Dialectical Materialism: An Introduction Volume One of the 3-volume Materialism and the Dialectical Method (By Method (By Maurice Cornforth 1960) Foreword The preent volume !eal "ith the #aic i!ea of Mar$it materialim an! the !ialectical metho!% & fe" minor reviion have #een ma!e in the te$t for the econ! e!ition' an! t"o ne" chapter have #een a!!e! (Chapter ine an! Ten) in place of Chapter ine of the firt e!ition% have trie! to confine myelf to a trai*htfor"ar! e$poition of the lea!in* i!ea of !ialectical materialim' o far a myelf have uccee!e! in un!ertan!in* them' "ithout #ur!enin* the e$poition "ith !i*reion into more technical +uetion of philoophy' or "ith !icuion a#out an! polemic a*aint any of the more a#true philoophical theorie' pat an! preent' or "ith much of the ar*umentation a#out particular point "hich mi*ht #e neceary to !efen! them a*aint philoophical opponent% have !one my #et to limit the ue of technical term to the minimum' an! to *ive an e$planation of the meanin* of all uch term a an! "hen they occur% Maurice Cornforth' ,on!on% PART ONE: MATERIALISM 1 Part! Philoso"h! Part! Philoso"h! and #lass Philoso"h! very philoophy e$pree a cla outloo.% But in contrat to the e$ploitin* clae' "hich have al"ay ou*ht to uphol! an! /utify their cla poition #y variou !i*uie an! falification' the "or.in* cla' from it very cla poition an! aim' i concerne! to .no" an! un!ertan! thin* /ut a they are' "ithout !i*uie or falification% The party of the "or.in* cla nee! a philoophy "hich e$pree a revolutionary cla outloo.% The alternative i to em#race i!ea hotile to the "or.in* cla an! to ocialim% Thi !etermine the materialit character of our philoophy% ialectical materialim ha #een !efine! #y talin talin a2 The "orl! outloo. of the Mar$it-,eninit 4arty%5 781 Thi !efinition mut appear a tran*e one' #oth to many politician an! to many philoopher% But "e "ill not #e*in to un!ertan! !ialectical materialim unle "e can *rap the thou*ht "hich lie #ehin! thi !efinition% ,et u a.' firt of all' "hat conception of philoophy lie #ehin! the i!ea e$pree! in thi !efinition of party orince a party i al"ay the political repreentative of a clacla philoophy% By philoophy i uually meant our mot *eneral account of the nature of the "orl! an! of man.in!: place an! !etiny in it our "orl! outloo.% That #ein* un!ertoo!' it i evi!ent that every#o!y ha ome .in! of philoophy' even thou*h he ha never learne! to !icu it% very#o!y i influence! #y philoophical vie"' even thou*h he ha not thou*ht them out for himelf an! cannot formulate them% ome people' for e$ample' thin. that thi "orl! i nothin* #ut a vale of tear an! that our life in it i the preparation for a #etter life in another an! #etter "orl!% They accor!in*ly #elieve that "e houl! uffer "hatever #efall u "ith fortitu!e' not tru**lin* a*aint it' #ut tryin* to !o "hatever *oo! "e can to our fello" creature% Thi i one .in! of philoophy' one .in! of "orl! outloo.% Other people thin. that the "orl! i a place to *ro" rich in' an! that each houl! loo. out for himelf% Thi i another .in! of philoophy% But *rante! that our philoophy i our "orl! outloo.' the ta. arie of "or.in* out thi "orl! outloo. ytematically an! in !etail' turnin* it into a "ell-formulate! an! coherent theory' turnin* va*uely hel! popular #elief an! attitu!e into more or
le ytematic !octrine% Thi i "hat the philoopher !o% By the time the philoopher have "or.e! out their theorie' they have often pro!uce! omethin* very complicate!' very a#tract an! very har! to un!ertan!% But even thou*h only a comparatively fe" people may rea! an! !i*et the actual pro!uction of philoopher' thee pro!uction may an! !o have a very "i!e influence% ;or the fact that philoopher have ytemati
hen ociety i !ivi!e! into claean! ociety al"ay ha #een !ivi!e! into clae ever ince the !iolution of the primitive commune' that i to ay' throu*hout the entire hitorical perio! to "hich the hitory of philoophy #elon*then the variou vie" "hich are current in ociety al"ay e$pre the outloo. of variou clae% >e may conclu!e' therefore' that the variou ytem of the philoopher alo al"ay e$pre a cla outloo.% They are' in fact' nothin* #ut the ytematic "or.in* out an! theoretical formulation of a cla outloo.' or' if you prefer' of the i!eolo*y of !efinite clae% 4hiloophy i an! al"ay ha #een cla philoophy% 4hiloopher may preten! it i not' #ut that !oe not alter the fact% ;or people !o not an! cannot thin. in iolation from ociety' an! therefore from the cla interet an! cla tru**le "hich perva!e ociety' any more than they can live an! act in uch iolation% & philoophy i a "orl! outloo.' an attempt to un!ertan! the "orl!' man.in! an! man: place in the "orl!% uch an outloo. cannot #e anythin* #ut the outloo. of a cla' an! the philoopher function a the thin.in* repreentative of a cla% =o" can it #e other"ie? 4hiloophie are not importe! from ome other planet' #ut are pro!uce! here on earth' #y people involve!' "hether they li.e it or not' in e$itin* cla relation an! cla tru**le% Therefore' "hatever philoopher ay a#out themelve' there i no philoophy "hich !oe not em#o!y a cla outloo.' or "hich i impartial' a oppoe! to partian' in relation to cla tru**le% earch a "e may' "e hall not fin! any impartial' non-partian' non-cla philoophy% Bearin* thi in min!' then' "e hall fin! that the philoophie of the pat have all' in one "ay or another' e$pree! the outloo. of the o-calle! @e!ucate!5 clae' that i to ay' of the e$ploitin* clae% n *eneral' it i the lea!er of ociety "ho e$pre an! propa*ate their i!ea in the form of ytematic philoophie% &n! up to the appearance of the mo!ern "or.in* cla' "hich i the peculiar pro!uct of capitalim' thee lea!er have al"ay #een the e$ploitin* clae% t i their outloo. "hich ha !ominate! philoophy' /ut a they have !ominate! ociety% >e can only conclu!e from thi that the "or.in* cla' if to!ay it inten! to ta.e over lea!erhip of ociety' nee! to e$pre it o"n cla outloo. in philoophical form' an! to oppoe thi philoophy to the philoophie "hich e$pre the outloo. an! !efen! the interet of the e$ploiter% @The ervice ren!ere! #y Mar$ an! n*el to the "or.in* cla may #e e$pree! in a fe" "or! thu2 they tau*ht the "or.in* cla to .no" itelf an! #e conciou of itelf' an! they u#titute! cience for !ream' "rote ,enin% @t i the *reat an! hitoric merit of Mar$ an! n*el that they prove! #y cientific analyi the inevita#ility of the collape of capitalim an! it tranition to communim' un!er "hich there"ill #e no more e$ploitation of man #y man % % % that they in!icate! to the proletarian of all countrie their role' their ta.' their miion' namely' to #e the firt to rally aroun! themelve in thi tru**le all the toiler an! e$ploite!%5 Teachin* the "or.in* cla to .no" itelf an! #e conciou of itelf' an! to rally aroun! itelf all the toiler an! e$ploite!' Mar$ an! n*el foun!e! an! eta#lihe! the revolutionarytheory of "or.in*-cla tru**le' "hich illumine the roa! #y "hich the "or.in* cla can thro" off capitalit e$ploitation' can ta.e the lea!erhip of all the mae of the people' an! O: free the "hole of ociety once an! for all of all oppreion an! e$ploitation of man #y man% Mar$ an! n*el "rote in the perio! "hen capitalim "a till in the acen!ant an! "hen the force of the "or.in* cla "ere firt #ein* rallie! an! or*ani
Mar$ an! n*el tau*ht that'"ithout it o"n party' the "or.in* cla certainly coul! not "in victory over capitalim' coul! not lea! the "hole of ociety for"ar! to the a#olition of capitalim an! the eta#lihment of ocialim% The "or.in* cla mut have it o"n party' in!epen!ent of all #our*eoi partie% ;urther !evelopin* the Mar$it teachin* a#out the party' ,enin ho"e! that the party mut act a the van*uar! of it cla' the mot conciou ection of it cla' an! that it i the intrument for "innin* an! "iel!in* political po"er% To fulfill uch a role' the party mut evi!ently have .no"le!*e' un!ertan!in* an! viionA in other "or!' it mut #e e+uippe! "ith revolutionary theory' on "hich it policie are #ae! an! #y "hich it activitie are *ui!e!% Thi theory i the theory of Mar$im-,eninim% &n! it i not /ut an economic theory' nor yet e$cluively a political theory' #ut a "orl! outloo.a philoophy% conomic an! political vie" are not an! never can #e in!epen!ent of a *eneral "orl! outloo.% pecific economic an! political vie" e$pre the "orl! outloo. of thoe "ho hol! uch vie"' an! converely' philoophical vie" fin! e$preion in vie" on economic an! politic% eco*nie have every ri*ht to ma.e thi claim' in vie" of the actual hitorical poition an! role of the "or.in* cla%
$cept for the "or.in* cla' all other clae "hich have apire! to ta.e the lea!erhip of ociety have #een e$ploitin* clae% But every e$ploitin* cla' "hatever it achievement' ha al"ay to fin! ome "ay of !i*uiin* it real poition an! aim' #oth from itelf an! from the e$ploite!' an! of ma.in* out that it rule i /ut an! permanent% ;or uch a cla can never reco*nior.er an! capitalit "ere on a level' each "a a free human atom' an! they entere! into a free contract' the one to "or.' the other to provi!e capital an! pay "a*e% But the "or.in* cla !oe not nee! any uch fale concioune a i containe! in uch philoophie% t !oe not "ant to et up a ne" ytem of e$ploitation' #ut to a#olih all e$ploitation of man #y man% ;or thi reaon' it ha no interet "hatever in !i*uiin* anythin*' #ut rather in un!ertan!in* thin* /ut a they really are% ;or the #etter it un!ertan! the truth' the more i it tren*thene! in it tru**le% Moreover' other clae have al"ay "ante! to perpetuate themelve an! to lat out for a lon* a they coul!% &n! o they have favore! philoophical @ytem5 "hich *ive themelve a permanent place in the univere% uch ytem attempt to !efine the nature of the univere o a to repreent certain thin* an! certain relation a #ein* neceary' eternal an! unchan*ea#le% &n! then they ma.e it appear that a particular ocial ytem i a neceary part of the "hole% But the "or.in* cla !oe not "ant to perpetuate itelf% On the contrary' it "ant to !o a"ay "ith it o"n e$itence a a cla a +uic.ly a poi#le' an! to eta#lih a clale ociety% Therefore' the "or.in* cla ha no ue at all for any philoophical @ytem5 "hich eta#lihe any fale permanence% t cla poition an! aim are uch that it can affor! to an! nee! to reco*ni
to impoe it rule an! it i!ea upon the mae of the people' in or!er to .eep them in u#/ectionA #ut it i a philoophy "hich erve the common people in their tru**le to thro" off all 8e$ploitation an! to #uil! a clale ociety% Mar$im-,eninim i a philoophy "hich ee. to un!ertan! the "orl! in or!er to chan*e it% The philoopher have only interprete! the "orl! in variou "ay' "rote Mar$% The point' ho"ever' i to chan*e it%5 1381 Therefore' if "e coul! ay of pat philoophy that it ha #een an attempt to un!ertan! the "orl! an! man: place an! !etiny in itan attempt necearily con!itione! #y the cla outloo.' pre/u!ice an! illuion of the variou e$ploitin* cla philoopher"e have to ay of Mar$it-,eninit philoophy that it i an attempt to un!ertan! the "orl! in or!er to chan*e the "orl! an! to hape an! realiith the appearance of Mar$im a the cientific "orl! outloo. of the proletariat there en! the ol! perio! in the hitory of philoophy' "hen philoophy "a the occupation of iolate! in!ivi!ual' the poeion of philoophical chool conitin* of a mall num#er of philoopher an! their !iciple' !etache! from life an! the people' an! alien to the people% @Mar$im i not uch a philoophical chool% On the contrary' it upere!e the ol! philoophythe philoophy that "a the property of a mall elite' the aritocracy of the intellect% t mar.e! the #e*innin* of a completely ne" perio! in the hitory of philoophy' "hen it #ecame a cientific "eapon in the han! 1H of the proletarian mae in their tru**le for emancipation from capitalim% @Mar$it philoophy' a !itin*uihe! from prece!in* philoophical ytem' i not a cience a#ove other cienceA rather' it i an intrument of cientific inveti*ation' a metho!' penetratin* all natural an! ocial cience' enrichin* itelf "ith their attainment in the coure of their !evelopment% n thi ene' Mar$it philoophy i the mot complete an! !eciive ne*ation of all prece!in* philoophy% But to ne*ate' a n*el emphaie mut et ai!e preconceive! i!ea an! fancie a#out thin*' an! trive to ma.e our theorie correpon! to the real con!ition of material e$itencean! that mean that our outloo. an! theory are materialit% n !ialectical materialim' "rote n*el' the materialit "orl! outloo. "a ta.en really eriouly for the firt time an! "a carrie! throu*h conitently% % % % ;or it "a reolve! to comprehen! the real "orl!nature an! hitory/ut a it preent itelf to everyone "ho approache it free from preconceive! i!ealit fancie% t "a !eci!e! relentlely to acrifice every i!ealit fancy "hich coul! not #e #rou*ht into harmony "ith the fact conceive! in their o"n an! not in a fantatic connection% &n! materialim mean nothin* more than thi%5
% Materialism and Idealism Materialism and Idealism&O""osed 'a!s o( Inter"retin) E$er! *uestion Materialim i oppoe! to i!ealim ince' "hile i!ealim hol! that the piritual or i!eal i prior to the material' materialim hol! that matter i prior% Thi !ifference manifet itelf in oppoe! "ay of interpretin* an! un!ertan!in* every +uetion' an! o in oppoe! attitu!e in practice% >hile i!ealim ta.e many u#tle form in the "ritin* of philoopher' it i at #ottom a continuation of #elief in the upernatural% t involve #elief in t"o "orl!' in the i!eal or upernatural "orl! over a*aint the real material "orl!% n eence i!ealim i a% conervative' reactionary forceA an! it reactionary influence i !emontrate! in practice% Mar$im a!opt a conitent tan!point of militant materialim% Our philoophy i calle! ialectical Materialim' ai! talin' #ecaue it approach to the phenomena 1781 of nature' it metho! of tu!yin* an! apprehen!in* them' i !ialectical' "hile it interpretation of the phenomena of nature' it conception of thee phenomena' it theory' i materialitic%5 178E Materialim i not a !o*matic ytem% t i rather a "ay of interpretin*' conceivin* of' e$plainin* every +uetion% The materialit "ay of interpretin* event' of conceivin* of thin* an! their interconnection' i oppoe! to the i!ealit "ay of interpretin* an! conceivin* of them% Materialim i oppoe! to i!ealim% >ith every +uetion' there are materialit an! i!ealit "ay of interpretin* it' materialit an! i!ealit "ay of tryin* to un!ertan! it% Thu materialim an! i!ealim are not t"o oppoe! a#tract theorie a#out the nature of the "orl!' of mall concern to or!inary practical fol.% They are oppoe! "ay of interpretin* an! un!ertan!in* every +uetion' an!' cone+uently' they e$pre 16 oppoite approache in practice an! lea! to very !ifferent concluion in term of practical activity% or are they' a ome ue the term' oppoite moral attitu!e the one hi*h-min!e!' the other #ae an! elf-ee.in*% f "e ue the term li.e thi' "e "ill never un!ertan! the oppoition #et"een capitalit an! materialit conception% ;or thi "ay of pea.in* i' a n*el ai!' nothin* #ut an unpar!ona#le conceion to the tra!itional philitine pre/u!ice a*aint the "or! materialim reultin* from the lon*continue! !efamation #y the priet% By the "or! materialim the philitine un!ertan! *luttony' !run.enne' lut of the eye' lut of the fleh' arro*ance' cupi!ity' mierline' profit-huntin* an! toc.-e$chan*e "in!lin*in hort' all the filthy vice in "hich he himelf in!ul*e in private% By the "or! i!ealim he un!ertan! the #elief in virtue' univeral philanthropy an! in a *eneral "ay a :#etter "orl!:' of "hich he #oat #efore other%5 1681 Before tryin* to !efine materialim an! i!ealim in *eneral term' let u coni!er ho" thee t"o "ay of un!ertan!in* thin* are e$pree! in relation to certain imple an! familiar +uetion% Thi "ill help u to *rap the i*nificance of the !itinction #et"een a materialit an! an i!ealit interpretation% ;irt let u coni!er a very familiar natural phenomenona thun!ertorm% >hat caue thun!ertorm? &n i!ealit "ay of an"erin* thi +uetion i to ay that thun!ertorm are !ue to the an*er of Do!% Bein* an*ry' he arran*e for li*htnin* an! thun!er#olt to !ecen! upon man.in!% The materialit "ay of un!ertan!in* thun!ertorm i oppoe! to thi% The materialit "ill try to e$plain an! un!ertan! thun!ertorm a #ein* olely !ue to "hat "e call natural force% ;or e$ample' ancient materialit u**ete! that far from thun!ertorm #ein* !ue to the an*er of the *o!' they "ere caue! #y material particle in the clou! #an*in* a*aint one another% That thi particular e$planation "a "ron*' i not the point2 the point i that it "a an attempt at materialit a oppoe! to i!ealit e$planation% o"a!ay a *reat !eal more i .no"n a#out thun!ertorm ariin* from the cientific inveti*ation of the natural force involve!% Ino"le!*e remain very incomplete' #ut at all event enou*h i .no"n to ma.e it +uite clear that the e$planation mut #e on materialit line' o that the i!ealit e$planation ha #ecome thorou*hly !icre!ite!% t "ill #e een that "hile the i!ealit e$planation trie to relate the phenomenon to #e e$plaine! to ome piritual cauein thi cae the an*er of Do!the materialit e$planation relate it to material caue% n thi e$ample' mot e!ucate! people to!ay "oul! a*ree in acceptin* the materialit interpretation% Thi i #ecaue they *enerally accept the cientific e$planation of natural phenomena' an! every a!vance of natural cience i an a!vance in the materialit un!ertan!in* of nature%
,et u ta.e a econ! e$ample' thi time one ariin* out of ocial life% ;or intance2 >hy are there rich an! poor? Thi i a +uetion "hich many people a.' epecially poor people% The mot trai*htfor"ar! i!ealit an"er to thi +uetion i to ay implyt i #ecaue Do! ma!e them o% t i the "ill of Do! that ome houl! #e rich an! other poor% But other le trai*htfor"ar! i!ealit e$planation are more in vo*ue% ;or e$ample2 it i #ecaue ome men are careful an! fari*hte!' an! thee hu#an! their reource an! *ro" rich' "hile other are thriftle an! tupi!' an! thee remain poor% Thoe "ho favor thi type of e$planation ay that it i all !ue to eternal human nature% The nature of man an! of ociety i uch that the !itinction of rich an! poor necearily arie% Jut a in the cae of the thun!ertorm' o in the cae of the rich an! poor' the i!ealit ee. for ome piritual caueif not in the "ill of Do!' the !ivine min!' then in certain innate characteritic of the human min!% The materialit' on the other han!' ee. the reaon in the material' economic con!ition of ocial life% f ociety i !ivi!e! into rich an! poor' it i #ecaue the pro!uction of the material mean of life i o or!ere! that ome have poeion of the lan! an! other mean of pro!uction "hile the ret have to "or. for them% =o"ever har! they may "or. an! ho"ever much they may crape an! ave' the non-poeor "ill remain poor' "hile the poeor *ro" rich on the fruit of their la#or% On uch +uetion' therefore' the !ifference #et"een a materialit an! an i!ealit conception can #e very important% &n! the !ifference i important not merely in a theoretical #ut in a practical ene & materialit conception of thun!ertorm' for e$ample' help u to ta.e precaution a*aint them' uch a fittin* #uil!in* "ith li*htnin* con!uctor% But if our e$planation of 1K thun!ertorm i i!ealit' all "e can !o i to "atch an! pray% f "e accept an i!ealit account of the e$itence of rich an! poor' all "e can !o i to accept the e$itin* tate of affairre/oicin* in our uperior tatu an! #eto"in* a little charity if "e are rich' an! curin* our fate if "e are poor% But arme! "ith a materialit un!ertan!in* of ociety "e can #e*in to ee the "ay to chan*e ociety% t i clear therefore' that "hile ome may have a vete! interet in i!ealim' it i in the interet of the *reat ma/ority to learn to thin. an! to un!ertan! thin* in the materialit "ay% =o"' then' can "e !efine materialim an! i!ealim' an! the !ifference #et"een them' in *eneral term' o a to !efine the eence of the +uetion? Thi "a !one #y n*el% @The *reat #aic +uetion of all philoophy' epecially of mo!ern philoophy' i that concernin* the relation of thin.in* an! #ein*% % % % The an"er "hich the philoopher have *iven to thi +uetion plit them into t"o *reat camp% Thoe "ho aerte! the primacy of pirit to nature an! therefore in the lat intance aume! "orl! creation in ome form or another % % % comprie! the camp of i!ealim% The other' "ho re*ar!e! nature a primary' #elon* to the variou chool of materialim%5 1K81 !ealim i the "ay of interpretin* thin* "hich re*ar! the piritual a prior to the material' "herea materialim re*ar! the material a prior% !ealim uppoe that everythin* material i !epen!ent on an! !etermine! #y omethin* piritual' "herea materialim reco*nie can certainly not re*ar! uch
conception a #ein* the pro!uct' a reli*ion itelf tell u' of !ivine revelation' or a ariin* from any other upernatural caue' if "e fin! that they themelve have a natural ori*in% &n! uch an ori*in can in fact #e trace!% Conception of the upernatural' an! reli*iou i!ea in *eneral' o"e their ori*in firt of all to the helplene an! i*norance of men in face of the force of nature% ;orce "hich men cannot un!ertan! are peronifie!they are repreente! a manifetation of the activity of pirit% ;or e$ample' uch alarmin* event a thun!ertorm "ere' a "e have een' e$plaine! fantatically a !ue to the an*er of *o!% &*ain' uch important phenomena a the *ro"th of crop "ere put !o"n to the activity of a pirit2 it "a #elieve! that it "a the corn pirit that ma!e the corn *ro"% ;rom the mot primitive time men peronifie! natural force in thi "ay% >ith the #irth of cla ociety' "hen men "ere impelle! to act #y ocial relation "hich !ominate! them an! "hich they !i! not un!ertan!' they further invente! upernatural a*encie !ou#lin*' a it "ere' the tate of ociety% The *o! "ere invente! uperior to man.in!' /ut a the .in* an! lor! mere uperior to the common people% &ll reli*ion' an! all i!ealim' ha at it heart thi .in! of !ou#lin* of the "orl!% t i i!ealitic' an! invent a !ominatin* i!eal or upernatural "orl! over a*aint the real material "orl!% Very characteritic of i!ealim are uch antithee a2 oul an! #o!yA *o! an! manA the heavenly .in*!om an! the earthly .in*!omA the form an! i!ea of thin*' *rape! #y the intellect' an! the "orl! of material reality' percepti#le #y the ene% Thi @!ou#lin*5 of the "orl! i carrie! to it furthet limit in u#/ective i!ealim' "hich en! #y re*ar!in* the material "orl! a a mere illuion an! aert that only the non-material "orl! i real% The !ualitic character of all i!ealim i mot mar.e! in u#/ective i!ealim' "hich poit a complete antithei #et"een the mechanitic ytem of the illuory material "orl! an! the @free!om5 of the hi*her' non-material reality% Thi antithei' !i*uie! a it often i #ehin! alle*e!ly @ cientific5 an! @empiricit5 theorihen capitalim "a till a pro*reive force' #our*eoi thin.er ue! to #elieve that "e coul! .no" more an! more a#out the real "orl!' an! o control natural force an! improve the lot of man.in! in!efinitely% o" they are ayin* that the real "orl! i un.no"a#le' the arena of myteriou force "hich pa our comprehenion% t i not !ifficult to ee that the fahion for uch !octrine i /ut a ymptom of the !ecay of capitalim% >e have een that' at #ottom' i!ealim al"ay #elieve in t"o "orl!' the i!eal an! the material' an! it place the i!eal prior to an! a#ove the material% Materialim' on the other han!' .no" one "orl! only' the material "orl!' an! refue to invent a econ!' ima*inary' uperior i!eal "orl!% Materialim an! i!ealim are irreconcila#ly oppoe!% But thi !oe not top many philoopher from tryin* to reconcile an! com#ine them% n philoophy there are alo variou attempte! compromie #et"een i!ealim an! materialim% One uch attempte! compromie i often .no"n a !ualim% uch a compromie philoophy aert the e$itence of the piritual a eparate an! !itinct from the material#ut it trie to place the t"o on a level% Thu it treat the "orl! of non-
livin* matter in a thorou*hly materialit "ay2 thi' it ay' i the phere of activity of natural force' an! piritual factor !o not enter into it an! have nothin* to !o "ith it in any "ay% But "hen it come to min! an! ociety' here' ay thi philoophy' i the phere of activity of pirit% =ere' it maintain' "e mut ee. e$planation in i!ealit an! not in materialit term% uch a compromie #et"een materialim an! i!ealim' therefore' amount to thithat "ith re*ar! to all the mot important +uetion concernin* men' ociety an! hitory "e are to continue to a!opt i!ealit conception an! to oppoe materialim% ¬her compromie philoophy i .no"n a realim% n it mo!ern form' thi philoophy ha arien in oppoition to u#/ective i!ealim% The @realit5 philoopher ay that the e$ternal material "orl! really e$it in!epen!ent of our perception an! i in ome "ay reflecte! #y our perception% n thi the @realit5 a*ree "ith the materialit in oppoition to u#/ective i!ealimA in!ee!' you cannot #e a materialit unle you are a thorou*h-*oin* realit on the +uetion of the real e$itence of the material "orl!% But merely to aert that the e$ternal "orl! e$it in!epen!ent of our perceivin* it' i not to #e a materialit% ;or e$ample' the *reat Catholic philoopher of the mi!!le a*e' Thoma &+uina' "a in thi ene a realit% &n! to thi !ay mot Catholic theolo*ian re*ar! it a a herey to #e anythin* #ut a @realit5 in philoophy% But at the ame time they aert that the material "orl!' "hich really e$it' "a create! #y Do!' an! i utaine! an! rule! all the time #y the po"er of Do!' #y a piritual po"er% o' far from #ein* materialit' they are i!ealit% & for mo!ern realim' it conce!e to materialim the #are e$itence of matter an!' for the ret' i rea!y to conce!e everythin* to i!ealim% Moreover' the "or! @realim5 i much a#ue! #y philoopher% o lon* a you #elieve that omethin* or other i real' you may call yourelf a realit% ome philoopher thin. that not only i the "orl! of material thin* real' #ut that there i alo' outi!e pace an! time' a real "orl! of univeral' of the a#tract eence of thin*2 o thee call themelve realit% Other ay that' althou*h nothin* e$it #ut the perception in our min!' neverthele thee perception are real2 o thee call themelve @realit5 too% &ll of "hich *oe to ho" that ome philoopher are very tric.y in their ue of "or!% - Mechanistic Materialism The #han)in) 'orld and .ow to /nderstand It The type of materialim pro!uce! in the pat #y the revolutionary #our*eoiie "a mechanitic materialim% Thi too. over the ancient materialit conception that the "orl! conite! of unchan*in* material particle (atom)' "hoe interaction pro!uce! all the phenomena of nature' an! further trove to un!ertan! the "or.in* of nature on the mo!el of the "or.in* of a machine% t "a in it time a pro*reive an! revolutionary !octrine% But it ha three *rave "ea.nee% (1) t re+uire the conception of a upreme Bein* "ho tarte! the "orl! upA (E) it ee. to re!uce all procee to the ame cycle of : mechanitic interaction an! o cannot account for !evelopment' for the emer*ence of ne" +ualitie' ne" type of procee in natureA (3) it cannot account for ocial !evelopment' can *ive no account of human ocial activity an! lea! to an a#tract conception of human nature% Before Mar$' materialim "a pre!ominantly mechanitic% >e often hear people complain that the materialit ee. to re!uce everythin* in the "orl!' inclu!in* life an! min!' to a ytem of oulle mechanim' to a mere mechanical interaction of #o!ie% Thi refer to mechanitic materialim% Mar$it materialim i' ho"ever' not mechanitic #ut !ialectical% To un!ertan! "hat thi mean "e nee! firt to un!ertan! omethin* a#out mechanitic materialim itelf% >e can approach thi pro#lem #y a.in* ho" materialit have ou*ht to un!ertan! the variou procee of chan*e "hich are o#erve! every"here in the "orl!% The "orl! i full of chan*e% i*ht follo" !ay an! !ay ni*htA the eaon uccee! each otherA people are #orn' *ro" ol! an! !ie% very philoophy reco*ni
the la" of the material "orl!% But materialim trace #ac. all chan*e to material caue% n other "or!' it ee. to e$plain "hat happen in the material "orl! from the material "orl! itelf% But "hile the occurrence of chan*e ha #een reco*ni
>hat puhe! that theory for"ar! "a' o n*el "rite' the po"erful an! ever more rapi!ly onruhin* pro*re of cience an! in!utry% But it remaine! pre!ominantly mechanical' #ecaue only the mechanical cience ha! attaine! any hi*h !e*ree of !evelopment% t pecific' #ut at that time inevita#le limitation "a it e$cluive application of the tan!ar! of mechanic%5 3181 The mechanitic "ay of un!ertan!in* nature !i! not arie' ho"ever' imply from the fact that at that time it "a only the mechanical cience "hich ha! ma!e any *reat pro*re% t "a !eeply roote! in the cla outloo. of the mot pro*reive #our*eoi philoopher' an! thi le! to their turnin* e$cluively to the mechanical cience for their inpiration% Jut a the #our*eoiie' overthro"in* feu!al ociety' too! for in!ivi!ual li#erty' e+uality an! the !evelopment of a free mar.et' o the mot pro*reive philoopher of the #our*eoiiethe materialitoverthro"in* the feu!al i!ea' proclaime! that the "orl! conite! of eparate material particle interactin* "ith one another in accor!ance "ith the la" of mechanic% Thi theory of nature reflecte! #our*eoi ocial relation no le than the theorie it replace! ha! reflecte! feu!al ocial relation% But /ut a the ne" #our*eoi ocial relation #ro.e the feu!al fetter an! ena#le! a *reat ne" !evelopment of the force of pro!uction to #e*in' o the correpon!in* #our*eoi theory of nature #ro.e !o"n the #arrier "hich feu!al i!ea ha! place! in the "ay of cientific reearch an! ena#le! a *reat ne" !evelopment of cientific reearch to #e*in% The philoophical outloo. eeme! to fin! it confirmation in cience' an! cience provi!e! material for the !evelopment an! "or.in* out in !etail of the philoophical outloo.% The 'orld and the Machine The "orl!o thou*ht the mechanitic materialitconit of nothin* #ut particle of matter in interaction% ach particle ha an e$itence eparate an! !itinct from every otherA in their totality they form the "orl!A the totality of their interaction form the totality of everythin* that happen in the "orl!A an! thee interaction are of the mechanical type' that i to ay' they conit imply of the e$ternal influence of one particle upon another% uch a theory i e+uivalent to re*ar!in* the "hole "orl! a nothin* #ut a comple$ piece of machinery' a mechanim% ;rom thi tan!point' the +uetion al"ay poe! a#out any part of nature i the +uetion "e a. a#out a machine2 "hat i it mechanim' ho" !oe it "or.? Thi "a e$emplifie! in e"ton: account of the olar ytem% e"ton a!opte! the ame *eneral vie" a the Dree. materialit' picuru' inamuch a he thou*ht that the material "orl! conite! of particle movin* a#out in empty pace% But face! "ith any particular natural phenomenon' uch a the movement of the un an! planet' picuru "a not in the leat concerne! to *ive any e$act account of it% >ith re*ar! to the apparent movement of the un acro the heaven from eat to "et' for e$ample' picuru ai! that the important thin* "a to un!ertan! that the un "a not a *o! #ut "a imply a collection of atom2 no account of the actual machinery of it motion "a neceary% 4erhap' he ai!' the un *oe roun! an! roun! the earthA #ut perhap it !iinte*rate an! it atom eparate every ni*ht' o that it i a ne" un "hich "e ee the ne$t mornin*2 to him uch +uetion "ere imply unimportant% e"ton' on the other han!' "a concerne! to ho" e$actly ho" the olar ytem "or.e!' to !emontrate the mechanic of it' in term of *ravity an! mechanical force% But /ut a picuru "a not interete! in ho" the olar ytem "or.e!' o e"ton "a not interete! in ho" it ori*inate! an! !evelope!% =e too. it for *rante! a a ta#le piece of machinerycreate!' preuma#ly' #y Do!% ot ho" it ori*inate!' not ho" it !evelope!' #ut ho" it "or.e!' "a the +uetion "hich he !ealt "ith% The ame mechanitic approach "a manifete! in =arvey: !icovery of the circulation of the #loo!% The eence of hi !icovery "a that he !emontrate! the mechanim of circulation' re*ar!in* the heart a a pump' "hich pump the #loo! out alon* the arterie o that it flo" #ac. throu*h the vein' the "hole ytem #ein* re*ulate! #y a erie of valve% To un!ertan! the mechanitic outloo. #etter' let u a.2 "hat i a mechanim? "hat i characteritic of a mechanim? (a) & mechanim conit of permanent part' "hich fit to*ether% (6) t re+uire a motive force to et it *oin*% (c) Once et *oin*' the part interact an! reult are pro!uce! accor!in* to la" "hich can #e e$actly tate!% Coni!er' for e$ample' uch a mechanim a a "atch' (a) t conit of a num#er of !ifferent partco*' lever an! o on
