adopted in in Coorg, Coorg, where where there there are 7,000 Deccan Deccan Mussul Mussulm mans, and 4,000 4,000 Labbays Labbays or Moplas. Moplas. In Madras the the Labbays Labbays and Mopl Moplas as are very very numerous, there being 312,000 of the former and 613,000 of the latter. The Moplas are almost entirely confined to Malabar and South Kanara; they are a hard-working frugal people, but entirely uneducated and very fanatical, and their religious excitement has occasionally led to very serious outbreaks. The Labbays are found in most of the districts of Madras, and are numerous in Tanjore, Madura, Tinnevelly, and North Arcot, where they are sailors, fishermen, and traders. The Mussulman population of the city of Madras has not been at all subdivided. In Bombay three additional castes are specified, —Memon, Memon, of whi which ther theree are 49,000, three three-fou -fourth rthss of them them being being in Sind,—B Sind,—Borah orah,, 86,000, chi chiefl efly in in Guz Guzerat,—an erat,—and d Khojah, Khojah, nearl nearly y 18,000, of whom whom about half are in the city of Bombay. The Asiatics who are not natives of India amount to 541,000, but it may be a question whether two-thirds of this number ought not rather to be reckoned among the Mahomedan Indian population, being the Beloochees, who number 235,000 in the Punjab, where they are chiefly found in the Derajat, and 145,000 in Bombay, where they are confined almost entirely to the Hyderabad and Thur and Parkur districts of Sind. Deducting these, there remain of Asiatic foreigners, about 161,000. The most numerous class is the Parsees, 69,000, of whom 44,000 reside in the island of Bombay and 23,500 in other parts of that Presidency. Of immigrants from the border nations, there are (besides the Beloochees already mentioned) 31,000 Nepalese, epalese, princi principal pallly foun found d in in the the distri district ct of Darjeel Darjeeliing; ng; 339 Bhoot Bhooteas, eas, alm almost all all in Assam Assam;; 12,000 Muni Munipoorees poorees in in the the sam samee provi province, and and 137 Cashmerees in the North-West Provinces and Bombay, but neither of these races is really foreign to India, and indeed the latter have in the Punjab been classed among the Mahomedan residents; 3,200 Afghans, mostly in Bombay, none being returned under this title in the Punjab; nearly 5,300 Mekranees, almost all of whom are in the Kurrachee district; and 845 Brahooees, in Kurrachee and Hyderabad. Of Jews 7,600 have been enumerated, and of Turks 920, both being found principally in Bombay; there are upwards of 3,500 Persians, of whom five-sixths are in Bombay, while the remainder include 150 Irakees in Oude, and 2 Khorassanees in the North-West Provinces. There are 8,300 Arabs, of whom 6,100 are in Bombay (principally in Bombay Island and Hyderabad), and 2,100 in Madras; 90 Abyssinians in Oude; 1,250 Armenians, chiefly in Calcutta, Dacca, and Rangoon; 13,300 Chinese, of whom -11/12ths are in British Burma, but only 3 Japanese, who are in Bombay; there are 69 Syrians, all but one of whom are in that Presidency; 58 Siamese, and 1,500 Malays, of whom only 40 are met with out of British Burma.
There are 108,000 of mixed race, such as Eurasians and Indo-Portuguese. Of the 20,000 who are resident in Bengal, many are descended from the Portu- guese, whose head-quarters were in Dacca and Chittagong. In the minor pro- vinces very few have been returned, they having probably preferred referred to to enrol enrol themselves as Europeans. Of the 26,000 in the Madras Presidency, about half are found in the Madras and Malabar districts. Bombay contains about 48,000, three-fourths of whom are in the island of Bombay or the neighbouring district of Tanna; the number of Eurasians in the Presidency is not quite 3,700, while there are 30,000 Indo-Portuguese, and 14,000 who are entered as "others," without any description of the race to which they belong. It is a little remarkable that the census of the European population appears to be the least accurate portion of the whole inquiry. The errors apparent in the returns for the city of Calcutta have led to their condemnation as quite untrust worthy; and, generally, the statistics of the great towns which were taken through the agency of the municipal authorities are deemed less complete than those over which the supervision was more directly exercised by the Government officers officers entrusted e ntrusted with the c ompilati ompilation on of o f the general genera l census. In June 1871, an enumeration was made of the British-born subjects, excluding the army and navy, which showed that there were then resident in India not quite quite 59,000. 59, 000. According to the general census, the number of persons other than those of Asiatic birth, enumerated throughout India, is 121,000, of whom 75,700 are British, and 30,400 others of European blood, the nationality being unspecified; 8,000 are returned as belonging to continental Europe, and 7,000 to America, Africa, or Australia. Of the above number specified as British residents in India, 23,000 are English, 3,700 Scotch, 7,000 Irish, and 200 Welsh, while the 41,700 in the Punjab and Bombay are merely styled British. Of the 8,000 subjects of continental Europe, the nationality of only 2,628 has been shown; these comprise 755 Germans (including Prussians, Saxons, Austrians, and Hungarians), 631 French, 426 Portuguese, 282 Italians, 127 Greeks, 73 Swedes, 72 Russians (including Poles and Finlanders), 70 Dutch, 58 Norwegians, 45 Danes, 32 Spaniards, 20 Belgians, 19 Swiss, and 18 Turks. It is, however, only in Bengal, Assam, the North-West Provinces, and British Burma, that so detailed a classification has been attempted. The Americans number 3,190, but of these some 2,250 are "West Indians" resident in Calcutta, and Mr. Beverley's inquiries led him to think that they were merely immigrants into that city from the west of India. The number of Africans recorded is 3,692, of whom no less than 3,550 are in the Bombay Presidency, chiefly in the capital city and in Hyderabad. There are 79 residents in India who are natives of Australia or the neighbouring islands. The number of persons whose nationality is entirely unspecified is not quite 435,000. Of these 170,000 are the rude inhabitants of the Bhootan Dooars in the Julpigoree district of Bengal and the Garo Hills in Assam; about 130,000 are mendicants and 19,000 travellers in Oude; and 96,000 are returned as" Others" in Bombay, of whom no information is given. Proportion of Sexes and Ages, in Religions and Caste divisions.
In an earlier part of this memorandum reference was made to the great excess in certain provinces of males over females, and boys over girls; and it will now be interesting to examine the chief religious and caste divisions with regard to the proportions of the respective sexes and ages. Religion.
N o. of Females to 100 Males.
No. of Children to 100 Adults.
N o. of Girls to 100 Boys
Hindoos(including Sikhs)
94.74
53.22
87.95
Sikhs in Punjab
75.74
51.72
77.93
Mahomedans
93.86
56.73
83.44
Buddhists
93.15
56.10
95.44
C hristians
73.69
44.64
93.76
Throughout India, the population professing the Hindoo religion shows a proportion of 94¾ females to 100 males, 53¼ chil -dren to 100 adults, and 88 girls to 100 boys; among the Sikhs in the Punjab, however, there are only found 75¾ females to 100 males, 51¾ children to 100 adults, and 78 girls to 100 boys. Taking the Mahomedans, we have not quite 94 females to 100 males, 56¾ children to 100 adults, and 83½ girls to 100 boys. The Buddhists have 93 females to 100 males, 56 children to 100 adults, and 95½ girls to 100 boys. And, finally, among the Christians, there are 735/8 females to 100 males, 445/8 children to 100 adults, and 93¾ girls to 100 boys. To whatever causes, then, is to be attributed the unusual disparity between males and females, or between boys and girls, and in some cases between adults and children, the matter does not appear explicable solely by differ-ence or religion, for the Hindoos show the greatest proportion of females, the Mahomedans the largest percentage of children, and the Buddhists and Christians the highest relative number of girls. Provinces.
N umber of Females to 100 Males Hindoos
Mahomedans.
Bengal
100.77
99.20
Assam
92.62
94.56
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
86.88
91.86
O ude
92.27
97.97
Punjab (excluding Sikhs)
81.66
85.99
C entral Provinces
95.60
93.16
Mysore
99.67
93.90
C oorg
79.08
66.11
British Burma
26.80
66.72
Madras
99.30
100.30
Bombay
93.10
83.93
Average for British India
94.74
93.86
In Bengal there is a general equality of the sexes, and it is found that to every 100 males there are of the Hindoo religion l00¾ females, and of the Mahomedan upwards of 99. In Assam the excess of males over females, attributable to immigration of labourers, exists in both religions, there being 921 Hindoo and 94½ Ma- homedan females to each 100 of the male sex. Madras reverses the proportions found in Bengal, there being 991/3 Hindoo and 1001/3 Mahomedan females to 100 males of either religion. In the North-West Provinces and the Punjab the proportion of the females among the Hindoos is much less, there being only 867/8 in the former and 815/8 in the latter to each 100 males, while among the Sikhs there are but 75¾ per cent, of females; but, in these provinces, the Mahomedan males also outnumber the females in no less a proportion than 100 to 92 and 86 respectively. In Oude the Mahomedan female population is but two per cent, less than the male, while there are only 92¼ Hindoo females to 100 males. In the Central Provinces the Hindoos show a better proportion than the Mahomedans, there being nearly 96 females of the former and only 931/8 of the latter religion to the 100 males; and in Bombay the result is similar, 93 females being recorded to 100 male Hindoos, and only 84 females to 100 males among the Mahomedan population. In British Burma the excessively low percentage of females, less than 27 among the Hindoos, and 66¾ among the Mahomedans, is attributable to the circumstance, already mentioned, that many of both religions, more particularly the former, are aliens resident away from their families. The position of Coorg is affected in a similar manner by the temporary addition of foreign labour. For the proportion of girls to boys it seems equally difficult to lay down any rule founded on a comparison of the two main religions of India. Provinces
Number of Girls to 100 Boys. Hindoos.
Mahomedans
Bengal
84.31
80.92
Assam . .
86.13
82.38
North.West orth.West Provi Provinces .
82.66
87.00
O ude . .
34.13
85.96
Punjab .
83.78
85.18
C entral Provinces
91.88
92.07
Mysore . .
97.37
90.98
C oorg .
92.74
85.94
British Burma .
72.95
90.76
Madras ...
96.35
93.09
Bombay . . .
91.13
82.22
Average for British India .
87.95
83.44
In Bengal, Assam, Mysore, Coorg, Madras, and Bombay, the ratio is from 3 to 9 per cent, better among the Hindoos than among the Mahomedans. In the Central Provinces the proportions are nearly equal. In the North-West Provinces, Oude, and the Punjab, the Mahomedan proportion is the best, though the superiority is less marked, varying from 17/8 to 41/3 per cent. The Sikh proportion is very low, there being less than 78 girls to 100 boys. Of the Buddhist population nearly nine-tenths are in British Burma, in regard to which province it has already been explained that the excess of males over females is in a great degree due to immigration; and, as many of the new-comers are Buddhists from Upper Burma, the same remark will apply to the low percentage of females of that religion, 94¼. The proportion of children is very high, 57½ to 100 adults, and there are 96½ girls to 100 boys. Among the Buddhists in India proper, the females are in a great minority, little exceeding 85 to each 100 males, while there are about 87½ girls to 100 boys. The Christian population contains 73¾ females to every 100 males, Mysore showing the largest percentage of the former, nearly 90, and Oude the lowest, only 39. The proportion of girls is strikingly large in the North-West Provinces, Oude, and the Central Provinces, varying from 102¾ to 105½ to each 100 boys; the average throughout India is 93¾. The number of children is 445/8 for each 100 adults. The circumstances of this class are, however, so peculiar that no useful conclusions can be drawn from the general proportions. Since, then, the analysis of the numbers professing the several religions does not lead to any definite result, it becomes necessary to pass on to the tables of caste, and observe the inferences to be thence deduced. It will be seen that, setting aside British Burma, Assam, and Coorg, on account of the extent to which the averages are affected by immigration, and Ajmere, on the figures for which little reliance can be placed, the provinces resolve themselves into three groups, according to the relative proportion of females; first come Bengal, Mysore, Madras, and -the Central Provinces, in which the sexes are nearly on an equality, there being from 1001/8 to 96½ females to every 100 males; then we have Berar, Oude, and Bombay, where there are from 93½ to 91 females to 100 males; and lastly the North-West Provinces and the Punjab, where the percentage is as low as 87½ and 83½ respectively.
Now, taking taking the the provi provinces in thi thiss order, the the fol folllowing owing table table shows shows the the propro- portion portion whi which ch the the hi higher gher castes of Hindoos Hindoos bear to the the whol wholee populati population on having a Hindoo origin:— Percentage Perc entage of higher higher Castes Cas tes among Hindoos. Hindoos. Bengal
8.68
Mysore
4.90
Madras
4.38
C entral Provinces
5.83
Berar
4.17
O ude
20.73
Bombay
5.99
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
21.19
Punjab
18.41
From these figures it seems that, so far as regards the Hindoo religion, in proportion as there is a small percentage of high* caste people, so will the discrepancy between the male and female sexes be small, and where the Brahmins, and more particularly the Rajpoots, are numerous, there will the female population be in a great minority. The Presidency of Bombay appears to be an exception to the rule, and indeed, as regards the percentage of females, she would hold a better place, were it not for the large Mahomedan population in Sind, which contains only 80 to each 100 males; it is probable that, in Sind as well as in the Punjab, the same influences which pervade the high-caste Hindoo families may be felt among the Rajpoot tribes professing the Mahomedan religion. The conclusions, then, to which the figures point are the following:—That there is nothing in the Indian climate which should lead to any very great excess of male over female births, and that among the larger part of the population there is no undue proportion of living males compared with females; that in certain provinces there is a great excess of males; that it is not found among Hindoos more than among Mahomedans, but that, as a general rule, it exists where the higher castes are in the greatest proportion. We are thus led to the inquiry whether there is any special cause prevailing in the north and west of India among the higher castes, whether of Hindoos or of Mahomedans sharing Hindoo prejudices; and this consideration at once points us to the custom of female infanticide. Female Infanticide. Owing to the necessity which a Rajpoot feels for duly marrying his daughter to a man of high caste, and the heavy expenses attendant on the ceremony, female children are regarded with dislike and dread; in the words of the writer of the report on the census taken at Lahore, "as one after another is born," the father "despairs of ever being able to bear the heavy burthen, and he hopes that "the infants may die; very moderate ill treatment is sufficient to secure him his "wish." For generations the practice has prevailed of reducing, by more or less violent means, the unwelcome moiety of the population, and its effects are now plainly perceptible in the reduced number of women and girls. Efforts to check the barbarous habit have been made by the British Officers, in various ways, for the last seventy years, one of the points particularly aimed at being the curtailment of the expenses of marriage; but, though these endeavours have been to a great degree successful, the practice is still so rife that in 1870 it was found necessary to pass an Act for the application of special regulations to districts or villages suspected of the practice. Of the need for such a law an instance is given in the North-
West Provinces, where, in one tribe in a village in Meerut, only 8 girls under twelve years of age were found to 80 boys. The Act being put in force where- ever the number of girls is less than 35 per cent, of the total number of children, or, in other words, where there are less than 54 girls to every 100 boys, it may be hoped that in time a much closer approximation will be made to the natural equality of the sexes; but the girls whose lives are now being eing saved must grow up, and and in in thei theirr turn turn bear a fai fairr proporti proportion of fem female ale chil children, before before the the losses losses already already sustai sustained ned wi will be repaired. repaired. Occupation.
The statement showing the classification of the people according to occupation is in some provinces limited to that of male adults; in some, the whole populaopula- tion tion has has been returned returned under under the the occupati occupations of the the respecti respective heads heads of fami amilies; and, and, in in others others,, the the women women have have been been occasi occasionall onally entered entered under that of their absent or deceased husbands. It thus becomes impossible to show the aggregate number of persons employed" in any particular kind of occupation. As an estimate in round numbers, the following proportions may, perhaps, be accepted for the adult males of the principal classes into which the populati opulation on is is divi divided: ded:— — Per cent. cent.
Esti Estimated Number Number of Adul Adult Males, Males, in round round num numbers.
Professional, including Government Service
3 .6
2,232,000
Domestic
6 .2
3,844,000
Agricultural
56.2
34,844,000
C ommercial
5 .2
3,224,000
Industrial
13.1
8,122,000
Labourers
2 .3
7,626,000
Independent and non- productive
3 .4
2,108,000
100 10
62,000,000
In dealing with the figures actually recorded, however, it must be borne in mind that the total enumerated exceeds by 4½ millions the actual number of adult males, in consequence mainly of the inclusion of all male children in the Punjab and Ajmere, and of many women or boys under 12 in British Burma, Mysore and Coorg, Madras and Bombay. In addition to these causes for exaggeration, other inaccuracies are evident, arising from the intrinsic difficulty of classification. A very elaborate system (based on that used in the English census) was adopted, too elaborate perhaps for the untrained enumerators; and it has been found impossible, in compiling the returns, to say whether persons "in service" were in the employment of the Government or in domestic situations; whether an "engineer" or "overseer" was engaged on a Government work, or not; whether "sepoys" belonged to the Army, or were only retainers of the Native gentry; whether "accountants" were village officers, or clerks to persons in a private capacity,—and so forth. Taking the statements, then, for what they are worth, it will be seen that the first class includes 2,405,000 persons, who may be divided into two main bodies, odies, those those empl employed oyed under under authori authority ty,, and those those practi practisi sing ng professi professions ons on thei theirr own account. account. In the the fi first category category there there are, of men engag engaged ed in in the the defence of the country, 223,000, of police and village watchmen, 442,000, and of those in the civil administratration, including Government servants and persons ersons under under mun muniicipal cipal or other other local local authori authority ty,, and also also the the vil village offi officers cers in in most most of the the provi provinces, 571,000, maki making ng 1,236,000 people people empl employed oyed under a public authority of one kind or other. The number of the military forces thus shown cannot be accepted as a complete statement of the army in India, for the force stationed in the territories of the feudatory chiefs is not reckoned in the census, and the enumeration returns in the North-West Provinces included no soldiers except five persons in the Jounpoor district, while, on the other hand; the private retainers in Oude entered in this category have swelled the military element in the province ninefold, and the Punjab force is also increased by the addition of a number of boys under twelve years of age. Of the 571,000 employed in the general administration, 196,000 are in the Punjab, where a very wide interpretation seems to have been given to the title "village officers," a class which does not appear to be included under this head in Bengal. In Ajmere, Mysore, and Coorg, the military and police have not been separated from the other servants of the Government. There are 1,168,000 persons employed in professions, of whom considerably more than half, namely, 629,000, are engaged in religious or charitable occupations, the number of priests and other religious teachers being 515,000, including 849 ministers, missionaries, and preachers, presumably of the Christian religion; among those who have been placed in this class are 12,000 servants and attendants (chiefly in Madras), 30,000 pilgrims, devotees, and religious mendicants, (mostly in Bombay, but the line between these and other beggars is probably very loosely drawn), and some 10,000 astrologers, 5 wizards, and 465 devil-drivers (in the south of India); there are 37,000 persons in Mysore and Coorg, whose religious avocations are not specified, and, in Madras, 18,000 are simply described as engaged in sacred pursuits or studies. The number of people occupied in education, literature, and science is 189,000, of whom 90,000 are schoolmasters or teachers, and 51,000 are pundits or moulvees, that is, persons learned in Sanscrit or Arabic literature; 20,000 students and scholars in Bengal are included, a circumstance which may account for the excess of persons in this province classified as engaged in occupations over the total number of adult males; 636 authors are mentioned, including 518 poets and 1 dramatist in Madras, 1 speech-maker in the North-West Provinces, and 87 editors in Madras, Calcutta, and Dacca. In literature and science, 118 persons are engaged in British Burma and 3,249 in Bombay, while there are 130 astronomers, 5 librarians, and 4 taxidermists in Madras. The list is completed by a set of persons who might perhaps be, with more propriety, transferred to the non-productive division, namely the almanac or pedigree makers and fortune-tellers, who exceed 23,000 in number, nearly all being entered in the Madras census under the designation of Calendar Brahmins. Brahmins. Of the 33,000 persons engaged in in law, law, there are 105 1 05 barrist b arristers, ers, and 13,000 1 3,000 attorneys attorneys and pleaders, 17,000 clerks and writers writers of deeds or petitions, petitions, and 2,200 2,20 0 vendors of o f stamps. stamps. Medicine Medicine occupies 75,000 persons, of whom 61,500 are described d escribed as surgeons, surgeons, doctors, doc tors, or medical medical practiti practitioners; oners; there are 5 oculists (all at Benares), 3 dentists, 2,200 apothecaries, hospital assistants, compounders, and leechmen (including 275 circumcisers in Bengal), 7,200 accoucheurs, 1,600 vaccinators, and 260 inoculators (the last being specified only in Bengal), 7 veterinary surgeons, and 300 cow-doctors; in Mysore and Coorg no details are given. The fine arts are recorded as engaging the attention of 218,000 persons, in- cluding nearly 8,000 painters, sculptors, and photographers. Almost all the rest are votaries of music in some shape, though their claim to be artists is very doubtful; of musicians, singers, and dancers, there are 167,000; of actors, jugg uggllers, and and acrobats, 38,600, incl includi uding ng 74 showm showmen, en, 75 jesters, jesters, 29 mi mimics, and and 3 charm charmers, ers, all all these these classes classes being being specif specified in in the the North-West North-West Provinces alone, 221 wrestlers in Bengal and the North-west Provinces, 15 buffoons in Bengal, 15 monkey dancers in Madras, and upwards of 1,000 snake charmers; of bards there are 4,400, chiefly in the North-West Provinces and the Punjab. In miscellaneous professions 23,700 persons are classed, civil engineering, architecture, and surveying, being followed by nearly 6,200; 1,178, in Berar, are described as engaged in the learned professions, without further detail, and some 13,000 are occupied in Madras as accountants and bill collectors. The second great division, that of domestic service, comprises 4,137,000 persons. Of these, nearly 1,937,000 are returned as servants; there are 594,000 barbers, including 287 in the North-West Provinces who are specially designated as earcleaners; the number of washermen is 467,000, of sweepers nearly 409,000, and of water-carriers 152,000, but these two classes have in most of the provinces been included among the domestic servants; there are 555,000 others or unspecified, among whom in Oude and Bombay are 1,116 makers of caste-marks, and in Madras 1,243 worshippers, that is, Brahmins whose duty it is daily to attend at private houses for the purpose of washing the idols and making the offerings of flowers.
To these must be added some 22,000 innkeepers and managers of places of entertainment. The third and by far the largest class is that of persons engaged in agriculture, including those tending or dealing in animals. The number of persons returned under this head is nearly 37½ millions, and forms three-fifths of the entire population classified in the list of occupations; and it must be remembered that the actual number of persons engaged in tilling the soil is not limited to the number of male agricultural adults, as considerable assistance is given by women and boys, while many artisans and tradesmen own plots of land which they cultivate with the aid of younger members of their family. There are a re considerable considerab le diffi difficult culties ies in the agriculturi agriculturists sts according acco rding to the nature of the tenure te nure under which which they hold their land; but in Northern India they may be broadly classed as proprietors, cultivators, farm servants, and persons engaged with animals. Adopting this division, we find the number of proprietors throughout Bengal, Assam, the North West Provinces, Oude, the Punjab, and the Central Provinces, to be 4,341,000. Among Among the the 271,000 proprietors proprietors in in Beng Bengal al there there is is a great great vari variety ety of tenure, tenure, but far the the greater greater num number ber are eith either er zem zemiindars, ndars, of whom whom there are 147,000, 14 7,000, talookdars talookdars,, of whom there there are nearly 73,000, or lakhirajdars, lakhirajdars, who are 30,000 in num number; there are some 8,000 mukarrareedars, and about 13,000 others are enumerated under the various designations of ghantidars, putneedars, jagheerdars, aymadars, ghatwals, khureedadars, and ihtimamdars. Of the 35,000 landed proprietors in Assam, one half are talookdars, 9,000 are lakhirajdars, and 6,000 zemindars; the remainder are mukarrareedars, and putneedars, with a very few ghantidars. The tenant-farmers, &c., in Bengal, number 10,422,000, of whom 10,376,000 are simply termed "cultivators," but this title ill conveys the idea of the claims which an Indian ryot has in many instances to certain rights of property in the land he til tills; of the remain remainiing 46,000, there are 18,000 jotdars, 9,000 9,0 00 howladars, 7,000 occupancy ryots, ryots, 4,400 4,4 00 ticcadars, 4,200 4 ,200 ijaradars, and a nd about 2,100 mahaldars, mustajirs, tenants at will, and chakladars. In Assam there are 857,000 cultivators entered as such, besides about 300 ticceadars, mouzadars, howladars, and ijaradars. In the North-West Provinces there are 693,000 proprietors and 5,180,000 cul- tivators, among whom are included 551 water-nut growers, 235 indigo plant lanters, ers, and and 70 tea-plant tea-planters. ers. Mr. Plowden Plowden draws atten attenti tion on to to the the fact, fact, that that,, whi while 60 per cent, cent, of Hindoos Hindoos in in these these provinces provinces are agri agricul cultu turi rists, sts, onl only 35 per cent, cent, of Mahomedans Mahomedans foll follow that that occupati occupation. on. In In Ajm Ajmere ere 132,700 cul cultivat tivators ors are recorded. recorded. In Oude ther theree are 82,000 proprietors proprietors or zemi zemindars, ndars, and and 2,076,000 2,076, 000 culti cultivators; vators; in in the Punjab, Punjab, 3,195,0 3 ,195,000 00 proprietors, p roprietors, and 1,7 65,000 tenants, tenants, have been enumerated. enumerated. In the Central Provinces Provinces there are 64,000 proprietors, roprietors, who who are divi divided ded int into o 3,400 zem zemindars, ndars, jagheer jagheerdars, dars, &c., &c., 33,700 superi superior or proprietors, proprietors, 26,000 inf inferi erior or proprietors, proprietors, and and 1,200 rent-fr rent-free ee holders; the number of tenants is about 827,500, of whom 71,00,0 are said to hold on "absolute occupancy," 177,500 on "occupancy," and 579,000 to be tenant tenants-at-wi s-at-willl. In Berar, Berar, Mysore, Mysore, and and Coorg, no no attem attempt pt has has been made to subdi subdivi vide de the the num number of persons persons engag engaged ed in in agri agricul cultu ture, re, of whom whom there there are about 440,000 in the first, 1,035,000 in the second, and 21,000 in the third province. In British Burma 554,000 proprietors are recorded, and less than 35,000 cultivators. In the Madras Presidency the number so occupied is about 5¼ millions, of whom there are enumerated as landed proprietors 24,000, besides 668 zemindars, 61,000 inamdars, that is, holders of land exempt from payment of the Government revenue, nearly 73,000 rnirasidars or holders of hereditary lands, 787 kudi-mirasidars, or village proprietors with similar rights, and 220 jagheerdars. The number of cultivators or ryots is nearly 4,879,000, including about 30,000 entered under the titles of agriculturists, farmers, gardeners, and irrigators, with 167 coffee gardeners. It must be remembered, however, that, in Madras, while the State has a right every where to sell up any proprietor of land if the tax thereon, fixed by the Government at discretion but in accordance with certain principles, is not paid, and also possesses a right to all land not held and paid for by farmers, except on permanen ermanentl tly y settl settled ed estates estates or where where the the ancient ancient mirasi system system,, or heredi hereditary tary lien on the the vil village area, area, is is in in force,—n force,—never everth thel eless, ess, throug throughou houtt four-f four-fiifths ths of the Presidency the State collects its tax direct from the cultivator, who is practically a peasant proprietor with an indefeasible right of property on his land so long as he pays the tax. In Bombay a distinction has been drawn, in the returns, between the proprietors not cultivating, of whom there are 84,000, and those cultivating, who number 1,473,000; there are also 1,137,000 tenants. The number of farm servants and labourers enumerated in British India is 989,000, but these are almost all in the Punjab, Bombay, and the Central Provinces, and doubtless a large number of agricultural servants are contained in the list of labourers which forms the sixth great class of occupations. In Bengal and Assam there are about 105,000 managers of estates, bailiffs, and servants of the landholders; in the other provinces such persons have probably robably been been incl included uded among among those those in in domesti domesticc servi service, or possibl possibly y in in that that of the the Govern Governm ment. ent. The number of persons recorded as being engaged about animals is 950,000, of whom 809,000 are herdsmen and shepherds, besides 21,000 cattle dealers and nearly 8,000 dealers in sheep and goats; the chief grazing pastures are in the centre of India and the Punjab. Elephants and camels occupy the attention of somewhat over 4,000 persons, of whom two-thirds are in the Central Provinces and Bengal. About 32,000 people are returned as being engaged with with horses, horses, mules, ules, or asses, of o f whom whom 8,700 are dealers, de alers, jockeys, breakers, breakers , and farriers, farriers, 18,800 18 ,800 are syces or o r grooms, and 4,800 grass-cutters; only only in in one or two provinces, however, have any of the two latter classes been mentioned, and they have probably in the other returns been included among domestic servants. The statements show about 3,000 pig dealers and 10,500 swineherds, but the latter are almost entirely confined to Oude, and they have probably in other cases been classed with herdsmen. Some 5,000 poultry feeders and bird dealers are recorded, chiefly in British Burma, and 10,000 persons gain their living as hunters, trappers, or fowlers. Of Berar, Mysore, and Coorg, which contain 46,000 persons occupied with animals, details are not given, but probably three-fourths of these are engaged in tending cattle or sheep. Of the two next great divisions, it was intended that the commercial class should include all engaged in the carrying trade, whether of commodities or of passengers assengers,, and and all all merchant erchantss who who make make thei theirr profi profit from from buyi buying and sel sellling, ng, with without out eff effecting ecting any change change in in the the character character of the the goods goods in in whi which ch they they deal; while in the industrial class would be comprised artisans or makers, whose work- manship fashions the commodities and raw products into the fabrics and articles demanded by the wants of the public. In a country, however, where there are hardly any manufactories and a large number of
manufacturers, and where the original suppliers are frequently also the sellers of the goods to the public, it is evident that the difference between occupations placed under one class and those under the other will often be difficult to define. An attempt has been made to revise the tables, but in so many cases have the "makers and sellers" been intermingled that it was found hopeless to execute the task with precision. Taking the figures as shown in the Appendix, it will be seen that the fourth or commercial class numbers 3,441,000, of whom 1,029,000 are engaged in the conveyance either of persons or of goods, and 2,412,000 are occupied in trade. In the former division are enumerated 21,000 persons employed in connexion with railways, though none are so recorded in the North-West Provinces, the Punjab, or Berar; 161,000 are concerned in transport by carriage carriage or cart, 178,000 178 ,000 in the conveyance conveyance of articl articles es on the backs bac ks of animal animals, s, 125,000 125 ,000 as palkee-bearers, palkee- bearers, and 103,000 103,0 00 as messengers messengers and porters, though in some of the provinces these classes have been all thrown together without distinction; 396,000 are connected with boats or ships, a large majority of these being boatmen plying their trade on the numerous rivers in Bengal; there are 2,000 shipping or emigration agents, mostly recorded in Calcutta, Calcutta, and 28,000 28 ,000 are engaged as keepers kee pers of screws or presses, pre sses, weighm weighmen, en, or packers; p ackers; there are also 13,000 carriers of one kind kind or other in in Berar. The traders are divided into the bankers and others dealing in money, of whom there are 250,000, the general merchants and shopkeepers, of whom 1,837,000 1,837, 000 are enumerated, enumerated, and the hawkers and p petty etty dealers, num numbering bering 56,000; 56,00 0; there are also 159,000 159,00 0 account ac countants, ants, clerks, and shopmen, and 52,000 brokers, agents, and auctioneers, while no details are given of the 58,000 persons of this class in Berar, Mysore, and Coorg. Next com comes es the the great great indu industri strial al and arti artisan san class, class, amoun amounti ting ng to 8,747,000. As As already already menti entioned, the the disti distinct nctiion between between the the makers makers and and the the dealers dealers cannot be clearly drawn, and the same may be said of the manufacturers and other "makers;" weavers, for instance, whose occupation is perhaps the princi rincipal pal manufa anufactu cture re of Indi India, a, have,as have,as a rul rule, been placed placed in in the the category category of those those deali dealing with with fabri fabrics. Accordi According ng to the the classi classifi ficati cation on shewn shewn in the the Appendix (which, it is feared, is very imperfect), there are 376,000 persons engaged in manufactures, and 790,000 in constructive art; 1,373,000 are workers or dealers in metals and minerals, including the large class of potters; 207,000 are occupied in fashioning other household utensils and furniture; 3,246,000 in making fabrics and articles of dress; 23,000 in the printing and preparation of books; 936,000 are dealers in vegetable food, and 811,000 in articles of animal food; 228,000 in the manufacture or sale of drinks, including the numerous toddy sellers and drawers in Madras; 122,000 deal in stimulants; 78,000 in perfumes, drugs, and chemicals in which class have been placed druggists, sellers of salt and saltpetre, &c.; 110,000 are dealers in vegetable substances, such as string, firewood, and charcoal, and in fuel generally; and 330,000 in animal substances, as leather, hides, and horn. There are 5,000 artisans and 71,000 dealers in Mysore and Coorg, of whom no more details are given; and 39,000 persons in Madras are stated to be engaged in "caste occupations." It has been necessary, as a general rule, to arrange labourers by themselves, as in several provinces no distinction has been made between those working as agriculturists, and those engaged in other occupations; but in the Punjab, the Central Provinces, and Bombay, the farm labourers have been placed by themselves. The number undistinguished is 8,175,000, of whom 2½ millions are in Bengal, 2 millions in Madras, and 1½ millions in the North-West Provinces. The last class is that termed indefinite and non-productive, which comprises 2,265,000 people, of whom 34,000 are house or market owners or persons of inde- pendent means, and 35,000 are in receipt of pensions for military service or as members of dethroned houses; 103,000 are merely described as travellers or guests, and 1,754 as apprentices or dependants. There are 20 professed gamblers in Bengal and 2 in the North-West Provinces, 5 pigeonfliers in Patna, and 49 spies in Monghyr. The number of eunuchs and keepers of brothels recorded is 3,581, mostly in Oude, and the remainder in Bengal and the North-West Pro- vinces. There are 351 professional thieves in Calcutta and 10 in Maunbhoom, and in the North-West Provinces 30 budmash udmashes es or bad characters characters;; prisoner prisonerss have have only only been been enum enumerated erated in in the the North-West North-West Provi Provinces, nces, where where there there are 1,343, chi chiefly efly at All Allahabad and Meerut, and in Madras, where 422 are entered. Besides the religious mendicants, who have been transferred to the first division, there are 1,053,000 beggars eggars or paupers; paupers; and and the the lilist is is closed closed with with a colum column n of 1,032,000 persons persons who who are eith either er specif specificall cally stated stated to to be fol folllowing owing no occupati occupation, on, or are altogether omitted omitted from the returns. The total of these seven classes is more than 66,631,000, which is about 4¾ millions in excess of the number of adult males recorded in British India. The difference is due to the inclusion, in some of the returns, of women or children. In Bengal 11,500 are so counted, who may perhaps be traced among the students (in number exceeding 20,000) returned from almost every district in Bengal. In Ajmere the total of adult males is not given, but the excess of nearly 38,000 over the males of all ages is doubtless mainly due to the women engaged in agriculture being enumerated. In the Punjab a reduction of nearly 3½ millions has to be made for the male children who have all been classed under the occupations of their parents. Similar allowance, but to a smal smalller exten extent, t, must must be made made in in Mysore Mysore (254,000) and and Coorg (14,500), (14,500), Madras (271,000), (271,000), and and Bombay Bombay (183,000). (183,000). In Briti British sh Bur Burm ma the the excess is 400,000, and is attributed to the inclusion of women in the occupation statements. Very little information is given in the Census reports respecting the occupations of the women in British India. In most cases they have either been omitted from the returns, or included with the men in such a manner that the two classes cannot be separated. In the reports for Bengal (including Assam) and Bombay the details are given, and of these a statement has been prepared. The information, however, appears untrustworthy in some respects, as in the case of the 325 women said to be employed in the Bombay police, and is altogether of little value. According to the figures, however, out of a little more than 27 millions of adult females in the three provinces dealt with, 24¾ millions, or nine-tenths, are returned as without any employment, or are simply described as wives. Of those whose occupations are specified, numbering 2,864,000, the professional class includes 28,000, among whom are 647 police and other Government servants in Bombay; religious ministrations occupy 13,800, of whom 33 are missionaries and 108 nuns, 12,000 priestesse riestesses, s, and and 6 astrologers astrologers;; 3,600 are sai said d to be occupi occupied ed in in educati education, on, but but 2,900 of them them are studen students; ts; medici edicine ne engag engages es the the attent attentiion of nearl nearly 5,900, of whom 780 are medical practitioners, 50 hospital attendants, 4,900 nurses and midwives, and 140 vaccinators, inoculators, and cow-doctors; while there are 4,100 engaged in art, 900 being painters and sculptors, 1,000 musicians and singers, and 2,200 dancers or jugglers.
The domestic class includes 142,000, of whom 108,000 are servants in private houses and attendants on the ladies of the zenana; there are 5,200 barbers, 17,000 washer washerwom women, en, 5,400 5,400 sweepers, 1,300 water-carri water-carriers, ers, and and some some 4,900 others, others, of whom whom 160 are keepers of inns nns and places places of entertainment. The agricultural class comprises 966,000, of whom 407,000 are described as proprietors, 421,000 as cultivators, 128,000 as farm labourers (only mentioned in Bombay), and 10,000 as engaged in dealing in or taking care of animals. The commercial class numbers 75,000, one-third of whom are employed as palanquin-bearers, or are owners of carriages or otherwise engaged in the transport of people and merchandise; 5,100 are bankers and dealers in money, 44,000 are traders and shopkeepers, and 1,900 are shopwomen, pedlars, or brokers. Industrial occupations employ 934,000, about nine-tenths being engaged in weaving and spinning, or dealing in fabrics and articles of dress, and in the preparation reparation and and sale sale of food. The The num number of labourers, abourers, in in additi addition on to to those those specif specificall cally descri described as empl employed oyed in in agri agricul cultu ture, re, is is 515,000. There There are about 2,700 persons of independent independent means, means, and 1,700 1,70 0 pensi pe nsioners, oners, 3 witches, witches, 82 brothel b rothel-- keepers, and nearly nearly 59,000 prostitutes, prostitutes, whil whilee 140,000 140 ,000 are beggars eggars and and paupers, paupers, with with no ostens ostensiible ble mode mode of empl employm oyment ent.. Infirmities.
The statistics regarding persons afflicted with infirmities cannot be accepted as of much value. For one or two of the provinces hardly any details have been recei received. ved. The The disti distinct nctiion between between insane nsane persons persons and and idi idiots ots has has not been underunder- stood by the the enum enumerators erators,, and the the inm inmates ates of lunati unaticc asyl asylums ums have have in many cases been returned under the latter title; and the number of males afflicted is in most instances so largely in excess of the females, that it seems probable robable that that inf inform ormati ation on about about the the latter latter has been wi withhel thheld. d. The The num number of insane nsane and and idi idioti oticc persons persons who who have have been enum enumerated is is about about 67,000 out out of some 180 millions, or 1 in 2,700, a proportion which is not one-eighth of that prevailing in England and Wales. While, however, the figures cannot be viewed as accurate, valid reasons may be assigned for the comparative immunity of the Indian popu- lation from diseases of the brain, in the general absence of predisposing causes in the shape of over-work, excitement, and intoxication. On the other hand, owing to the very low physical condition of the peasantry, and the absence of nutritive elements in their food, many of them may be said to be in a state of chronic starvation, which prevents the brain rain from from receivi receiving ng adequate adequate nouri nourishm shment ent.. The deaf-and-dumb number 134,000, or 1 in 1,340, a proportion about half as great again as that in England, but only two-thirds of the ratio existing in Ireland. The Registrar General assigns the prevalence of zymotic diseases, and the neglect of sanitary science, as the most frequent causes of deafmutism; and these are certainly not less prevalent in India than in England. The number of blind persons is 354,000, or rather less than 1 in 500, a pro- portion which is nearly double the English rate, and which is doubtless princi rincipal pallly to to be attri attribut buted ed to smal smalll-pox, whi while poverty poverty of food, over-crowdi over-crowding ng,, mal malari arial al fever, fever, leprosy leprosy,, int intense ense sun-li sun-ligh ght, t, and and irri irritat tatiing smoke smoke from from cowdung, the common fuel of the country, are all exciting causes of eye disease. The number of lepers recorded is nearly 96,000, or 1 in 1875 of the population, about half the proportion existing in Norway. Education.
It was intended that the census should show the number of persons able to read and write, or under instruction; but in Bengal the information was not sought except in the case of a few municipal towns. In the North-West Provinces, also, the information is known to be very imperfect, partly from omissions, and partly from the failure to put into the return a column for females, owing to which women and girls have in almost all cases been excluded. For Oude the returns give no particulars except the number of boys and girls at school; and for Ajmere and Berar there are no details. Seeing how imperfect the statistics must be, it is not worth while to analyse them minutely; but it may be observed that, in the nine provinces for which returns have been made, made, there there are, among among the the 123 mi millions of people people inh inhabi abiti ting ng them them,, only only 4 mi millions who who are are returned returned as able able to read and and wri write, te, or as being being under under instruction; in other words, scarcely one person in thirty has received the barest rudiments of education. Incidence of the Land Revenue.
In some of the Census Reports is a statement showing the extent of culti- vation and the incidence of the land revenue and local cesses on each adult male agriculturist, and each acre of land cultivated or capable of cultivation. Unfortunately the machinery for collecting such statistics is deficient in the large portion of Bengal in which a permanent settlement of the land revenue was made by Lord Cornwallis; and in Madras also and the unsurveyed parts of Bombay the returns are very defective, though there does not appear to be any reason why they should not have been compiled as directed, in the former of these two Presidencies. The great extent to which the population of India is directly interested in agriculture has already been mentioned, hut the precise percentage cannot he statedwith accuracy, owing to the impossibility, in most cases, of saying what proportion of the labourers is engaged in farming operations. The age, too, at which a lad is considered to be adult has in some instances been taken at 20 and in others at 15, while for the general purposes of the census the line was drawn at 12 years of age. Provinces
Area in Square miles
Uncultivated Un
Cultivable
Cultivated
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces O ude -
Unspecified
Total
26,727
12,109
42,174
393
81,403
5,269
4,667
13,529
527
23,992
Punjab -
48,243
53510
32,706
76
101,829
C entral Provinces
39,844
21,845
23,274
-
84,963
Berar -
6,456
3,252
7,349
277
17,334
Mysore -
15,026
3,940
8,111
—
27,077
C oorg -
1,715
122
163
—
2,000
British Burma
49,192
35,117
3,414
833
88,556
Total
190,842
103,486
130,720
2,106
427,154
With regard to the proportion of area under cultivation, it seems desirable to limit the remarks to those provinces in which the returns have been made with at least apparent accuracy. In that portion, then, of British India which remains after deducting the whole of Bengal, Assam, Ajmere, Madras, and Bombay, or, in other words, in the eight provinces mentioned in the mar- gin, together com- prising 427,000 square miles, or rather less than half the total area under British administration, we find 191,000 square miles, or 44.6 per cent., incapable of cultivation, 103,000 square miles, or 24.3 per cent., capable of culti- vation but uncultivated, and 131,000, or 30.6 per cent., cultivated, no particulars being given of the remaining 2,000 square miles, or .5 per cent. cent. Thu Thus, s, of the the 234,000 square square mi miles of land avai availlable able to the the cul culti tivat vator or throug throughou houtt these these provi provinces, nces, 131,000, or 55.8 per cent cent., ., are cul cultivat tivated, ed, and 103,000, 103,00 0, or o r 44.2 per cent., unculti uncultivated. vated. In the North-West Provinces, the proportion which the land under cultivation bears to the whole area capable of tillage is 77.7 per cent.; in Oude, the per- centage centage is is 7.4; in in Berar, Berar, 69.3; in Mysore, Mysore, 67.3; in the the Punj Punjab, ab, 59.3; in in Coorg, Coorg, 57.2; in in the the Central Central Provinces Provinces,, 37.7; and and in in Bri Briti tish sh Burm Burmaa only only 8.9, a fact which shows in a striking manner the scope afforded in that province for the surplus population of the Gangetic Valley, if they can be induced to continue the system of emigration recently set on foot by the Government to relieve the pressureof the famine in Behar. No inf informati ormation on is is given given with with respect to to the the portion portion of territory territory in Berar Berar whi which ch is is subject subject to the the payment payment of dues to to the the Governm Government ent in the the shape shape of land revenue, quit rent, or tribute; of the other seven pro- vinces, 53 per cent, is subject to some assess- ment of that nature, 44 per cent, is free, and of the remainin remaining g 3 percent., perc ent., chiefl chiefly y consisting consisting of the waste land in Kumaon, Kumaon, particulars particulars are not fur- nished. nished. Provinces
Area in Square Miles Paying Government Re Revenue, &c &c.
N ot ot pa paying Go Government Re Revenue, &c &c.
Unspecified
Total
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
64,490
5,741
11,173
81,403
O ude -
17,122
6,343
527
23,992
Punjab -
48,243
53,510
76
101,829
C entral Provinces
63,420
21,543
—
84,963
Berar -
-
-
17,334
17,334
Mysore -
12,505
14,572
-
27,077
C oorg
270
1,730
-
2,000
British Burma
11,061
76,662
33
88,556
Total
217,111
180,101
29,942
427,154
The proportion exempt is only 9 per cent. in the North-West Provinces, 25 per cent, in the Central Provinces where it is almost all forest land appropriated to State purposes, 27 per cent, in Oude, 54 per cent, in the Punjab and Mysore (of which nearly nine-tenths in the one case, and threefourths in the other, is incapable of cultivation), and 86 per cent, in Coorg and British Burma, in the former it being almost entirely barren hill, while in the latter more than two-fifths of the waste land is fit for tillage. In papers recently received from India, the amount of the local rates and cesses levied on land, for the maintenance of roads, schools, and watchmen, and for similar purposes, is shewn in the chief Provinces; and, by adding these figures to the amount of Ordinary Land revenue, a statement is obtained of the total dues levied on agriculture, excluding any pay- ments for municipal objects. The local rates are, rela- tively, highest in Madras and the North-West Provinces, where they amount to 13¼ and 14¼ per cent, on the revenue, and lowest in Bengal and Assam, where the percentage is only 1¾. The average number of persons dependent on each adult male agriculturist is singularly irregular, being less than 3 in the North- West Provinces, 4 in the Central Provinces, a little over 7 in Mysore and British Burma, and 12½ in Coorg. The average number of acres cultivated by each such person also varies greatly, the proportion being shewn as 4½ in the North-West Provinces, 5 in British Burma, 7½ in Mysore and Coorg, 10½ in Berar, 17¾ in Bombay, and 19¾ in the Central Provinces. Provinces
O rdinary Land Revenue
Local Rates and Cesses on Land Total Payments for Ordinary Land Revenue,and for Local Rates on Land.
£
£
£
Bengal and Assam
3,881,367
64,922
3,946,289
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
4,176,287
596,733
4,773,020
Ajmere
39,905
-
39,905
O ude
1,327,182
82,296
1,409,478
Punjab
1,914,946
191,604
2,106,550
C entral Provinces
603,587
-
642,314
Berar
535,631
38,727
535,631
Mysore
717,728
30,766
748,494
C oorg
26,336
2,018
28,354
British Burma
422,045
26,652
448,697
Madras
4,354,480
576,169
4,930,649
Bombay
2,919,762
239,001
3,158,763
Total
20,919,256
1,848,888
22,768,144
The average incidence of the total payments for ordinary land revenue and local rates, on each acre of the gross area, varies from less than 3 d. in the Central Provinces to 1s. 10d. in the North-West Provinces and Oude, the average being 9½d. On each acre of ground ca- pable of cultivation, whether tilled or not, the payments fall with an incidence varying from 5½d in the Central Provinces to 2s. 11½. in the North-West Provinces and Mysore, and 3s. 3½d. in Coorg, the average being 1s. 9d. On each acre of land actually cultivated the ave- rage is again the lowest in the Central Provinces, namely, l0¾d., while in Mysore, Oude, and the North-West Provinces, it is from 3s. 3d. to 3s. 9¾d., in British Burma 4s. 3d., and in Coorg 5s. 7d., the average being eing 2s. 8d. Average Incidence of Payments for Ordinary Land Revenue, and for Local Rates and Cesses, per Acre of
Provinces
Gross Ar Area.
s .d . s.
Revenue-pa -paying cultivable ble, including cultivated, Area.
Revenue-payi Revenue-pa ying ng cultiv cultivated ated Area.
s.d.
s.d.
Bengal and Assam
0 7 .0
-
-
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
1 10.0
2 11.3
3 9.8
Ajmere
0 5 .6
-
-
O ude
1 10.0
2 6 .9
3 6 .4
Punjab
0 7 .8
1 4 .4
2 4 .1
C entral Provinces
0 2 .8
0 5 .5
0 10.8
Berar
0 11.6
-
-
Mysore
0 10.4
2 11.7
3 3 .1
C oorg
0 5 .3
3 3 .4
5 7 .3
British Burma
0 1 .9
2 2 .6
4 3 .1
Madras
1 1 .4
-
-
Bombay
0 9 .5
1 9 .4
2 3 .1
Average
0 9 .4
1 9 .1
2 8 .0
The number of male agriculturists above the age of 20 has been returned in most of the provinces, and a table is given in the margin, shewing the average incidence of the payments made for ordinary land re- venue, and local rates and cesses, on each male adult occupied in agri- culture, and also on each head of the population. In the former case the lowest rates are 6s. 7d. in Bengal and Assam; in the North-West Provinces the average is about 16s. 2d., in the Central Provinces 17s., in Mysore 21s. 9½d, in British Burma 23s. 7½d., in Berar 23s. l0¾d, in Bombay 35s. 5½d, and in Coorg not less than 40s.4d. Calculated on the total population, the incidence is lowest in Bengal and Assam 1s. 2¾d., and Prov Proviinces ces
Avera erage In Incide ciden nce of Pay Payments for for Ordi Ordin nary ary Land Re Revenu enue, and and for for Loca ocal Rates ates &c., per per He Head of Adult Male Agriculturists
TotalPopulation
£sd
£sd
Bengal and Assam
0 6 6.9
0 1 2 .7
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
0 16 2.4
0 3 1.2
Ajmere
-
0 2 6 .3
O ude
-
0 2 6 .1
Punjab
-
0 2 4 .7
C entral Provinces
0 16 11.8
0 1 6 .8
Berar
1 3 10.7
0 4 9 .6
Mysore
1 1 9.4
0 2 11.5
C oorg
2 0 4.2
0 3 4 .4
British Burma
1 3 7.5
0 3 3 .2
Madras
-
0 3 1 .8
Bombay
1 15 5.5
0 3 10.4
Average
-
0 2 4 .7
the Central Provinces ls. 6¾d., and highest in Bombay 3s. 10½d., and Berar 4s. 9½d. Mode in which the Census was effected.