fitte! neatly to*ether% (6) t ha to #e "oun! up% (c) Then' a the prin* uncoil' the part interact accor!in* to la" e$actly .no"n to "atchma.er' reultin* in the re*ular movement of the han! on the !ial% ;urther' to .no" ho" a mechanim' uch a a "atch' "or.' you mut ta.e it to #it' fin! out "hat it part are' ho" they fit to*ether an! ho"' #y their interaction' once the mechanim i et in motion #y the application of the re+uire! motive force' they pro!uce the total motion characteritic of the mechanim in "or.in* or!er% Thi i /ut ho" the mechanitic materialit re*ar!e! nature% They ou*ht to ta.e nature to #it' to fin! it ultimate component part' ho" they fitte! to*ether an! ho" their interaction pro!uce! all the chan*e "e perceive' all the phenomena of the "orl!% &n! moreover' fin!in* out ho" the mechanim "or.e!' they ou*ht to fin! out ho" to repair it' ho" to improve it' ho" to chan*e it an! to ma.e it pro!uce ne" reult correpon!in* to the re+uirement of man%
Mechanitic materialim "a an important miletone in our un!ertan!in* of nature% &n! it "a a *reat pro*reive tep of #our*eoi thin.er' a #lo" a*aint i!ealim% The mechanit "ere thorou*h-*oin* in their materialim% ;or they "a*e! a pro*reive fi*ht a*aint i!ealim an! 3H clericalim #y tryin* to e$ten! to the realm of min! an! ociety the ame mechanitic conception "hich "ere ue! in the cientific inveti*ation of nature% They ou*ht to inclu!e man an! all hi piritual activitie in the mechanitic ytem of the natural "orl!% The mot ra!ical mechanit re*ar!e! not merely phyical procee' an! not merely plant an! animal life' #ut man himelf a a machine% &lrea!y in the eventeenth century the *reat ;rench philoopher ecarte ha! ai! that all animal "ere complicate! machineautomata2 #ut man "a !ifferent' ince he ha! a oul% But in the ei*hteenth century a follo"er of ecarte' the phyician ,aMettrie' "rote a #oo. "ith the provocative title Man a Machine% Men' too' "ere machine' he ai!' thou*h very complicate! one% Thi !octrine "a loo.e! upon a e$ceptionally hoc.in*' an! a a terri#le inult to human nature' not to mention Do!% et it "a in it time a pro*reive vie" of man% The vie" that men are machine "a an a!vance in the un!ertan!in* of human nature a compare! "ith the vie" that they are "retche! piece of clay inha#ite! #y immortal oul% &n! it "a' comparatively pea.in*' a more humane vie"% ;or e$ample' the *reat n*lih materialit an! Ltopian ocialit o#ert O"en tol! the piou in!utrialit of hi time2 @$perience ha ho"n you the !ifference of the reult #et"een mechanim "hich i neat' clean' "ell-arran*e! an! al"ay in a hi*h tate of repair' an! that "hich i allo"e! to #e !irty' in !ior!er' an! "hich therefore #ecome much out of repair% % % % f' then' !ue care a to the tate of your inanimate machine can pro!uce uch #eneficial reult' "hat may not #e e$pecte! if you !evote e+ual attention to your vital machine' "hich are far more "on!erfully contructe!?5 3H81 Thi humanitarianim "a' ho"ever' at the #et #our*eoi humanitarianim% ,i.e all mechanitic materialim' it "a roote! in the cla outloo. of the #our*eoiie% The vie" that man i a machine i roote! in the vie" that in pro!uction man i a mere appen!a*e of the machine% &n! if on the one han! thi implie that the human machine ou*ht to #e "ell ten!e! an! .ept in *oo! con!ition' on the other han! it e+ually implie that no more houl! #e e$pen!e! for thi purpoe than i trictly neceary to .eep the human machine in #are "or.in* or!er%
The 'ea0ness and Limitations o( Mechanistic Materialism Mechanitic materialim ha! *rave "ea.nee% (1) t coul! not utain the materialit tan!point conitently an! all the "ay% ;or if the "orl! i li.e a machine' "ho ma!e it' "ho tarte! it up? There "a neceary' in any ytem of mechanitic materialim' a upreme Bein*' outi!e the material "orl!even if he no lon*er continuouly interfere! in the "orl! an! .ept thin* movin*' #ut !i! no more than tart thin* up an! then "atch "hat happene!% uch a upreme Bein* "a potulate! #y nearly all the mechanitic materialitA for e$ample' #y Voltaire an! Tom 4aine% But thi open the !oor to i!ealim% (E) Mechanitic materialim ee chan*e every"here% et #ecaue it al"ay trie to re!uce all phenomena to the ame ytem of mechanical interaction' it ee thi chan*e a nothin* #ut the eternal repetition of the ame .in! of mechanical procee' an eternal cycle of the ame chan*e% Thi limitation i inepara#le from the vie" of the "orl! a a machine% ;or /ut a a machine ha to #e tarte! up' o it can never !o anythin* e$cept "hat it "a ma!e to !o% t cannot chan*e itelf or pro!uce anythin* ra!ically ne"% Mechanitic theory' therefore' al"ay #rea. !o"n "hen it i a +uetion of accountin* for the emer*ence of ne" +uality% t ee chan*e every"here#ut nothin* ne"' no !evelopment% The variou procee of naturechemical procee an! the procee of livin* matter' for e$amplecannot in fact #e all re!uce! to one an! the ame .in! of mechanical interaction of material particle% Chemical interaction !iffer from mechanical interaction inamuch a the chan*e "hich ta.e place a a reult of chemical interaction involve a chan*e of +uality% ;or e$ample' if "e coni!er the mechanical interaction of t"o particle "hich colli!e' then their +ualitative characteritic are irrelevant an! the reult i e$pree! a a chan*e in the +uantity an! !irection of motion of each% But if t"o chemical u#tance come to*ether an! com#ine chemically' then there reult a ne" u#tance +ualitatively !ifferent from either% imilarly' from the point of vie" of mechanic heat i nothin* #ut an increae in the +uantity of 36 motion of the particle of matter% But in chemitry' the application of heat lea! to +ualitative chan*e% or !o the procee of nature conit in the repetition of the ame cycle of mechanical interaction' #ut in nature there i continual !evelopment an! evolution' pro!ucin* ever ne" form of the e$itence or' "hat i the ame thin*' motion of matter% =ence the more "i!ely an! conitently the mechanitic cate*orie are applie! in the interpretation of nature' the more i their eential limitation e$poe!% (3) till le can mechanitic materialim e$plain ocial !evelopment% Mechanitic materialim e$pree the ra!ical #our*eoi conception of ociety a conitin* of ocial atom' interactin* to*ether% The real economic an! ocial caue of the !evelopment of ociety cannot #e !icovere! from thi point of vie"% &n! o *reat ocial chan*e eem to prin* from +uite acci!ental caue% =uman activity itelf appear to #e either the mechanical reult of e$ternal caue' or ele it i treate!an! here mechanitic materialim collape into i!ealima purely pontaneou an! uncaue!% n a "or!' mechanitic materialim cannot *ive an account of men: ocial activity% Mechanistic Materialism and /to"ian Socialism The mechanitic vie" treate! men +uite a#tractly' each man #ein* re*ar!e! a a ocial atom en!o"e! #y nature "ith certain inherent propertie' attri#ute an! ri*ht% Thi "a e$pree! in the #our*eoi conception of the ri*ht of man' an! in the #our*eoi revolutionary lo*an2 &ll men are e+ual%5 But the conception of human ri*ht cannot #e !e!uce! from the a#tract nature of man' #ut i !etermine! #y the ta*e of ociety in "hich men are livin*% or are men "hat they are #y nature' #ut they #ecome "hat they are' an! chan*e' a a reult of their ocial activity% or are all men #y nature e+ual% n oppoition to the #our*eoi conception of a#tract e+uality' "hich amounte! to mere formal e+uality of ri*ht a citi
&!optin* their a#tract' mechanitic vie" of men a ocial atom' the pro*reive mechanit trie! to "or. out' in an a#tract "ay' "hat form of ociety "oul! #e #et for man.in! "hat "oul! #et uit a#tract human nature' a they conceive! of it% Thi "ay of thin.in* "a ta.en over #y the ocialit thin.er "ho imme!iately prece!e! Mar$' the Ltopian ocialit% The Ltopian ocialit "ere mechanitic materialit% They put for"ar! ocialim a an i!eal ociety% They !i! not ee it a neceitate! #y the !evelopment of the contra!iction of capitalimit coul! have #een put for"ar! an! reali
&ccor!in* to mechanim' if you coul! tate the poition' ma H0 an! velocity of every particle at a *iven intant of time' then you "oul! have ai! everythin* that coul! #e ai! a#out the "orl! at that time' an! coul!' #y applyin* the la" of mechanic' pre!ict everythin* that "a *oin* to happen after"ar!% Thi i the firt !o*matic aumption of mechanim% But "e nee! to re/ect it% ;or the "orl! !oe not conit of thin* #ut of procee' in "hich thin* come into #ein* an! pa a"ay% @The "orl! i not to #e comprehen!e! a a comple$ of rea!y-ma!e thin*' "rote n*el' #ut a a comple$ of procee' in "hich thin* apparently ta#le' no le than their min!-ima*e in our hea!' the concept' *o throu*h an uninterrupte! chan*e of comin* into #ein* an! pain* a"ay%5 H081 Thi' in!ee!' i "hat cience in it latet !evelopment teache u% Thu the atom' once thou*ht to #e eternal an! in!ivii#le' ha #een !iolve! into electron' proton an! neutronA an! thee themelve are not fun!amental particle in any a#olute ene' i%e% they are not eternal an! in!etructi#le' any more than the atomA #ut cience more an! more ho" that they' too' come into #ein*' pa a"ay an! *o throu*h many tranformation% >hat i fun!amental i not the thin*' the particle' #ut the unen!in* procee of nature' in "hich thin* *o throu*h an uninterrupte! chan*e of comin* into #ein* an! pain* a"ay% &n! nature: proce i' moreover' infinite2 there "ill al"ay #e freh apect to #e reveale!' an! it cannot #e re!uce! to any ultimate contituent% The electron i a ine$hauti#le a the atom' nature i infinite' "rote ,enin% H08E Jut o in coni!erin* ociety' "e cannot un!ertan! a *iven ociety imply in term of ome et of intitution in an! throu*h "hich in!ivi!ual men an! "omen are or*ania the "orl! create! #y a upreme Bein*? >hat "a the ori*in of matter? >hat "a the ori*in of motion? >hat "a the very #e*innin* of everythin*? >hat "a the firt caue? Thee are the ort of +uetion "hich pu<
o' the "orl! "a not create! #y a upreme Bein*% &ny particular or*ani
from non-livin* to livin* matter ta.e place% Thu the mechanitic pro*ram of re!ucin* all the motion of matter to imple' mechanical motion mut #e re/ecte!% >e nee! rather to tu!y all the infinitely variou form of motion of matter' in their tranformation one into another' an! a they arie one from another' the comple$ from the imple' the hi*her from the lo"er% n the cae of ociety' no one ha yet trie! to ho" ho" ocial chan*e can #e e$plaine! #y the mechanical interaction of the atom compoin* the #o!ie of the variou mem#er of ociety thou*h to !o o "oul! #e the lo*ical culmination of the mechanitic pro*ram% But the ne$t #et thin* i attempte! #y the mechanitic theory .no"n a economic !eterminim% &ccor!in* to thi theory' the "hole motion of ociety i to #e e$plaine! #y the economic chan*e ta.in* place in ociety' all the !eterminant of ocial chan*e have #een e$haute! "hen the economic proce ha #een !ecri#e!% Thi i an e$ample of the mechanitic pro*ram of re!ucin* a comple$ motion to a imple form-the proce of ocial chan*e' inclu!in* all the political' cultural an! i!eolo*ical !evelopment' to a imple economic proce% But the ta. of e$plainin* ocial !evelopment cannot #e fulfille! #y tryin* to re!uce the "hole !evelopment to an economic proce% The ta. i rather to ho" ho"' on the #ai of the economic proce' all the variou form of ocial activity arie an! play their part in the comple$ movement of ociety% Thin)s and Their Interconnection (H) The lat !o*matic aumption of mechanim to #e mentione! i that each of the thin* or particle' "hoe interaction are ai! to ma.e up the totality of event in the univere' ha it o"n fi$e! nature +uite in!epen!ent of everythin* ele% n other "or!' each thin* can #e coni!ere! a e$itin* in eparation from other thin*' a an in!epen!ent unit% 4rocee!in* on thi aumption it follo" that all relation #et"een thin* are merely e$ternal relation% That i to ay' thin* enter into variou relationhip one "ith another' #ut thee relationhip are acci!ental an! ma.e no !ifference to the nature of the thin* relate!% &n! re*ar!in* each thin* a a eparate unit enterin* into e$ternal relation "ith other thin*' it further follo" that mechanim re*ar! the "hole a no more than the um of it eparate part% &ccor!in* to thi vie"' the propertie an! la" of !evelopment of the "hole are uni+uely !etermine! #y the propertie of all it part% ot one of thee aumption i correct% othin* e$it or can e$it in plen!i! iolation' eparate from it con!ition of e$itence' in!epen!ent of it relationhip "ith other thin*% Thin* come into #ein*' e$it an! ceae to e$it' not each in!epen!ent of all other thin*' #ut each in it relationhip "ith other thin*% The very nature of a thin* i mo!ifie! an! tranforme! #y it relationhip "ith other thin*% >hen thin* enter into uch relationhip that they #ecome part of a "hole' the "hole cannot #e re*ar!e! a nothin* more than the um total of the part% True' the "hole i nothin* apart from an! in!epen!ent of it part% But the mutual relation "hich the part enter into in contitutin* the "hole mo!ify their o"n propertie' o that "hile it may #e ai! that the "hole i !etermine! #y the part it may e+ually #e ai! that the part are !etermine! #y the "hole% Once a*ain' the !evelopment of cience itelf ho" the ina!mii#ility of the ol! mechanitic aumption% Thee aumption have force only in the very limite! phere of the tu!y of the mechanical interaction of !icrete particle% n phyic they "ere alrea!y hattere! "ith the !evelopment of the tu!y of the electro-ma*netic fiel!% till le are they a!mii#le in #iolo*y' in the tu!y of livin* matter% &n! till le are they a!mii#le in the tu!y of men an! ociety% >e cannot un!ertan! ocial procee' a mechanit al"ay try to !o' a reultin* imply from a et of fi$e! characteritic of human nature% ;or human nature i al"ay con!itione! #y an! in variou repect chan*e "ith chan*e in men: ocial relation% The #orrection o( Mechanistic Materialism >hen "e #rin* into the open an! re/ect thee aumption of mechanitic materialim' then "e #e*in to ee the nee! for a materialit !octrine of a !ifferent' of a ne" typea materialim "hich overcome the "ea.nee an! narro"' !o*matic aumption of mechanim% Thi i !ialectical materialim% ialectical materialim un!ertan! the "orl!' not a a comple$ of rea!y-ma!e thin*' #ut a a comple$ of procee' in "hich all thin* *o throu*h an uninterrupte! chan*e of comin* into #ein* an! pain* a"ay% ialectical materialim coni!er that matter i al"ay in motion' that motion i the mo!e of e$itence of matter' o that there can no more #e matter "ithout motion than motion "ithout matter% Motion !oe not have to #e impree! upon matter
#y ome outi!e force' #ut a#ove all it i neceary to loo. for the inner impule of !evelopment' the elf-motion' inherent in all procee% ialectical materialim un!ertan! the motion of matter a comprehen!in* all chan*e an! procee in the univere' from mere chan*e of place ri*ht to thin.in*% t reco*niherea the ol!er philoophie coni!ere! that the univere al"ay remaine! much the ame' a perpetual cycle of the ame procee' cience ha !emontrate! the fact of evolution% But "hile reco*nie have een that the correction of the mechanitic tan!point ma!e #y !ialectical materialim are fully /utifie! #y an! have a #ai in the a!vance of cience% n!ee!' the a!vance of cience itelf ha hattere! the "hole conception of the univere hel! #y the ol!er' mechanitic materialit% &ccor!in* to that conception' the univere al"ay remaine! much the ame% t "a a hu*e machine "hich al"ay !i! the ame thin*' .ept *rin!in* out the ame pro!uct' "ent on an! on in a perpetual cycle of the ame procee% Thu it ue! to #e thou*ht that the tar an! the olar ytem al"ay remaine! the amean! that the earth' "ith it HK continent an! ocean an! the plant an! animal inha#itin* them' li.e"ie al"ay remaine! the ame% But thi conception ha *iven "ay to the conception of evolution' "hich ha inva!e! all phere of inveti*ation "ithout e$ception% cience' ho"ever' !oe not a!vance in iolation from ociety a a "hole' an! the "i!eprea! application of the i!ea of evolution "a !ue not imply to it verification in cientific theory #ut alo to it popularity "ith the ne"' riin* force of in!utrial capitalim' themelve the patron of cience% 5The #our*eoiie cannot e$it "ithout contantly revolutionie fin! !evelopin* a picture of the univere' not a tatic' a al"ay the ame' #ut a in continual pro*reive !evelopment% The tar !i! not al"ay e$itthey "ere forme! out of mae of !ipere! *a%
Once forme!' the "hole tellar ytem' "ith all the tar in it' *oe throu*h an evolutionary proce' ta*e #y ta*e% ome tar' li.e our un' ac+uire planeta olar ytem% Thu the earth "a #orn% & it urface coole!' o chemical compoun! "ere forme!' impoi#le in the hi*h temperature of the tar% Thu matter #e*an to manifet ne" propertie' non-e$itent #eforethe propertie of chemical com#ination% Then or*anic compoun! "ere forme! out of the comple$ lin.in* of car#on atom% &n! from or*anic matter the firt #o!ie aroe "hich #e*an to manifet the propertie of life' of livin* matter% till ne" propertie of matter emer*e!the propertie of livin* matter% ,ivin* or*anim "ent throu*h a lon* evolution' lea!in* H9 eventually to man% >ith man' human ociety "a #orn% &n! till ne" procee' "ith ne" la"' aroethe la" of ociety' an! the la" of thou*ht% >hat come ne$t? Capitalit cience can *o no further% =ere it en!' ince capitalit cience cannot contemplate the en!in* of capitalim% But ocialit cience ho" that man himelf i a#out to em#ar. on a ne" phae of evolutioncommunit ociety' in "hich the "hole ocial proce "ill #e #rou*ht un!er hi o"n conciou' planne! !irection% &ll thi i the evolutionary hitory of the material univere% &part from the lat point' it may #e ai! thi i all common .no"le!*e% Bour*eoi thin.er .no" thi a "ell a Mar$it' thou*h they often for*et it% But Mar$im !oe not only tre the fact that everythin* in the "orl! *oe throu*h a proce of !evelopment% >hat Mar$im foun! out "a ho" to un!ertan! an! e$plain thi !evelopment in a materialit "ay% The !icovery of Mar$im "a the !icovery of the la" of materialit !ialectic% &n! thi i "hy Mar$im alone i a#le to *ive a fully cientific account of !evelopment an! to point out the future path% Thi i the meanin* of Mar$: *reat !icoveryho" to un!ertan! chan*e an! !evelopment in a materialit "ay' an! therefore ho" to #ecome mater of the future% Idealist #once"tions o( #han)e and De$elo"ment =o" !i! #our*eoi thin.er try to account for the univeral chan*e an! !evelopment "hich they !icovere!? ,et u coni!er "hat ome of them have ha! to ay over a perio! of more than a century% =e*el ai! that the "hole proce of !evelopment ta.in* place in hitory "a !ue to the &#olute !ea realihy? Becaue they aert that the procee they are uppoe! to #e inveti*atin* ta.e place "ithout any caue% True' the aertion i often ma!e un!er a cloa. of @cientific5 o#/ectivity an! humility2 it i not poitively tate! that no caue e$it' #ut only that "e have at preent no clue a to "hat the caue' if any' may #e% But
uch reervation !o not materially alter the nature of the theorie in +uetion% ;or the fact remain that to ay that matter "a create!' to ay that @mutation5 occur pontaneouly' i to ay that omethin* happen for no reaon' "ithout any !icovera#le caue% uch tatement !o not !eerve to #e calle! even proviional cientific hypothee #ut are imply i!ealit invention' fantaie% cience may not yet .no" "hy omethin* happen' #ut to ay that it happen for no reaon i to a#an!on cience% & econ! !efect in the evolutionary i!ea of mot #our*eoi thin.er i that they re*ar! the proce of evolution a a mooth' continuou an! un#ro.en proce% They ee the proce of tranition from one evolutionary ta*e to another a ta.in* place throu*h a erie of *ra!ation' "ithout conflict an! "ithout any #rea. in continuity%
But continuity i not the la" of !evelopment% On the contrary' perio! of mooth' continuou evolutionary !evelopment are interrupte! #y u!!en an! a#rupt chan*e% The emer*ence of the ne" ta*e in !evelopment ta.e place' "hen the con!ition for it have mature!' #y a #rea. in continuity' #y the leap from one tate to another% =e*el "a the firt to point thi out% >ith every perio! of tranition' he o#erve!2 @t i a in the cae of the #irth of a chil!A after a lon* perio! of nutrition in ilence' the continuity of the *ra!ual *ro"th in i
From .e)el to Mar3 >here contra!iction i at "or.' there i the force of !evelopment% Thi profoun! conception "a firt put for"ar! #y =e*el% But he "or.e! it out in an i!ealit "ay% &ccor!in* to =e*el' the "hole proce in the material "orl!' in pace an! time' i nothin* #ut the realie comprehen!e! the concept in our hea! once more materialitically a ima*e of real thin* intea! of re*ar!in* the real thin* a ima*e of thi or that ta*e of !evelopment of the a#olute concept% @Thu !ialectic re!uce! itelf to the cience of the *eneral la" of motion#oth of the e$ternal "orl! an! of human thou*ht t"o et of la" "hich are i!entical in u#tance' #ut !iffer in their e$preion in o far a the human min! can apply them conciouly' "hile in nature an! alo up to no" for the mot part in human hitory' thee la" aert themelve unconciouly in the form of e$ternal neceity in the mi!t of an en!le erie of eemin* acci!ent% @There#y the !ialectic of the concept itelf #ecame merely the conciou reflection of the !ialectical motion of the real "orl! an! the !ialectic of =e*el "a place! upon it hea!A or rather' turne! off it hea!' on "hich it "a tan!in* #efore' an! place! on it feet a*ain% % % % @n thi "ay' ho"ever' the revolutionary i!e of =e*elian philoophy "a a*ain ta.en up an! at the ame time free! from the i!ealit trammel "hich in =e*el: han! ha! prevente! it conitent e$ecution%5 7381 Thi materialit un!ertan!in* of !ialectic i the .ey to 7H un!ertan!in* the force of !evelopment "ithin the material "orl! itelf' "ithout recoure to outi!e caue% Thi !icovery arie from the "hole a!vance of cience an! philoophy% But a#ove all it arie from the inveti*ation of the la" of ociety' an inveti*ation ma!e imperative than. to the very !evelopment of ocietyfrom the !icovery of the contra!iction of capitalim' e$plainin* the force of ocial !evelopment' an! there#y ho"in* the "ay for"ar! from capitalim to ocialim% That i "hy #our*eoi thin.er coul! not an"er the pro#lem of e$plainin* the real material force of !evelopment in nature an! ociety% To an"er thi pro#lem "a to con!emn the capitalit ytem% &n! here they ha! a #lin! pot% Only the revolutionary philoophy of the van*uar! of the revolutionary cla' the "or.in* cla' coul! !o it% Mar$: !icovery of the la" of materialit !ialectic ho"e! u ho" to un!ertan! the !ialectical !evelopment of nature% But a#ove all it ho"e! u ho" to un!ertan! ocial chan*e an! ho" to "a*e the "or.in*-cla tru**le for ocialim% Thi !icovery revolutioni
materialim of the pat% t li.e"ie pelle! the en! of all @ytem5 of philoophy% t ma!e philoophy into a revolutionary "eapon of the "or.in* people' an intrument' a metho! for un!ertan!in* the "orl! o a to chan*e it% ummin* up the eential i!ea of materialit !ialectic talin "rote2 @,ife al"ay contain the ne" an! the ol!' the *ro"in* an! the !yin*' the revolutionary an! the counter-revolutionary% @That in life "hich i #orn an! *ro" !ay after !ay i invinci#le' it pro*re cannot #e chec.e!% That i to ay' if' for e$ample' the proletariat a a cla i #orn an! *ro" !ay after !ay' no matter ho" "ea. it may #e to!ay' in the lon* run it mut con+uer% >hy? Becaue it i *ro"in*' *ainin* tren*th an! marchin* for"ar!% On the other han!' that in life "hich *ro" ol! an! i a!vancin* to it *rave' mut inevita#ly utain !efeat' even if to!ay it repreent a titanic force% That i to ay' if' for e$ample' the *roun! i *ra!ually lippin* further an! further 77 #ac. from un!er the feet of the #our*eoiie' an! the latter i lippin* further an! further #ac. every !ay' no matter ho" tron* it may #e to!ay' it mut' in the lon* run' utain !efeat%5 7781 Thu the materialit !ialectic of Mar$ ho" u the "ay 5ir"ar! an! *ive u unha.a#le confi!ence in our caue% PART T'O: DIALE#TI#S 4 Dialectics and Meta"h!sics Introduction ialectic' a a metho! of inveti*ation' a metho! of thin.in*' i oppoe! to metaphyic% The metaphyical "ay of thin.in* !eal "ith a#traction% t coni!er thin* each #y itelf' in a#traction from their real con!ition of e$itence an! interconnectionA an! it coni!er thin* a fi$e! an! froe have een ho" materialit e$planation i oppoe! to i!ealit e$planation% &n! then "e a" ho" materialit formerly interprete! thin* in a mechanit "ay' #ut ho" mechanitic materialim prove! ina!e+uate to e$plain real procee of chan*e an! !evelopment% ;or thi "e nee! materialit !ialectic% >e nee! to tu!y an! un!ertan! thin* !ialectically% The !ialectical metho! i' in!ee!' nothin* #ut the metho! of tu!yin* an! un!ertan!in* thin* in their real chan*e an! !evelopment% & uch' it tan! oppoe! to metaphyic% >hat i metaphyic? Or more e$actly' "hat i the metaphyical "ay of thin.in*' "hich i oppoe! #y the !ialectical "ay of thin.in*? Metaphyic i eentially an a#tract "ay of thin.in*% n a ene all thin.in* i a#tract' ince it "or. "ith *eneral concept an! cannot #ut !ire*ar! a *reat !eal of particular an! uneential !etail% ;or e$ample' if "e ay that 5men have t"o le*' "e are thin.in* of the t"o-le**e!ne of men in a#traction from their other propertie' uch a havin* a hea!' t"o arm an! o onA an! imilarly "e are thin.in* of all men in *eneral' !ire*ar!in* the in!ivi!uality of particular men' of 4eter' 4aul an! o on% But there i a#traction an! a#traction% Metaphyic i !itin*uihe! #y the fact that it ma.e fale' milea!in* a#traction% & n*el once pointe! out' the art of "or.in* "ith concept i not in#orn % % % #ut re+uire real thou*htA 781 the art of ri*ht thin.in* involve learnin* ho" to avoi! metaphyical a#traction% uppoe' for e$ample' "e are thin.in* a#out men' a#out human nature% Then "e houl! thin. a#out human nature in uch a "ay that "e reco*nie hall then form i!ea a#out human nature "hich
correpon! to the actual con!ition of men: e$itence an! to their chan*e an! !evelopment% But yet people often thin. a#out human nature in a very !ifferent "ay' a thou*h there "ere uch a thin* a 5human nature "hich manifete! itelf +uite in!epent of the actual con!iton of human e$itence an! "hich "a al"ay an! every"here e$actly the ame% To thin. in uch a "ay i o#viouly to ma.e a fale' milea!in* a#traction% &n! it i /ut uch an a#tract "ay of thin.in* that "e call metaphyic%5 The concept of fi$e!' unchan*in* human nature i an e$ample of metaphyical a#traction' of the metaphyical "ay of thin.in*% The metaphyician !oe not thin. in term of real men' #ut of @Man in the a#tract% Metaphyic' or the metaphyical "ay of thin.in*' i' then' that "ay of thin.in* "hich thin. of thin* (1) in a#traction from their con!iton of e$itence' an! (E) in a#traction from their chan*e an! !evelopment% t thin. of thin* (1) in eparation one from another' i*norin* their inter connection' an! (E) a fi$e! an! froe have to un!ertan! that ince 8!emocracy i a form of *overnment' there i no !emocracy "hich i not aociate! "ith the rule of ome particular cla' an! that the !emocracy "hich i eta#lihe! "hen the "or.in* cla i the rulin* cla i a hi*her form of !emocracy than 8capitalit !emocracy' /ut a capitalit !emocracy i a hi*her form of !emocracy than' ay' the lave-o"ner: !emocracy of ancient Dreece% n other "or!' "e houl! not try to thin. of !emocracy in a#traction from real ocial relation an! from the real chan*e an! !evelopment of ociety% &*ain' pacifit try to #ae their oppoition to "ar on the i!ea that all "ar are "ron*% They thin. of "ar in the a#tract' "ithout reflectin* that the character of each particular "ar i !etermine! accor!in* to the hitorical epoch' the aim of the "ar an! the clae in "hoe interet it i fou*ht% Cone+uently they fail to !itin*uih #et"een imperialit "ar an! "ar of li#eration' #et"een un/ut "ar an! /ut "ar% n mot Britih chool to!ay the chil!ren are re*ularly u#/ecte! to intelli*ence tet% t i alle*e! that each chil! poee a certain fi$e! +uantity of intelli*ence' "hich can #e etimate! "ithout re*ar! to the actual con!ition of the chil!: e$itence an! "hich !etermine hi capa#ilitie throu*hout the "hole of hi life re*ar!le of "hatever con!ition for chan*e an! !evelopment may u#e+uently come in hi "ay% Thi i another e$ample of metaphyic% n thi cae the metaphyical conception of @intelli*ence5 i ue! a an e$cue for !enyin* e!ucational opportunitie to the ma/ority of chil!ren on the 79 *roun! that their intelli*ence i too lo" for them to #enefit from uch opportunitie% n *eneral' metaphyic i a "ay of thin.in* "hich trie to fi$ the nature' propertie an! potentialitie of everythin* it coni!er once an! for all% Cone+uently it preuppoe that each thin* ha a fi$e! nature an! fi$e! propertie% &n! it thin. in term of @thin*5 rather than procee% t trie to um up everythin* in a formula' "hich ay that the "hole "orl!' or any part of the "orl! "hich i un!er coni!eration' conit of /ut uch an! uch thin* "ith uch an! uch propertie% uch a formula "e may call a @metaphyical5 formula% Thu n*el refer to the ol! metho! of inveti*ation an! thou*ht "hich =e*el call :metaphyical': "hich preferre! to inveti*ate thin* a *iven' a fi$e! an! ta#le%5 7981 n philoophy' metaphyic often mean the earch for the ultimate contituent of the univere% Thu the materialit "ho ai! that the ultimate contituent "ere mall' oli!' material particle "ere /ut a much metaphyician a the i!ealit "ho ai! that the ultimate contituent "ere pirit% &ll uch philoopher thou*ht they coul! um up the ultimate nature of the univere in ome formula% ome have hel! thi formula' ome that' #ut all have #een metaphyician% et it ha #een a hopele +uet% >e cannot um up the "hole infinite chan*in* univere in any uch formula% &n! the more "e fin! out a#out it' the more i thi evi!ent% t houl! no" #e clear that the mechanitic materialim "hich "e !icue! in the prece!in* chapter can e+ually "ell #e calle! metaphyical materialim% >e may alo note' in pain*' that certain philoopher to!ay' the o-calle! poitivit' 798E claim to #e a*aint @metaphyic5 #ecaue they claim to re/ect any philoophy "hich ee. for the ultimate contituent of the univere% ;or