Before this memorandum is concluded, it is desirable that some notice should be taken of the manner in which the great work of enumerating the people of British India was effected. The census was not carried out in the various pro- vinces on one uniform system. In Bengal, owing to the want of administrative machinery, to the great expense anticipated to supply this need, and to the vast extent of sparsely populated territory in Assam (which was then still under Bengal), in Cooch Behar, and in Chota Nagpoor, it was determined to make no attempt to obtain a synchronous enumeration of the people, eople, or to deal with with the the precise precise condi conditi tion on in in all all respects of every every indivi ndividual dual.. The The general general plan plan adopted adopted in in thi thiss provi province was to to have have lilists prepared prepared of the the villages and hamlets, which were made over to the police for supervision; in each village two or more residents were selected, who, in complimentary letters, were requested to act as enumerators, and to submit lists of the houses in their villages, with the name of the principal occupant of each, the correctness of a certain number of these lists being tested by the police. Though the enumerators would, doubtless, have preferred to be paid for their trouble, it was found that the office was, for the most part, coveted as an honourable distinction, and the cases in which legal measures had to be adopted to enforce them to complete the task they had undertaken were altogether exceptional and were confined to two districts. In one thannah in Hooghly, however, the names set down as enumerators were found to be those of persons unable to read or write, the educated people having threatened to beat the watch- men if they put in their names, and the men having accordingly entered those of persons of whom they were not afraid. There is some reason to think that the enumerators, in a few cases, used their power to extort a small tax from the people, but no great amount of oppression appears to have been practised. In a large number of villages difficulty arose from there being no resident able to read; in such cases, and generally in the less civilized districts, paid enumerators had to be employed, or the work was undertaken by the police. The census in towns was, as a rule, effected by the municipal authorities. The large floating population on the various rivers was counted by a census of the boats at each landing place. Travellers by land were reckoned at the several serais or halting- places. In the hill tracts of Chittagong and in the Khasia Hills each Chief took the census of his own clan. In the Sonthal pergunnahs the people were enume- rated by their national method of counting, knots being tied in a number of strings of different colours, to distinguish males from females and children from adults. In some parts of Orissa the agents employed could only write in the customary manner, with an iron style on strips of palm leaves, from which the returns had to be afterwards copied out on printed forms. On the tea plant lantaa- tions tions of Darjeel Darjeeliing and Assam Assam the the census census was taken taken by the the plant planters. ers. None None was attem attempted pted in in the the Garo Garo Hil Hills, or in in the the wi wilder parts of the the Naga Hills and Luckimpoor. For three years the people were instructed in the object of the census, and experimental enumerations were made, so as to familiarize their minds with the idea and allay any fears they might entertain. In most instances the forms were filled up beforehand, and only corrected on the night on which the actual enumeration enumeration was taken. Over very large tracts trac ts of o f country the final final counting counting took place in a single single night; night; in in the Rajashahye Raja shahye and Dacca divisions divisions (together, as large as England) on the 15th, and in the Patna division on the 25th of January; and, so far as the regulation districts are concerned, it might probably robably be hereaft hereafter er eff effected in in one one day with without out diff diffiiculty culty.. In the the non-regu non-regullation ation divi divisi sions ons of Chota Chota Nagpoor Nagpoor and and Assam, Assam, howev however, er, the the enum enumerators, erators, who were sent out in November, did not return from their work till February, March, or April. Of the anxiety of the people to obtain accuracy, some striking instances are given. One village consisted of two hamlets, two miles apart; the enumerator having only visited one of them, two residents of the omitted hamlet came a dozen miles to report the circumstance. In another case, an enumerator went eight or nine miles to mention that a washerman had been absent from his home on the day of the census, and therefore had not been counted. In the Sonthal per- gunnahs, some villages having been accidentally passed over at the junction of the supervisors' beats, the residents came to ask what fault they had committed that their houses had not been numbered. On the whole, the census is believed to have been taken with a very fair approach to accuracy, though, in the non- regulation districts especially, omissions have occurred. General success of the Census.
To the circumstance that, as a general rule, the enumeration was effected by the people themselves, is attributed its success, both in general accuracy, and in the quietness with which it was almost universally carried out. In the single instance where the uneasiness led to a serious riot the agency employed was that of paid enumerators. The idea that the Government would incur the labour and expense of such an undertaking without having in view some direct pecuniary profit was foreign to the native mind. A poll-tax was the form in which the imposition was in general anticipated, and the census paper went by the name of the "tax- ticket"; but in Orissa, where it was rumoured that the Government intended to reimburse to itself the cost of the famine, it was variously supposed that the tax would fall on those who trod on the village-path, who swung an arm, who carried an umbrella, or who fed Brahmins. One man objected to enter his brothers' names, saying that "it will be very hard to make four brothers pay when the tax comes;" and another withheld the entry of a baby on the ground that it was too young to be taxed. The prevalent feeling that the population would be found excessive led in many instances to a belief that recourse would be had to com- pulsory emigration, either to Mauritius or Assam, in order to reduce the numbers; in Moorshedabad it
was stated that the surplus population was to be blown away from guns; in Chittagong it was thought that a certain number of heads were required to pacify acify the the Looshai Looshai Chief Chiefs, s, or that that cooli coolies were needed for for the the Looshai Looshai campai campaign gn,, or soldi soldiers ers to figh fightt the the Russi Russians; ans; in other other instances nstances it was was the the women women who were wanted to supply wives for the troops, and at Noakhally the report ran that all the females of a certain age were to be sent to Calcutta for "the General Sahi Sa hib" b" to see. The idea of compul co mpulsory sory vaccination vaccination seiz se ized ed some minds; minds; in one vill village age forcibl forc iblee conversion c onversion to C hristiani hristianity ty was feared; and many were kept at home on the night of the census by the belief (fostered by the enumerators to save themselves trouble) that an ill wind would cripple all who stirred abroad. In the census of Berar taken in 1867, the motive of the "Sircar" in counting the people at night had been found to be altogether beyond their their comprehension. In the North-West Provinces, where the people had been enumerated on two previous occasions, they were to some extent familiarized with the idea of a census, and their willing co-operation made the payment of enumerators the exception rather than the rule. The names of all males were entered, not merely that of the head of the household; and, where it could be done without offence, the names of the females also were recorded. As in Bengal, a preli reliminary nary enum enumerati eration on was was made made in in the the aut autum umn; n; but the the fi final correction correction of the the papers was was effec effected ted in in a sing singlle nigh night, t, nam namel ely, y, on the the 18th of January January.. The only difficulty thrown in the way of the officers was in the district of Benares, where some travellers, returning from a pilgrimage, declared that they did not belong to those parts, and objected to have their names and ages recorded. There was, however, a general opinion among the lower orders that the measure was a preliminary to some new mode of taxation; and in Mynpoory the rumour ran that there was to be a forced conscription to assist in fighting the Afghans and Russians if they should invade the Punjab. Similar fears prevailed in Oude in 1869, when it was rumoured that one male from each family, or every fourth man, was to be taken as a recruit, an emigrant, or a labourer on the roads or to build an enormous fort, or that women were wanted for the European soldiers; while one report was that England had suddenly become so hot that the Queen had desired that two virgins might be sent from each village to fan her night and day, and that the census was merely a subterfuge for the purpose of carrying'out Her Majesty's orders. In particular districts there is little doubt that concealment of girls took place to some extent, through dread of the result of the census. In Mysore, rumours of a similar character were afloat in one or two of the remoter villages, but, as a rule, the people treated the whole business with indifference, and as a Government order not to be avoided. As testifying to the accuracy of the census, it is stated that, after the returns had been compiled, the list of villages was compared with the revenue records, and it was discovered that a single village containing 40 inhabitants had been omitted. In a few instances the enumerators were found, in their zeal to give complete returns, to have entered the idols, with all particulars of sex, age, &c. In British Burma it was found that November was ill-suited for obtaining a true representation of the condition of the province, as the greater part of the people eople woul would be absent absent from from thei theirr vil villages, trading trading,, fi fishing shing,, and tim timber-cutti ber-cutting, ng, while there would be a large additional temporary population. The census was, accordingly, postponed till the 15th of August 1872, on which day it was taken throughout the province, except in a few out-of-the-way hill places, for which an approximate calculation had to he accepted; the probable error, however, arising from this is held to be inappreciable in the enumeration of the total population. There was a general absence of bribery or extortion on the part of the agency employed, and the people were too well accustomed to the annual capitation returns to be alarmed at the more detailed census. The results showed an almost universal increase of from 2 to 5 per cent, on the figures of the revenue officers' enumeration, which is what might be expected from the inclusion of the floating population in the more complete compilation. Cost of the census.
The following is a statement of the cost of taking the census in 1871-72, as given in the several reports:— Population enumerated, including that of Feudatory States, where counted
Cost £
Bengal and Assam
66,856,859
21,630
North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces
30,781,204
17,000
Ajmere
316,032
77
C entral Provinces
9,251,229
3,195
Mysore
5,055,412
3,967
C oorg
168,312
-
British Burma
2,747,148
1,300
Madras
31,597,872
18,213
Bombay
25,086,318
16,821
1 71,860,386 17
82,203
The average expense was, therefore, rather less than half a farthing per head. The delay which has occurred in the elucidation of the results of the census in some of the provinces is to be regretted; the report for Bombay was not received in England till May 1875, nor that for British Burma till the 21st of
June last. HENRY WATERFIELD. Statistics and Commerce Department, India Office, 13th July 1875 Report on the Census of British India taken on the 17th February 1881.
CHAPTER I. THE NUMBER AND DENSITY OF THE POPULATION. The Census of the 17th February 1881 was wa s the first first synchronous enumeration enumeration which which has been attempted attempted for all India. Not that no no previous count of the people had been effected in the various Provinces and States composing the British Indian Empire. In the majority of these States, and in all the British Provinces, there has been a previous census. But the enumeration in the various Provinces and States has been effected at different times and by independent agencies. There had too been no attempt to secure uniformity in the arrangement of the statistics then obtained. On the present occasion the operation has been effected upon a different principle. The work has been done under one controlling authority, and the Census was taken on one uniform uniform date. In the British British Provin Pr ovinces ces it was eff e ffected ected directly under under the control co ntrol of the Governm Gover nment ent of India by the various local admini administrations. strations. In I n the Native ative States States the the sever several al Govern Governm ments ents were in in comm communi unication cation wi with, th, and acted on the the sugges suggesti tions ons of the the Census Census Comm Commissioner. ssioner. In some some inst instance ances, s, notably in the Nizam's dominions, in Baroda, and in Mysore, the same form of schedule was used, and the same methods of calculation were employed as in the British Provinces, while in the remainder full information of the numbers and sexes of the population was obtained, though it was not always possibl ossiblee to coll collect stati statisti stics cs of age, civi civill conditi condition, on, caste, caste, and and occupati occupation. 2. The Census Ce nsus of 1881 took too k in, with with the exception of Kashm Ka shmir, ir, the the entire continent continent of Briti British sh India, inclu including ding under this this term the feudator feudatory y States in poli olitical tical connecti connection on wi with the the Governm Government ent of India. India. It did did not, not, however however,, incl include ude the the French French and Portu Portugu guese ese coloni colonial al possessions, possessions, thoug though, h, thr throug ough h the the courtesy of the Portuguese Government, a census of the Portuguese colonial dominions in India was effected at the same time as the British Indian Census. It also includes the outlying Province of Burmah. 3. The foll followin owing g are the Provinces and States dealt dea lt with with in in the the enumeration enumeration of 1881:— 188 1:— British Provinces Bengal, al, with its feuda eudattory ory Stat Statees North-West orth-West Provi Provinces, nces, with with Oudh and feudatory States Madras, wi with its fe feudatory States Bombay, ditto, ditto The Punjab, ditto Assam Burmah Berar Coorg Ajmere
N ative States Rajpu ajputtana Central Central India India The Nizam's dominions (Hyderabad) Mysore Baroda Travancore Cochin
4. In the whole of these Provinces and States (with the exception of the feudatory States of the Punjab, Rajputana, Central India, and the Nizam's dominions) there were independent enumerations of the people at some date previous to the Census of 1881. 5. In a great conti c ontinent nent like like India, India, where the masses are a re uneducated, uneducated , and where many of the people peop le liv livee in a very primiti primitive ve condition, condition, it is is impos impossibl siblee to enumerate enumerate the populati po pulation on after the methods empl e mployed oyed in the the more civil civiliz ized ed countries of Europe . 2 In England the vast majority of the inhabitants fill in their own schedules for the Census; in India the cases where such a course is possible are rare. It has become ecome necessary necessary in these these circu circum mstances, stances, and and it it has has alway alwayss been the the custom custom hith hitherto, erto, to to eff effect the the Census Census of the the people people by two two sharpl sharply y defi defined operations, the first being a preliminary record of the various inhabitants to be found in the various villages and hamlets and towns throughout the country, this record being worked up by enumerators occupying themselves solely for this purpose for a few weeks prior to the date of the final Census itself; the second operation consisting in the alteration of the record on the night of the Census, so as to make the entries in it correspond with the actual state of facts in regard to the population found in these localities on the date of the Census. This first operation, the gradual recording of each inhabitant of each particul articular ar town town or vil village in the the empi empire re duri during ng a tim time previ previous to to the the Census, Census, was effected effected between between December December 1880 and and the the 17th February February 1881, a longer time being allowed for the mountainous tracts and for the forest portions, to which access is not so easy as in the case of the great plains of India, but all all preli preliminary proceeding proceedingss being being compl completed eted before before the the 17th February February 1881. On that that date, date, and and throug throughou houtt the the large largerr part of the the conti continent nent at nigh night, t, the the
final record in which such alterations as were required in the preliminary returns had to be made was effected. 6. There have been so many previous enumeration enumerationss in large tracts of the the country, particularly particularly in the older British British Provi Pro vinces, nces, that the people are now fairly accustomed to what originally was looked upon by them as a very suspicious operation, and in general the Census of 1881 was viewed by the populati opulation on wi with calm calmness, if not indiff ndifferen erence. ce. 7. There were, however, instances where itit aroused consi co nsidera derable ble apprehension, and, in in one case, case , the Sonthals Sonthals in Bengal were so excited that itit was necessary to bring down troops. The Bhils, too, in Itajputana and Central India, who are as uncivilized as, if not more so than, the Sonthals, exhibited similar repugnance; and the actual enumeration of the Bhils and the Sonthals was more in the nature of an estimate than of an absolute count. 8. In the North-We No rth-West st Provinces, where there have have been three previous enumerations, enumerations, the the provincial provincial report makes no menti mention on of the attitude attitude of the the people. eople. For the the great great provi province of Bengal Bengal,, I have have not, not, as yet, yet, recei received the the report; report; but, but, with with the the excepti exception on of the the Sonthal Sonthals, s, whose whose case I have have already already noted, I am not aware that in Bengal the Census created any ill feeling or suspicion. In regard to Madras, the officer who writes the report states,—"The people eople are perfectl perfectly y indi indiffferent ferent.. The The delusi delusion on of the the Census Census being being a prelude prelude to to a poll poll tax or any any other other tax has alm almost enti entirel rely y disappeared. disappeared. The The mass mass of the population think it is the whim of the Circar (Government). Very few, however, even amongst the educated, understand the real object of the Census, hence there is a general apathy. Mr. Pennington, whose remarks are here extracted by the Census Superintendent of Madras, goes on to say,— One story I myself heard in Elaiyapuram may be just mentioned. It was that the Government wished to find out how many men there were aged 30 who would be fit for the Afghan war, and it is said that in some villages there was a general desire amongst the able-bodied males to enter themselves as well over 30." 9. Passing Pa ssing events gave a handle handle for for some of the rumours rumours which which were excited by the Census, and either either suspicion of force forced d recrui recr uitmen tmentt for the the Afghan Afghan war, or of the imposition of a general tax, were the two most prominent opinions put forward by Natives who could not understand what the object of Government could be. Some of the most peculiar opinions on the subject are recorded in the report for the Central Provinces, and the following extracts from Mr. Drysdale's remarks are interesting:— "Para. 69. 69 . Among the people peop le there there was a widespread widesp read suspici s uspicion on that the the inquiri inquiries es of the Census were prelimin preliminary ary to fresh taxation taxation of some kind, kind, and this suspicion “would linger on in some minds despite all asstirance to the contrary. The careful inquiries which were made about the occupations of the people eople had had the the eff effect of strengt strengthen heniing such apprehensi apprehensions. ons. In the the Nim Nimar distri district ct there there was a wi widespread distru distrust st of the the moti motives ves of Governm Government ent,, especial especiallly among the more ignorant classes “and taxable persons. The officers when on tour were more than once asked by census officials what the real object of Government was, and a conversation was overheard between a number of persons in which only one asserted, evidently in opposition to the opinions of the rest, that Government wished to count the people without any ulterior views on their pockets. In the Wardha district, the care that 3 was taken to inquire what were the occupations of the women left upon the lower orders the impression that the labouring women were going to be taxed, and in the Mandla district instances were by no means rare of omission to record the very aged or new-born children. Inquiries made led to the conclusion that the people thoroughly believed the Census operations were proceeding with the object of a capitation tax. In the Chanda district, among all classes, the counting was looked on as an operation more or less likely to bring bad luck, and the women, especially of the lower classes, dreaded lest the enumeration should be followed by the deaths or illness of their children. In the city of Chanda an absurd rumour existed that on the night of the 17th February a brass measure would be applied to the breasts of the women, and that those too liberally endowed by nature were to be deprived by an operation of the excess. In the Jubbalpore district there were rumours afloat in the town and in the interior that the Census was being taken with the object of either recruiting men for the Afghan war or introducing some new form of taxation. But no real apprehensions were felt. The rumour was apparently set afloat by some evil disposed persons, and was speedily suppressed. The hill people are said to have been much amused at the questions put to them them by the the enum enumerators erators as to whet whether her thei theirr fri friends ends were marri married, ed, and and thei theirr age, age, and and freque frequent ntlly burst burst int into o laug laught hter, er, thi thinking nking these these questi questions ons qui quite absurd. Widowers seem to have been the object of much amusement, and to have been the cause of much good-natured joking and merriment." 10. The Bombay Report Repor t contains contains no remarks remarks in regard to the attitude attitude of the the people. peop le. In Berar it is said to have been "passive and apathetic, and on the whole as favourable to the taking of a correct census as to satisfy the most sanguine anticipations." 11. In I n Burmah, Burmah, where where onl o nly y one previous census had been take n, and where many of the people are much less less civ c ivil iliz ized ed than the bulk bulk of the population population on the mainland of India, there was more apprehension. It would seem, indeed, that experience had not mitigated the feeling of distrust which the Census occasioned. At the enumeration of 1872, it appeared that, beyond being possessed by a vague feeling that the Census might be the herald of some new form of taxation, the public were not alarmed, nor was there time for any alarming rumour to get afloat. Mr. Copleston, the Census Superintendent of Burmah, goes on to say, "The same remarks can scarcely be made in reference to the present Census. Though the Burmese are accustomed to an annual counting, they had never before witnessed a long and elaborate course of preparation, proving an evident determination on the part of the Government that not a single man, woman, or child should escape the enumeration. The prolonged preparation, and the fact that the final counting was to be done by night, gave opportunity for absurd rumours to arise and spread among a credulous and superstitious people; and while generally the ideas related only to an additional tax in some parts of the country, and these not the wildest or least civilized, it was evidently feared that personal injury would be done to the inhabitants. Of course., the officers conducting the operations had over and over again explained the objects of the Census in the manner they considered most likely to satisfy the classes they had to deal with. In the Arakan hill tracts, suspicions, which had been rife; died away after the explanations given by the European officers; and, in the Salween district also, the abode of semi-wild tribes, the population appeared to be quite indifferent to the Census operations. In the towns of Rangoon, Bassein, and Toungoo there was merely a vague feeling of suspicion. In the Thongwa district an enumerator made an entry of the householders' live stock, and so created the temporary belief that fowls were to be taxed. In Moulmein too, the ideas were harmless
enough. A noted criminal had escaped, and the Census was a stratagem to catch the offender. The Russians were advancing, and the object of the enumeration was therefore to ascertain the numbers we could oppose to their approach. In Prome, on the other hand, both in part of the district and in the towns of Prome and Shwaydoung, answers to the enumerators were not seldom given from behind closed doors; and it would seem that there really was an idea abroad that heads were to be cut off to serve as offerings to English nats, or media of inquiry into the secrets of the future. Behind their doors persons occasionally remained on the defensive, and in some cases in Shwaydouog, families left their houses to go and sleep with friends for mutual protection. In the Amherst district, 89 families left their houses and fled across the frontier into Siamese territory. Their numbers were 262 males and 224 females. Some of the Takings thought that 4 a draft of the population was required to replace the soldiers killed in our wars. With the exceptions that have been mentioned, though almost everywhere vaguely suspicious, the people were nowhere obstructive or even alarmed. The idea that the English make use of human heads for inquiry into the future is not uncommon among the Burmese. It is freely believed that at the Christmas meetings of the Freemasons in Rangoon, a human head, procured rocured by the the steal stealth thy y decapi decapitati tation on of some some soli solitary wayfar wayfarer, er, is is placed placed on a table, table, and, and, being being sprinkl sprinkled ed with with some some potent potent medi medici cine, ne, gives gives oracular oracular responses to questions regarding the future success or otherwise of the British arms. All required information was, however, readily furnished by the people, eople, and and there there was no attem attempt pt at conceal concealment." ent." 12. Mr. Mr . Ibbetson, Ibbe tson, the Superintendent Superintendent of the Census in in the the Punjab, gives gives a graphic graphic account acco unt of the the attitude attitude of the people there. there. He says, "It was admirable throughout. Occasionally an ill-conditioned faquir or sulky shopkeeper, or a nasty tempered old woman would resent the inquiries made of them, and use exceedingly improper language to the enumerator who was questioning them. On the Census night itself I was appealed to by an enumerator in difficulties, and spent half an hour in listening to abuse of the English Government in general and myself in particular, from a sleepy Banya, who, roused from his warm bed, which he had sought too early, sat shivering on the doorstep, and discussing each question before he answered it at most unnecessary length. But, on the whole, the people looked on with amused curiosity at the trouble and fuss that Government was making about the filling up of a set of useless forms. Of course there were the usual rumours current among the lower and more ignorant classes and in the more backward tracts. The Government inquired for the first time into the number of families, and was therefore about to revive the obsolete hearth-tax; and some of the Hoshyarpur Gujars went so far as to break up their hearths on the day before the Census. It recorded sex and age, and so wanted soldiers for its Kabul campaign and young wives for its soldiers, insomuch that in one place the people hurriedly wedded their marriageable girls to save them from impressment. It demanded particulars about occupations, and had not a license-tax been recently imposed ? In some cases there was a tendency to conceal the existence of old persons and infants whom it would obviously be unfair to tax; and in a tract in Peshawar, which had suffered much from drought, the people thought that Government was going to give them relief based upon the number of mouths, and were inclined to show a quite phenom henomenal enal increase ncrease of populati population. on. The The Spiti Spiti people people petiti petitioned oned to to be all allowed to coll collect in in one one place place there there to have have thei theirr num number ber taken. taken. Some Some rum rumours were less obviously natural, for instance, that search was being made for a lost child of Her Majesty, or for the Eternal Imam Mehdi; that Government was about to transfer a portion of Bengal and Madras populations to the Punjab; that rain was not allowed to fall till the Census was over lest it should wash off the house numbers; and that numbering the people was unlucky, and the deaths which followed the preliminary record due to this cause." "But "But these these misunderstanding misunderstandingss were not general and soon passed passe d away; in in fact fact many of them were only raised to be laughed laughed at. The greybeard s remembered two previous Censuses without any evil effects therefrom. All the leading men took part in the operation. The people were accustomed to statistical inquiries in connection with the revenue, and almost every district report bears strong testimony to the cheerful alacrity with which they entered into the spirit of the thing, rendered all the assistance in their power, and endured the repeated inquiries of enumerator, supervisor, and superintendent, without murmuring, and to the real anxiety they displayed that the information recorded should be accurate. ‘Cherisher of the poor,' said an old man to Mr. Coldstream, ‘all my household has been correctly enumerated save only one goat.' Another old lady followed a district officer about for some days, because she averred averred that that she she had not been entered entered in in the the schedu schedulles." "A very curious curious illu illustration stration of the the feelings feelings of the people peop le was afforde afforded d by an original original comedy entitled entitled 'Census,' 'Ce nsus,' which which was performed per formed at Lahore for several nights in succession to crowded houses by a strolling company of Pársís. I went to see it, and enjoyed it immensely. It was really comic, and the fun, fun, if occasionall occ asionally y a littl littlee broad, broa d, was absolu abso lutely tely good humoured throughout. The impres impressment sment of the enum e numerato erator, r, his his deli d elight ght at becomin b ecoming g a servant of o f Government, his dismay at finding he was to receive no pay, his zeal in reducing others to a like plight with himself; the terror of the Banya, and especially of his wife, at the rumour that the numbers of the sexes were to be equalized by killing the spare men, and the percentage of 5 infirm corrected by making more where necessary; their resolve to fly into the jungles till the tyranny should he overpast; their horror at hearing the enumerator's demand for admittance; the airs with which they listened to his account of his powers, and the way in which they were to be exercised; their anxiety to assuage him with sweetmeats, and his greediness and self-importance; the meeting of enumerators on the Census night; how one had entered all the living things in his block, flies included (an estimate merely); how another had counted unborn babes as half a child each; and how a third had come away from the hospital with blank schedules, because all the patients had died; and the final scene in the forest, where all the enumerators in turn make love to the Banya's wife, till Tahsildarjee appears, examines their books, and consigns them all to gaol. Such were the main features of a very amusing piece, played with considerable comic power, and intensely enjoyed by the audience." "Nor were comi co micc incide incidents nts wholly wholly absent ab sent from the actual act ual opera op erations. tions. A magistra magistrate te success succ essful fully ly justified justified his his having entered enter ed a village village pond po nd as an inhabited house by explaining to me that a faqir was standing up to his waist in water, and declared his intention of remaining there till after the Census; one enumerator came near having his head broken, for putting, as in duty bound, the prescribed series of questions to an irascible villager, which involved asking him whether his mother was married; while another, who spoke English, stigmatized the female adults of his block as adulteresses."
13. The The Baroda Barod a report repo rt contains no remarks on the attitude attitude of the people. peo ple. The reports repo rts for Assam, Haidarabad, Haidaraba d, Mysore, Mysore , and Travancore have not yet been received. Those for Coorg and Ajmere do not deal with the subject. But in the notes supplied by the Hajputana and Central India officials reference is made to the apprehensions of the Bhils, to which I have already alluded. 14. On O n the whole, whole, itit may may be said that, whil whilee instances instances are not infrequent infrequent illu illuss- trating the suspicion suspicion and fear excited excited by such an operation as a census among illiterate and primitive races, the general attitude of the masses was one of passive indifference. The ready aid given by the better educated, and the patient endurance with which irksome inquiry was submitted to generally are only what would be anticipated by those who know how easy the Indian population are to rule when treated with justice and firmness. 15. The The entire entire popul pop ulation ation enumerated enumerated on the 17th February Feb ruary 1881 188 1 is 253,89 253 ,891,8 1,821. 21. It is thus distributed distributed amongst the various British British Possess Pos sessions ions and Native States, ranking each of the series according to the number of the population:— ABSTRACT II. British British Possessions. Possessions. Bengal North-West orth-West Provi Provinces and Oudh Oudh Madras Bombay Punjab Central Provinces Assam Burmah Berar Ajmere Coorg
69536861 44849619 31170631 23395663 22712120 11548511 4881426 3736771 2672673 460722 178302 Native St ates.
States of Rajputana Nizam izam's 's domi dominions nions States of C entral India Mysore Travancore Baroda C ochin
10268392 9845594 9261907 4186188 2401158 2185005 600278
With the figures for the British Possessions mentioned above are included the popu- lations for the Native States in political connection with them. 6 16. The area occupied oc cupied by this this large population population is given given as 1,382,624 1,382, 624 square sq uare miles, miles, and ranked according acc ording to their their size size the Provinces Provinces and States appear app ear in the the followin following g order:— ord er:— ABSTRACT II.
Bombay Bengal Punjab Madras Rajputana Central Provinces North-West orth-West Provi Provinces and Oudh Burmah Hyderabad (Mzam's (Mzam's Dominions)
Area in Square Miles 197875 193198 142449 141001 129750 113279
Central India Assam Mysore Berar Baroda Travancore
Area in Square Miles 75079 46341 24723 17711 8570 6730
111236
Ajmere
2711
87220
Coorg
1583
81807
Cochin
1361
British India
1382624
17. There is considera considerable ble diffi difficult culty y in in making making any fair fair comparison, so far as area are a goes, between b etween Indian and Eu Europe ropean an figures; figures; and yet without without some such comparison it is difficult for those to whom India is a strange country to form a correct idea of the vastness of its various provinces, or the great
density of its huge population. In area it compares with no European State but Russia in Europe, which is to India as nearly 3 to 2 in size, that is half as large again as India. But while Russia in Europe is thus larger in area, its population is infinitely smaller, ranking in the proportion of 2 to 7, or of 74,000,000 to 254,000,000. 18. Though Though in in population population Bengal is the largest largest of o f the the British British provinces, it is is not in area the first first in rank. Bombay stands first with with 197,875 197,8 75 square s quare miles miles against Bengal with 193,198 square miles. Thus, these two great Provinces are each much the same in extent of area as Spain, Bombay being 2,000 square miles larger, while Bengal is as much smaller than Spain. The Punjab and Madras, which rank next to Bengal and Bombay in area, are each nearly the same size as the United Kingdom and Greece put together; and taken together these four largest provinces in India exceed by 20,000 square miles the united area of the Austrian Empire, the German Empire, and France. Rajputana, next in size, is a little larger than Hungary. The Central Provinces are of much the same area as Italy, while the North-West Provinces with Oudh are 3,000 square miles smaller than that country. Burmah has nearly the same area as England, Wales, and Scotland together; Hyderabad is about 8 per cent, smaller. Central India is about the size of England and Wales, with Greece added; Assam half as large again as Scotland; Mysore slightly larger than Bohemia, with the province of Austria above the Ems; Berar takes an intermediate place between Greece and Swit- zerland, being about 2,000 square miles less than the former, and greater than the latter; Baroda very closely approximates to Moravia, or the Italian province of Apulia; Travancore to Saxony; while Ajmere is somewhat larger than Devonshire; and Coorg a little larger, and Cochin a little smaller than the province of Hainault in Belgium. 19. But, although although the Provinces Provinces and a nd States may thus fairl fairly y be compared compare d in area to European units, units, they vary remarka remarkably bly in number number of o f inhabi inhabitants tants from these points of comparison. Bengal contains twice as many inhabitants as the United Kingdom; the North-West Provinces and Oudh as large a populati opulation on as the the German German Em Empire; pire; Madras Madras num numbers bers as many many as the the Uni United King Kingdom dom with without out Scotland; Scotland; Bombay Bombay a mi million and and a quarter, quarter, and the the Punj Punjab ab a half half mill million ion more more than Austria Austria without without the Hungarian Hungarian kingdom; the Central Ce ntral Provinces 850,0 85 0,000 00 more, and a nd Rajputana 426,000 426 ,000 less than Belgium Belgium and Ireland together; the Nizam's dominions have a population nearly the same as, and the States of Central India a little less than, that of the Turkish Empire in Europe; Assam has half a million more, and Mysore 150,000 less than the popu- lation of Portugal; Burmah in population is almost identical with Scotland; Berar contains 170,000 less than Switzerland; Travancore nearly the same as that of Baden and Hesse together; Baroda, 30,000 more than Hanover; Cochin 3,000 less than Devonshire; and Ajmere 400 less than Derbyshire, while Coorg is 1,000 less than Oxfordshire. 20. As in area and numbers numbers the units units of comparison diff differ er so consi co nsidera derably, bly, itit is is neces- sary to examine examine the density density of the population population over the various various Indian Provinces in order to form some idea of the position of these Provinces and States in regard to European countries. But the population is so thick in India, that it is not easy to 7 find any large European State which approaches our Indian Provinces looked at from this point of view. The average for the whole Indian Empire, 184 to the square mile, is much in excess of that of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy (157), and hut little less than the density (191) in the more populous, the Austrian, portion of the Empire. In Bengal (360), it is nearly half as high again as in Italy (249); and almost three times as great as that of Hungary (126). Belgium (485), is the only European kingdom ex- ceeding in density the great province known now as the North-West and Oudh (403). If, indeed, the mountainous tract to the north of that Province, the Kumaon division, with 12,437 square miles and 1,046,263 inhabitants, be excluded, it will come out, not- withstanding its large population of over 43,000,000, with an average density of 460, or 14 in excess of the average to the square mile throughout England and Wales. Madras has six more inhabitants to the square mile (221) than the German Empire (215), and Bombay (118), five less than Scotland (123). But without the feudatory States and Sindh, Bombay with over sixteen millions of inhabitants, has a density of 132, against the Scotch density of 123 and a population of three and three quarter millions. The Punjab in density is identical with Ireland, but has a population four times as large. The Central Provinces, with 102 to the square mile, come between Scotland, (123) and Spain (85); Central India (123) is identical with Scotland, and Rajputana (79) is a little less than Spain or Greece (85); Mysore (169) comes between Switzerland (178) and Ireland (159); Burmah (43) has a density half as great as Spain (85); Berar (151) is somewhat less than France (155); Travancore (357) ranks with Bengal (360); Baroda (255) has 6 more to the square mile than Italy (249). The smallest States and Provinces, Cochin, Ajmere, and Coorg, are of such a size as to make it inexpedient to compare them with European kingdoms. Their density may be more aptly illustrated in the remarks on the density of Indian pro- vincial divisions and districts, with with which which latter they assimilate assimilate in size. size. 21. So far far as I have have hitherto hitherto gone, gone, I have been comparing comparing popul pop ulations ations or areas imm immeasurab easurably ly larger than those of European countries. In the smaller units I am about to deal with there are areas and populations of more moderate extent, and the great density of the Indian population will be the more easily perceived when these smaller areas are contrasted with European figures. Four divisions in the north of India, Lucknow and Rae Bareli of the North-West Provinces, and Patna and Dacca of Bengal, contain an area of 48,032 square miles. That is almost identical with the area of England, without Wales, and it supports a population of 29,144,428, or more than three millions in excess of that of England and Wales, and averages 607 to the square mile. These are the only instances of divisions* of provinces where the density is extremely high compared with European densities; but when we come to the smaller districts we find even more remarkable instances of the immense number of the populati opulation on to to the the square square mi mile. Thus Thus we have have the the fol folllowing owing cases in in Beng Bengal al and the the North-West North-West wher wheree the the densi density exceeds 700 to the the square square mi mile:— e:— Density.
Area in Square Miles.
Population.
Bengal: Howrah Sarun
1335 870
476 2622
635381 2280382
Mozufferpore Patna Hooghly
860 845 828
3003 2079 1223
2582060 1756856 1012768
Durbhunga Dacca Furreedpore Pubna Total North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces:: Ballia Jaunpur Azamgarh Benares Total Grand Total
790 757 720 710 812
3335 2797 2267 1847 19649
2633447 2116350 1631734 1311728 15960706
808 778 747 894 793 808
1144 1554 2147 998 5843 25492
294763 1209663 1604654 892684 4631764 20592470
*A division division is a group of districts ranging from 3 to 7 in number number,, and forms the charge char ge of a Comm Co mmissioner issioner of Revenue under whom the District Officers directly act. 8 These thirteen thirteen districts districts aggregate a popul pop ulation ation of 20,592,47 20,592 ,470. 0. The density density varies from from 1,335 to 710, 710 , and averages 808 to the square mile. mile. The The area they comprise is half the size of England proper, and their population is 1 per cent, only short of that of England proper, if London, within the registration limits (3,816,483), he excluded. While for the area of England proper, less London, the density is 415 against 808, as shown above, for an Indian area half as large as England proper. 22. These densi de nsities, ties, however, are exceptional; and north-west above abo ve the Ganges or south of Bengal Bengal we do not fin find d any tracts with a popul pop ulation ation so thick as is found in the Doabs of the North-West and Oudh, or in the north of Bengal and the east of that province. Madras has no single instance of a district in which the density exceeds 600. In the ordinary settled districts the extremes of density vary from 583 per square mile in Tanjore, and 515 in Vizagapata Vizagapatani ni,, to 91 in Rurnool; Rurnool; hut in the the talu ta luks ks of Kum K umhakonam, hakonam, Máyavaram, Má yavaram, Negapatam, Ne gapatam, N annilam annilam,, and a nd Shi S hiyal yalii in in the Tanjore district, district, with with an area a rea of 1,323 square miles there is a population of 1,160,827, or 877 per square mile. This is in the heart of the Kávéri irrigation delta, and is the richest as well as the most populous tract in the Presidency. In Vizagapatam, the taluks of Pálkonda, Párvatipur, Saltúr, and Srirangavarapukóta contain on an area of 422 square miles a population of 518,722, or 1,229 per square mile. The taluk of Ponání in Malabar has an area of 390 square miles, and a density of 1,007. In Bombay the highest figure is 500, for the Kaira district 1,609 square miles; while in the Native States appertaining to Bombay, Kolhapur has the highest density, but this is only 284 over an area of 2,816 square miles. In the Punjab, in no case does the density exceed 500; but in the rural part of Jullundur district, 1,300 square miles, it is as high as 493. The Central Provinces contain no district with a density in excess of 200. Narsingpur, area 1,916 square miles, stands highest with 191; Nagpur, 3,786 square miles, coming next with 184. In the Rajputana States, Bhurtpore and Ulwar stand highest, thus,— Bhurtpore sq square mi miles, Alwar " "
1974; 3024
density, "
327 326
In Hyderabad the highest density is that of Nander, where, with an area of 4,122 square miles, there is a population of 183 to the square mile. In the States of Central India, in no case except over very petty areas does the density approach the high figures of the north. For its size, 11,323 square miles, the Rewah territory is most populous, 133 to the square mile, indicating a considerable density of population in the inhabited portion of the country, the greater part of the State being forest or mountain. In Assam the district of Sylhet stands highest; its area is 5,440 square miles, and the density 362 to the square mile. But in the hill districts and the Cachar hill tracts, the density is as low as 10 to the square mile, over an area of 2,465 square miles. In Mysore the highest district density is that of the Mysore district, with an area of 2,980 square miles, and a density of 303 to the square mile. It is followed by Hassan, with 285 over an area of 1,879 square miles. In Burmah the density varies from 163 in Henzada, with an area of 1,948 square miles, to 6 in Salween, with 4,646 square miles. In Berar no high figures are observable, Akola and Amraoti standing highest, the first with an area of 2,660 square miles, and a density of 223; the second with an area of 2,759 square miles, and a density of 208 to the square mile. Travancore, in area 6,730 square miles, corresponding in size to one of the larger districts of Bengal, has 357 to the square mile, and considering its forest tracts and mountains the density is very high. Baroda has two districts which stand high in density; Baroda, area 1,906, density, 344; Kadi, area 3,158, density 313. The three remaining Provinces and States, Ajmere, Cochin, and Coorg, are small in extent, but the density in Cochin is extremely high. 23. Thus it will will be observed, obser ved, looking at the the provi pro vinces nces geographi geograp hicall cally, y, while while in in the north north and north-east north-e ast we have this this extreme density, density, and again, in in the the south, a density high, though by no means so great as that of the north, the central tracts of India are comparatively thinly populated. 24. The accompanyi acco mpanying ng abstract abstr act shows the area, density, and population population of the the Indian Provi Pro vinces nces and States, and a nd simi similar lar details details are placed in juxt uxtaposi apositi tion on for for some some of the the European European countri countries. es. Extract Extractss from from the the several several provinci provincial al reports wil will be foun found d in in Appendi Appendix x A. A. 9 ABSTRACT III. Area in Square
Miles
Density
Population.
Bombay Bengal Punjab Madras Rajputana C entral Provinces North-West orth-West and Oudh Oudh Burmah Hyderabad (N izam's dominions) C entral India Assam Mysore Berar Baroda Travancore Ajmere C oorg C ochin All India
197875 193198 142449 141001 129750 113279 111236 87220 81807 75079 46341 24723 17711 8570 6730 2711 1583 1361 1382624
118 360 159 221 79 102 403 43 120 123 105 169 151 255 357 170 113 441 184
23395663 69536861 22712120 31170631 10268392 11548511 44849619 3736771 9845594 9261907 4881426 4186188 2672673 2185005 2401158 460722 178302 600278 253891821
Russian Empire Austrian Empire German Empire France Spain
2088274 240338 210493 204031 195716
36 157 215 155 85
Turkey in Europe
136627
69
Hungary United Kingdom Austria Italy England and Wales England Portugal Ireland Scotland Greece Switzerland Hanover Belgium Saxony
124431 121305 115907 114325 58186 50823 34507 32524 30362 19342 15977 14548 11379 6777
126 287 191 249 446 484 126 159 123 85 178 146 485 438
74145223 37786346 45234061 37672048 16625860 9400000 {Estd. No. 15642102 34884848 22144244 28459451 25974439 24613926 4348551 5174836 3735573 1653767 2846102 2120168 5519844 2972805
25. The table tab le from from which which the fig figures ures hitherto hitherto dealt dea lt with with have been taken is No. 1 of the series comprised in the second volume volume of the Indian Indian Census returns. That volume was prepared in India, as the provincial returns, whether in manuscript or proof, came in. Since their receipt slight alterations in the provinci rovincial al returns returns have have in in two two inst instances ances been eff effected, ected, and and these these alterat alteratiions have have necessi necessitated tated certai certain n correcti corrections ons in the the Indi Indian an Tabl Tablee 1. I have have ther theref efore ore reprinted that table, and it is appended.* *A second copy cop y of Table Table I., as reprinted, has been forward forwarded ed for incorpo incorporation ration with with Volume Volume II., already distributed, distributed, and should should be substituted substituted for the Table I. as originally compiled, which finds a place in Volume II. 10 FORM FORM I.
Area and Population.
Province or State A jmere A s s am
Area in Square Miles
Towns and Villiages
2711 46341
739 22408
Number of Hou s e s Oc cu pied 64118 859388
Population; To tal;
Un o cc up ied Bot h Se xes 22235 696
460722 4881426
Number of
M ales
Fe males
248844 2503703
211878 2377723
Towns and Persons Persons per Houses per Villiages per Square Mile Square M ile ile 100 Miles 170 32 27 105 19 48
Persons Persons per occupied House 7.2 5.6
Be ng a l Be ra r Bombay: Brit is h Te rrito ry Feu d at ory St Stat es Bu rma h Central Provinces Brit is h Te rrito ry Feu d at ory Stat es Co o rg M ad ras North-Wes tern Provinces: Brit is h Te rrito ry Feu d at ory Stat es Punjab: Brit is h Te rrito ry Feu d at ory St Stat es Ba ro d a Ce nt ral In dia Co ch in Hy de rab a d M y s o re Ra jp ut an a Trav an co re Total
193198 17711
26765 5585
11036774 466027
608609 33356
69536861 2672673
34625591 1380492
34911270 1292181
360 151
60 28
131 32
6.3 5.7
124122 73753 87220
24598 13191 15857
2826151 1351367 677362
783071 396218 42857
16454414 6941249 3736771
8497718 3572355 1991005
7956696 3368894 1745766
133 94 43
29 24 8
20 18 18
5.8 5.1 5.5
84445 28834 1583 141001
34612 11242 503 52648
2336976 375283 22357 5711531
193769 21092 3233 717795
9838791 1709720 178302 31170631
4959435 867687 100439 15421043
4879356 842033 77863 15749588
117 59 113 221
30 14 16 46
41 39 32 37
4.2 4.5 7.9 5.5
106111 5125
105421 3322
6866503 125907
0 0
44107869 741750
22912556 384699
21195313 357051
416 145
65 24
99 65
6.4 5.8
106632 35817 8570 75079 1361 81807 24723 129750 6730 13 8 2 62 4
34324 18546 3012 31506 655 20398 17655 30001 3719 7 1 4 70 7
2706914 655392 479643 1661434 125297 1859600 733200 2101451 492976 4 35 3 56 5 1
8640384 1749380 1045493 4379084 298463 4843457 2100346 4723727 1204024 12 3 9 49 9 70
177 108 255 123 441 120 169 79 357 18 4
33 24 77 22 92 25 36 16 78 35
32 52 35 42 48 25 71 23 55 52
6.9 5.9 4.6 5.6 4.8 5.3 5.7 4.9 4.9 5 .8
810094 208730 177505 0 0 218424 368144 0 31974 4 6 37 8 02
18850437 10210053 3861683 2112303 2185005 1139512 9261907 4882823 600278 301815 9845594 5002137 4186188 2085842 10268392 5544665 2401158 1197134 25 3 8 91 8 21 12 9 9 41 8 51
11 26. O ther details than than those I have hitherto hitherto dealt dea lt with, with, "area "area," ," "pop "popul ulation," ation," and density," are to he found in Table I. These are the number of houses and the number of towns and villages in each province and throughout the Empire. The inf information ormation regarding regarding the number number of towns and vil villages lages will will he more appropr app ropriatel iately y discussed at a later part par t of this this report, rep ort, when Table XV., givin giving g the classification classification (by number number of inhabitants) inhabitants) of the vill villages ages and towns, to wns, is under notice. But as statistics statistics regardin regard ing g houses are not dealt de alt with with in any subsequent table, I touch briefly upon them here. 27. It will will be observed ob served these statisti s tatistics cs are not treated trea ted uniforml uniformly y in in the the various provinces. provinces. In some cases, cases , and these the great m majority, ajority, the num number ber of occupied as distinguished from unoccupied houses is shown, but in the four instances of the North-West Provinces, Central India, Cochin, and Rajputana, the occupied houses alone are shown. It must be remembered that the generic term "house" includes in India habitations very varied in their kind. The palace of the prince, the brick-built houses of the wealthy landowner and trader, the mud hut of the peasant, the hovel of the outcaste, and the wigwam or leaf abode of the aboriginal, are all included in this one designation. No attempt has been made to distinguish these varieties; indeed, it was found extremely difficult to frame any one definition of the term "house" which should be suitable to the varied circumstances and conditions of the different provinces of the Empire. It may be stated broadly that by far the larger portion of these dwellings consist of the flat-roofed houses of the agriculturists. Both in the North, the Central tracts, and the South this style of building largely prevails. The house is made of sun-dried bricks. It is generally one story high, but sometimes has an upper story, and the flat roof is made of a thick layer of mud bricks on a framework of rough unsquared beams. eams. These These abodes are often often comm commodious odious enough enough to accomm accommodate several several fami families of relati relatives, ves, embraci embracing ng three three or more more gener generati ations. ons. Each fam family has has its separate sleeping rooms. Those who are relatives eat together, and a separate gathering place for the men is found near the entrance to the enclosure. For the plough oxen and the milch kine accommodation is provided in the yard, round which the several dwelling places of the family are built, or in a yard adjacent. Towards the southern part of the more northerly provinces, throughout the south and east of Bengal, and in large tracts of Bombay and (geographical) Central India, Madras and the adjoining States, the mud-built houses are roofed either with tiles or with thatch, but the form of the enclosure remains much the same. A description of the Hindoo family and its abode in the north of India, drawn by Baboo Ishuree Dass, which I extract below, elow, gi gives a very very correct correct accoun accountt of the the mode mode of dwell dwelling and of life in the the north north of Indi India. a. "Wealthy Hindoos living living in large cities cities have great grea t buildin buildings gs mad madee of stone sto ne and baked bak ed bricks. br icks. These Thes e buildings buildings are two or o r three stories stor ies high, high, with with rooms all around, and an open court in the middle. The roofs of these houses are made in such a flat and smooth way that people can sleep on them at night in the hot season. There are no glass doors; the doors are made of boards, and when they are closed the rooms are quite dark. Some rooms that are in the interior of the building are dark even in the daytime, when the doors are open; and when people have to do anything there they use lights. In such dark rooms they keep their money, jewels, and other valuable things. The reason why these apartments are so dark is that there are no doors in the back part of the house, the principal gate and the doors of the rooms being in the front. "Houses "Houses out in the country are made mostly of mud, mud, but they are strong stro ng and comfortable, at least so according acco rding to the Hindoo Hindoo idea of comfort. Houses in the country are mostly one story high, and their height is about six or eight feet. They have different kinds of roofs; some have tiles; others are thatched; and again others have roofs of mud; these latter have beams or pieces of timber close to each other; on them thin branches of certain shrubs are spread, and over these mud is thrown and pounded so as to make the roof smooth; it is then plastered.* Some houses are two stories high, but the rooms are very small. Wealthy landlords have comparatively larger houses, that are often three stories high, and have larger rooms. In all these houses, each room has only one door to go in and out, and that door is just high enough for a man to go in. Pour or five or more houses are found in a little yard, laid out in the form of a square, or a triangle, or a circle, with an open
* "Thi "Thiss kind kind of roof is is best suited to the the hot season, as it keeps keep s the fierce fierce hot winds winds out. It however however makes a house oppressive oppr essive in in the the rainy rainy season, when the weather wea ther is sultry." 12 space in the middle, where the members of the different families (that are of course " related related to each other) sit and talk, and where cattle are kept in the cool of the day in the hot season. Each house has two or three small rooms; one of these is exclusively used for the kitchen, and the others for sleeping and keeping things. Besides these rooms there is generally a kind of small verandah in front of the house, where they keep water and where women sit during the day. There is a room at the door or gate of the yard, where men sit when they are not at work, and where strangers and visitors are received. Strangers go into the yard whenever there is any occasion for it, but not otherwise, and when they go in it is never without permission, and always with somebody that belongs to the place. "As "As for furnitu furniture, re, the Hindoo Hindooss may be said to have none. They They have no chairs chairs and tables tab les and chests, nor any of those other things things that that are seen s een in the houses of Europeans. "The "The only only thin things gs that they they have have in in their their houses houses are ar e boxes or round r ound baskets baske ts with with covers and locks to keep kee p their clothes and jewels in, in, cookin cook ing g utensil utensils, s, the plates and jugs out of which they eat and drink, and the bedsteads and beds on which they sleep. Even wealthy Hindoos, who are possessed of hundreds of thousands of “rupees, have no more than this. There may be, perhaps, found one in ten thousand who keeps a few rough chairs and an old ugly table in a corner of the house, but we are speaking of the nation. In Calcutta the wealthy Hindoos have European furniture in their houses, but this is not the case in the upper provinces. A Hindoo “is known to his neighbours to have wealth, or to be in comfortable circumstances, by the house he lives in and the quality of the raiment that he and his family wear, by the jewels that the women of his family use, and the number of his cooking utensils and plates lates whi which ch are are made made of brass, but but more more especial especiallly by the the last last two, two, nam namel ely, y, the the jewel jewelss and and the the brass thi thing ngs. s. * * * * "Regarding "Regarding famil families, ies, the patriarchal system of government government in in a great measure still still prevails in in India. India. When daughters are married and are a re become be come of age, they of course go to live with the families of their husbands. When sons, however, settle in life, they do not leave the roof of their parents, but still live with them, and are under their direction and government, that is, so long as the father does not lose his senses through extreme age. In European countries, when sons are of age and settled in life, they carry on business on their own account; but such is not the case in this part of the world. Here, all that sons earn is made over to the father, who keeps the accounts of the household, that is, purchases food and raiment for the members of his family, and manages all things that concern them. He is the head, and his sons and daughters-in-law and grandchildren are under his government, and he sees that all live with comfort. Sometimes it happens that when a man has two or more sons, one of them is dissatisfied with some arrangement, and he parts from the others so far as to eat separate, then he carries on business on his own account, he and his wife consult together about their own interests and do as they think proper. When a son does so, he does not remove to another place, but “lives in the same yard with the other members of his father's family. In this case, a son is not under the immediate control of his father. In matters that concern his wife and children, and in affairs that are strictly privat rivate, e, he he is is at liliberty to do as “he “he thi thinks nks best, best, thoug though h he he is is general generallly wi willing to hear hear the the advice advice of his his fath father er when when he he has has any to off offer. "As "As long as the sons are ar e comparativ compara tively ely young and the father not too old, they all all live live and eat together, and a nd have all their their interests interests common. common. But when when the sons get to the meridian of life and the father becomes very old, dissatisfaction begins to prevail among them, and they think of eating separately. They cease to have their interests common, and parents join that son who is the kindest to them, though others also help them from time to time. Sometimes they find it convenient to eat together, but have expenses regarding raiment and other things separate. Each son pays a certain portion of his earnings for own and his family's support. "When "When the sons of a man man separate sepa rate from each other and from from their their parents, they they do not part entirely entirely from each eac h other, but most generally generally live live in the same yard. Their place mostly consists of a square; this square has rooms all around which are occupied by the different families. While they thus live in one place, the father exercises a general government over them. If the sons of a man do not have separate concerns before their father's death, they do so after his decease; the father may have kept them together, but after his departure they fall out. But even after having their concerns separate they live altogether in the same place. It is very seldom that a man leaves his brothers to live in another part of the town. 13 or village. They find it much more convenient to live together; they can help each other in time of sickness; can defend each other if a disturbance takes place lace with with the the neigh neighbours bours;; and and when when a brother brother is is absent absent from from home home for for any any leng length th of tim time, his his fam famiily is is under under the the im immediate ediate protecti protection on of his his brothers brothers or other male relations living in the same place. A male relation is always requisite to be at home (that is, not absent from the town) for the protection, and general management also, of the whole establishment. Women would much rather have a boy of even twelve years with them than be left alone. When a man has to part with his brothers to live in another part of the town or village, it is either through want of room or the quarrelsome temper of the wife or that of some other woman living in the place. But such a separation is very seldom resorted to. A group of relations living in a yard very often consists of five or six families, and these families of twenty or thirty members." On the west coast, in the the central portion of Southern India, and in in the the extreme south, though though the Hindoo Hindoo house retain reta inss the general general plan I have mentioned, the form of structure varies again from that already described, and Mr. McIver, the Census Superintendent of Madras, has favoured me with the accompanying Note on the habitations of the south and west of the Indian Peninsula. "Babo "Baboo o Ishuree Dass s de scription of Native houses houses in the the North appli app lies es fairly fairly to the the generality generality of Native houses in in the the Southern Presidency. Pres idency. Differences of climate, such as the excessive rainfall in some districts, and the fact that in Madras there is no cold weather at all, involve some necessary
modifications; and, in different parts of the Presidency, the abundance or scarcity of timber, the presence of good brickmaking clay, and so forth necessarily influence the character of the domestic architecture. But, as a rule, the ground plan of the ordinary Native house does not differ materially from that generally adopted by the inhabitants of Northern India. "The "The outside outside verandah, veranda h, with with its its built-in built-in seats, the entrance hall hall,, varying varying in size size from a narrow passage pa ssage to a roomy ro omy chamber, the central open space upon which the dwelling rooms give, are generally present in more or less complete form. "In rural Madras the great majority of the houses houses have mud mud walls, walls, and a thatched roo f. In the towns of nearly all districts districts tiled tiled and terraced terr aced houses house s are the rule. In the rainless wind-swept districts of Bellary, Anantapur, Kurnoul, and parts of Cuddapa and North Arcot, the proportion of flat-roofed terraced houses is high, and in the more advanced districts of Chingleput, North Arcot, and Tanjore the number of tiled roofs is unusually large. "The "The incre increase ase of o f tiled tiled buildings buildings in in many many districts may may generally be taken tak en as a fair fair indication indication of advancing ad vancing prospe pro sperity. rity. "But "But for for the whole whole Presidency quite quite four fifth fifthss of the the houses are thatched, and in the Western districts, districts, in Malabar, Canara, C anara, and Travancore, Travancor e, exposed expose d to the torrents of the south-west monsoon, all the houses are thatched, including even those of Europeans and wealthy Natives. In these provinces where villages in the ordinary sense are rare, and where detached homesteads are the rule, the character of the houses is exceptional. The law and custom of the country, preserving, as it does, 'the most perfect development of the Hindoo family,' leads to the practice of whole clans living in the same paramba or family house. The following extract, taken from a notice prepared for the 'Gazetteer of India,' gives some particulars of the west coast paramba:— "‘In the majo majority rity of buildings buildings on this this coast, coa st, wood woo d enters largely into into their construc cons truc tion, which, which, while while costing cos ting less, and affordin afford ing g nea neater ter workmanship, wor kmanship, is infinitely more substantial than the houses on the other coast, which are mostly clumsy, dark, and close to suffocation, caused chiefly by the large proportion roportion of chunam chunam and mortar mortar work work in in thei theirr composi compositi tion. on. A Malayal Malayalii house, house, thoug though h nei neith ther er remarkabl remarkablee for for its its loft loftiiness, space, nor nor archi architectural tectural beauty, eauty, is is undoubt undoubtedl edly y neat. neat. The The Nair's Nair's habi habitati tation on is is general generallly in in the the centre centre of a larg largee and spaci spacious ous compoun compound, d, thi thickly ckly plant planted ed with with cocoa-nut, cocoa-nut, jack, jack, areca, and the useful plantain. Around the main house and the detached buildings, each of which serves its own purpose of accommodating either the karnavan of the family, the venerated Brahmin "traveller," or the females of the house, is thrown a neat mud wall, enclosing an oblong space, which forms a ring fence separating the premises of the house from the outer compound. The main house occupies an elevated platform, and the basement of stone has a flat plank ceiling, overspread with a layer of mud to obstruct the progress of fire, and the usual pent roof covered with leaves; it is sometimes half encompassed by a side 14 corridor; the centre forms a small magazine, in which are deposited the whole valuables of the family; around it are the chambers in which they sleep; a small porch marks the entrance.’" Brick-bui Brick-b uilt lt houses and stone sto ne habitations habitations are most frequent in the northern citi cities. es. They are often o ften palatial palatial in extent, and the enduring enduring nature nature of the masonry, its substanti substa ntial al construction, and elegance of form are ar e conspicuous. c onspicuous. The highl highly y ornate carvings carvings which adorn ado rn the Hindoo dwellin dwellings gs of the north have found a sympathizing historian in the present day, and the sketches by Captain Cole, R.E., which are undertaken, I believe, for the South Kensington Museum, bear witness to the skill and fancy of the Indian architects. Nor are elegance of ornament and symmetry in design peculiar to the Hindoo buildings; the mosques and palaces of the Mahammedan Princes, and the castles of their retainers, give evidence, both in the north and elsewhere, of their appreciation of beauty of form. 28. It I t will will be easil ea sily y unders understood tood that, in India, India, the nature of the clim climate ate and the mode of li life fe permit permit of dwellin dwelling-place g-placess much much rougher and ruder than are requisite in the colder temperatures, and with the more civilized notions, of the west of Europe; but though rougher and ruder, the habitations of the lowest class in the east yield relatively as much security as, and more convenience than, the dwellings, such as they are, of the very lowest classes in England. The rock cavern of the ascetic and the leaf hut of the Bhil are, in the circumstances of the country and of the people, more comfortable dwellings than the crowded room, which, in our large towns, is all that the poorest can obtain a share of; and the mud hut of the Indian peasant gives as much shelter and accommodation as his cottage does to the English agricultural labourer. Such and varied varied as they are, the houses inhabited inhabited by the the population population number number 43,535,6 43,53 5,651, 51, and thus allow allow of six six persons to each inhabited inhabited house, the the number of persons varying from eight in Coorg to four in the Central Provinces. In the the accompanyi acco mpanying ng abstract abstra ct are given given statistics statistics for for all our Indian provinces, and some of the Europe European an States. ABSTRACT IV. Number umber of persons persons to a house house in— Indian Provinces in 1881 All India Ajmere Punjab, British Territory North-West orth-West Provi Provinces, nces, Briti British sh Territory
European Countries Year of Census 1881 1876 1870
5 .8 7 .2 5 .9
Germany Italy Switzerland
6 .4
England and Wales
1881
7.7 6.7 6.1 5.4
Bengal Punjab, N ative States North-West orth-West Provi Provinces, nces, Native Native States Bombay, British Territory Mysore Berar Central India Assam Madras Burmah Hyderabad Bombay, Native States Rajputana Travancore Cochin Baroda Cen Central Pro Provinces, Nat Native St States Cent Central ral Prov Proviinces, ces, Bri Briti tish sh Terri errito tory ry
6 .3 5 .9
Belgium France
1880 1872
5.2 4.9
5 .8 5 .8 5 .7 5 .7 5 .6 5 .6 5 .5 5 .5 5 .3 5 .1 4 .9 4 .9 4 .8 4 .6 4 .5 4.2 4.2 15
29. It I t will will be seen se en that in in many many of the the provinces the unoccupied unoccupied houses are a re dis- tinguish tinguished ed from those which which are inhabited. inhabited. These uninhabited uninhabited houses number 4,637,802. They must not be confounded with houses habitually used as dwelling- places but uninhabited on the occasion of the Census. In most instances these are the shops of the bazaars and gunjes (markets), which are used during the daytime by the shopkeeper, but are locked up by him, and deserted for the night. The habitable houses that are unoccupied are few and far between; but the Indian shops, built merely for the exposure of the shopkeepers' wares and not for habitation, are numerous. When these are one storied, they resemble the shops in the bazaar of Constantinople and other eastern cities, though the roadway between the opposite shops is not covered over as in the former city. Where they consist of more than one story, the upper story is generally used as a dwelling-place, and is often occupied by persons having nothing in common with the owner of the shop below. elow. But But the the upper storied storied shop of thi thiss class class is is to be foun found d only only in in the the large arge citi cities, es, and and is is of infrequ nfrequent ent occurren occurrence. ce. 16 CHAPTER II.
THE RELIGIONS OF THE PEOPLE. 30. The tables included included in in the the second seco nd volum volumee embrace statisti s tatistics cs arranged arra nged for for the entire entire Indian Empi Empire, re, and for the several provinces provinces composin co mposing g it, it, under the following heads:—* Table I. II.
III. IV. V. VI.
VII.
VIII. IX. X. XI.
Statistics of the number and religions of
XII. XIII.
Area and population Movement of the population The population classified by religion Relative proportions of the sexes and mainreligious divisions Civil condition of the population Civil condition and age of the population, by religion, and province Age of population, by religion, and province The languages languages of the populati po pulation on Birthplaces, Birthplaces, ditto Educational ststistics The insane The blind The deaf mutes
XIV. XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
The lepers The towns and villiages classified by number of inhabitants The towns exceeding 20,000 in population The castes of the Hindoos The occupations of the people
I have dealt as far as I have gone only with with the the first first of these tables, and a nd in in future future I propose propo se to deal d eal with with them them in in the the order ord er in which which they stand, but to this arrangement there will be one exception. The movement of the population is a topic on which I must defer my comments till the last. The subject is so intimately connected with the probabilities of life and the death rate prevalent in the various provinces, that it is not advisable to discuss it until the actuarial examinati examination on of o f the figures figures connected co nnected with with age in Tables VI. and a nd VII., VII. , which is still still incompl incomplete, ete, has been b een finished. finished. At present, pres ent, therefore, there fore, I omi o mitt Table II., and proceed to deal with the statistics contained in Table III. of the second volume. That table deals with the religions of the people. 31. The reli re ligi gious ous classificati classification on of the Indian Indian population population has not hitherto hitherto been bee n treated in Census literature literature so exhaustively exhaustively as has been be en attempted on the present resent occasion. occasion. Not that that I mean mean to to say the the present present meth method od of deali dealing with with the the Indi Indian an rel reliigions gions is compl complete; ete; but it is is a great great advance advance upon the the meth methods ods adopted in previous Census Reports. On former occasions it has been thought sufficient to adopt a classification for religion less exact than has now been used. The population in most cases has been classed as it professed the Hindoo or the Mahammedan religion, and persons who did not profess either of these religions have been grouped together as "others." On the present occasion the instructions to the provincial superintendents provided for the separate classification of all religions shown in the schedules, and for the separate exhibition in the prescribed tables to be appended to the Census Report of each separate religion professed by any considerable number of persons; such religion being shown in each of the tables which classify the populati opulation on by reli religion. gion. The The resul resultt of these these inst instru ructi ctions ons has been been to to permi permit us us to disti disting ngui uish sh in eigh eightt of these these statem statement entss the the reli religions gions noted noted below. below. *Divisi *Divisional onal and district district details details under these these heads head s for the the several provinces provinces are to be b e found found in the various various provincial provincial reports. repo rts. 17 Abstract VI. Religions distinguished separately in Tables III., VI., VII., X., XL. XII., XIII., XIV. Hindoo Mahammedan Aboriginal* Buddhist Christian Sikh Jain
Satnami K abirpanthi N at worship Parsi Jewish Brahmo K umbhipathia
32. A very large number number of persons perso ns is is shown in in the the Imperial tables under the somewhat dubious term, term, dubious so far as reli re ligi gious ous desig des ignati nation on is concerned, concer ned, "aboriginal "aboriginal." ." Those whom I have grouped together under this this terra te rra in the the reli r eligi gious ous classi c lassifi fication cation consist of o f the aborigi ab original nal tribes tribes who, not having having been conver converted ted to Christi Christiani anity ty,, or to Isl Islam am,, or the the Hindoo Hindoo beli belief, ef, retain, retain, if they they have have any reli religion gion at all all, the the prim primitive tive cul cult of thei theirr foref forefath athers, ers, adoring adoring natur naturee under the various forms or images they have chosen to select as representative of Deity. 33. With the exception of 59,985 persons whose religious faith has not been stated by them in the enumerators' schedules, we have in Table III the beli eliefs professed professed by the the enti entire re Indi Indian an popul population. ation. It It has has not, not, howev however, er, been thoug thought ht advisabl advisablee to set these these out exactl exactly as they they have have been been retu return rned ed in in the the schedules. There were instances where the column in the enumerator's schedule, in which religion should have been entered was filled up, not with any designation of any known religion, but with either the name of a caste or the title of a sect; and the provincial superintendents experienced much difficulty in working up such returns as these. Mr. Drysdale, in page 83 of his Appendix A, remarks:—"The greatest ignorance prevailed on the subject of religion, also frequent indifference and great prejudice, the latter especially, among the Census agency. Many could not tell whether they belonged to any particul articular ar reli religion. gion. The The Census Census agency agency not not onl only made made entri entries es at vari variabl ablee discreti discretion on in in such such cases, but but they they carried carried preconcei preconceived ved noti notions ons to to the the exten extentt even even of dispensing with the formality of inquiry and rejecting replies given." He goes on to state, "One general difficulty was what should be shown as the religion of nominal members of dissenting sects like Satnami and Kabirpanthi, who live as Hindoos." In the Raipur Census Report it is noted that in the preli reliminary nary records records Satnam Satnamiis occasional occasionallly, and and Kabirpant Kabirpanthi hiss freque frequent ntlly, were shown shown as Hindoos. Hindoos. But But it is is hoped that that these these errors were were not not reproduced reproduced to any great extent in the final record. The Seoni Report relates that a number of persons were shown in the books as of the the Kabirpanthi religion. "These simply acknowledge themselves as disciples of Kabir, while at the same time they observe caste, and all the religious rites and ceremonies of the Hindoos, and intermarry amongst none but the members of their own caste. As these men are Hindoos in almost every particular, and Kabirpanthis in nothing but name, the entries were accordingly corrected. These mistakes were common. "Another "Another general doubt was what should should be entered entere d as the religi religion on of debased debase d castes, cas tes, like like the Dher and Mâng, who who are generally ignorant ignorant of any religion except the superstitions of their caste, and are not admitted to the Hindoo temples. Many of the more bigoted high caste Hindoos employed as
census enumerators or supervisors objected to record such low persons as of the Hindoo religion. This was illustrated by numerous instances brought to my notice of such persons having been recorded as of the Dher, Mâng, or Chandâl religion by mere repetition of their caste in the column for religion. Possibly some in their humility and ignorance may not even have claimed to be of the Hindoo religion. More probably they were not even asked. In my office these people have all been tabulated as of the Hindoo religion, unless recorded as of some other recognized religion." It is remarked of these people, eople, "accordi "according ng to the the Hindoo Hindoo rel reliigion gion Dher Dhers, s, Chamars, Chamars, and and other other outcast outcastss not admi admitted to to the the templ temples, es, are consi considered dered the the lowest lowest members embers of society. In fact, the word Hindoo as applied to them is practically a misnomer. They have at present no connection whatsoever with the Hindoo religion. The rules governing the *In additi add ition on to these reli re ligions gions the Bengal authorities have deemed it advi ad visab sable le to make a more more deta d etail iled ed examination of the figures figures deali dea ling ng with the large population in that province who in the imperial tables are classed under the term "aboriginal." 18 Hindoos as a body have no control over them. Their marriage and funeral cere monies are celebrated through the elders, and the aid of a Brahmin is never called into requisition. I fail to see what constitutes the Hindooism of these castes." In the following extract from a report by Tahsildar Thakur Jagamon Sinha for the Dhamtari Tahsil Raipur District, the degraded position of these low castes of the Hindoo system is described. "The only classes of Hindoo religion are four, namely, Brahmin, Kshattriya, Vaisya, and Sudra. Dhers and Chamars are merely men of mixed class, and are not only an excommunicated set of people, but are held in great detestation and hatred by the three superior classes of people, who never allow the shades of the bodies odies of those those outcast outcastss to fal falll upon thei theirr food food and dri drink or thei theirr bodies. bodies. The The Code of Manu, Manu, and the the Sudra Sudra Kamal Kamalaa and Kara, give give a minute nute descripti description on of these castes, but they are evidently the Antyaja tribe, which term means 'latest born.' The religious penance for killing them is the same as for killing a cat, a frog, a dog, a lizard, and various other animals." 34. 34 . The followin following g is a list list of entries found found in the column column for religion religion in the Central Centr al Provinces Pr ovinces which the Census Cens us Superintendent Super intendent considered conside red it advisable to show in his final compilation under the term Hindoo:— Terms m isapplied isapplied to t o ex press Religion. Religion. (a)—Castes Bádí (Bázígar) Beriá Nat Baheliá Banjárá Labháná ChherkáGándá Gándá UriáGándá Darmán Deoghariá Gaulán Ghasiá Golar Holiá Jhariá Ráwat K anjar K hangár K olí Lálbegí Mahálí (Sambalpur Di District) Parká Pángul Párdhí Rajjhar Ráwat (no Ch Chhattisgarhí) Sonjherá Waddewár
Madrásí Mangan (hereditary beggars)
(b)—Devotees Bairágí Dasnámí (Bairágí) Jangam Mánbháo N áth Goraknáth Rámanandi Sanyási
(c)—Sects Dhámí N ánakpanthí N ánaksháhí Singhápanthí
(d)—Others Aghorpanthí or Aghorí Sarbhangí Deodhárí K alankí Saktahá
35. These peculiarities were not restricted to the Central Provinces only. They were found by almost all the different Census Superintendents, and it was not seldom the case that persons were unable to state to the enumerators whether they belonged to any particular religion. So far as I can ascertain these difficulties, experienced so generally as they were, have not had any seriously damaging effect upon the provincial tables classifying the populati opulation on by reli religion. gion. If If any any serious serious defect defect exi exists itit is is in in the the accura accuracy cy of the the num numbers of those those who who are reall really worshi worshippers ppers of natur nature, e, the the aborigi aboriginal nal races. These I believe to be understated. Madras, for example, does not show a single aboriginal in the religious classification, but it is unquestionable that in the Neilgh eilgherri erries es there there are races races who, who, if if they they prof profess ess any any rel reliigion gion at all all, are natu nature re worshi worshippers, ppers, and and not Hindoos, Hindoos, Maham Mahamm medans, or any any one one of the the reli religions gions
shown in the Madras table. In those tables I understand these aboriginals have been entered as Hindoos. In the Central Provinces Report, Mr. Drysdale, referring to this topic, writes, "The instructions to enumerators required they should ask Gonds and all alike what religion they pro19 fessed, and accept their reply as conclusive, but the Hindoo agency were so influenced chiefly by individual views and prejudices, that great variety of practice ractice prevai prevailled in in the the record record of the the reli religion gion of the the hil hill tribes. tribes. The The resul result, t, howev however, er, shows shows very very clearl clearly y ther theree is, is, among among the the aborigi aboriginal nal races, a very very general desire to be regarded as of the Hindoo religion." Further, Mr. Drysdale notes, "that in the British Districts orthodox Hindoo views prevailed to make the enumerators rather chary of recording the hill races as Hindoo by religion, whereas in the Feudatory States the predominance of the aboriginal tribes secured recognition of their religious leaning." So again in Berar, where 37,388 only are shown as "Aboriginal" under religion; but in the Tribal Statement, to be found at page 78 of the Report, 164,941 are entered as aboriginals without distinction of religion. I much question whether the provinci rovincial al authori authoriti ties es have have ri rightl ghtly y acted acted in in showi showing ng so large large a proportion proportion of these these aborigi aboriginal nalss as Hindoos. Hindoos. On the the whol wholee itit seems seems apparent apparent that that the the aboriginals by religion are not fully shown in the Religion Tables. 36. Mr. Mr . Kitts, whose whose excell exce llent ent Report on the the Berar Census Ce nsus was one of the very very earliest earliest receiv rece ived, ed, writes, "The "The vagueness vagueness of the the term Hin Hindoo doo,, as the name of a religion, is apparent, from the fact that all the Deputy Commissioners considered that it could rightly be extended to the form of worship practised ractised by the the Gonds Gonds and other other aborigi aboriginal nal castes. In one one or two two taluks taluks som somee of the the enum enumerators erators drew a disti distinct nctiion between between such of the the high higher er caste Hindoos as worshipped carven images, and those lower castes who worshipped daubed stones, and are not allowed to pollute a temple by their presence. resence. In one case case the the Mahars, Mahars, Mangs, Mangs, and other otherss were ent entered ered each as practisi practising ng a special special form form of worsh worshiip, known known in in each instance nstance by the the caste caste name." The Deputy Commissioner, Ellichpur, writes as follows:—"When the hill people were pressed for a reply as to what their religion was, sometimes after much parleying, parleying, they said sa id either that they were Hindoo Hindoos, s, or that they knew nothing nothing about religi religion; on; that they were we re arani log, ignorant ignorant people. pe ople. All they knew was, they were Korkus by caste. In one instance of two Korkus, brothers, one gave the one answer, and the other the second. When they gave the second reply, the question was, what was to be entered in the column for religion. If one went merely by the answer, one should have noted 'does not know,' which would have accurately represented the answer. Nowhere, as far as I can discover, did a single individual assert that there was such a distinct and separate thing as a Korku religion; he merely answered to the effect 'I am a Korku, but I do not know what my religion is called. I worship Mahadeo, Hunaman, Byram-Bai, Chand, Suraj, and the Bhagwant, who is the author of my religion, call it what you please.' Now, yesterday, at Chikhalda there were representatives of eight villages present. Of these I called out six Korkus, one Gaolan, and two Nihals. All of the Korkus, when asked what their religion was, commenced by naming the gods they worshipped as above. When further pressed as to what name the religion had in which these gods were worshipped, five answered, without hesitation, Hindoo, and one said he really could not tell. What could he, a Korku, know about his religiou's name? The Gaolan replied, that he worshipped exactly the same gods the Korku did. Whatever their religion was called, that was his. He did not know its name. Of the two Nihals, both said they worshipped exactly as the Korkus did, the same gods; but they could not give the name the religion was entered by. How should they know it? Asked if they knew anything of the religions Mahammedans and Hindoos professed, one replied that the 'deos,’ being the same, he supposed their religion was a branch of Hindooism. The other said he thought they were rather more like Mussulmans, except that the latter abhorred pig's flesh, which they, Nihals, liked." It will be understood, from the extract I have quoted, what difficulties were experienced in arranging properly the religions of the aboriginals. 37. Mr. Kitts, in his his remarks remarks on the the diff difficul iculties ties in the way of correct corre ct classifi classification cation by religi religion, on, occasioned by the vagueness vagueness and elasticit elasticity y of Hindooism, is not singular. In Bengal Mr. Bourdillon writes, "Concerning some of the faiths exhibited in Bengal, there could be no doubt. They stand distinctly apart. Their creeds are capable of definite formulation, and their followers are an acknowledged people, and an appreciable body in the commonwealth. The Sikhs and Mahammedans, the Jews and the Parsees, have an individuality which it is impossible to mistake. The Christians profess a faith which separates them from all other classes of the community, and the Buddhists and Jains, though they have been said to possess much in common, differ from each other and from the people who surround them, in dogma, ritual, and manners. Here, however, definitions cease, and the remaining religions 20 shade into each other by such imperceptible relations, and are separated by such impalpable partitions, that it is impossible to say where one ends and the other commences; so that the bonier land between each one and the next is a misty valley, now widening, and now narrowing, but always thick with the exhalations of ignorance and the fogs of doubt. What is a Hindoo? asks Mr. Beverloy, in his Report on the Census of 1872, and the question has often been asked before and since without eliciting any satisfactory reply. No answer in fact exists, for the term in its modern acceptation denotes neither a creed nor a race, neither a church nor a people, but is a general expression devoid of precision, and embracing alike the most punctilious disciple of pure Vendant Vendantiism, sm, the the agnosti agnosticc youth youth who who is is the the product product of western western educati education, and and the the semi semi-barbarous hi hill man, who who eats, eats, with without out scrupl scruple, e, anyth anythiing that that he can procure, and is as ignorant of the Hindoo theology as the stone which he worships in times of danger or sickness." Mr. Beverley wrote in 1872, "It is difficult to say, however, where the line should be drawn which is to separate the pure Hindoo from the low castes which have adopted some form or other of Hindooism. The problem can only be precisely solved by a clear definition of what we mean by Hindooism, and no one has ventured as yet to lay down any such definition. It was only the other day that we were reminded, by high authority, that Hindoos are only heathen, little differing from the aboriginal tribes who worship stocks and stones. What, then, is to be the test of faith which is to define the real Hindoo from the semi-Hindooized aboriginal? Which of the gods in the Hindoo pantheon shall be made to step down and decide between them? Shall a belief in Krishna or in Doorga constitute a pure Hindoo, or shall those only be classed as Hindoos from whose hands a Brahmin will receive water? Shall the disposal of the dead be made the test, and the various castes be distributed according as they practise cremation or burial, or shall some form of creed be extracted from the Shasters, which we make those subscribe who are henceforth to enjoy the dignity of being styled Hindoos? Some practical shibboleth of the kind is required, it is clear. Without some such test, no two men will agree in the classification of the numerous aboriginal tribes and castes in India who profess
Hindooism in some or other of its multifarious forms. This difficulty of classification is one of peculiar force in Lower Bengal. Here we have a great variety of aboriginal or semi-aboriginal tribes who have been brought into contact with the Aryan Hindoos, and have been partially civilized with them. Living for centuries side by side the two communities have acted and reacted on each other. On the one hand, the savage tribes have renounced their barbarism arbarism and adopted adopted many many of the the rul rules and and custom customss of the the inv invaders; aders; on the the other, other, the the Hindoo Hindoo reli religion gion has has itsel itselff been debased from from the the Vedic Vedic monotheism of the Middle Land. Those who have made the subject their study, tell us that the Hindooism of the present day is as unlike the Hindooism of the Vedas as we may suppose the modern Bengali ryot is unlike his Aryan prototype. The ring of the true metal is wanting; the coin has been adulterated and debased, and the cause of this, they go on to say, is due to contamination from aboriginal sources. Hindooism has been lowered from its purer type type in in order order to meet meet the the necessi necessiti ties es of the the indi indigen genous ous tri tribes bes among among whom whom it made made its its hom home. e. Its pantheon pantheon has been crowded crowded wi with elephan elephantt gods gods and bloodthirsty goddesses of whom the first Aryans knew nothing, but who have been adopted into the Hindoo system to win the goodwill and reconcile the superstition of a wild and devil-worshipping race, and, just as we find in the present day tribes in every stage of civilization, so does the Hindoo religion in Bengal assume a protean form, from the austere rites practised by the shaven pundits of Nuddea to the idol worship of the semi barbarous arbarous Boona. Boona. The The Bauds Bauds liliagdis, agdis, Chandal Chandalss of the the Lower Lower Delta, Delta, the the Kochs Kochs and and Poli Poliyas, of Dinag Dinagpore pore and and Rung Rungpore, pore, the the Dosadhs Dosadhs and and Musahar Musahars, s, of Behar, with many others, are probably all of aboriginal extraction, but have adopted as their religion a form of Hindooism, and can scarcely be classed as other than Hindoos." Mr. Bourdillon Bourdillon notices notices that the difficul difficulty ty which which Mr. Beverley experienced in 1872, in separatin separa ting g Hindoos Hindoos from others, re peated pea ted itself in 1881, 188 1, "To have allowed any discretion to the compiling clerks engaged in the tabulation of the figures taken out of the Census schedules would have been out of the question, and from the very outset the most stringent orders were issued, and it is believed that they were well carried out, that each person should be shown in the Census tables as of the religion to which he was described as belonging in the enumerators' schedules. The result has, no doubt, been that the number of so-called Hindoos has been somewhat overstated at the expense of persons following aboriginal and non-Hindoo systems of religion." 21 38. Mr. Ibbetson, Ibbe tson, in in his his Report on the Census of the Punjab, bears simil similar ar testimony testimony to the the diff difficu iculty lty experienced owing owing to the the vagueness vagueness of the religious term Hindoo. He says, in para. 195:—"It would hardly be expected that any difficulty or uncertainty should be felt in classing the natives of the provinces rovinces under under thei theirr respecti respective rel reliigions. gions. Yet, with with the the sing singlle excepti exception on of caste, no no other other one one of the the detail details whi which we we have have recorded is is so diff diffiicult cult to fix fix with exactness, or under so much extension and limitation before the real value of the figures can be appreciated. The doubt as to how far they still profess rofess the the creed in in whi which ch they they were broug brought ht up, how how far far they they real reallly beli believed what what they they sti still profess, profess, and and what what nam namee shoul should d be given given to the the fai faith th,, if if any, any, which they have substituted for the dogmas which they have abandoned, which would present itself to so many educated Englishmen, if called upon to state their religion, troubles only a few isolated individuals among the Native community. The creed is, in the Punjab, rather a social than a religious institution. It is, as a rule, inherited from the womb, and, when the son abandons the faith of his father, he adopts indeed a fresh formula and a new ceremonial, but the change is rather one of the community with which he shall claim fellowship than of conduct of the inner life, and it is this very fact that makes it so difficult in many cases to draw the line between one Indian creed and another, for the distinctious of faith, being based upon and attended by no deep spiritual conviction, are marked by a laxity and catholicity of practice which would be impossible to a bigot or an enthusiast, while each religion maintains its social standard by excluding from its pale the outcasts with whom communion would be pollution, whatever the creed they may profess. In respect of a large part of the community there can, of course, be little or no uncertainty. The Brahmin of Thanasar is a Hindoo, the Bwal of Delhi a Jain, the Sikh Jat of Amritsar a Sikh, the Pathán of Peshawur is a Mussulman, and the villager of Spiti a Buddhist, beyond all exception or doubt. But on the border land land where where these these great great fai faith thss meet, meet, ari arid especial especiallly among among the the ign ignoran orantt peasantry peasantry,, whose whose creed, by whatev whatever er nam namee itit may may be known, known, is is seldom seldom more than a superstition and a ritual, the various observances and beliefs which distinguish the followers of the several faiths in their purity are so strangely blended and intermingled, that it is often almost impossible to say that one prevails rather than another, or to decide in what category the people shall be classed. And if the manner in which the people blend the rules of their various creeds, and the social exclusiveness which they carry from the house to the temple, are sources of difficulty and uncertainty, a no less fertile source is the absolute impossibility of laying down any definition, or indicating any test by which we may distinguish him who is a Hindoo from him who is not. I shall return to this subject when I discuss more particularly Hindoo religion, but I must point out prominently in this place who are those whom we have reckoned as Hindoos for the purpose of the Census, and the explanation materially affects the meaning and value of our statistics. Practically the rule adopted was this: every Native who was unable to define his creed, or described it by any other name than that of some recognized religion, or the sect of some such religion, was held to be classed as a Hindoo. The assumption at the basis of this rule is that the native of India must be presumed to be a Hindoo unless he belongs to some other recognized faith. There was not the slightest fear that a member of any one of the other great religions, whatever his mode of life or social standing, would fail to describe himself as a Mussulman, a Sikh, a Buddhist, a Jain, a Zoroastrian, or a Christian, either directly or as belonging to some well known sect, such as Shiah, Wahabi, or Sarâozi, but it was certain that many of the vagrant and outcast tribes would allege that they belonged to creeds of strange and unfamiliar names, that a gipsy would in many cases return his religion as Sansi, the name of his tribe, that a scavenger would describe his faith as Lâi Begi, or Bâla Shahi, from the names of the spiritual preceptors of the caste, and that the followers of the innumerable sects which are ever springing from the womb of Hindooism, would return these sects not as beets but as religions." He goes on to say, "The same difficulty with regard to the definition of Hindoo was felt at the last Census, and, in fact, the absence of some such rule as that which was followed on the present occasion, rendered the figures of the previous revious Census Census alm almost meani meaning nglless, nearl nearly y six six per cent. cent. of the the whol wholee populati population on being being classed classed under under other other reli religions, gions, and and no no two distri districts cts fol folllowing owing the the same rule, if indeed any rule at all was observed anywhere. It is a matter of opinion whether the Chúhra, the Chamar, the Sansi can properly be called a Hindoo or not, and, short of ranking the various tenets of each of the lower castes and tribes as a separate religion called after the name of the caste, the nearest 22 approach to truth is probably arrived at by classing them all as Hindoo, leaving the caste table to tell its own tale."
39 In the North-West North- West Report Rep ort the subject is thus thus allu alluded ded to:—" to :—"No No attempt a ttempt was made made to obtain o btain a working definit definition ion of Hindooism Hindooism to guide guide the enumerators in filling up the religion column of the schedule. The rule followed substantially was to record Hindooism as the religion of the country, and to consider every Native to adhere to it who did not declare himself a follower of any other creed. The aboriginal races found in Mirzapur, and a few other districts of the south, profess to belong to the Hindoo religion, and were classed accordingly without any further inquiry." 40. 40 . For Fo r Bombay, Mr. Baines Baines writes, "Beginni "Beginning ng with Hindooism as the religion religion of the majority, we are met met at the outset outse t by a not uncommon difficulty, that of definition. Such is the elasticity and assimilative power of the creed that goes by this name, that it is a most difficult task to discover the limits to which it extends amongst the laity, particularly in the lower walks of life. The remarkable facilities afforded by this religion for proselytizing form the subject of some interesting monographs by one of the most acute and appreciative observers of the tendencies of modern Indian society and its beli eliefs, efs, Sir Sir A. C. Lyal Lyalll; and and it it is is curi curious ous that that the the tendenci tendencies es he has verif verified by actual actual observati observation on shou shoulld have have been deduced in in great great measu measure re by Compte, Compte, arguing without any special oriental research, from à priori considerations on the circumstances of another race. To a polytheistic system like the Hindoo the process of absorption of lower forms of worship is no difficult task. The tribal gods are proved to be no more than manifestations of some of those already in the orthodox pantheon. A fictitious descent from a heroic race is assigned to the chief, if he is of enough importance to make the invention worth while; and the apotheosis of some of his ancestors is admitted to have been not impossible. Again, Hindooism requires no form of change of ritual or modification of the nature or social character of the people. The intervention of the Brahmin mediatorially in ceremonial, and perhaps the pilgrimage to certain shrines, suffice. This easy development is impossible to a creed that is indissolubly connected with cardinal dogma; and yet the success of Hindooism is chiefly in the same direction as that in which a dogmatic and matured system like that of Christianity has won its principal victories. The explanation must be looked for in the character of the material worked on, rather than confined to the form of belief. What in the eyes of the convert is the value and result of the change of profession? In the first place there is the example of those around him in the higher grades of society, which must have some influence on his life. The social distinction between the lower Hindoo and the aboriginal is a very narrow one, and easily obliterated. This, however, is not the case with the other religion, the social attractions of which can be less appreciated by this class. Another characteristic common to both creeds must must theref therefore ore be sough sought, t, and and wil will be foun found d probably probably in in the the fact fact that that for a class class as ign ignoran orantt and and credul credulous as as the the one in in questi question on that that reli religious gious system will succeed which demands most faith and least intelligence. Setting aside the social aspect of Hindooism, as far as it can be ignored, that religion derives a great part of its power from the continuance of the miraculous element in it up to the present day. And it will be remembered that numerically the success of Christianity was nowhere so marked' as in the track of the great missionary, St. Francis Xavier, to whom was attributed the power of working miracles, and the reputation of a saintly asceticism akin to that inculcated by the Hindoo authorities as one of the highest forms of life. It is in those parts, moreover, that the smallest modification of social life was required of the converts; so that amongst the Christian community of the southwestern coast we find, I am informed by the experienced, the custom and nomenclature of the Hindoo caste system in full operation. Analogous to this state of things is that amongst the semi-Hindooized aboriginals; so that it is not unreasonable to take in this instance the social designation as the guide to the religious state in preference to the creed arbitrarily assigned according to the predilection of the enumerator. Some time before the Census I made inquiries with a view of arriving at some conclusion on this matter, which would serve as a basis for a general rule to be enjoined on all enumerating supervising officers who had to deal with a population of this class. But varying and mutually inconsistent opinions were all I got by my efforts. The general view taken by the Brahmins who live near or are brought into intercourse with these tribes seems to be that which I have adopted above, namely, that the position of the aboriginal, relative to Brahmanical Hindooism, is that of possible incorporation, and thus differs 23 from that occupied by the depressed classes who, though partaking in the cult of the orthodox pantheon, are excluded from availing themselves of the services of the priestly caste in their ceremonial. In the one case the antagonism implied in the other is absent. As the matter was put to me by a Brahmin accountant of a circle of forest villages, it stands thus:—'They do not call us in, perhaps to avoid expense, but if they were to call us to perform rites and repeat texts we should go.' This is very nearly what was observed by Sir A. C. Lyall in the case of the tribes to the north and east of the tract to which my own experience extends. Where the chief is fairly well to do, and has a settled residence within hail of civilization, the Brahmin is often a permanent institution at the rude court. Upon all these considerations I would prefer to adopt the title of forest tribes of this class rather than that of aboriginal. There are, especially in the south of Guzerat, whole classes of agriculturists, both landholders and labourers, who are of undoubted aboriginal race, and in many respects have advanced little towards civilization, but who are held by all their neighbours to be Hindoo by religion. Adjacent to them is another tribe, acknowledged with equal unanimity to be more fetish-worshipping than Hindoo, but presenting apparently no special feature of distinction from the others but that of greater poverty and freedom from adscription as hereditary serfs to the families of the resident Brahmin proprietors." 41. Notwith N otwithstanding standing the diffi difficult culties ies that that have been thus thus referred to by the various various provincial provincial Census officers officers,, no other practical course was open op en than that which has been followed. Whatever the elasticity of the designation Hindoo, whatever the difficulty of definition, it was essential that those who returned themselves as Hindoos in the enumerators' schedules should be accepted without question as professors of that religion; on the other hand, if a man entered himself as of any other known form of religion there could be no doubt he should be shown as a follower of that religion. But when the Census officials came across religions not only unknown to them but unknown in characteristics to the persons who were entered as professing these religions, or, when named, used to designate religions which on inquiry were not found to mark any peculiar belief, it was thought advisable to enter these as undis tinguished by religion, or to show them as Hindoos where it was open to question whether the Hindoos themselves did not admit them as fellow beli elievers. evers. Facts Fac ts in India are found to justi justify fy this this course, course , and where the aborigi ab original nal tribes, with whom only the question arose, have been be en brought into into close contact with Hindooism, the demarcation between their belief and the lower form of Hindooism is so slight that we err little in following the course which has been adopted. The mistakes or inaccuracies that have occurred in the final tabulation, and can be traced to the peculiar views of bigoted religionists employed as enumerators, or to the ignorance of the people enumerated, are few, though many such have been traced and corrected in in the course of tabulation.
42. 42 . The main main inaccuracy inaccura cy resulting resulting from such mista mistake kess will will proba pro bably bly be found in an unde underr-es estim timate ate of the aborigi abor iginals, nals, but the table tab le classif class ifyin ying g the populati opulation on by reli religion gion probabl probably y errs errs also also in in its its count count of the the Jains. Jains. So far as the the tabul tabulation ation of the the schedul schedules es goes, goes, I beli believe that that Table Table III. gi gives wi with accuracy accura cy the number of o f the Jains who have returned themselves themselves as Jain by reli re ligi gion. on. Many M any Jains have, however, howe ver, undoubtedly undoubte dly given given their their reli r eligi gion on as Hindoo, and in some cases, though these are not many, I am inclined to think the enumerators have returned as Hindoos persons who really stated their religion to be Jain. As the followers of the Jain creed are generally held, and themselves generally claim, to be Hindoos, this is not surprising; nor is the error of importance, for the domestic and social economy of the Jains differs little from that of the orthodox Hindoo. Whether owing to their own method of returning themselves, or whether owing to the enumerators having recorded them as Hindoos, Brahmos also have unquestionably been short counted. They are a small and at present an uninfluential sect. 43. 43 . According Acco rding to their numbe numbers rs the several severa l religious religious faiths faiths shown in in Table Tab le III. III . rank in in the followin following g order:— ord er:— Hindoos Mahammedans Aboriginals Buddhists C hristians Sikhs Jains
187937450 50121585 6426511 3418884 1862634 1853426 1221896
Satnamis K abirpanthis N at worshippers Parsees Jews Brabmos K umbhipathias
398409 347994 143581 85397 12009 1147 913
24 44. In Table IV. of Vol. Vol. II., which should should be read re ad with the tables preceding prece ding it, the the propo rtion borne by the professo rs of any one religi religion on to the total populati opulation on is is shown shown for each provi province nce and for for the the total total Empi Empire. re. From Fr om this it will will be obser ob served ved that every 10,00 10, 000 0 of the entire populati pop ulation on in in India consists co nsists of the following following religious religious elements:— Hindoos Mahammedans Aboriginals Buddhists Christians Sikhs Jains
7402 1974 253 135 73 73 48
*Satnamis *Kabirpanthis *Nat worshippers *Jews Parsees Unspecified
16 14 6 5 3 2
It will be seen from these figures that the Hindoos form virtually three fourths of the entire population. The remaining one fourth of the population is thus distributed:— Eight tenths are Mohammedans, one tenth aboriginals, and of the remaining one tenth the Buddhists form nearly one half; of the remaining one twentieth the Christians and Sikhs in equal numbers comprise six tenths, the Jains constitute two tenths, the Satnamis and Kabirpanthis three twentieths, and the Parsees, Jews, Brahmos, and unspecified making up the remainder. 45. The distributi distribution on of the Hindoos Hindoos is shown shown in in the accompanying accompanying abstract. abstr act. ABSTRACT VII. Hindus. Hindus. 1. Bengal 2. North-West Provinces, British Territory 3. Madras 4. Bombay, British Territory 5. Hyderabad 6. Rajputana 7. Central India 8. Central Provinces, British Territory 9. Punjab, British Territory 10. Bombay, Feudatory States
45452806
11. Mysore
3956336
38053394
12. Assam
3062148
28497678 13. Berar 12308582 14. Punjab, Feudatory States 8893181 15. Baroda 8839243 16. Travancore 7800396 17. Central Provinces, Feudatory States
2425654 2121767 1852868 1755610 1385280
731783 7317830 0
18. North North-West -West Prov Provinces, ces, Feu Feudat datory ory Stat States es
501727 501727
7130528 5526403
19. Cochin 20. Ajmere 21. Coorg 22. Burmah
429324 376029 162489 88177
The Hindoo Hindoo reli re ligi gion, on, though largely predo pre domi minating nating throughout India, does not predomin pred ominate ate in every ever y single single province. There are, are , however, only two instances in which it does not form the greater half of the provincial population, and only in one of these instances, the Punjab, is this exception to be found on the Indian continent; the other instance being Burmah, outside India, where the population is essentially Buddhist. The Hindoos, as might have been anti antici cipated, pated, appear in every every one of the the provi provinces or States States separatel separately y show shown n in in thes thesee tables. tables. Thoug Though h compri comprisi sing ng the the larg largest est num numbers bers in in Beng Bengal al,, itit
will be observed from Table IV. that that province does not contain the largest proportion of Hindoos to the total population. Mysore is the most Hindoo province, rovince, Madras Madras comes comes next next,, Coorg next next,, Berar next, next, Hyderaba Hyderabad d next, next, then then Rajput Rajputana, ana, then then the the North-West North-West Provi Provinces, nces, then then Baroda, Baroda, then then Central Central India, then Ajmere, then the Central Provinces Feudatory States, then the Bombay Feudatory States, after them the North-West Feudatory *These details, details, it will be noticed, noticed, make up 10,004 and not 10,000, 10,000, the explanation explanation of this excess being that the figures in in the table table are given given without decimals. decimals. The true figures read thus:— It may also be noted that the figure at the bottom iine iine of the Ratio Ratio Table, Col I. of page 30, Vol. Vol. II. , should read with a decimal point, thus, 2.3 instead of 23. Satnamis Kabir panthis Nat w orshippers J ew s
15. 69 13. 7 5.65 4. 7
ins tead of " " "
16 14 6 5
25 States, next Central Provinces British Territory, next Bombay British Territory then Travancore, Cochin, and lastly come Bengal, Assam, and the Punjab, while Burma! finishes the list with only two persons in every hundred who are Hindoos. 46. The proportion propo rtion of Hindoos Hindoos to the total popul pop ulation ation in each Province is is given given below. Percentage of Hindoos on the total Population of each Province. Mysore
94.51
91.13 90.76 90.33 87.50
Bombay, Feudatory States North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces and Oudh Oudh Feudatory Feudatory States Central Provinces, British Territory Bombay, British Territory Travancore Cochin
Madras
91.43
Coorg Berar Hyderabad Rajputana North-Western orth-Western Provinces Provinces and Oudh, Oudh, Bri Briti tish sh Territory Baroda Central India Ajmere Central Provinces, Feudatory States
79.62
75.36 74.8 73.12 71.52
86.27
Bengal
65.37
84.80 84.22 81.62 81.02
As Assam Punjab, Feudatory States " British Territory Burmah
62.74 54.94 40.74 2.36
77.68
It will will be seen se en that in in the extreme extreme south the Hindoo Hindoo element very very largely largely preponderate prepo nderates, s, and, putti p utting ng aside aside Burmah, itit is only only when we arrive at the north of the Indian continent that the Hindoo religion ceases to be the prevailing belief. It would seem as if the invaders who brought the Mahammedan religion into the Indian continent had succeeded least in its most southern border; and this is but natural, since they did not extend so largely towards the south, nor had they such permanent influence in the south as marked their progress in the north. Examined geographically we see Mysore, Madras, Coorg, Hyderabad, and the Assigned Districts of Berar, which tracts, exclusive of the two Native States, Cochin and Travancore, form the extreme south of the Indian continent, are the localities where the Hindoos predominate most largely. Then comes the central portion of India, comprising Rajputana, Baroda, Central India, Ajmere, and extending to the north, including the Gangetic provinces of the north-east and the north-west, and Oudh, where the population shows that four fifths are Hindoos; while in the extreme west, in Bombay, the Central Provinces, Travancore, and Cochin, the proportion roportion vari varies es from from eigh eightt tent tenths hs to to seven tenth tenths. s. In Bengal Bengal and Assam Assam,, the the extrem extremee east, we we get two two thi thirds of the the populati population on as Hindoos, Hindoos, and and then then coming to the extreme north-west, where our frontier meets the Mahammedans of Afghanistan and Beloochistan, we get less than fifty per cent, as Hindoo. 47. The number number and proportion of the Mahammedan Mahammedan population population are to be found found in in the accompanying accompanying abstract. abs tract. ABSTRACT VIII. Mahammedans.
Numbers.
Percentage on Total Population.
1. Bengal 2. Punjab, British Territory 3. N orth- West Provinces, British Territory 4. Bombay, British Territory 5. Madras 6. Assam 7. Punjab, Feudatory States
21704724 10525150 5922886 3021131 1933561 1317022 1137284
3122 5135 1344 1836 6.20 26.98 29.45
8. Hyderabad 9. Rajputana 10. Bombay, Feudatory State 11. Central India 12. Central Provinces, British Territory 13. N orth- West Provinces, Feudatory States 14. Mysore 15. Berar 16. Baroda
925929 861747 753229 510718 275773 240014 200484 187555 174980
9.41 8.53 10.86 5.51 2.48 22.32 4.79 7.02 8.01
26
Numbers.