them' @metaphyic5 mean any theory "hich !eal "ith @ultimate5 not verifia#le in ene-e$perience% By uin* the term in thi "ay' they conceal the fact that they themelve are' if anythin*' more metaphyical than any other philoopher% ;or their o"n mo!e of thin.in* reache e$treme of metaphyical a#traction% >hat coul! #e 60 more metaphyical than to ima*ine' a the poitivit philoopher !o' that our ene-e$perience e$it in a#traction from the real material "orl! outi!e u? n!ee!' they themelve ma.e @ enee$perience5 into a metaphyical ultimate%5 n oppoition to the a#tract' metaphyical "ay of thin.in*' !ialectic teache u to thin. of thin* in their real chan*e an! interconnection% To thin. !ialectically i to thin. concretely' an! to thin. concretely i to thin. !ialectically% >hen "e oppoe the !ialectical metho! to metaphyic' then "e ho" up the ina!e+uacy' one-i!e!ne or fality of the a#traction of metaphyic% Thi coni!eration ena#le u to un!ertan! the ori*inal meanin* of the term !ialectic% The "or! i !erive! from the Dree. !iale*o' meanin* to !icu or !e#ate% t "a coni!ere! that to !icu a +uetion from all i!e' an! from all an*le' allo"in* !ifferent one-i!e! point of vie" to oppoe an! contra!ict each other !urin* the !e#ate' "a the #et metho! of arrivin* at the truth% uch "a the !ialectic employe!' for e$ample' #y ocrate% >hen anyone claime! to have a formula "hich an"ere! ome +uetion once an! for all' ocrate "oul! enter into !icuion "ith him an!' #y forcin* him to coni!er the +uetion from !ifferent an*le' "oul! compel him to contra!ict himelf an! o to a!mit that hi formula "a fale% By thi metho! ocrate coni!ere! that it "a poi#le to arrive at more a!e+uate i!ea a#out thin*% The Mar$it !ialectical metho! !evelop from an! inclu!e !ialectic in the ene in "hich it "a un!ertoo! #y the Dree.% But it i far richer in content' far "i!er in it cope% & a reult' it #ecome omethin* +ualitatively ne" a compare! "ith preMar$it !ialectica ne" revolutionary metho!% ;or it i com#ine! "ith a conitent materialim an! ceae to #e a mere metho! of ar*ument' #ecomin* a metho! of inveti*ation applica#le to #oth nature an! ociety' a metho! of materialit un!ertan!in* of the "orl! "hich *ro" out of an! *ui!e the activity of chan*in* the "orl!% The Meta"h!sical 5Either,Or5 Metaphyic preuppoe that each thin* ha it o"n fi$e! nature' it o"n fi$e! propertie' an! coni!er each thin* #y itelf' in iolation% t trie to ettle the nature an! propertie of 61 each thin* a a *iven' eparate o#/ect of inveti*ation' not coni!erin* thin* in their interconnection an! in their chan*e an! !evelopment% Becaue of thi' metaphyic thin. of thin* in term of har! an! fat antithee% t oppoe thin* of one ort to thin* of another ort2 if a thin* i of one ort' it ha one et of propertieA if of another ort' it ha another et of propertieA the one e$clu!e the other' an! each i thou*ht of in eparation from the other% Thu n*el "rite2 @To the metaphyician' thin* an! their mental ima*e' i!ea' are iolate!' to #e coni!ere! one after the other' apart from each other' ri*i! fi$e! o#/ect of inveti*ation *iven once an! for all% =e thin. in a#olutely irreconcila#le antithee% :=i communication i ea' yea' ay' nay' for "hatever i more than thee cometh of evil%: ;or him a thin* either e$it or it !oe not e$itA it i e+ually impoi#le for a thin* to #e itelf an! at the ame time omethin* ele%5 6181 4hiloopher have e$pree! the eence of thi metaphyical "ay of thin.in* in the formula2 ach thin* i "hat it i' an! not another thin*% Thi may oun! no more than plain common ene% But that only ho" that o-calle! common ene itelf conceal milea!in* i!ea "hich nee! to #e #rou*ht into the open% Thi "ay of thin.in* prevent u from tu!yin* thin* in their real chan*e an! interconnectionin all their contra!ictory apect an! relationhip' in their proce of chan*in* from one thin* into another thin*%5 t i not only philoopher "ho are metaphyician% There are left-"in* tra!e unionit' for e$ample' "ho are a metaphyical a any chool of philoopher% ;or them everyone at their tra!e union local meetin* i either a claconciou militant or ele he i a ri*ht-"in* opportunit% veryone mut fit into one or other cate*ory' an! once he i !o"n a ri*ht "in* he i finihe! o far a they are concerne!% That ome "or.er "ho ha #een their opponent in the pat an! on ome iue may yet prove an ally in the future an! on other iue i not allo"e! for in their metaphyical outloo. on life% n one of Moliere: play there i a man "ho learn for the firt time a#out proe% >hen they e$plain to him "hat proe i' he e$claim2 >hy' :ve #een pea.in* proe all my life5 imilarly' there are many "or.er "ho may "ell ay2 >hy' :ve #een a metaphyician all my life5
The metaphyician ha hi formula rea!y for everythin*% =e ayither thi formula fit or it !oe not% f it !oe' that ettle it% f it !oe not' then he ha ome alternative formula rea!y% ither-or' #ut not #oth i hi motto% & thin* i either thi or thatA it ha either thi et of propertie or that et of propertieA t"o thin* tan! to one another either in thi relationhip or in that% The ue of the metaphyical @either-or5 lea! people into countle !ifficultie% ;or e$ample' !ifficultie are felt in un!ertan!in* the relation #et"een &merican an! Britih imperialim to!ay% ;or it i ar*ue!2 ither they are "or.in* to*ether' or ele they are not% f they are "or.in* to*ether' then there i no rift #et"een themA if there i a rift #et"een them' then they are not "or.in* to*ether% But on the contrary' they are "or.in* to*ether an! yet there are rift #et"een themA an! "e cannot un!ertan! the "ay they "or. to*ether nor fi*ht them effectively unle "e un!ertan! the rift "hich !ivi!e them% &*ain' !ifficultie are felt in un!ertan!in* the poi#ility of the peaceful co-e$itence of capitalit an! ocialit tate% ;or it i ar*ue!2 ither they can co-e$it peacefully' in "hich cae anta*onim #et"een capitalim an! ocialim mut ceaeA or ele the anta*onim remain' in "hich cae they cannot coe$it peacefully% But on the contrary' the anta*onim remain' an! yet the trivin* of the ocialit tate an! of million of people in all countrie for peace can prevent a "ar #et"een capitalit an! ocialit tate% t i often !ifficult to avoi! a metaphyical "ay of thin.in*% &n! thi i #ecaue' milea!in* a it i' it yet ha it root in omethin* very neceary an! ueful% t i neceary for u to claify thin*to have ome ytem of claifyin* them an! ai*nin* their propertie an! relation% That i a prere+uiite of clear thin.in*% >e have to "or. out "hat !ifferent .in! of thin* there are in the "orl!' to ay that thee have thee propertie a !itinct from thoe "hich have thoe other propertie' an! to ay "hat are their relation% But "hen "e *o on to coni!er thee thin* an! propertie an! relation each in iolation' a fi$e! contant' a mutually e$cluive term' then "e #e*in to *o "ron*% ;or everythin* in 63 the "orl! ha many !ifferent an! in!ee! contra!ictory apect' e$it in intimate relationhip "ith other thin* an! not in iolation' an! i u#/ect to chan*e% &n! o it fre+uently happen that "hen "e claify omethin* a @&5 an! not B' then thi formula i upet #y it chan*in* from @&5 into B' or #y it #ein* @&5 in ome relationhip an! @B5 in other' or #y it havin* a contra!ictory nature' part @&5 an! part B%5 ;or e$ample' "e all .no" the !ifference #et"een #ir! an! mammal' an! that "hile #ir! lay e** mammal' in *eneral' pro!uce their youn* alive an! uc.le them% aturalit ue! to #elieve that mammal "ere ri*i!ly !itin*uihe! from #ir! #ecaue' amon* other thin*' mammal !o not lay e**% But thi formula "a completely upet "hen an animal calle! the platypu "a !icovere!' for "hile the platypu i un!ou#te!ly a mammal' it i a mammal "hich lay e**% >hat i the e$planation of thi irre*ular #ehavior of the platypu? t i to #e foun! in the evolutionary relationhip of #ir! an! mammal' "hich are #oth !ecen!e! from ori*inal e**-layin* animal% The #ir! have continue! to lay e** "hile the mammal toppe! !oin* oe$cept for a fe" conervative animal li.e the platypu% f "e thin. of animal in their evolution' their !evelopment' thi appear very natural% But if "e try' a the ol!er naturalit trie!' to ma.e them fit into ome ri*i!' fi$e! cheme of claification' then the pro!uct of evolution upet that claification% &*ain' an i!ea or a theory "hich "a pro*reive in one et of circumtance' "hen it firt aroe' cannot for that reaon #e la#ele! @pro*reive5 in an a#olute ene' ince it may later #ecome reactionary in ne" circumtance% ;or intance' mechanitic materialim "hen it firt aroe "a a pro*reive theory% But "e cannot ay that it i till pro*reive to!ay% On the contrary' un!er the ne" circumtance "hich have arien mechanitic theory ha #ecome retro*ra!e' reactionary% Mechanim' "hich "a pro*reive in the riin* phae of capitalim' *oe han! in han! "ith i!ealim a part of the i!eolo*y of capitalim in !ecay% Common ene' too reco*nihen i a man #al!? Common ene reco*ni
@&re the concept that prevail in natural cience fiction #ecaue they #y no mean al"ay coinci!e "ith reality? ;rom the moment "e accept the theory of evolution all our concept of or*anic life correpon! only appro$imately to reality% Other"ie there "oul! #e no chan*eA on the !ay that concept an! reality a#olutely coinci!e in the or*anic "orl!' !evelopment i at an en!%5 6H81 &n! he pointe! out that imilar coni!eration apply to all concept "ithout e$ception% >hen "e thin. of the propertie of thin*' their relationhip' their mo!e of action an! interaction' the procee into "hich they enter' then "e fin! that' *enerally pea.in*' all thee propertie' relationhip' interaction an! procee !ivi!e into fun!amental oppoite% ;or e$ample' if "e thin. of the implet "ay in "hich t"o #o!ie can act on one another' then "e fin! that thi action i either repulion or attraction% f "e coni!er the electrical propertie of #o!ie' then there i poitive an! ne*ative electricity% n or*anic life' there i the #uil!in* up of or*anic compoun! an! the #rea.in* !o"n of them% &*ain' in mathematic' there i a!!ition an! u#traction' plu an! minu% &n! in *eneral' "hatever phere of in+uiry "e may #e coni!erin*' "e fin! that it involve uch fun!amental oppoite% >e 67 fin! ourelve coni!erin*' not /ut a num#er of !ifferent thin*' !ifferent propertie' !ifferent relation' !ifferent procee' #ut pair of oppoite' fun!amental oppoition% & =e*el put it2 n oppoition' the !ifferent i not confronte! #y any other' #ut #y it other%5 6781 Thu if "e thin. of the force actin* #et"een t"o #o!ie' there are not /ut a num#er of !ifferent force' #ut they !ivi!e into attractive an! repulive forceA if "e thin. of electric char*e' there are not /ut a num#er of !ifferent char*e' #ut they !ivi!e into poitive an! ne*ativeA an! o on% &ttraction tan! oppoe! to repulion' poitive electricity to ne*ative electricity% uch fun!amental oppoition are not un!ertoo! #y the metaphyical "ay of thin.in*% n the firt place' the metaphyical "ay of thin.in* trie to i*nore an! !icount oppoition% t ee. to un!ertan! a *iven u#/ect-matter imply in term of a "hole num#er of !ifferent propertie an! !ifferent relation of thin*' i*norin* the fun!amental oppoition "hich are manifete! in thee propertie an! relation% Thu thoe "ho thin. in metaphyical term a#out cla-!ivi!e! ocietie' for e$ample' try to un!ertan! ociety a conitin* merely of a lar*e num#er of !ifferent in!ivi!ual connecte! to*ether #y all .in! of !ifferent ocial relation#ut they i*nore the fun!amental oppoition of e$ploiter an! e$ploite!' manifete! in all thoe ocial relation% n the econ! place' "hen the metaphyical "ay of thin.in* !oe neverthele come upon the fun!amental oppoition an! cannot i*nore them' thentrue to it ha#it of thin.in* of each thin* in iolation' a a fi$e! contantit coni!er thee oppoite each in iolation from the other' un!ertan! them eparately an! a each e$clu!in* the other% Thu' for e$ample' the ol!er phyicit ue! to thin. of poitive an! ne*ative electricity /ut imply a t"o !ifferent electrical flui!%5 But contrary to metaphyic' not only are fun!amental oppoite involve! in every u#/ect-matter' #ut thee oppoite mutually imply each other' are inepara#ly connecte! to*ether' an!' far from #ein* e$cluive' neither can e$it or #e un!ertoo! e$cept in relation to the other% Thi characteritic of oppoition i .no"n a polarity2 ;un!amental oppoite are polar oppoite% & ma*net' for e$ample' 66 ha t"o pole' a north pole an! a outh pole% But thee pole' oppoite an! !itinct' cannot e$it in eparation% f the ma*net i cut in t"o' there i not a north pole in one half an! a outh pole in the other' #ut north an! outh pole recur in each half% The north pole e$it only a the oppoite of the outh' an! vice veraA the one can #e !enne! only a the oppoite of the other% n *eneral' fun!amental oppoition ha to #e un!ertoo! a polar oppoition' an! every u#/ect-matter ha to #e un!ertoo! in term of the polar oppoition involve! in it% Thu in phyic "e fin! that attraction an! repulion are involve! in every phyical proce in uch a "ay that they cannot #e eparate! or iolate! the one from the other% n coni!erin* livin* #o!ie' "e !o not fin! in ome cae the #uil!in* up of or*anic compoun! an! in other cae their #rea.in* !o"n' #ut every life proce involve #oth the #uil!in* up an! the #rea.in* !o"n of or*anic compoun!% n capitalit ociety the increain* ociali
Thi unity of oppoitethe fact that oppoite cannot #e un!ertoo! in eparation one from another' #ut only in their inepara#le connection in every fiel! of inveti*ationi tri.in*ly e$emplifie! in mathematic% =ere the fun!amental operation are the t"o oppoite' a!!ition an! u#traction% &n! o far i it from #ein* the cae that a!!ition an! u#traction can #e un!ertoo! each apart from the other' that a!!ition can #e repreente! a u#traction an! vice veraA thu the operation of u#traction (a#) can #e repreente! a an a!!ition (# a)% imilarly a !iviion aQ# can #e repreente! a a multiplication a U (1Q#)% 6681 The unity of oppoite' their inepara#le connection' i #y no mean to #e un!ertoo! a a harmoniou an! ta#le relationhip' a a tate of e+uili#rium% On the contrary' The unity of oppoite i con!itional' temporary' tranitory' relative% The tru**le of mutually e$cluive oppoite i a#olute' /ut a !evelopment an! motion are a#olute%5 668E The e$itence of fun!amental polar oppoition' manifetin* themelve in every !epartment of nature an! ociety' e$pree itelf in the conflict an! tru**le of oppoe! ten!encie' "hich' !epite phae of temporary e+uili#rium' lea! to continual motion an! !evelopment' to a perpetual comin* into #ein* an! pain* 6 a"ay of everythin* in e$itence' to harp chan*e of tate an! tranformation% Thu' for e$emple' the e+uili#rium of attractive an! repulive force in the phyical "orl! i never more than con!itional an! temporaryA the conflict an! tru**le of attraction an! repulion al"ay aert itelf' iuin* in phyical chan*e an! tranformation' "hether tranformation on an atomic cale' chemical chan*e or' on a *ran! cale' in the e$ploion of tar% Dialectics and Meta"h!sics To um up% Metaphyic thin. in term of @rea!y-ma!e5 thin*' "hoe propertie an! potentialitie it ee. to fi$ an! !etermine once an! for all% t coni!er each thin* #y itelf' in iolation from every other' in term of irreconcila#le antitheeeither-or% t contrat one thin* to another' one property to another' one relationhip to another' not coni!erin* thin* in their real movement an! interconnection' an! not coni!erin* that every u#/ectmatter repreent a unity of oppoiteoppoe! #ut inepara#ly connecte! to*ether% Contrary to metaphyic' !ialectic refue to thin. of thin* each #y itelf' a havin* a fi$e! nature an! fi$e! propertie @either-or5#ut it reco*ni
e$itenceA #ecaue it let nothin* impoe upon it' an! i in it eence critical an! revolutionary%5 6K8H 6 #han)e and Interconnection Four Princi"al Features o( the Mar3ist Dialectical Method The Mar$it !ialectical metho! !eman! that "e mut al"ay coni!er thin*' not in iolation' #ut in their interconnection "ith other thin*' in relation to the actual con!ition an! circumtance of each caeA an! that "e mut coni!er thin* in their chan*e an! movement' their comin* into #ein* an! *oin* out of #ein*' al"ay ta.in* particularly into account "hat i ne"' "hat i riin* an! !evelopin*% t follo" that the Mar$it !ialectical metho! for#i! the employment of rea!y-ma!e cheme an! a#tract formula' #ut !eman! the thorou*h' !etaile! analyi of a proce in all it concretene' #ain* it concluion only on uch an analyi% n hi ialectical an! =itorical Materialim talin ai! that there are four principal feature of the Mar$it !ialectical metho!% (1) Contrary to metaphyic' !ialectic !oe not re*ar! nature a /ut an a**lomeration of thin*' each e$itin* in!epen!ently of the other' #ut it coni!er thin* a connecte! "ith' !epen!ent on an! !etermine! #y each other% =ence it coni!er that nothin* can #e un!ertoo! ta.en #y itelf' in iolation' #ut mut al"ay #e un!ertoo! in it inepara#le connection "ith other thin*' an! a con!itione! #y them%5 (E) Contrary to metaphyic' !ialectic coni!er everythin* a in a tate of continuou movement an! chan*e' of rene"al an! !evelopment' "here omethin* i al"ay ariin* an! !evelopin* an! omethin* al"ay !iinte*ratin* an! !yin* a"ay% =ence it coni!er thin* not only from the tan!point of their interconnection an! inter!epen!ence' #ut alo from the tan!point of their movement' their chan*e' their !evelopment' their comin* into #ein* an! *oin* out of #ein*%5 (3) Contrary to metaphyic' !ialectic !oe not re*ar! the 0 proce of !evelopment a a imple proce of *ro"th' #ut a a !evelopment "hich pae from % % % +uantitative chan*e to open' fun!amental chan*e' to +ualitative chan*e' "hich occur a#ruptly' ta.in* the form of a leap from one tate to another% =ence it coni!er !evelopment a an on"ar! an! up"ar! movement' a a tranition from an ol! +ualitative tate to a ne" +ualitative tate' a a !evelopment from the imple to the comple$' from the lo"er to the hi*her%5 (H) Contrary to metaphyic' !ialectic hol! that the proce of !evelopment from the lo"er to the hi*her ta.e place %%% a a !icloure of the contra!iction inherent in thin* %%% a a tru**le of oppoite ten!encie "hich operate on the #ai of thee contra!iction%5 >e hall potpone until the ne$t chapter coni!eration of the latter t"o feature' "hich concern the proce of !evelopment from one +ualitative tate to another' from the lo"er to the hi*her% n thi chapter "e hall coni!er the firt t"o feature of the !ialectical metho!' namely' that it coni!er thin* al"ay in their interconnection an! in their movement an! chan*e% #onsiderin) Thin)s in Their Interconnection and #ircumstances The !ialectical metho! !eman!' firt' that "e houl! coni!er thin*' not each #y itelf' #ut al"ay in their interconnection "ith other thin*% Thi oun! o#viou% everthele it i an @o#viou5 principle "hich i very often i*nore! an! i e$tremely important to remem#er% >e have alrea!y coni!ere! it an! ome e$ample of it application in !icuin* metaphyic' ince the very eence of metaphyic i to thin. of thin* in an a#tract "ay' iolate! from their relation "ith other thin* an! from the concrete circumtance in "hich they e$it% The principle of coni!erin* thin* in relation to actual con!ition an! circumtance' an! not apart from thoe actual con!ition an! circumtance' i al"ay of fun!amental importance for the "or.in*-cla movement in !eci!in* the mot elementary +uetion of policy% ;or e$ample' there "a a time "hen the Britih "or.er "ere fi*htin* for a ten-hour !ay% They "ere ri*ht at that time not to ma.e their imme!iate !eman! an ei*ht-hour !ay' ince thi "a 1 not yet a reali
o "or.in*-cla lea!er can #e of very much value if he trie to !eci!e +uetion of policy in term of *eneral principle alone' "ithout ta.in* into account the actual circumtance in relation to "hich policy ha to #e operate!' "ithout un!ertan!in* that the ame policy can #e ri*ht in one cae an! "ron* in another' !epen!in* on the concrete circumtance of each cae% Thu ,enin "rote2 @Of coure' in politic' in "hich ometime e$tremely complicate!national an! internationalrelationhip #et"een clae an! partie have to #e !ealt "ith %%% it "oul! #e a#ur! to concoct a recipe' or *eneral rule % % % that "oul! erve in all cae% One mut have the #rain to analyhat: auce for the *ooe i auce for the *an!er2 that i the principle employe! in uch ar*ument% Thu it i ar*ue! that if "e !efen! the !emocratic ri*ht of the "or.er in a capitalit country to a*itate for the en!in* of capitalim an! the intro!uction of ocialim' then "e cannot !eny to other in a ocialit country the ri*ht to a*itate for the en!in* of ocialim an! the reintro!uction of capitalim% Thoe "ho ar*ue li.e thi thro" up their han! in horror "hen they fin! that counter-revolutionary *roupin* in the L%%%%' "ho ou*ht to retore capitalim in that country' "ere !eprive! of the poi#ility of carryin* out their aim% >hy' they e$claim' thi i un!emocratic' thi i tyranny uch an ar*ument overloo. the !ifference #et"een fi*htin* in the interet of the vat ma/ority of the people to en! e$ploitation' an! fi*htin* in the interet of a mall ection to preerve or reintro!uce e$ploitationA it overloo. the !ifference #et"een !efen!in* the ri*ht of the vat ma/ority to run their affair in their o"n interet' an! !efen!in* the ri*ht of a mall minority to .eep the ma/ority in #on!a*eA in other "or!' it overloo. the !ifference #et"een movin* for"ar! an! #ac."ar!' #et"een puttin* the cloc. ahea! an! puttin* it #ac.' #et"een revolution an! counter-revolution% Of coure' if "e fi*ht to achieve ocialim' an! if "e achieve it' then "e hall !efen! "hat "e have achieve! an! hall not 3 allo" the li*htet poi#ility of any *roup !etroyin* that achievement% ,et the capitalit an! their han*er-on hout a#out !emocracy in *eneral% f' a ,enin ai!' "e have the #rain to analy
environment' an! they *ro" an! !evelop #y aimilatin* that environment% Thu ,yen.o !efine! the here!ity' or nature' of an or*anim a it re+uirement of certain con!ition for it life an! !evelopment' an! it repon!in* to variou con!ition in a certain "ay% Thi un!ertan!in* of the unity of or*anim an! environment ha! important cone+uence% ;or it le! to the e$pectation that #y compellin* an or*anim to a!apt itelf to an! aimilate chan*e! con!ition' it nature coul! #e chan*e!% &n! thi e$pectation ha #een verifie! in practice% The #iolo*it of the Men!el-Mor*an chool' on the other han!' treat the or*anim a#tractly' metaphyically' a iolate! from it real con!ition of life% They conceive of the @nature5 of the or*anim a +uite in!epen!ent of it con!ition of life% =ence they conclu!e' in true metaphyical tyle' that the here!ity of an or*anim 5i "hat i' an! that it i no ue tryin* to chan*e it in the "ay in "hich oviet #iolo*it have chan*e! the here!ity of or*anim% #onsiderin) Thin)s in Their Mo$ement7 Their #omin) into 8ein) and 9oin) Out o( 8ein) ,et u no" coni!er ome e$ample of the econ! principle of !ialectic' "hich !eman! that "e houl! coni!er thin* in their movement' their chan*e' their comin* into #ein* an! *oin* out of #ein*% Thi principle' too' i of *reat importance in cience% oviet #iolo*it' for e$ample' *ui!e! #y thi principle of !ialectic' have coni!ere! the or*anim in it *ro"th an! !evelopment% Thu at a certain ta*e of *ro"th' the nature of the or*anim i till platicA if you can mo!ify it at that ta*e' you can often chan*e it nature' *ive it a chan*e! here!ity% omethin* i ne"ly comin* into #ein* in the or*anim' an! that i the time to foter it an! to *ive it a !eire! !irection% But if that ta*e i pae!' then it nature #ecome fi$e! an! you cannot chan*e it% ou mut fin! /ut the ri*ht ta*e of *ro"th if you "ih to mo!ify the here!ity of the or*anim% The #iolo*it of the Men!el-Mor*an chool' on the other han!' coni!er the nature of the or*anim a *iven an! fi$e! from the very tart% Thi econ! principle of !ialectic teache u al"ay to pay attention to "hat i ne"' to "hat i riin* an! *ro"in*not /ut to "hat e$it at the moment' #ut to "hat i comin* into #ein*% Thi principle i of paramount importance for revolutionaryun!ertan!in*' for revolutionary practice% The uian Bolhevi.' for e$ample' a" from the very #e*innin* ho" uian ociety "a movin*"hat "a ne" in it' "hat "a comin* into #ein*% They loo.e! for "hat "a riin* an! *ro"in*' thou*h it "a till "ea.the "or.in* cla% >hile other !icounte! the importance of the "or.in* cla an! finihe! #y enterin* into compromie "ith the force of the ol! ociety' the Bolhevi. conclu!e! that the "or.in* cla "a the ne"' riin* force' an! le! it to victory% Jut thi ame un!ertan!in* of "hat "a riin* an! *ro"in* an! of "hat "a !iinte*ratin* an! !yin* a"ay' "a e$emplifie! in talin: lea!erhip !urin* the "ar' 19H1-H7% >hen the Derman "ere #efore Moco" in ovem#er 19H1' an! all the allie! military trate*it outi!e the oviet Lnion coni!ere! that uia: !efeat "a certain' talin ai! that "hile the Derman "ere at the pea. of their military po"er the oviet force' on 7 the other han!' "ere till mo#ili
A)ainst 5Read!,made Schemes5& 5Truth Is Alwa!s #oncrete5 ometime people ima*ine that !ialectic i a preconceive! cheme' into the pattern of "hich everythin* i uppoe! to fit% Thi i the very oppoite of the truth a#out !ialectic% The employment of the Mar$it !ialectical metho! !oe not mean that "e apply a preconceive! cheme an! try to ma.e everythin* fit into it% o' it mean that "e tu!y thin* a they really are' in their real interconnection an! movement% The mot eential thin* in Mar$im' ,enin "rote' i the concrete analyi of concrete con!ition%5 681 Thi i omethin* "hich ,enin inite! on a*ain an! a*ain% n!ee!' he proclaime! it a the fun!amental thei of !ialectic%5 @Denuine !ialectic' ,enin "rote' procee! #y mean of a thorou*h' !etaile! analyi of a proce in all it concretene% The fun!amental thei of !ialectic i2 there i no uch thin* a a#tract truth' truth i al"ay concrete%5 68E >hat !i! he mean #y truth i al"ay concrete? Jut that "e "ill not *et at the truth a#out thin*' a#out either nature or ociety' #y thin.in* up ome *eneral cheme' ome a#tract formulaA #ut only #y tryin* to "or. out a re*ar! each proce /ut "hat are the force at "or.' ho" they are relate!' "hich are riin* an! *ro"in* an! "hich are !ecayin* an! !yin* a"ay' an! on thi #ai reachin* an etimate of the proce a a "hole% o n*el ai!2 There coul! #e no +uetion of #uil!in* the la" of !ialectic into nature' #ut of !icoverin* them in it an! evolvin* them from it% %%% ature i the tet of !ialectic%5 683 & re*ar! the tu!y of ociety' an! the etimate "e ma.e of real ocial chan*e on "hich "e #ae our political trate*y' ,enin ri!icule! thoe "ho too. ome a#tract' preconceive! cheme a their *ui!e% &ccor!in* to ome authoritie' the Mar$it !ialectic lai! it !o"n that all !evelopment mut procee! throu*h @tria!5 thei' antithei' ynthei% ,enin ri!icule! thi% @t i clear to every#o!y that the main #ur!en of n*el: ar*ument i that materialit mut !epict the hitorical proce correctly an! accurately' an! that initence on %%% election of e$ample "hich !emontrate the correctne of the tria! i nothin* #ut a relic of =e*elianim% % % % &n!' in!ee!' once it ha #een cate*orically !eclare! that to attempt to Fprove: anythin* #y tria! i a#ur!' "hat i*nificance can e$ample of F!ialectical: proce have? % % % &nyone "ho rea! the !efinition an! !ecription of the !ialectical metho! *iven #y n*el "ill ee that the =e*elian tria! are not even mentione!' an! that it all amount to re*ar!in* ocial evolution a a natural-hitorical proce of !evelopment% % % % @>hat Mar$ an! n*el calle! the !ialectical metho! %%% i nothin* more nor le than the cientific metho! in ociolo*y' "hich conit in re*ar!in* ociety a a livin* or*anim in a contant tate of !evelopment % % % the tu!y of "hich re+uire an o#/ective analyi of the relation of pro!uction that contitute the *iven ocial formation an! an inveti*ation of it la" of functionin* an! !evelopment%5 81 ,et u coni!er ome e$ample of "hat the analyi of a proce in all it concretene an! the principle that truth i al"ay concrete mean' in contrat to the metho! of tryin* to lay !o"n ome preconceive! cheme of ocial !evelopment an! of appealin* to uch a cheme a a #ai for policy% n tarit uia the Menhevi. ue! to ay2 >e mut have capitalim #efore ocialim% ;irt capitalim mut *o throu*h it full !evelopment' then ocialim "ill follo"2 that "a their cheme% Cone+uently they upporte! the li#eral in politic an! en/oine! the "or.er to !o no more than fi*ht for #etter con!ition in the capitalit factorie% ,enin repu!iate! thi illy cheme% =e ho"e! that the li#eral' fri*htene! #y the "or.er' "oul! compromie "ith the tarA #ut that the alliance of "or.er "ith peaant coul! ta.e the lea! from them' overthro" the tar' an! then *o on to overthro" the capitalit an! #uil! ocialim #efore ever capitalim "a a#le to !evelop fully% &fter the proletarian revolution "a ucceful' another cheme "a propoun!e!thi time #y Trot.y% ou can:t #uil! ocialim in one country% Lnle the revolution ta.e place in the a!vance! capitalit countrie' ocialim cannot come in uia% ,enin an! talin ho"e! that thi cheme' too' "a fale% ;or even if the revolution !i! not ta.e place in the a!vance! capitalit countrie' the alliance of "or.er an! peaant in the oviet Lnion ha! till the force to #uil! ocialim% n >etern uropean countrie it ue! often to #e ai!2 >e mut have facim #efore communim% ;irt the capitalit "ill a#an!on !emocracy an! intro!uce the facit !ictatorhip' an! then the "or.er "ill overthro" the facit !ictatorhip% But the Communit replie!' no' "e "ill fi*ht to*ether "ith all the !emocratic force to preerve #our*eoi !emocracy an! to !efeat the facit' an! that "ill create the #et con!ition for *oin* K for"ar! to "in "or.in*-cla po"er an! to
commence to #uil! ocialim% ,atly' to!ay "e ometime hear the ar*ument2 Capitalim mean "ar' therefore "ar i inevita#le% True enou*h' o lon* a capitalim' "hich ha lon* a*o entere! it lat (imperialit) phae' perit' there mut inevita#ly #e conflict #et"een the rival po"er' an! thee conflict are uch a to entail the inevita#ility of imperialit "ar% But the imperialit cannot ma.e "ar "ithout the people% The more they prepare "ar' the more open their a**reivene #ecome' the more one po"er attempt to impoe it !omination on another' an! the more har!hip they impoe on the people' the more can the people #e rallie! to oppoe their "ar% Therefore in any intance "hen "ar threaten' that "ar can #e prevente! an! potpone!% &n! #y fi*htin* to preerve peace' "e can lay the #ai for en!in* the con!ition "hich poe the inevita#ility of "ar% mperialit "ar plan can #e !efeate!A they can #e !efeate! if the "or.in* cla rallie all the peace-lovin* force aroun! itelf% &n! imperialim itelf' "ith the cone+uent inevita#ility of "ar' can #e en!e!% f "e !efeat the imperialit "ar plan' that "ill #e the #et roa! to"ar! the en!in* of capitalim itelf an! the #uil!in* of ocialim% mperialim "ill not #e en!e! #y "aitin* for it to "rec. itelf in inevita#le "ar' #ut #y unitin* to prevent the reali To un!ertan! !evelopment "e mut un!ertan! the !itinction #et"een +uantitative chan*eincreae an! !ecreae an! +ualitative chan*ethe pain* into a ne" tate' the emer*ence of omethin* ne"% Nuantitative chan*e al"ay lea! at a certain critical point to +ualitative chan*e% &n! imilarly +ualitative !ifference an! +ualitative chan*e al"ay ret on +uantitative !ifference an! +uantitative chan*e% evelopment mut #e un!ertoo!' therefore' not a a imple proce of *ro"th #ut a a proce "hich pae from +uantitative chan*e to open' fun!amental +ualitative chan*e% ;urther' thi tranformation of +uantitative into +ualitative chan*e ta.e place a a reult of the conflict or tru**le of oppoite ten!encie "hich operate on the #ai of the contra!iction inherent in all thin* an! procee% The Mar$it !ialectical metho!' therefore' teache u to un!ertan! procee of !evelopment in term of the tranformation of +uantitative into +ualitative chan*e' an! to ee. the *roun! an! the e$planation of uch !evelopment in the unity an! tru**le of oppoite% n trein* the nee! to tu!y real procee in their movement an! in all their interconnection' talin pointe! out that in the procee of nature an! hitory there i al"ay rene"al an! !evelopment' "here omethin* i al"ay ariin* an! !evelopin* an! omethin* al"ay !iinte*ratin* an! !yin* a"ay%5 981 >hen that "hich i ariin* an! !evelopin* come to fruition' an! that "hich i !iinte*ratin* an! !yin* a"ay finally !iappear' there emer*e omethin* ne"% ;or a "e a" in criticie pea. of @!evelopment5 "here ta*e #y ta*e omethin* ne" .eep emer*in*% Thu there i a !ifference #et"een mere chan*e an! !evelopment% evelopment i chan*e procee!in* accor!in* to it o"n internal la" from ta*e to ta*e% &n! there i e+ually a !ifference #et"een *ro"th an! !evelopment% Thi !ifference i familiar to #iolo*it' for e$ample% Thu *ro"th mean *ettin* #i**ermerely +uantitative chan*e% But !evelopment mean' not *ettin* #i**er' #ut pain* into a +ualitatively ne" ta*e' #ecomin* +ualitatively !ifferent% ;or e$ample' a caterpillar *ro" lon*er an! fatterA then it pin itelf a cocoon' an! finally emer*e a a #utterfly% Thi i !evelopment% & caterpillar *ro" into a #i**er caterpillarA it !evelop into a #utterfly% 4rocee of nature an! hitory e$emplify' not merely chan*e' not merely *ro"th' #ut !evelopment% Can "e' then' reach any concluion a#out the *eneral la" of !evelopment? Thi i the further ta. of materialit !ialecticto fin! "hat *eneral la" are manifete! in all !evelopment' an! to *ive u' therefore' the metho! of approach for un!ertan!in*'
e$plainin* an! controllin* !evelopment% Nuantity an! Nuality2 The ,a" of the Tranformation of Nuantitative into Nualitative Chan*e Thi #rin* u to the t"o latter feature of the Mar$it !ialectical metho!' a e$plaine! #y talin% The firt of thee may #e calle! the la" of the tranformation of +uantitative into +ualitative chan*e% >hat !oe thi mean? &ll chan*e ha a +uantitative apect' that i' an apect of mere increae or !ecreae "hich !oe not alter the nature of that "hich chan*e% But +uantitative chan*e' increae or !ecreae' cannot *o on in!efinitely% &t a certain point it al"ay lea! to a +ualitative chan*eA an! at that critical point (or no!al point' a =e*el calle! it) the +ualitative chan*e ta.e place relatively u!!enly' #y a leap' a it "ere% ;or e$ample' if "ater i #ein* heate!' it !oe not *o on *ettin* K1 hotter an! hotter in!efinitelyA at a certain critical temperature' it #e*in to turn into team' un!er*oin* a +ualitative chan*e from li+ui! to *a% & cor! ue! to lift a "ei*ht may have a *reater an! *reater loa! attache! to it' #ut no cor! can lift a loa! in!efinitely *reat2 at a certain point' the cor! i #oun! to #rea.% & #oiler may "ithtan! a *reater an! *reater preure of teamup to the point "here it #urt% & variety of plant may #e u#/ecte! to a erie of chan*e in it con!ition of *ro"th for a num#er of *enerationfor intance' to col!er temperatureA the variety continue unchan*e!' until a point i reache! "hen u!!enly a +ualitative chan*e i in!uce!' a chan*e in the here!ity of the plant% n thi "ay prin* "heat have #een tranforme! into "inter "heat' an! vice vera' a a reult of the accumulation of a erie of +uantitative chan*e% Thi la" of the tranformation of +uantitative into +ualitative chan*e i alo met "ith in ociety% Thu #efore the ytem of in!utrial capitalim come into #ein* there ta.e place a proce of the accumulation of "ealth in money form in a fe" private han! (lar*ely #y colonial plun!er)' an! of the formation of a propertyle proletariat (#y encloure an! the !rivin* of peaant off the lan!)% &t a certain point in thi proce' "hen enou*h money i accumulate! to provi!e capital for in!utrial un!erta.in*' "hen enou*h people have #een proletarianie fin! that continuou' *ra!ual +uantitative chan*e lea! at a certain point to !icontinuou' u!!en +ualitative chan*e% >e have alrea!y remar.e! in an earlier chapter that mot of thoe "ho have coni!ere! the la" of !evelopment in nature an! ociety have conceive! of thi !evelopment only in it continuou apect% Thi mean that they have coni!ere! it only from the apect of a proce of *ro"th' of +uantitative chan*e' an! have not coni!ere! it +ualitative apect' the fact that at a certain point in the *ra!ual proce of *ro"th a ne" +uality u!!enly arie' a tranformation ta.e place% et thi i "hat al"ay happen% f you are #oilin* a .ettle' the "ater u!!enly #e*in to #oil "hen #oilin* point i reache!% f you are cram#lin* e**' the mi$ture in the pan u!!enly cram#le% &n! it i the ame if you are en*a*e! in chan*in* ociety% >e "ill only chan*e capitalit ociety into ocialit ociety "hen the rule of one cla i replace! #y the rule of another claan! thi i a ra!ical tranformation' a leap to a ne" tate of ociety' a revolution% f' on the other han!' "e coni!er +uality itelf' then +ualitative chan*e al"ay arie a a reult of an accumulation of +uantitative chan*e' an! !ifference in +uality have their #ai in !ifference of +uantity% Thu /ut a +uantitative chan*e mut at a certain point *ive rie to +ualitative chan*e' o if "e "ih to #rin* a#out +ualitative chan*e "e mut tu!y it +uantitative #ai' an! .no" "hat mut #e increae! an! "hat !iminihe! if the re+uire! chan*e i to #e #rou*ht a#out% atural cience teache u ho" purely +uantitative !ifference a!!ition or u#tractionma.e a +ualitative !ifference in nature% ;or e$ample' the a!!ition of one proton in the nucleu of an atom ma.e the tranition from one element to another% KE81 The atom of all the element are forme! out of com#ination of the ame proton an! electron' #ut a purely +uantitative !ifference #et"een the num#er com#ine! in the atom *ive !ifferent .in! of atom' atom of !ifferent element "ith !ifferent chemical propertie% Thu an atom conitin* of one proton an! one electron i a hy!ro*en atom' #ut if another proton an! another electron are a!!e! it i an atom of helium' an! o on% imilarly in chemical compoun!' the a!!ition of one atom to a molecule ma.e the !ifference #et"een u#tance "ith !ifferent chemical propertie% n *eneral' !ifferent +ualitie have their #ai in +uantitative !ifference% & n*el put it2 @n nature' in a manner e$actly fi$e! for each in!ivi!ual cae' +ualitative chan*e can only occur #y the +uantitative
a!!ition or u#traction of matter or motion% % % % @&ll +ualitative !ifference in nature ret on !ifference of chemical compoition or on !ifferent +uantitie or form of motion or' a i almot al"ay the cae' on #oth% =ence it i impoi#le to alter the +uality of a #o!y "ithout a!!ition or u#traction of matter or motion' i%e% "ithout +uantitative alteration of the #o!y concerne!%5 K381 Thi feature of the !ialectical la" connectin* +uality an! +uantity i familiar to rea!er of the popular literature a#out atomic #om#% To ma.e a uranium #om# it i neceary to have the iotope' uranium-E37A the more common iotope' uranium E3K' "ill not !o% The !ifference #et"een thee t"o i merely +uantitative' a !ifference in atomic "ei*ht' !epen!in* on the num#er of neutron preent in each cae% But thi +uantitative !ifference of atomic "ei*ht' E37 an! E3K' ma.e the +ualitative !ifference #et"een a u#tance "ith the propertie re+uire! for the #om# an! a u#tance "ithout thoe propertie% ;urther' havin* *ot a +uantity of uranium-E37' a certain critical ma of it i re+uire! #efore it "ill e$plo!e% f there i not enou*h' the chain reaction "hich contitute the e$ploion "ill not occurA "hen the critical ma i reache!' the reaction !oe occur% Thu "e ee that +uantitative chan*e are tranforme! at a certain point into +ualitative chan*e' an! +ualitative !ifference ret on +uantitative !ifference% Thi i a univeral feature of !evelopment% >hat ma.e uch !evelopment happen? evelopment Ta.e 4lace Throu*h the Lnity an! tru**le of Oppoite n *eneral' the reaon "hy in any particular cae a +uantitative chan*e lea! to a +ualitative chan*e lie in the very nature' in the content' of the particular procee involve!% Therefore in each cae "e can' if "e only .no" enou*h' e$plain /ut "hy a +ualitative chan*e i inevita#le' an! "hy it ta.e place at the point it !oe% To e$plain thi "e have to tu!y the fact of the cae% >e cannot invent an e$planation "ith the ai! of !ialectic aloneA "here an un!ertan!in* of !ialectic help i that it *ive u the clue a to "here to loo.% n a particular cae "e may not yet .no" ho" an! "hy the chan*e ta.e place% n that cae "e have the ta. of fin!in* out' #y inveti*atin* the fact of the cae% ;or there i nothin* un.no"a#le' no eential mytery or ecret of !evelopment' of the emer*ence of the +ualitatively ne"% ,et u coni!er' for e$ample' the cae of the +ualitative chan*e "hich ta.e place "hen "ater #oil% >hen heat i applie! to a ma of "ater containe! in a .ettle' then the effect i to increae the motion of the molecule compoin* the "ater% o lon* a the "ater remain in it li+ui! tate' the force of attraction #et"een the molecule are ufficient to inure that' thou*h ome of the urface molecule are continually ecapin*' the "hole ma cohere to*ether a a ma of "ater ini!e the .ettle% &t #oilin* point' ho"ever' the motion of the molecule ha #ecome ufficiently violent for lar*e num#er of them to #e*in /umpin* clear of the ma% & +ualitative chan*e i therefore o#erve!% The "ater #e*in to #u##le an! the "hole ma i rapi!ly tranforme! into team% Thi chan*e evi!ently occur a a reult of the oppoition operatin* "ithin the ma of "aterthe ten!ency of the molecule to move apart an! /ump free veru the force of attraction #et"een them% The former ten!ency i reinforce! to the point "here it overcome the latter a a reult' in thi cae' of the e$ternal application of heat% ¬her e$ample "e have coni!ere! i that of a cor! "hich #rea. "hen it loa! #ecome too *reat% =ere a*ain' the +ualitative chan*e ta.e place a a reult of the oppoition et up #et"een the tenile tren*th of the cor! an! the pull of the loa!% &*ain' "hen a prin* "heat i tranforme! into a "inter "heat' thi i a reult of the oppoition #et"een the plant: @conervatim5 an! the chan*in* con!ition of *ro"th an! !evelopment to "hich it i u#/ecte!A at a certain point' the influence of the latter overcome the former% Thee e$ample prepare u for the *eneral concluion that' a talin put it' the internal content of the proce of !evelopment' the internal content of the tranformation of +uantitative chan*e into +ualitative chan*e conit in the tru**le of oppoiteoppoite ten!encie' oppoite force"ithin the thin* an! proce concerne!% Thu the la" that +uantitative chan*e are tranforme! into +ualitative chan*e' an! that !ifference in +uality are #ae! on !ifference in +uantity' lea! u to the la" of the unity an! tru**le of oppoite% =ere i the "ay talin formulate thi la" of !ialectic% @Contrary to metaphyic' !ialectic hol! that internal contra!iction are inherent in all thin* an! phenomena of nature' for all have their ne*ative an! poitive i!e' a pat an! a future' K7 omethin* !yin* a"ay an! omethin* !evelopin*A an! that the tru**le #et"een thee oppoite' the tru**le #et"een the ol! an! the ne"' #et"een that "hich i !yin* a"ay an! that "hich i #ein* #orn' #et"een that "hich i !iappearin* an! that "hich i !evelopin*' contitute the internal content of the proce of !evelopment' the internal content of the tranformation of +uantitative chan*e into +ualitative chan*e%
@The !ialectical metho! therefore hol! that the proce of !evelopment from the lo"er to the hi*her ta.e place not a a harmoniou unfol!in* of phenomena' #ut a a !icloure of the contra!iction inherent in thin* an! phenomena' a a Ftru**le: of oppoite ten!encie "hich operate on the #ai of thee contra!iction%5 K781 To un!ertan! !evelopment' to un!ertan! ho" an! "hy +uantitative chan*e lea! to +ualitative chan*e' to un!ertan! ho" an! "hy the tranition ta.e place from an ol! +ualitative tate to a ne" +ualitative tate' "e have to un!ertan! the contra!iction inherent in each thin* an! proce "e are coni!erin*' an! ho" a @tru**le5 of oppoite ten!encie arie on the #ai of thee contra!iction% >e have to un!ertan! thi concretely' in each cae' #earin* in min! ,enin: "arnin* that the fun!amental thei of !ialectic i2 truth i al"ay concrete% >e cannot !e!uce the la" of !evelopment in the concrete cae from the *eneral principle of !ialectic2 "e have to !icover them #y actual inveti*ation in each cae% But !ialectic tell u "hat to loo. for% ialectic of ocial evelopmentThe Contra!iction of Capitalim The !ialectic of !evelopmentthe unity an! tru**le of oppoiteha #een mot thorou*hly "or.e! out in the Mar$it cience of ociety% =ere' from the tan!point of the "or.in*cla tru**le' on the #ai of "or.in*-cla e$perience' "e can "or. out the !ialectic of the contra!iction of capitalim an! of their !evelopment very e$actly% But the principle involve! in the !evelopment of ociety are not oppoe! to #ut are in eence the ame a thoe involve! in the !evelopment of nature' thou*h !ifferent in their form of manifetation in each cae% Thu n*el ai!2 @ "a not in !ou#tthat ami! the "elter of innumera#le K6 chan*e ta.in* place in nature the ame !ialectical la" of motion are in operation a thoe "hich in hitory *overn the apparent fortuitoune of event%5 K681 =o" Mar$im un!ertan! the contra!iction of capitalim an! their !evelopment' thi cro"nin* triumph of the !ialectical metho!' "a e$plaine! in *eneral term #y n*el% The #aic contra!iction of capitalim i not imply the conflict of t"o clae' "hich confront one another a t"o e$ternal force "hich come into conflict% o' it i the contra!iction "ithin the ocial ytem itelf' on the #ai of "hich the cla conflict arie an! operate% Capitalim #rou*ht a#out2 @The concentration of the mean of pro!uction in lar*e "or.hop an! manufactorie' their tranformation into mean of pro!uction "hich "ere in fact ocial% But the ocial mean of pro!uction an! the ocial pro!uct "ere treate! a if they "ere till' a they ha! #een #efore' the mean of pro!uction an! the pro!uct of in!ivi!ual% =itherto' the o"ner of the intrument of la#or ha! appropriate! the pro!uct #ecaue it "a a a rule hi o"n pro!uct' the au$iliary la#or of other peron #ein* the e$ceptionA no"' the o"ner of the intrument of pro!uction continue! to appropriate the pro!uct' althou*h it "a no lon*er M pro!uct' #ut e$cluively the pro!uct of other: la#or% Thu' therefore' the pro!uct' no" ocially pro!uce!' "ere not appropriate! #y thoe "ho ha! really et the mean of pro!uction in motion an! really pro!uce! the pro!uct' #ut #y the capitalit%5 K68E The #aic contra!iction of capitalim i' therefore' the contra!iction #et"een ociali
Thi e$ample very e$actly illutrate the point of "hat talin ai! a#out tru**le of oppoite ten!encie "hich operate on the #ai of thee contra!iction% The cla tru**le e$it an! operate on the #ai of the contra!iction inherent in the ocial ytem itelf% t i from the tru**le of oppoite ten!encie' oppoin* force' ariin* on the #ai of the contra!iction inherent in the ocial ytem' that ocial tranformation' the leap to a +ualitatively ne" ta*e of ocial !evelopment' ta.e place% Thi proce ha it +uantitative apect% The "or.in* cla increae in num#er an! or*ani
concentrate!' more centraliithin every proce there i a unity an! tru**le of oppoe! ten!encie% Thi contra!iction #et"een oppoe! ten!encie i inherent in procee an! !oe not appear merely a the reult of acci!ental or e$ternal caue% The "or.in* out of the contra!iction inherent in the procee of nature an! ociety lea! to +ualitative chan*e an! i the !rivin* force of uch chan*e% Contra!iction i univeral in all the procee of the "orl!' #ut the la" of each .in! of proce can #e un!ertoo! only #y tu!yin* the particular contra!iction eential to each .in! of proce an! the pecific form "hich they ta.e in pecific intance% n the lat chapter "e coni!ere! ho" +ualitative chan*e i #rou*ht a#out #y the tru**le of oppoe! force% Thi "a e$emplifie! e+ually in the chan*e of tate of a #o!y from li+ui! to oli! or *a' an! in the chan*e of ociety from capitalim to ocialim% n each cae there are oppoite ten!encie at "or.' "hoe @tru**le5 eventuate in ome fun!amental tranformation' a +ualitative chan*e% Thi @tru**le5 i not e$ternal an! acci!ental% t i not a!e+uately un!ertoo! if "e uppoe that it i a +uetion of force or ten!encie ariin* +uite in!epen!ently the one of the other' "hich happen to meet' to #ump up a*aint each other an! come into conflict% o% The tru**le i internal an! necearyA for it arie an! follo" from the nature of the proce a a "hole% The oppoite ten!encie are not in!epen!ent the one of the other' #ut are inepara#ly connecte! a part or apect of a in*le "hole% &n! they operate an! come into conflict on the #ai of the contra!iction inherent in the proce a a "hole% Movement an! chan*e reult from caue inherent in thin* an! procee' from internal contra!iction% Thu' for e$ample' the ol! mechanit conception of movement "a that it only happene! "hen one #o!y #umpe! into another2 there "ere no internal caue of movement' that i' no elfmovement' #ut only e$ternal caue% But on the contrary' the oppoe! ten!encie "hich operate in the coure of the chan*e of tate of a #o!y operate on the #ai of the contra!ictory unity of attractive an! repulive force inherent in all phyical phenomena% &*ain' the cla tru**le in capitalit ociety arie on the #ai of the contra!ictory unity of ocialihat they !o not reco*ni
@t i often ai! an! "ritten that the core of Mar$: theory i the cla tru**leA #ut it i not true% %%% To limit Mar$im to the theory of the cla tru**le mean curtailin* Mar$im' !itortin* it' re!ucin* it to omethin* "hich i accepta#le to the #our*eoiie% & Mar$it i one "ho e$ten! the acceptance of the cla tru**le to the acceptance of the !ictatorhip of the 90 proletariat% Thi i "here the profoun! !ifference lie #et"een a' Mar$it an! an or!inary petty (or even #i*) #our*eoi% Thi i the touchtone on "hich the real un!ertan!in* an! acceptance of Mar$im houl! #e tete!%5 9081 n *eneral' contra!iction i inherent in a *iven proce% The tru**le "hich i characteritic of the proce i not an e$ternal clah of acci!entally oppoe! factor' #ut i the "or.in* out of contra!iction #elon*in* to the very nature of the proce% &n! thi con!ition the outcome of the proce% #ontradiction #onsists o( the /nit! and Stru))le o( O""osites The .ey conception of !ialectic i thi conception of contra!iction inherent in the very nature of thin*that the motive force of +ualitative chan*e lie in the contra!iction containe! "ithin all procee of nature an! ociety' an! that in or!er to un!ertan!' control an! mater thin* in practice "e mut procee! from the concrete analyi of their contra!iction% >hat e$actly !o "e mean #y @contra!iction5? &ccor!in* to the common' metaphyical conception' contra!iction occur in our i!ea a#out thin*' #ut not in thin*% >e can aert contra!ictory propoition a#out a thin*' an! then there i a contra!iction in "hat "e ay a#out itA #ut there can #e no contra!iction in the thin*% Thi point of vie" re*ar! contra!iction imply an! olely a a lo*ical relation #et"een propoition' #ut !oe not coni!er it a a real relation #et"een thin*% uch a point of vie" i #ae! on coni!erin* thin* tatically' a fi$e! an! froe may alo pea. of the interpenetration of oppoite in a contra!iction% ;or #ein* unite! in tru**le' each oppoe! ten!ency i in it actual character an! operation at any phae of the tru**le influence!' mo!ifie! or penetrate! #y the other in many "ay% ach i!e i al"ay affecte! #y it relation "ith the other% >e can only un!ertan!' an! can only control an! mater' the procee of nature an! of ociety #y un!ertan!in* their contra!iction' an! the cone+uence of thoe contra!iction the "ay they "or. out%
Contra!iction i the !rivin* force of chan*e% o if "e "ant to un!ertan! ho" thin* chan*e' an! to control an! utilihy houl! "e ay that contra!iction i the !rivin* force of chan*e? t i #ecaue it i only the preence of contra!iction in a proce "hich provi!e the internal con!ition ma.in* chan*e neceary% & proce "hich containe! no contra!iction "oul! imply *o on an! on in the ame "ay until ome e$ternal force toppe! it or mo!ifie! it% & movement "ithout contra!iction "oul! #e continuou repetition of the ame movement% t i the preence of contra!iction' that i' of contra!ictory ten!encie of movement' or of a unity an! tru**le of oppoite' "hich #rin* a#out chan*e of movement in the coure of a proce% ma*ine' if you can' a ociety "ithout contra!iction% Thi "oul! #e a ociety in "hich #y continuin* to !o the ame thin* in the am "ay people "oul! atify all their nee!% uch a ociety "oul! never chan*e% There "oul! continually #e movement in it' in a much a people "oul! #e !oin* thin* all the timeA #ut the movement "oul! al"ay #e the ame% There "oul! #e a proce' #ut a proce of repetition% =o"ever' no uch ociety e$it or ever coul! e$it' #ecaue from the very nature of the con!ition of human life there mut al"ay #e contra!iction in ociety% By atifyin* their nee! people create ne" unatifie! nee!' an! #y a!vancin* their force of pro!uction they #rin* a#out a tate of affair in "hich they nee! to chan*e their ocial relation an! intitution correpon!in*ly% Thi i "hy chan*e happen in ociety% The ocial proce i not a proce of repetition #ut a proce in "hich ne" thin* happen% &*ain' ome metaphyical materialit trie! to repreent the univere a a ytem of particle #umpin* into an! #ouncin* off one another% uch a univere "oul! #e a univere of the continuou motion of particle' #ut it "oul! #e a univere of the continuou repetition of the ame motion% The real univere 93 i not li.e thi' #ecaue it i full of contra!ictionthe contra!iction of attraction an! repulion tu!ie! #y phyic' of the aociation an! !iociation of atom tu!ie! #y chemitry' of the procee of life an! of the relationhip of or*anim' "ith environment tu!ie! #y #iolo*y% t i the "or.in* out of thee contra!iction (in their pecific form in pecific procee) "hich ma.e up the real chan*in* procee of the real chan*in* "orl!% Thi ho" that "here contra!iction e$it' there follo" the "or.in* out of thoe contra!ictionthe "or.in* out of the tru**le of oppoite "hich arie from the unity of oppoite% & proce i the "or.in* out of it o"n eential contra!iction% The /ni$ersalit! and Particularit! o( #ontradictions Contra!iction i a univeral feature of all procee% But each particular .in! of proce ha it o"n particular contra!iction' "hich are characteritic of it an! !ifferent from thoe of other procee% Thi point "a un!erline! #y Mao Te-tun* in hi eay On Contra!iction' "here he ma!e the mot thorou*h analyi of the conception yet contri#ute! to Mar$it literature% =e calle! it the !itinction #et"een the univerality an! the particularity of contra!iction% >e can never !e!uce "hat "il happen in any particular cae' or ho" a particular proce can #e controlle!' from the univeral i!ea of contra!iction% & ha alrea!y #een tree!' the !ialectical metho! !oe not conit in applyin* ome preconceive! cheme to the interpretation of everythin*' #ut cinit in #ain* concluion only on the concrete analyi of concrete con!iton%5 ach .in! of proce ha it o"n !ialectic' "hich can #e *rape! only #y the !etaile! tu!y of that particular proce% The !ialectic of the u#-atomic "orl! i not the ame a that of the #o!ie !irectly percepti#le to our ene% The !ialectic of livin* or*anim i not the ame a that of the procee of inor*anic matter% The !ialectic of human ociety i a ne" la" of motion% &n! each phae of human ociety #rin* "ith it a*ain it o"n particular !ialectic% Thu' for e$ample' the contra!iction #et"een ten!encie of attraction an! repulion in phyical motion' an! #et"een the interet of clae in ociety' are #oth contra!iction% Thi i evi!ence of the univerality of contra!iction% But each ha it 9H o"n !itinctive character' !ifferent from that of the other% Thi i evi!ence of the particularity of contra!iction% >e cannot learn the la" of phyic or the la" of ociety if "e try to !e!uce them from the univeral i!ea of contra!iction% >e can learn them only #y inveti*atin* phyical an! ocial procee% 4hyical movement an! the movement of people in ociety are +uite !ifferent form of movement' an! o the contra!iction tu!ie! #y ocial cience are !ifferent' an! "or. out in a !ifferent "ay' from thoe tu!ie! #y phyic% ocial an! phyical procee are imilar in that each contain contra!iction' #ut !iimilar in the contra!iction each contain% The contra!iction characteritic of each .in! of proce may #e calle! the eential contra!iction of that .in! of proce%
;or intance' contra!iction #et"een attractive an! repulive force are eential contra!iction of phyical procee' an! contra!iction #et"een force of pro!uction an! relation of pro!uction are eential contra!iction of ocial procee% f "e further coni!er the eential contra!iction characteritic of !ifferent .in! of proce' then "e can further ay that thee are manifete! in pecific "ay in pecific intance of procee of a *iven .in!% ;or e$ample' the eential contra!iction of ocial procee are manifete! in pecific "ay in each pecific ocial formation% The contra!iction #et"een force of pro!uction an! relation of pro!uction ta.e pecific form in !ifferent formation of ociety% Thu in capitalit ociety it ta.e the pecific capitalit form of the contra!iction #et"een the increain*ly ocial character of pro!uction an! the retention of private appropriation% &*ain' the relation #et"een any pecie of livin* or*anim an! it environment are contra!ictory% The or*anim live only #y mean of it environment' an! at the ame time it environment contain threat to it life "hich it ha continually to overcome% n the cae of man' thi contra!iction ta.e the form of the pecific contra!ictory relation #et"een man an! natureA an! thi relation itelf ta.e even more pecific form "ith each ta*e of man: ocial !evelopment% Man i a part of nature an! live #y mean of nature' an! man live #y oppoin* himelf to nature an! u#!uin* nature to hi "ill% Thi contra!ictory relation itelf !evelop' an! ta.e pecific form' a man !evelop% t i preent in #oth primitive communim an! in 97 communim' for e$ample' #ut preent a !ifferent apect in the latter from the former% n or!er to un!ertan! a proce' then' an! to learn ho" to control an! mater it' "e mut *et to .no" it eential contra!iction an! inveti*ate the pecific form they ta.e in pecific intance% 1@ The Old and the New The Outcome o( #ontradictions Nualitative chan*e come a#out "hen an ol! unity of oppoite' in "hich one i!e "a !ominant' i replace! #y a ne"' in "hich the relation of !ominance i altere!% The nature of thi chan*e i !etermine! #y the nature of the internal contra!iction of "hich it i the outcome' thou*h it may often #e occaione!' an! i al"ay con!itione!' #y e$ternal caue% The appearance of ne" +uality i al"ay u!!en "hile the completion of +ualitative chan*e' the upplantin* of ol! +uality #y ne"' i a *ra!ual proce ta.in* a lon*er or horter time accor!in* to the nature of the force at "or. an! the circumtance in "hich they operate% The tru**le throu*h "hich chan*e come a#out ta.e !ifferent form an!' in ociety' a !itinction arie #et"een anta*onitic an! nonS anta*onitic form of tru**le "ithin a contra!iction% & for"ar! movement of !evelopment ta.e place "hen the "or.in* out of a erie of contra!iction in a% proce carrie that proce for"ar! from one ta*e to another% uch !evelopment procee! #y the ta*e #y ta*e overcomin* an! upplantin* of the ol! #y the ne"% To un!ertan! it "e mut un!ertan! the #aic contra!iction of the proce at each ta*e' an! alo "hat i the principal force for "or.in* out the #aic contra!iction an! carryin* the proce for"ar! to the ne$t ta*e% ;or"ar! !evelopment can only procee! #y the ne*ation of the ol! #y the ne"' an! not #y it preervation% The unity of oppoite in a contra!iction i characterihatever the !omination relationhip in the unity of oppoite may #e' it i al"ay apt to chan*e' a a reult of "hich the former unity of oppoite "ill #e !iolve! an! a ne" unity of oppoite ta.e it place%