17. Burmah 18. Travancore 19. Ajmere 20. Cochin 21. Coorg 22. Central Provinces, Feudatory States
168881 146909 57809 33344 12541 9914
Percentage on Total Population. 4.52 6.12 12.55 5.56 7.03 0.00
48. As might might be expected, expecte d, it is in in the Punjab that we fi find nd the followers followers of the Prophet Prop het in the greatest numbers. But it is is surprising surprising to find find that Bengal stands next to the Punjab, for the proportion borne by Mahammedans to the rest of the population. It may be said that out of every hundred in the Bengal population no less than thirty-one are Mahammedans. The proportion decreases in Assam to twenty-six, to twenty-two in the North-West Feudatory States, where the numbers are increased by the exist ence of a Mahammedan Native State, Rampore, and then drops to eighteen in Bombay (British Territory), to thirteen in the North-West Provinces (British Territory), to twelve and ten in Ajmere and the Bombay Feudatory States respectively, and never exceeds ten in the other tracts of India. Of the large provinces Madras is essentially the least Mahammedan, there being only six professors rofessors of that that reli religion gion to to every every hun hundred dred of the the populati population. on. Central Central India India and Rajputan Rajputanaa show how thei theirr Hindoo Hindoo popul population ation predom predomiinate nate by retu returni rning ng only five and eight in the hundred as Maham medans. Mysore and Central India, are the two least Mahammedan of the Native States, the figures being 48 per 1,000 in Mysore, and 53 per 1,000 in Central India; hut the Central Provinces (British Territory) have the smallest element of Maham medanism throughout the country, only 25 in every 1,000. 49. It was thought desirable to collect collect informati information on as to the sects of the Mahammedan Mahammedan section of the population, population, and the fig figures ures so obtain ob tained ed are embodied in Table IIIb. of the series in Vol. II. Sunnis Sunnis largely largely prepondera prep onderate, te, contributing contributing 46,765 46, 765,20 ,206 6 to the the total number number for which which statistics statistics of sect have been secured secure d (47,586, (47,5 86,236 236). ). Of the remaini remaining ng 821,030, 809,561 809,56 1 are Shiahs, Shiahs, 9,296 are Wahabis, and 2,17 2,173 3 are Farazis. Farazis. So large a number number of o f Mahammedans Mahammedans (2,535,3 (2,5 35,349) 49) have given given no inf information ormation as to their sect that the table loses loses some of its its value, value, espec es pecial ially ly in relation relation to the knowledge it affords us of the number of the Puritan sects, the Wahabis and Farazis. These, though few in number, are not without political infl influence, uence, and their hostility hostility to a Christian Christian Government has b been een markedly marke dly displayed displayed on late occasions. occa sions. The Sit S itana ana camp c amp was largely largely recrui recr uited ted with with men and money from Northern India; and the violence of individual professors of Wahabi doctrines has been fatally illustrated in two very con spicuous instances. But the numbers given in the provincial returns are no accurate measure of the real strength of these sects. Patna, which was a headquarters headquarte rs of the the Wahabis during during the Sitana Sitana campaign, campaign, shows in in the the Census return only 27 persons pe rsons professin pro fessing g Wahabi doctrines. In all the North Western Provinces and Oudh but 28 are so designated, and similar omissions could be pointed to elsewhere. In Bengal not a single Farazi appears in the Census table. 50. It is to be regretted that these these statistics are so inaccurate. inaccurate. If they had been correct, corr ect, we should at the next next Census have the means means of ascertaining ascertaining whether a sect which is essentially hostile to a Christian Government is on the increase or the reverse. The feeling with which Wahabyism is looked upon by the the auth authori oriti ties es is is not not in in favou favourr of its mem members bers being being openly openly declared declared at any any enum enumeration eration of the the people. people. Nor are persons persons professi professing ng doctrines doctrines whi which are are distinguished as Farazi likely to return them selves by a term which they do not regard as complimentary. Mr. White, North-West North- West Pro vinces, vinces, writes:—"I writes:—"I have been inf informed ormed by Mahammedan Mahammedan gentlemen, gentlemen, that that since since the Patna prosecuti prose cutions ons the Wahabis object to declaring themselves lest they should incur the suspicion of Government." He also writes,— "The number of Wahabis is clearly understated. They are not numerous numerous in these these Provinces, but are well known in in various localities." localities." In Bengal Mr. Bourdil Bourd illon lon notes:— notes :— "Only "Only 2,144 persons pe rsons have had the the hardihood to return themselves themselves as Wahabis, for since since the prosecutions of this this sect for treason felony felony in in 1864 and subsequent years the open profession of Wahabyism has been somewhat out of favour. More than half of this number were found in Moorshedabad, and nearly all the remainder in Puhna. Patna, which was long the centre of the movement in Upper India, has 27
only 27 confessors. It should be remarked, however, in this connection, that many Wahabis do not adopt or admit that designation, but adopt some other periphrasis, so that it is certain that some of them are included among the Mahammedans of unspecified sect. . . . . . "196. No persons pers ons are returned as F erazis, although although provision provision was made in in the the instructions instructions to enumerators enumerators for showing showing them them ifif found. found. The explanation explanation seems to be that this name is not one which members of the sect use when speaking of themselves, but is an entirely exotic epithet, and the Mahammedan of Eastern Bengal would no more call himself a Ferazi than a Puritan of the Commonwealth would have called himself a Roundhead. The birth irth-place -place of the the sect is is the the Furreedpore Furreedpore distri district, ct, where where its foun founder—an der—an honour honour whi which ch is is disput disputed ed between between one Hadji Hadji Sharitu Sharitullla and and his his more more fam famous ous son son Dudu Miyan—was a small landowner; thence the tenets of the sect spread throughout the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra and into the metropolitan districts of the 24-Pergunnahs and Nuddea. Like the Wahabis, the Ferazis insist on the unity of God, and the uselessness of intercession by all saints, angels, and spirits. Like them also they claim the right of private interpretation of the Koran, and reject all glosses or commentaries by doctors, however learned. learned . They preac p reach h the heinousness of infidel infidelity ity and the all a ll-importance -importance of strictness in lif lifee and ritu r itual. al. Practical Pr actical considerations have induced induced them of late to abandon the doctrine of the divinely ordained obligation of religious war; but time was when the Ferazis of Eastern Bengal furnished a continuous stream of money and recruits to the rebel camp on our North-West Frontier. Personally the Ferazi is known by certain tricks of clothing and gesture, and by the ostentatious austerity of his demeanour. They are as a class intensely bigoted, turbulent, and litigious, and with a few exceptions they are as ignorant and intolerant as fanatics have mostly been in the history of the world." Mr. Ibbetson remarks (paras. 286-87):—" 286-8 7):—"Th Thee Wahabi Wahabi sect.—Mahomed, son of Abdul Wahab, and the founder founder of the Wahabi sect, was was born in Mejd in 1691, A.D., and was an Arab of the Persian tribe. His doctrines rapidly spread among the Bedouin tribes; and his successors reduced the whole of Mejd, defeated the forces of the Baghdad Pasha, plundered Kerbela, took the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and subdued the entire Hajaz. In 1809 the Bombay Government, enraged at their piracies, sent an expedition to the Persian Gulf and captured their stronghold Shivas on the Kirman coast. In 1811-18 the Sultan of Turkey attacked them, because, denying the existence of a visible Imám, they refused to recognize his spiritual authority, captured and beheaded their chief, and reduced them to political insignificance. Their doctrines were introduced into India by one Saiyad Ahmad Sháh, of Rai Bareilly, who began life as a freebooter, but, turning his attention to religion, visited Arabia not long after the event just described, and returning to India spread the new tenets. Having collected a numerous following, he proceeded to the Pathán frontier, and there proclaimed, in 1826, a Jahad, or religious war, against the Sikhs. The extraordinary ascendency that he obtained over the wild tribes on the Pesháwar border, the four years' struggle which he waged, not unsuccessfully, with the Durranis on the one hand and the Sikhs on the other, and his ultimate defeat and death, are fully described by Major Major James, James, at pages pages 43 to 47 of his his Pesháwar Pesháwar Report, Report, and and stil still more ful fullly by Dr. Bel Belllew in in hi his history history of Yusaf Yusafzai zai,, pages pages 83 to 102. The The Wahábi Wahábi doctrines seem to have much favour with the lower classes in Bengal, and Patna is now the headquarters of the sect in India. There are also Wahábi colonies at Polosi, on the Indus, and at Sittana and Mulkah, in independent Yusafzai beyond Buner. But these men call themselves Mujahidin, or promoters romoters of the the jahad jahad or sacred war; war; and, and, indeed, indeed, the the whol wholee sect, as as foun found d in in the the Panjab, Panjab, reject reject the the nam namee of Wahábi as a term term of reproach, reproach, and and as now now having a political stigma attached to it, and prefer to call themselves Ahl-i-Hadis Ahl-i-Hadis,, 'people of the traditions, or Muwahidln 'Unitarians;' while in the eastern districts (though not apparently on the frontier) they commonly style themselves Muhamnadi, substituting the personal name of their founder Mahammad Ibn Abdul Wahab for his patronymic. In fact, it is almost certain that a very large proportion of those who hold the Wahabi doctrines in the Panjab have returned themselves by some one of those names, and are therefore not shown as Wahabis in our tables. The district officers note that the Census figures very inadequately represent the numbers of the sect in Hoshyarpur, Amritsar, Lahore, Dera Ismail Khan, and Peshawar. The Wahabis ate Musalman purists. urists. they they accept the the six six books of traditi traditions ons as as coll collected by the the Sunni Sunnis, s, but but reject reject the the subsequen subsequentt gl glosses of the the fath fathers, ers, and and the the voice voice of the the church church,, and claim liberty of conscience, and the right of private interpretation. They insist strongly on the 28 unity of God, which doctrine they say has been endangered by the reverence paid by the ordinary Musulman to Mahammed, to the Imam, and to saints, and forbid the offering of prayer to any prophets, priests, or saints, even as a mediation with the Almighty. They condemn the sepulchral honours paid to holy men, and illumination of, visits to, and prostration before, their shrines, and even go so far as to destroy the domes erected over their remains. They call the rest of the Mahammedans Mushrih Mahammedans Mushrih,, or those who associate another with God, and strenuously proclaim that Mahammed was a mere mortal man. They disallow the smoking of tobacco as unlawful, and discountenance the use of rosaries or beads. Apparently, they insist much upon the approaching appearance of the last Imam Mehdi, preparatory to the dissolution of the world. Politically, their most important and obnoxious opinion is, they are bound to wage war against all believers, but it is doubtful whether the Wahábis, within British territory, are as fanatical in this respect as their brethren rethren elsewh elsewhere. ere. The The orth orthodox odox deny deny them them the the titl titlee of Musal Musalman. "There "There are a considerab le num number ber of o f Wahabis in in the the cities cities of Delhi, Delhi, Ambala, Ambala, Jahl Ja hlam, am, and Hoshyarpur, while while the the Deputy Commissioner Commissioner of Amritsar Amritsar writes,— 'Wahabis 'Wahab is are notoriously notoriously num numerous, erous, and increasingly increasingly so in in Amritsar Amritsar city, city, and I should should estimate estimate their num numbers bers at a t present prese nt at between six and seven thousand. They themselves claim to be even still more numerous.' "There "There are also a lso still still a few at Panniála, Panniála, in the Derail Ismail salt-range, salt-ra nge, where a colony of them them settled settled a few years ago; a go; but the sect app ears to be dyi d ying ng out on the frontier. "It is, as Mr. Tucker says,— 'Unsuited 'Unsuited to the Musalmáns of these parts, pa rts, who have the greatest beli be lief ef in in saints saints and shrines, and in the efficacy efficacy of pilg pilgrim rimage age to groves and high places.'" laces.'"
51. 51 . Though the Aborigi Abor iginals nals and Buddhists rank next to the Hindoo Hindooss and Mahammedans Mahammeda ns in in point of numbers numbers,, they are not found so universa universall lly y in in the various provinces and states as the Christians, who, ranked in point of numbers, come immediately after them. Christians, like the Hindoos and Mahammedans, are found in every one of the twenty-two provinces and States, while the Aboriginals are found only in eleven, and Buddhists in twelve of the several provinces and States. For the purposes purpo ses of this this survey of the people peop le by religi religions ons I have classe classed d the Nat Worshippers Wo rshippers of Burmah Burmah with with the the aborig abo rigin inals als of the other provinces. provinces. The distribution of and the proportion to the total population in each Province borne by these hill and forest tribes is shown in the following abstract:— ABSTRACT IX. Aboriginals. Aboriginals. 1. Bengal 2. Central Provinces, British Territory 3. Central India 4. Bombay, British Territory 5. Assam 6. Bombay, Feudatory States 7. Central Provinces, Feudatory States 8. Rajputana
Nu N umber. 1055822 1533599 891424 562678 488251 369216 220318 166343
Percentage. 2.95 15.19 9.62 3.42 10.00 5.32 12.89 1.62
143581 101522 37338
3.84 4.65 1.40
9. Burmah 10. Baroda 11. Berar
52. As but littl littlee is is known of the various tenets professed by those those who are classed as Aborigin Aboriginals als by religi religion, on, I extract the followi following ng notes from from the different different p rovincial rovincial reports which which illu illustrate strate the subject. subjec t. In I n Bengal, Bengal, where the largest number of Aboriginals Aboriginals is recorded reco rded,, Mr. M r. Bourdillon Bourdillon writes:—" writes:—"The The religions of the people included under this head are altogether beyond the reach of formulation. They are for the most part, where the description is intelligible at all, mere variations of the Nat worship, which is the first form of religion that primitive society has developed. They possess neither creed nor dogma, neither churches nor teachers; and while there runs through them all the idea of a great spirit, who is to be worshipped in his various manifestations in the world of nature; and of inferior deities, harmful or 29 benefi eneficent, cent, whose whose wrath wrath must must be averted, averted, or favou favourr secured, secured, that that alone alone whi which ch disti disting ngui uishes shes each one from from the the next next is is a diverg divergency ency of tribal tribal custom custom,, which is due to a separate origin, or, when both are of the same apparent stock, to a dissociation centuries old." The relig religion ion of the the Aboriginals Aboriginals of the Central Provinces Provinces has thus been summari summarized zed by Mr. C. Grant, Gra nt, at page 122 of o f his his Introduction Introduction to the Central Provinces Gazetteer. "Their rules and ceremonies, whether originally peculiar to different tribes around, are now so intermingled and confused that they may be regarded almost as common property. The Gonds, according to Hislop, have about fifteen gods; but few or none of the tribe are acquainted with the whole list. Thakur Deo and Dulha Deo, both household gods, and Burha Deo, 'the great god,' are the most popular objects of worship throughout Gond-Wana, and they command a certain respect, even among so-called Hindoos, All Aboriginal tribes have a decided respect for the powers of evil, whether in the form of cholera or small-pox, or under the more idealized guise of a destructive god and his even more malignant wife. Indeed, the theory that the Aryan Hindoos Hindoos drew this this elem e lement ent of their worshi wor ship p from aboriginal aboriginal sources is not without without strong stro ng confirmatory confirmatory evidence in these provi pro vinces. nces. The shrine of Mahadewa (Siva), on the Pachmarhi hills, which, till lately, attracted the largest religious fair in these provinces, is still under the hereditary guardianship of Korku Chiefs; and the oldest temples on the far more widely celebrated island of Mandâhtâ, on the Nerbudda, originally the seat of worship of the Aboriginal powers of evil, Kal Bahirava and Kaldevi, and afterwards appropriated by the more civilized god of destruction, Siva, are, to this day, under the charge of Bhil guardians. Sun worship seems to be a Kolarian proclivity, being found equally among the Kols of Sambulpur, in the southeastern corner of the province, and among the Korkus of the Maha Deo hills, more than 400 miles to the north-west. "The "The Baigâs Baigâs again again are distingu distinguish ished ed by an extraordin extraord inary ary reverence for mother mother earth. "On the the other hand, the Khonds, who are classed classe d as Dravidian, Dravidian, combine combine both these faiths. faiths. It is is in short imposs impossibl ible, e, in the present state of o f our knowledge, to found any generalizations on the shifting beliefs of tribes to whom change is almost a necessary of life, and whose customs are constantly acting and reacting upon each other. The Ethnological Committee, appointed in 1867 to report on the Aboriginal tribes of the Central Provinces, after a careful analysis of the peculiar practices attributed to each race, come to the conclusion that no distinctive customs had been elicited by their analysis as attaching to separate tribes. In their own words, 'it is very doubtful whether any safe generalization can be made from collation of manners and customs.' These have been minutely and copiously described in several reports and papers annexed; and we drew up a comparative table of the more peculiar customs attributed to each tribe, in order to discover whether this test would serve, taking specially religious customs and funeral rites as most likely to be most most character characteriistic. stic. But But thi this anal analysis ysis has has not eli elicited cited any any disti distinct nctiive custom customs. s. It had been suggest suggested ed that that the the worsh worshiip of dead relati relatives ves belong belonged ed to the the Kolarians, or supposed emigrants from the north; but it seems certain that all the wild tribes of Central India worship relatives immediately after death, and, moreover, traces of this superstition may be found all the world over. The Hindoos themselves now practise rites of the same kind. Herodotus and
Homer can be quoted to show the antiquity of the custom; and Captain Burton describes the ceremonies as they are now practised in Central Africa; also, by the way, the worship of trees, a very early and widely spread superstition in India. If it be true that all races in their earlier periods of development pass through certain stages of religious belief, then a general account of the religion of a tribe will not assist the ethnographer, though one or two peculiar forms of worship may give a clue to recent affinities. However, the gods of the Khonds are plainly the same as the gods of the south-eastern Gonds. The word "pen" or "penu" for deity is common to both; and that ceremony of bringing back the soul of the deceased does seem peculiar to these provinces rovinces at any any rate. rate. As As for for Dul Dulhá Deo, Deo, so comm commonly only ment mentiioned as a favou favouri rite te Gond Gond deity deity,, he he comes comes from from Bundel Bundelkhan khand, d, and is is the the apotheosi apotheosiss of a bridegr ridegroom oom (Dul (Dulha) who who died died in in the the marri marriage age processi procession, on, and whose whose unti untim mely ely end end so affec affected ted the the people people that that they they pai paid him him divi divine ne honou honours. rs. None of these tribes keep a regular priesthood, but employ medicine men, exorcists, men who are the stewards of the mysteries by mere profession, not necessarily by birth, or entry into a religious order. In fact, their religion is simply feticism, the worship of any object supposed to possess hidden infl influence uence for weal or woe. 30 "Marriage customs customs and ceremoni cer emonies es exist in in infi infini nite te variety all the world over, and the practice pra ctice of pretending to abd uct the bride, which which is is universal universal among these tribes, is probably known widely among all such societies. The serving a fixed period for a bride is curious. It prevails among the Koch and Bodo people of the North-east hills (Hodgson), and is easily intelligible among very poor races, where women are at a premium. The tribes classified do not intermarry among each other, nor do they usually eat together j but a sort of table of precedence might be drawn out according to existing customs by whi which ch a Gond, Gond, for for inst instance, ance, wil will eat food food prepared by a Korku, thou though gh the the converse converse does not not hol hold d good. For the the social social system system of these these tribes, tribes, itit must must be ranked ranked very very low. low. We cannot cannot ascertain ascertain that that any of the the tribes tribes with withiin these these provinces provinces have have a recogni recognized zed head, lilike the the chief chief of a North Ameri American can tri tribe. be. From this general remark the Bhils perhaps should be excepted." "In Berar," Berar, " Mr. Kit K itts ts writes, "the "the Aborigines, Aborigines, although although unim unimporta portant nt in in point point of actual num numbers bers,, and in proportion prop ortion to the general general population, population, are interesting as representing the progress of assimilation to and inclusion within the fold of ordinary Brahmanic Hindooism. In the words of M. Earth, Hindooism makes steady progress among these tribes; the modes, the forms of worship, the duties of the plains rapidly encroach on their mountains.' The hill tribes,' writes Major MacKenzie, Deputy Commissioner of the Ellichpur District, 'while shut off from civilization, propitiated the powers visible to them in nature, in the storms in the native wilds, and amongst beasts of prey. They assigned to them various attributes, from the highest good to the utmost malevolence. But with the advance of commerce, and the necessary intermixing, Brahmin priests have been reverenced, and in return have admitted their gods to the Hindoo pantheon.' 'I believe,' says Mr. Ballantine, a forest officer in the Melghat, 'that the Korkus were originally worshippers of the sun and moon. Their most solemn oath is by the sun, and in the act of worship they turn their faces towards it, and point to it with their hands. Certain trees were once held in reverence. The teak is still worshipped. But now-a-days their whole creed is so much tainted with Hindooism that their original beliefs are well nigh lost. Among the Dravidian aborigines found in the Wun district, the assimilation and absorption of their ancient creed into the complex, manifold, and outrageously confused Hindooism of the plains, has certainly proceeded quite as far as has been the case with the more secluded tribes of the Melghat. They are scarcely more unorthodox than the Mahars or Mângs, and were the veneration for the cow, or worship in village temples, or the shaving of the head made the test of orthodoxy, they would be classed in the same category. Vestiges of the older faith still remain. There are Gonds still, who worship their four, five, six, seven, or twelve gods as of old. There are still many Korkus and Nihals who worship the sun on Akshatritiya. Both Gonds and Korkus bury their dead. They allow marriage with the widow of a deceased elder brother, and for both the Bhumak more often than the Brahmin acts as priest. The Korkus are of Kolarian origin, and are therefore presumably anterior to the Gonds, although in their account of their crea- tion they admit that the Mângs were anterior to themselves. The foremost place among deities assigned among Gonds to a great god, a friendly spirit who needs no propitiatory offerings, is occupied in the Korku pantheon by Mahadeo. Baghdeo, whose shrine is in the jungle, protects them from tigers and other beasts of prey. Suwaria, or Bapa Deo, has a place on the village boundary. The shrine of Matwa Deo is opposite the headman's house. Those of Khera Deo and Sanjia Deo, represented by an egg-shaped stone, are near the village. These last four are beneficial deities; whereas to the Bogh Deo and Kuar Deo, whose shrine is on the hill top, periodical offerings are necessary lest they trouble the village. The Korkus also worship their male and female ancestors. They hold a ceremony at which they place the departed spirits at rest. Five bits of bamboo, to represent the dead man's bones, five five crab's crab's legs, legs, seven seven blades blades of dongrah dongrah grass, grass, a piece piece of turm turmeri eric, c, and and fi five grai grains ns of rice rice are toget together her placed placed in in a smal smalll basket, and and forced forced int into oa crab's hole under the water. The son, or any other relative, who has to 'lay' the spirit of the departed one, works himself into a state of drunken excitement before entering the pool to search for a crab's hole. Dancing and drinking conclude the ceremony. The men dance in one body and the women in another. The Gonds also sometimes dance thus, and sometimes their women dress as men and dance. In newly born children dead relatives are supposed to live again. A father when dying will often name the son into whom he intends his spirit to pass. Among the Korkus the village priest or Bhumak is expected to ward off and cure diseases and to defend them from wild 31 beasts. If If a tiger tiger comes comes near near the the place place he depends on the the vi village for a mal malee buffal buffalo o and a cock, and and a few few smal smalll iron nail nails. At midnigh dnightt he he goes round round the the village boundary with one hand leading the animal, and in the other carrying the nails. these he drives into the ground here and there to mark the boundary line, and coming back to the village sacrifices the victim. This rite ought, he considers, to keep off a tiger for a whole year. The power of magic they hold to be imparted by the tree of knowledge. The aspirant takes counsel with other wise men, and then bathes. After this he wanders alone in the jungle for three days and nights, plucking leaves from the trees with his teeth, after the manner of a goat. Among the trees are serpents, if he fear them, or put forth his hand, he will surely die. But if his faith and courage fail not, he will light upon the tree of knowledge. Then he returns to his village, bathes, and offers a goat. Thus, until his teeth drop out, he becomes endowed with the power of magic. A woman with this power is a worse pest than a man. Among the Nihal ihalss one one of the the gods is Dadaru, Dadaru, the the pig, pig, whose whose dirt dirt swal swalllowing owing capacity capacity is reported reported to have have benefi benefited the the other other deiti deities es on a criti critical cal occasion, occasion, and and to to have caused his elevation to the Mihal as to the Korku pantheon. In the religion of the Gonds Dravidian customs are everywhere mixed with Hindoo observances. They believe in ghosts and sorcery. They regard the howling of a dog as unlucky. But they know little as yet of the long string of omens
with which the Hindoos are familiar. Many of them are Hindoos by religion. The Maha Deo naturally replaces their old deity Bura Pen, the great god. The goddesses of smallpox and cholera, whether indigenous among them or not, are as frequently worshipped as in the plains. As a rule the Gonds eat both beef and pork. pork. Those, Those, howev however, er, who who clai claim m a Rajput Rajput descent descent are more more scrupul scrupulous. ous. The The old old reli religion, gion, alth althoug ough h fadi fading ng is stil still ali alive. In thei theirr marri marriage age customs the influence of Hindooism is clearly seen. In religion the Andhs are more Hindooized than other Aborigines. They employ Brahmins to conduct their marriages, they abstain from beef and from tari, and they forbid marriage with an elder brother's widow. Burial is still more customary, because cheaper than cremation.' " "The "The foregoing forego ing details de tails will will prob pr obab ably ly suffice suffice to show that, as regard re gardss the religion religion of the Aborigi Abo rigines, nes, its absorption abso rption by Hindoo Hindooism ism is still far from complete. At the same time, it is difficult to define the exact line after passing which a tribe should rightly be considered Hindoo rather than Aboriginal, and, even if such exactitude were possible, the application of the definition would only be a matter of further difficulty." 53. Regardin Regard ing g the the Nat Na t worshippe worshippers, rs, who, though shown separately separa tely in Table III., I have grouped in my remarks with those professin pro fessing g Aborigin Aboriginal al religion, the Census Superintendent of Burmah, where this named religion alone is found, has made the following remarks descriptive of its peculiarities: —"Th "Thee term Nat worshi worshipper, pper, thoug though h wel welll understood understood in in Bri Briti tish sh Bur Burm mah, requires requires some some explanat explanatiion. Nats Nats are spiri spirits ts supposed supposed to inh inhabi abitt natu natural ral objects, objects, terrestrial and celestial, and to interfere freely in the affairs of man. Some are evil, and their ill-will is to be propitiated by offerings of plantains, cocoanuts, fowls, or other such gifts; some are kind, and their active favour or protection must be gained. The Burmese frequently make offerings to Nats, and regard the spiritual world with an awe not called for by the creed of Buddha. The belief in Nats has remained underlying their thoughts and religion ever since they were converted to Buddhism, a relic of the ancient cult which is still preserved intact among the older Karens, Chins, and other hill races. At present, resent, num numbers bers of Karens and and Chi Chins who who have have com comee in in contact contact with with the the Burm Burmese, ese, thoug though h knowi knowing ng little ttle and and practisi practising ng less of the the reli religion gion of Gotama, Gotama, call themselves themselves Buddhists, because b ecause to do d o so is a sig s ign n of civili civilizati zation on and respectab resp ectabil ilit ity." y." 54. 54 . The next numero numerous us religion religion is Buddhism, and (strange (stra nge to say), though India is the birthplace of Buddhism, there are not 200,000 Buddhists to be found in all the continent of India. Burmah, however, contains large numbers of the followers of Gautama, nearly nine tenths of the whole population in that province professing this religion. After Burmah, it is only in Bengal that the followers of Gautama are found in any numbers; and there they comprise so small a proportion of the population as two in a thousand. They number in Bengal 155,809; in Assam there are 6,563, in the Punjab 2,684, and in Madras 1,535. In the seven other provinces in which the religion is recorded, the numbers professing it in no single instance exceed 400, and in four cases do not exceed 20. The following abstract gives the distribution of the Buddhists:— 32 ABSTRACT X. Buddhists. Buddhists. 1. Buvmah 2. Bengal 3. Assam 4. Punjab, Br British Territory 5. Madras 6. Punjab, Feudatory States 7. Bombay, British Territory
3251584 155,809 6,563 2,864 1,535 387 103
8. North- West Provinces, British Territory
103
9. Cen Central Prov Proviinces ces, Br British Terr erritory ory
17
10. Bombay, Feudatory States 11. Mysore 12. Berar
12 9 1
55. The Christians, who rank in numbers next to the Buddhists, are found in all the Provinces and States of India. Their home is in the south of the continent, Madras and Travancore accounting for 1,209,622 of the 1,862,634 who are found in India. Next to these two provinces comes Bombay British Territory with 138,317, then Cochin, and then Bengal, each of which contains more than 125,000. In no other case do Christians exceed 100,000, and they drop very quickly in numbers. Burmah has the largest Christian population of the remaining provinces, 84,119, then the North-West Provinces, British Territory, come with 47,664. Of the remaining fifteen Provinces and States, in four only do the Christians exceed 10.000, and in the other eleven there are only three cases where the Christians number more than 5,000. The distribution of the Christian population is given below. ABSTRACT XI. Christians. 1. Madras 2. Travancore 3. Bombay, British Territory 4. Cochin 5. Bengal 6. Burmah 7. North- West Provinces. British Territory 8. Punjab, British Territory 9. Mysore 10. Hyderabad
711080 428542 138317 136361 128135 84219 47664 33420 21249 13614
11. Central Provinces, British Territory 12. Assam 13. Central India 14. Bombay, Feudatory States 15. Coorg 16. Ajmere 17. Berar 18. Rajputana 19. Baroda 20. Punjab, Feudatory States 21. Central Provinces, Feudatory States 22. North- West Provinces, Feudatory States
11949 7093 7065 6837 3152 2225 1335 1294 771 279 24 9
56. In the case of o f the the Christian Christian population, population, an attempt has has been be en made made to coll c ollect ect some further further informati information on than has been sought for for in regard to other o ther religi religions. ons. The authorities authorities have endeavoured ende avoured to distingu distinguish ish the sects and the races race s of o f the Chri C hristian stian popul pop ulation, ation, and in Form IIIA the information information thus thus collected has been grouped together. The Roman Catholics are the most numerous sect; they number 963,058, of whom the races of 356,267 are not specified. The others are thus classed:— Natives, 550,195, British-born and Europeans, 32,079, Eurasians, 24,517. Next in order comes the Church of England, with 353,713; of these 164,487 are Natives, 73,539 are British-born and other Europeans, 27,742 have been shown as Eurasians, while the other 87,945 have not specified their race, they probably include a large number of Europeans not British-born, and a much larger number of Eurasians. Next in in num number ber is is the the Syrian Syrian Churc Church, h, wi with 304,410, who, who, thoug though h they they have have only only speci specifi fied ed thei theirr race in in a few few excepti exceptional onal cases, may may be saf safel ely y put put down as Natives. They are found only in the south of India, and are almost entirely confined to Travancore and Cochin, where 301,442 (i.e., all but 3,000) are found; 2,885 of the remainder being enumerated in Madras. Dr. Hunter states the Syrian Christians of Travancore "date from the earliest centuries of our era." 33 Ranked by numbers, next come "Other Protestants," but under this designation are included a variety of sects, viz., Baptists, Congregationalists, Dissenters (so styled in the schedules), Independents, Methodists, and Wesleyans; they number 107,886. The greatest part of these is composed of Natives atives (93,137), (93,137), foun found d mai mainl nly y in in Beng Bengal al,, Burm Burmah, ah, and and Madras, Madras, 5,579 are Bri Briti tish-born sh-born and Eur Europeans, opeans, 3,714 are Euras Eurasiians, and the the rem remai ainder nder have have not specified their sect. The Lutherans stand next, with 29,577, of whom 23,593 are found in Bengal and 4,667 in Madras; 28,234 are Natives, 769 British-b British-b orn and other Europea ns, while while 133 ar e Eurasians. The Episco Episco palians palians num number 20,135, 18,903 being being found found in in Bombay Bombay (16,431) and and Central India; they are almost exclusively European, 1,681 being Eurasian, 2,832 Native, and 375 unspecified. The Armenians number 1,308, the Greeks 834, and the American Church 737; there are also 63,833 who have not specified their sect. In the accompanying abstract are given the numbers and races of the main sects. ABSTRACT XIA. Religions. Unspecified American C hurch Armenian Baptist C hurch of England C hurch of Scotland C ongregationalist C alvinist Dissenter Episcopalian
2028
Other Europeans. 3513
11
64
17
645
16 566 41023 1232 65
118 959 23142 751 156
147 2314 19642 530 110
232 81965 48820 1561 3269
1
3
24 9722
57 5525
British- born.
Evangelical
Eurasi asians.
Nat Natives. es.
2264
43631
61 1681
61 2832
Totals. 60845 737
795 4296 5960 74 346
34
1308 90100 138587 4148 3946 38
2 375
7
205 20135 7
Free Church of Scotland
33
17
5
195
Greek Church Independent Lutheran Methodist
16 50 77 988
162 60 688 675
107 29 133 718
445 2190 28200 3664
Moravian
1
7
Plymouth Brethren
6
15
4783 4002
2599 5372
Presbyterian Protestant
Others and Unspecified. 9409
250 104 601 441 150
834 2930 29539 6195
7
15
18
8
47
1190 8100
6707 115667
357 81985
15636 215126
Roman Catholic Society of Friends Syrian Wesleyan
17424
14655
24517
10
550195
356267
18
963058 28
4 1249
6 730
4 480
1340 1988
303056 63
304410 4510
83331
59281
62085
893656
764381
1862634
The statement does doe s not separately separ ately distingu distinguish ish every sect that was returned in the Provincial Provincial Statements, but a comparison of the the abstract abs tract with the subjoined list will show what the former omits:— American Church, including American Congregationalist and American Methodist Anglican Armenian Baptist Basle Mission Cal Calvist, in includin ding Welsh elsh Cal Calvinistic Me Methodi odist Congregationalist, including Congregationalist Mission Church and Independent Congregationalist Congregationalist Church of England Church of Scotland Church of Ireland Dissenters Dutch C hurch Episcopalian, including Episcopalian Church of Scotland and Episcopalian Methodist
Evangelical Free Church of Scotland French Church Greek Independent Lutheran Meth ethodi odist Moravian Plymouth Brethren Presbyterian Protestant Roman Catholic Society of Friends Syrian Undenominational Union Wesleyan
34 The returns also also showed Deists, De ists, Fatalists, Fatalists, Irvingit Irvingites, es, Rationalists, Rationalists, Swed enborgians, and Unitarians. Unitarians. But these have not been inclu included ded under Chri C hristians. stians. There were a few solitary instances where English residents returned their religion as blank. A great part of o f the the value value which which would would attach attac h to this this statement of races is lost by its its incompleteness. incompleteness. More Mo re than a third third of the entire entire number number of o f Christians are returned in the schedules without any specification of race. But there can be little doubt, from the figures themselves, that by far the greater portion ortion (one (one may may fai fairl rly y say four four fi fifths) ths) of those those whose whose race is is unspeci unspecifi fied ed is is Native. Native. There There are 303,056 of the the Syrian Syrian Churc Church, h, and and 356,267 Roman Roman Catholics, whose race is not given. The Syrian Church is entirely Native, and my opinion is that at least 300,000 of the unspecified Roman Catholics are also Native. If this be accepted, we have the following race statistics:— British- born O ther Europeans Eurasians Natives atives Unspecified Total
83331 59281 62085 1496712 161225 1862634
57. One O ne fact fact stands out conspicuously conspicuously in in these these returns,—I returns,— I refer to the prepondera prep onderance nce of the the Roman Catholics. In the south the efforts efforts of the the early Portuguese missionaries, who preceded the Protestant missions by centuries, laid the sure foundation of this superiority in numbers, and there is much in the doctrines of Roman Catholicsim which tends at the present day to make that the most palatable form of Christianity to the uneducated Natives from amongst whom the large majority of converts is taken. The lapse of a few years will, I believe, show a very large accession to the numbers of the various Christian churches. The closest observers are almost unanimous in the opinion that the ground has already been cleared for such a movement, but their views are not so much in accord as to the class from which this accession will be made. What has been the increase increase of the the Christian Christian population population since since the preceding prec eding Census is shown for some of the the more more importa important nt provinces provinces in the following extracts:— " Madras. Madras. —The The return return of Chri Christi stians ans of all all denomi denominati nations is is 711,072, whi which shows shows (excl (excludi uding ng Bhadrach Bhadrachal alam am and Rékapal Rékapallle in in Gódáver Gódáverii) an increase ncrease of 165,682, 165,6 82, or 30.39 3 0.39 per cent, c ent, on the returns returns of 1871. 18 71. Of the total (711,072), 473,35 3 are Roman Roman Catholics, Catholics, and, a nd, distributi distributing ng the the "Not stated" total proportionat roportionatel ely, y, the the Rom Roman an Cathol Catholiics represent represent 68.68 per cent, cent, of the the total total populati population. on. The The vast vast majori majority ty of these these Chri Christians stians are Hindu Hindu converts converts or the the descendants of Hindu converts. They are to be found in every district, belonging for the most part to the poorer classes, and drawn chiefly from the lower castes. (The Roman Catholic Christians of the West Coast are exceptions to this observation.). . . .
"The "The followin following g are the most most conspicuous cons picuous groups of the Christians, with with their number numberss roughly roughly estimated:— estimated :— Europeans and Eurasians Goa Roman Catholics of the South Mission Roman Catholics of the South Anglican converts of the South Lutheran converts of the West Coast Baptists of N ellore and K istna
32000 320 00 100000 100 000 300000 100000 8000 30000
"The remainder are scattered communities of different sects. "In the Census of 1871 187 1 the Christians Christians were returned as 'Roman Catholics' and 'Protesta 'Pr otestants.' nts.' This This time time an attempt attempt has been made made to separate sepa rate the sects of the non-Romanist Christians—with but very partial success. Although 16 sects such as are popularly included in the generic but inaccurate name 'Protestant' are tabulated, still of the non-Romanist Christians 140,651 or 59.17 per cent, have returned themselves as simply 'Protestant.' An attempt, based on what what is is known known of the the mi mission ssion agenci agencies es in in the the severa severall distri districts, cts, has has been made below below to to distri distribut butee these these to thei theirr proper heads. heads. "Of the ordinary rural districts the most most Christian Chr istian is Tinnevelly Tinnevelly,, where 8 1/3p er cent, of the total population is Christian, and here the adherents of the Church of England outnumber the Roman Catholics. The following table shows the Christian population in the several districts:— 35 “Table No. No . 25, showing showing the Percentage of Christians Christians to the the Total Popul Pop ulation ation of each District District of the Madras Presidency. Pre sidency. Districts.
Total Population.
C hristians.
Percentage of Christians to the Total Tota l Popul Pop ulation. ation.
405848 91034 1699747 959514 1215033 2168680 302127 2130383 1548480 1814738 2365035 981381 1220236 709305 1599595 1657690 1817814 1121038 1336696 1791512 2485141 1749604 31170631
39631 8488 140946 58215 61440 84900 11372 78258 36194 39571 43196 16774 20794 11464 16567 13326 10018 6067 4997 3893 3410 1551 711072
9.77 9.32 8.29 6.07 5.06 3.91 3.76 3.67 2.34 2.18 1.83 1.71 1.70 1.62 1.04 0.80 0.55 0.54 0.37 0.22 0.14 0.09 2.28
Madras City Nilgi ilgiri riss Tinnevelly South Canara Trichinopoly Madura Pudukóta Territory Tanjore K istna South Arcot Malabar Chingleput Nellore ellore K urnool Salem Coimbatore North Arcot Cuddapah Bellary Godávari Vizagapatam Ganjam Grand total
"The "The followin following g table tab le shows the progres pro gresss of Christianity in the several seve ral districts since 1871 18 71:— :— "Table No. 26, showing, for the Madras Presidency, the Percentage of Increase or Decrease of Christians in each District in 1881 as compared with those returned in 1871.
Districts. Ganjám Vizagapatam
1871 1043 2185
Total Christians. 1881. *1551 *3410
Difference.
Percentage.
508 1225
48.71 56.06
Gôdávari K istna Nellore ellore Cuddapah K urnool Bellary Chingleput North Arcot South Arcot Tanjore Trichinopoly
1483 7670 3012 4973 3855 5545 15156 7436 30817 66409 52222
†3623 36194 20794 6067 11464 4997 16774 10018 39571 78258 61440
2140 28524 17782 1094 7609 - 548 1618 2582 8754 11849 9218
144.3 371.89 590.37 22.00 197.38 - 9.88 10.68 34.72 28.41 17.84 17.65
Madura Tinnevelly Salem Coimbatore Nílgi ílgiri riss Malabar South C anara Madras City Total Pudukóta territory Grand total
70491 102576 13333 12067 5070 41642 49258 37067 533760 11360 545120
84900 140946 16567 13326 7533 44151 58215 39631 699430 11372 710802
13.959 38370 3234 1259 2463 2509 8957 2564 165670 12 165682
19.68 37.41 24.26 10.43 48.58 6.02 18.18 6.92 31.04 0.11 30.39
*Inclusive *Inclusive of the Christian Christian popul pop ulation ation of the Agency Tracts, † Excl Exclusiv usivee of the Christian Christian popul pop ulation ation cf Bhadrachalam and Kekapall Kekap allee (270). ‡The ‡The Christian Christian popul pop ulation ation as per Census of 1881 188 1 of South-east South-e ast Wynad Wynad (955) (955 ) transferred transferred since 1871 187 1 from from Malabar to Nilg Nilgiri iris, s, has been deducted from Nilgiris and added to Malabar for the purposes of the table. 36 "Thi "Thiss shows a gain in every district district except Bellary, Bellary, where there is a decrease decrea se of 548, which is is more than accounted acco unted for for by the reduced European Europ ean garrison. The increase varies in amount from 508 in Ganjam to 38,370 in Tinnevelly, from 6 per cent, in Malabar to 590 per cent, in Nellore. "The largest largest numbers numbers are found in the the south so uth and west. The further further north the less Christianit Christianity. y. The Telugu Telugu people peo ple are eith e ither er harder hard er to convince, convince, or, or , until until recently, less mission effort has been expended upon them. The five districts of Ganjam, Vizagapatam, Godavari, Bellary, and Cuddapah contain hardly any Christians, and the adjoining districts of Kistna, Kurnool, and Nellore owe their higher proportion to recent years. But mission work is spreading northward. Godavari has between two and three times as many Christians as in 1871; Kurnool has three times, Kistnanearly five times, and Nellore seven times as many as in 1871. "On the other hand the Southern Districts Districts have long long been strongholds strongholds of Cbristi Cb ristiani anity. ty. Xavier, Xavier, Nobil N obili, i, Beschi, Beschi, Schwartz, Sc hwartz, Jaenicke, and many more more names, now historical, are associated with the building up of the Christian churches in the south. Early in the 16th century there were Catholic communities near the CapeComorin, and the influence has spread and is spreading northward. In the districts of Tinnevelly, Madura, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Pudukota, and Madras City we have 5¼ per cent. Christian where in 1871 there were only 4 1/3p er cent. Christian. The Roman Catholics, formerly confined to the south and west, have found foothold in Kistna and Vizagapatam. "The "The non-Ro non-Romani manists, sts, whose operations ope rations were once lim limited ited to Tanjore, Tanjore, have spread sprea d largely largely over the the three southernmost southernmost districts, and have have now growing communities in thirteen districts. "The "The propo pro portion rtion of Christians in the populati pop ulation on is is very striking when compared compare d with with other provinces, pr ovinces, as the following following figures figures show:— Province. Madras British Burma Coorg Bombay Bengal Punjáb Assam Nizam izam's 's Domi Dominions nions
N umber of C hristians. 711072 84218 3152 145154 128135 33699 7093 13614
Ratio per 10,000 to Total Population. 228 225 176.78 62 18 15 15 14
North-West orth-West Provi Provinces and Oudh Oudh Central Provinces Berar
47664 11973 1335
11 10.37 5
"Both "Both in in actual numbers numbers and in proportion prop ortion to the general general population, population, Madras Mad ras stands sta nds clear away in front of all other provi pro vinces, nces, and if the the southernmost part of the the Pre-sidency Pre-sidency be taken, taken, we fi find that that in a compact compact tract tract contai containi ning ng 7,213,843 soul souls, 365,544, or 5,067 per 100,000, are Chri Christi stians. ans. It is is in in no no sectarian spirit that this may be declared wholly a matter for congratulation. There is no enlightened Madras Brahman who does not rejoice equally with the missionaries to see the good work of the latter redeeming the degraded castes of Tinnevelly, and the devil-worshippers of South Canara from their debased cults to a purer faith and a higher mortality." 59. " Bengal. Bengal. —The The progress progress made made in in the the spread spread of Christi Christiani anity ty during during the the last last ni nine years years is is one of the the most most int interesti eresting ng facts facts brough broughtt out out by the the Census Census just ust taken. taken. In 1872 the the num number of persons persons return returned ed as Chri Christians stians was was 91,063,* whi while in in 1881 thi thiss num number had had incr increased eased to 128,125, show showiing an advance of 37,012, or 40.71 per cent. This increase is apparently† less than that of the Buddhists, who have advanced at the rate of 93.29 per cent, during the last nine years; but, in point of fact, the proportionate increase in the number of Christians has been much greater than that of the followers of any other religion, for, while the rise in the case of the Buddhists has been shown to be due rather to more accurate enumeration than to a real numerical increase, it is certain that, for obvious reasons, the Christian community, both at the former and the recent Census, were more accurately enumerated than * In this this figure figure allowance allowance is is made made for the exclusi exclusion on of Assam from from the the present pres ent Census of Bengal, Bengal, † See para. 211 of the the Bengal Bengal Report.—W. Report.—W. C. P. 37 any other section of the people, so that whatever increase or decrease is shown in their numbers may be accepted as having really occurred. This increase of 4071 per cent, is far too large to be explained by the theory of natural productive-ness, and that it is due chiefly to conversions from heathendom, and not to immi-gration from Europe, is proved by the following statistics. In 1872 Mr. Beverley estimated that at least half of the 91,063 Christians, or, say, 46,000, were Euro-peans and Eurasians; in 1881 the number of non-Asiatic Christians was found to be 40,726, which would give a decrease in their numbers of 5,274. There is no reason to believe that such a decrease has occurred; on the contrary, the number of Euro-pean immigrants in India is certainly not less than it was, and everything tends to show that the Eurasian population multiply rapidly. It seems clear, therefore, that Mr. Beverley's estimate was excessive, and that the non-Asiatic Christians were in 1872 a good deal less than 46,000. If this conclusion is accepted, it will be fair to assume that the Christians, other than Natives of India, were in 1872 about 39,000 persons, which would make the total of Native ative Chri Christi stians ans 52,603. These These fi figures, gures, compared compared with with those those of the the Census Census just just taken, taken, wil will give give an an incr increase ease among among the the Native Native Chri Christi stian an popul population ation of 33,703, or 64.07 per cent., and an advance among Christians of all other races of 2,819, or 7.22 per cent." 60. Mr. Mr . Bourdillon's Bourdillon's remarks on the Native Native Christians Christians and the various various sects of o f Christians Christians returned returned at the Census are o off value, value, and I have have extracted them in continuation of his note on the increase of the Christians in Bengal:— "The Native Christians, Christians, who concl co nclude ude the list, list, are ar e the most rapidly progressing class class in Bengal. Bengal. It has been b een shown that they have have increased, increased , chiefly chiefly by conversion, at the rate of 6407 per cent, during the nine years which have elapsed since the Census of 1872, and it only remains to notice their distribution. Out of the whole number of 86,306 more than one third, or 35,992, are found in Lohardugga, where a German Protestant Mission has long been labouri labouring ng among among the the aborigi aboriginal nal and sem semii-Hindu -Hinduiized tri tribes bes of that that distri district. ct. The The 24-Pergun 24-Pergunnah nahss stand stand next next with with 8,048, the the converts converts of several several missionary societies, both Protestant and Romanist. Dacca has 7,710, mostly Roman Catholics; and Nuddea, 6,304, partly converts of the Church Missionary Society and partly members of a Romish mission church in that district. Calcutta itself has comparatively few, viz., a little more than 4,000, including the suburbs. Six other districts have more than 1,000 in each. Backergunge has 2,892, Furreedpore 2,591, and Chumparun 1,814, in all of which districts the Roman Catholic Church has mission stations. The Sonthal Pergunnahs have 2,718, and Singhbhoom 2,988, where the Church Missionary Society and the German Lutheran Mission work respectively; and Cuttack, where a Baptist Mission haslong been established, has 1,819 ..... "The sects which were returned in the Census schedul sched ules, es, exclu e xcluding ding those which were were unintell unintellig igibl ible, e, and were therefore entered under the heading “Sect not stated” are recited in the margin,† and they have been entered in similar detail in the table. It is not pretended that the classification is either scientific or exhaustive, but it is hoped that it will answer the purpose of a rough separation of the leading parties in the Christian church in Bengal. † Protestant. Unitarian. C hu hurch of England, Calvinist. C hu hurch of Scotland. Lutheran. Episcopalian. Moravian. Eoman Catholic. Greek. Dissenter. Syrian. Armenian. Free Church of Scotland. Sco tland. Plymouth Brothers. Baptist. Quaker. Methodist. Christian. Independent. Sect not stated.
"The first glance at Part III of the table would seem to show that the Roman Catholics are most largely represented in Bengal, with 26,275 persons; but this numerical superiority disappears if it isborne in mind that the whole of those who have been returned as 'Protestants,' viz., 9,528, and a considerable number of those who have described themselves simply as 'Christians,' without further specification of sect, are probably members of the Established Church of England, and bring its total up to about 36,000 persons. The members of the various other Protestant churches amount to nigh upon 67,000, of whom the Lutherans (23,556) are far the most numerous. Moreover, the total entered against this community is very far below the truth, for it should be noti noticed that that they they have have long long held held chief chief possession possession of the the mi mission ssion fi field eld in in Lohardu Lohardugg gga, a, so that that perhaps perhaps 7,000 of the the 10,232 Christi Christians ans of unspeci unspecifi fied ed sect found in that district should be included among the Lutheran Christians, thus carrying their total above 30,000. The Baptists would appear to be nearly 17,000 strong; but it is doubtful whether all those entered as Baptists really belong to this persuasion, since it is believed that other sections of the Christian Christian church in Bengal have adopted ado pted the 38 custom of total immersion at the baptism of adults, so that the term dubit or 'dipped' may mean either a baptized Christian or a member of the Baptist sect. "The "The Syrian, Syrian, Greek, and Armeni Armenian an Churches Churches are but slenderly represented, repr esented, and on the the whole whole itit may may be said that that if if we inclu include de in their their proper prope r place place those persons for whom details of sect are not available, the Christians in Bengal may be roughly divided into the following groups:— Church of England Lutherans Church of Rome Baptists Other Protestant Churches
36000 30000 29000 17000 16000 "
61. In Bombay Bombay Mr. Baines Baines touches very very briefl briefly y on the the increase increase in the num number ber of the Christian Christian section of the communi community. ty. But But his his remarks on the races and sects are interesting. He writes:— "I now come to the Christian section of the community, and here too, as in the case of the Jews and Mahammedans, the race is a factor which cannot be altogether omitted from a consideration of the religion. The number of Christians enumerated was 138,329, or about 084 per cent, of the whole community. They are divided into the three main race-headings of Foreign, Eurasian, and Native in the respective proportions of 17.05, 2.09, 80.85 per cent. The foreign element is composed chiefly of Europeans, including Americans and colonists, with a fewSyrians and others. The Eurasian community is, I believe, much more numerous than here represented, as in Bombay and elsewhere there is great confusion between this class and the European. Under the general instructions on the schedule, the words ' British subject' were to be added to the entry of birthplace in the case of Europeans of this class born in India, and, either intentionally or through negli-gence, the words 'British subject' alone, or with the clipped prefix of 'Eur.,' were entered in many cases in which the persons concerned were of distinctly mixed race. The indigenous Christian community which, in order to avoid a further distinction for the sake of so small a section of the whole body, includes also the converts of negro race, consists of three main classes. The first, and most numerous, numerous, is that of the Roman Catholic Catholic inhabitants inhabitants of o f the old Portuguese settlements settlements now comprised in this this Presidency. Pres idency. These were original originally ly converted from Hinduism by the missionaries from Goa, following the example of St. Francis Xavier in the south. There seems to have been little pressure ressure put upon them them to abandon abandon thei theirr caste, caste, because, because, duri during ng a portion portion of the the period period of Portugu Portuguese ese domi dominati nation, the the propagat propagatiion of the the State State fai faith th was, as in the case of Mahammedanism, a political expedient only. It is now, therefore, common to hear the different classes of this community mentioned in the places where they most abound by the name of their original caste, in spite of the lapse of years of their new religion. This habit, however, is confined to the lower grades of society. The converts of good birth seem to have been admitted to free intercourse and connubiality with the upper class of Portuguese society, and, though the names of all the Christians of this description are Portuguese, it is only amongst the upper class that there is any trace of foreign blood,and here even it is now rare. The name of Indo-Portuguese, which is sometimes given to them, is scarcely acknowledged amongst themselves, though, from the fact of their education and religious instruction being partly carried on in the language of their first European acquaintance, Portuguese is spoken as a home-tongue in some of the best families, the rest habitually use Konkani-Marathi or English. The lower classes continue to follow the hereditary occupations of the castes to which their Hindu ancestors belonged, whilst the upper have taken to the clerical and learned professi rofessions. ons. In spite spite of the the rum rumours that that have have occasional occasionallly been heard heard with withiin the the last last hal halff cent century ury,, thoug though h now now less less com-mon com-monlly, of symptom symptomss of relapse relapse to the old religion of the country, those who have lived amongst these classes give evidence of the reality of their adherence to the faith of their adoption. There is a very prevalent confusion between the Christians of the description I have mentioned and those from Goa. Both are Roman Catholics by persuasi ersuasion, on, and and both bear Portugu Portuguese ese nam names, es, and and are under under the the ecclesi ecclesiasti astical cal supervi supervisi sion on of priests priests of that that nati nation. on. Beyon Beyond d thi this the the lilikeness keness ceases. The The Native ative Chri Christi stians ans that that come come from from Goa are mostly ostly domesti domesticc servant servants, s, an occupati occupation never never undertaken undertaken by the the Chri Christi stians ans of the the other other distri districts. cts. The The tong tongue ue of the Goanese is a less purely Maráthi dialect, and has more Portuguese and Konkani words in its vocabulary. All the Goanese 39 that come to Bombay, moreover, have adopted the European style of dress, which amongst the others is confined to the upper classes. The above two sections together may be included under the general title of converts made by the Portuguese. The remaining class is that of the converts of more recent times made by the British missions, or, more correctly, as they include both German and American bodies, by the missions that have been established since the accession of that race to power. Small settlements have been formed by the emissaries of the various sections of western Christianity, and in these are gathered most of the new converts until they are sent out in pursuit of their own occupation elsewhere. In some districts the settlement is a permanen ermanentt one, one, and and has a considerabl considerablee area of land attach attached ed to itit whi which ch is is til tilled by the the labour labour of the the converts. converts. It is is not easy to disti disting ngui uish sh accura accuratel tely y the the Portuguese from the more recently enrolled Christians, but this may be done approximately, if we take, as I believe the facts justify us in doing, the
Roman Catholic element to belong to the former, and the non-Roman remainder to the latter. This course results in showing 92.7 of the total body of Native ative Chri Christi stians ans to belong belong to the the Roman Roman Cathol Catholiic branch. branch. Of the the rest rest there there are a few few who who have have not not return returned ed thei theirr denom denomiinati nation, but but thei theirr num number ber is is not not enough to make any serious difference in the proportions. In order to find out the ratio of the Goanese to the Bombay Native Christian, it is necessary to turn to the table that shows the birth places of the people, from which it will be seen that about 40,260 persons were returned as having been born in Goa or other Portuguese territory. From this number the persons recorded against the item in Surat and Kánara should be excluded, as in the former case most of them are probably not Christians, but Hindu and other cultivators casually crossing the border, and in the latter case the immigration of labourers of the lower classes for the harvest is known to be so great that it is impossible to distinguish the Christians from the other Natives. As regards the rest of the Presidency, however, it is a pretty safe assumption that all who come from Goa are Native Roman Catholics. On this basis, it may be estimated that about 30 per cent, of the total number of that community belong to the Goanese section. Little need be said as to the class from which the converts are taken. In the case of the more or less wholesale conversion of the Portuguese territory under the direction of the Holy Office, there seems to have been a large mixture of the upper middle classes of Hindus, and from the returns given in Madras some time ago, it appears that in the Roman Catholic section of converts in that Presidency, where the retention of caste was allowed from the beginning, the number of high caste Christians is much greater than in the non-Roman ranks. That the success of Christian missions will be for a long time more marked amongst the lower classes than the rest as long as the abandonment of caste is an essential on reception into the religion, appears to be likely on two general grounds,—first, the consideration of social interests which makes a Hindu of good position so much more tenacious of his religion than one of lower caste, who has less to lose; and secondly seco ndly,, the greater receptiv rece ptivity ity of the latter with regard to emoti e motional onal appeals app eals which neither neither his intel-li intel-ligence gence nor his his education e ducation dispose him him to analy a nalyse. se. "The sects of Christians Christians returned at the Census are more numerous numerous and better be tter defined defined than those of most most of the other religi religions ons that have have been bee n previousl reviously y ment mentiioned in in thi thiss chapter. chapter. The The fol folllowing owing table table compri comprises ses the the princi principal pal facts about about thei theirr relati relative ve preval prevalence ence and distri distribut butiion among amongst st the the thr three ee races into which the whole Christian community has been divided. Races by Sect European Eurasian. N ative. Episcopalian 52.6 43.2 2.3 Roman Catholic 20.5 32.5 92.7 Presbystevian 103 8 .2 2.8 Baptist 1.0 0 .7 0.5 Wesleyan 2.4 1 .6 0.1 Methodist 0.8 2 .3 Congregationalist 0.2 0 .3 3.3 Protestant 0.8 3 .4 3.7 Others 0.4 1 .1 Unreturned 11.0 6 .7 0.6 Total all Sects 100.00 100.00 100.00 Sect
Total. 11.7 79.1 4 .2 0 .6 0 .5 0 .2 0 .3 0 .8 0 .1 2 .5 100.00
Sects by Race European. Eurasian Native 76.5 7 .7 15.8 4 .4 0 .9 94.7 4 2- 4 4 .1 53.5 26.4 2 .6 71.0 83.6 6 .7 90.7 62.5 22.1 15.4 12.4 2 .4 85.2 16.7 8 .7 74.6 76.1 5 .6 18.3 17.1 2 .1 80.8
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
40 "It shows the prepondera prep onderance nce of the Roman Catholic Catholic persuasion amongst the Native converts, and that of the Episcopalian amongst amongst the two other races. The number of persons who returned themselves as of no sect is also worthy of note, especially amongst the Europeans. Taking the aggregate of the three races, it will be seen that 90 per cent, and over profess the Roman Catholic and Episcopalian forms of Christianity, and that next to these the Presbyterian is most prevalent, though to a comparatively small extent. The rest of the sects bear but an insignificant ratio tothe total, and none of them equal the unreturned in number. The second part of the table shows the distribution of the persuasions according to their prevalence amongst the three races. In addition to Roman Catholicism, the Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Protestant (not otherwise specified) are to be found most amongst the Natives. atives. European Europeanss form form the the majori majority ty of the the Episcopal Episcopaliians, Wesleyan Wesleyans, s, Methodi Methodists, sts, and, and, as ment mentiioned just just now, now, of the the unsectari unsectarian." an." 62. There was no means means of institu institutin ting g a comparison for Oudh which which should should shew what has been the growth of the Christian Christian popul pop ulation ation in that part of India India since since the the Census Census of 1869, and the the revi reviewer ewer of the the Oudh figures gures for for 1881 has has been compel compellled to be sil silent on thi thiss subject subject.. 63. In the North-We No rth-West st Provinces Provinces the the foll followin owing g are Mr. White's White's remarks on the increa increase se of the Christian Christian section of the communi community: ty:— — "The following is a comparative statement of the Native Christians returned at the present and previous enumeration in the North-Western Provinces only. The previous returns for Oudh do not discriminate this class:— "Comparative Statement of Native Christians, Christians, North-We No rth-Western stern Provinces only. only.
Previous Census Present C ensus Increase
Persons. 7648 11823 4175
Male. 4000 5907 1907
Female. 3648 5916 2268
"The "The increa increase se of persons pers ons is is 54 per cent., that of males males 47 and of females females 62 per cent. This This increa increase se extends to every division division of the NorthNo rthWestern Provinces, except to Jhansi.
"Increase "Increa se of Native Na tive Christians by Division. Division. Division. Meerut Agra Rohikhand Allahabad Benares Jhánsi K umaon
Previous Census. 1613 2148 1162 1092 1212 45 376
Present Census. 2304 2225 3.098 1408 2205 40 543
"The "The most remarka remar kable ble increase increas e is found in the Rohilkhand Rohilkhand Divisi Division, on, where where itit amounts to 166 per cent. We have no means of judging from the Census records to what extent this increase is real or apparent. Much of it must be due to the greater care with which the entries in the enumerators' schedules were made at the present Census. No inferences can be drawn from the age tables, for in these all races of Christians have been included without discrimination under one head." 64. From Fro m the Cochi Co chin n report repo rt I extract the followi following ng paragraph, para graph, which which deals dea ls briefly briefly with with the Christian Christian sects. I may may note that that the the Christians Christians in Cochin do not show any increase. In the six years that have elapsed between the present and the preceding Census they have declined from 140,417 to 136,361, or 2.9 per cent., being at the rate of .5 per cent, per annum. The reporter has not given any explanation of this decrease, a decrease made more conspicuous by the fact that both the Hindu and 41 Mahammedan sections of the community show a slight increase during the same period:— " Cochin. Cochin. —Of the the Chri Christi stians, ans, who who consti constitute tute 21 per cent, cent, of the the populati population, on, there there are 120,919 Rom Roman an Cathol Catholiics and and 15,442 Protestant Protestants, s, that that is, is, Christians not subject to the jurisdiction of the Pope. The Syrian Protestants are the vast majority, the Mission and other Protestants being less than 1,500. The Syrians, Protestant and Catholic, are still divided by schisms caused by rival bishops." 65. For F or Travancore, I am sorry to say, I am unable to give give any inform information, ation, as the the Travaneore Report Repo rt has not not been receiv rece ived. ed. But there there are certain c ertain broad facts facts whi which ch are are apparent apparent on a compari comparison son of the the return returnss of the the present present Census Census for thi this State State with with those those for for the the previ previous Census Census of May 1875. While the entire population of Travancore has increased in six years 3 # 9 per cent., the Christian section of it has increased 6.4 per cent. In regard to sects, if the proportion borne by the several Christian churches remains the same now as in the previous Census, every 10.000 Christians consist of 6,335 Syrians, Syrians, 2,352 2,35 2 Roman Catholics, Catholics, and 1,313 1,31 3 Protestants. P rotestants. 66. In I n the next next abstract abstra ct will will be seen the distribution distribution of the Sikh popul pop ulation, ation, which which ranks next, and is is almost almost equal eq ual in in numbers numbers to the Christians. Christians. ABSTRACT XII. Sikhs. 1. Punjab, British Territory 2. Punjab, Feudatory States 3. Bombay, British Territory 4. Hyderabad 5. North- West Provinces, British Territory 6. Central India 7. Bengal 8. Berar 9. Ajmere 10. Central Provinces, British Territory 11. Mysore 12. Bombay, Feudatory States 13. Assam 14. Rajputana 15. Central Provinces, Feudatory States
1121004 595110 127100 3664 3644 1455 549 525 182 97 41 30 14 9 2
As is natural, natura l, the the Sikhs are found mainly mainly in in the Punjab, Punjab , the only instance in which they appear app ear in any strength stre ngth outside the Punjab Punja b being in in the the adjace adj acent nt province rovince of Sindh Sindh,, incl included uded in in Bom Bombay bay (Bri (Briti tish sh Terri Territory tory). ). In Bombay Bombay they they muster uster 127,100, and and out of these these 126,976 were were enum enumerated in in Sindh Sindh.. They They are found scattered in small numbers (not exceeding 1,000 in three provinces, and less than 100 in six) throughout 12 of the remaining Provinces and States. It is believed believed that in the the Punjab no additi a dditions ons are being made made,, by conversion co nversion,, to the numbers of thi thiss religion. religion. The The circumstances which which in former years induced Hindoos to depart from the parent religion, and to embrace the dissenting doctrines of the Sikh Gurus, have much changed, and, with the fall of
the Sikh monarchy, the inducement for such a course has passed away. It would even seem that the mere increase of population among the Sikhs is not followed by a proportionate increase in the numbers of the religion, and that the sons of the old Sikhs in some instances have abjured the Sikh tenets, and, at all events, do not style themselves by the name of their fathers' religion. The more peaceful times which have followed the introduction of British rule in the Punjab have undoubtedly interfered with the increase of a religion which is mainly militant. 67. Next N ext in in num number ber come co me the the Jains, who, who, as will will be seen se en from from Abstract XIII., XIII. , are found more more widely distributed distributed than the the Buddhists Buddhists or the Sikhs. 42 ABSTRACT XIII. Jains. 1. Rajputana 2. Bombay Feudatory States 3. Bombay, British Territory 4. North-West Provinces, British Territory 5. Central India 6. Baroda 7. Central Provinces, British Territory 8. Punjab, British Territory
378672 282219 216224 79957 49824 46718 45718 35826
9. Madras 10. Ajmere 11. Berar 12. Hyderabad 13. Punjab, Feudatory States 14. Bengal 15. Central Provinces, Feudatory States 16. Assam 17. Coorg 18. Burmah
24973 24308 20020 8521 6852 1609 193 158 99 5
They are traceable tracea ble in in eighteen eighteen of the twenty-two twenty-two Provinces and States, State s, but are only found found in numbers numbers in Rajputana and Bombay, where they amount amount to 877,115. I have already noted that, owing to the popular opinion, and, I believe, the correct* opinion, that Jains may properly be included under the term Hindoo, their numbers are probably understated. They have generally been described as a sect of Hindoos, and perhaps are more akin in their religious professions to Buddhists than to the pure and orthodox Hindoo of the present day; but they claim to be more pure as to their tenets than the Hindoos of the present day, and assert that their religion reproduces the unadulterated doctrine of the early Hindoo belief. They allege that Hindooism, as it now exists, is a monstrous combination of heretical dogmas and practices. "The Vedas, the 18 Purânas, the Trimurtti, the Avatars of Vishnu, the Lingam, the worship of the cow and other animals, the sacrifice of the Homa, and all adoration of sensible objects are rejected by the Jains, who maintain these to be perversions of the primitive religion. It is not improbable that the Jains may be identical with the Gymno-Sophists of India, mentioned by the the Greek Greek wri writers; and, in confi confirm rmati ation on of thi this idea, idea, itit may may be stated stated that that in in Hi Hindoostan ndoostan they they are call called Digam Digambaras, baras, whi which ch means means devoid devoid of cloth clothiing, ng, thus corresponding to the name applied to them by the Greeks. Their philosophical opinions are thoroughly materialistic. Their sect is said by Mr. Colebrooke to have been founded about 600 years before Christ. Of their religious literature little is known, but they have one great peculiarity which marks them somewhat sharply from other religions,—their scruple respecting the destruction of animal life." 68. N ext in in number number to the Jains come the the Satnàm Sa tnàmis is and Kabirpanthis. These These are a re distingui distinguished shed only in in the Central Provinces, Provinces, though unquestionably unquestionably they are found in other parts of India. They number respectively 398,409 and 347,994. Regarding the Satnámis, I extract the following remarks from Mr. Drysdale's Report for the Central Provinces:— "Para. 34. 3 4. An extract extrac t from the the Bilaspur Bilaspur Settlem S ettlement ent Report, by Mr. C hisholm hisholm,, con-taini co n-taining ng an account of the Satnámis, Satnámis, was printed at page pa ge 20 of o f the the Appendices Appendices to the Census Report of 1872. It showed that Ghâsi Ghâsi Dâss Chamàr, Chamàr, the founder founder of o f the the sect, between the the years 1820 1 820 and 1830, preached among the Chhatisgarh Chamàrs the abandonment of idol adoration, and the worship of the one true God under the title of Satnam, or the true Name, and the levelling of all caste distinctions." "Mr. Chisholm described the religion as a Hindooized deism, intermingled with social and dietary regulations borrowed from from Brahm Brahminism nism.. He furt further her showed showed how the the movem movement ent soon incl included uded nearl nearly y the the whol wholee Chamàr Chamàr comm communi unity of Chhati Chhatisga sgarh, rh, *A curious instance illustrating the correctness of this view is found in the Bombay report, where Mr. Baines writes, "In the Gujarát division the partition between Hindu and Jain is of the very narrowest description, in contrast to the state of feeling more to the north, and probably in the sectarian south of the continent. In Gujarát the Jain community is almost entirely commercial in character, and as a rule in easy circumstances, with considerable, and in Ahmedabad, with predominant influence. influence. In many cases the sub- divisions divisions bear the same names as the Hindu Hindu c aste w ith which t hey probably share a common origin, origin, and cases occur, and are, I believe, not uncommon, in which intermarriage between the Jain and Meshri, or Hindu, section takes place. The bride, when with her Jain husband, performs the household ceremonies according to the ritual of that form of religion, and on the frequent occasions when she has to make a temporary sojourn at the paternal abode she reverts to the rites of her ancestors, as performed, before her marriage."
43 described briefly their progress and the simplicity of their worship, and concluding by noting that a split had occurred in the community on the question whether smoking, as well as drinking spirituous liquor, was prohibited to them. A further account of these Satnámis was given in the Settlement Report of the Raipur District by Mr. Hewitt. He showed that the teaching of Ghasi Dâss was a revival of that preached by the Chamár reformer, Rohidas, in the 15th century, in Rewah and the country to the south of Oudh, and suggested that the original Satnami came from that direction, and included converts of other castes than Chamar, only all alike were styled Chamár by the Hindoos in consequence of their rejection of caste, and inclusion of a majority of Chamàrs within their body. In this way he accounted both for the unusual preponderance of Chamàrs in the Bilaspur and Raipur districts, and for their superior superior physique physique and appearance. appe arance. Of the total 398,409 Satnámi Satnámis enumerated enumerated at this this Censu Ce nsus, s, 396,489 39 6,489 are regarded as Cham C hamars ars by caste, and 356,533 356,5 33
within the two districts of Bilaspur and Raipur. The remainder are regarded as of other castes, from the Brahmins downwards. I am inclined to attribute this exceptional record of other castes to a retrograde creeping in of caste prejudices." The above remarks will throw light on certain allusions in the following extracts from papers kindly written to show the present condition of the Satnàmis. The Rev. Oskar Lohr, of the American Reform Church, Missionary to the Satnàmis, writes, "It is a matter much to be regretted that the early history of this interesting people is involved in obscurity. Nothing is known about their social and religious con-dition before they came, probably from the Punjab, to this part of the country. Until the religious movement started by Ghâsi Dàss, 60 years ago, the whole tribe were Hindoos. But at present it is difficult to state how many of them can be called such. About 25,000 are Satnám Sa tnámis; is; the the rest, about 300,000 300,0 00 or o r more, cannot be called called Satnám S atnámiis properly prop erly,, since they they do not observe ob serve the rites rites and precepts prece pts pre- scribed by the the Satnam Satnamii reli religion, gion, nei neith ther er do they they contri contribut butee to the the support support of the the Guru Guru (Chief (Chief Priest). Priest). Marri Marriage age cannot cannot take place place between between a Satnàm Satnàmii Chàmar Chàmar and and non-Satnàmi Chamàr as long as the latter has not embraced the religion of the former. The non-Satnàmi Chamàrs observe all the Hindoo festivals, eat meat and certain vegetables forbidden by the Satnàmi religion; they smoke tobacco and drink intoxicating liquors; many of them work in leather also. They are, as their forefathers were, Hindoos. The true Satnàmis acknowledge the Guru as their spiritual leader. They abstain from tobacco, intoxicating liquors and drugs, animal food, and from certain vegetables. They do not observe Hindoo festivals, nor worship idols. The necklace worn by them has religi religious ous meaning, meaning, it was touched by the Guru, and, above abo ve all, they hate bitterl b itterly y the Hindoos, and mostly the Brahmins. Brahmins. The non-Satnàm non-Sa tnàmii Chamàr has, in common with the Satnàmi proper, a salutation, the outward mark, but without religious meaning to it, the necklace, and in some cases the bitter feeling towards toward s the Hindoo Hindooss or o r rather ra ther the Brahmins. Brahmins. The d iffi ifficult culty y in getting getting a correc c orrectt numerical numerical result of the number of o f Satnàmi Chamars and non-Satnàm non-Sa tnàmii Chamàrs lies in the fact that all Chamàrs call themselves Satnamis without being such. The real Chamars, or leather workers, who are found every-where and belong to the Hindoos, stand in no relationship to the agricultural Chamàrs of Chhatisgarh. They are low caste Hindoos. The Satnàmi Guru has about 25,000 disciples. They are certainly not Hindoos, but deists, but the rest, about 300,000, though called Satnàmis, cannot be counted as such so long as they have not embraced the Satnàmi religion." In a footnote I have further extracted an article on the Satnàmis by Mr. Banerjee, of Raipur.*
* "In point of physique, they are taller, fairer, and better made than the other inhabitants of the country, and this has led to the theory that they are immigrants from the Gangetic provinces. But no authentic informa-tion can be obtained about this supposed immigration. There is nothing in their speech or habits to show Gangetic origin, and no tradition is left amongst them to favour the theory. It is worthy of note that while the Lodhis and Kurmis clearly remember that they came from the north-west, the Chamar's uniform reply, when questioned on the subject, is that 'he belongs to the country.' The Chamar's necessities are fewer than those of his Hindu neighbours; his marriage, funeral, and religious expenses bear no comparison with those of the Hindus. His habits and tastes are of the simplest and most inexpensive kind; one piece of cloth about the loins and another on the head, with a gold ring on the left ear and a silver bangle on the right arm const itute the ideal of his per fect toilette. toilette. His food c onsists of the produc e of his fields, fields, of w hich he always has plenty, the virgin virgin soil yielding a copious outturn for comparatively little labour. It would appear from the above that both necessity and inclination make him work less than the Hindus, and, as a matter of fact, he works less. His abstinence from animal food (which, in a country so hot as Chhatisgarh, works more harm than good) and from all sorts of intoxicating drinks and drugs, and his agricultural pur-6uits give him health. The Chamar women, although they sometimes assist in removing or gathering the produce of their own fields, yet seldom work as 'rezas' (general day-labourers) as other low class women seen to do. It may not, therefore, require going the length of Dr. Darwin to say that the superiority of
44 69. The Kabirpanthi Ka birpanthiss are also only recorded reco rded in the the Central Provinces, though they undoubtedly undoubtedly are to be found in in small small numbers numbers in other parts of India. They are 50,000 less in numbers than the Satnamis, who, according to Mr. Bath, "are, in a way,
physique of the Satnamis is ow ing to their sobriety, leisure, leisure, plenty, and the enjoyment of c ountry air f or generations." " Origin. Origin. —The s ect, as is w ell known, owes its origin to one Rohidás, w ho w as a disciple disciple of Ramanand Das, w ho flourished tow ards the latter end of the 17th century. Rámanand Das was a Byrági. According to him every man belonging to the superior classes amongst the Hindus could become a 'Byrági,' and on admission into the brotherhood all former inequality of caste was set aside. But all the lower classes of Hindus and all non-Hindus were excluded from joining the fraternity. Now this was but a half measure. Rohidas proclaimed perfect equality of all men in the eyes of their Maker, an invisible Being, and invited all men, without distinction of colour or creed, to come and partake of the salvation newly discovered by himself. Such sweeping doctrines could ill afford to find much favour in orthodox Hindustan, and he was obliged to retire into the wilds of Gondwana, where he eventually succeeded in establishing his church. According to him there is no established form of prayer, each man may address his Maker in his own way, but prayer is inculcated as a necessity. No church or place of public ublic wor ship and no priesthood ar e ordained. His His c ode of morals does not differ much from that of the Hindus. Hindus. " Changes. Changes. —This w as S atnàmism in its early stage. But, like everything Indian, Indian, t he principle of hereditary suc cess ion to the gadi (or throne) carr ied within itself the germ of corruption. Each successive ' Guru ' leftan enlarged heap of riches to his successor, and a proportionate diminution of learning and sanctity of morals. The time of the present Guru (a man no more learned than one of his followers) is spent in managing his own temporal concerns, and in making a sort of progress through the country, receiving presents, offerings, and homage from all, but enlightening none. Under the guidauce of such a shepherd it is not difficult to conceive that the flock should go astray. The Chamàrs of the present day have all but lost their primitive creed, and devoutly supply their quota in the worship of Thakurdeo, Burhadeo, and a whole host of deities and deified heroes of the Gond and Hindu pantheon, and the Byga receives at least an equal amount of support from the Chamàr constituents as he does from the Gonds and Hindus. Nor is this to be wondered at. Theism, a belief in an immaterial omnipresent God without shape, is difficult of conception even by comparatively educated minds. The human mind in its infancy in every part of the world and in all ages has attributed phenomena to agency more or less concrete; there is always a yearning to assign a local habitation, a definite shape, and relations like human to superior intelligences. The Chamars are as a rule illiterate, and their ideas are yet too primitive to grasp and cling to an abstract, ideal, shapeless God. It may be supposed that they never understood the doctrine of Rohidas in its entirety, but embraced it to escape the grinding social tyranny which heaped utter degradation on themselves. Surrounded by a more in-telligent, better educated, and wealthier class, who excel in religious pageants, unsupported in their hazy belief elief in an inapprehensible inapprehensible deity by their sleeping ' Guru' and Bhandaries, Bhandaries, dazzled by the s plendour plendour of the Hindu Hindu w orship of decked idols which directly appeals appeals to the senses, it did not require long for them to slide back to the old belief, although it brought back the old tyranny of a haughty priesthood with it. It does not arJpear that Satnamism ever attracted any number of proselytes from the better classes of the Hindus. Men possessed of rank and wealth are conservatives in every country. Those who have anything to lose think before they take any serious step that would finally sever them from their brethren; the Christian apostles
were taken from fishers. In the case of the higher class Hindus there was the further temptation of looking down from the serene heights of fancied superiority on fellow men whose congenital crime could not be washed out by piety or penance. Superiority, real or fancied, is and has always been coveted by man. A ' Brahman' Brahman' or ' Chatri' Chatri' could scarcely be expected to renounce his inborn rights (in his eyes) to mix as an equal with 'Dhers' and 'Chamars,' whom it had been the immemorial privilege of himself and his fore-fathers to look down upon as worse than the beasts of the field. A Brahman can touch a goat or deer without pollution, ollution, but he mus t not t ouch a Chamar. I nnate conviction c ould have done something for t he spr ead of Rohidas' doc trine. But theism in order to be the prevailing revailing religion religion of a c ountry pr esupposes a degree of knowledge and intelli intelligence gence s carc ely arrived at by the mas ses in any part of India. Even now very f ew Brahmans think on religious questions themselves, it would perhaps be considered unorthodox to do so. . . . . . The result naturally was that only the lowest of the people availed themselves of the relief opened out by Rohidás, not so much by an intelligent appreciation of the excellence of his doctrines, as to avoid the utter degradation and contempt in which they were held. The mass of the Hindu population, on the other hand, exasperated at the idea of the forced emancipation of their hereditary slaves, looked on this schism of the outcasts find pariahs with anger and disgust, and gave them the name of ' Chamar,' the very concentrated essence of Hindu contempt. "Had "Had the Satnàmis as a class risen to knowledge knowledge and prosperity after their sec ession from Hindui Hinduism, sm, they would probably have sec ured an an ameli ameliorated orated position for themselves in time. T he 'J át' c onverts t o 'Sikhism ' have done this. But fr om a variety of caus es not necess ary to mention, the Chamàrs' material prosperity or knowledge has not increased w ith the efflux of time. He has remained the s ame illi illiterate terate c lown w ith rude plenty that he w as a hundred years ago, without the desire or energy to ascend to a higher state of civilization. The sense of wrong at being looked down upon by the other castes and the assumed spirit of haughty isolation have died with the founder of their class, and both Guru and disciple have again kindly taken to the supercilious contempt of the dominant Hindus. " Habits and Character. Character. —The Satnami is ordinarily a moderately industrious industrious f ellow, ellow, quite satisfied with himself and the w orld around him, if he has but the barest necess aries of life, life, and has no sow cár to fly at him f or any heavy debts, which his habits of t hrift seldom allow allow him to run into. He thinks thinks himself supremely blest if he has but one or two ploughs with bullocks, a gárá or two of grain in stock, with a few trinkets for himself and family, and, above all, a plough or tw o of land in in w hich he may have acquired oc cupanc y rights. This last is s o muc h c oveted, that a Chamar is of ten seen t o spend his last penny to secure it. He would stop at no untruth, howsoever monstrous, if he thinks that he can win his point by it. When he has once launched in a lawsuit, he would either win it or ruin himself by litigation. Suit after suit is dismissed without abating one jot of his ardour or patience; he would march on from one Court to another till he has gone to the Judicial Commissioner, and after he had lost his case there, he would send miscellaneous petitions to the Chief Commissioner, the Governor General, and sometimes to authorities which have no existence. The Chamàr's obstinacy is proverbial. Though not personally a poltroon, he does not love danger for its own sake. His respect for authority is almost idolatrous; there is scarcely any-
45 branches ranches sprung sprung from the the sect of Kabir." Kabir." Regardi Regarding ng the the reli religious gious doctri doctrines nes of the the Kabirpant Kabirpanthi his, s, he he gives gives the the fol folllowing owing inform nformati ation: on:— — "The most most perfect p erfect represe rep resentati ntative ve of the reforming reforming movement movement was Kabir, Kab ir, or, as his his disciples, who revere in him him an incarnation incarnation of the the deity de ity,, also surname him, Juanim, the one who has knowledge, the seer. So little is known of a positive kind in regard to this remarkable man that some have gone so far as to douht his existence. The most probable hypothesis is that he was born at Benares, and was of the weaver caste, that he was a Vairâgin of the sect of Râmânanda, perhaps, as tradition surmises, an immediate disciple of that master, and that he taught at the beginning of the 15th century, the legend making him live 300 years, from 1149 to 1449. Kabir has left no writings, but his sect possesses pretty numerous collections in Hindee, the composition of which is, with more or less reason, ascribed to his first disciples, in which are preserved a great number of the sayings of the master, forming at times pieces to some extent, in verse as well as in dialogues, reproducing contro-versies, which are, in part, certainly imaginary, and in which he is the chief interlocutor. In these teachings of his, Kabir sets himself against the whole body of Hindoo superstitions. He rejects and ridicules the Shastras and the Puranas; he severely chastises the arrogance and hypocrisy of the Brahmins; he rejects every malevolent distinction of caste, religion, and sect. All who love God and do good are brothers, be they Hindoos or Mussulmans. Idolatry and everything which approaches to it or may suggest it is severely condemned. The temple ought to be only a house of prayer. He tolerates among his disciples neither practices that are too demonstrative nor irregularities of custom, nor any of those external marks which are the distinctive badge of the Hindoo sects, and which serve only to divide men. Yet not to scandalize a neighbour, he enjoins on them conformity to usage in indifferent matters. He recommends renunciation and contemplative life; but he demands, above all, moral purity, and does not restrict it to one particular kind of life. All authority in the matter of faith and morals belong to the Guru. Yet obedience to his commands must not be blind obedience, and a reservation is expressly made on behalf of the rights and conscience of the believer. Of these features taken separately there are not many which we do not meet with again more or less elsewhere in the past history of the sectarian religions. But the whole is new, and singularly recalls the quietism of the Moslem. This resemblance has been recognized in India itself. But Mahammedans claim Kabir as one of themselves, and among the Hindoos there is a widespread tradition which represents him as a converted Mussulman. One thing is certain, that Kabir was much occupied with Islam. His aim obviously was to found a unitary religion which would unite in the same faith the Hindoos and the followers of the Prophet; aud with that view he assailed the intolerance of the Koran and the fanaticism of the Molahs with no less vigour than the prejudices of his compatriots. We cannot doubt that the spectacle of Islam with its triumphant monotheism, its severely spiritualistic worship, its large fraternity, and its morality practically so
thing he will not bear from a man in authority. Generally speaking, he is quiet and inoffensive, but when mortally offended he will go any length to injure his antagonist. His His esprit de corps is worthy of praise; a Chamar will often suffer considerable loss to do a good turn to a brother of the same fraternity when fighting with a landlord of a different sect. He is generally a good father and a good son, but is not so strict a believer in the doctrine of conjugal fidelity. His ideas of cleanliness and decency are capable of much improvement; he sleeps in a hovel without windows, with an army of children of all ages round himself squatting on the floor, on which the very apology for a coarse mattress is sometimes spread. In winter he wears a blanket, and the children are packed up under a quilt of rags stitched on one another, sometimes the accumulation of generations. During the day the sun is considered a sufficient protection against cold, and very little clothing is used. But chest diseases are rarer than might be expected from this sort of exposure. When sick the Chamar mostly trusts to nature for recovery. Sometimes he resorts to the village 'baid,' who gives him a lot of vegetable drugs or instructs him to find them out himself. In diseases requiring surgical operations, the Chamar seldom has recourse to any help. He has a superstitious dread of the hospital, to which he very seldom goes except when he has to undergo an operation for the stone. During cholera seasons bis only hope is in the efficiency of the Byga or aboriginal priest, whom he pays to the best of
hismeans to protect himself and family from the anger of the dread goddess. . . . .
" Knowledge, Superstition, and Belief. Belief. —Very few Chamars Chamars coul could ten years years ago ago write write thei theirr own names. names. The The vil village school schoolss have have taug taught ht some some few few of the younger generation the rudiments of Hindi, but the great masses are yet as ignorant as ever. There are few Chamars who have seen any place beyond eyond thei theirr own distri district. ct. The The necessary necessary consequence consequence of thi this ign ignoranc orancee and want want of travel travel is that that they they are supersti superstiti tious ous to to a degree. degree. If there there is is a murr murrai ain n amongst the cattle, or some of the children are sick, or if there is a genera! outbreak of cholera, there is at once a local inquiry instituted to find out the witch who is doing it, and woe to the poor woman who is pointed out by the Byga as the authoress of the mischief. The treatment which she receives in many cases results in death, and stripping naked and beating her out of the village with castor-oil sticks is the mildest punishment. Strictly speaking, the Chamar ought to believe in no other deity but one, but, as a matter of fact, he is as bad an idolator as the most ignorant of the Hindus." 46 incontestably superior to Hindooism, left a very deep impression on his mind. At the same time this impression appears to have been only quite general. Kabir was indifferently acquainted with the Mussulman theology; his god is neither that of the Koran, nor that of Suffism, nor that of the Vedanta. The mantra of initiation with which he receives his disciples is in the name of Rama; and notwithstanding the very exquisite profession which he makes of monotheism, he seems to have himself admitted, anyhow those who believed in him afterwards admitted, the majority of the personifications of Hindooism. The numbers of this sect, the Kabirpanthis, those who follow the path of Kabir, form at present twelve principal branches, which have remained in communion with one another in spite of sundry differences with regard to both doctrine and practice, and their centre is at Benares, but we meet with them throughout the whole Presidency of Bengal, in Gujerat, in Central India, and far as the Deccan. Their number, difficult to estimate because of the the pains pains they they take take to conf conform to the the custom customss in in the the mi midst of whi which they they live, appears to be pretty pretty consi considerabl derable. e. At the the end of last centu century ry their religious order by itself alone contri-buted, it is said, 35,000 of those who took part in a mela held at Benares; and they are still more influential than numerous. Kabir himself is revered as a saint by the majority of the Vishnuites; his authority is directly recognized by many re-forming sects, and his influence is visible in all of them." 70. The followin following g extracts are taken tak en from from a memorandum memorandum on the Kabirpanthis Kabirpanthis by Mr. Sadâshiv Sad âshiv Vithal, Vithal, an inspec inspector tor of schools in in the the Chhindwara Chhindwara district. "The head-quarters head- quarters of o f the the Kabirpanthi Ka birpanthi sect, in the Chhindwara Chhindwara district, are at a t Singhori Singhori,, a fair-sized vill village age on the Narsin Nars inghpur ghpur road, about a bout 14 miles miles north of Chhindwara, where Anandi Das, the mahant or prior, with a following of 12 byragees or priests, lives. This is the village where the head of the faith, at present residentat Kawardhá, is said to have resided before removing to Bilaspur. . . . . . Kabiraimed at bringing all, Hindu and Mussulman alike, within the pale of the new faith. The date of the appearance of Kabir is given in the Suksit Dhyán (one of the books kept at Singhori) as Sam bat 1524, or A.D. 1467. Kabir seems to have been one of the followers of Rámánand, who is said (Arya Darpan, September 1880, page 209) to have had 12 disciples, among whom were Rohidás Chamàr and Kábir Jaláha. The latter, however, went much further than his master, and discarded all the Hindu incarnations, teaching the worship of Nirankár, or the formless being. He denounced as false both the teaching of the Puráns and Vedas, and also the teachings of Mahomed. At present the chief ordinances of the faith as preached and practised in this district are,—(1) to avoid idol worship; (2) to perform erform no pil pilgrim grimages to Hindu Hindu holy holy places; places; (3) (3) not to touch touch any any spi spiri ritu tuous ous liliquor or flesh. flesh. The The prohi prohibiti bition on of the the use use of tobacco (Betu (Betull Settlem Settlement ent Report) does not seem to be known in the district, so far as the laity are concerned, and intermarriages and funeral services are conducted according to caste rules. There is no prohibition against the admission of any caste into the faith; and as a matter of fact there is a considerable number of Koshtis, Kunbis, Teiis, Gaolis, Sonárs, Mahesris, and Chamàrs (besides other castes), who are Kabirpanthis, and also a few Mussulmans. The tendency now, however, is towards excluding some of the lower castes; and the Singhori priestinforms me that the conversion of Chamàrs is neither attempted, nor, indeed, allowed in this district. Also, though theoretically there is no distinction of caste among Kabirpanthis (Betul Settlement Report), each caste keeps much to itself; and, on the other hand, Kabirpanthis and the orthodox of the same caste eat together and intermarry. The tendency all over the district is, in short, to give up Kabirpanthism in all but the name. The ceromony of initiation is very simple. Persons who wish to be ordinary Kabirpanthis are generally admitted to the faith at the residence of the mahant, though this is not essential. The only necessaries are that a small piece of ground should be cleaned, and a religious book and the mahant be present. The password (mantra) is then blown, in the orthodox manner, into the ear of the convert, and he is presented with some betel leaves and sweetmeats; a necklace of wooden beads (generally cocoa-nut, from Bombay) is also placed round his neck, and without this on he is not supposed to eat or drink. The convert then gives of his substance, according to his means, to the mahant. Those who become ecome ascetics ascetics wear necklaces necklaces of a dif different ferent pattern, pattern, and are are also also obli obliged to to wear a skull skull cap, whi which may may be of any material aterial or colour colour,, provi provided it it is is peaked. These These asceti ascetics travel travel about asking asking alm alms, and, and, those those who who can read, expl explai aini ning ng thei theirr sacred books. But But they they do not seem to take much troubl troublee about proselytizing, and there is little itinerary preaching done." 47 71. I also add an account of Kabirpanthism, Kabirpanthism, furni furnished shed by Babu Babu Tarudas Banerjee, B.A., B.L., pleader at Raipur, and printed printed in the Central Provi Pro vinces nces Report:— "Acco "According rding to the Kabirpanthis Kabirpanthis Kabir, Kab ir, whom whom they call ‘Sahi ‘Sa hib,' b,' first appeare app eared d as a boy at Mathura, and was not not born of woman. woman. From Mathura he he proceeded to Benar Benares, es, and and thence thence to Jaggan Jagganath ath,, perform performiing miracles racles all all the the way. way. On comi coming to a place place call called Bando, Bando, he made Dharam Dharamdás dás a Kasundi KasundiaaBaniá, his chelá or disciple, and it was this man who, on the death of Kabir, became the head of the Kabirpanthis, and settled at Kawardhá, where his family still continue on the gadi (throne) as the hereditary Gurus (high priests) of the sect. According to Kabir no caste distinctions are allowed; every man, irrespective of his colour or creed, is eligible to Kabirism, and Hindus and Mahammedans partake of food from each others' hands after initiation. Kindness to life in all forms is inculcated. But on the death of Kabir, at Mugher, the religion promulgated by him underwent those changes that have given it elasticity and life. Renunciation of caste ceased to be a sine a sine quâ non preli reliminary of professi profession on of Kabiri Kabirism. sm. The The Sahib Sahib or Guru Guru at at Kawardhá Kawardhá wisel wisely y lef leftt
the caste system untouched, and called on his followers only to worship Kabir, and to abstain from killing animals. From Gawadhan upwards all ceremonies are performed by Hindu priests, according to established ritual, without creating any scandal amongst the Kabiris. It is this spirit of compromise and tolerance which has spread Kabirism throughout the greater part of India. The Hierarchy— ""The The chief Guru lives at Kawardha, in Zilla Bilaspur. He doesnot appear to be more learned than his disciples, and is more careful of his own secular concerns than of the spiritual welfare of his followers. He appoints a certain number of deputies called bhandaries and mahants from the more advanced of his followers, who, after paying a good amount for the privilege, go on re- couping themselves from contributions by their own disciples, of whom they always manage to get together a good number. They are not bound to observe celibacy, but a good many assume that state for the peculiar sanctity that is always ascribed by the multitude to it. The Guru resides at Kawardha, but his mahants are spread all over the country. Besides these mahants and bhandaries there are a number of hereditary 'gadiwá 'gadiw ál á s’ the principal of whom live at Kudurmal, in the Korba zemindari, in Bilaspur, and at Bangoli, in Tehsili Simga. Every one of these has to send a certain amount to the Sahib according to his income, but they always retain a good round sum for themselves. The lineal descendants of Dharmodas are called ' gadiw ' gadiwáál á s,' s,' and have always the word 'nam’ annexed to their names, e.g., 'Ugranam,' 'Sheshnam,' &c, whereas the collateral branches, a good many of whom live at Dargaon, Tahsil Drug, in Raipur, are called 'Shakha banda,' and and have have the the affi affix x 'Das' 'Das' attached attached to to thei theirr nam names. es. Accordi According ng to the the Kabirpant Kabirpanthi his, s, there there are 42 gaddi gaddies es and and 10,000 branch branch gaddi gaddies es all all over India, India, but no rel reliance can be placed placed on these these num numbers. One One of these these 'Shákhá 'Shákhá bansi bansis,' s,' at Dham Dhamtari tari,, has has thrown thrown off his his all allegiance egiance to to the the ‘Sahi ‘Sahib' at Kawardhá, Kawardhá, and has pro-claimed himself a ' Sahib.' He has got a good many followers on that side of the district, but his celebrity is but a local one, he and his followers followers being b eing considere considered d by b y the generality of the orthodix Kabiri Ka biriss nothing nothing but hereti here tics." cs." S ádhus. dhus. —"Un "Unllike the the Chamàrs, Chamàrs, all all of whom whom foll follow some some sort of secul secular professi profession on or other, other, the the Kabirpant Kabirpanthi hiss have have got a pretty pretty larg largee body amongst them, who, though not professing celibacy like the Hindu Byrágees, yet resemble them a good deal in their habits and customs. Dressed in a peculi eculiar styl style, they they go go about in pairs pairs beggi begging ng from door to door, reci reciti ting ng moral precepts in verse verse to to the the accompani accompanim ment of a sing singlle-string e-stringed ed inst instrum rument ent resembling a guitar, and two pieces of black wood beaten one against the other to keep time. They profess allegiance to the 'Sahib at Kawardha, but keep their earnings to themselves. They are generally well versed in the doctrines of their sect, and often willingly enter into controversies with the members of other sects, when they defend and elucidate their positions by quotations from the metrical polemics of Kabir. It is thus that a good many people eople belong belongiing to the the lower lower orders orders of Hindu Hinduss are annu annual allly convert converted ed to Kabiri Kabirism sm,, but the the substan substanti tial al benefi benefit of the the conversi conversion on is is reaped by the the nearest nearest gádiwálá or mahant, as the 'Sádhus' cannot make 'Chelas' except by special permission of the 'Sahib' at Kawardha. As Kabirism does not involve loss of caste or any other sort of social degradation, as it does not impose any wearisome or costly ceremonial, as fasting and penance are no part of its teachings, and, above all, as its doctrines are more simple and better suited to the apprehension of the masses than those of Hinduism, and, as they are embodied in a series of Hindustani verses easily under- stood and remembered by all, Kabirism has gone on increasing in strength and 48 prosperity rosperity in the the mi midst of the the decli decline of other other sects sects whi which have have not not the the same same elasti elastici city ty to support support them them.. It is is worthy worthy of note note that that in in the the Central Central Provinces Provinces almost the whole of the Kabirpanthis are Gharbáris, i.e., married people, whereas in Northern India the greater part of them are Nihangs, i.e., devotees vowed to celibacy, who go about the country with a sort of roving commission." Principal Castes. Castes. —"Th "Thee larg largest est num number ber of Kabirpant Kabirpanthi hiss in in Chhat Chhatiisgarh sgarh are are Teli Telis, Gándás, Gándás, and and Pakás, whi which classes classes have have en masse adopted Kabirism. But other castes also occur in numbers, Brahmins (rare), Chhatris, Banias, Naus, Dhobis, and Mahammedans, all classes were invited to join the fraternity. The Chhatri and Brahman are expelled from caste on their conversion to Kabirism, and thenceforth occupy the same position as is held by Hindu Byrágees, and it is from them that the bhandáries and mahants are mostly taken. The Kabirpanthis of the present day recognize and retain caste distinctions as tenaciously as the most orthodox Hindus. Ordinarily no Kabirpanthis of one caste would eat food cooked by a member of another, and it is only when they meet at Kawardha on some festive occasion that the rule is somewhat relaxed for the occasion, on the same principle, perhaps, that induces Hindus to partake of food brought by any one at Jagannath. The different castes of course never intermarry. In their social relations, habits, and superstition, the Kabirpanthis differ but slightly from the Satnàmis." 72. The Parsis, Par sis, who stand next next in in num numbers bers,, form but a very small small portion of the the popul pop ulation. ation. They They appear appea r in the various various Presidenci Pres idencies es as aggregating 85,397 85, 397,, and their distribution distribution by b y Provi Pro vinces nces is shown in the followin following g abstract:— abs tract:— ABSTRACT XIV. Parsis. 1. Bombay, British Territory
72065
10. Madras
2. Baroda 3. Bombay, Feudatory States 4. C entral India 5. Hyderabad 6. Punjab, British Territory
8118 1908 916 638 462
7. Cen Central Prov Proviinces ces, Br British Ter Terrritory ory
399 399
8. Berar 9. Bengal
242 156
11. North- West Provinces, British Territory 12. Burmah 13. Ajmere 14. Mysore 15. Coorg 16. Rajputana 17. Punjab, Feudatory States
143 114 83 75 47 21 7 3
They are found, found, it will will be seen, se en, in any considera considerable ble numbers numbers only in Bombay and Baroda, Baroda , where 82,091 82 ,091 of them are shown, the remain remainin ing g three thousand being distributed among 14 other States and Provinces. 73. The Jews are ar e distributed distributed through 14 of the different different Provinces Provinces and States, S tates, but b ut are only only found found in in excess of a thousand, and even then then in in inconsiderable numbers, in Bombay, Cochin, and Bengal; their distribution is shown in the following abstract:— ABSTRACT XV. Jews. 1. Bombay, British Territory 2. C ochin 3. Bombay, Feudatory States 4. Bengal 5. Burmah
7952 1249 1071 1059 204
6. North North-We -West st Prov Proviinces, ces, Brit ritish Terri errito tory ry
101 101
7. Travancore
97
8. Ajmere
94
9. Cent Central ral Prov Proviinces, ces, Briti ritish sh Terri errittory ory
63
10. Hyderabad 11. C entral Jndia 12. Madras 13. Berar 14. Mysore
47 38 30 3 1
74. The Kumbhipathias, Kumbhipathias, who are shown only only in in the the Central Provinces, and number number there 613, 6 13, should not have have been bee n separately separate ly distingu distinguish ished. ed. They are a very small sect, and it was owing to a mistake in the working up of the figures in the Central Provinces Census Office that they have been separately shown. 49 75. There remains remains but one other, other, the Brahmo, Brahmo, religi religion on to notice. notice. The Brahmos Brahmos are record re corded ed in the Census returns as num numbering bering 1,147, 1,1 47, and as found only in the provinces named below with the numbers there given: Bengal 788 Assam 177 Madras 132 Burmah 37 Central Provinces 7 North-West orth-West and Oudh 6 As I have alread already y pointed pointed out, their num number ber is much much understate understated. d. Proba Pr obably bly in Bengal alone they they are reall rea lly y to be found found in hundred hundredss where the Census shows them in tens. It would have been interesting to obtain trustworthy figures of this sect. Those given above do not correctly represent its number. As little is known to the general reader of the Brahmo doctrines, which, in the opinion of some, bridge the chasm separating Hinduism from Deism, and offer a natural passage for the educated agnostic which may eventually lead to the adoption of Christianity by a large and increasing class, I extract in a footnote the remarks by M. Barth on this form of dissent from Hinduism.* 76. In I n dealing dealing with with the the statistics contained contained in Table Table III. of o f Vol. Vol. II., I have not attempted to describe de scribe the religi religion on of the the great mass of the population, population, the Hindoos and Mahammedans. Pure Hinduism and the doctrines of Islám have been copiously treated by various distinguished writers. But the professors of pure pure Hindui Hinduism sm and and strict strict Mahamm Mahammedans form form a very smal smalll portion portion of the the 188, 000,000 re turned turned as Hindus, Hindus, and of the 50 ,000 ,00 0 shown as Mahammedans at the late Census. What may be the special belief or the peculiar practices of the great majority professing these religions, particularly of the uneducated agriculturalists, whether in the north or the south, is little known to the strict interpreters of the K orán or án or to the learned student of the Vedas, Ve das, much much less so s o to the English English offici officials als who admi ad mini nister ster the country. The amusing amusing writer of the Punjab P unjab Census Ce nsus Report has, however, devoted some of his pages to a consideration of the popular doctrine and practice of the Hindus and Mahammedans of our Frontier province, and his remarks will well repay perusal. They will be found collected in Appendix B of this volume. Those who may desire information information concerning conc erning the two most prevalent preva lent religi religions ons will will find find it useful to consult co nsult the following following works:—"The work s:—"The Religi Religions ons of India" (Barth), "The "The History History of o f Antiquity Antiquity,, Vol. Vo l. IV." (Duncker, translated by b y Abbott), Abbo tt), "The Hindus Hindus * "The "The Brahma Samaj (the Church of God). The founder of the movement, movement, in in the first first years years of o f this this century, century, was the Brahman Earn Mohun Roy (who was born at Burdwan in 1772, in Lower Bengal, and died at Bristol, in England, in 1833), one of the noblest figures offered to view in the religious history of any people, but who was, in fact, better conversant with Christian theology (having with this object, besides English, acquired Latin, Greek, and Hebrew) than with the Vedas, although he knew of them all that it was possible to know then. He believed that these old books, in particular the Upanishads, rightly interpreted, contained pure deism, and he endeavoured to persuade his fellow-countrymen to renounce idolatry by appeals to tradition. With this aim he translated and published a certain number of these texts, and ex"pounded his views on reform at the same time in original treatises. Becoming soon an object of attack, at once on the part of his own people and that of certain missionaries, he replied to them in writings in which the science of the theologian is found in alliance with a power of thinking of rare elevation, and some of which continue to this day models of controversial controvers ial literature.* literature.* "The "The Brahma Brahma Samaj, it thus appears, appears , had recourse reco urse from the first first to the the methods of propagandism in use in in Europe Europe,, and it has remained remained faithf faithful ul to these since. In its aim it is a Hindu sect; in its organization, in its means and all its modes of action, it is an association analogous to that of theological
parties arties among among oursel ourselves. It has has its its places places of meeting eeting and prayer, prayer, its comm committees, ttees, its its school schools, s, its its confe conferenc rences, es, its its journ journal als, s, and and its its revi reviews. The The reveal revealed ed authority which the founder had thought, in the beginning at least, he ought to claim for the Yeda has been gradually given up, especially since a kindred association, the Dharma the Dharma Samaj (the Church of the Law), was founded for the defence of the old orthodoxy. For over a dozen years now the sect has been spl spliit int into o a conserva conservati tive ve party party,, the the Adi (i.e., (i.e., ancient) Brahma ancient) Brahma Samâj, and an advanced party, which was formed under the direction of Keshub Chunder Sen, the Brahma the Brahma Samâj of India, the former more respectful to the old usages, the other driving at a more radical reform. In this work there is an immense deal of what is right in itself, devout in sentiment, and great and even noble in aspiration. It is impossible sufficiently to honour these truly worthy men, who labour with so much zeal to raise the intellectual, the religious, and moral level of their fellow-countrymen; and the good which they do is unquestionable. But it is more than 60 years since the Brahma Samâj was founded; and how many adherents can it reckon up? In Bengal, its cradle, among a population of 67,000,000, gome thousands, all in the large towns; in the country districts (and India is an essentially rural country), it is hardly known." *See *Se e in in particular particular his his treatise, "The "The Precepts Precep ts of Jesus, the Guide Guide to Peace Pea ce and Happiness," as also his his First, Second, Seco nd, and Final Final Appeal Appe al to the Christian Public in reply to the Observations of Dr. Marshman, several times reprinted. 50 as they are" (Shib Chunder Bose), "Hinduism" (Monier Williams), "Notes on Muhammadanism," (Hughes), Stobart's "Islam," and a small brochure entitled "Des Particularitès de la Religion Mussulmane dans L'Inde," by Garcin de Tassy. The Indian Provincial Gazetteers also contain much that is valuable in illustration of the popular practices and beliefs. 51 CHAPTER III.