The outcome of the "or.in* out of contra!iction i' then' a chan*e in the !omination relation characteritic of the initial unity of oppoite% uch a chan*e contitute a chan*e in the nature of a thin*' a chan*e from one tate to another' a chan*e from one thin* to another' a chan*e entailin* not merely ome e$ternal alteration #ut a chan*e in the internal character an! la" of motion of a thin*% t i preciely uch a chan*e that "e mean #y a @+ualitative5 chan*e% ;or intance' if a piece of iron i painte! #lac. an! intea! "e paint it re!' that i merely an e$ternal alteration (affectin* the "ay it reflect li*ht an! o it appearance to a eein* eye)' #ut it i not a +ualitative chan*e in the ene "e are here !efinin*% On theother han!' if the iron i heate! to meltin* point' then thi i uch a +ualitative chan*e% &n! it come a#out preciely a a chan*e in the attraction-repulion relationhip characteritic of the internal molecular tate of the metal% The metal pae from the oli! to li+ui! tate' it internal character an! la" of motion #ecome !ifferent in certain "ay' it un!er*oe a +ualitative chan*e% Nualitative chan*e i the reult of a chan*e in the #alance of oppoite% uch a chan*e i prepare! #y a erie of +uantitative chan*e affectin* the !omination relation in the unity of oppoite% & the !omination relation chan*e' +uantitative chan*e pae into +ualitative chan*e% >hen uch a fun!amental or +ualitative chan*e come a#out a a reult of the !iolution of an ol! form of unity of oppoite an! the comin* into #ein* of a ne" one' then the oppoite themelve chan*e% The i!e "hich pae from #ein* !ominate! over to #ein* !ominant i chan*e! in that proce' an! o i the other i!e' "hich pae from #ein* !ominant to #ein* !ominate! over% =ence in the ne" +ualitative tate there are not the ame ol! oppoite in a chan*e! relation' #ut #ecaue the relation i chan*e! the oppoite' hel! to*ether in that relation' are chan*e! too% There i a ne" unity of oppoite' a ne" contra!iction% >hen' for intance' the "or.in* cla #ecome tron*er than the capitalit cla an! from #ein* !ominate! over #ecome !ominant' then in the ne" +ualitative tate of ociety the capitalit cla !iappear (for the !ominant "or.in* cla !eprive it of it con!ition of e$itence)' an! the "or.in* cla' e$itin* in completely ne" con!ition' #ecome virtually a ne" cla% The contra!iction of ociety therefore chan*eA the particular contra!iction of the ol! tate !iappear an! ne" contra!iction are #orn% The tru**le #et"een the "or.in* cla an! the capitalit come to an en!' an! ne" .in! of tru**le #e*in% E3ternal and Internal #auses o( *ualitati$e #han)e =o" far i the paa*e from +uantitative to +ualitative chan*e !etermine! #y the "or.in* out of the contra!iction inherent in the proce itelf' or #y internal caue' an! ho" far i it !etermine! #y e$ternal or acci!ental caue? t i !etermine! #y #oth' #ut in !ifferent "ay% Both in nature an! ociety !ifferent thin* are al"ay interactin* an! influencin* each other% =ence e$ternal caue mut al"ay play a part in the chan*e "hich happen to thin*% &t the ame time' the character of the chan*e al"ay !epen! on internal caue%
Thi pro#lem "a !icue! #y Mao Te-tun* in hi eay On Contra!iction% =e conclu!e!2 @Contra!iction "ithin a thin* i the #aic caue of it !evelopment' "hile the relationhip of a thin* "ith other thin* their interconnection an! interactioni a econ!ary caue% % % % $ternal caue are the con!ition of chan*e an! internal caue the #ai of chan*e' e$ternal caue #ecomin* operative throu*h internal caue%5 Coni!er' for e$ample' uch an event a the hatchin* of a chic.en% The chic.en !oe not !evelop ini!e the e** unle heat i applie! from outi!e% But "hat !evelop in the e**' "hat hatche out' !epen! on "hat i ini!e the e**% & Mao remar.2 5n a uita#le temperature an e** chan*e into a chic.en' #ut there i no temperature "hich can chan*e a tone into a chic.en' the fun!amental of the t"o thin* #ein* !ifferent%5 &*ain' "ater !oe not #oil unle it i heate!% But the #oilin* proce reultin* from the application of heat come a#out on the #ai of the internal contra!iction of attraction an! repulion characteritic of the molecule of "ater% imilarly in ociety' a revolution !oe not procee! "ithout the intervention of e$ternal caue' #ut it character an! outcome' an! in!ee! the fact that it happen at all' !epen! on internal caue% Thu the #ai of the uian evolution lay in the contra!iction "ithin uian ociety% Thee ma!e the revolution inevita#le an! !etermine! it character% But "hat actually et off the revolution in 191 "a omethin* e$ternal' the con!ition #rou*ht a#out #y the imperialit "ar%
n *eneral' if "e coni!er +ualitative chan*e' then their +ualitative character can #e e$plaine! only #y the operation of internal caueA the particular contra!iction on "hich the ol! +uality "a #ae! !etermine "hat ne" +uality emer*e% The e$ternal caue affect only the +uantitative chan*e of thin* the time an! place of their #e*innin*' an! the rate at "hich they procee!% @4urely e$ternal caue can only lea! %%% to chan*e in i
Nualitative chan*e #ein* the outcome of the "or.in* out of contra!iction' it follo" that the "hole proce of the tru**le of oppoite may #e re*ar!e! a a proce of the replacement of one +uality #y another' of an ol! +uality #y a ne" one% The ol! +uality correpon! to the !ominance of one element in the unity of oppoite% The reveral of thi !ominance lea! to the replacement of the ol! +uality #y the ne"% n thi ene each element in a unity of oppoite i the #earer of a !itinct +uality% The tru**le of the one to maintain it !ominance i "hat maintain the ol! +uality' the tru**le of the other to revere thi !ominance i "hat #rin* into #ein* the ne" +uality replacin* the ol!% ;or intance' all life i a unity of oppoite' of procee of the #uil!in* up an! #rea.in* !o"n of livin* matter% o lon* a the #uil!in* up maintain the poition of thi unity' life remain% >hen' ho"ever' the oppoite #e*in to !ominate' then !eath commence% &*ain' if "e coni!er the contra!iction of capitalit ociety' then it i evi!ent that the capitalit tate of ociety !epen! on private appropriation !ominatin* ocial pro!uction' an! the capitalit cla !ominatin* the "or.in* cla% t i the tru**le of the "or.in* cla a*aint the capitalit cla' an! the tru**le to free ocial pro!uction from the fetter of private appropriation' "hich' "hen the reveral of the ol! tate happen' #rin* a#out a ne" ocialit tate of ociety% t ha alrea!y #een pointe! out that every contra!iction ha it o"n pecific character% &n! o the tru**le of oppoite ha in every cae alo it o"n pecific character' accor!in* to the particular contra!iction from "hich it arie% t follo" that procee of +ualitative chan*e' replacement of ol! #y ne" +ualitie' have alo each their o"n pecific character' accor!in* to the +ualitie concerne!% >hat i univerally true i imply that +ualitative chan*e come a#out a the "or.in* out of contra!iction' 101 a an outcome of +uantitative chan*e% But thi univeral truth !oe not tell u ho" any :particular chan*e "ill "or.out% >e can only !icover that #y .no"in* each particular cae% Thu coni!erin* the "or.in* out of ocial contra!iction' "hich reult in +ualitative chan*e in ociety' Mao Te-tun* o#erve! that each "or. out !ifferently% @Nualitatively !ifferent contra!iction can only #e olve! #y +ualitatively !ifferent metho!% ;or e$ample2 the contra!iction #et"een the proletariat an! the #our*eoiie i olve! #y the metho! of ocialit revolutionA the contra!iction #et"een the *reat mae of the people an! the feu!al ytem i olve! #y the metho! of !emocratic revolutionA the contra!iction #et"een the colonie an! imperialim i olve! #y the metho! of national revolutionary "arA the contra!iction #et"een the "or.in* cla an! the peaantry in ocialit ociety i olve! #y the metho! of collectivihatever the metho! #y "hich !ifferent contra!iction "or. out' a point i al"ay reache! "here the +uantitative apect of the tru**le of oppoite "ithin the contra!iction ha #een ufficiently mo!ifie! for the-ne" +uality to emer*e% Thi i the point "here +ualitative chan*e #e*in% =o" it continue !epen! entirely on the particular character of the contra!iction "hoe outcome it i' on the particular "ay the tru**le of oppoite continue% Nualitative chan*e i al"ay u!!en' an! cannot #ut #e u!!en' in the ene that at a certain point of +uantitative chan*e a ne" +uality emer*e "hich "a not preent #efore% That i to ay' at thi point ne" thin* #e*in to happen' ne" caue operate an! ne" effect are pro!uce!' ne" la" of motion come into operation% Thi i the o-calle! +ualitative leap' the firt appearance of the ne" "hich "a not there #efore% Thu +ualitative chan*e i prece!e! #y a proce of "or.in* up to the emer*ence of ne" +uality% urin* thi proce contra!iction are "or.in* out' o to pea.' uneen"ithout manifetation in +ualitative chan*e% &t the termination of thi phae' 10E the phae of the emer*ence of ne" +uality #e*in a#ruptly or u!!enly' an! cannot #ut !o o%
;or e$ample' "hen "ater i heate! a movement ta.e place "hich u!!enly turn into a #oilin* proce% >hen a chil! i *ro"in* in the "om# a movement ta.e place "hich u!!enly turn into the proce of #irth% n ociety movement ta.e place amon*t the clae' conflict are harpene!' opinion mature' an! u!!enly there #e*in a !eciive revolutionary chan*e% &fter that' ho" +ualitative chan*e procee!' the "iftne or lo"ne an!' in *eneral' the maner of it completion' !epen! entirely on the circumtance of particular cae% Once a ne" +uality emer*eonce it ha leape! into #ein*then a proce of ne" +ualitative character #e*in' in "hich the ne" +uality *ra!ually upplant the ol!% >hile' therefore' +ualitative chan*e #e*in u!!enly' it continue *ra!ually% =o" +uic.ly or ho" lo"ly the ne" upplant the ol! !epen! on the nature of the proce an! the con!ition un!er "hich it occur% ;or intance' phyical chan*e of tate' uch a "ater comin* to the #oil' are u!!en' #ecaue a point i u!!enly reache! "hen a ne" thin*' team' #e*in to #e forme!2 #ut the converion of "ater into team i a *ra!ual proce% t i the ame "ith chemical chan*e% &n! it i the ame a*ain "ith +ualitative chan*e in ociety% & point i reache! in the "or.in* out of ocial contra!iction "here the +ualtative chan*e #e*inthe chan*e from the po"er of one cla to the po"er of another cla' from one ytem of pro!uction relation to another2 after that' thi chan*e may ta.e a lon*er or horter time to #e complete!% Ta.e' for e$ample' the political apect of ocial revolution' that i' the con+uet of tate po"er% n the uian ocialit revolution thi too. place #y a in*le #lo""hich mean' comparatively +uic.ly% n a fe" !ay all the !eciive poition of po"er pae! into the han! of the "or.in* cla% n the ne$t roun! of ocialit revolutionthoe in the preent people: !emocracieit too. place over a lon*er perio!' #y a erie of tep in "hich the firt one an! then another poition of po"er "a con+uere!% f "e loo. #ac. to the revolution throu*h "hich the #our*eoiie formerly "on po"er from the feu!al lor!' then thee too. place over a lon*er perio! tilloften e$ten!in* over many year% Or if "e coni!er economic chan*e' thee ten! to #e comparatively lo"' ta.in* place throu*h a erie of tep% ;or intance' capitalit relation' once they emer*e! in feu!al ociety' e$ten!e! their cope tep #y tep over a lon* perio!% &*ain' the !iplacement of capitalim #y ocialim' once #e*un' i another *ra!ual proce' thou*h it ta.e place more rapi!ly than the !iplacement of feu!alim #y capitalim% (t ta.e place more rapi!ly for a !efinite reaon' namely' that ocialim cannot #e*in to !iplace capitalim until after the "or.in* cla ha "on tate po"er' an! then the po"er of the tate operate to !irect an! pee! up economic chan*e% The chan*e from feu!alim to capitalim' on the one han!' *enerally #e*in lon* #efore tate po"er pae into the han! of the capitalit cla' an! mean"hile the feu!al tate act rather to lo" !o"n than to pee! up the chan*e%) Thee e$ample ho" that there i a +uantitative i!e to +ualitative chan*e' namely' the po"er an! pee! "ith "hich it complete itelf% &n! naturally' un!er certain unfavora#le circumtance it may never #e complete! at all% n certain cae it i poi#le for the chan*e to #e*in' an! then #e turne! #ac. a*ain an! !iappear% The !ialectical materialit conception of contra!iction inclu!e #oth the u!!enne an! *ra!ualne of +ualitative chan*e% The !ifference #et"een thi conception of chan*e an! that of many other philoophie i not that !ialectical materialim lay it !o"n that all +ualitative chan*e are u!!en' "herea the other ay they are *ra!ual% t i that !ialectical materialim un!ertan! chan*e a comin* from the tru**le of oppoite' from the "or.in* out of contra!iction' "herea the other overloo. or !eny thi% They uppoe that chan*e come in a mooth "ay' "ithout conflict' or ele #y merely e$ternal conflict% Anta)onism and Non,anta)onism n #ontradictions The "or.in* out of contra!iction al"ay involve one i!e tru**lin* "ith an! overcomin* the other% But accor!in* to the nature of the contra!iction' thi proce may ta.e place in !ifferent "ay% &n! in ociety in particular' a !itinction mut #e !ra"n #et"een contra!iction the olution of "hich involve the forci#le uppreion or !etruction of one i!e #y the other' an! 10H thoe "hoe olution !oe not re+uire uch metho!% The chan*e from capitalim to ocialim' for e$ample' ta.e place throu*h the forci#le uppreion of the capitalit cla #y the "or.in* cla% But the enuin* chan*e from ocialim to communim !oe not re+uire the forci#le uppreion of anyone% The former chan*e i effecte! #y mean of a tru**le #et"een mutually anta*onitic force' "herea no uch anta*onim have to #e fou*ht out to effect the latter chan*e% n *eneral' ocial contra!iction are anta*onitic "hen they involve conflict of economic interet% n uch cae one *roup impoe it o"n interet on another' an! one *roup uppree another #y forci#le metho!% But "hen conflict of economic interet are not involve!' there i no anta*onim an! therefore no nee! for the forci#le uppreion of any *roup #y any other% Once cla anta*onim are !one a"ay "ith in ocialit ociety' all ocial +uetion can #e ettle! #y
!icuion an! ar*ument' #y criticim an! elf-criticim' #y peruaion' conviction an! a*reement% &nta*onim' therefore' i not the ame thin* a contra!iction% or i it the ame thin* a the tru**le of oppoite "ithin a contra!iction% The tru**le of oppoite i a univeral' neceary feature of every contra!iction' an! it may ta.e an anta*onitic form or it may not' !epen!in* on the particular nature of the particular contra!iction% o ,enin remar.e! that anta*onim an! contra!iction are utterly !ifferent% Ln!er ocialim anta*onim !iappear' #ut contra!iction remain%5 10H81 & Mao Te-tun* put it2 &nta*onim i only one form of tru**le "ithin a contra!iction' #ut not it univeral form%5 10H8E The !itinction #et"een anta*onim an! non-anta*onim in the contra!iction of ociety i of *reat practical importance% There are many contra!iction in ociety' an! it i practically important to !itin*uih "hich are anta*onitic an! "hich are not' in or!er to fin! the ri*ht metho! of !ealin* "ith them% f a contra!iction of the one .in! i mita.en for a contra!iction of the other .in!' then "ron* action i ta.en "hich cannot lea! to the !eire! reult% ;or e$ample' reformit ocialit thin. there i no nee! for 107 the "or.in* cla to ta.e po"er an! ue it to uppre the capitalit cla' "herea Mar$it reco*nihen' ho"ever' "e coni!er uch a movement a that of ociety' "e fin! that it ha a !irection of it o"n2 ociety move for"ar! from primitive communim to lavery' from lavery to feu!alim' from feu!alim to capitalim' from capitalim to communim% Thi i a movement "ith a !irection' a @for"ar!5 movement% =e*el ue! to thin. that natural procee "ere all of the un!irecte! .in! (li.e ice-"ater-team-"ater-ice)' an! that a !irection coul! only come into procee "hen @pirit5 or : concioune "a at "or. in them% @The chan*e that ta.e place in nature' he "rote' ho"ever infinitely variou they may #e' e$hi#it only a perpetually repeatin* cycleA in nature there ta.e place :nothin* ne" un!er the un: % % % only in thoe chan*e "hich ta.e place in the re*ion of pirit !oe anythin* ne" arie%5 10681 But the !itinction !oe not in fact !epen! on any !ifference #et"een @nature5 an! pirit% & movement can have a !irection "ithout any concioune #ein* preent to !irect it% pirit or concioune itelf i a pro!uct of natureA #iolo*ical chan*e' lea!in* up to man' have a !irectionA o have *eolo*ical chan*eA o have procee in the evolution of tarA an! o on% n *eneral' !irection in procee ha a @natural5 e$planation% f ome procee have !irection an! other have not' thi !epen! olely on the particular character of the procee themelve an! of the con!ition un!er "hich they happen%
n *eneral' ince +ualitative chan*e in a proce i al"ay cone+uent upon +uantitative chan*e' it ha a !irection "hen thoe +uantitative chan*e arie from con!ition permanently operatin* "ithin the proce itelf' an! other"ie it ha no !irection% & movement i un!irecte! "hen it only occur on con!ition that e$ternal caue et it off% t ha a !irection "hen (ho"ever con!itione! #y e$ternal factor) it i impelle! for"ar! #y internal caue% n that cae the !irection it ta.e i it o"n /ut #ecaue it arie from internal caue% >hat' then' i the #ai of !irection in procee' of the 10 internal caue of a for"ar! movement of !evelopment? t i to #e foun! in the e$itence an! lon*-term operation in thoe procee of eential contra!iction "hich "or. out #y ta.in* a erie of pecific form% Thi i "hat *ive rie to a !irecte! erie of ta*e' a lon*-term proce of !evelopment in a !efinite !irection% Thu' for e$ample' if ocial !evelopment ha a !irection thi arie #ecaue man e$it in a permanent contra!ictory relationhip "ith nature% The permanent e$itence of thi contra!iction *ive rie to a permanent ten!ency of man to improve hi force of pro!uction' an! a thi ten!ency operate o ta*e #y ta*e contra!iction arie #et"een the ocial force of pro!uction an! the relation of pro!uction% The !irection of man: ocial evolution i the !irection of man: matery over nature' an! the movement of ociety ta.e thi !irection imply #ecaue of the natural con!ition of human life' the impule to chan*e an! !evelopment "hich people e$perience #ecaue of the neceity to atify their nee!% imilarly' if uch thin* a tar pa throu*h a erie of evolutionary ta*e' thi i #ecaue the contra!ictory con!ition of their e$itence *ive rie to continuou procee' uch a ra!iation' the continuation of "hich #rin* a#out a erie of +ualitative ta*e in their hitory% >e certainly houl! not ay' a ome philoopher have ai!' that throu*hout infinite time the infinite univere !evelop from ta*e to ta*e in a pre!etermine! !irection% There i no evi!ence for any uch aertionin!ee!' there i no ene in it% >e cannot pea. a#out the !irection ta.en #y everythin*' #ut only a#out the !irection of the !evelopment of particular thin* in "hich "e are interete!% The !irecte! !evelopment of thin* i not !ue to Do! or pirit "or.in* in them' nor i it the manifetation of ome myteriou comic la"' #ut it arie an! flo" from the particular contra!iction of particular thin*% 4articular thin* are characteri
>hen there i a for"ar! movement of !evelopment in a proce' 10K then ta*e #y ta*e there occur' a talin put it' 5a tranition from an ol! +ualitative tate to a ne" +ualitative tate' the upplantin* of an ol! +uality #y a ne" one% The ne" ta*e of !evelopment come into #ein* from the "or.in* out of the contra!iction inherent in the ol!% &n! the ne" ta*e itelf contain a ne" contra!iction' ince it come into #ein* containin* omethin* of the pat from "hich it prin* an! of the future to "hich it lea!% t ha' therefore' it ne*ative an! poitive i!e' a pat an! a future' omethin* !yin* a"ay an! omethin* !evelopin*% On thi #ai there once a*ain arie "ithin it the tru**le #et"een the ol! an! the ne"' #et"een that "hich i !yin* a"ay an! that "hich i #ein* #orn' #et"een that "hich i !iappearin* an! that "hich i !evelopin*%5 Thu the for"ar! movement of !evelopment i the continuou "or.in* out of a erie of contra!iction% evelopment continually !rive for"ar! to ne" !evelopment% The "hole proce at each ta*e i in eence the tru**le #et"een the ol! an! the ne"' that "hich i !yin* an! that "hich i #ein* #orn% To un!ertan! the la" of !evelopment of anythin* "e mut therefore un!ertan! it contra!iction an! ho" they "or. out% & proce uually contain not one #ut many contra!iction% t i a .not of contra!iction% &n! o to un!ertan! the coure of a proce "e mut ta.e into account all it contra!iction an! un!ertan! their inter-relationhip% Thi *enerally mean' firt of all' that "e mut *rap the #aic contra!iction of a proce' in it *eneral character an! in the pecific form it ta.e at each ta*e% The #aic contra!iction i that contra!iction inherent in the very nature of the proce "hich !etermine it !irection% Thu in ociety' for intance' the #aic contra!iction i that #et"een the force of pro!uction an! the relation of pro!uction' an! thi ta.e a pecific form at each ta*e of ociety% n capitalit ociety it i the contra!iction #et"een ocial pro!uction an! private appropriation% Thi #aic contra!iction i "hat !etermine the !irection of !evelopment' namely' from capitalim to ocialimto ocial appropriation to match ocial pro!uction% Diven the #aic contra!iction' then a proce i characteri
The #aic contra!iction "or. out #y the intrumentality of all the tru**le ariin* from all the cone+uential contra!iction% n thi' ho"ever' one particular contra!iction *enerally play the .ey or principal role% n other "or!' of all the element' ten!encie or force enterin* into variou form of tru**le in a .not of contra!iction' there i *enerally one "hich play the principal role in "or.in* out the #aic contra!iction to it olution in the realiithin any capitalit country' for e$ample' there are many contra!iction% Bei!e the contra!iction #et"een the "or.in* cla an! the capitalit cla' there are other contra!iction #et"een other claethe ur#an petty #our*eoiie' the peaant' the lan!lor!' etc%a "ell a contra!iction "ithin the capitalit cla itelf% There are alo contra!iction of an international .in!' uch a thoe #et"een a *iven capitalit country an! other' an! #et"een imperialit an! colonial people% But "ithin all thi .not of contra!iction' it i the tru**le of the "or.in* cla "ith the capitalit cla "hich' in the *iven country' play the .ey or principal role in carryin* ociety for"ar! from capitalim to ocialim% ;or thi i the one contra!iction "hich can "or. out in uch a chan*e from the !ominance of one i!e to that of the other a "ill #rin* a#out a fun!amental chan*e in the +uality of the "hole% Thu' for e$ample' the contra!iction #et"een the #i* capitalit an! the petty #our*eoiie al"ay ta.e the form of !omination #y the #i* capitalit' "ho .eep on *ro"in* tron*er in relation to the petty #our*eoiie "ho' for their part' .eep on #ein* pree! #ac. an! *ro"in* "ea.er% =ence the petty #our*eoiie cannot #e the principal revolutionary force in a capitalit country' an! their contra!iction "ith the #i* capitalit cannot #e the principal contra!iction% The "or.in* cla' on the other han!' *ro" tron*er a capitalim !evelop' an! i the force "hich' !ominate! over #y the capitalit' can eventually overthro" thi !omination% That i "hy the "or.in* cla i the principal revolutionary force' an! "hy the contra!iction #et"een thi cla an! the capitalit i the principal contra!iction% To un!ertan! the la" of !evelopment of a proce' therefore' one mut not only un!ertan! the #aic contra!iction of the proce at each ta*e' #ut alo "hat i the principal force for "or.in* out the #aic contra!iction an! carryin* the proce for"ar! to the ne$t ta*e% Mao Te-tun* pointe! out that in tu!yin* any proce % % % "e mut !o our utmot to !icover it principal contra!iction% Thi may #e a comple$ ta.' ince "hat i the principal contra!iction in certain circumtance may not #e o in other% 5Once the principal contra!iction i *rape!' any pro#lem can #e rea!ily olve!' "herea if "e !o not *rap the principal contra!iction "e cannot fin! the cru$ of a pro#lem an! naturally cannot fin! the metho! of olvin* contra!iction%5 @Thi i the metho! Mar$ tau*ht u "hen he tu!ie! capitalit ociety' "rote Mao% Mar$ ho"e! ho" in it tru**le "ith the capitalit cla the "or.in* cla coul! fin! allie an! ta.e a!vanta*e of circumtance ariin* from all the .not of ocial contra!iction' in or!er to lea! ociety for"ar! from capitalim to communim% The Role o( Ne)ation in De$elo"ment The for"ar! movement of !evelopment' comple$ a it may #e in each particular cae' al"ay ta.e place throu*h the tru**le of the ne" an! the ol! an! the overcomin* of the ol! an! !yin* #y the ne" an! riin*% Thu in ocial !evelopment' in the tranition from capitalim to ocialim' "hat i ne" an! riin* in the economic life of capitalit ocietyocial pro!uctioncontra!ict "hat i ol! an! carrie! over from the patprivate appropriation' an! a ne" force arie' the "or.in* cla' "hoe tru**le a*aint the capitalit cla i a tru**le for the reali
*ive "ay to an! #e upplante! #y the ne"in other "or!' that the ol! mut #e ne*ate! #y the ne"% The li#eral' "ho thin. metaphyically' un!ertan! ne*ation imply a ayin*2 o% To him ne*ation i merely the en! to omethin*% ;ar from meanin* a!vance' it mean retreatA far from meanin* *ain' it mean lo% ialectic' on the other han!' teache u not to #e afrai! of ne*ation' #ut to un!ertan! ho" it #ecome a con!ition of pro*re' a mean to poitive a!vance% The !ialectical conception of !evelopment throu*h ne*ation i oppoe! to the li#eral conception of !evelopment% ;or the li#eral' ne*ation i imply a #lo" "hich !etroy omethin*% But on the contrary' ne*ation i the con!ition for poitive a!vance' in "hich the ol! i a#olihe! only after it ha alrea!y pro!uce! the con!ition for the tranition to the ne"' an! in "hich att the poitive achievement #elon*in* to the ol! ta*e i carrie! for"ar! into the ne"% Moreover' a ta*e alrea!y pae! can #e re-create! on a hi*her level a a reult of !ou#le ne*ation' the ne*ation of the ne*ation% &ccor!in* to the li#eral conception of !evelopment' if a *iven ta*e of !evelopment i to #e raie! to a hiffher level thi mut ta.e place *ra!ually an! peacefully' "ithout the proce of ne*ation% But on the contrary' it i only throu*h a !ou#le ne*ation that the hi*her ta*e can #e reache!% The repetition of the ol! ta*e on a hi*her level ta.in* place throu*h the ne*ation of ne*ation i a comprehenive an! important la" of !evelopment' the operation of "hich i e$emplifie! in many procee of nature' hitory an! thou*ht% @e*ation in !ialectic !oe not mean imply ayin* no' "rote n*el% 11E81 >hen in the proce of !evelopment the ol! ta*e i ne*ate! #y the ne"' then' in the firt place' that ne" ta*e coul! not have come a#out e$cept a ariin* from an! in oppoition to the ol!% The con!ition for the e$itence of the ne" aroe an! mature! "ithin the ol!% The ne*ation i a poitive a!vance' #rou*ht a#out only #y the !evelopment of that "hich i ne*ate!% The ol! i not imply a#olihe!' leavin* thin* a thou*h it ha! never e$ite!2 it i a#olihe! only after it ha itelf *iven rie to the con!ition for the ne" ta*e of a!vance% n the econ! place' the ol! ta*e' "hich i ne*ate!' itelf 113 contitute a ta*e of a!vance in the for"ar!-movin* proce of !evelopment a a "hole% t i ne*ate!' #ut the a!vance "hich too. place in it i not ne*ate!% On the contrary' thi a!vance i carrie! for"ar! to the ne" ta*e' "hich ta.e into itelf an! carrie for"ar! all the pat achievement% ;or e$ample2 ocialim replace capitalimit ne*ate it% But the con!ition for the rie an! victory of ocialim "ere #orn of capitalim' an! ocialim come into e$itence a the ne$t ta*e of ocial !evelopment after capitalim% very achievement' every a!vance in the force of pro!uction' an! li.e"ie every cultural achievement' "hich too. place un!er capitalim' i not !etroye! "hen capitalim i !etroye!' #ut' on the contrary' i preerve! an! carrie! further% Thi poitive content of ne*ation i not un!ertoo! #y li#eral' for "hom ne*ation i imply ayin* no% Moreover' they thin. of ne*ation a comin* only from outi!e' e$ternally% omethin* i !evelopin* very "ell' an! then omethin* ele come from outi!e an! ne*ate it!etroy it% That i their conception% That omethin* #y it o"n !evelopment lea! to it o"n ne*ation' an! there#y to a hi*her ta*e of !evelopmentlie outi!e their comprehenion% Thu the li#eral conceive of ocial revolution not only a a catatrophe' a an en! to or!ere! pro*re' #ut they #elieve that uch a catatrophe can #e #rou*ht a#out only #y outi!e force% f a revolution threaten to upet the capitalit ytem' that i not #ecaue of the !evelopment of the contra!iction of that ytem itelf' #ut i !ue to a*itator%5 Of coure' there i ne*ation "hich ta.e the form imply of a #lo" from outi!e "hich !etroy omethin*% ;or intance' if am "al.in* alon* the roa! an! am .noc.e! !o"n #y a car' uffer ne*ation of a purely ne*ative ort% uch occurrence are fre+uent #oth in nature an! in ociety% But thi i not ho" "e mut un!ertan! ne*ation if "e are to un!ertan! the poitive role of ne*ation in the proce of !evelopment% &t each ta*e in the proce of !evelopment there arie the tru**le of the ne" "ith the ol!% The ne" arie an! *ro" tron* "ithin the ol! con!ition' an! "hen it i tron* enou*h it overcome an! !etroy the ol!% Thi i the ne*ation of the pat ta*e of !evelopment' of the ol! +ualitative tateA an! it mean the comin* into #ein* of the ne" an! hi*her ta*e of !evelopment' the ne" +ualitative tate% Thi #rin* u to a further !ialectical feature of !evelopment the ne*ation of ne*ation% &ccor!in* to the li#eral i!ea that ne*ation mean imply ayin* no' if the ne*ation i ne*ate!' then the ori*inal poition i retore! once more "ithout chan*e% &ccor!in* to thi i!ea' ne*ation i imply a ne*ative' a ta.in* a"ay% =ence if the ne*ation' the ta.in* a"ay' i itelf ne*ate!' that merely mean puttin* #ac. a*ain "hat "a ta.en a"ay% f a thief ta.e my "atch' an! then ta.e it a"ay from him' "e are #ac. "here "e tarte! have the "atch a*ain% imilarly' if ay' t: *oin*