PROPORTIONS OP THE SEXES. 77. 77 . Table IV. contains, conta ins, in in addition ad dition to the information information regarding regard ing the distribution of the population po pulation by religion, religion, certain certa in further statistics which throw light light upon a subject, in dealing with which reviewers of previous Census figures have experienced difficulty. The last columns of Table IV. give the proportion of males to females throughout the entire population, and similar information as to the disparity, or otherwise of the numbers of the sexes for each of the religions. The figures so collected will, I believe, be of much service in enabling us to form sound conclusions in regard to a question on which previously there had been considerable difference of opinion. Until the recent enumeration the proportions borne by the males to the females throughout the various provinces rovinces of Indi Indiaa had had been in in every every instance, nstance, with with the the excepti exception on of Travancor Travancore, e, in in more more or less less marked marked contrast contrast with with those those noti noticeable ceable in in Europea European n countries. At the same time, cases occurred amongst the Indian provinces where the number of males in the population was not so remarkably in excess of the females as to bear out the theory that the proportions of the sexes in Indian populations followed a line differing from that which many years of observation and enquiry had traced in the West. It was in the North of India the greatest divergence had been observed; while in the South especially, and less so in the East this variation became less and less conspicuous. 78. The figures figures for the Indian provinces at the present pres ent and the preceding prece ding enumeration enumeration are given given below. They indicate indicate the number number of males males in every hundred of the population of both sexes: — ABSTRACT XVI. Proportions of Males to every 100 of both Sexes. Provinces. Ajmere Assam Bengal Berar Bombay : British Territory Feudatory States Burmah Central Provinces :— British Territory Feudatory States C oorg Madras North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces :
Present Census. 54.01 51.29 49.79 51.65
Preceding Census. 53.56 51.56 50.0 51.7
51.64
52.3
51.46
52.2
53.28
52.3
50.46
50.9
50.75
51.1
56.33 49.48
56.1 50.2
British Territory Feudatory States Punjab Baroda C ochin Mysore Tr a van core Total India
51.95
52.9
51.65
52.9
54.25 5215 50.28 49.83 49.86 51.18
54.5 52.9 50.3 50.2 49.8 51.4
79. For Fo r purposes purpose s of comparison, I add a return, givi giving ng the proporti propor tions ons of the sexes in in some some of the Europea European n States:— States :— 52 ABSTRACT XVII. Proportion of the Sexes in different European States.
States. Germany England and Wales Hungary Denmark Sweden Switzerland Netherl etherlands Norway Spain Italy Greece
Year of C ensus. Total Population. 1880 1881 1880 1880 1880 1880 1879 1875 1877 1871 1879
45234061 25974439 15625152 1980259 3875237 2846102 4012693 1802172 16731570 26801154 1653767
Males.
Females.
22185433 12639902 7695533 972832 1901820 1394626 1983164 872151 8244978 13472262 855249
23048628 13334537 7929619 1007427 1973417 1451476 2029529 930021 8486592 13328892 798518
Number umber of Males Males in every 100 of both Sexes. 49 48.7 49.3 49.1 49.1 49 49.4 48.4 49.3 50.3 51.7
80. In 1865 the the North-West Provinces Provinces returns returns showed showed that that for every thousand thousand males t here he re were w ere o nly 864 86 4 females in the p o pulatio n, and a nd that tha t out of 1,000 of both sexes, according to the Census returns 536 were males, and 461 only were females, thus entirely reversing the proportion roportion genera generallly noti noticed ced in in Europe. Europe. In speaking of this this state of thin things gs I wrote as foll follows:—" ows:—"It It will will be seen that that in in the the Nor th-W th-W estern Provinces Provinces a large excess of males over females—a state of things quite opposed to European experience—co-exists with extremely early marriages, those marriages being consummated immediately the wives have arrived at puberty, and with a greater difference in the ages of husband and wife than is found in England and France. We also find that the excess of males is less marked in the Mahomedan section of the community, where the difference in age between the husband and wife is less marked. On the other hand, in France and England we find the male births exceeding the female female births; but to so small small an extent that, owing owing to the greate r force of life life in the the female, female, we always have have the females females of all ages ages excee ding ding the males of all ages; and this state of things coexists with marriages later in life, the women being married in the greatest numbers above 20 years of age, and with a less difference in age between husband and wife. "After "After a careful study of the facts facts presented pre sented by these provin provinces, ces, contrasted c ontrasted with those for Europe European an countries, countries, I can come to no no other conclusion conclusion than this, that whatever may be the influence of climate upon the proportion of the sexes, and that such influences do exist we may accept as a fact, the great and abnormal excess of males over females in this country is attributable to the social habits of the people, which, inducing very early marriages, the difference in age between husbands and wives being always relatively greater than in Europe, tend to permit a wider play to the physiological laws which are traced in the influence of the ages of the parents on the sexes of their progeny. "It is, I fear, not to be d doubted oubted that the opin op inions ions of the Hindus Hindus in in regard to females, females, espec e special ially ly among the the higher higher castes, exercise an unfavourable unfavourable influence on female mortality in the earlier years of life. But this influence is quite insufficient to account for the vast difference which is found in the proportions roportions of the the sexes sexes in in thi thiss count country ry compared compared with with others; others; nor nor can it be consi considered dered at al all when when our our attent attentiion is is directed directed to to the the same same subject, subject, the the proportion roportion of the the sexes sexes in in the the Moham Mohamm medan sel selection ection of the the comm communi unity. ty. Mr. Hum Hume's e's careful careful inqui nquiries ries go go to show show how how smal smalll is the the inf inflluence uence whi which infanticide, or mere carelessness of their female children in the earlier years of life, could exercise even in the Hindu population in reference to the proportion roportion of the the sexes. sexes. There There is is evi evidentl dently some some other other cause cause at work work to produce produce resul results whi which ch are are qui quite excepti exceptional onal as far far as our our present present knowl knowledge edge goes. That cause, I believe, is to be found in the influences to which I have called attention. In the proportions of the sexes in this country, strangely altered as they are, I think we see the operation of the law* recognized by European physiologists and statisticians. That law operates, it is true, to produce effects effects diff differi ering ng from from those those observed observed in in Eur Europe. ope. But But thi this is is merel merely y due due to the the * The law law referred to is that noticed by Hofaeker and Bernouil Bernouille, le, and has been descr ibed as follows follows by M. Legoyt:—" Legoyt:—" L'une des lois lois du mouvement de la population opulation la mieux constateés, c' est c elle elle du r apport des deux sexes dans les naissanc es. Excepté en Angleterre, Angleterre, ou l’on c ompt 109 garc ons pour 100 filles, filles, ce rapport varie, dans tous les autres Etats, entre 105 et 106, pour les naissances legitimes; pour les naissances naturelles, il n'est en moyenne que de 104. Pour les
mort-nes legitimes, il atteint le chiffre considérable de
53 "different conditions of civil life in the two continents. The law of the influence of the age of parents remains the same; its effects, however, are different. But the difference in its effects is clearly accounted for by the different circumstances of the populations in which we can trace its working." 81. At the next next Census of 1872 187 2 there was still still a very marke marked d excess of males males in in the the North-We Nor th-West st Provinces. Provinces. The excess, however, was wa s not quite quite so large as at the preceding enumeration. The number of females to every thousand males had risen by eleven, there being 875 females in 1872 to every 1,000 males, against 864 females at the preceding enumeration. At the same time I had before me, in addition to the figures for the North-West Provinces, other and wider information than I had to deal with on the previous occasion. At the Census of 1872 the figures for other pro- vinces, especially Bengal, and the peculiar variations noticed in the statistics collected for different castes in the North-West pointed to the conclusion that our enumeration, so far as the females of the province were concerned, had been decidedly defective. The subject was discussed at considerable length in the Report for 1872, and I wrote as follows in my concluding remarks:—"There appears to be no genuine case among the Hindu population in these provinces rovinces in any any local localiity except in the the Hi Himalayas, alayas, where where the the fem femal ales es recorded are are in in excess excess of the the mal males. es. But But itit is is altog altogeth ether er anoth another er matter matter when when we we come to consider whether in any locality females locality females existing actually outnumber the males, or approach to an equality with them. We are not on this occasion without the means of forming conclusions on this subject from the census tables themselves. In this respect we are more advantageously situated than at the previous enumeration. In the caste statement the sexes have been distinguished. This was not the case in 1865, where the numbers of the different castes are shown without any distinction of the sexes. We are thus enabled for the present Census to ascertain whether in any special castes, and if so, in what castes, the males and females are nearly equal in number, and what are the cases where the females exceed the males. It is evident that if we find particular castes in which the inequality of the sexes, hitherto so remarkable a feature of North Indian enumerations, does not exist, and these castes do not differ in their social habits in regard to early marriages, on the effect of which in producing a larger number of early births stress was laid in the Report of 1865, then the climatic influences being the same, the inequality of the sexes could not be attributed to the operation of the physiological laws depending on the disproportion in the ages of husband and wife, and the earlier age at which girls are married in this country. Either the un-
"138; ce chiffre descend a 118 pour les mort-nés naturels. La supériorité numérique des naissances masculines n'est pas ausse forte dans les villes que dans l'ensemble de la population. Tar example, elle estde 105 pour la France entière et seulernent de 103 pour les villes; toutefois cette difference, qu'il est tres difficile d'expliquer, ne se retrouve pas dans les naissances naturelles. Le fait principal (l'excedant des naissances masculines) est ègalement un de ces secrets que la nature ne parait pas dispossee a livrer aux investigations de la science. L'explication propossée par Ch. Bernouilli est la plus spécieuse. Dans l'opinion de ce savant, le rapport des garcons aux filles serait déterminé pas l'âge relatif des parents. Si le père est plus jeune ou du mâme âge que la mère, ce rapport sera plus petit que l'unité; l'unité; il s'elevera avec l'age du père. Si les deux époux sont jeuties, jeuties, il sera plus grand que s'ils sont d'un âge moyen, mais beaucoup plus f aible aible que s' ils ils sont d'un age relativement avancé. Inexactitude de cette theorie ne peut être démontree que pas des recherches fakes sur une vast échelle." As Mr. Baines has remarked (p. 62 of Vol. 1. Bombay Report for 1881), "I am inclined to surmise, though with extreme diffidence as to the value of the supposition, that the influence of age as a factor in the determination of the sex of the child, amounts to a tendency only, varying in intensity with the difference between the ages of the parents." In the Registrar Registrar General's Report Report of births, deaths, and marriages, in in 1880, for England, England, the male births are given given as 103.6 to 100 births births of girls, and the following remarks are made:— "There are two c urious facts relating to this this proportion of male male and female birth, neither neither of which has as yet received received certain explanation explanation.. The first is, that the proportion of boys to girls girls is smaller smaller in England England and Wales than in any other European country; and the s econd, that the pr oportion has been gr adually adually but steadily diminishing for many years past. Comparing England and Wales with other countries, we have the following figures, which give the average number of male births to 100 female births for the 10 years 1870—79, or for those years out of the 10 for which the necessary statistics are forthcoming:— "As "As regards the other point, the following following figures show the gradual diminuti diminution on in England England and Wales Wales of male as as compar ed with female female births:— births:— I taly Aus tr ia Fr anc e Sw itzer land Ger man Empir e
107. 1 106. 8 106. 4 106. 3 106. 2
Holland Belgium Sc otland I r eland England and Wales
106. 1 105. 9 105. 7 105. 6 103. 9
“As “As regards the other point, the following following figures show the gradual diminuti diminution on in in England England and Wales Wales of male male as compared with female births:— births:— 1856- 60 1861- 65 1866- 70 1871-75 1876-80
104- 6 males to 100 f emales . 104. 3 males to 100 females . 104. 1 males to 100 females . 103.9 males to 100 females. 103.8 males to 100 females.
54 favourable influence on earlier female life, found in the practice of female infanticide, must be the cause of the inequality; or there must be influences at work to produce this inequality other than those already alluded to, namely, first, climatic; second, physiological laws depending on early marriages and the youth of Indian wives when first married; third, female infanticide. Lastly, there is another solution to the “problem, the inequality may not exist except in our Census returns.”
82. I then showed that for a populati p opulation on of over half a mill million ion among among certain specified specified castes, c astes, the females females outnumbere outnumbered d the males in in the proportion propo rtion of 1,036 to 1,000, and that, excluding certain sections of the community where the circumstances of the country pointed to an absence of men from their homes, there was still left a population of 509,547 persons where the sexes were so distributed that to every 1,000 males there were 1,025 females. Inquiries, too, in regard, to the marriage customs of each caste went to show that, except in two instances, the age at which males and females married was much the same as in the case of other castes; and there appeared in these materials to be sufficient data to throw doubt on the probability that early marriages, where the husband was more matured than the wife, exercised such influence on the sex of the offspring as to result in a greatly disproportionate excess of male births. I went on to remark that, leaving out of consideration the possible climatic influences, I felt myself driven to one of two conclusions. Either the disparity between the sexes noted at each successive enumeration in the North-West Provinces was a fact, and if so, was mainly attributable to female infanticide, and to the general disregard of female life; or that disparity was not either wholly, or even in part, the fact, but was due to a persistent concealment of females, and to defective enumeration of this sex. There were unquestionably facts disclosed in the special infanticide reports which seemed to bear out the conclusion that a portion of this disparity had been occasioned by female infanticide; but this was a cause which could only have effected a very small part of the defect noticeable when the two sexes were compared, and an examination of the age returns of the Census of 1872 showed that there had been a uniform concealment of females, especially between the ages of 10 and 13. It seemed indeed that a portion of the females between 10 and 15, or perhaps between 8 and 15, had altogether escaped the enumerators, and that the actual disproportion between the sexes, though it might exist to some extent, and to what extent it was impossible then to say, was not anything like so great as had hitherto been portrayed by the census statistics. 83. In arriving arriving at this this opinion, opinion, 1 was, without without knowing knowing it, it, approac appr oachi hing ng to a conclusion conclusion which which Dr. Cornish, the the writer of the Madras Madra s Report for 1872, 18 72, announced very clearly some months after the North-West Provinces Report for 1872 had been written. The Madras figures had not been published at the time when I was employed in reviewing the Census tables for the North-West Provinces. But in 1874, Dr. Cornish's report was given to the public, and at page 10 of volume I., he made the following remarks on this subject:—"In the quinquennial returns ranging from 1851 to 1866, it will be generally found that the male population has been returned as in excess of the female. From the persistence with which this error runs through all the figures, itmight almost be thought that the excess of males over females was an established fact. In the North-West Provinces, Mr. Plowden advanced an ingenious physi hysiol ologi ogical cal theory theory to account account for the the assum assumed excess excess of males ales over over fem femal ales; es; but but the the nearer nearer we approach approach to accuracy accuracy in the the Census Census of a general general populati opulation, on, the the more more clearl clearly y does the the fact fact appear that that there there is is noth nothiing peculi peculiar in in thi thiss country country in thepropor theproporti tion on of the the sexes; sexes; that that if there there are from from 104 to 106 females females to every hundred males males in Europe Europe,, this proportion pro portion also obtain obta inss in India, that is in all all parts of thecountry where female female infanti infanticide cide is unknown. The truth is that the great bulk of enumerators have been singularly obtuse in comprehending the fact that the counting of females was a matter of any importance in census work. To understand how this is, we must take into account the low estimation in which females are held in this country, arid also the reticence of the people on all matters connected with their female relatives. In the registration of births and deaths the same error obtains. The birth or death of a female child is considered such an insignificant matter, especially among the lower classes of the population, that a great number escape registration in certain districts; and, from the causes adverted, to the numbering of the female population in 1871 was undoubtedly erroneous in so far that many were omitted in the Census schedules. But in districts where the Census work was well done it will be found that the female population is invariably in excess of the male; in fact, the general accuracy of the results of any district may be judged of by the way in which the proportions of the sexes have been recorded." 55 Madras Polulation according to different Censuses, 1851 to 1871. Censu Censuss of M a le s Gar jam 47 544 5 Vizagap at am am 64 532 3 Go dav ery 51 51 4 7 0 3 Masulip at am 2 8 2 1 7 8 Kistna Guut o o r 29 052 6 Nellor e 485 418 Cuddap ah 75 912 1 Bellar y 64 337 1 Kur ao o l 14 052 9 Ch in glep ut 30 370 5 Districts.
1851-52 1851-52 (Fus (Fusli li 1261) 1261) Censu Censuss of 1856-57 1856-57 (Fus (Fusli li 1266) 1266) Censu Censuss of Fem ales T o t al Males Females T o t al Males 4 514 85 92 693 0 No t av ailable 949 747 58 404 7 6 089 49 12 5427 2 670 272 613 971 128 424 3 74 685 9 4 973 33 10 1203 6 547 216 534 487 108 170 3 69 622 7 2 386 88 52 086 6 328 455 295 353 623 808 61 543 6 2 795 57 57 008 3 302 113 291 100 593 213 52 703 5 450 272 935 690 499 947 452 085 952 032 6 928 00 14 5192 1 704 362 646 789 135 115 1 56 223 6 5 862 28 12 2959 9 618 207 562 880 118 108 7 64 761 75 1 326 61 27 319 0 No t av ailable 287 726 37 755 0 2 797 57 58 346 2 314 964 290 257 605 221 34 993 4
1861-62 1861-62 (Fu (Fusli sli 1271) F e m a le s T o t al 5 528 79 1 136 926 6 687 93 1 415 652 6 706 04 1 366 831 5 789 85 1 194 421
Censu Censuss of Males 6 504 82 1 003 600 7 227 13 6 640 88
1866-67 1866-67 (Fus (Fusli li 1276) 1276) Females T o t al 585 308 123 579 0 930 958 193 455 8 704 759 142 747 2 632 564 129 665 2
Censu Censuss Males 77 911 2 111 003 4 80 360 3 73 749 5
of 1871 1871 (Fusl (Fuslii 1281) Females T o t al 74 097 6 15 200 88 104 916 5 21 591 99 78 933 6 15 929 39 71 487 9 14 523 74
4 722 19
9 992 54
6 059 55
562 709
116 866 4
70 739 2
66 941 9
13 768 11
4 878 68 5 869 99 3 482 18 3 254 56
1 050 104 1 234 674 7 257 68 6 753 90
5 976 61 547 098 6 806 98 624 300 3 974 79 373 378 4 133 66 390 917 Not furnished by th e Collector 6 581 84 603 184 8 518 55 879 764 5 042 45 502 581 9 681 15 978 274 7 543 91 766 777
114 475 9 130 499 8 77 085 7 80 428 3
69 340 0 86 017 3 49 088 3 47 596 8
65 779 4 80 783 3 46 875 7 46 221 6
13 511 94 16 680 06 9 596 40 9 381 84
178 713 4
102 067 8
99 460 0
20 152 78
126 184 6 173 161 9 100 682 6 194 638 9 152 116 8
88 592 2 86 989 5 95 396 8 101 976 3 58 813 4 61 227 4 111 206 6 115 454 9 83 651 5 85 744 4 87 497 5 88 829 9
17 558 17 19 737 31 12 004 08 22 666 15 16 939 59 17 632 74 495 01 19 669 95
Nort h Arc ot
762 715
723 158
148 587 3
811 834
776 270
158 810 4
849 990
804 567
165 455 7
So ut h Arco t T aujo re T r ich in o p o ly Madur a T in in n ev elly Co im im ba ba to to re re
53 208 7 84 112 0 36 032 5 88 312 3 63 672 3
4 739 18 8 349 66 3 488 71 8 736 68 6 324 93
10 0600 5 16 7608 6 70 919 6 17 5679 1 12 6921 6
605 195 821 883 414 603 8 9 7 ,7 2 0 668 685
530 766 835 402 394 977 895 017 670 689
113 596 1 165 728 5 809 580 179 273 7 133 937 4
59 446 0 81 538 4 48 163 3 92 773 4 68 424 4
5 339 70 8 367 86 4 577 67 9 286 72 6 859 77
1 128 430 1 652 170 9 394 00 1 856 406 1 370 221
57 712 8
5 767 34
11 5386 2
600 817
576 014
117 683 1
61 942 5
5 964 95
1 215 920
7 253 70
705 368
143 073 8
60 987 2
5 855 05
11 9537 7
646 246
621 954
126 820 0
75 430 7
7 389 14
1 493 221
8 192 18
800 015
161 923 3
271 92 97 550 2
223 09 99 149 3
54 54 2 7 6 9
5 135 64
10 5633 3
581 848
545 090
112 693 8
40 146 4
3 865 78
7 880 42
-
-
-
Nilgiris Salem Nort h Can ar a So ut h Can ara Malabar T o t al al
-
-
-
4 267 30 412 958 83 968 8 4 5 9 7 2 9 45 45 8 6 3 3 9 183 62 76 393 2 7 509 77 15 1490 9 812 190 790 724 160 291 4 85 718 0 8 519 01 1 709 081 9 3 1 ,0 4 0 925 338 185 637 8 113 488 9 112 636 1 22 612 50 1 10 10 5 01 01 1 3 10 10 5 31 31 5 84 84 2 15 15 8 16 16 9 7 1 0 84 84 6 55 55 7 1 0 32 32 3 82 82 5 2 24 24 0 78 78 5 5 1 20 20 9 28 28 2 0 1 1 51 51 3 64 64 8 2 3 60 60 6 46 46 8 1 2 37 37 5 19 19 0 1 1 92 92 6 72 72 8 2 60 60 8 90 90 5 2 1 55 55 2 76 76 3 0 15 15 3 55 55 9 95 95 3 0 88 88 3 62 62 5
56 "The "The table above given given ill illustrates ustrates the fact that, when when the Census returns were first first introduced introduced in 1851, there was wa s a general dispo dispositi sition on either either to
conceal the number of females, or, what is more probable, for the enumerators to consider their inclusion or exclusion from the village returns a matter of no importance whatever. In the first quinquennial Census of 1851 every district, without exception, returned the male population as in excess of the female. The total of males given is 11,050,113, and females 10,531,584. These numbers exclude the population of the town of Madras, for which the numbers of the sexes are unspecified. In the Census of 1856 there were two districts, Tanjore and Tinnevelly, which returned the population of females in excess of males. In this Census the number of males and females of the Kurnool district and of the town of Madras are not separately given, but for the other districts the males were 10,846,557, and females 10,323,825, or in the proportion of 100 males to 95 females. In the Census of 1861 three districts, that is, Tanjore, Madura, and Tinnevelly, returned the female population as of greater numerical strength than the male. On this occasion, in the districts where the sexes were specially noted the population was given as 12,092,820 males, and 11,513,648 females, or in the same proportion as in the previous Census. The last quinquennial Census was taken in 1866; and on this occasion four districts returned the female population in excess of the male, namely, Tanjore, Madura, Tinnevelly, and Malabar. One district, North Arcot, furnished no particulars of the sexes, and in another district, Trichinopoly, the female population is returned in almost equal numbers with the male. For the whole Presidency, the returns show 95.2 females to every 100 males. These facts show that throughout the period 1851 to 1886 the proportion of females returned was gradually increasing; and in the 1871 Census we find that in seven out of the twentyone districts the female population is returned in what we know to be about the normal proportions of the sexes. In the small Native State of Puducotta there were counted 108 females for every 100 males. In the whole Presidency the proportion was 99 females for 100 males, a great advance upon all former efforts to obtain the correct proportion of the sexes." 84. The population of the the Madras Madr as Presidency, Pre sidency, itit must must be remembere remembered, d, was as large as 31,000,0 31,00 0,000, 00, and not only only in in this this large num number, ber, but b ut in in the the larger population of Bengal, with over 65 millions, the Census of 1872 disclosed figures which, if correct, threw considerable doubt on the accuracy of the returns in the more northern provinces and elsewhere where the proportion of males to females was shown to be so excessive. Following the train of argument adopted by Dr. Cornish, Mr. Mclver, the reviewer of the Madras Census Returns for 1881, points out how the increased number of females observable throughout the enumeration papers indicated greater accuracy in the Census of the provinces. He says:—"The returns bearing on the proportion roportion of the the sexes sexes are very very striki striking ng,, and indicate ndicate clearl clearly y the the im improved charac character ter of the the enum enumerati eration, on, as well well as some some of the the effec effects ts of the the fam famiine on the populati p opulation. on. "In the Census of 1871 the males males outnumbere outnumbered d the femal females; es; in the present Census Ce nsus the the females females outnumber outnumber the males. males. Dr. Corni Co rnish sh argued that the the real proportion roportion is is an excess excess of fem females, ales, and and that that im improved enu enum meration eration wi will gradual graduallly establ establiish thi thiss as a fact. fact. Li Like most most of thi this auth authori ority ty's 's careful careful speculati speculations, ons, this contention is enormously supported by the result of the present Census. There are now 505 females to 495 males in every 1,000 of a population exceeding 31,000,000 in number. In 1871 the proportion for the Presidency was 498 females to 502 males; an excess of females in 1871 was returned for seven for seven districts and in the Puducotta Territory. In 1881 there was an excess of females in thirteen districts, and in the State of Puducotta. "It seems quite quite certain that this this result result is due, in in the main, main, to better enumeration. enumeration. As is is shown later, there there has been bee n an abnormally abnormally high high proportion prop ortion of females among the births since and during the famine, and there is evidence that the famine mortality was greater among males than among females; but the influence of these two facts, though perceptible, does not account for more than a fraction of the general excess of females. If further proof were wanting that the higher return of females is due to better counting, and not to actual increase of females, the following fact would furnish it. There were more than half a million more females under 10 years of age returned in 1871 than in 1881; so that the altered proportion shown in 1881 occurs entirely among females who were living in 1871. In the area for which the age returns are dealt with below, the increase occurs exclusively between the ages of 30 and 70, 57 that is to say, among the survivors of the females who were between 20 and 60 in 1871:— In 1871 there were returned between 20 and 60 Of these (according to additional table, No 2, Vol. III.), there died up to 1880 Leav eaving a bal balan ance ce of (wh (who wou woulld be be bet betw ween een 30 and and 70 70 in in 1881 1881)) The Census of 1881 shows between 30 and 70 A difference of
6508942 2522743 3986 398619 199 9 5124275 1138076
"which, if Mr. Stokes' calculations of the death rate are correct, must be attributed to short counting and erroneous age return of females in 1871. "The "The figures figures in in the Famine Famine Census for 1878 187 8 showed a marked increase of o f femal females, es, and a nd in the discussion discussion of these figures figures it was suggested, on o n the the one side, that the increase of females showed chiefly that the men had migrated to other districts, or emigrated over sea; and on the other side that famine mortality bad borne more heavily on the males than on females, that in fact the power of endurance in women is greater than in men." Speaking Spe aking of the relative relative mortality mortality of males males to females females in the Silem Silem fami famine ne camps, Dr. Cornish, C ornish, who who attributed the excess of o f women women to the excessive mortality of men, and to the better enumeration throughout, says, in his Report on the Famine Census: "The proportion of deaths to strength amongst males was in the ratio of 796.4 per mil., while the females died only in the ratio of 595.3 per mil. The ratio of male mortality, in fact, was just one fifth in excess of that of the female. These figures relate to actual statistics of relief camps in the Salem district, and I think there can be no doubt that whit is true in regard to this district, and in relief camps in every part of the country, must be held to apply generally to the distressed popula-tion, namely, that the mortality pressed unduly on the bread winners, the adults. It by no means follows that because the Census returns of 1878 in Salem show a pre ponderance onderance of femal emales, es, that that the the correspon correspondi ding ng male ale populati population on is is now findi finding ng a liliving ving in other other distri districts. cts. The The very very unusu unusual al proportion proportion of male ale mortal mortaliity registered throughout the Presidency during the past year (58.4 per mil. of males to 48.06 females) points most clearly to the fact that those who left
home to seek work and food, and exhausted their energies in hopeless wandering, had the least chance of surviving the hardships to which they were exposed. He found, for instance, in the last Census that in the town of Madras there were 104 females to every 100 males; in Tanjore district 1061); in Puducotta State 108.4. So that the present high pro-portion of female life in Salem (106 to 1C0 males) is nothing unusual, and by no means warrants the assumption that there has been excessive emigration of the male sex. In all probability the Census of females was more completely taken on this occasion than in 1871. In my Report for 1871 I had to point out laxity in censusing of females in some of our districts, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that in the present special Census my cautions bore some point in the way of increased accuracy of enumeration." "Subsequent "Subse quent inquiries inquiries showed showe d that the migration migration theo theory ry had but littl little, e, if any, justifica justification; tion; and itit is is certain cer tain that that few of the 'famine 'famine zone population' pop ulation' reached the seaports. The present returns of ‘birth place' confirm this observation. On the other hand it is pretty clear, from the present returns, that more males died than females, and especially among young children. But the changed proportion of the sexes observed throughout the Presidency is but very partial artiallly due due to thi thiss cause. cause. The The changed changed proporti proportion on is is not peculi peculiar to the the fami famine distri districts; cts; indeed, as the the fi figures gures show, show, ther theree is is hardl hardly y any any diff differenc erencee in in thi thiss respect between the famine and non-famine districts." In 1871, the following districts gave an excess of females, and against them is given the proportions roportions retu returne rned d for 1881:— 1881:— 1871.
District
Males. 483 490 491 494 496 496 490 480
Tanjore Trichinopoly Madura Tinnevelly Coimbatore Salem Madras Pudukota Territory
1881. Females. 517 510 509 506 504 504 510 520
Males. 482 483 476 486 487 487 493 473
Females. 518 517 524 514 513 513 507 527
58 These districts districts are the most settled, and it may be said sa id the the most advanced in civili civilizati zation. on. They are rail ra ilway way districts, districts, and the people peo ple are better educated e ducated than the average. This is true of the enumerators and the enumerated, the men who asked the Census questions and the men who answered them, and these are precisely the districts in which correct figures might most reasonably be expected, and where in fact the most trustworthy information always has been obtained. To those seven districts districts are now added ad ded the followin following g six six districts, districts, which which also show an excess of o f femal females:— es:— District Ganjam Godaveri North Arcot South Arcot Malabar South Canara
1871 Males 501 504 506 505 502 501
1881 Females 499 496 494 495 498 499
Males 492 496 499 499 496.5 492
Females 506 504 501 501 503.5 508
These districts distr icts formerly gave a higher higher prop ortion of females females than such of the remaining remaining districts districts as *til * tilll show an excess exces s of males. Their enumeration is is improved, and they have advanced in the same direction, but at some distance behind the districts already mentioned. Thus, for the first set, the 1871 average average was was 491 mal males es to 509 females, females, now it is 4 83 males t o 5 17 females. females. For the sec ond s et it was formerly 503 mal males es to 497 mal males, es, now it is 490 males to 504 females. The remaining remaining districts, districts , omitting omitting the Nilgiris, Nilgiris, although although they show an excess exce ss of males, males, have advance ad vanced d in the same direction:— District Vizagapatam Kistna Nell ellore Cuddapah Kurnool Belkry Chingleput
1871 Males 520 508 514 513 512 516 507
1881 Females 490 492 486 487 488 484 493
Males 501 504 504 508 507 508 502
Females 499 496 496 492 493 492 498
The average here is is now 505 males to 495 females, females, and it was, in in 1871, 512 5 12 males to 488 femal females. es. In Vizagapata Vizagapatam, m, in in the the plains, plains, the sexes are returned as nearly equal, 501 males to 499 females. But in this district, as in Garjam, the defective female return for the hill tracts disturbs the general proportion. roportion.
Bellary, Bellary, Ntllore, Ntllore, C uddapah, uddap ah, and Kurnool, which which gave the the lowest proportion propo rtion of femal females es in 1871, 187 1, give give the lowest lowest in 1881 188 1 also. The Niigi Niigiri ri proportion, 560 males to 440 females, hardly requires explanation, as the bulk of the population are immigrant coolies working in coffee, tea, and cinchona estates. The truth is, there there has been b een a nearly uni uniform form advance towards to wards a full full return of femal females es in every district, district, and those which which are best b est in this this respect, resp ect, anl L'ive the largest proportion of females, are not only those which have always done this, but are the districts whose conditions are such as to make their returns the most reliable. It will be noticed, however, that the advance towards a higher proportion of females returned is not so rapid in the Telugu as in the Tamil districts. It may be that the Tamil population has in reality a larger proportion of females than the Telugu population. It is certainly in the Tamil districts that the larger proportion his bifheito been found, but there is no other evidence in support of this suggestion, and of the districts which in this Census are added to those allowing an excess of females, only one is a purely Tamil district. The whole whole district district of Salem, a typical typical fami famine ne district, district, was censused ce nsused in 1878. 187 8. The proportion prop ortion of women to to men was 515 to 485. 485 . In 1871 also a lso the the women had been in excess, the figures for the three Censuses being as under:— Sexes Male Female
1871 496 504
1878 485 515
1881 487 513
59 This This shows that the fami famine ne Census gave two m more ore females females per 1,000 1 ,000 of the popu- lation lation than the present Census Ce nsus a diff difference erence which may may be easily accounted for by the closer enumeration of 1881. Taking the proportion at 513 females to 487 males, we have an increase of nine females in every thousand of the population since 1871. But throughout the Presidency there has been an increase of seven females in every 1,000; so that tie difference in Salem, which may be attributable to the famine—either through a higher mortality of males and a higher recent birth rate of females, facts which are known, and emigration of males, which is justly doubted—is an accession of about two females in the 1,000; and this result is not far apart from the moderate claims made in the famine Census. The true explanation is in the better enumeration. The result tends to support the view suggested by Dr. Cornish, and it is probable that the next Census will go yet further in this direction. 85. Similar Similar conclusions conclusions have have been adopted adop ted by the the reviewer reviewer of the the fig figures ures for the the North-West North- West Provi Pro vinces nces in in the Census of 1881. 188 1. The North-West North-W est Provinces, next to the Punjab territory, show the greatest disproportion of the sexes for any large popu- lation; but for the North-West, the great disparity of 1872, when the males stood at 529 against 471 females, has been somewhat reduced in the period that has since elapsed; and at the Census of 1881, the proportion stood at 519 males to 481 females; thus the number of females in each 1,000 ot both sexes has apparently risen by 10 in the thousand, or 1 per cent. 86. Mr. M r. White, in in reviewin reviewing g the the figures figures for this this province, province, has succeeded succee ded in tracing tracing to its its source a considerable co nsiderable portion of this this addition, and he he instances cases, especially the Benares Division, where the concealment of females and the defective enumeration of persons of that sex at the Census of 1872 was most conspicuous. As at previous enumerations, it was evident, in 1881, that there was a considerable concealment of girls under the age of 20; and Mr. White has been able to find the approximate number so concealed. Doing this, he raised the number of girls from 9,176,774 to 10,285,800, an increase of 1,109,026. The population thus corrected, he writes, was as follows:— Males Females
22912556, 22304339,
percentage "
50.87 49.33
That is is to say, in in every 10,000 10, 000 perso p ersons ns we should should fin find d 5,067 5,0 67 males, males, and 4,933 4,9 33 females. females. Mr. White goes on to to remark, "This "This is the lowest lowest propor pro porti tion on of females. The correction was made with reference to the series for females only; and if, therefore, a rateable omission occurred in each of the terms, this would not have affected the ratios of the terms. Now the social peculiarities of the people of these provinces render it inevitable that the enumeration of the women should be less complete than the enumeration of the men. We have noticed in para. 3 the difficulty which attended the enumeration of old women. The number, therefore, in our corrected age group of 50 and upwards must relatively to the old men be understated; and, in a less degree, there must have been an omission in every other age group. In the above corrected population we have an excess of 608,217 males over females. If, therefore, the males and females are found in these provinces in equal proportion, we must have omitted to count 27 females for every 1,000 counted, or rather less than 3 in every 100." "Taking "Taking the fig figures ures of the previous previous Censuses of o f the the North- Western Weste rn Provinces, Provinces, we find find at the first first enumeration enumeration 466 women in in every 1,000 1,0 00 persons; pe rsons; at the second, 464; at the third, 467; at the fourth, 481. The decrease at the second Census was pro-bably due to the different method of enumeration. Probably many married women were twice counted at the first Census, once at their parents' houses, where they were found, and once at their husbands'. The Oudh Census of 1869 gave 481 women in every 1,000 persons, and the present Census, 486. The proportion found in 1869 in Oudh was probably higher than it would otherwise have been, owing to the double counting of married women above noticed. We find, therefore, that each successive Census has given us an increased proportion of females. "Below "Below the age of 20 years we have seen see n that that a large concealm concea lment ent of girls girls took place. Above that age many omissions omissions must must have arisen arisen from the the fact of social peculiarities rendering a correct enumeration of women more difficult than that of men. If now we compare the percentage of the sexes above 20 years of age as returned in the 60
North-Western orth-Western Provinces Provinces in 1872, and at the the present present Census, Census, we shal shalll have have some some idea idea of the the extent extent of these these omi omissions. ssions. The The fol folllowing owing are the the fi figures: gures:— — Males Females Males Females
18 1 872 8094128 7497084 1881 18 9182822 8844840
Percentage of females, 48.0.
Percentage of females, 49.0.
"Now that the proportion propo rtion of women women must must have have been the same same in 1872 187 2 as in 1881 188 1 there can be no doubt. The least least number number of women, therefore, we ought to have found in 1872 was 49 to every 51 men. Instead of the number reported, we should have counted 7,776,711; there was consequently an omission of 279,627 women, equivalent to an omission of 37 for every 1,000 women counted. From this the inference is obvious, that if the omission of women without that enumeration was so extensive, we should be rash in thinking that at the present Census we have been "able to count the women as accurately as the men. It is on the contrary a safe deduction that we have overlooked many women in enumeration. Under the cir-cumstances of the case I think the omissions may have reached the rate of 27 to every l,000 counted, which is required to raise the number of females to an equality with that of males. For this large addition of females we have not, however, sufficient ground. We shall be assuredly well within the limit if we assume that of old women above 50 there were 2 overlooked to every 100 counted; and of the females below that age there was 1 omitted for every 100 counted. Taking, therefore, the cor-rected age table of females given in para. 22, we have to add one per cent, to each age group below 50, and two per cent, above. The result is as follows:— Correct Age Groups for Females. Age. 0 10 20 30 40 50 and upwards
N umber. 5767756 4620901 3982054 3256488 2349446 2575989 22552634
"The "The following following will will be, be , then, the numbe numberr of each ea ch sex, and of the the total population: pop ulation:— —
Males Females
N umber.
Percentage.
22912556 22552634 45 45465190
50.40 49.60 100.00
"This "This is the lowe lowest st propo pro portion rtion in in which the females females can actuall actua lly y be found in in the population; pop ulation; and I think think itit very proba pro bably bly the real proport prop ortion ion is considerably considerab ly higher." higher." 87. In add ition ition to the numbers numbers of femal females es who are short counted co unted in in the the enumeration, enumeration, we also have have to consider the defect in the number number of the the sex occasioned by the practice of female infanticide. Though that practice, we may assume, has not had any very serious effect upon the proportions of the sexes throughout, yet it is unquestionable that it has had an effect which is perceptible. It was stated, when the measures for the repression of infanticide were first introduced in the Northern Province?, that out of over twelve thousand girls of one year alive, at least half were due to the preventive arrangements which had been brought into practice by the intro- duction of anti-infanticide measures. But I shall deal more fully with this subject when I come to discuss the ages of the population. I only allude to it here because it is necessary to keep it in view when we are considering the proportion of males to females in the population of the North-West Provinces. 88. In Bombay, Bombay, Mr. Baines Baines make makess the followi following ng remarks in regard to this this subject:— 61 "Excl "Excludin uding g the the capital cap ital city, in in the the rest of the Presidency the proportion propo rtion of femal females es is about 975 to 1,00 1 ,000 0 males, males, or, o r, put differentl differently, y, 4.3 per pe r cent, of the total population. In Sindh the ratio is no higher than 833 per mille, or about 44.4. It is out of the question to attribute any considerable portion of this difference to artificial causes, such as the well-known reticence in Mahammedan householders as to the females of the family, because the disproportion was through every religion returned from these provinces, and is not so marked among the Mahammedan community as amongst the Hindoos. The same feature is noticeable in the Punjab, and, to a minor extent, in the rest of Hindustan or Northern India, where none of the special causes that have been mentioned are sufficient to account for the great difference. There are, it is true, local causes that may tend to add to any inherent disproportion between the sexes, such as the immigration of large tribes of graziers and camel dealers, who have not their families with them. Similarly, the indigenous roving tribes may be more numerous in proportion to the total population than in the rest of the country; and, lastly, there may have been, as the return of birth places laces seems seems to indi indicate, cate, an infl nflux of settl settlers ers on fronti rontier lands, lands, who who have have not yet permanen permanentl tly y establ establiished them themsel selves ves wi with thei theirr women-ki women-kind nd in in thei theirr new new locality. These migrations do not, however, account for more than a small portion of the excess of males, and, whatever the true cause, we have in Sindh,
a very dry climate, with extremes of temperature, an omnivorous population of all classes and grades, and a considerable area of cultivable land, producing roducing more than than is is requi required for for the the support support of the the exi existing sting populati population,—t on,—the he resul resultan tant, t, a large large proportion proportion of defi deficiency ciency of fem femal ales es from from a very very earl early period eriod in in lilife." 89. 89 . Mr. Baines goes on to point out that, in "the Presidenc Pre sidency y Division, Division, though the ratio of females to males males is everywhere ever ywhere higher higher than in in Sindh, Sindh, there are striking differences between the returns from the different divisions and districts. In three districts, Ratnagiri, Surât, and Kalâdgi, the females are more numerous than the males. In the first it is the emigration of males that apparently causes most of this difference. In Kalâdgi, where, in 1872, there was a balance alance in in favou favourr of males, ales, the the fam famiine, eith either er by loss of life, or by forci forcing ng males ales to emi emigrate, grate, is is the the probable probable cause cause of the the chang change. e. In Surat Surat as in in Ratn Ratnâgi âgiri ri,, mixed influences are at work. If reference be made to Table 4 of the Appendix, it will be seen that, as far as the bulk of the people in this collectorate are concerned, that is, amongst the Hindoos, the males are slightly in excess. Amongst the forest tribes the balance is fairly well preserved, as seems to be the case throughout, with this community. The deficiency in males must therefore be sought in the Parsees and Ma-hammedans. I have already mentioned the gradual transfer of the former com-munity to the capital, where it appears that a larger number of males than of the other sex resort, both for trade and education. The most wealthy class of Mahammadans in Surat, too, are the trading or Dandi Borahs, who are to be found in every town in the country, and mostly come from Surat and the Panchmahàls. It is in the former, however, that the rich Borah aims at having his ultimate home in the vicinity of the Mullah Sahib, and other leaders of his sect, for the Borahs are reputed to be most scrupulous in regard to their religious observances. There is also a con-siderable colony of mercantile Borahs of the Suny sect in this district, trading with the Mauritius and Burmah. In both these cases, the female would probably, like that of the Parsees, be left at home whilst the bread winner was on his travels abroad. "After "After the three three districts in which which there there is an actual excess of femal females, es, come four four collector collectorates ates in which which the the number number of the sexes is almost almost equal. These are Dhawâr, Belgaum, Sâtâra, and Kolâba. As in Kalâdgi, though less prominently, the famine may be set down as the primary cause of change in the two first named. In Sâtâra, the eastern portion was affected by this calamity to a considerable extent, but not nearly so badly as the neighbouring districts on three sides. The large proportion of women is probably attributable, therefore, quite as much to emigration as to loss in the famine. The Bombay city return of birth places shows that the emigrants from this district form no inconsiderable item in the total alien population, and when I was inspec inspectin ting g the preli pr elimi minary nary arrangem arra ngements ents for the examination examination of the railways, railways, I found that a large colony of the lower classes, mostly mostly from Sâtâra, Sâtâr a, had collected on the line of railway for the execution of some extensive earthworks within easy distance from their tomes. In Kolâba, the difference between the proportions at the two enumerations is less marked, and is attributable, 1 think, to the same cause as that in Ratnagiri, though the emigration is less extensive. The proximity of Bombay, and the improvement of the ferry communication, have contributed to take some of the male population to the labour market of the capital. c apital. A comparativ co mparatively ely higher higher ratio of o f females females in Ahmednagar Ahmednagar and Sholâpur S holâpur is apparently app arently the result of the famine, famine, as a s in 62 Dhawâr and its two neighbours in the Karnatic. The exceptional case of Kâhara, in which the ratio has decreased since the last Census, is the result apparently of the immigration of males for the harvest, and for the winter grazing on the Ghats. There remains the instance in Gunjarât, of Kari, which shows the least ratio of any of the districts of the Presidency Division. Here the females number no more than 46.97 of the population, and the disproportion is little less marked amongst the Mahammedans than amongst the Hindoos that form the bulk of the population. Whether there are special causes for this difference, and whether such causes are operating in both the above-mentioned communities, are questions into which investigation of a more minute nature than which can fitly find a place in this work, has to be made. Generalization on a subject, in which so much remains to be solved as that of sex is dangerous; but, judging from the returns before us, it certainly appears as if, in this part of the country at least, setting aside all influences of a temporary and special nature, such as famine, emigration, or deliberate neglect of offspring, the ratio of females diminishes as the north is approached, and, as if on the same conditions, it were lower in a prospering than in a poverty-stricken region." 90. Mr. M r. Baines Baines goes on o n to discuss discuss the relative relative proportion propo rtion of the sexes in in diff different erent races race s in town and country and at different different ages. His His remarks on this this subject, and a very interesting diagram which he has drawn out, showing the relative proportions of the sexes at different ages, are extracted and appended to this report in Appendix C; but Mr. Baines has not come to any definite conclusions in regard to the special argument which the figures he has brought out may be said to strengthen. 91. Turning Turning from Bombay to the the Central Provinces, where the proportions propo rtions are much much more more level than they they are in Bombay, or in more northern provinces, rovinces, we fi find Mr. Mr. Drysdal Drysdalee summ summing up brief brieflly as foll follows:— ows:— "A consideration of the Census statistics statistics leads me me to to the the general general conclusion conclusion that the variations variations in the proportion prop ortion of the sexes are not not due to anything anything special spec ial to particular religi religions. ons. It has been bee n shown that the proportions prop ortions under each religi religion on vary in different different locali loca lities, ties, and correspo corr espondin nding g divergences have been found to occur in certain districts under different religions. In certain districts, for which the statistics for 1872 seem comparatively complete, corresponding results were obtained by the Census in 1881. In short, it would seem that a preponderance of males beyond the average in the Saugor, Damah, Hoshangâbâd, Narsinghpur, and Nimâr districts, and a preponderance of females in the Bhandara, Balaghat, Chhindwarâ, Râpur, Bilâspur, and Sambalpur districts are Census peculiarities special to those districts. Possibly, as suggested in para 44 of the Census Report of 1872, a preponderance reponderance of femal females es may may be natura naturall to the the aborigi aboriginal nal races. Certai Certainl nly y the the represen representati tatives ves of those those tribes tribes are much much more num numerou erouss in in the the distri districts cts which return a large proportion of females than where males preponderate. The similar excess of females among Hindoos of the same district might, on this view, be attributed to the known record of numerous aborigines among professors of the Hindoo religion, but in Mandâlâ, where the aborigines form more than half of the total population, the males among them average 5,054 per 10.000 of both sexes, and in Betul, where they number 116,503, their males average 5,029 per 10,000 of both sexes. This would almost suggest that in other districts, where the aboriginal religion is less fashionable, the nun may have been more carried away than the women, by the desire to be regarded as of Hindoo religion. Not only would widows and other women supporting them- selves be deposed to adhere more closely than males to their inherited superstitions, but even if they wished to be regarded as Hindoos they would have less influence than men to induce such entry by the enumerators. However this may be, traces of analogous local diversities have been
noticed also among professors of other religions, notably Mahammedans. Peculiarities, therefore, confined to al origines only, would not cover the whole ground. Other local peculiarities, which might account for local variations in the proportions enumerated of each sex, might be differences of climate, customs, occupations, and even prejudice. For instance, the climate where males are in the minority, may be specially trying at the season when men's avocations expose them more to it than females. The explanations by the Deputy Commissioners of Bila pur and Sunbelpur are in this sense, or it may be, as sugg suggested ested by Mr. Ismny Ismny,, the the women women of the the Nerbudda val vallley and and north northern ern distri districts cts suff suffer er from from not partici participati pating ng in outdoor outdoor work work to the the exten extentt common towards Chhattisgarh. A vivid account of peasant life has been given in Mr. Banerjee's account of the Satnamis in the preceding para 34; but again, again, there is certainly certainly there more of o f the 'Parda 'P ardah' h' fostered foster ed prejudice against against giving giving inf information ormation regarding femal femalee relatives relatives in the districts where an excess exce ss of males was enumerated than in Chhattisgarh. After all, however, the disproportion of the sexes in those provinces 63 is very small, and the general result of this last careful Census has been to show that they approach even more closely to an equality than was evidenced in 1872, when the proportion of males per 10,000 of both sexes resulted as 5,090 compared with 5,0 i6 at the present Census. It is a matter of congratulation that there is nothing in the statistics to suggest any apprehension of infanticide." 92. It will will be observed ob served,, on a reference to the tables, that in in the the Central Ce ntral Provi Pro vinces nces the disparity of the the sexes is much much less less marked than in the Northern Provinces adjoining. In the British districts it is 5,043 males in every 10,000 of both sexes. It is a little higher in the Feudatory States under the same Administration, the males there being 5,075 to every 4,925 females. Amongst the aboriginal races known, however, the proportion is reversed, and the same is observable of the Satnamis and Kabir- panthis. The proportions in these three sections of the population are as follows:— Proportion of Males in every 10,000 of both Sexes.
Aboriginals Satnamis Kabirpanthis
Brit ritish Terri errito tory ry.. 4976 4994 4934
Feu Feudato datory ry Stat States es.. 4989 5036 4943
It will will also be observed ob served that the same progress is noticed noticed in the the Central Ce ntral Provi Pro vinces nces as has been be en noticed noticed in the the other popul pop ulations ations with with which which I have hitherto dealt. The females, though still less numerous than the males, are not so much below the numbers of the opposite sex as was observable in 1872, and there are large groups of the population where the balance turns in favour of the females, who, in certain sections, outnumber the men. 93. For F or the Punjab, where the disproportion dispropo rtion of the the sexes is more more marked than in in any other part of India, and where itit assumes dimensions dimensions which which are peculi eculiar even even in in the the north north,, the the Report, Report, so far far as itit has has reached reached me me for for that that provi province, does not not contai contain n any any rem remarks on thi this subject, subject, and I am unabl unable, e, therefore, to state whether the local officers have come to any such conclusions as these to which the figures have led the reviewers in the Madras and North-Western orth-Western Provinces; Provinces; but an exam examiinati nation of the the fi figures gures for for the the Punjab Punjab certai certainl nly y bears bears out out the the liline of argum argument whi which has has been adopted by Mr. McIver and by Mr. White, following in the steps of Dr. Cornish in the same direction. 94. For F or Burmah, Burmah, where it might might have been anticipated anticipated that the disproportion dispropo rtion of the the sexes would not be so marked as we find find it elsewhere, especiall esp ecially y in the north, because a Buddhist population has not the social temptations which exist in the north of India to conceal its females, and certainly has not hitherto been suspected of a want of care for its girls, we find a disproportion of the sexes very marked, though not so remarkable as in the extreme north. There are circumstances in Burmah which would always point to a large excess of males in the total population, but we should expect to find amongst the Buddhists that if this disproportion existed at all, it would exist in a very infinitesimal degree. The large number of emigrants from the neigh bouring ouring countri countries es whi which the the labour labour market of Burm Burmah ah demands demands and obtai obtains ns woul would d account account for for the the great great excess excess of males ales over over fem femal ales es among amongst st those those who supply the emigrating population, that is, the immigrant population of Burmah. These, for the most part, are either Hindoos or Mahammedans, and are not Buddhists. But if we turn to Mr. Coppleston's table, at page 37 of his Report, which gives the numbers of each religion returned at the previous Census of 1872, and the late Census of 1881, we shall see that the proportions of the sexes, even amongst the Buddhists and Nât worshippers, is still far from even. I extract the statement I have referred to—: 1872 Religions Buddhists Nat worshi worshippers ppers Hindoos Mahammedans Christiaus Brahmas Jains Jews Parsees
Males.
Females.
1259981 57994 28910 59888 28745 -
1187850 52520 7748 39958 23554 -
1881 Per cent of Males. 51.5 52.5 78.9 60.0 55.0 64
Males.
Females.