to #e a fine !ay' an! you ay' o' it: *oin* to #e a "et !ay' to "hich reply' o' it: not *oin* to #e a "et !ay' have imply' #y ne*atin* your ne*ation' re-tate! my ori*inal propoition% Thi i enhrine! in the principle of formal lo*ic' not not-& e+ual &% &ccor!in* to thi principle' ne*ation of ne*ation i a fruitle procee!in*% t /ut ta.e you #ac. "here you tarte!% ,et u' ho"ever' coni!er a real proce of !evelopment an! the !ialectical ne*ation "hich ta.e place in it% ociety !evelop from primitive communim to the lave ytem% The ne$t ta*e i feu!alim% The ne$t ta*e i capitalim% ach ta*e arie from the previou one' an! ne*ate it% o far "e have imply a ucceion of ta*e' each follo"in* a the ne*ation of the other an! contitutin* a hi*her ta*e of !evelopment% But "hat come ne$t? Communim% =ere there i a return to the #e*innin*' #ut at a hi*her level of !evelopment% n place of primitive communim' #ae! on e$tremely primitive force of pro!uction' come communim #ae! on e$tremely a!vance! force of pro!uction an! containin* "ithin itelf tremen!ou ne" potentialitie of !evelopment% The ol!' primitive clale ociety ha #ecome the ne" an! hi*her clale ociety% t ha #een raie!' a it "ere' to a hi*her po"er' ha reappeare! on a hi*her level% But thi ha happene! only #ecaue the ol! clale ociety "a ne*ate! #y the appearance of clae an! the !evelopment of cla ociety' an! #ecaue finally cla ociety' "hen it ha! *one throu*h it "hole !evelopment' "a itelf ne*ate! #y the "or.in* cla ta.in* po"er' en!in* e$ploitation of man #y man' an! eta#lihin* a ne" clale ociety on the foun!ation of all the achievement of the "hole previou !evelopment% Thi i the ne*ation of ne*ation% But it !oe not ta.e u #ac. to the ori*inal tartin* point% t ta.e u for"ar! to a ne" tartin* point' "hich i the ori*inal one raie!' throu*h it ne*ation an! the ne*ation of the ne*ation' to a hi*her level% Thu "e ee that in the coure of !evelopment' a a reult of a !ou#le ne*ation' a later ta*e can repeat an earlier ta*e' #ut repeat it on a hi*her level of !evelopment% There i a !evelopment that eemin*ly repeat the ta*e alrea!y pae!' #ut repeat them other"ie (in a ne" "ay)' on a hi*her #ai %%% a !evelopment' o to pea.' in piral' not in a trai*ht line%5 11781 Thi i a conception of !evelopment' li.e that of !ialectical ne*ation in *eneral' "hich the li#eral outloo. cannot tomach% To the li#eral outloo. !evelopment eem to #e a mooth' up"ar! coure procee!in* throu*h a erie of mall chan*e% f a *iven ta*e of !evelopment i to #e raie! to a hi*her level' then thi mut ta.e place *ra!ually an! peacefully' throu*h the harmoniou unfol!in* of all the hi*her potentialitie latent in the ori*inal ta*e% But on the contrary' the fact ho" that it i only throu*h tru**le an! throu*h ne*ation that the hi*her ta*e i "on% The !evelopment ta.e place not a a harmoniou unfol!in* #ut a 5a !icloure of contra!iction' in "hich the lo"er ta*e i ne*ate!!etroye!A in "hich the !evelopment "hich follo" it ne*ation i itelf ne*ate!A an! in "hich the hi*her ta*e i reache! only a a reult of that !ou#le ne*ation% & =e*el put it' the hi*her en! of !evelopment i reache! only throu*h the ufferin*' the patience an! the la#or of the ne*ative%5 1178E A #om"rehensi$e and Im"ortant Law o( De$elo"ment n !icuin* the ne*ation of ne*ation "e mut a*ain tre "hat "a ai! earlier' namely' that the eence of !ialectic i to tu!y a proce in all it concretene' to "or. out ho" it actually ta.e place' an! not to impoe on it ome preconceive! cheme an! then try to @prove5 the neceity of the real proce repro!ucin* the i!eal cheme% >e !o not ay in a!vance that every proce "ill e$emplify the ne*ation of ne*ation% till le !o "e ue thi conception to try to @prove5 anythin*%
eferrin* to Mar$: !emontration of the occurrence of the ne*ation of ne*ation in hitory' n*el ai!2 @n characterihat' therefore' i the ne*ation of the ne*ation? "rote n*el% 5&n e$tremely *eneralan! for thi reaon e$tremely comprehenive an! importantla" of !evelopment of nature' hitory an! thou*ht% %%% t i o#viou that in !ecri#in* any
evolutionary proce a the ne*ation of the ne*ation !o not ay anythin* concernin* the -particular proce of !evelopment% % % % >hen ay that all thee procee are the ne*ation of ne*ation' #rin* them all to*ether un!er thi one la" of motion' an! for thi very reaon leave out of account the peculiaritie of each eparate proce% ialectic i nothin* more than the cience of the *eneral la" of motion an! !evelopment of nature' human ociety an! thou*ht%5 1168E =o" e$tremely comprehenive an! important i thi la" of !evelopment can #e ho"n in numerou e$ample% >e have alrea!y een ho" the ne*ation of the ne*ation occur in hitory in the !evelopment from primitive communim to communim% t occur a*ain in the !evelopment of in!ivi!ual property% Mar$ pointe! out that the pre-capitalit in!ivi!ual private property foun!e! on the la#or of the proprietor i ne*ate!!etroye!#y capitalit private property% ;or capitalit private property arie only on the ruin an! e$propriation of the pre-capitalit in!ivi!ual pro!ucer% The in!ivi!ual pro!ucer ue! to o"n hi intrument of pro!uction an! hi pro!uct #oth "ere ta.en a"ay from him #y the capitalit% But "hen capitalit private property i itelf ne*ate!"hen 5the e$propriator are e$propriate!then the in!ivi!ual property of the 11 pro!ucer i retore! once more' #ut in a ne" form' on a hi*her level% @Thi !oe not re-eta#lih private property for the pro!ucer' #ut *ive him in!ivi!ual property #ae! on the ac+uiition of the capitalit era' i%e% on co-operation an! the poeion in common of the lan! an! of the mean of pro!uction%5 1181 The pro!ucer' a a participant in ocialihen capitalim aroe' the only "ay for"ar! "a throu*h thi ne*ation of ne*ation% ome of the Britih Chartit put for"ar! in their lan! policy !eman! aime! at arretin* the ne" capitalit proce an! at retorin* the ol! private property of the pro!ucer% Thi "a vain% The only roa! for"ar! for the pro!ucer "a #y the tru**le a*aint capitalim an! for ocialimnot to retore the ol! in!ivi!ual property "hich capitalim ha! !etroye!' #ut to !etroy capitalim an! o create in!ivi!ual property a*ain on a ne"' ocialit #ai% &*ain' in the hitory of thou*ht' the primitive' natural materialim of the earliet philoopher i ne*ate! #y philoophical i!ealim' an! mo!ern materialim arie a the ne*ation of that i!ealim% @Thi mo!ern materialim' the ne*ation of ne*ation' i not the mere re-eta#lihment of the ol!' #ut a!! to the permanent foun!ation of thi ol! materialim the "hole thou*ht content of t"o thouan! year of !evelopment of philoophy an! natural cience%5 118E The ne*ation of ne*ation' a n*el alo pointe! out' i a very familiar phenomenon to the plant #ree!er% f he ha ome ee! an! "ant to *et from it ome #etter ee!' then he ha to *ro" the ee! un!er !efinite con!ition for it !evelopment "hich mean #rin*in* a#out the ne*ation of the ee! #y it *ro"in* into a plant an! then controllin* the con!ition of !evelopment of the plant until it #rin* a#out it o"n ne*ation in the pro!uction of more ee!% ome e$pert' it i true' have lately a!vocate! *oin* another an! more !irect "ay a#out it' namely' chan*in* the ee! !irectly 11K #y treatin* it "ith chemical or U-ray% The reult of thi' ho"ever' i imply a num#er of hapha
&n! after that' thee mortal or*anim a!vance further% The proce of the evolution of pecie of plant an! animal #e*in% >ith the #irth of man' ocial evolution #e*in' the "hole proce of ocial !evelopment from primitive communim' throu*h it ne*ation' cla ociety' to the clale ociety of communim% Moreover' man #e*in to mater nature% &n! "hen' "ith communim' he #rin* hi o"n ocial or*anihat' no"' of the future !evelopment of ociety' after the ta*e of communim ha #een reache!? &re "e to uppoe that the ame !ialectical la" of !evelopment "ill continue to operate? Or that !evelopment "ill ceae? evelopment "ill not ceae% On the contrary' it i only "ith the achievement of communim that human !evelopment in the proper ene' that i to ay' a !evelopment conciouly planne! an! controlle! #y men themelve' really #e*inA all the ret "a only the painful preparation for it' the #irth-pan* of the human race% >hen all the mean of pro!uction are #rou*ht fully un!er planne! ocial !irection' then it may #e e$pecte! that men: matery over nature "ill enormouly increae' an! the con+uet an! tranformation of nature #y man "ill in turn mean profoun! chan*e in men: mo!e of life% ;or intance' a#ility to pro!uce an a#olute a#un!ance of pro!uct "ith a minimum e$pen!iture of human la#or' a#olition of the antithei #et"een to"n an! countryi!e' a#olition of the antithei #et"een manual an! intellectual la#or' clearly imply profoun! chan*e in ocial 1E0 or*anihen men un!ertan! the la" of their o"n ocial or*ani
n the firt phae of the tranition from ocialim to communim' !evelopment ta.e place throu*h continue! tru**le a*aint the ol! herita*e of capitalim% >hat "ill happen "hen the lat trace of ol! cla ociety have #een o#literate! throu*hout the "orl!? >e can at all event pre!ict certain initial feature of the !evelopment of "orl! communit ocietyaociate! humanity% Thu the or*anihen ocialim ha #ecome part an! parcel of the life of the people' an! "hen practice ha convince! the nation of the uperiority of a common lan*ua*e over national lan*ua*e' then national !ifference an! lan*ua*e "ill #e*in to !ie a"ay an! ma.e room for a "orl! lan*ua*e' common to all nation%5 1E18E & for the more remote future' "e have no !ata on "hich to #ae pre!ictionthou*h "e can #e +uite ure that vat chan*e "ill ta.e place' an! that the people of the future' mater of nature an! .no"in* no oppreion of man #y man' "ill #e "ell a#le to loo. after the !etinie of the human race% Bernar! ha"' in hi Bac. to Methuelah' peculate! on the 1EE poi#ility of the pan of human life #ein* *reatly e$ten!e!' an! eventually e$ten!e! in!efinitely% True' he thou*ht thi "oul! happen throu*h the myteriou operation of the life force% et it "a a profoun! peculation' for uch a reult may "ell #e #rou*ht a#out throu*h the !evelopment of phyiolo*ical .no"le!*e an! me!ical cience% &n! ha" "a +uite ri*ht in uppoin* that uch a !evelopment "oul! ma.e a tremen!ou !ifference in the "hole mo!e of human life an! in all ocial intitution% Thi i' in!ee!' one of the "ay in "hich the a!vance of cience an! of men: matery over nature (our o"n nature' in thi cae) coul! lea! to !evelopment of vat' tranformin* i*nificance for human life an! ociety% &t all event' "e cannot et limit to the po"er of human achievement% &n! #earin* thi in min!' "e may "ell #elieve that our !ecen!ant a fe" hun!re! *eneration hence "ill in their manner of lifeB reem#le u far le than "e reem#le our o"n ancetor amon* the primitive ava*e% #reati$e Mar3ism >ith thi' "e may try to um up the main concluion a#out !ialectic% ialectic i concerne! "ith interconnection' chan*e an! !evelopment% Ln!ertoo! in the materialit "ay' !ialectic i the cience of the *eneral la" of motion an! !evelopment of nature' human ociety an! thou*ht%5 The !ialectical metho! i the metho! of approach #y the application of "hich "e a!vance our materialit un!ertan!in* of nature an! hitory' an! all particular procee of nature an! hitory% t i a metho!not a *eneral formula' an! not an a#tract philoophical ytem% t *ui!e u in un!ertan!in* thin* o a to chan*e them% uch #ein* the nature of !ialectic an! of the !ialectical metho!' it houl! #e clear that the cience of !ialectic itelf *ro" an! !evelop' an! that the metho! i enhance! an! enriche! "ith each further application% very ne" ocial !evelopment an! every ne" a!vance of the cience an! the art provi!e the #ai for enrichin* an! e$ten!in* the un!ertan!in* of !ialectic an! of the !ialectical metho!% >e cannot un!ertan! an! mater ne" material imply #y repeatin* "hat ha alrea!y #een learne!' #ut on the contrary' "e learn more' an! e$ten!' 1E3 correct an! enrich our i!ea in the li*ht of ne" pro#lem an! ne" e$perience% Thu Mar$im i a !evelopin*' pro*reive cience% There i !o*matic Mar$im an! creative Mar$im% tan! #y the latter' ai! talin% 1E381 Creative Mar$im2 @Concentrate it attention upon % % % the path an! mean of reali
proletariat% @Materin* the Mar$it-,eninit theory mean #ein* a#le to enrich thi theory "ith the ne" e$perience of the revolutionary movement' "ith ne" propoition an! concluion' it mean #ein* a#le to !evelop it an! a!vance it "ithout heitatin* to replace in accor!ance "ith the u#tance of the theoryuch of it propoition an! concluion a have #ecome anti+uate! #y the ne" one correpon!in* to the ne" hitorical ituation%5 1E383 Creative Mar$im i the very oppoite of reviionim% Thi mut #e tree!' #ecaue reviionim uually #e*in #y announcin* that Mar$im mut not #ecome a !o*ma% eviionim mean *oin* #ac."ar! from Mar$im2 in the name of oppoin* !o*ma' it a#an!on Mar$im in favor of the !o*ma of #our*eoi theory% Creative Mar$im preerve an! cherihe the u#tance of the Mar$it materialit theory% Thu talin ai! of ,enin2 @,enin "a' an! remain' the mot loyal an! conitent pupil of Mar$ an! n*el' an! he "holly an! entirely #ae! himelf on the principle of Mar$im% But ,enin !i! not merely carry out the !octrine of Mar$ an! n*el% =e "a alo the continuator 1EH of thee !octrine% %%% =e !evelope! the !octrine of Mar$ an! n*el till further in application to the ne" con!ition of !evelopment%5 1EH81 #riticism and Sel(,#riticism7 a Le$er o( Pro)ress n or!er' then' to mater the metho! of Mar$im-,eninim' the metho! of !ialectic' "e mut ue it an! !evelop it in ue% &n! thi !eman! criticim an! elf-criticim in all phere of theoretical an! practical activity% Criticim an! elf-criticim' "hich #elon* at the very heart of the Mar$it !ialectical metho!' mean that theory an! practice mut al"ay #e matche! up one "ith the other% Theory mut not #e allo"e! to la* #ehin! practiceA theory mut .eep not only level "ith practice #ut in a!vance of it' o a to erve a a true an! relia#le *ui!e% 4ractice mut not #e allo"e! to *rope in the !ar. "ithout the li*ht of theory' nor to #e !itorte! #y "ron* an! anti+uate! theory% &n! thi matchin* up of theory an! practice can only #e achieve! #y contant alertne' #y contant rea!ine to criticihen thi happen' an! "hen' a a reult' thin* !o not turn out a anticipate!' then' if "e are rea!y critically to e$amine "hat ha *one "ron*' "e learn omethin* ne" an! *ro" in tren*th' tature an! e$perience% @>e are a!vancin* in the proce of tru**le' in the proce of the !evelopment of contra!iction' in the proce of overcomin* thee contra!iction' in the proce of #rin*in* thee contra!iction to li*ht an! li+ui!atin* them' ai! talin% @omethin* in life i al"ay !yin*% But that "hich i !yin* refue to !ie +uietlyA it fi*ht for it e$itence' !efen! it mori#un! caue% @omethin* ne" in life i al"ay #ein* #orn% But that "hich i #ein* #orn !oe not come into the "orl! +uietlyA it come in +uealin* an! creamin*' !efen!in* it ri*ht to e$itence% @The tru**le #et"een the ol! an! the ne"' #et"een the !yin* an! the nacentuch i the foun!ation of !evelopment% By failin* openly an! honetly' a #efit Bolhevi.' to point to' to #rin* to li*ht' the !efect an! mita.e in our "or.' "e cloe our roa! to pro*re% But "e "ant to *o for"ar!% &n! preciely #ecaue "e "ant to *o for"ar!' "e mut ma.e honet an! revolutionary elf-criticim of our mot important ta.% >ithout thi there i no pro*re% >ithout thi there i no !evelopment%5 1E781 1- Dialectical Materialism and Science A Scienti(ic 'orld Outloo0 ialectical materialim i a cientific "orl! outloo.% t cientific character i manifete! epecially in that it turn ocialim into a cience an!' #y !evelopin* the cience of ociety' ho" ho" the "hole of cience can #e !evelope! in the ervice of
man.in!% n *eneral' !ialectical materialim i a cientific "orl! outloo. in that it !oe not ee. to eta#lih any philoophy a#ove cience #ut #ae it conception of the "orl! on the !icoverie of the cience% The entire a!vance of the cience i an a!vance of materialim a*aint i!ealimA an! further' cience ho" that our materialit conception of the "orl! mut #e !ialectical% uch *reat pat !icoverie a the la" of the tranformation of ener*y' the ar"inian theory of evolution an! the theory of the cell have !emontrate! the !ialectic of nature% everthele cience in the capitalit "orl! ha entere! into a tate of crii' !ue primarily to (1) the u#/u*ation of cientific reearch to the capitalit monopolie an! to military purpoe' an! (E) the conflict #et"een ne" !icoverie an! ol! i!ealit an! metaphyical i!ea% ialectical materialim i not only a *eneralie !o not #ae our ocialim' a the Ltopian !i!' on a conception of a#tract human nature% The Ltopian "or.e! out cheme for an i!eal ociety' #ut coul! not ho" ho" to achieve ocialim in practice% Mar$im ma!e ocialim into a cience #y #ain* it on an analyi of the actual movement of hitory' of the economic la" of motion of capitalit ociety in particular' thu ho"in* ho" ocialim arie a the neceary ne$t ta*e in the evolution of ociety' an! ho" it can come a#out only #y the "a*in* of the "or.in*-cla tru**le' throu*h the !efeat of the capitalit cla an! the intitution of the !ictatorhip of the proletariat% Thu Mar$im treat man himelf' ociety an! hitory' cientifically% @ocialim' havin* #ecome a cience' !eman! the ame treatment a every other cienceit mut #e tu!ie!% The ta. of the lea!er "ill #e to #rin* un!ertan!in*' thu ac+uire! an! clarifie!' to the "or.in* mae' to prea! it "ith increae! enthuiam' to cloe the ran. of the party or*ani
=o" can "e inure that the !icoverie of cience are put to proper ue for the #enefit of man.in!? t i cientific ocialim' Mar$im-,eninim' alone "hich an"er thi pro#lem% t teache u "hat are the force "hich ma.e hitory an! there#y ho" u ho" "e can ma.e our o"n hitory to!ay' chan*e ociety an! !etermine our o"n future% t teache u' therefore' ho" to !evelop the cience in the ervice of man.in!' ho" to carry them for"ar! in to!ay: crii% 4hyic can teach u ho" to releae atomic ener*y' it cannot teach u ho" to control the ocial ue of that ener*y% ;or thi there i re+uire!' not the cience of the atom' #ut the cience of ociety% Science and Materialism ialectical materialim i in no ene a philoophy a#ove cience%5
Other have et philoophy a#ove cience' in the ene that they have thou*ht they coul! !icover "hat the "orl! "a li.e /ut #y thin.in* a#out it' "ithout relyin* on the !ata of the cience' on practice an! e$perience% &n! then' from thi lofty tan!point' they have trie! to !ictate to the cientit' to tell them "here they "ere "ron*' "hat their !icoverie really meant' an! o on% But Mar$im ma.e an en! of the ol! philoophy "hich claime! to tan! a#ove cience an! to e$plain the "orl! a a "hole%5 @Mo!ern materialim %%% no lon*er nee! any philoophy tan!in* a#ove the cience' "rote n*el% & oon a each eparate cience i re+uire! to *et clarity a to it poition in the *reat totality of thin* an! of our .no"le!*e of thin* a pecial cience !ealin* "ith thi totality i uperfluou%5 1EK81 ialectical materialim' he further "rote2 5 in fact no lon*er a philoophy' #ut a imple "orl! outloo. "hich ha to eta#lih it vali!ity an! #e applie! riot in a cience of cience tan!in* apart' #ut "ithin the poitive cience% % % % 4hiloophy i therefore % % % :#oth overcome an! preerve!:A overcome a re*ar! it form' an! preerve! a re*ar! it real content%5 1EK8E Our picture of the "orl! a#out u' of nature' of natural 1E9 o#/ect an! procee' their interconnection an! la" of motion' i not to #e !erive! from philoophical peculation' #ut from the inveti*ation of the natural cience% The cientific picture of the "orl! an! it !evelopment i not complete' an! never "ill #e% But it ha a!vance! far enou*h for u to realihy? n*el in hi !ay put it e$cellently "hen he ai! that :in or!er to *ain an e$hautive .no"le!*e of "hat life i' "e houl! have to *o throu*h all the form in "hich it appear' from the lo"et to the hi*het%: Cone+uently' in or!er to un!ertan! an! learn "hat protein i' it i alo neceary to *o throu*h all the form of manifetation' from the lo"et to the hi*het% &n! for thi "e nee! e$periment' e$periment an! a*ain e$periment%5 1E981 The *ro"in* picture of the "orl! "hich natural cience unfol! i a materialitic picture!epite the many effort of #our*eoi philoopher to ma.e out the contrary% ;or tep #y tep a cience a!vance it ho" ho" the rich variety of thin* an! procee an! chan*e to #e foun! in the real "orl! can #e e$plaine! an! un!ertoo! in term of material caue' "ithout #rin*in* in Do! or pirit or any upernatural a*ency% very a!vance of cience i an a!vance of materialim a*aint i!ealim' a con+uet for materialimalthou*h "hen !riven out of one poition i!ealim ha al"ay ta.en up another poition an! manifete! itelf a*ain in ne" form' o that in the pat the cience have never #een conitently materialit% ;or every a!vance of cience mean ho"in* the or!er an! !evelopment of the material "orl! from the material "orl! itelf%5 Science and Dialectics & cience ha a!vance!' not only ha thi materialit picture of the "orl! #ecome le ha!o"y' more !efinite an! more convincin*' #ut n*el pointe! out2 >ith each epoch-ma.in* !icovery even in the phere of natural cience materialim ha to chan*e it form%5 13081 The !icoverie of the natural cience over the pat hun!re! year or more have thi i*nificanceAthat the materialit picture "hich they unfol! i a !ialectical one% Thu n*el "rote2 @The revolution "hich i #ein* force! on theoretical natural cience #y the mere nee! to et in or!er the purely empirical !icoverie %%% i of uch a .in! that it mut #rin* the !ialectical character of natural event more an! more to the concioune even of thoe % % % "ho are mot oppoe! to it%5 1308E
@ature i the tet of !ialectic' an! it mut #e ai! for mo!ern natural cience that it ha furnihe! e$tremely rich an! !aily increain* material for thi tet' an! ha thu prove! that in the lat analyi nature: proce i !ialectical%5 13083 Three *reat !icoverie of cience in the nineteenth century a#ove all contri#ute! to thi reult' n*el pointe! out% 1308H Thee "ere2 The !icovery that the cell i the unit from "hoe multiplication an! !iviion the "hole plant or animal #o!y !evelop ( announce! #y ch"ann in 1K39)% The la" of the tranformation of ener*y (announce! #y Mayer in 1KH7)% The ar"inian theory of evolution (announce! in 1K79)% ,et u #riefly coni!er the !ialectical i*nificance of thee !icoverie% ;irt' the tranformation of ener*y% t ue! to #e thou*ht that heat' for e$ample' "a a u#tance' "hich pae! in an! out of #o!ieA an! that electricity' ma*netim an! o on "ere eparate force' actin* on #o!ie% n thi "ay !ifferent type of phyical procee "ere coni!ere! each eparate from the other' in iolation% ach "a place! in a eparate compartment a the manifetation of a eparate u#tance or @force5 an! their eential interconnection "a not un!ertoo!% But cience in the nineteenth century' "ith the principle of the conervation an! tranformation of ener*y' !icovere! that2 mechanical force % % % heat' ra!iation (li*ht or ra!iant heat)' electricity' ma*netim an! chemical ener*y are !ifferent form of manifetation of univeral motion' "hich pa into one another in !efinite proportion o that in place of a certain +uantity of one "hich !iappear a certain +uantity of another ma.e it appearance' an! thu the "hole motion of nature i re!uce! to thi inceant proce of tranformation from one form into another%5 13181 The clue to thi !icovery "a not foun! in any a#tract philoophy' #y any proce of pure thou*ht% o' it "a cloely relate! to the !evelopment of team en*ine an! to the "or.in* out of their principle of operation% n a team en*ine the #urnin* of coal releae heat ener*y' "hich heat up team' "hich i then force! throu*h a cylin!er "here it !rive the piton for"ar! an! turn the "heel of the en*ine% =eat i tranforme! into mechanical motion% >here !i! the ener*y releae! from the coal come from? >e no" .no" that it came from the un: ra!iation' "a tore! up in the plant "hich forme! the coal eam' an! "a finally releae! "hen the coal "a #urne!% & lot of it came from the olar atom in the proce of #uil!in* heavier element from hy!ro*en in the interior of the un% Thi !icovery "a firt formulate! a a conervation la" ener*y cannot #e create! or !etroye!' the +uantity "hich !iappear in one form reappear in another form% But it i fun!amentally' a n*el pointe! out' a tranformation la"one form of motion of matter i tranforme! into another% Thu phyic #ecome a cience of tranformationno lon*er tu!yin* the !ifferent type of phyical procee' or form of motion' each in iolation' #ut tu!yin* their interconnection an! ho" one i tranforme! into another% (Tranformation la" are la" of motion an! interconnection' concernin* the interconnection of the form of motion of matter an! their paa*e one into the otherA they are not la" of the tranformation of +uantity into +uality% Ino"le!*e of the tranformation la" i eential for un!ertan!in* the paa*e from 13E +uantity to +uality in particular cae% ;or e$ample' .no"le!*e of the la" of the tranformation of heat into mechanical motion "ill ho" ho" much heat ener*y mut #e releae! #efore enou*h team-preure i *enerate! to !rive the piton%) The ar"inian theory of evolution i in the ame "ay !ialectical an! materialit% n place of eparate pecie' each create! #y Do!' ar"in ho"e! u a picture of the evolutionary !evelopment of pecie #y mean of natural election% The harp !iviion "ere #ro.en !o"n' it "a ho"n ho" pecie are inter-relate! an! ho" livin* nature i tranforme!% ;or intance' the "immin*-#la!!er of the fih #ecome the lun* of the lan! animal' the cale of the reptile #ecome the feather of the #ir!' an! o on% Cloely relate! to thi "a the !evelopment of *eolo*y' "hich alo #ecame an evolutionary cience' tu!yin* the evolution of the earth: crut% ,atly' the !icovery that the cell "a the unit from "hoe multiplication an! !iviion the "hole plant or animal #o!y
!evelope! replace! the ol!er conception of the #o!y a ma!e up of eparate tiue% The cell theory "a alo a theory of motion an! interconnection' ho"in* ho" all the tiue an! or*an aroe #y !ifferentiation% Thu "e ee ho" natural cience' tep #y tep' unfol! a picture of nature: !ialectic% >hen "e ay a picture' "e mut a!! that it i a picture in the ene that' o far a it *oe' it i a faithful ima*e% But "e !i! not ma.e it #y /ut o#ervin* nature an! "ritin* !o"n "hat "e o#erve!' nor !oe it erve a omethin* "hich "e merely a!mire' an o#/ect of contemplation an! intellectual en/oyment% t i ometime ai! that the eential feature of cience i that it i #ae! on o#ervation% Of coure' cience i #ae! on o#ervationA #ut thi i not it mot eential feature% The #ai of cience i not mere o#ervation' #ut e$periment% cience i #ae! on an activity of interferin* "ith nature' chan*in* it an! "e learn a#out thin*' not /ut #y o#ervin* them' #ut #y chan*in* them% Thu cience "oul! never have foun! out the ecret of the tranformation of heat into mechanical motion olely #y o#ervin* nature% They "ere foun! out a a reult of #uil!in* team en*ineA "e learne! the ecret of the proce in proportion a "e ourelve learne! ho" to repro!uce that proce% or coul! ar"in have "ritten The Ori*in of pecie on the ole #ai of the o#ervation he ma!e on the voya*e of the Bea*le% =e ma!e ue of the practical e$perience an! reult of n*lih animal #ree!er an! plant #ree!er% The cientific picture i #ae!' not /ut on o#ervin* thin*' #ut on chan*in* them% &n! "e tet it' !evelop it an! ue it alo in chan*in* nature% cience i not a !o*ma' #ut a *ui!e to action% On the other han!' if it #ecome !ivorce! from practice' it !e*enerate into a !o*ma% atural cience' then' prove that nature: proce i !ialectical' an! *ive u an ever more concrete' !etaile! picture of the real !ialectical motion an! interconnection in nature%
But' "hile pointin* thi out' n*el alo pointe! to the very *reat confuion "hich e$it in the cience% @The cientit "ho have learne! to thin. !ialectically are till fe" an! far #et"een' an! hence the conflict #et"een the !icoverie ma!e an! the ol! tra!itional mo!e of thou*ht i the e$planation of the #oun!le confuion "hich no" rei*n in theoretical natural cience an! re!uce #oth teacher an! tu!ent' "riter an! rea!er to !epair%5 13381 Thi confuion ha #ecome very much "ore to!ay% n fact' a the *eneral crii of capitalim ha !evelope! an! #ecome more acute' o ha the confuion in cientific theory an! the !itortion of cientific practice !evelope! an! increae! "ith it% cience "hich #y it !icoverie lay #are the true !ialectic of nature i neverthele in a tate of crii in the capitalit "orl!% >hat i the nature of thi crii? t ha a !ou#le nature% n the firt place' cience i an activity of reearch an! !icovery% n capitalit ociety it ha *ro"n enormouly' alon* "ith the other force of pro!uction% cientific reearch can no lon*er #e carrie! out #y in!ivi!ual on their o"n2 it re+uire *reat intitute' vat e+uipment' ela#orate or*ani
Thu cience #ecome more an! more commercialie can an! mut reit the miue of cience here an! no"% But only the a!vance to ocialim can enure the full !evelopment an! ue of cience in the ervice of man.in!% Jut a ocialim mean that the !evelopment of all the force of pro!uction can #e planne! an! or*anie have no" #riefly urveye! the principal feature of the Mar$it materialit conception of the "orl! an! of the Mar$it !ialectical metho!% >hat concluion can "e !ra" at thi ta*e?
(1) The "orl! outloo. of !ialectical materialim i a conitent an! reaone! outloo.' "hich !erive it tren*th from the fact that it arie !irectly from the attempt to olve the outtan!in* pro#lem of our time% The epoch of capitalim i an epoch of tormy !evelopment in ociety% t i mar.e! #y revolutionary a!vance of the force of pro!uction an! of cientific !icovery' an! #y cone+uent uninterrupte! !itur#ance of all ocial con!ition% Thi et one theoretical ta. a#ove all' an! that i to arrive at an a!e+uate conception of the la" of chan*e an! !evelopment in nature an! ociety% To thi theoretical ta. !ialectical materialim a!!ree itelf% (E) Thi i not the ta. of "or.in* out a philoophical ytem' in the ol! ene% >hat i re+uire! i not any ytem of i!ea pun out of the hea! of philoopher' "hich "e can then a!mire an! contemplate a a ytem of a#olute truth%5 Capitalit ociety i a ociety rent "ith contra!iction' an! the more it ha !evelope!' the more menacin* an! intolera#le for the "or.in* people have the cone+uence of thee contra!iction #ecome% The ne" po"er of pro!uction are not utilihat have thee variou chool of philoophy to offer at the preent time? ytem an! ar*ument #y the #uc.etfulnone of them either ori*inal or co*ent' if one ta.e the trou#le to analye mut /u!*e philoophie #y "hether or not they ho" ho" to olve them% By that criterion' the philoophical chool of capitalim mut one an! all #e /u!*e!"ei*he! in the #alance an! foun! "antin*%5 The prevailin* #our*eoi philoophie' "ith all their !ifference' have in common a retreat from the *reat poitive i!ea "hich inpire! pro*reive movement in the pat% True' there remain "ithin the ran. of #our*eoi philoophy thoe "ho continue' accor!in* to their li*ht' tryin* to preerve an! carry for"ar! ome of thee poitve i!ea% ;or they are i!ea "hich cannot #y any manner of mean #e e$tin*uihe!% But the prevailin* philoophie emphaihy i thi? t i #ecaue all thee philoophie are roote! in acceptance of capitalim an! cannot ee #eyon! capitalim% ;rom tart to finih they reflect the inolu#le crii of the capitalit "orl!% &n! their function i to help entan*le the people in a "e# of lie%5 (7) ialectical materialim a. to #e /u!*e! an! "ill #e /u!*e! #y "hether it erve a an effective intrument to ho" the "ay out of capitalit crii an! "ar' to ho" the "ay for the "or.in* people to "in an! "iel! political po"er' to ho" the "ay to #uil! a ocialit ociety in "hich there i no more e$ploitation of man #y man an! in "hich men "in increain* matery over nature% ialectical materialim i a philoophy of practice' in!iolu#ly unite! "ith the practice of the tru**le for ocialim% t i the philoophy #orn out of the *reat movement of our timethe movement of the people "ho la#or' "ho create all the *oo! thin* of life an! fee! an! clothe the "orl!' to rie at lat to their full tature% t i "holly' entirely !e!icate! to the ervice of that movement% Thi i the ource of all it teachin*' an! in that ervice it concluion are continually trie!' tete! an! !evelope!% >ithout uch a philoophy' the movement cannot achieve concioune of itelf an! of it ta.'
cannot achieve unity' cannot "in it #attle% ince the *reatet ta. facin* u i that of en!in* capitalit ociety an! #uil!in* ocialim' it follo" that the chief pro#lem to "hich !ialectical materialim a!!ree itelf' an! on the olution of "hich the "hole philoophy of !ialectical materialim turn' i the pro#lem of un!ertan!in* the force of !evelopment of ociety% The chief pro#lem i to reach uch an un!ertan!in* of ociety' of men: ocial activity an! of the !evelopment of human concioune' a "ill ho" u ho" to achieve an! #uil! the ne" ocialit ociety an! the ne" ocialit concioune% The materialit conception an! !ialectical metho! "ith "hich "e have #een concerne! in thi volume are applie! to thi ta. in the materialit conception of hitory% 8i;lio)ra"h! >e mention here only "or. #y Mar$' n*el' ,enin' an! talin in "hich the *eneral un!erlyin* principle of !ialectical materialim are e$poun!e! an! !evelope!% The #et *eneral intro!uction i containe! in n*el: ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific an! in talin: &narchim or ocialim? &fter thee it i neceary to tu!y the Communit Manifeto' #y Mar$ an! n*el% t i a!via#le to #ecome ac+uainte! "ith thee three "or. #efore tu!yin* the t"o hort #oo. in "hich the #aic i!ea of !ialectical materialim are #rou*ht to*ether an! ummarior.' Vol% 11)% The creative' !evelopin* character of Mar$im' an! the role of hitory in the "or.in*-cla movement are !ealt "ith in the @Concluion5 of talin: =itory of the Communit 4arty of the oviet Lnion% The eential !ifference #et"een materialim an! i!ealim' #et"een !ialectical an! mechanitic materialim' an! #et"een the Mar$it an! =e*elian !ialectic i to #e foun! in n*el: ,u!"i* ;euer#ach' "ith it appen!i$' Mar$: leven Thee on ;euer#ach%5 &lon* "ith thi thi "e "e may !ra" !ra" attention attention to n*el: n*el: @ntro!uc @ntro!uction5 tion5 to ialectic ialectic of of ature' ature' an! to ,enin: ,enin: The The &ttitu!e &ttitu!e of the >or.er: 4arty to"ar! eli*ion (electe! >or.' Vol% 11)% Of fun!amental importance then are three lon*er an! more !ifficult "or.2 n*el: &nti-uehrin*' epecially 4art A n*el: ialectic of atureA ,enin: Materialim an! mipirio-Criticim% & part part of ,enin: ,enin: 4hiloo 4hiloophical phical ote#oo. ote#oo. i tranlate! tranlate! into into n*lih n*lih un!er un!er the title On ialectic ialecticA A an! he !eal "ith the the fi*ht fi*ht for materialim in On the i*nificance of Militant Materialim (#oth in electe! >or.' Vol% 11)% mportant tatement ummarior.' Vol% E)' an! Once &*ain on the Tra!e Lnion' ection on ialectic an! clecticim (electe! >or.' Vol% 9)% ee alo ,enin: >hat the :;rien! of the 4eople: &re an! =o" They ;i*ht for the ocial emocrat (electe! >or.' Vol% 11)' "hich i concerne! mainly "ith hitorical materialim' the u#/ect of the ne$t volume% WWWWWWWWWWWWWW WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW WWWWWWWWWWWWWWW WWWWWWWWWWWWWW WWWWWWWWWWW WWWW
Dialectical Materialism: An Introduction +olume Two o( the -,$olume .istorical Materialism 8! Maurice #orn(orth B 1?2 PREFA#E TO T.E SE#OND EDITION Thi volume ha #een o much revie! an! chan*e! in thi ne" e!ition a to #e virtually a ne" #oo.% Thee e$tenive
chan*e have #een ma!e in the attempt to era!icate any .in! of !o*matim' an! to #rin* theory into cloer accor! "ith practice an! "ith the actual coure of event% The econ! chapter i in part #ae! on an article on Mar$im a cience "hich appeare! in Mar$im To!ay' &pril' 1960% M% C% ,on!on' May' 196E #ha"ter One S#IENTIFI# SO#IALISM #a"italism and Socialism The i!ea of ocialim aroe an! *rippe! men: min! in mo!ern ociety #ecaue of !icontent "ith the evil of capitalim' an! the perception that only #y a ra!ical tranformation of the entire economic #ai of ociety coul! thee evil #e !one a"ay "ith% n capitalit ociety the mean of pro!uctionthe lan!' factorie' mill' mine' tranport#elon* to the capitalit' an! pro!uction i carrie! on for capitalit profit% But the eence of ocialim i that the mean of pro!uction #ecome ocial property' an! that' on the #ai of ocial o"nerhip' pro!uction i carrie! on for the #enefit of the "hole of ociety% ;rom it very #e*innin*' capitalim meant a previouly un!reame! of increae in the po"er of pro!ucin* "ealth% But thi "ealth "ent to "ell the profit of a fe"' "hile the ma of the "or.in* people "ere con!emne! to toil an! poverty% To ue the ne" po"er of pro!ucin* "ealth' not to enrich a fe" #ut to enrich the "hole of ociety' i the aim of ocialim% Dreat ne" pro!uctive force have #een create! in mo!ern ociety a "itne the !icoverie of cience an! the *ro"th of in!utry% But it #ecome ever more evi!ent that the capitalit o"ner an! mana*er cannot !irect the !evelopment an! ue of thee force for the #enefit of the ma/ority of the people% To!ay the mean e$it' in mo!ern techni+ue an! cience' to fee! an! clothe the "hole "orl!A to provi!e e!ucation' culture' opportunity for everyoneA to provi!e all "ith a hi*h tan!ar! of livin*% f all the !icoverie at our !ipoal "ere K ue!' an! if upplie "ere !irecte! "here they are mot nee!e!' thi coul! un!ou#te!ly #e !one% uclear ener*y can provi!e almot unlimite! po"er' automation can li*hten la#our an! turn out *oo! in profuion' me!ical cience can relieve or tamp out !ieae' the #iolo*ical an! a*ricultural cience can enure enou*h foo! for a #i**er population than the "orl! at preent upport% ntea!' reource #oth human an! technical remain unemploye!% ;or if all thi "ere !one' "here "oul! #e the profit for the *reat capitalit monopolie ? Meantime' "hile people till uffer an! !ie from horta*e' vat reource are +uan!ere! on "eapon of !etruction% 4eople have even come to fear ne" .no"le!*e an! hi*her techni+ue' #ecaue they fear that the reult of hi*her techni+ue may only #e crii an! unemployment' an! that the reult of more .no"le!*e may only #e the invention of even more fearful "eapon of !etruction% The profit ytem ha converte! men: hi*het achievement into threat to their livelihoo! an! very e$itence% Thi i the final i*n that that ytem ha outlive! it time an! mut #e replace! #y another% ocialim mean that the vat reource of mo!ern techni+ue are !evelope! an! ue! to meet the nee! of the people% 4ro!uction i not carrie! on for profit #ut to atify the material an! cultural re+uirement of ociety% &n! thi i enure! #ecaue the mean of pro!uction' all the mean of creatin* "ealth' are ta.en out of the control of a capitalit minority' "hoe concern i it o"n profit' an! come un!er the control of the "or.in* people themelve% Socialist Theor! and the 'or0in),#lass Mo$ement But in or!er to achieve ocialim' "e nee! omethin* more than a *eneral i!ea of ocialim a a #etter or!er of ociety than capitalim% >e nee! to un!ertan! "hat ocial force mut #e or*anie! an! "hat opponent they "ill have to !efeat% The firt conception of ocialim "ere Ltopian% The firt ocialit ha! the viion of a #etter or!er of ociety' *ave it form an! colour' an! proclaime! it far an! "i!e% But it remaine! merely a viion% They coul! not ay ho" to realie it in practice% The Ltopian criticie! the capitalit or!er of ociety a unreaona#le an! un/ut% ;or them' ocialim "a #ae! imply on reaon an! /uticeA an! #ecaue they coni!ere! that the li*ht of reaon #elon*e! e+ually to all men' they appeale! to everyonean! firt of all to the ruler of ociety' a #ein* the #et e!ucate! an! mot influentialto em#race the truth of ocialim an! put it into practice% They contri#ute! the firt e$poure an! con!emnation of capitalim' an! the firt viion of ocialima ociety #ae! on common o"nerhip of the mean of pro!uctiona the alternative' to capitalim% But thi viion "a pun out of the ha! of reformer% The Ltopian coul! not ho" the "ay to achieve ocialim' #ecaue they ha! no conception of the la" of
ocial chan*e an! coul! not point to the real ocial force capa#le of creatin* a ne" ociety% That force i the "or.in* cla% The capitalit cla i #oun! to reit ocialim' #ecaue the en! of the profit ytem mean the en! of the capitalit cla% ;or the "or.in* cla' on the other han!' ocialim mean it emancipation from e$ploitation% ocialim mean the en! of poverty an! inecurity% t mean that "or.er "or. for themelve an! not for the profit of other% The achievement of ocialim !epen! on the mo#iliation of the "or.in* cla in the fi*ht for ocialim' an! on it overpo"erin* the reitance of the capitalit cla% &n! in thi tru**le the "or.in* cla mut ee. to unite "ith itelf all thoe ectionan! to*ether they contitute the ma/ority of ociety"ho in one "ay or another are fleece! #y the *ree! for profit of the rulin* capitalit minority% But more than that% f ocialim i to #e "on' if "or.in*cla emancipation from capitalim i to #e achieve!' then the "or.in*-cla movement mut #ecome conciou of it ocialit aim% But thi concioune !oe not pontaneouly arie of itelf% t re+uire the cientific "or.in* out of ocialit theory' the intro!uction of thi theory into the "or.in*-cla movement' an! the fi*ht for it ini!e that movement% The very con!ition of life of the "or.er lea! them to com#ine to !efen! their tan!ar! of life from capitalit 10 attac.' an! to improve them% But the tra!e union tru**le to !efen! an! improve "or.in*-cla tan!ar! !oe not *et ri! of capitalim% On the contrary' o lon* a "or.in*-cla tru**le i limite! to uch purely economic aim' it utmot tretch i to *ain conceion from capitalim "hile continuin* to accept the e$itence of the ytem% &n! the movement can pa #eyon! thi phae of fi*htin* for no more than reform "ithin capitalim only "hen it e+uip itelf "ith ocialit theory% Only then can it #ecome conciou of it lon*-term aim of *ettin* ri! of capitalim alto*ether' an! "or. out the trate*y an! tactic of the cla tru**le for achievin* thi aim% n the hitory of the "or.in*-cla movement there have #een many lea!er concerne! "ith nothin* #eyon! "innin* conceion from capitalim% They have in effect ou*ht merely temporary *ain for !ifferent ection of the "or.in* cla at the e$pene of the lon*-term interet of the "hole cla% Thi i .no"n a @opportunim5% &n! the root of opportunim in the "or.in*-cla movement conit in acceptin* the pontaneou tru**le for conceion an! reform a the #e-all an! en!all of the movement% f ocialim i uR #e achieve!' the "or.in*-cla movement mut not rely only on the pontaneou !evelopment of the ma tru**le for #etter con!ition% t mut e+uip itelf "ith ocialit theory' "ith the cientific un!ertan!in* of capitalim an! of the poition of the !ifferent clae un!er capitalim' "ith the cientific un!ertan!in* that emancipation can #e achieve! only #y unitin* all force for the overthro" of capitalim an! the eta#lihment of ocialim% >ithout the *ui!in* an! or*aniin* force of cientific ocialit theory' the "or.in* cla cannot "in victory over capitalim% The union of ocialit theory "ith the ma "or.in*-cla movement i a con!ition for the a!vance from capitalim to ocialim% The Mar3ist Science o( Societ! The *reat contri#ution of Mar$im "a to !evelop cientific ocialit theory an! to intro!uce it into the "or.in*-cla movement% Mar$ an! n*el #ae! ocialim on a cientific un!ertan!in* of the la" of !evelopment of ociety an! of the cla tru**le% &n! o they "ere a#le to ho" ho" ocialim coul! #e "on' an! to arm the "or.in* cla "ith .no"le!*e of it hitorical miion% Mar$ !i! not arrive at hi concluion a a pure reearch "or.er' thou*h he !i! con!uct profoun! reearch% n the iKHo: Mar$ "a en*a*e! a a revolutionary repu#lican an! !emocrat in the movement "hich le! up to the revolutionary year 1KHK% &n! he arrive! at hi concluion a an active politician' trivin* to un!ertan! the movement in "hich he participate! in or!er to help *ui!e it to the *oal of the people: emancipation from oppreion' upertition an! e$ploitation% Thee concluion "ere formulate! in The Manifeto of the Communit 4arty "hich Mar$ "rote' in colla#oration "ith n*el' in 1KHK% They a" the "hole ocial movement a a tru**le #et"een claeA they a" the conten!in* clae themelve a pro!uct of the economic !evelopment of ocietyA they a" politic a the reflection of the economic movement an! of the cla tru**leA they a" that the #our*eoi revolution then in pro*re' the ta. of "hich "a to remove the veti*e of feu!al rule an! eta#lih !emocracy' "a preparin* the "ay for the proletarian' ocialit revolutionA an! they a" that thi revolution coul! only #e conummate! #y the "or.in* cla con+uerin* political po"er%
t "a only #ecaue they epoue! the caue of the "or.in* cla an! a" in it the ne"' riin*' revolutioniin* force in hitory' that Mar$ an! n*el "ere a#le to !icover the la" of ocial chan*e' "hich thoe "ho a!opte! the tan!point of the e$ploitin* clae coul! never !o% @Certain hitorical fact occurre! "hich le! to a !eciive chan*e in the conception of hitory' "rote n*el in ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific% n 1K31 the firt "or.in*-cla riin* ha! ta.en place at ,yonA #et"een 1K3K an! 1KHK the firt national "or.er: movement' that of the n*lih Chartit' reache! it hei*ht% The cla tru**le #et"een proletariat an! #our*eoiie came to the front% % % % But the ol! i!ealit 1E conception of hitory % % % .ne" nothin* of cla tru**le #ae! on material interet' in fact .ne" nothin* at all of material interet% % % % The ne" fact ma!e imperative a ne" e$amination of all pat hitory%5 ;rom thi ne" ituation' n*el continue!' it #ecame clear2 that all pat hitory "a the hitory of cla tru**leA that thee "arrin* clae are al"ay the pro!uct of con!ition of pro!uction an! e$chan*e' in a "or!' of the economic con!ition of their timeA that therefore the economic tructure of ociety al"ay form the real #ai from "hich' in the lat analyi' i al"ay to #e e$plaine! the "hole upertructure of le*al an! political intitution' a "ell a of the reli*iou' philoophical an! other conception of each hitorical perio!%5 ;rom the reco*nition of the i*nificance of the cla tru**le in capitalit ociety came the realiation that the cla tru**le "a li.e"ie "a*e! in previou epoch an! that' in fact' the "hole of pat hitory ince the #rea.-up of the primitive commune "a the hitory of cla tru**le% But on "hat "a the cla tru**le #ae!? On the clah of the material interet of the !ifferent clae% ealiin* thi' the .ey to hitorical !evelopment a a "hole ha! to #e ou*ht in the phere of thee material interet% The !ifferent clae "ith their !ifferent interet "ere een to #e the pro!uct of the con!ition of pro!uction an! e$chan*e' of the economic con!ition prevailin* in ociety% Mar$' in >a*e-,a#our an! Capital' pointe! out that in pro!uction men not only act on nature #ut alo on one another% They pro!uce only #y co-operatin* in a certain "ay an! mutually e$chan*in* their activitie% n or!er to pro!uce' they enter into !efinite connection an! relation "ith one another' an! only "ithin thee ocial connection an! relation !oe their action on nature' !oe pro!uction' ta.e place%5 Mar$ an! n*el !icovere! the .ey to un!ertan!in* the "hole !evelopment of ociety in the inveti*ation of thee pro!uction relation' i%e%' the economic con!ition of pro!uction an! e$chan*e' an! of the tru**le #et"een clae pro!uce! #y thee economic con!ition% Thu un!ertan!in* the la" of hitorical !evelopment' 13 Mar$ an! n*el ho"e! that ocialim "a not a Ltopian !ream #ut the neceary outcome of the !evelopment of capitalit ociety an! of the "or.in*-cla tru**le a*aint capitalim% They tau*ht the "or.in* cla to #e conciou of it o"n tren*th an! of it o"n cla interet' an! to unite for a !etermine! tru**le a*aint the capitalit cla' rallyin* aroun! itelf all the force !icontente! "ith capitalim% They ho"e! that it "a impoi#le to *et ri! of capitalim an! eta#lih ocialim unle the "or.in* cla "on political po"er' !eprive! the capitalit cla of all po"er an! tampe! out it reitance% &n! they ho"e! that in or!er to emer*e from the ol! "orl! an! create a ne"' clale ociety' the "or.in* cla mut have it o"n party' "hich they calle! the Communit 4arty% #ha"ter Two MATERIALISM AND T.E S#IEN#E OF SO#IETC The Materialist #once"tion o( .istor! The *eneral theory of the motive force an! la" of ocial chan*e' !evelope! on the #ai of Mar$: !icoverie' i .no"n a the materialit conception of hitory' or hitorical materialim% t "a arrive! at #y applyin* the materialit "orl! outloo. to the olution of ocial pro#lem% &n! #ecaue he ma!e thi application' materialim "a "ith Mar$ no lon*er imply a theory aime! at interpretin* the "orl!' #ut a *ui!e to the practice of chan*in* the "orl!' of #uil!in* a ociety "ithout e$ploitation of man #y man% &#ove all' hitorical materialim ha a contemporary i*nificance% t i applica#le here an! no"% t lea! to concluion not only a#out the caue of pat event #ut a#out the caue of event no" ta.in* place' an! therefore a#out "hat to !o' a#out "hat policy to fi*ht for' in or!er to atify the real nee! of the people% >hen mo!ern in!utry "a create! there "ere create! the mean to pro!uce enou*h to atify fully the nee! of every
human #ein*' an! therefore to realie the a*e-ol! !ream of univeral plenty% The mean e$it to !o itA an! the materialit conception of hitory' #y e$plainin* ho" ocial relation chan*e an! ho" mo!ern in!utry came a#out' ho" ho" it can #e !one% t i preciely in thi contemporary application that hitorical materialim !emontrate it cientific character% ;or the final tet of ocial cience' a of all other cience' i in it practical application% f hitorical materialim ma.e hitory 17 into a cience' thi i #ecaue it i not only a theory a#out ho" to interpret hitory #ut alo a theory a#out ho" to ma.e hitory' an! therefore the #ai for the practical policy of the revolutionary cla "hich i ma.in* hitory to!ay% Social Relations and the Laws o( Social De$elo"ment Materialim mean e$plainin* "hat ta.e place in the material "orl! from the material "orl! itelf% The materialit approach to e$plainin* procee of nature mean inveti*atin* thoe procee themelve in or!er to !icover their la" of operation% &n! #ecaue human affair are part of the material "orl!' the materialit approach to e$plainin* ocial event mean li.e"ie inveti*atin* ocial procee in or!er to !icover their la" of operation% uch inveti*ation mut #e empirical an! cientific% t i not a +uetion of !e!ucin* anythin* a#out ociety from the *eneral philoophical principle of materialim' #ut of applyin* the normal metho! of ciencethe framin* an! tetin* of theorie or hypotheeto the tu!y of ociety% Thi i the foun!ation on "hich the theory of hitorical materialim ret% & n*el put it in hi peech at Mar$: *ravei!e2 Jut a ar"in !icovere! the la" of !evelopment of or*anic nature' o Mar$ !icovere! the la" of !evelopment of human hitory% t i a !icovery of cience' ma!e an! verifie! #y applyin* cientific metho! !ifferin* not at all from thoe applie! "ith e+ual ucce in other #ranche of cience% n the openin* pa*e of The Derman !eolo*y Mar$ an! n*el remar.e! that the firt premie of all human hitory i the e$itence of livin* human in!ivi!ual% Thu the firt fact to #e eta#lihe! i the phyical or*aniation of thee in!ivi!ual an! their cone+uent relation to the ret of nature% But the u#/ect matter of ocial cience i not the phyiolo*y an! pycholo*y of human in!ivi!ual' their in!ivi!ual activitie an! reaction% That i ta.en for *rante!% =uman in!ivi!ual create an! utain ociety an! the typical pro!uct of ociety #y enterin* into ocial relation "ith one anotherA an! it i thee ocial relation "hich are the u#/ect matter of ocial cience% n the lat analyi' "hen "e ay that certain ocial relation 16 have #een forme! an! certain ocial phenomena pro!uce!' "e are referrin* to "hat num#er of unpecifie! human in!ivi!ual !o in aociation% ;or intance' if "e pea. of commo!ity pro!uction "e are referrin* to ho" they or*anie their pro!uctive activity an! !itri#ute it pro!uctA if "e ay that a certain i!ea ha arien' "e are referrin* to ho" they pea. an! actA if "e ay that certain intitution have #een et up' "e are referrin* to ho" they re*ulate their affair% ocial cience a#tract from the in!ivi!ual an! !eal "ith the ocial relation% t i not concerne! "ith in!ivi!ual #ut "ith a**re*ate humanity% Of coure' ome in!ivi!ual !o occupy a pecial in!ivi!ual poition "ithin ocial relation% ;or many ocial relation !epen! on placin* in!ivi!ual in pecial poition.in*' chairmen of #oar!' prei!ent' pope an! arch#ihop' lea!er of movement' an! o on% The in!ivi!ual !eciion an! action of thoe in!ivi!ual may have "i!e ocial repercuion% The character an! e$tent of thee mut !epen!' ho"ever' upon the ocial relation "ithin "hich they are actin*% The .ey pro#lem "hich ocial cience ha to unravel are not pro#lem of the action an! motivation of in!ivi!ual #ut pro#lem of the inter!epen!ence of ocial relation% ocial relation chan*e an! !evelop% The pro#lem of ho" uch chan*e an! !evelopment i #rou*ht a#out an! of the la" "hich *overn itthe main pro#lem of the cientific un!ertan!in* of ociety an! it hitoryi the pro#lem of analyin* an! ortin* out the inter!epen!ence of ocial relation% >hat are calle! @la"5 re*ulatin* ociety an! it !evelopment are imply *eneralie! tatement of uch inter!epen!ence% ;or intance' "hat i the famou la" of upply an! !eman! in economic #ut a tatement of the !epen!ence of the term of ale upon the relation of eller an! #uyer ? The eller #rin* certain *oo! to mar.et an! the #uyer come there "ith certain re+uirement an! mean of payin*2 that i a ocial relation #et"een people a eller an! #uyer% >hen the ale i effecte! an! money chan*e han!' that i alo a ocial relation% The la" of upply an! !eman! tate the !epen!ence of the latter relationhip on the former% t i 1 entirely an! e$cluively concerne! "ith the inter!epen!ence of certain ocial relation% o one "oul! !eny that ome ocial relation are re*ulate! #y la"% n particular' "hen pro!uct are pro!uce! a commo!itie economic la" are !icovera#le re*ulatin* their pro!uction an! e$chan*e% But it ha #een an! till i trenuouly !enie! that there are invaria#le la" of ocial !evelopment operatin* throu*hout human hitory' in term of "hich "e can e$plain ho" an! "hy ocial !evelopment in *eneral ta.e place% n upport of thi !enial it i ar*ue! that #ecaue each event in human hitory i uni+ue' an! e$actly the ame circumtance are never repeate!' therefore there i no #ai for the !icovery of invaria#le la" *overnin* ocial chan*e% >e can pea.' for intance' of the la" of mechanic *overnin* the motion of #o!ie' #ecaue the ame mechanical
interaction i repeate! over an! over a*ainA #ut not o "ith the event of human hitory% Thi ar*ument ret on an o#viou confuion% Of coure every event' "hether in nature or ociety' i uni+ue% But in ociety' a in nature' the ame .in! of eventfor intance' a revolutioni often repeate!A an! variant of the ame ocial relation are repeate! over an! over a*ain% &ll the con!ition are preent' therefore' for the !icovery of la"% epite all the manifol! chan*e of ociety there are certain *eneral relation "hich are al"ay preent in varyin* form' #ecaue thee are #aic relation "ithout "hich no ociety at all can e$itA an! from the tu!y of uch relation *eneral la" al"ay applica#le to the !evelopment of any ociety emer*e% The Foundations o( Social Science t i evi!ent that ocial relation cannot' li.e many relation in nature' #e tu!ie! e$perimentally% The ocial cientit cannot et up ocial relation e$perimentally in or!er to !icover ho" they operateA nor can he e$perimentally eparate ome ocial relation from other' for purpoe of tu!y% =e i himelf a mem#er of ociety' an! ha to ta.e it a he fin! it' in all it #afflin* comple$ity% Mar$ remar.e! on thi !ifficulty in the 1K 4reface to Capital' "here he contrate! the inveti*ation of ocial chan*e "ith that of' ay' chemical chan*e% n ocial analyi' he "rote' neither microcope nor chemical rea*ent are of ue% The force of a#traction mut replace #oth% That i to ay' "here it i not poi#le to eparate certain relation e$perimentally' they mut #e eparate! in the min! of the inveti*ator% Mar$: !icovery of the fun!amental la" of ocial !evelopment "a reache! #y a.in* "hether any relation can #e !itin*uihe! "hich mut al"ay #e preent in any form of ociety' #ecaue they are the con!ition for any form of ocial life "hatever% Once uch relation are a#tracte!' then hypothee can #e put for"ar! a#out their inter!epen!encie an! thee can #e chec.e! a*aint the actual ocial recor!% The "hole !evelopment of ociety i then e$plaine! a re*ulate! #y the la" of inter!epen!ence o formulate!% uch "a Mar$: metho!% >hen the .ey +uetion i a.e! the an"er #ecome tri.in*ly o#viou% The neceary con!ition for any ociety i that men houl! aociate to pro!uce their material mean of u#itence% >ithout thi collective action of men on nature there i no human life' it contitute the very eential of the human mo!e of life% The proce of ocial pro!uction i' therefore' the primary proce of all ocial life% t i @primary5 in thi precie ene2 that ocial life #e*in "ith it' that it i preent continuouly throu*hout all ocial life' an! that no other ocial activity or ocial relation can occur unle thi primary activity' thi primary ocial relation' utain it% ;rom thi #e*innin*' Mar$ "ent on to frame a *eneral hypothei' conitin* of everal interconnecte! propoition' "hich to*ether may #e ai! to contitute a *eneral la" of ocial !evelopment% The theory "ill #e tate! here only in #aret outlineA it "ill #e revie"e! in more !etail' an! it more important cone+uence !icue!' in the enuin* chapter% (i) n or!er to carry on pro!uction people mut enter into relation of pro!uction% Thee are concerne! "ith property in mean of pro!uction' an! "ith the mo!e of !itri#ution of the pro!uct' an! in their totality they !efine the economic 19 tructure of ociety% (E) 4eople enter into relation of pro!uction' an! o aociate in an economic or*aniation' in!epen!ent of any conciou !eciion #ut correpon!in* to the character of their pro!uctive force% That i to ay' people "ho !epen! for their u#itence on certain pro!uction techni+ue evolve property relationan! eventually cla relationappropriate to thoe techni+ue% ;or intance' a primitive huntin* tri#e "ill live the ocial life of primitive communim% >hen animal are !ometicate!' the her! "ill ten! to #ecome the property of particular familie "ithin the community% >hen po"er-!riven machinery i firt intro!uce!' it i a the property of capitalit "ho employ "a*e-la#our% &n! o on% (3) ocial intitution' an! "ith them prevailin* ytem of i!ea' "ill then arie correpon!in* to the economic tructure of ociety% They "ill #e uch a to erve the carryin* on of the prevailin* mo!e of pro!uction% ;or intance' a primitive tri#e coul! har!ly poe a le*ilative aem#ly' or a tan!in* army an! police force' or univeritieA on the other han!' uch intitution are re+uire! for carryin* on a mo!ern capitalit ociety% Only "hen a certain economic #ai e$it !o uch intitution' "ith their correpon!in* i!eolo*ie' arie% Thee three propoition ma.e up the .ey to e$plainin* ho" ocial !evelopment procee! an! ho" the variou hitorical feature of ociety arie an! chan*e% Correpon!in* to certain force of pro!uction certain relation of pro!uction come into #ein*% >ithin thee pro!uction relation ne" force of pro!uction eventually !evelop% Then the ituation arie "hen' in Mar$: "or!' the ol! pro!uction relation #e*in to act a @fetter5 upon the further !evelopment of pro!uction% The relation of pro!uction have then to #e chan*e!' an! the "hole @upertructure5 of i!ea an! intitution i chan*e! "ith them% The theory thu potulate a la" of inter!epen!ence #et"een pro!uction' the relation of pro!uction' an! the ocial upertructure of intitution an! i!ea% &n! it i a hypothei "hich can #e chec.e! a*aint the .no"n fact an! i verifie! #y them% n!ee!' it i har! to ima*ine ho" anythin* !ifferent E0 coul! arie in ociety% Coul! pro!uction relation arie "hich