1686263 73465 73929 110731 46419 27 3 112 56
1565321 70116 14248 58150 37800 10 2 92 27
Per cent of Males. 51.9 51.2 83.8 65.6 55.1 73.0 60.0 54.9 67.5
The Nât worshippers are the only only section of the the communi community ty that that shows a better proportion prop ortion of the sexes than was observable obs ervable in in the the preceding prec eding enumeration. enumeration. But while while for Hindoo Hindooss and a nd Mahamm Ma hammedans, edans, the immi immigrant grant popul pop ulation ation of Burmah, the disparit dispar ity, y, increased as it is is compared c ompared with with the 1872 1 872 figures, is what we might have anticipated from the wave of immigration which, in the last nine years, has so largely added to the Burmese population, the increased disparity among the Buddhists and the indigenous race is remarkable, and, if Dr. Cornish's argument is true, indicates a less effective count of the females at the present Census than that made in 1872. 95. On O n the subject of proportion pro portion of sex, Mr. Copleston Cop leston writes as follows: follows:—"Th —"Thee total popul pop ulation ation of the the provinces provinces consists of 1,991, 1,9 91,005 005 males and 1,745,766 females. The males exceed the females by 245,239. There are thus 87.7 females to 100 males. This proportion is a very large one, and would leave 12.3 males in every 100 unmatched with females. It has sometimes been thought that, in the East, the males are naturally more numerous than in Western countries, and it is by no means certain that this is not the case. There are causes operating in Europe which would naturally tend to shorten the lives of men in a greater degree than those of women. Most of the hard work that has to be done is done by men, who also encounter the various dangers of the sea and land much more frequently than women do. The former too are the immigrating sex. In Burmah, on the other hand, the causes tending to shorten life operate more equally. Field labour is shared by both sexes, women and girls performing their portion of daily labour; nor are the men exposed to the dangers of war or perils of the deep; and further (an important point) there is little or no immigration from the province, but, on the contrary, a very large annual addition to the population of new comers who are chiefly of the stronger sex. As is the case in England, here too, more boys than girls are born into the world, “the proportion being, in Burmah 107 to 100. Thus at births there are 93.5 to 100 males, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that where the chances of death are nearly equal the relative proportion of the sexes would remain almost unchanged. The returns of the Census of August 1872 gave 91.54 females to 100 males as the existing proportion. The cause of the present falling off in the relative number of females is easily found. The figures for 1881 may be confidently accepted as representing, approximately, the relations between the sexes, for, though in 1872 the omitted females probably exceeded in number the males who were not enumerated, the relations of the sexes would not have been much affected by the proportional difference in error. The Burmese entertain no prejudices against giving the names of women, or furnishing particulars regarding their daughters and wives, and nowhere do we hear of any such rumours as sometimes obtain currency in India on these occasions, as for instance, that wives are wanted for our soldiers or concubines for our Princes. The disparity of the sexes was at the previous Census ascribed, no doubt rightly, mainly to the existence of a large foreign eh merit, in which males largely preponderate, and to the same cause, and in an increased degree at the time the recent Census was taken, is the present inequality of the numbers of males and females to be chiefly attributed." 96. Mr. M r. Copleston's Co pleston's argument does doe s not seem to be correct. corre ct. If itit is is correct corr ect it would would be diffi difficult cult to explain explain why why a district district like like Tavoy, with with a population population of 81,988, should have shown, at the previous Census of 1872, 49.59 males to every 10,000 of both sexes; and again, in 1881, 49.17 males to every 10,000 of both sexes, whilst we have such opposite results for other and adjoining districts, of which the social or other conditions display no variety compared with those of Tavoy. Mr. Copleston himself has noticed the peculiarity that Tavoy, both in 1872 and in 1881, had more females than males, and he remarks that it is a district to and from which little migration movement takes place; but he does not explain what are the causes which have brought rought about a resul result so diff differen erentt in in Tavoy Tavoy from from what what we have have seen in other other parts of the the country country.. It woul would d seem, seem, too, that that an exam examiinati nation of the the proportions roportions of the the sexes sexes under under the the dif different ferent reli religions gions woul would d indi indicate cate that that Mr. Copleston Copleston's 's concl conclusi usions ons are are by no means means well well founded. founded. 97. In I n Bengal, Bengal, the Census of 1872 brought b rought out figures figures indicati indicating ng a marke marked d variation variation from the general results results which which had been bee n obtained in in other Indian enumerations, and the females in this Province are shown as exceeding, though to a very small extent, the number of the other sex. Similar proportions, the females outnumbering the males, are observed in the returns of the Census of 1881, and Mr. Bourdillon has come to a conclusion identical with that arrived at by Dr. Cornish and by Messrs. White & McIver. He says:— 65 "The "The error to which which census operations ope rations in in India India are most liable liable is an understating understating of the female female population. population. National Na tional prejudices and a false false shame among the upper classes, and among the lower classes a tendency to ignore the existence of their women as not worth returning, combine to produce this result, and to reduce the ascertained numbers of the weaker sex below their true figure. But where actual experience of census operations has shown that no evil results follow the enumeration of the females of a household, or where the gradual spread of knowledge has pushed aside the barriers of prejudi rejudice ce and and created conf confiidence in in the the operati operations ons of Govern Governm ment, ent, these these fanci fancies es gi give way, way, and the the enum enumerator erator is is enabl enabled, ed, with without out offendi offending ng the the feel feeliings ngs of the husband or father, to secure accurate statistics for the unnamed* women of his house; so that it may be said that in the absence of special causes tending to increase the number of women in the population, or reduce that of men, the accuracy of each successive Census may be gauged by the increasing proportion which is borne to the whole population by the numbers of females it records. No such special cause can be traced during the nine years which elapsed between the Censuses of 1872 and 1882; and it does not therefore seem too much to say that the small increases in the proportionat roportionatee num number of fem females ales recorded in in the the Census Census just just past is due due to the the greater greater accuracy accuracy wi with whi which the the enu enum meration eration was was carried carried out." out." 98. Mr. M r. Bourdillon Bourdillon subseq subsequentl uently y goes into into calculations calculations to show how far the unders understatement tatement of the female female sex is is to be traced tr aced in particular particular years o f lif lifee in the age periods in which the females are grouped. He gives the following statement showing for each main religion the number of males to every hundred females living at each age period:— ABSTRACT XVIII. Statement showing for each main Religion the number of Males to every 100 Females living at each age period, in Bengal. Ages . Under
1 1 2
Hindoos . 98. 19 93. 11 89. 54
Mahammedans . 98. 50 93. 54 91. 62
Chr is tians . 108. 89 92. 95 96. 95
Buddhis ts . 111. 94 89. 98 105. 32
Aboriginals . 145. 11 90. 56 81. 52
All Re Religions . 98. 33 93. 27 90. 03
3 4 0- 4 55- 9 10- 14
90. 09 98. 85 93. 58 106. 31 123. 87
92. 37 99. 63 94. 95 107. 42 128. 27
93. 08 101. 68 98. 48 101. 53 112. 68
102. 26 103. 30 102. 73 102. 52 116. 05
68. 06 92. 93 94. 77 106. 18 125. 52
90. 72 98. 90 93. 91 106. 66 125. 28
15 15- 19 20 20- 24 25 25- 29 30- 34 35- 39 40- 44 45- 49 50 50- 54 55 55- 59 60 and upw ar ds Unspecified
102. 54 87. 01 94. 26 99. 31 107. 68 97. 68 106. 40 91. 54 94. 53 71. 28
89. 68 77. 13 92. 19 100. 00 126. 25 101. 38 121. 98 92. 17 107. 12 135. 88
99. 27 124. 26 128. 34 125. 06 147. 21 131. 66 136. 08 107. 18 99. 70 75. 79
92. 78 78. 24 90. 55 90. 06 105. 45 86. 48 93. 75 83. 06 98. 52 68. 55
95. 30 77. 85 88. 14 99. 47 117. 35 106. 85 109. 89 99. 98 92. 83 81. 56
98. 06 83. 69 93. 58 99. 56 113. 27 99. 01 110. 76 91. 93 97. 70 74. 18
92. 29
81. 96
108. 00
130. 43
84. 50
83. 68
98. 70
100. 06
112. 07
101. 68
99. 34
99. 18
Total
99. 99 . He goes on to say, "Taking "Taking first first the population pop ulation of all religions, religions, it will will be seen se en that the the females females exceed exce ed the males at every ever y age except exce pt the followin following: g: —5 to 9 years years *The instructions to enumerators were to the effec t that the names of women should not be asked. †In 1881 the males numbered numbered 34,625,991; and females females 34,911,270, the sexes being in the ratio of 49.79 males males to 50.20 females females in each hundred of the population, opulation, t he number of males to every hundr ed females being 99.18. In 1872 and the previous Bengal Statement the males numbered 31,341, 366, or 49.98 per cent, of the people, while the females were 31,364,352, or 50.01 per cent., the number of men being 99.92 to every hundred women.
66 of age, 10 to 14, 35 to 39, 45 to 49. In these four periods, instead of being less in number than the females, the males outnumbered the females as follows:— 5 to 9 years of age 10 „ 14 „ „ 35 „ 39 „ „ 45 „ 49 „ „
106.66 125.28 113.27 110.76
to „ „ „
100 100 100 100
“In the the majority majority of the remaini remaining ng age periods the pro portions of the the sexes approa ap proach ch each other closely, but the deficiency deficiency of males males is is most marke marked d in the following cases, where to 100 females the males only number— 2 years of age 3 years of age 20 to 24 years of age 60 and upwards
90.03 90.72 83.69 74.18
"The "The most striking fact appar ap parent ent on glancing glancing at these figures is, that whil whilee the girls girls outnumbe outnumberr the boys during the the first first five five years of o f life, life, this propo pro portion rtion is violently reversed during the next two quinquennial periods, when the boys are shown as a little in excess of the girls. If these figures represent the actual facts, we must believe that between the years 1871 and 1881 there was for some reason or other an extraordinary mortality among the female children, especially in the latter half of the decade, or that in the 10 years between 1866 and 1876 there was some surprising check to the birth of female infants; for whereas out of every 100 males of all ages the boys of 5 to 9 are 15.54 in number, the girls for the same period only number 14.44 in every hundred females. Further, in the next quinquennial this proportion is still greater; for while the percentage of boys is 11.39, that of the girls is only 9.01; so that taking the 10 years together the result is that while in every 100 males the boys between 5 and 14 are 26.93 in number, the girls of the same age are only 23.45 in every 100 women of all ages." After thus thus dwellin dwelling g on these these pecul pec uliari iariti ties, es, he refers to the conclusion conclusion arrived arrived at by the reviewer reviewer of the Census returns for for 1872, 18 72, in the the North-We No rth-West st Provinces, as to the omission to record females between certain years of life evidenced by the figures of that Census, and then goes on to consider how far this conclusion holds good for the present Bengal Census. His remarks on this subject and the figures he has relied upon will be found in Appendix D. The result of his examination of his statistics is to bring him into accord with the opinions I have already quoted from Mr. McIver and Mr. White; that there has been a distinct omission of females between the 5th and 14th year of life, and he estimates the number so omitted as not less than three per cent, on the total females shown in the tables. 100. 100 . As I have now dealt, at considerable considera ble length length,, with the figures figures bearing on the the disproportion dispropo rtion of the sexes in all the larger larger Indian provinces, provinces, and have also included in my remarks the one province, outside the continent, where religious and social habits or prejudices as to women vary from those peculiar to Hindostan, I shall be as brief as possible in the remarks I have to make in the case of the smaller provinces. The following statement shows how the different provinces stand in regard to disparity of the sexes. I insert it here, as, in the remarks I may have to make on some of the remaining provinces,
the disparity of the sexes in the different religions may attract attention. 67 ABSTRACT XIX. Number umber of Femal Females es in in every every 10,000 of both Sexes. T o t al P o p ulat io n . Co o rg P un jab, Feudat o ry St at es P un jab, Br it ish T err it o r y Rajp ut an a Aj m e r e
563 3 547 0 542 5 540 6 540 1
Hin do o s. Burm ah Co o r g P un jab, Feudat o r y St at es P un jab, Br it ish T err it o ry Rajp ut an a
83 84 55 82 54 68 54 52 54 22
Mah am medan s Bur mah Co o r g Ajmer e P un jab, Feudat o r y , St at es P un jab, Brit ish T er rit o ry
6 556 6 283 5 535 5 410 5 363
Bur mah
532 8
Ajm ere
53 78
Rajp ut an a
5 343
Bo mbay , Brit ish T er rit o r y Central India
Cen t ral In dia
527 2
Cen t r al I n dia
52 95
Bar o da
521 5
Baro da
52 35
Nort h-W est P rov inces, Br itish Territory
5195
Ber ar
516 5
Nort h-W est P rov inces, Feudatory States Bo m bay , Br it ish T err it o ry Bo m bay , Feudat o r y St at es Assam
516 5 516 4 514 6 512 9
Hy derabad
508 1
Central Provinces, Feudatory Stares Central Provinces, British Territory
Nort h-W est P rov inces, British British t erritory Nort h-W est P rov inces, Feudatory States
5207
5 185
52 00
Ber ar
5 184
Berar
51 64
Co ch in
5 176
Assam Bo mbay , Feudat o r y St at es Bo mbay , Brit ish T er rit o r y Central Provinces, Feudatory States
51 61 51 43 51 11
Bar o da My so re Assam Nort h-W est Pro vinc es, British British T erritory Central Provinces, British Territory
5 135 5 118 5 111
5094
507 5
Hy der abad
50 83
5046
Cxentral Provinces, British Territory
50 63
Co ch in
502 8
Co ch in
50 23
T r av aco r e My so r e Ben gal Madr as
498 6 498 3 497 9 494 8 511 8
Madras My so r e T r av an co r e Ben gal
49 49 49 73 49 71 49 67 51 09
T o t al
Bombay, Feudatory Feudatory Stat es
5 336 5259
T o t al
Hy der abad
Abo rigin al. Bo m bay , Feudat o r y St at es Burm ah Baro da Bo m bay , Brit ish T er r it o ry Berar Central Provinces, Feudatory States Ben gal Central Provinces, British Territory Assam
Buddh ist . 5 118 5 116 5 084 5 080 5 017
Burm ah
5 186
4 989 4 984 4 976 4 953
5 103 5 101 5 070
Nort h-W est Pro vinc es, Feudatory States T rav an co r e Ben gal Madr as T o t al
5 046 5 036 5 001 4 926 5 140
T o t al
5 008
T o t al
5 181
101. 101 . For Assam Ass am no no report repo rt has as yet been rece receiv ived; ed; and I am therefore therefore without the local local inf information ormation which which would would enable me to to deal dea l as I should wish wish with the figures in the Assam tables relating to the proportions of the sexes. But the province is of no great extent, and the population is small. Considering, too, the comprehensive figures I have the means of dealing with in the larger States, it is the less necessary to examine very thoroughly the figures for the Assam districts. ABSTRACT XX. ASSAM.—Percentage of Males on Total Population. District Ca ch ar Plain s Sy lh et Ga ro Hill Pla ins Go alpa ra Kámrú p Darra ng Nowgong Sib s á ga r Lakhimp u r Ca ch ar Hill Tract s Gá ro Hills Kh as i an d Ja in tia Hills Naga Hills, Hills, Civil and M ilitary ilitary Naga Hill Tracts , estimated
Hin d o os Percen t ag e Tot al Po Po p ulat ion 53.77 186657 50.88 949353 51.27 15872 51.17 329066 50.95 569906 52.01 251838 51.81 51.81 249710 249710 52.57 339663 53.19 152190 49.80 10942 62.78 5692 97.93 97.93 1259 1259 -
M ah amme da n s 1881 Pe rce nt ag e To ta l Po Pop u lat io n 52.72 92393 50.66 1015531 59.71 4135 52.02 104777 51.22 50452 51.2 15504 52.38 52.38 12074 12074 56.02 15665 59.75 5824 3 82.45 570 96.81 96.81 94 -
Hill Trib es Perce nt ag e Tot al Po Po p ulat ion 51.95 9570 52.48 3708 50.32 3098 49.90 11712 51.99 23525 51.42 4852 50.74 50.74 48478 48478 51.80 13829 54.03 16382 51.27 13486 50.62 85634 46.84 160976 1 50.00 50.00 93000 93000
Perce nt ag e in 1871 Hin d oo s M ah amme da ns 54.9 52.0 51.2 51.2 51.6 52.1 52 51.9 51.9 52.1 53.1
51.5 52.3 52.6 52.0 52.0 54.5 59.6
In the the above abstract ab stract a comparison is is drawn, where such is is feasible, feasible, for the several districts districts of Assam in regard to the propo rtion of the the sexes apparent at the present and the preceding enumeration, the percentages being given for Hindoos, Mahammedans, and Hill tribes separately for 1881, and for the first two sections of the community only for 1871. The peculiarity noticed throughout the North-West, Bombay, and specially in Madras, is observable in some of the Assam districts, and the figures obtained for this province to some extent point to a conclusion identical with that arrived at elsewhere from larger generalizations. 102. 102 . In the province of Berar, the females, females, as in the majority majority of Indian provinces, are less less in in number number than the males. males. The provincial provincial reporter, repo rter, Mr. Kitts, though he does not distinctly refer to concealment of females as being the cause at the last Census of the disparity of the sexes, points, I think, in
his remarks on this subject, 68 which I quote below, to this being possibly, in his opinion, the cause of a certain amount of the defect of the female population; and in his further remarks, which I have also extracted, in regard to the different numbers of the male and female sex found at certain specified periods of life, further evidence is to be obtained obtained as to the the effe effect ct of the the conceal concealm ment of femal emales es in in dim diminishi nishing ng the the num number of the the sex recorded at the the Census. Census. He says: says:— — "Of every 10,000 10,00 0 of the the population, population, 5,165 5,16 5 are males, males, and 4,835 4,8 35 are females; females; in other words, to every ever y 15 femal females es there are approxim ap proximately ately 16 males. males. The excess of males is larger in the Amraota, Akola, and Ellichpur districts, and smaller in the other three. One cause which undoubtedly tended (although indirectly) to a short return of females, was the number of the floating population. On the Census night there were three or more small fairs, and numerous marriage gatherings. Traders and travellers do not always take their wives and daughters with them; and Kumbis, who are the largest caste in Berar, do not allow their women to accompany them as guests to a wedding. The floating population thus composed numbered 217,457,or 8*13 per cent, of the total population, and of this the larger proportion must necessarily have been males. A return compiled for those places in which the floating populati opulation on num numbered bered 500 and and upwards upwards shows shows that that the the dispari disparity ty of the the sexes sexes in in thei theirr total total populati population on was was 1.5 per cent, cent, greater greater than than for for the the provi province generally. Had the women, whom traders, wayfarers, or wedding guests left behind them been all enumerated at their houses, the deficiency of females in one part would have been remedied by a corresponding surplus in another; but the timidity and morbid sensibility of an educated Native character preclude reclude thi thiss hypot hypothes hesiis. A man man who who wi will him himself self gi give a Census Census enum enumerator every every necessary necessary detail detail regardi regarding ng his his fam famiily, is is often often averse averse from from permi permitting tting the the enumerator to question his wife in his absence. Other natural causes are, however, mentioned, which tend to reduce the total number of females below that of males. It must be premised, with respect to Mahammedans, that the figures for the Buldana and Akola districts suggest that in the other districts, and especially in Basim and Wun, there were some cases of the concealment and non-enumeration of females; probably some, if not most, instances may be explai explained ned in in the the mann manner er already already indicated. ndicated. "It has has also been be en urged that the the Hindu Hindu system of early marriages marriages tends to increase the number of male male at the expense of the female female births. births. The boy, at the time of marriage, is invariably older (and generally about five years older) than the girl. The boy, in fact, may have attained puberty; the girl, however, among the more respectable castes, must go through the marriage ceremony before that age, although she lives with the parents until the ceremony that declares her womanhood has been performed. She frequently becomes a mother at fourteen. Hence it has been said that 'we may infer that this wide difference between the ages at which women marry in India and England, must produce some perceptible physiological variation. Is it not probable that the female element is stronger when a woman of 25 marries a man of any age than when girls of 13 marry youths from 15 to 18 years of age?' The figures yielded by the present Census returns point to an opposite conclusion. Of Christians, Jews, Sikhs, Parsis, and Buddhists the total numbers are too small to allow of any deduction being drawn. If among Hindoos the hill tribes found in the Melghat be counted with aborigines, and not included with other Hindoos, the four classes named in the Table No. 73 are obtained; of these, adult marriage is the rule among the Musalmans, and the hill tribes, and early marriage among the Jains and other Hindoos, while the mean age of marriage is in every case lower than in England. Table No. 73, showing showing Number of Male Children Children to 10 Female Children Children
under one year
of age. No. of Mal Males es to 10 Femal Females es under under 1 Year of age. 9.594 9.649
Class. Jains Hindoos Hill tribes Musalmans
9.681 9.739
"Instead of the male births, and consequently the male infants under 12 months old, exceeding the female, as they do in England, the females exceed the males; and, although the difference is very slight, still the excess of the female element is greater where early marriages prevail than where adult marriages are the rule. 69 "Since, therefore, there is reason to doubt the action, sometimes attributed to the climate and to the early marriage system, as tending to increase male at the expense of female births, there is the less reason to doubt the accuracy of the present returns. The age returns for the first five years of life, making but little ttle demand demand upon upon the the mem memory ory of those those from from whose whose testi testimony they they were were taken down, down, may may reasona reasonabl bly y be expected expected to be more more accurate accurate than than those those for any subsequent lustrum of life. They unmistakably show that female births are in excess of male births, and that, if the mortality in both sexes was uniform from the date of birth to the taking of the Census, the ratio of births is 103 females to 100 males. The excess of the total male over the total female population is susceptible (para. 150) of a different explanation. Table No. 74, showing the proportion of Infant Population to the total Population of each sex. Un der 1 Year Religion. Hin do o s Abo rigin es Musalman s
1 Ye a r
2 Ye a r s
Males
Females
Males to 10 females
Males
Fem ales
Males to 10 Females
Males
Fem ales
Males to 10 Females
3 .1 2 .6 2 .8
3 .4 2 .8 3 .1
9 .7 9 .3 9 .7
2 .7 2 .6 2 .3
3 .0 3 .2 2 .6
9 .6 8 .1 9 .6
2 .8 3 .9 2 .6
3.3 4.6 3.1
9 .3 8 .5 9 .3
Jain s E n glan d an d W ales
2 .8 3 .1
3 .5 2 .9
9 .6 1 0 .1
2 .6 2 .8
3 .1 2 .6
3 y ear s Religion. Hin do o s Abo r igin es Musalman s Jain s E n glan d an d W ales
9 .6 1 0 .1
2 .2 2 .7
2.5 2.6
4 Ye a r s
Males
Fem ales
Males to 10 Females
2 .8 3 .7 2 .5 1 .9 2 .6
3 .3 4 .3 3 .1 2 .4 2 .5
9 .1 8 .7 8 .7 9 .1 9 .9
Males 2 .6 4 .3 2 .5 1 .8 2 .6
1 0 .0 1 0 .0
T o t al un der 5 Year s
F e m a le s
Males to 10 Females
Males
Fem ales
Males to 10 Females
2 .8 4 .8 2 .8 2 .3 2 .5
9 .8 9 .1 9 .5 9 .2 9 .9
1 4 .0 1 7 .1 1 2 .7 1 1 .4 1 3 .7
1 5 .7 1 9 .7 1 4 .6 1 3 .9 1 3 .2
9 .5 8 .7 9 .4 9 .5 1 0 .0
"During "During the first first five five years year s of existe existence, nce, female lif lifee in Berar Bera r is is rather rathe r better bette r prepre - “served “se rved than male life; life; during the next five five years year s this this superiority supe riority is is not maintained. Table No. 75, showing proportion of the Population in the first two Quinquennial Periods, with Number of Males to 10 Females. Under 1 Year old Prov Proviince nce or Count ountry ry Ber ar (1881) England and Wales (1871)
Male ales
Under 5 Years old
Males to 10 Fema Femalles Females
5 to 9 Year s
Males
Females
Males to 10 Females
Males
T otal under 10 Year s old
Females
Males to 10 Females
Males
Females
Males to 10 Females
3. 1
3. 4
9. 7
13. 9
15. 7
9. 5
12. 4
13. 4
9. 9
26. 3
29. 0
9. 7
3. 1
2. 9
10. 1
13. 7
13. 2
10. 0
12. 0
11. 6
9. 9
25. 7
24. 8
10. 0
"The "The fact fact that the children children of both sexes under five five years of age, and again from five five to nine nine years of age, bear a larger prop ortion to the the total populati opulation on than than do the the chi children of the the same same ages ages in in Eng Englland and and Wales, Wales, shows, shows, probably, probably, not not so much much that that chi child li life is heal healthi thier here, here, as that that adult adult lilife is healthier, and that the aged are therefore more numerous, in the latter country. In every section of the com-munity, and especially among the hill tribes, the male element begins during these five years to show itself hardier and healthier than is the female." 103. 103 . Hyderabad, Hyderab ad, in which which State the Census Ce nsus of 1881 188 1 is the the first first that has been taken, shows a simil similar, ar, though not so large a dispar disparity ity of the sexes. In the Hyderabad population we find 5,081 males to every 10,000 of both sexes. Amongst the Hindoos the are 5,080 males, and amongst the Mahammedans 5,070 males to each 10,000 of both sexes. This is considerably better than the proportions observable in North India, and approaches closely to those which are found prevailing in the Central Provinces. The age returns for Hyderabad show, like most of the other provinces, a great defect of females in one special period of life, and as there are no known causes which would bring about this peculiar difference in the proportion of the sexes at that period of life, we are led to the conclusion for this province as elsewhere, that the short number of females shown at the Census of 1881 is to some extent attributable to concealment by the people of their young females. 104. 104 . For Mysore the the report repo rt has not yet been received, received, but the statements from which which the All All India Returns and Tables have been bee n compiled compiled show for that province 70 as in Madras, that for the total population the females generally outnumber the males. The figures are 4,983 males against 5,017 females in every 10,000 of both sexes. This turn of the balance is perceptible amongst the Hindoos only. They, however, form the large majority of the Mysore population. The Mahammedans and the Christians both show an excess of males over females. As a previous Census had already been taken in Mysore when the Census of 1881 was effected, I have extracted from the figures for the two enumerations the statement drawn up below, which gives for each of the Mysore districts the percentage of males on the population of both sexes both for 1871 and 1881. This percentage is also traced through the three religions which I have already referred to. It is curious to notice that while in 1871 the males are 502 to 498 in every 1,000 of the population of both sexes, the proportion has almost exactly reversed itself in 1881, where they are 498 to 502 females, the exact figures being 4,983 against 5,017. It will be seen from the the statem statement ent above refe referred rred to that that throug throughou houtt the the vari various ous secti sections ons of the the comm communi unity, ty, wheth whether er Hindoo, Hindoo, Maham Mahamm medan, or Christi Christian, an, the the Census of 1881 shows a less disproportion of females to males than existed at the previous enumeration. For instance, the Hindoos, who showed formerly 501 males to 499 females, show now 497 males to 503 females; the Mahammedans, who showed 516 males to 484 females in 1871, show in 1881 511 males to 489 females; similarly with the Christians, but the Christians are so small a section of the population that no satisfactory generalization can be drawn from them, more especially as the largest portion of the Christian population in Mysore consists of the military, and amongst the troops there would naturally be a very few women. ABSTRACT XXI. MYSORE. District. Ba ng a lore Ko lar Ju mkú r M y s o re
Percentage of Males to Total Population 1871 1881 50.0 49.4 50.0 49.5 49.9 49.2 49.6
49.1
Percentage of Hindoos Hindoos to Total Hindoo Population 1871 1881 49.9 49.3 50.0 49.4 49.9 49.1 49.5
49.0
Percentage of Mahammedans Mahammedans to Total Mahammedan Population 1871 1881 51.1 50.5 51.6 50.8 50.6 50.3 51.1
50.6
Percentage of Christians Christians to Total Christian Population 1871 1881 51.7 51.7 55.1 52.8 55.7 59.4 52.2
48.4
Has s an Sh imo g a Kad u r Ch it ald roo g To t als
49.1 51.8 51.0 51.1 50.2
48.8 51.9 51.7 50.5 49.8
49.1 51.7 50.9 51.0 50.1
48.7 51.9 51.4 50.4 49.7
51.0 52.9 52.4 53.0 51.6
51.0 51.7 55.5 52.1 51.2
51.9 57.1 70.8 55.9 52.7
52.2 53.8 69.6 46.9 52.5
105. 105 . In Travancore, as in the other southern populations, populations, the the proportions prop ortions of the sexes approach approa ch more more nearly to European standards than is is the case in the northern States and Provinces. The report for Travancore has not yet been received, and I cannot, therefore, say what may be the views of the reporter on this subject. Throughout the province the males are found as 4,986 against 5,014 females; and as in Mysore so in Travancore, it is amongst the Hindoo section of the community that this excess of females prevails. In Travancore the Christians form a considerable proportion of the population, and with the Christians the males outnumber the females in that province. This, too, is the case of Mahammedans, but the Mahammedans are an imperc imperceptible eptible element of the populati po pulation on in Travancore. 106. 106 . Coorg Co org is is remarkable remarkab le as havin having g a much much larger larger disparity of the sexes than any any other part of India. India. In its its defect of females females itit exceeds even e ven the the Punjab of the North-West Provinces. The population is not large, but such as it is shows no less than 5,633 males against 4,673 females in every 10,000 of both sexes. This extraordinary disproportion is least among the Hindoos, greatest amongst the Jains, and is greater with the Mahammedans, Parsees, and Christians than amongst the Hindoos. The figures are,— Jains Mahamm Mahammedans Parsees C hristians Hindoos
6667 6283 6190 5631 5582
males in every 10,000 of both sexes. males ales in every every 10,000 of both sexes. sexes. males in every 10,000 of both sexes. males in every 10,000 of both sexes. males in every 10,000 of both sexes. 71
Major McGrath, Mc Grath, who has has given given a brief note, on the Coorg Coo rg Census Returns, Returns, does doe s not enter upon upon this this question of the the disparity of the the sexes. He says, however, that it was the custom amongst the Coorgs not to give their female children in marriage until the age of puberty; that this wholesome rule appears to have been relaxed of late years, and the Coorgs are gradually falling into the habit of conforming to the usage of their Hindoo neighbours in this respect. He records an instance where a Coorg youth, aged 16, married a girl of 12 years, and says there is reason to believe that other similar cases of early marriages have occurred. He has not looked into the position which the Coorgs themselves occupy amongst the population of the provinces in regard to the proportion of the sexes; but it is curious, in the face of these remarks which I have extracted, and of the theories in regard to the influence of the age of parents upon the children, to find this race, who are said to depart from the customs prevalent amongst Hindoos in regard to the early marriages of their male and female children, presenting a very marked difference to the Hindoos around them in the disparity of females to males. Instead of there being that vast disparity which is noticeable in the returns of the Hindoo population of the province, the Coorgs themselves show for their 26,558, for that is the number of the caste, 13,443 males to 13,279 females; so that the proportion of males to females in this caste is extremely low when compared with the Hindoo figures, being 506 males to 494 females against 558 males to 442 females among the Hindoos. An examination of the age returns for Coorg indicates how far concealment in the period of life which has been so often noticed, I mean between 5 years of age and 20 amongst the females, is apparently one cause of the great deficiency of females. From 0 to 4 the males in Coorg numbered 8,430, and from 0 to 9 inclusive, 19,606. Against these we find the females from 0 to 4 are 8,768, and from 0 to 9 are 19,831. Thus up to this period the females outnumber the males. This is the case, too, with the Hindoos, where the males from 0 to 9 are 18,167 against 18,437 females for those years, and though there is a slight disparity of females amongst the Mahammedans, it is very small, the males from 0 to 9 in that religion numbering 1,109, and the females 1,078. Immediately we get beyond this period of life we see an extraordinary contrast in the relative number of the sexes. From 10 to 14 in the total population the males are 11,380, females 9,080; again, from 15 to 24 inclusive, the males are 23,069, while the females are 17,738; so again from 25 to 34, the males are 23,978, while the females are 15,873. A similar marked disproportion pervades the whole of the remaining age periods up to 59. After that the women exceed the men. This disparity in the sexes at particular periods of life is equally apparent amongst the Hindoos and Mahammedans. We have in regard to Coorg to keep in view the fact that immigration exercises a very marked influence on the proportion of the sexes. And when we eliminate the disturbing influence, we see that Coorg, though not, as is the case with Mysore and Travancore, showing its female population to outnumber the male portion, has a very slight disparity of the sexes in that part of the population which is native to Coorg. The total popul pop ulation ation enumerated enumerated in Coorg Co org was 178,30 178 ,302. 2. The home-born home-bo rn popul pop ulation ation was 103,437 103, 437 leaving leaving 74,865 74, 865,, or 72 per cent, of the population, population, to be accounted for as immigrants. Of this large portion of the population, 47,204 were males and only 27,661 were females. If we leave this immigrant section of the Coorg population out of our consideration, we shall see that the recorded proportion of the sexes, for the home-born population, becomes much less uneven than the figures in Table XIV would indicate. In every 10,000 of both sexes there are 5,137 males and 4,863 females, whilst the males are 106 10 6 to every 100 females. females. 107. 107 . In Cochi Co chin, n, with with a small small population, population, we find find the same sa me tendency that there there is in the the rest res t of the southern provinces provinces for the females to be in numbers numbers very much on an equality with the numbers of the males. The percentage of males on the total population in 1881 was 503, for Hindoos it was 502, for Mahammedans 518, and for Christians 502 in 1,000. In the statement given below, a comparison is drawn for the several districts of Cochin between the figures for the enumeration of 1875 and the Census of 1881, for the total population, for the Hindoos, for the Mahammedans, and for the Christians, which illustrates this subject of disparity of the sexes. There is very little movement observable in the proportions obtained at 1875 and 1881. Only in the case of the Mahammedans, who are a very small section of the community, does the movement take a backward direction. Mr. Zakariab, who reviews the Cochin figures, writes that the proportion of males to females shows for the two enumerations no variation in the rates of males to females, but remains now as 100 to 99. But he says the addition to the population by birth consists of
72 42,694 boys and 46,969 girls. He also adds that a slight female preponderance is kept up in the three northern districts, as was the case also at the preceding receding census. census. ABSTRACT XXII. COCHIN. District Kan ay an o or Co ch in Ko du n ga lo or M o okun d ap u ra m Trich o o r Ta lap illy Ch it to o r To ta l
Percentage of Males Males to Total Population 1875 1881 51.1 51.3 51.2 51.1 52.7 50.8 50.1 50.6 49.6 49.4 49.9 50.0 49.5 48.8 50.3 50.3
Percentage of Hindoo Hindoo Males to Total Percentage of Mahammedan Mahammedan Males to Percentage of Christian Christian Males to Total Hindoo Population Total Mahammedan Population Christian Population 1875 1881 1875 1881 1875 1881 50.9 51.6 52.6 54.2 51.1 50.6 51.3 51.9 52.1 50.8 51.0 50.2 53.0 50.2 51.1 51.9 55.5 54.9 50.1 51.0 51.1 52.8 50.0 49.3 49.6 49.3 50.7 52.6 49.4 49.6 49.6 49.6 50.8 51.6 50.8 51.5 48.6 48.8 50.5 48.8 48.8 49.5 50.2 50.2 51.3 51.8 50.5 50.2
108. 108 . In Ajmere Ajmere the popul pop ulation ation is small small,, and the conditions conditions of lif lifee approac app roach h very very closely to those observable ob servable in the North-West North- West and in the Punjab. The proportion roportion of males ales to fem femal ales es is is very very hi high, gh, 5,401 mal males es to 4,599 fem femal ales es in in every every 10,000 of the the populati population. on. The The Hi Hindoos show show 5,378 mal males es to every every 10,000 of both sexes; the Mahammedans, 5,535 males to every 10,000 of both sexes; and the Jains, 5,285 males to every 10,000 of both sexes. The reviewer of the Ajmere statement does not give any distinct opinion as to the cause of the preponderance of males, but in his examination of the numbers of persons of either sex at the different periods of life he brings out figures which show, or tend to show, that there has been a large concealment of female life in some of the age provinces, especially those between 10 and 20. 109. 109 . The only only remaini remaining ng countries to notice notice are the States Sta tes in the Rajputana and the the Central India Agenci Agencies. es. In Rajputana, as in other northern States, the proportion pro portion of males males to females females is is high, high, being being 5,406 again a gainst st 4,594, 4,5 94, the Hindoo Hindooss showing showing the the largest defect of females. In Central India the excess of males is not so marked as in the adjoining States of Rajputana, but is 5,272 males against 4,728 females. With the Hindoos in Rajputana the proportion is 5,422 to 4,578, and in Central India is 5,295 to 4,715. As the ages of the population in Rajputana and Central India have not been ascertained it is not possible to examine in these States whether, as is noticed in other parts of the country, there is any marked defect of female life in any special age period, which would point to a concealment of females at that period of life. 110. 110 . I have now reviewed reviewed the whole of the different different provinces provinces in regard to this question question of dispro disproportion portion of the the sexes, and a nd I can come to only only one conclusion. It appears to me that the marked disproportion of females to males, where that disproportion exists, does not represent actual facts, but is mainly the result of a tendency amongst the people to conceal their younger women from the enquiries of the enumerators. 1 have already examined in some instances, and have appended to the remarks I have made, the figures for several of the smaller provinces which show how the female population stands in regard to the male population at the present Census for the districts composing these provinces, and how it stood in the same areas at the preceding receding Census. Census. In the the statem statement entss at the the end end of thi this Chapter Chapter a sim similar exam examiinati nation is is made made for for the the fi figures gures for for the the larg larger er provi provinces of Indi India; a; and and it it wi will be seen that the same results, or similar results, are brought out in the case of these larger populations as have been brought out in the smaller provinces. 111. 111 . There is another poin po intt also to consider, co nsider, which, which, though I have not directly touched upon it it in my examinati examination on of the figures, figures, incidentall incidentally y appears appe ars in all those statements where a comparison is drawn between the figures of 1881 and the figures of 1872, or of the Census previous to 1881. I refer to the peculi eculiarity arity in the the growt growth h of the the fem femal alee populati population. on. The The two two sexes sexes in in ordi ordinar nary y circu circum mstances stances shoul should d show a correspondi corresponding ng movement ovement whatev whatever er the the proportion roportion of the the mal males es to the the fem femal ales es mi might ght 73 be. Supposing Supposing that that the the theory theory was correct correct that that in an eastern cli climate, and and in in certai certain n pecul peculiar condi conditi tions ons of social social life, by whi which itit became became the the habit habit of the the people eople to marry marry thei theirr chi children when when youn young, g, and and wi with a consi considerable derable dif difference ference in the the age age of the the husband husband and wi wife, the the num number of male ale birth birthss woul would considerably outnumber the female births, any increase in the male sex would be followed by a rateable increase in the female sex; or if a decrease in the male sex was observed we should expect to find a rateable decrease in the female sex. If, however, we look at the figures in the table, No. II., Volume II. of the Returns, we shall find that this is not at all the case in the statistics with which we are dealing. Below I append an abstract abstra ct showing showing how how the population population of each province province has progressed pro gressed,, and what has been the movement movement in in either either sex. ABSTRACT XXIII. Increase (+) or o r Decrease (—) per pe r Cent, since previous previous Census. Province or State. Ajmere Assam
Males. 17.2 17.7
Females. 15.1 19.0
Bengal Berar Bombay, British Territory „ Fe Feudatory States Burmah C entral Provinces, British Territory „ „ Fe Feudatory States C oorg Madras North-West orth-West Provinces Provinces,, Briti British sh Terri Territory tory „ „ Feudatory States Punjab, British Territory Baroda C ochin Mysore Travancore Total
10.5 19.8 - 0.3 0 .5 38.7 19.4 61.8 6 .3 - 2.9 3.0 13.8 6 .4 7 .5 - 1.8 - 17.7 4 .2 5 .8
11.3 20.2 2.5 3.7 33.1 21.5 64.0 5.4 0.2 7.2 18.8 7.8 10.7 - 0 .1 - 16.6 3.8 8.4
112. 112 . It will will be observed ob served that for the enti entire re popul pop ulation ation of India for for which which a com- parison pa rison is is possibl poss ible, e, that is is to say, where the present prese nt is is not the only only Census that has been taken, the increase in the number of males has been much less than the increase in the number of females. Now, it is evident that, if the proportions of the sexes have been correctly portrayed in the first of the two enumerations for which these comparative figures are available, the proportion roportion now now observabl observablee at thi thiss latest latest enum enumeration eration in in the the two two sexes sexes woul would remai remain n much much the the same. same. We cannot cannot suppose that that there there are any any circumstances which would have such an effect on the growth of the population as to permit of the increase among the males being at a very much smaller rate than the increase among the females; and yet, if the figures for the two enumerations in each case have been correctly given, we do find a very varying rate of increase for the two sexes. The males have increased 6,176,770 on 106,223,153, while the females have increased 7,977,864 on 100,276,458. Table II. shows how this increase has occurred throughout the different provinces, and the figures there given are well worth close examination. Out of 22 such sets of figures given for the different sexes in this statement, we find only six cases where the females have not increased to a larger extent than the males. On the other hand, in the other 16 instances, we find very marked increases among the females. In Bombay (British Territory), for instance, while the males have decreased 24,310 on 8,522,028, the females have increased 193,088 on 7,763,608. So, in the Feudatory States of Bombay, the females have increased 120,862 upon 3,248,032, while the males have only in- creased 18,947 upon 3,553,408. In the NorthWest again, in British Territory, we find an increase of 1,429,322 on 19,765,991 females, and for the males only 675,650 on 22,236,906. In the other cases, though there has been a greater increase among the females than amongst the males, the disproportion in the rate of increase has not been so remarkable as in those instances which I have already given. I thin think, k, on the whole, whole, suffici sufficient ent evidence evidence is is to be obtained from from the statistics statistics in in the several abstracts which which are giv given en in in this this chapter, and in in the extracts which have been 74 taken from the various provincial reports, to show that Dr. Cornish's argument expressed in his Report in 1874 (an argument which has since been followed up by Mr. Mclver for Madras, and Mr. White for the North-West Provinces) is, in the main, the true explanation of the peculiarities which are now found, though in a less marked degree than on the occasion of the previous enumeration, in the figures giving the proportions of the sexes in the various Indian provinces. The concealment of females which has been referred to throughout these remarks, and the short counting of individuals of that sex, will probably be detected when we come to examine the age figures of the two sexes contained in Table VII. of Volume II. 113. 113 . In the statements wh which ich will will be found found at the close of this this chapter, chapter , we find find other evidence on this this subject: and we obs erve special spe cially ly,, in the larger larger provinces, rovinces, a state state of thi things ngs whi which indi indicates cates that that Dr. Corni Cornish's conclusi conclusions ons in in 1872, ifif not absolut absolutel ely y correct, correct, are are very very large largelly trut truthf hful ul.. In the the Punjab, Punjab, in in 1868, out of 32 districts, none contained a less number of males than females, and the same state of things appears in 1881, but the proportion of females to males in 1881 is better than it was in 1868 throughout, and in some instances the improvement is remarkable. For instance, in the Hissar Division, there are now only 539 males in 1,000, where in 1868 there were 549 males. In Amritsar, there are now 541 males, where there were formerly formerly 551 55 1 males. In Multan there are 547 males, against 554 in 1868. In Chelunda, there are 534, against 539; and in Lahore 548 against 555. The Punjab is the very worst of all the provinces. In the North-West Provinces, which approach next to the Punjab in the defect of females, we find the improvement more remarkable still. In 1872, out of 49 districts, there was not a single one in which the number of males was less than the number of females, but in 1881 there are no less than seven districts which contain a less number of males than females. In Bombay, where, in 1872, out of 24 districts, there was only one which contained a less number of males than females, in 1881 there are three which contain a less number; in Bengal, there were 20 districts, in 1872, out of 48, which contained fewer males than females; at the last Census, out of 53 districts, 28 contained a less number of males than females. In the Central Provinces, in 1872, only three out of 18 districts contained fewer males than females; in 1881 five contained fewer males than females; and in Madras, while, in 1871, there were only 8 districts out of 51 which contained fewer males than females, there are now 14 in that positi p osition. on. 114. 11 4. It is unnecessar unneces sary y for me me to examine examine at any length the detail deta iled ed information information given given in in those state st atements ments for for the various districts composing compo sing the provinces. rovinces. The The tendency tendency of all all my rem remarks, arks, and and of all all the the fi figures gures that that have have been inqui nquired int into, o, has has been to show show that, that, wi with each succee succeedi ding ng Census, Census, there there
has been a more successful count of the women, and though that count is still short, we are now in 1881 enabled to perceive that a portion at all events, if not the whole, of the great defect in the number of females as compared with males living at the time of the Census is due to concealment of the former. 115. 115 . Mr. Bain Baines es has examined examined at considerable considerab le length length the figures figures included included in in Table IV. of Volume Volume II. of the India Returns. He has has drawn up a very interesting diagram illustrating the proportion of females to males, and has favoured me with an extremely able note on the subject. I insert his diagram and note, which convey a large amount of information on this subject, and I put forward his argument to the consideration of those to whom this subject is of interest. It is possible that there may be some physiological law, or some climatic influence, which, in the East, brings about a state of things in regard to the equality of the sexes which we do not find in Europe. But I can hardly imagine that such influences can really exist throughout a continent or any large portion of it, where we find in the extreme south a large population in which the females outnumber the males, though in the north there is a remarkable disparity of females to males. If we take the population of Madras, Bengal, Mysore, and Travancore, in which our returns show us that the males are less in number than the females, we find we have a population of very nearly 80,000,000 in which the sexes stand in an inverse proportion to that which they occupy in the north of India. In the Hindoo population alone there are 79,661,430 persons of both sexes in Bengal and Madras, Mysore and Travancore, where the males are to the females as 4,962 to 5,038 in every 10,000 of both sexes. For the remaining populations we have a totally different state of things; and yet there is very little difference in the habits and customs of the Hindoos of the north of India arid of the south; nor is there anything I am aware of in the climate of the south which would bring about a different state of 75 things to that which is produced by the climate of the north. It is quite true that the climates differ very considerably in one respect: that there is a much colder climate in the winter in the north of India than there is in the south of India, and it is possible that by this climatic influence some small portion of the defect of females in the northern part of India may be accounted for. But my belief is that if climaticinfluences do account for any portion of this deficiency of females they have but a slight effect in this direction. The main case of the apparent disparity is the omission to give correct count of the females. Remarks on the Diagram of Sex Proportion. This This diagram is is based bas ed on the figures figures actually actually tabulated tabulated from the origin original al schedules, schedules, without any attempt at the correction corre ction of the very apparent appare nt errors in the distribution of the ages. The black black line line represents repres ents the proportion pro portion at the the selected age periods of o f females females to 1,000 males in in the the Census of Engl England and and Wales in in 1871. The corresponding ratios for India in 1881 are given by means of a line in red ink. In order to show the great diversities that must necessarily be found in so large an area, the ratios have been added for two of the chief provinces of the eastern Empire. Madras has been given because the average number of females to males there is higher (1,021) than in any other considerable portion of India. The selection of the Punjab, on the other hand, is justified by the fact of its containing, according to the Census, the very smallest pro-portion of females to the other sex, namely, only 843 per mille. The Madras line is drawn in blue, and that of the Punjab in purple. The average proportion in England and Wales was 1,054, and in the whole of India, 954, per mille males. A glance glance at the diagram shows that that the excess of o f femal females es in Engl England and dates date s from the the fifteenth fifteenth year of life, life, and, with the exception of the the latest periods, is highest between 25 and 30. It is lowest between 10 and 14. Speaking generally, these characteristics are shared by the return for France and Italy, but the table for Greece partakes of the irregularity of that with which the diagram is more immediately concerned. Before entering upon the details of the table for India, it is necessary to remark that the age tables in another part of the returns afford very fair evidence that there has been a concealment of females at certain periods of life, pre-eminently between 10 and 14, between which and the preceding period there is such a difference that no merely physi hysical cal cause cause could could produce. produce. Thi This probably probably affec affects, ts, too, too, the the return return as far far as the the peri period between between 15 and and 20. It is is very very hard to say what what is is to be hel held d accountable for the deficiency of this sex, as compared with the numbers of the other at a later period of life. The marked irregularities in the line from 20 to 60 are due in great measure to the habit, common in India as elsewhere, amongst an illiterate population, of selecting round numbers, or the even multiples of five, in filling up their schedules. In this respect the return for Madras forms a conspicuous example, and there is no doubt that a great deal of the excess of females at 20, 30, 40, and 50 is to be attributed to the inclusion in these periods of numbers who should rightly fall into the adjacent columns. In England, even, this defect in the enumeration is clearly traceable, and it is most remarkable in the Census returns of the coloured population of the United States. The inaccuracy thus produced, however, is one of detail, and will not explain the deficiency of females in a population as a whole. Of the three hypotheses hypotheses put forward to account acc ount for this this strange strange divergence divergence from from the state of things things ascertained asce rtained to exist exist in the countries where frequent enumerations afford a firm basis for inference, two are physical and inherent, and the third social and accidental. In the first place, there may be grounds for holding that owing to certain conditions of life, such as climate, food, or disparity in the ages of the husband and wife, the proportion of female births is actually less in India than in Europe, whilst the difference in the viability of the two sexes during the early years of life is not so marked, owing to the hardship of the struggle for existence at that time. Secondly, though it is doubtful how far this is to be classed amongst the physical causes, the practice of early cohabitation, combined with very rapid maturity, has an undoubted tendency to kill off the women at certain periods. Lastly comes the probable concealment of women, owing to the jealousy of their male relatives. As has been remarked above, to this cause must certainly be attributed a good deal of the extraordinary deficiency of the former sex between the ages of 10 and 20, when (apart from the dislike on the part of a parent to have have it discl disclosed osed to an enum enumerator, probabl probably y of the the very very vi village itself, tself, that that an unm unmarried arried girl girl of marriageabl arriageablee age is in in the the house) house) there there is is lilikely kely to to 76 be a strong strong distru distrust st of the the moti motives ves of the the inqu inquiiry itself, tself, wheth whether er the the fem femal alee in in questi question on be marri married ed or a spinst spinster. er.
It is with with this this explanation that it is is necessa nece ssary ry to deal de al first, first, as the information on the the other othe r two is by no means means as a s full full as it is is likely likely to be by b y the time time the next Census is taken. To begin with, it is remarkable that throughout the greater part of the area where the Census of 1881 was not the first enumeration, the proportion of females to males has been steadily increasing, a fact on which must be based unhesitatingly the inference that the population is becomi ecoming more accustom accustomed ed to the the Census Census operation operation as a periodi periodical cal proceeding proceeding,, with without out any special special and inj injuri urious ous resul results ts to to domesti domesticc econom economy. y. But But thi this is not enough to account for the local variations, though it may be accepted as explanatory of a general rise of the proportion at every age period tabulated up to 20. But the rise is general, even amongst the old people, where spinsters, if any, would be returned as widows, and even Native distrust would acquit the Government of any desire to make requisitions for the supply of companions for its soldiery. Then, again, it is remarkable that in the south, south-west, and east there is an actual predominance of females, whilst towards the north there is a tendency for the ratio to decrease. The higher ratios are found in Madras, Mysore, and the adjacent districts of the Bombay Presidency, and Bengal. In the North-west and Oudh, in the Punjab and Sindh, the deficiency is most marked. It is observed that the return for Rajputana and Central India, where only a partial, and, so to speak, an experimental Census was taken, shows the same characteristics as that for the British territory adjoining those groups of States. As regards the accuracy of the actual enumeration in British provinces, there is little reason to believe that it was inferior in tracts where the village system has been much broken up to what it was where the old order of things is still preserved intact, or nearly so. Amongst the masses, on whom the proportion depends, there is probably robably but but lilittle ttle dif difference, ference, wheth whether er under under the the system system in operati operation on in in the the Punj Punjab, ab, or in in the the less less superv superviised vi village of Bengal Bengal,, or, agai again, n, between between the the village system in the ryotwári districts of Madras, and in the districts under the same tenure and system of administration in Bombay. The confidence of the people in the accountant or schoolmaster of their village, such as it is, is likely to be uniform throughout. But there must be a general tinge of sentiment over each tract arising from the invariable tendency of the middle classes to ape the customs of their social superiors, a tendency that spreads downwards to the masses. If the feeling of the local magnate is towards the seclusion of his womenkind, the tradesman or landlord who becomes rich will most surely begin to adopt the zanánah system in the second generation, and to this feeling may perhaps be attributed some of the dislike to give a complete return of the women of a household, a dislike which the enumerator, probably a native of the same village, will regard with no unfavourable eye. It seems allowable to generalize on this point, and to suppose that where the local aristocracy are indigenous by caste and race, as in the Marátha country, and probably in most of Madras and Mysore, the zanánah system will be less enforced or regarded than where a conquering race, or a set of people eople not elevat elevated ed from from the the peasantry peasantry,, have have settl settled on the the soil soil as leaders leaders of the the comm communi unity. ty. Such an expl explanat anatiion, howev however, er, does not not seem to be applicable to Lower Bengal, though it appears to suit the north and south of the peninsula. Is it, then, that in Bengal the barrier between the upper and the other classes is harder to pass than in other parts of India? That the masses have no inclination to adopt the special features of a social stratum which is separated from their life by a wider chasm than elsewhere? If such be the case, it would account for the preponderance of females, as in other provinces experience seems to show that the nearer the population to the forest, or aboriginal element, the less is the repugnance to return the actual number of the females, assuming that there is no actual difference in the physical constitution of this interesting class of race. The question question then arises whether there is is any such difference difference or not. The returns seem to to show that the the age at marriage marriage is a good good deal d eal higher higher amongst amongst the forest tribes than amongst those of higher social rank, whilst the proportion of women is higher in their case as well. Widow remarriage is not only admissible but common; but the more than ordinary inaccuracy of the age return for aboriginals on the present occasion renders it impossible to estimate the full worth of the data regarding marriage relations. The hard work to which the aboriginal exposes his womenkind during the middle period of their age, or about 30 to 50, renders it probable that it is at that period the female life will be found worst, instead of at the earlier age of from 12 to 20. Once past thi thiss period, period, the the old old women women prepondera preponderate, te, as in in other other reli religions, gions, over over the the old old men. men. 77 The marriage marriage tables relating relating to the Hindoo Hindoo comm co mmuni unity ty alone alone show that this this race, race , if it can be so s o called, is divi divided ded very sharply with with respect respec t to marriage marriage at the age between 25 and 40. From the earliest age at which marriage (or betrothal) takes place, until the thirtieth year, the wives are far in excess of the husbands of that period, though they begin to show a slight tendency to decrease from the twenty-fifth year. From the age of 40 to the end of life, the husbands are far in the predominance. The actual figures give 9,279,430 more wives under 30 than husbands of that age; whilst between 30 and the end of life the excess of husbands amounts to 9,147,442, thus resulting in an excess of wives in the entire enumerated community of 131,988. Some allowance must necessarily be made for the incorrect selection of the decennial numbers; but, on the whole, it may be said that there are over nine millions of Hindoos married to wives at the least 10, and probably 20 to 30 years younger than themselves. There is no good reason for disregarding such a social phenomenon entirely in relation to the proportion of the sexes at birth, and after the first decade of life. The age tables show that that between betwee n the the periods of o f 5 to 9 and 10 to 14 there is so large large a fallin falling g off in the number number of femal females, es, as compared c ompared with males, males, that no merely physical explanation is enough; but, on the other hand, the returns for some European countries show that at this age the mortality amongst girls is far higher than it is amongst boys, whilst in the period between 20 and 25 the young men fall off more rapidly than the women of the same age. It is not safe, therefore, in attempting the correction of the Indian tables, to assume that the rate of mortality for males and females at these two periods is uniform, and the difference between the sexes as returned at the Census entirely due to concealment, though there is a good deal to be accounted for in this way. The more complex results of the social system must be ascertained only by continuous observation from time to time, at successive enumerations, and weighed against conclusions in the same direction that have not yet been satisfactorily settled even in the West. It has been stated in the beginn eginniing of thi this paragraph paragraph that that ther theree has been a general general rise rise in in the the proporti proportion on of femal emales es to mal males es since since the the precedi preceding ng Census, Census, and and itit has has been someti sometim mes assumed that this result will be continued until the right proportion is reached throughout the country. But this aspiration affords no explanation of the fact that in many of the districts of India an excess of females has been a characteristic of not only the present, but of the preceding enumerations also, whilst in other districts where the social elements are almost identical with the rest, and where the enumeration shows no signs of greater inaccuracy, there is a decided dec ided defi d eficiency ciency of females. females. In conclusion, we may may fairly fairly allow a certain cer tain amount of admi ad mitted tted concea co ncealm lment, ent, especially esp ecially at the time time of lif lifee where the returns testif test ify y to the inacc inaccurac uracy y of the data; but it is equally certain that there are physical circumstances connected with marriage, climate, and perhaps with food also, which remain to be
investigated with the aid of the more accurate researches now in progress in England and France. By 1891 some of the knowledge resulting from such inquiries will be available for comparison with the data of the enumeration of that year. HINDOO MARRIAGE RETURN. The Married. A. Age 0 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 39 40 to 49 50 to 59 60 and over Total Net
Excess Wives 1264107 2586456 2582404 2315851 530612 9279430 131998
Excess Husbands 2017617 2847135 2294468 1988222 9147442
78 Hindoo Marriage Return— continued. continued. B. Age and under. 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 All ages
Excess of Wives. 1264107 3850563 6432967 8748818 9279430 7261813 4414678 2120210 131988
ABSTRACT XXV. BENGAL Percentage of Males on total Population of both Sexes by Divisions. Division. Total, including Feudatory States Grand total of Province Chota N agpore Orissa Behar Bengal proper
1872 50 49.9 50.6 49.3 49.6 50.2
1881 49.8 49.7 49.5 49.2 49.2 50.2
ABSTRACT XXVI. BENGAL Percentage of Males on total Population of both Sexes by Districts.
Bu rd wa n Ban co o ra h Bee rb lio o n M ad map o re
Revised Figures for 1872 from Provincial Table No. II.
1881
48.9 49.6 47.9 49.5
48.0 48.7 48.0 49.4
Ch it ta g on g No akh o lly Tipp erah Ch it ta g on g Hill Tract s
Revised Figures for 1872 from Provincial Table No. II.
1881
47.5 50.7 51.1 58.7
47.0 50.6 50.7 55.6
Ho o g hly Ho wrah 24-Pergu n n ah s Sub u rb s Calcu tt a Nuddea Jes s o re Kh u ln a M oo rs h ed ab ad Dina ge po re Rajs h ah ye M ald ah Ku n g po re Bo gra Pub n a Da rje elin g Ju lpigo ree Co oc h Beh ar Da cca Furre ed p ore Bac kerg un g e M ymen s in g Sylhe t Cac ha r
48.3 49.1 50.9 58.7 65.8 48.4 48.4 49.3 53.6 47.8 51.7 49.6 48.9 50.9 50.5 49.7 56.0 51.8 52.3 48.9 49.0 51.1 50.6 -
48.3 49.8 51.2 58.5 66.7 48.8 48.8 49.4 52.6 47.8 51.7 49.3 48.8 50.9 50.7 49.4 57.3 52.5 51.7 48.9 49.4 51.2 50.9 -
Pat n a Gy a Sh ah ab ad M o zufferp o re Du rb h un g a Sarun Ch u mp aru n M o ng h y r Bh a ug u lp ore Pu rn ea h So n th al Pe rg u nn ah s Cu t ta ck Po o ree Ba las ore A n g ul Ba n ki Trib u ta ry M eh als Hazaree ba gh Lo h ard u g ga Sin g hb h o om M an b h oo m Trib u ta ry M eh als Hill Tip pe rah
48.8 48.9 48.5 49.3 50.7 48.3 48.3 51.2 49.5 50.2 51.1 54.9 48.5 50.6 49.2 50.8 50.5 50.3 51.4 50.2 50.1 50.4 50.6 51.8
48.9 49.1 48.4 49.0 49.2 47.5 47.5 50.6 49.2 49.8 50.7 50.1 48.9 50.3 48.8 50.8 50.0 50.5 49.3 49.5 50.0 49.6 50.9 53.8
79 ABSTRACT XXVII. BENGAL. Percentage of Males on total Population of both Sexes by Religion. Districts. Bu rdwan Ba nko orah Be erbh o o n M id n ap ore Ho og h ly Ho wrah 24-Pe rg u nn ah s Su bu rbs Ca lcu t ta Nuddea Je s s o re Kh uln a M o ors h ed ab ad Din ag ep o re M ald a b Ra js h ah y e Ru n g po re Bo g ra Pu bn a Darjee lin g Ju lp ig oree Co o ch Be ha r Dacc a Fu rree dp o re Ba cke rg u ng e M y me ns ing h Sy lh et Ca ch ar Ch it ta go n g Noakhali Tipp erab Ch it ta go n g Hill Tract s Pat n a Gy a Sh ah ab ad M o zuffe rp o re Du rb h un g a Tirh o ot Saru n Ch u mp aru n
Hind o o s 1872 48.9 49.6 48.1 49.6 48.8
M ah amme da ns
52.6 72.3 48.7 48.7 51.1 47.5 51.8 48.0 49.4 51.3
1881 48.6 48.0 47.7 48.6 46.3 49.5 51.4 59.1 72.9 49.2 49.2 49.9 52.7 47.4 51.5 47.7 49.0 51.0
A ll ot h ers 1881 49.3 49.4 50.4 49.3 72.8 66.7 72.8 59.0 51.8 59.9 52.1 57.5
50.2 50.0 57.1 51.6 49.4 49.7 51.0 50.7 51.2 52.0 47.5 50.6 50.6 51.2 90.4 46.0 45.8 46.8 49.1 48.0 50.9
50.3 49.7 62.2 52.0 51.9 49.4 50.3 51.2 50.8 47.0 50.5 50.5 50.9 85.4 45.6 45.5 46.0 47.8 48.6 46.6 50.1
83.2 58.5 51.2 64.9 51.4 -
1872 49.3 50.7 48.0 48.2 47.6
52.0 65.1 48.0 48.0 50.1 47.8 51.6 49.8 50.3 50.5
1881 47.8 48.6 48.0 49.5 48.7 49.8 51.0 58.3 64.6 48.3 48.3 48.7 52.5 48.1 51.8 49.8 50.3 50.7
51.4 49.1 56.1 51.6 48.2 48.5 50.0 50.2 51.2 54.9 47.9 51.0 51.0 50.7 100.0 49.2 49.3 48.6 50.1 48.3 51.2
52.7 48.7 57.5 52.8 51.6 48.2 48.1 51.3 51.1 47.2 50.9 50.9 50.3 56.5 49.3 49.6 48.5 49.2 49.3 47.6 50.6
M o ng h y r Bh au g u lp ore Pu rn ea h So nt h al Perg un n ah s Cu t ta ck Po oree Ba las ore A n g ul Ba nki Trib u tary M eh als Hazarib ag b Lo ha rd u g ga Sin g bh o o n M an b ho o n Trib u tary M eh als Hill Tipp e rah
49.6 50.2 50.7 49.8 48.6 50.6 49.2 50.2 51.4 50.5 50.2 50.3 50.7 -
49.4 49.8 50.6 50.0 48.9 50.3 48.8 50.8 50.0 50.5 49.2 49.9 49.9 49.5 50.9 64.0
47.9 49.9 51.8 49.4 46.8 51.3 49.4 53.3 51.8 50.2 51.4 51.8 45.4 -
47.1 49.7 50.8 49.6 47.1 50.1 49.6 56.4 53.7 53.4 49.8 49.9 53.2 51.2 51.7 55.9
49.8 50.7 52.0 50.3 49.3 48.5 51.8 50.5 49.6 48.8 49.8 50.1 52.2 51.1
80 ABSTRACT XXVIII. CENTRAL PROVINCES.
Nágpur Bhándár á Chándá Wár dhá Bálághát J ubbulpor e Saugor Damoh Seoni Mandlá Hos hangabad Narsinghpur Betúl Chbindw ár á Nimar Ráipur Bilás pur Sambalpur
Abor iginals 18 1881 49.8 48. 6 50. 0 49. 5 49. 5 50. 0 50. 7 49. 8 50. 5 49. 8 49.6 50. 3 49. 6 49. 6 49. 0 49. 6
Males 1872 50.9 49. 5 50. 1 51. 0 49. 6 51. 1 52. 8 51. 9 50. 4 51. 9 52. 5 52.0 50. 9 50. 3 53.2 49. 9 50. 4 50. 6
1881 50.4 49. 8 50. 3 50. 5 49. 6 50. 8 52. 2 51. 9 50. 2 50. 9 51. 6 51.1 50. 6 49. 9 52.3 49. 5 49. 5 50. 0
Hindoos 1872 1881 50.9 50.4 49. 7 50. 0 50. 1 50. 4 51. 1 50. 6 49. 6 49. 6 51. 5 50. 8 52. 8 52. 2 52. 1 52. 0 50. 7 50. 5 52. 2 51. 3 52. 8 51. 9 52.2 51.3 51. 3 50. 9 50. 7 50. 2 53.6 52.3 49. 8 49. 5 50. 5 49. 7 50. 6 50. 0
Mahammedans 1872 1881 51.0 50.3 49. 9 50. 5 49. 6 51. 2 51. 0 50. 5 51. 4 52. 1 51. 6 52. 9 52. 0 52. 0 51. 4 49. 4 53. 1 54. 4 52. 4 52.7 51.2 52. 8 50. 6 50. 4 53.4 52.0 48. 5 48. 9 49. 0 51. 7 -
Kir panthis 1881 49. 9 48. 7 49. 4 50. 1
ABSTRACT XXIX. MADRAS. Ganjam Vizagapatam Godavar y Kis tna Nellore ellore Cuddapab Bellar y Kur nool Chingleput North Arcot South Ar c ot Tanjor e Tr ic hinopoly Madur a Tinnevelly Coimbator e Nilgiri ilgiriss Salem South Canar a Malabar Madr as Puduc otta T er r itor y
Males Ma 1871 51. 3 51. 4 50. 4 50. 8 51.4 51. 3 51. 6 51. 2 50. 7 50.6 50. 5 48. 4 49 49. 1 49. 4 49. 6 54.9 49. 6 50. 1 50. 2 49 48
Hindoos 1881 49. 2 50. 1 49. 6 50. 4 50.4 50. 8 50. 8 50. 7 50. 2 49.9 49. 9 48. 2 48. 3 47. 6 48. 6 48. 7 56 48. 7 49. 2 49. 6 49. 3 47. 3
1871 51. 3 51. 4 50. 4 50. 8 51.3 51. 2 51. 5 51. 1 50. 7 50.6 50. 5 48. 5 49 49. 1 49. 5 49. 6 54.4 49. 6 50 50. 1 49 48
1881 49. 2 50. 1 49. 6 50. 4 50.4 50. 7 50. 7 50. 6 50. 2 50 49. 9 48. 4 48. 2 47. 8 48. 8 48. 7 55.9 48. 7 48. 9 49. 4 49. 6 47. 3
Mahammedans 1871 1881 48. 7 48. 8 49. 9 49. 5 50. 2 48. 9 50. 6 50. 3 52 50.8 52. 5 51. 9 52. 1 51. 8 51. 4 51 50. 9 50. 8 50.8 49.3 49. 7 49. 6 44. 8 43. 9 50 49. 6 47. 7 44. 6 46. 5 44. 8 49. 4 48. 1 59.3 64.3 49. 8 49. 3 50. 4 50. 8 50. 2 50. 2 48. 2 48. 5 47. 4 1 45. 4
81 ABSTRACT XXX. BOMBAY
Males Ma
Ahmedabad Kair a Panc h Maháls Br oac h Sur at T hána Kolába Kitnágir i Khándes h Násik Ahmednagar Poona Sholápur Sátár a Belgaum Dhár w ár Kaládgi Kánar a Kar ác hi Hyder abad Shikar pur T har and Pár kar Upper Sindh Fr ontier City and I s land of Bombay
1872 52. 9 53. 6 52. 5 52. 1
1881 51. 3 53. 0 51. 3 51. 5
50. 1 51. 8 50. 8 48. 2 51. 6 51.3 51. 1 51. 4 51. 5 50. 8 51. 0 51. 2 51. 2 51. 8 56. 7 55. 1 54. 7 57. 1 56. 1 62. 0
49. 8 51. 5 50. 3 47. 4 51. 1 50.9 50. 8 50. 5 50. 6 50. 1 50. 3 50. 1 49. 7 52. 9 55. 6 54. 0 54. 0 55. 3 56 . 5 60. 1
Hindoos 1872 1881 53. 1 51. 5 53. 7 53. 2 52. 4 52. 5 52. 3 51. 8 50. 0 51. 7 50. 6 48. 2 51. 6 51.2 51. 0 51. 3 51. 4 50. 8 51. 0 51. 1 51. 2 51. 9 57. 1 55. 3 54. 5 56. 8 56. 0 62. 2
50. 1 51. 4 50. 2 47. 6 51. 1 50.7 50. 7 50. 2 50. 6 50. 1 50. 2 50. 0 49. 7 52. 9 56. 8 54. 6 55. 7 54. 9 58. 9 60. 1
Mahamedans 1872 1881 51. 5 50. 1 52. 0 52. 0 52. 7 49. 3 51. 1 51. 0 49. 6 54. 2 51. 9 47. 7 51. 2 52.3 50. 8 52. 1 51. 6 51. 0 51. 0 52. 0 51. 4 50. 5 56. 6 55. 3 54. 7 57. 7 56. 1 61. 2
48. 7 54. 1 50. 0 44. 8 50. 9 52.0 50. 8 50. 5 50. 7 50. 3 50. 4 50. 3 49. 9 50. 7 55. 1 54. 1 53. 9 56. 1 56. 1 59. 7
ABSTRACT XXXI. NORTH-WEST ORTH-WEST PROVINCES. PROVINCES. Percentage of Males Males to Total Populati Population on in in 1881, 1871, 1865, and 1853. 1853 . District. Deh ra Dú n Sah arán p ur M u zaffarn ag ar M ee ru t Bu la nd s h ah r A liga rh M u tt ra A g ra Faru kh ab ad M ain p u ri Et áwa h Et ah Bijno r M o ra da ba d Bu d au n Ba re illy Sh áh jah án p u r Pilibh it Oawnp o re Fat eh p ur Bá nd a Hamirp u r A llah ab ad Ja u n p u r A zamg arh
Percentage 1881 58.2 54.2 53.9 53.7 53.2 54 53.7 54 54 55.2 54.7 54.7 53.1 52.8 53.8 53.2 53.7 53.1 53.2 50.8 50.7 51.2 50.3 50.5 50.9
1871 58.7 54.8 54.4 53.8 52.7 53.8 54.0 53.9 54.4 55.8 55.3 54.5 53.6 53.2 53.9 53.5 53.8 53.8 53.6 52.1 51.6 52.2 51.3 53.2 53.9
1865 59.6 54.9 54.3 54.0 53.1 54.0 54.4 54.2 54.8 55.9 55.7 55.7 53.4 53.0 53.9 53.5 53.8 55.5 52.3 52.2 53.6 52.7 54.7 54.3
District.
1853 56.6 54.2 54.2 52.8 53.4 53.7 54.7 55.0 55.8 55.4 54.2 53.2 54.2 53.2 53.7 52.9 52.5 52.4 53.5 52.3 53.1 53.5
M irza pu r Ben ares Gh ázip u r Go ra kh pu r Bas ti Ballia Jh an s i Jala un Lalit p ur A ln io ra Garh wál Tarái Luc kn ow Un ao Bara Ba n ki Sita pu r Ha rd o i Kh eri Fyza ba d Bah raich Go nd a Rae Bareli Sult an p u r Part ab g ar
82 ABSTRACT XXXII. NORTH-WEST ORTH-WEST PROVINCES. PROVINCES.
1881 49.9 50.5 50.0 49.9 50.5 48.7 51.9 51.7 52.2 52.9 49.4 54.7 52.4 51.3 51.0 52.8 53.8 53.5 50.5 52.3 51.2 49.0 49.6 49.7
Percentage 1871 51.3 51.2 51.9 53.4 53.3 52.4 52.7 53.6 52.5 53.4 50.2 55.3 52.8 51.1 51.4 53.3 53.8 54.1 51.3 52.5 51.7 50.0 50.7 50.9
1865 51.5 52.0 52.7 52.8 52.8 54.6 52.3
1853 51.5 52.2 51.9 52.2 -
District. 1. De h ra Dú n 2. Sah áran pu r 3.Mu zaffarn a ga r 4. Meerut 5. Bu lan d s h ah r 6. A lig arh 7. M ut tra 8. A g ra 9. Farukha ba d 10. M ain p u ri 11. Et áwa h 12. Et ah 13. Bijno r 14. M o ra da ba d 15. Bu d au n 16. Ba re illy 17.Sh áh jah án p ur 18. Pilibh it 19. Ca wn p ore 20. Fat eh p ur 21. Bá nd a 22. Hamirp u r 23. A llah ab ad 24. Ja un p ur 25. A zamg arh
Hind o os 1872 1881 58.4 57.9 55.6 54.8 45.1 54.5 54.2 54.0 55.1 53.5 54.0 54.2 54.2 53.8 54.1 54.2 54.9 54.5 55.9 55.3 55.5 54.8 54.6 54.9 54.4 54.1 53.9 53.5 54.2 54.1 53.8 53.5 54.2 54.1 53.3 53.7 53.4 52.3 51.1 51.7 50.8 52.4 51.3 51.5 50.4 53.5 50.8 54.2 51.1
M ah amme da n s 1872 63.1 53.2 53.1 52.4 50.9 52.3 53.4 51.7 50.4 53.2 52.2 52.3 52.1 51.7 52.4 52.5 51.1 52.2 50.0 50.1 50.3 49.9 50.9 52.5
Hin d oo s
District 1881 61.8 52.7 52.7 52.5 51.8 52.3 53.0 52.0 50.1 53.0 52.5 52.8 51.1 51.4 52.1 51.9 50.7 52.2 52.5 48.5 49.7 49.7 49.2 48.6 49.4
26. M irzap ur 27. Be na re s 28. Gh ázipu r 29.Go rakh p ur 30. Ba s t i 31. Ba llia 32. Jh án s i 33. Ja lau n 34. Lalitp u r 35. A lmo rah 36. Ga rh wál 37. Ta rá i 38. Lu ckn o w 39. Un ao 40. Ba ra Ban ki 41. Sit ap u r 42. Hardo i 43. Kh eri 44. Fy zab ad 45. Ba hraich 46. Go n d a 47. Kae Bareli 48. Su lta n pu r 49.Parta bg arh
1872 51.3 51.3 52.0 53.4 53.4 52.6 53.7 52.3 53.2 50.0 55.4 55.9 53.0 53.2 56.4 55.7 57.7 52.7 55.0 53.4 49.5 50.6 51.8
M ah amme da ns 1872 1881 51.5 50.2 50.8 50.7 50.3 48.1 53.4 50.0 52.7 50.3 47.5 53.7 52.8 52.3 49.8 57.3 53.7 66.9 66.7 76.8 74.1 54.9 54.3 48.9 49.4 48.3 50.1 50.2 49.5 53.3 51.3 51.9 51.8 57.8 53.3 49.8 49.4 54.1 52.0 52.7 50.9 48.0 47.6 46.5 48.0 48.4 48.9
1881 49.9 50.5 50.2 49.9 50.5 48.8 51.8 51.8 52.1 52.4 49.2 55.0 53.0 51.4 51.3 53.1 54.1 53.5 50.6 52.3 51.3 49.2 49.8 49.7
ABSTRACT XXXIII. PUNJAB. Percentage of Males on total Population, irrespective of Religion.
1. Delhi 2. Gur gaon 3. Kar nál 4. His s ar 5. Rohtah 6. Sir s a 7. Umballu 8. Ludhiana 9. Simla 10. J ullundur 11. Hos hiár pur 12. Kángr a 13. Amr its ar
1868 53. 6 53. 1 54. 2 55. 1 54. 5 55. 5 54. 8 54. 7 63. 6 54. 9 53. 7 52. 9 56. 0
1881 53. 5 52. 8 54. 0 54. 0 53. 5 54. 8 55. 1 54. 9 64. 2 54. 6 53. 4 52. 1 54. 9
14. Gurdás pur 15. Siálkot 16. Lahor e
54. 8 54. 4 55. 5
54. 1 53. 3 55. 2
17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
Gujr ánw ála Fer ozepor e Ráw alpindi J helun Gujr át Shahpur Mooltan J hang Montgomer y Muzaf f ar gar h Dehr a I s mail Khan Dehr a Ghazi Khan Bannu
30. Pes háw ar 31. Hazar a 32. Kohát
1868 55. 8 55. 3 54. 0 52. 8 53. 8 53. 1 55. 4 55. 6 55. 6 54. 8 53. 9 55. 1 53. 6
1881 54. 1 54. 9 54. 8 53. 2 52. 6 52. 6 55. 2 54. 2 54. 6 54. 5 54. 0 55. 2 53. 4
54. 7 52. 1 54. 6
55. 6 53. 7 55. 8
83 ABSTRACT XXXIV. PUNJAB. Percentage of Males on total Population of both Sexes in 1868 and 1881. District. Delh i Gu rga on Karná l His s ar Ro h ta k Sirs a Umb alla Lu dh iá na Simla Ju llu n du r Ho s h iárpu r
Hin d o os 1868 54.0 53.7 54.8 55.0 54.8 55.5 55.0 55.4 57.9 56.0 52.7
1881 53.8 53.4 54.4 54.1 54.0 55.2 55.4 55.8 62.6 55.2 53.3
M ah a mmed an s 1868 1881 52.8 52.0 52.8 51.5 53.1 52.8 52.9 53.6 52.1 50.7 54.7 54.0 53.6 53.8 53.5 53.2 63.4 70.2 53.3 53.4 53.1 52.9
District Gu jrán wá la Feroze po re Rá walpin d i Jh elu m Gu jrát Sh ah pu r M o olt an Jh an g M o nt g omery M u za ffarg arh Deh ra Is mail Kh a n
Hin d oo 1868 54.9 57.0 57.4 54.3 55.3 53.0 57.1 56.7 55.4 56.1 54.8
1881 54.6 55.7 60.9 55.1 53.4 51.4 56.2 53.5 54.2 55.8 54.6
Ma h ammed an s 1868 1881 54.8 53.6 54.0 54.1 53.4 53.8 52.9 52.8 53.6 52.4 52.8 52.8 54.4 54.8 55.4 54.3 55.3 54.6 54.8 54.3 53.9 53.8
Kán g ra A mrit s a r Gu rdá s p u r Siá lko t Lah o re
52.9 57.1 55.1 55.8 57.4
52.0 54.7 53.9 53.8 57.0
54.8 54.1 53.9 53.7 54.1
54.1 53.9 53.5 52.8 54.2
Deh ra Gh azi Kha n Ba nn u Pes há war Hazara Koh at
54.5 55.4 60.7 55.6 63.3
55.4 56.1 67.5 58.8 72.8
55.4 53.5 53.7 52.3 53.6
55.1 53.0 54.3 53.4 54.5
84 CHAPTER IV. THE CIVIL CONDITION OP THE PEOPLE. 116. 116 . The tables in Vol. II. I am now about to touch upon contain statistics statistics of the civil civil condition condition of the Indian Indian population. population. Table V. is is an abstract abstra ct givi giving ng the total number number in each province province who are married, widowed widowed,, or single. single. In the remaining remaining statements sta tements the civil civil condition co ndition of the population is is shown in much greater grea ter detail. de tail. In Table VI. it is shown for for each ea ch provin pro vince ce by age and sex; in Table VIA. it is shown by age and sex for each religion; and in the table following the population is given by provinces, with details of age, sex, and civil condition. The tables cover an area which has hitherto been untrodden in India, as at previous enumera- tions no attempt has been made to collect statistics of civil condition, and they contain figures which, if accurate, will be most useful in the discussion of questions affecting the well-being of the whole population, and specially of the female portion thereof. The fecundity of the different races, the social position of women, the treatment of widows, are all questions on which light may be thrown by accurate information as to the number of children alive, the mean ages of the married, the ages of husbands and wives at marriage, the number of widows, the period during which births occur amongst the females, and the size of families. It will be reserved for a later Census to collect the whole of these particulars; but, at the late enumeration, information for all of these heads was not brought together, though in respect of some of them we have obtained statistics. We see the average age of the married and of the widowed, the number of those who have entered into married life; the proportions of married found throughout the various periods of life; and the number of children. Similarly we have the numbers of widowed found in those periods of life for the various religions, and the extent therefore to which the prohibition of re-marriage affects the condition of widows of that religion which teaches and practices this doctrine. We have this information given for all the large religions separately, and for each of the different provinces. 117. 117 . Mr. Baines Baines has pointed out, in in Chapter V. of his his Report Repor t on the the Bombay Bombay Census, that marriage marriage cannot be held held to occupy the same same place in in India, from a statisticalpoint of view, as it does in Europe. There is no registration of the marriages that take place each year, and, even if there were, the double ceremony customary amongst the greater portion of the community would render the data of little service as a collateral test of the birth and death returns; for this latter must be compared with the statistics of marriages between persons that have reached the age of puberty, notwith those recording the performance of what is, in fact, no more than the betrothal ceremony of some continental nations of Europe; and it is not to be expected that the less important occasion of the departure of the bride to her husband's home years after will be recorded with more accuracy than the births are now. But, though marriage is not in India liable to be influenced by such temporary causes as in thewest, this fact doet not render the statistics recording it less interesting or less suggestive in several other directions. The two chief aspects in which this institu- tion requires to be regarded, in reference to the returns in Volume II., are the extent to which it prevails, and the ages at which it is most usually contracted, and the differences in religious customs or social habits amongst different races which tend to vary the time of life at which marriages are most customary. 118. 118 . Mr. Bain Ba ines es then proceed proc eedss to poin po intt out how the the Hindu Hindu popul pop ulation ation is is the overwhelmin overwhelming g majority; majority; that that but a fine fine lin linee separates sep arates the orthodox orthodo x faith faith from the fetish worship of the forest tribes on the one hand, and from schismatical offshoots like Jainism and Sikhism on the other; that in the case of the majority of the Mahammedans, who are either local converts or the descendants of local officials of a distant empire, the social customs of the one class before efore conversi conversion on had had been retained, retained, whi while those those of the the other, other, by permanen permanentt establ establiishment shment in the the count country ry,, had been been modi modifi fied ed by int interer- course wi with the the people eople of the the country country.. His His remarks, remarks, whi which are are equal equallly perti pertinen nentt to the the fi figures gures for for other other provi provinces, nces, and for all all India, India, as to the the fi figures gures for for Bombay. Bombay. He He continues as follows:—"The caste system of the Hindu religion has been held by many to imply the rigid exclusion of all outside influence, and thus to maintain the 85 isolation of that community in the midst of foreign surroundings. Some writers have likened Hindooism to water contained in a marble reservoir unfed from without and unable to find a way of escape. The truth seems to lie in quite another direction; the reservoir is walled with earth only, and the water is not only enlarging its basin by erosion from inside, but has affected all the surrounding land by soaking through from below. There is scarcely a form of faith to be found in the country that has not undergone some change from contact with Brahminical orthodoxy; and it may be useful, therefore, to note here a few of the main doctrines of that religion regarding marriage. I use the term doctrine advisedly, as the dis-tinction between things sacred and profane rofane in in thi thiss reli religion gion is is as indef indefiinite nite as the the boundar boundary y between between the the reli religion gion itsel itselff and and its its nei neigh ghbours. bours. "Acco "According rding to the ideal code of Manu, every man ought to marry in in order that he may have have a son to perform p erform at his his death dea th the the sacrif sac rifices ices to his his ancestors, and pour out the cus-tomary libations to their spirits. Without such ceremonies, the father's soul cannot be delivered from the hell called Put, hence the name putra name putra given to the son. As regards the father of a daughter, it is his duty to see her married, as she is put into the world to become a mother. The same law lays down that the proper age for a husband for a girl of 8 is 24, and for one of 12, 30. Contrary to the practice in the epic age, the choice of a husband by the girl appertains to a lower order of marriage, and for all these reasons is less reputable than the bestowal of the hand of a daughter by the father on one of his own choice. If the daughter is still unmarried, three years after she has arrived at womanhood, the father has failed in
his duty, and the girl is at liberty to choose her husband from her own caste. If choice were allowed in other cases, there would be danger of the girl's inclination leading to an infringement of caste purity. As the primary object is to get a son, if the wife fails to produce one, the husband is at liberty to marry a second wife. There is evidence too that the admission of polygamy in the case of the higher orders was due to a desire to maintainthe caste integrity, as the law stipulated that the first wife only should be of the same caste as the husband. When the husband dies before his wife, the latter is not to re-marry, but to elevate herself to the world of life by avoiding pleasure, performing works of piety, and living in solitude. At the present day, the remarriage of widows is a practice confined to the lower and middle classes, and the few attempts that have been made to introduce it into the higher grades of Hindoo society s ociety have met with llittl ittlee eff e ffici icient ent support. supp ort. Here we have the cardinal ca rdinal principl principles es by which the Hindoo Hindoo marriage marriage system s ystem is is regul r egulated ated.. Marriage is a necessity to everyone who acknowledges the Brahminical authority. It must be contracted with a girl of an age below puberty, and considerably less than that of the husband; the wife must not be sought for by inclination, or beyond a certain social pale. On the other hand, in order possibl ossibly y to to consoli consolidate the the caste wi withi thin itsel itself, f, she must not belong belong to a fam famiily inv invoki oking ng the the same same ancestors. ancestors. More More than than one one wife wife is permi permitted, and in in certain cases is prescribed, with the alternative, at least amongst some of the orders, of the adoption of a son. The widow, however, is never to remarry. "A few of the main main tendencies tende ncies of this system syste m may now be noticed. noticed . First, comes co mes the almost almost univers universal al prevalence pre valence of marr marriage, iage, with the result, in in the present resent state state of Indi Indian an soci society ety,, of a surpl surplus us of chi chilldren, and a consequent consequent high high mortali ortality among amongst st them them.. Then Then ther theree is is the the inequ inequal aliity of age, age, a most important feature, as, apart from the hypothesis propounded regarding its influence upon the sex of the offspring, it leads to the diminution of the period during which the parents are both living, and increases therefore, as the life of women is better at advanced age than that of men, to a superabundance of widows. The inequality of age too may be held to be somewhat of a drawback to the development of family life, which is heightened by the universal absence of choice of the wife in the first instance. In the lower classes, these features are less prominent, as the practice of second marriage is not at all uncommon; uncommon; but the large propo pr oportions rtions of the widowed females females is one of the main characteristi character istics cs of the returns r eturns for the whole whole indigenous indigenous communi community ty without exception. Lastly may be mentioned the commercial nature of the transaction by which the parents of the respective parties come to terms with regard to the marriage. In the old time, no doubt a bride was a very valuable possession, and both force and purchase were put in action to obtain her. At the time, however, when the code from which I have just been quoting was compiled, the desirability of entering into alliance with high or powerful families had been promoted by the interval of settled peace and prosperity; so that the law provided that the bride should leave her father's house well equipped, or with a large dowry. In some cases, the expenses of a marriage are fixed by her caste regulation; in others, it is left to the parents to decide, and, amongst the masses, the cost of the ceremony varies with 86 the season, being larger when the crops are good, or trade is prosperous, and restricted to the bare necessary in a bad year. It is too often the case that such expenses are the commencement of a long series of loans, the burden of which is transmitted, in accordance with Hindoo custom, from father to son. To some extent, therefore, weddings here, as in Europe, follow the season, though with this difference, that, in the one country, the necessary expenditure precedes the marriage; in the other, it is provided for the joint enjoyment afterwards." 119. 119 . From Table V., V., which which contains contains figures figures for for all the Indian Indian provinces provinces except excep t Rajpootana, Central C entral India, and Travancore, showing showing the the position of the population in regard to civil condition, I have taken therefrom an abstract XXXV., which showscomprehensively the percentage in each sex of single, married, and widowers or widows for each of the Indian provinces. Similar information is given at the foot of the statement for 13 European States. The Table from which these percentages for India are extracted deals with 228,803,402 persons, shows that out of that number 92,775,178 are single, 109,397,661 are married, and 26,630,563 are either widowers or widows. Arranged by sex these three conditions stand as follows:— Single Married Widowers or widows
Maales. M 56521018 54518665 5691937 116731620
Females. 36254160 54878996 20938626
ABSTRACT XXXV. Percentage of the Married, Widowed, and Single in each Sex on the Total Population of that Sex. Province or State. Ajmer e As s am Bengal Ber ar Bombay, Br itis h T er r itor y Bombay, Feudator y States Bur mah Centr al Pr ovinc es , Br itis h T er r itor y Coor g Madr as North-West Provinces, British Territory North-West Provinces, Feudatory States
Males 50. 1 52. 8 46. 5 38. 4 47. 8 46. 3 57. 9 46. 3 53. 9 53. 0
Single F emales 31. 9 40. 3 29. 6 25. 9 31. 7 31. 9 51. 9 34. 4 39. 8 35. 4
Mar r ied Males Females 44. 9 51. 6 42. 0 42. 2 49. 1 48. 8 56. 2 58. 5 47. 0 50. 4 46. 3 49. 7 38. 2 38. 9 49. 4 50. 8 41. 0 41. 0 40. 1 41. 1
Widow ed Males Females 5. 0 16. 5 3. 4 15. 5 4. 0 21. 2 5. 4 15. 6 5. 2 17. 9 5. 1 16. 4 3. 9 9. 2 4. 3 14. 8 5. 1 19. 2 3. 7 20. 6
Uns pec if ied Males F emales 1. 8 2. 0 0. 4 0. 4 2. 3 2. 0 3. 2 2. 9
45. 2
30. 1
48. 5
52. 8
6. 3
17. 1
-
-
46. 2
32. 6
48. 5
53. 8
5. 3
13. 6
-
-
Punjab, Br itis h T er r itor y Punjab, Feudator y States Bar oda Coc hin Hyder abad Mys or e All I ndia
52. 4 51. 1 44. 3 53. 6 44. 8 55. 4 48. 4
36. 2 32. 8 29. 7 39. 0 28. 3 36. 1 32. 3
41. 5 42. 2 50. 5 46. 2 50. 5 38. 5 46. 7
49. 5 51. 8 54. 9 54. 1 51. 3 38. 8 49. 0
6. 1 6. 7 5. 2 0. 2 4. 6 6. 1 4. 9
14. 3 15. 4 15. 4 6. 9 19. 0 25. 1 18. 7
England and Wales , 1881 I taly Fr anc e in 1876
61. 9 60. 6 53. 3
59. 2 55. 0 48. 3
34. 6 35. 3 41. 3
33. 3 35. 9 40. 8
3. 5 4. 1 5. 4
7. 5 9. 1 10. 9
Spain Por tugal Aus tr ia Pr us s ia Belgium Holland Denmar k Sw eden and Nor w ay Greec e Sw itzer land
58. 4 63. 6 61. 6 63. 6 63. 9 62. 6 61. 4 63. 5 64. 5 63. 3
54. 9 61. 4 58. 7 58. 5 60. 8 59. 6 57. 9 60. 8 54. 3 60. 3
36. 9 31. 9 35. 4 33. 2 31. 6 33. 4 35. 1 32. 9 32. 6 32. 0
36. 2 29. 9 33. 7 33. 2 34. 7 32. 5 35. 1 31. 8 34. 7 31. 0
4. 7 4. 5 3. 0 3. 2 4. 5 4. 0 3. 5 3. 6 2. 9 4. 7
8. 9 8. 7 7. 6 8. 3 4. 5 7. 9 7. 0 7. 4 11. 0 8. 7
0. 1 -
1. 4 -
87 It will will be seen se en that, taking the average of these States State s and Provi Pro vinces, nces, the number number of o f married married females females in every 1,000 is 490; 490 ; the mean mean number number of o f singl singlee females in every 1,000, 323; and the mean number of widows, 187. Now, if with this we contrast the figures for the European States which are placed at the foot of the abstract, we shall see how very much higher is the average of married females in India than it is in Europe. In no case in any one of these 13 instances does the proportion of married females in the 1,000 exceed 408 (France); in one case it is as low as 299 (Portugal). 120. 120 . Looking to the rest of the Europea European n States, it may may be said, roughly roughly speaking, that that 330, 330 , or about ab out one third third of the entire entire pop ulation ulation of the sex, is is the fair average of the married females on the total number of females. Now in India we find that the mean of 490, high as that is in comparison with European figures, is exceeded in no less than eleven instances, the highest percentage being found in Berar, where 585 out of 1,000 females are married. The instances in which the average is not come up to are few by the side of the cases in which the average is exceeded. The lowest pointreached is 388 in 1,000, in Mysore. It is almost as low in Burmah, where the figureis 389 in 1,000. In all other cases it exceeds 400. In the case of the males theaverage number of married, on the total population of that sex, is 467 per 1,000. In the 18 instances given the mean is exceeded in 9 cases, and not come up to inthe other 9 instances. The highest figure is found, as for the females, in Berar, where it is 562 in 1,000; the lowest in Burmah, where it is 382; but Mysore approaches very closely to Burmah, with 385. For the 13 European States the highest figure is found in France, where the number of married males in 1,000 is 413; the lowest being found in Belgium, where it is 316. The average is very much the same as it is with the females, about 340. 121. 121 . Though Though the the variations variations in the averages for Indian provinces as compared compare d with European States State s is remarka remarkable ble even for for the married, married, it is is still still more remarkable when we come to examine the figures for widows. The average number of widows in the total female population throughout India is 187 per 1,000. The highest average in Europe is 110 in Greece, and 109 in France. It varies in Europe from the highfigure of Greece to 45 in Belgium; in England it is 75; in Italy 91. The average for India, 189, is exceeded in five cases out of 18, and goes as high as 251 in Mysore, that Is to say, a quarter of the entire female population in Mysore consists of widows. In Bengal it is remarkably high, being 212 out of the 1,000, in Madras nearly as high,206, and in Hyderabad 190. It falls to a remarkably low point in Cochin, where the number of widows given is only 69. In Burmah, which for lowness in this respect is the next in point of number, it is 92; and in no other case is it less than 136. In regardto the male population, the Indian figures do not display any marked variation, com pared with European statistics, as to the number of widowers, though, as we proceed to deal with the civil condition returns by age, we shall see some peculiarities in the early ages at which males are found to be widowers. 122. 122 . In the accompanying accompanying fig figures ures we obtain ob tain for all the separate separ ate religions religions a bird's-eye bird's- eye view view of the extent to wh which ich marriages marriages prevail pre vail among the populati opulation, on, and and theproporti theproportion on of widowers widowers and and widows widows in in each 100 persons persons of eith either er sex. sex. The The fi figuresf guresfrom rom whi which these these percentag percentages es are struck struck are are also also given. We see that in every10,000 male Hindoos 4,703 are single, 4,776 married, and 521 are widowers; while for females the proportions are 3,070 single, 4,957 married, 1,973 widows, in every10,000 of all conditions. And, continui continuing ng our examin examination, ation, itit appears appe ars that Satnam Sa tnamis is are the most most married section of the the communi community, ty, 5,747 5,74 7 males males and 5,83 5 ,833 3 females females bein be ing g in in that condition of life, out of every 10,000 of either sex, the Christians having the fewest married, 3,686 males and 3,983 females, but followed very closely by Nat worshippers with 3,843 and 3,981 respectively. The Jains, whose marriage customs are adverted to at length subsequently, have the highest proportion of widows, 2,155 out of every 10,000 females being in this position. 88 Religions. Hin do o s Mah am medan s Abo rigin ials
Sin gle Males 39 738 477 12 803 495 1 327 021
Fem ales 25 070 102 82 353 03 11 040 88
Ma r r i e d Males 403 519 30 110 159 25 10 888 31
Fem ales 404 866 41 112 691 97 111 943 2
W ido wed Males 440 580 8 100 305 2 70 527
Fem ales 16 117 135 40 039 81 2 658 44
Sin gle M a le s 4 7 .0 3 5 1 .5 1 5 3 .3 7
Fem ales 3 0 .7 0 3 5 .0 3 4 4 .3 5
Percentages Marr ied M a le s Females 4 7 .7 0 4 9 .5 7 4 4 .4 5 4 7 .9 4 4 3 .7 9 4 1 .9 7
W ido wed Males Fem ales 5 .2 1 19.73 4 .0 4 17.03 2 .8 1 10.68
Buddh ist s Ch r ist ian s Sik h s Jain s Sat n am ia Kabir p an t h is Nat t worshippe rs P ar sees Jews
1 018 361 3 390 07 5 371 20 1 932 13 709 96 637 58 422 31 211 05 279 0
8 354 29 2 592 14 2 631 27 1 065 45 5 749 0 5 000 7 360 98 1 510 3 215 5
64 756 1 23 841 5 43 918 5 18 886 3 10 208 9 7 650 2 282 29 2 062 3 2 277
62 552 5 22 927 4 42 852 2 18 209 9 10 188 7 7 8 ,9 i3 279 15 20 387 2 398
66 415 19 461 68 578 29 180 5 009 4 975 300 5 1 740 1 91
1 516 10 8 712 8 1 145 96 7 931 1 1 729 0 2 028 9 611 2 619 0 840
5 8 .7 9 6 0 .1 3 5 1 .4 1 4 6 .9 8 3 9 .7 3 4 3 .9 0 57. 48 4 8 .5 6 5 3 .0 6
5 1 .8 1 4 5 .0 4 3 2 .6 4 2 8 .9 6 3 2 .0 4 3 3 .5 1 51. 47 3 6 .2 4 3 9 .0 3
3 7 .3 8 3 6 .8 6 4 2 .0 3 1 5 .9 2 5 7 .4 7 5 2 .6 7 38. 43 4 7 .4 4 4 3 .3 1
3 8 .7 9 3 9 .8 3 5 3 .1 5 4 9 .4 9 5 8 .3 3 5 2 .9 0 30. 81 4 8 .9 1 4 4 .4 7
3 .8 3 3 .0 1 6 .5 6 7 .1 0 2 .8 0 3 .4 3 4.0 9 4 .0 0 3 .6 3
9 .4 0 15.13 14.21 21.55 9 .6 3 13.59 8.7 2 14.85 15.57
123. 123 . When we come to examin examinee the percentages perce ntages for civi civill condition condition by ages the returns returns for our Indian Indian provinces provinces show resul res ults ts which which are even more more startling than those I have already remarked upon. In the accompanying abstract are given the percentage in each civil condition by distinct groups of age for the Hindoo, Mahammedan, Buddhist, and Christian population of all India, and by the side of them is given similar information for Italy. In reading the table it must be understood that the percentage figure given in the first column succeeding that for age, shows the percentage of persons in the population of that sex who belong to this particular civil condition at a particular age. Thus in every 1,000 Hindoo males of all ages, 28 Hindoo males between 20 and 24 are single, 51 of the same age are married, and two are widowers; 472 of all ages are single, 478 of all ages are married, and 50 are widowers. I must add, in regard to the Italian figures, that these do not embrace the entire Italian population. They comprise only twelve of the Italian provinces, viz., Alessandria, Bari, Caserta, Catania, Como, Cosenza, Cuneo, Firenze, Genova, Lecce, Messina, and Milano. These provinces, how-ever, contain a populati opulation on of nearl nearly seven seven and a half half millions (7,424,681 both sexes; sexes; mal males, es, 3,724,761, fem femal ales, es, 3,699,920), and, and, being being distri distribut buted ed over the the north north,, south, and centre of Italy, may be taken as fairly representative of the entire Italian population, forming, as they do, more than 25 per cent, of the whole number. 89 ABSTRACT XXXVI. Perce Pe rcentage ntage for Civil Condition Co ndition by Religions, Religions, all India. M ales Age.
Hin do do o
0 to 9 10 t o 14 15 t o 19 20 t o 24 25 t o 29 30 t o 39 40 t o 49 50 t o 59 60.0 Un s p ecified To t al
25.9 10.0 4.8 2.8 1.6 1.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 47.2
0 to 9 10 t o 14 15 t o 19 20 t o 24 25 t o 29 1 30 to 39 1 4o t o 49 50 t o 59 60.0 Un s p ecified To t al
0.8 2.1 3.3 5.1 7.2 12.8 8.5 4.8 3.2 47.8
0 to 9 10 t o 14 15 t o 19 20 t o 24 25 t o 29 30 t o 39 40 t o 49 50 t o 59 60 Un s p ecified To t al
0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.3 50.0
Female s
Ma ha ha m mm med an an Bud dh dh is is t S i ng l e 29.1 10.8 5.2 2.9 1.6 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.1 51.2 Married 0.3 1.1 2.4 4.4 6.7 12.5 8.5 4.9 3.8 44.6 Wi d ow ed 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.2 4.1
Chris ti tian
Hin do do o M ah ah am ammed an an Bud dh dhis t
Ch ri ris ti tian
S in g le 28.4 12.7 8.1 4.6 2.3 1.7 0.5 0.2 0.2 58.7
25.2 10.8 7.4 7.6 4.8 2.7 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.7 60.0
24.8 4.5 0.8 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 30.6
0.5 3.4 5.5 11.6 8.2 4.8 3.4 37.4
0.1 0.2 0.8 3.1 5.9 12.2 7.8 4.0 2.7 0.1 36.9
2.4 5.4 6.5 8.2 8.0 10.8 5.3 2.2 0.8 49.6
0.2 0.3 0.7 0.8 0.7 1.2 3.9
0.1 0.2 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.9 3.1
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.2 3.4 4.4 4.2 5.1 19.8
28.2 5.0 1.0 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 34.9
30.1 11 .8 7.0 1.7 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 51.9 Married 1.5 4.6 0.1 6.8 3.1 8.1 6.4 8.0 6.5 10.6 10.4 5.3 7.0 2.1 3.6 1.0 1.6 0.1 48.1 38.7 Wid o we d 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.5 2.7 1.1 3.9 1.6 3.7 2.0 4.9 3.9 17.0 9.4
28.7 10.2 3.7 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 45.1 0.2 1.1 4.9 7.8 7.9 10.4 4.8 1.9 0.7 0.1 39.8 0.2 0.5 0.8 2.7 3.6 3.4 3.9 15.1
M ale s All North-Wes t Bengal M aad d ra ra s Pu nj nja b Bo mb mb ay ay India Provinces Si n gl e 26.6 28.7 25.1 25.9 26.1 26.7 10.2 9.2 9.8 12.7 10.8 10.4 5.0 4.4 4.1 7.4 5.9 4.6 2.8 2.1 2.4 4.6 3.8 2.6 1.6 1.2 1.5 2.2 2.2 1.5 1.1 0.8 1.3 1.3 1.9 1.2 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.9 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.1 48.3 46.8 45.3 54.7 52.5 47.7 Married 0.6 1.1 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.6 1.8 2.1 2.6 0.5 1.3 1.9 3.0 3.2 3.8 1.3 2.9 3.3 4.9 4.8 5.7 3.5 4.6 5.4 7.0 7.3 7.3 5.8 5.9 7.6 12.6 13.4 12.1 12.9 10.7 13.1 8.7 8.8 8.4 8.7 7.7 8.0 4.8 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.7 4.6 3.3 3.6 3.0 3.6 3.5 2.6 0.2 0.1 46.9 49.2 48.4 41.5 41.5 47.1 Wid o wed 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.9 0.7 1.1 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.2 0.8 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.7 1.2 0.8 1.3 l.l 1.3 1.0 1.6 1.2 1.9 1.2 4.8 4.0 6.3 3.8 6.0 5.2