"ere inappropriate to the *iven force of pro!uction? Or "hen they #ecome fetter on pro!uction' "oul! it #e poi#le to avoi! a tru**le for ne" pro!uction relation ? &*ain' coul! a ociety urvive' the intitution of "hich faile! to erve it #aic economic procee? Coul! uch intitution poi#ly #e forme!? &n! "hen uch intitution *ro" outmo!e!' "oul! it #e poi#le to avoi! a tru**le to chan*e them? f "e a. uch +uetion a thee the la" formulate! #y Mar$ #e*in to have the ame o#viou an! compellin* loo. a' for intance' the la" of thermo!ynamic% One mi*ht a "ell a. "hether a phyical ytem coul! create ener*y from nothin*% f an en*ine "ere #uilt "hich ran "ithout fuel' or coul! !o more "or. "ithout more fuel' that "oul! falify the la" of thermo!ynamic% &n! if a ociety "ere create! "hich .ept *oin* "ithout pro!uction' or in "hich economic tructure "a not a!apte! to pro!uction an! ocial upertructure to economic #ai' that "oul! falify hitorical materialim% But there i no uch en*ine' an! no uch ociety% uch fun!amental la" of cience are al"ay verifie! #y all the relevant fact' an! no intance "hich "oul! falify them are ever to #e foun!% =itorical materialim upplie a foun!ation for ocial cience in much the ame "ay a the theory of evolution #y natural election upplie a foun!ation for #iolo*ical cience% >hatever pecie may #e coni!ere!' it evolve! #y natural election an! that con!ition it entire character% imilarly' "hatever ociety may #e coni!ere!' it came to #e "hat it i #y a!aptation of pro!uction relation to pro!uction' an! of i!ea an! intitution to pro!uction relation% n!ee!' ar"in arrive! at the theory of natural election #y very much the ame metho! of a#traction a Mar$more or le imultaneoulyemploye! in the theory of hitorical materialim% ar"in: theory *re" from the fun!amental coni!eration that every pecie live #y a!aptation to an environment' /ut a Mar$: theory *re" from the coni!eration that every ociety live #y a mo!e of pro!uction% But thi ame type of a#traction i employe! in all fun!amental cientific theory% e"ton' for e$ample' employe! it in arrivin* at hi E1 formulation of the la" of motion2 the con!ition of e$itence of any #o!y at any intant i that it ha a certain motion of it o"n an! i acte! on #y e$ternal force% Mar$ employe! it a econ! time in hi pecial inveti*ation' in Capital' of commo!ity pro!uction% =e #e*an that inveti*ation "ith the coni!eration that the one thin* all commo!itie have in common i that they are pro!uct of human la#our' an! that therefore "hat people are !oin* "hen they e$chan*e commo!itie i to e$chan*e the pro!uct of !efinite +uantitie of ociallyneceary la#our-time%
9eneral Laws and Particular E$ents &ll fun!amental cientific theory i very *eneral in character an!' cone+uently' very fle$i#le% t can ho" the ame *eneral connection hol!in* in circumtance o "i!ely !ifferent that there appear to #e no uch connection% t can e$plain the operation of a lar*e variety of particular caue' an! reco*nie in particular intance the operation of particular caue "hich coul! not have #een forecat in term of the *eneral la" alone% =itorical materialim hare thi #rea!th an! fle$i#ility% Jut a ar"inim can account for many o!! feature of pecie in term of particular caue operatin* "ithin the *eneral proce of natural election' o Mar$im can account for the mot varie! ocial phenomena in term of particular caue operatin* "ithin the *eneral proce of a!aptation of relation of pro!uction to pro!uction% t i no o#/ection to the theory to ay that it i incapa#le of pre!ictin* uch particular caue% The point i that it i capa#le of e$plainin* them an! their effect "ithin the *eneral proce of ocial evolution% ;or e$ample' in the !evelopment of n*lih ociety un!er the Tu!or it o happene! that a particular +uarrel aroe #et"een =enry V an! the 4ope' #ecaue =enry "ante! to !ivorce hi "ife an! the 4ope refue! permiion% =enry #ro.e "ith the 4ope' an! thi *ave him an e$cue to conficate the Church lan! an! !ivi!e them amon*t hi croniean action "hich ha! very far-reachin* economic an! political cone+uence% There i no la" of ocial !evelopment in accor!ance "ith "hich =enry "a #oun! to #ecome !iatifie! "ith hi EE "ife an! +uarrel "ith the 4ope a#out it% On the contrary' thee particular event "hich ha! uch lar*e effect aroe from particular caue "hich coul! not #e !e!uce! from any *eneral la" an! "ere relatively acci!ental% But the fact that =enry "a a#le to ta.e a!vanta*e of thee event' that he coul! *et a"ay "ith the confication of Church lan!' an! that thee action #rou*ht a#out chan*e "ithin cla relation all that i e$plica#le only throu*h the contra!ictory ocial relation "hich ha! come into #ein* at that particular perio!% Moreover' in other place "here imilar ocial contra!iction e$ite! imilar economic an! political chan*e "ere effecte!% Other uropean monarch' "ho ha! no trou#le "ith their "ive' "ere ma.in* the ame #rea. "ith the Church an! it intitution' a a reult of the ame !eep-eate! an! *eneral caue' thou*h the in!ivi!ual circumtance an! caue varie! *reatly in !ifferent cae% The la" "hich re*ulate the !evelopment of ocial relation operate throu*h the relatively acci!ental circumtance an! action of the in!ivi!ual "ho live "ithin thoe ocial relation% But the la" are not ome .in! of @fate5 e$ternally impoe! upon human in!ivi!ual% t i the very life-proce of the in!ivi!ualthe fact that they are human"hich lea! to their enterin* into relation "hich e$hi#it thoe la"% Jut a the attraction an! repulion of the element of a phyical ytem lea! to their enterin* into variou com#ination' o the !epen!ence of human in!ivi!ual one upon another' an! of all on their /oint action on nature' lea! to their enterin* into ocial relation an! to the !evelopment of thoe ocial relation% Thu human ociety !evelop throu*h a ucceion of relatively acci!ental event' all of "hich can #e trace! to their particular caue an! have their particular effect' an! "hich in their totality preent a la"-*overne! proce of the !evelopment of ocial relation% .uman Intentions and O;ecti$e Law ociety conit of human #ein*' an! there i therefore an eential !itinction #et"een ocial procee an! natural procee% n nature there are only #lin!' unconciou E3 a*encie actin* upon one another' "rote n*el in ,u!"i* ;euer#ach (chap% H)% n the hitory of ociety' on the other han!' the actor are all en!o"e! "ith concioune' are men actin* "ith !eli#eration or paion' "or.in* to"ar! !efinite *oalA nothin* happen "ithout a conciou purpoe' "ithout an inten!e! aim%5 ocial effect are #rou*ht a#out #y the conciou' intentional activity of human #ein*' "ho chooe "hat they "ill !o% &n! thi circumtance ha ometime #een hel! to #e incompati#le "ith the vie" that ocial !evelopment i re*ulate! #y o#/ective la"% f' it i ar*ue!' ocial !evelopment !epen! upon human intelli*ence' choice an! "ill' it cannot #e re*ulate! #y la"% et the concluion !oe not follo"% ;or the fact that people chan*e their ocial relation #y their o"n voluntary action !oe not imply that in thee chan*e there are no *eneral la" of the inter!epen!ence of ocial relation% On the contrary' "henever people enter into certain relation thi fact influence other of their relationA "ithin the totality of chan*in* ocial relation there are la" of inter!epen!ence' an! people cannot eta#lih or chan*e their relation /ut a they li.e% >hen "e coni!er people: !eire an! intention' in their ocial conte$t' "e houl! a.2 "hat influence their intention an! their choice' an! "hat !etermine the outcome of their intentional action? ;or people !o not et aim #efore themelve re*ar!le of their circumtanceA an! "hen people chooe "hat to !o an! act "ith certain intention the reult of their action are often not "hat they inten!e!% Clearly' therefore' it i not poi#le to e$plain the actual !evelopment of ociety imply from the intention in the min! of the mem#er of ociety% The i!ea in men: min!' the aim they et themelve' an! the emotion they feel' arie in repone to their material con!ition of e$itence' "hich inclu!e relationhip "ith nature an! relationhip "ith one another in ociety% The force
#rin*in* a#out ocial chan*e are not @i!ea5 or @aim5 in the a#tract' nor a#tract in!ivi!ual each of "hom !eci!e in!epen!ently "hat he "ill !o' #ut' a Mar$ an! n*el put it in The Derman !eolo*y' real' active men' a they are con!itione! EH #y a !efinite !evelopment of their pro!uctive force an! of the intercoure correpon!in* to theeA an! they form their i!ea an! aim 011 the #ai of their real life-proce% t i the neceary con!ition of any human life that people houl! pro!uce their mean of u#itence' an! that they houl! enter into pro!uction relation correpon!in* "ith their pro!uctive force% Thi happen in!epen!ent of anyone: i!ea or intention or choice% But poein* certain pro!uctive force an! livin* "ithin certain pro!uction relation' people then form their i!ea an! intention correpon!in* to thee reallife con!ition in "hich they fin! themelve% ;rom thee con!ition arie !efinite interet' contra!iction of interet' aim an! am#ition% !ea' paion' plan an! intention arie in the min! of in!ivi!ual accor!in*ly' in repone to thoe con!ition of life% &n! o ocial life procee!% n a primitive huntin* tri#e' for intance' it i natural that the people: plan houl! #e motly confine! to huntin*' an! that the hei*ht of any in!ivi!ual: am#ition houl! #e to #ecome a chief% f' perhap throu*h ome chan*e of environment' they *et an interet in cultivation or !ometication of animal' then other plan' other am#ition arie% The people .eep their ociety *oin* #y their o"n initiative an! effortA #ut the !irection of their effort i con!itione! #y their material mo!e of life% n a mo!ern capitalit ociety' of coure' con!ition are far more comple$ an! inclu!e profoun! ocial contra!iction% >hen "a*e-la#our i employe!' for intance' the "or.er have a common interet in improvin* their tan!ar! of lifeA the intention of !oin* o i #orn in their min!' an! tra!e union are or*anie! to !o it% O#viouly' thi i #oun! to happen% Tra!e union or*aniation i a inevita#le in capitalit ociety a it i inevita#le that "ater "ill ee. it o"n level% But tra!e union are create! #y nothin* #ut the "or.er: o"n effort' #y their actin* on their o"n initiative' in a conciou intentional "ay' "ith each one chooin* "hether to /oin a tra!e union or not% The point i that the !irection of the effort i !etermine! #y the material con!ition of life% &t the ame time' the capitalit "ill alo #e puruin* their o"n interet' ome E7 "ell-meanin* people "ill #e ma.in* propoal to reconcile conflictin* interet' ome of the "or.er "ill #e conceivin* am#ition to raie their in!ivi!ual tatu #y uin* tra!e union poition' ome of the capitalit "ill un!ertan! thi an! et a#out #uyin* them out' an! o on' an! o on% & vat comple$ of !ifferin* an! conflictin* aim an! i!ea i #orn from the *iven con!ition' an! eventually the con!ition are chan*e! #y the ocial activitie of the people o motivate!% >hat' then' !etermine the character of the chan*e ? ot imply the ocially-con!itione! intention of the ma.er of chan*e% ;or' a n*el "rote in ,u!"i* ;euer#ach (chap% H)' numerou !eire! en! cro an! conflict "ith one another' or thee en! themelve are from the outet incapa#le of realiation' or the mean of attainin* them are inufficient% Thu the conflict of innumera#le in!ivi!ual "ill an! in!ivi!ual action in the !omain of hitory pro!uce a tate of affair entirely analo*ou to that in the realm of unconciou nature% % % % The many in!ivi!ual "ill active in hitory for the mot part pro!uce reult +uite other than thoe they inten!e!often +uite the oppoite5% Jut a the material mo!e of pro!uction i the foun!ation for the variou !ifferent motivation "hich !evelop "ithin ociety' o it alo !etermine "hich en! are practical an! "hich are not' an! "hat the eventual outcome of the conflictin* motivation "ill #e% The ;rench evolution' for e$ample' "a the e$ploive reult of contra!iction "ithin the ol! ociety% ;rom the poition they occupie! "ithin the economic tructure of that ociety' the peaant' to"n "or.er an! riin* #our*eoiie "ere all frutrate! in the puruit of their material interet' an! all cone+uently oppree! un!er the rule of the no#ility% They roe for li#erty' e+uality an! fraternity' an! mahe! the feu!al fetter% But "hat reulte! "a omethin* not inten!e! #y the ma/ority of thoe ta.in* part in the revolution% & oon a the feu!al fetter "ere mahe!' free cope "a affor!e! to the economic activity of the #our*eoiiean! the reult "a the !evelopment of capitalim% ;i*htin* for li#erty' "hat they !i! "a to *ive nacent capitalim the chance to conoli!ate E6 itelf% Thi happene! than. to the initiative an! effort of the revolutionarieA #ut the final reult of that initiative an! thoe effort !epen!e! on the um total of ocial relation in ;rench ociety% Thu "hile ociety i compoe! of in!ivi!ual "ho to*ether ma.e their o"n hitory #y their o"n conciou activity' "e mut loo. #ehin! people: conciou aim' intention an! motive to the economic !evelopment of ociety in or!er to fin! the la" of hitorical !evelopment% t i there that "e !icover the la" "hich re*ulate the chan*e in the circumtance con!itionin* people: action' the tranformation of material interet into conciou motive in their hea!' an! the final outcome of their activity% @Men ma.e their o"n hitory' "rote Mar$ in The i*hteenth Brumaire of ,oui Bonaparte (chap% i)% But they !o not ma.e it /ut a they pleae% They !o not ma.e it un!er circumtance choen #y themelve' #ut un!er circumtance !irectly encountere!' *iven an! tranmitte! from the pat%5 ,i.e many other la" no" .no"n to cience' the fun!amental la" of ocial !evelopment' "hich re*ulate ho" thee circumtance come into #ein* an! ho" they are chan*e!' !o not !eal "ith the !etermination of in!ivi!ual event #ut "ith
the cone+uence over a perio! of time of a lar*e num#er of in!ivi!ual interaction% They tate the cone+uence of in!ivi!ual livin* in ociety% The intercoure of in!ivi!ual in ociety mut al"ay lea! to their uin* uch pro!uctive force a are to han!' to their enterin* into pro!uction relation correpon!in* to thoe pro!uctive force' an! to motivation an! conflict' #ae! on thoe pro!uction relation' throu*h "hich pro!uction relation are eventually chan*e! correpon!in* to the !evelopment of ne" pro!uctive force% The Law o( Pro)ress The fun!amental la" of ocial !evelopment i that of the a!aptation of relation of pro!uction to pro!uction% The ocial relation of pro!uction have to #e a!apte! to the ocial action of men on nature "here#y men pro!uce their mean of life% The operation of thi la" #rin* a#out' "ith time' the E pro*reive !evelopment of human ocietythat i' an irreveri#le pro*reion from an earlier ta*e to a later ta*e% &n! that i #ecaue' from time to time' people are a#le to !evelop their force of pro!uction% Diven the actual phyical' chemical an! #iolo*ical procee of the earth: urface' an! the preence of men' employin* #rain an! han! to ue thoe procee for their o"n en!' there e$it the poi#ility of a pro*reive !evelopment of techni+ue' each of "hich i ooner or later e$plore!' thou*h a lon* time may pa #efore favoura#le con!ition arie for uch e$ploration% &n! from thi !evelopment of force of pro!uction follo" correpon!in* mo!ification an! chan*e in relation of pro!uction an! in the entire upertructure of ocial relation #ae! on the relation of pro!uction% Thu human ocietie !evelop from formation #ae! on lo"er pro!uction techni+ue to thoe #ae! on hi*her pro!uction techni+ue% The !itance travere! from tone tool to the automate! factory an! the nuclear reactor i the meaure of human pro*re to !ate% 4ro*re' a o !efine!' cannot #e !uea =e*el uppoe! human !evelopment "a !ueto any univeral pirit myteriouly "or.in* itelf out in human !etinie an! *ui!in* them to"ar! ome en!' any more than particular mifortune an! catatrophe that #efall people are !ue to a mali*n fate manipulatin* human puppet to"ar! their !etruction% The "hole conception of an e$ternal influence at "or. in human affair"hether it i calle! the &#olute pirit' Do!' ;ate' or merely the influence of the tar' ma.e very little !ifference i an i!ealit conception' totally forei*n to cience an! therefore to Mar$im% The only a*ency "hich !etermine human affair i the a*ency of people themelve' "retin* their livelihoo! from nature an! enterin* into ocial relation to !o o% Thu !etermine!' pro*re i naturally neither tea!y nor uniform% mportant ne" techni+ueuch a the "heel' iron "or.in*' the ue of "ater po"er' an! o onare intro!uce! only at time an! place "here there occur a coinci!ence of circumtance favoura#le to their !icovery an! application% But once intro!uce!' ne" techni+ue #rin* po"er an! #enefit to their uer "hich mean that they are not li.ely to #e EK *iven up% Once intro!uce!' ne" techni+ue are not lot a*ain' #ut *o on #ein* ue! an! eventually erve a the #ai for till hi*her techni+ue% Moreover' #i* chan*e in pro!uction an! cone+uently in pro!uction relation ten! to #e localie!' to occur at lon* interval' an! to prea! from a *iven locality% n the hitory of man.in! to !ate there have #een t"o *reat chan*e in pro!uction of !eciive importance% The firt' "hich occurre! only after hun!re! of thouan! of year of primitive techni+ue practie! #y cattere! tri#e after the #irth of the human pecie' "a the intro!uction of a*riculture% Thi le! to the !iviion of ociety into clae an! to the tormy' thou*h comparatively hort' perio! of man: evolution in "hich man "a e$ploite! #y man an! hi hitory #ecame the hitory of cla tru**le% The econ! "a the intro!uction of mo!ern in!utry' #ae! on the *eneral ue of ource of ener*y other than human or animal mucle-po"er% Thi le! to the e$treme polariation of cla relation un!er capitalim an! the #irth amon* the e$ploite! of the irreiti#le movement to"ar! communim% The pro!uction relation a!apte! to mo!ern in!utry' once it ha !evelope! ufficiently' are thoe of communim% Than. to mo!ern techni+ue' "hich inclu!e mean of tranport an! communication' an! to the capitalit !rive for profit' once capitalim #ecame eta#lihe! in one re*ion it very +uic.ly reache! out until it #rou*ht the "hole "orl! un!er it "ay% Thu mo!ern in!utry meant the en! of the proce in "hich ocial !evelopment "a localie! an! pro*re confine! to eparate re*ion' an! the #e*innin* of a "orl! proce of the a!vance of all humanity to clale communit ociety #ae! on a uniformly hi*h level of techni+ue% Scienti(ic Theor! and Social Practice Ino"le!*e of the la" of ocial !evelopment #rin* .no"le!*e of the real force at "or. in contemporary ociety ari! of ho" that ociety can an! mut #e chan*e!% >hen pro!uction i outtrippin* pro!uction relation' there arie a hitorical neceity of chan*in* thoe relation in or!er that people can carry for"ar! pro!uction an! en/oy the #enefit it i capa#le of #rin*in* them% To effect thi chan*e i a E9 hitorical ta.% uch hitorical neceity an! the correpon!in* hitorical ta. i an o#/ective fact' completely in!epen!ent of anyone: !eire or intention% To pea. of it e$pree not imply an apiration or political pro*ramme' clothe! in *ran! "or!' #ut an actually e$itin* et-up of human relation% Capitalim contain uch a neceity an! uch a ta.the neceity an! ta. of a!vancin* to ocialim% &n! "ithin the capitalit relation' one cla' the "or.in* cla' i #y virtue of it poition "ithin thoe relation the ocial force to carry out
the /o#% n thi ene "e may pea. of it havin* a hitorical miion% Thi i a fact' "hether anyone .no" it or not' an! "hether anyone !oe anythin* a#out it or not% Mar$im !i! not invent the hitorical miion of the "or.in* cla' #ut !icovere! it% n a imilar "ay' in the #our*eoi revolution a neceity an! a ta. e$ite!' an! the nacent #our*eoiie ha! the miion of eta#lihin* a ne" or!er of ociety"hich they uccefully !i!% n the coure of time ta. are fulfille!' #ecaue the e$itence of the ta. mean that circumtance conpire to impel people to"ar! it fulfilment% f one *eneration fail' it remain for the ne$t *eneration% Man.in! et itelf only uch ta. a it can olve' "rote Mar$ in the 4reface to Criti+ue of 4olitical conomyA ince % % % the ta. itelf arie only "hen the material con!ition for it olution alrea!y e$it or are at leat in the proce of formation%5 The u#/ect matter of ocial cience i man: o"n ocial activity' "herea natural cience !eal "ith the o#/ect of that activity' the material an! force of nature% =ence ocial cience !iffer from natural cience in that' #y it !icovery of the la" of !evelopment of ocial activity' it !efine the hitorical ta. facin* man.in! at a *iven time an!' therefore' the ocial en! or *oal of activity% atural cience' on the other han!' i concerne! olely "ith mean2 it ho" ho" natural force can #e ue!' an! that i all% 4hyic' for e$ample' #y !icoverin* the la" of phyical procee' ena#le u to ue thoe procee for our o"n purpoe' a mean to our o"n en!2 it !oe not !efine thoe en!% To !efine the hitorical ta. in contemporary ociety i' of 30 coure' at the ame time to ma.e a pre!iction' namely' that that ta. i li.ely eventually to #e fulfille!% Thu Mar$im !oe ma.e a !efinite pre!iction2 that capitalim "ill not continue in!efinitely' an! that#arrin* the poi#le catatrophe of man.in! uin* the recent !icovery of nuclear ener*y to !etroy itelfit "ill #e upere!e! #y "orl! communit ociety% But pre!iction i never the main function of either natural or ocial cience% t i only econ!ary to the main function' "hich i to ena#le u to re*ulate our ocial activity' in pro!uction an! in other phere' in the li*ht of !icovery of the o#/ective propertie an! la" of nature an! ociety% o "hile the !icovery of the la" of ocial !evelopment !oe imply a pre!iction a#out the future !evelopment of ociety' it primary i*nificance i that it !efine practical *oal an! practical policie to"ar! realiin* them% Thoe "ho fail to *rap thi are confuin* Mar$ "ith Ol! Moore% n ocial activity' .no"le!*e of the la" of !evelopment #ecome itelf a force in that !evelopment' an! i enlar*e! an! clarifie! a the !evelopment procee!% ¬her peculiarity of ocial cience a compare! "ith natural cience i that it !icover an! !efine it o"n reaon for e$itence% The very !efinition of the contemporary ta. e$plain "hy cientific .no"le!*ea cientific theoryi nee!e! to ena#le the ta. to #e fulfille!% &ll earlier ocial formation came into #ein* throu*h mem#er of ociety pontaneouly puruin* their o"n imme!iate interet' a thee aroe from an e$itin* mo!e of pro!uction% Capitalim' for intance' "a not create! #y people actin* on any cientific theory of capitalim' #ut #y people follo"in* their noe in circumtance favoura#le to the !evelopment of capitalit relation' a a reult of "hich the mem#er of the riin* #our*eoi cla eiith the "or.in* cla in capitalit ociety' on the other han!' pontaneou action lea! no further than or*aniation to ecure hi*her "a*e' horter hour an! #etter livin* con!ition% To a!vance to ocialim re+uire !eli#erate meaure to chan*e the relation of pro!uction' an! the prior con+uet of political 31 po"er #y the "or.in* cla in or!er to #e a#le to intitute uch meaure% To !o that re+uire theoretical .no"le!*e of "hat i to #e !one' #ae! on the cientific inveti*ation of ocial procee' an! a ma movement informe! #y cientific theory% very revolutioniin* !icovery in hitory ha #een ma!e only "hen con!ition "ere ripe for it an! the nee! for it e$ite!% Thu the *reat !icoverie of mo!ern natural cience "ere ma!e only "hen the !evelopment of the mo!e of pro!uction ha! create! the con!ition an! the nee! for them% The ame i true of the ocial !icoverie of Mar$% The Theor! o( the 'or0in),#lass Mo$ement The eta#lihment of fun!amental cientific theory in any fiel! ha al"ay meant the overthro" of ol! pre/u!ice' an! o ha run up a*aint the oppoition of !efinite interet% Thi applie till more "ith the cience of ociety% Mar$: !icovery ho"e! ho" men form ocietie' an! frame their i!ea an! principle' on the #ai of the material proce of pro!uction% Thi thre" !o"n the lat tron*hol! of i!ealimthe conception of human concioune a havin* it ultimate ource in omethin* other than the material "orl!A an! "ith it the "hole i!ea of the anctity' rationality an! permanence of any human intitution% n particular' Mar$: !icovery !emontrate! the contra!iction of capitalim an! the neceity of replacin* it #y ocialim% O#viouly' if ocial cience !emontrate thee concluion then not only !oe it meet "ith oppoition #ut it imply cannot #e accepte! at all "ithin the capitalit or!er% Mar$im aroe a the theory of the "or.in*-cla movement' "hich alone nee!e! uch a theory' ari! "ithin the ran. of "hich alone coul! it #e "or.e! out' accepte! an! ue!A an! after ocialim "a victoriou in ome countrie' it "a !evelope! further a the theory of ocialim an! communim% The o-calle! ocial cience of the #our*eoi eta#lihment ha of coure ha! to a!mit#y the #ac. !oor' a it "ere' an! uually "ithout ac.no"le!*ementome electe! Mar$it i!eaA #ut the fun!amental theory i conitently repu!iate!% n cone+uence' #our*eoi ocial cience remain at a primitive' !ecriptive 3E level' "ithout fun!amental theory% &n! a for the !efinition of ocial *oal' thee are treate! a the
u#/ect of moral or reli*ion or politic' a !itinct from cience% The ue of Mar$it theory to the "or.in*-cla movement i threefol!% t arm the movement "ith cientific .no"le!*e of the actual poition of the "or.in* cla% t ena#le the movement cientifically to formulate practical aim% &n! it *ui!e the movement in "or.in* out the neceary trate*y an! tactic for achievin* thoe aim% The "or.in*-cla movement cannot tranform ociety "ithout the #enefit of fun!amental theory% &n! thi theory teache it to .eep practical *oal in i*ht rather than !ream of Ltopian i!eal' an! to #ae it policie not on *eneral precept an! e$hortation #ut on reco*nition of the real material con!ition an! nee! of the people% n the application of cience in the politic of cla tru**le a !itinction mut #e ma!e #et"een certain *eneral an! invaria#le principle' on the one han!' an! particular policie frame! to cope "ith particular ituation an! phae of tru**le on the other% t i neceary to purue a policy of "or.in*-cla tru**le a*aint the capitalit cla' unitin* al"ay the ma$imum force to !efeat the main enemyA thi tru**le mut #e carrie! to the point "here the "or.in* cla' "ith it allie' i a#le to *ain political po"er to eta#lih ocialim an! overcome all reitance a*aint itA an! to achieve thi poition of po"er' the "or.in* cla mut #e le! #y a political party !e!icate! to the aim of ocialim an! *ui!e! #y cientific ocialit theory% Thee are inviola#le principle to a#an!on "hich amount in practice to a#an!onin* the *oal of ocialim an! the mean to realie it% >ithin the frame"or. of *eneral principle there i then the pro#lem of fin!in* the ri*ht policie to meet each eventuality that arie% &n! here' it mut #e allo"e!' a lar*e element of variation an! improviation come in% Thoe !o*matit have a tran*e i!ea of applyin* ocial cience' "ho ima*ine that it i poi#le to tate in a!vance everythin* that i *oin* to happen' an! to lay !o"n har! an! fat rule for !eterminin* 33 correct policie% n the "or.in*-cla tru**le it i poi#le an! neceary to ma.e an analyi of the alient fact of a *iven ituation' to forecat the pro#a#le #ehaviour of in!ivi!ual' *roup an! clae in uch a ituation' an! in the li*ht of that toarrive at a plan of action% But at the ame time' control i lac.in* over nearly all thee factorA even the "ay in "hich !eciion ta.en "ithin the movement are carrie! out !epen! on the ti*htne or looene of or*aniation' the "a*in* of internal controverie' an! all manner of u#/ective factor influencin* in!ivi!ual% =ence the contin*ent an! the unforeeen al"ay play a lar*e part in the politic of cla tru**le' an! a "ie lea!erhip i one "hich ha no illuion of infalli#ility an! i al"ay on the alert to !ra" concluion from ne" e$perience% ocial cience an! Communim The conoli!ation of ocialim' follo"e! #y the evolution of ocialim into communim' mean the en! of e$ploitation of man #y man an! "ith that the en! of cla tru**le% vi!ently' therefore' the future con!ition of human ocial activity "ill' in that event' #e very !ifferent from the pat% o !ifferent "ill they #e that Mar$' in the 4reface to Criti+ue of 4olitical conomy' "rote that the tranition to ocialim #rin* the prehitory of human ociety to a cloe5% >ith communim' a the Communit Manifeto put it' all pro!uction ha #een concentrate! in the han! of a vat aociation of the "hole nation% &n! then' to +uote n*el in ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific' man: o"n ocial or*aniation' hitherto confrontin* him a a neceity impoe! #y nature an! hitory' #ecome the reult of hi o"n free action% The e$traneou o#/ective force "hich have hitherto *overne! hitory pa un!er the control of man himelf% t i then no lon*er a +uetion of "a*in* cla tru**le in con!ition un!er "hich many factor !eterminin* the outcome are #eyon! control' #ut of plannin* the #aic procee of ocial life for the atifaction of human nee!% Thi implie that the "hole mo!e of application of ocial cience i chan*e!% t application #ecome a matter of 3H etimatin* the material nee! of ociety' an! the current material an! human reource availa#le' an! of plannin* pro!uction an! !itri#ution accor!in*ly% Thu in it application ocial cience #ecome an e$act' mathematical an! +uantitative !icipline' li.e the natural cience applie! in the techni+ue of pro!uction% Thi chan*e correpon! to the ituation in "hich' a n*el alo put it' the *overnment of peron ha #een replace! #y the a!minitration of thin*% The ta. of ocial cience un!er communim i not to "or. out "ay an! mean of manipulatin* human #ein* o a to force or ca/ole them into ome pre!etermine! pattern of ocial activity% The ta. i to "or. out the plan of pro!uction an! !itri#ution for the "hole community' to #e un!erta.en "ith the minimum of la#our' o that people may on that #ai freely en/oy that #loomin* forth of human ener*y "hich i for man an en! in itelf% >ritin* of the ta. of cience in hi early conomic an! 4hiloophical Manucript' Mar$ conclu!e!2 atural cience "ill in time u#ume un!er itelf the cience of man' /ut a the cience of man "ill u#ume un!er itelf natural cienceA there "ill #e one cience% The u#/ect of cience "ill #e the la" of !evelopment of nature an! human ociety' an! the "ay an!
mean of man: ecurin* the continuou atifaction in hi ocial life of all hi nee!% The !icovery of the fun!amental la" of man: ocial activity "a an eential tep to"ar! thi unification of the cience "hich i neceary a a mean to ecurin* the flo"erin* of human life% #ha"ter Three T.E MODE OF PROD/#TION Production o( the Means o( Li(e =itorical materialim fin! the .ey to the la" of !evelopment of ociety in the imple fact that man.in! mut firt of all eat' !rin.' have helter an! clothin*' #efore it can purue politic' cience' art' reli*ion' etc% (n*el' peech at the Dravei!e of Iarl Mar$%) Before people can !o anythin* ele' they mut o#tain the mean of lifefoo!' clothin* an! helter% &n! they o#tain the mean of life' not a a free *ift from nature' #ut #y aociatin* to*ether to pro!uce their neceitie of life an! to e$chan*e the thin* pro!uce!% Only on the #ai of aociatin* to pro!uce an! e$chan*e the mean of life can they !evelop an! purue any of their other ocial interet% =ence the pro!uction of the mean to upport human life an!' ne$t to pro!uction' the e$chan*e of thin* pro!uce! % % % i the #ai of every ocial or!er% %%% n every ociety that ha appeare! in hitory' the !itri#ution of the pro!uct an! "ith it the !iviion of ociety into clae' i !etermine! #y "hat i pro!uce! an! ho" it i pro!uce! an! ho" the pro!uct i e$chan*e!% (n*el' ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific' chap% 3%) n thi "ay hitorical materialim trace #ac. the ultimate caue of the "hole movement of ociety to the ocial activity of men in the pro!uction an! e$chan*e of the mean of life that i' to the con!ition of material life of ociety an! to chan*e in the con!ition of material life% The "ay in "hich people pro!uce an! e$chan*e their mean of life i .no"n a the mo!e of pro!uction% very ociety i #ae! on a mo!e of pro!uction' "hich i "hat ultimately 36 !etermine the character of all ocial activitie an! intitution% 4ro!uction an! 4roperty The mo!e of pro!uction i al"ay ocial' #ecaue each in!ivi!ual !oe not pro!uce the "hole of hi material nee! for himelf' olely #y hi o"n la#our' in!epen!ent of other in!ivi!ual% The material *oo! re+uire! #y the community are pro!uce! #y the la#our of many in!ivi!ual' "ho thu carry on' a Mar$ put it' a mutual e$chan*e of activitie in pro!ucin* the ocial pro!uct "hich i !itri#ute! amon* the community% o in coni!erin* the mo!e of pro!uction "e mut !itin*uih firt of all the force "hich people #rin* into operation in or!er to pro!uce the pro!uctthe actual material mean #y "hich pro!uction i un!erta.enA an! econ!ly' the mutual relation into "hich people enter in pro!ucin* an! e$chan*in* the pro!uct% >e mut !itin*uih the force of pro!uction an! the relation of pro!uction% Thee to*ether !efine the mo!e of pro!uction% Thu a *iven mo!e of pro!uction conit of enterin* into certain relation of pro!uction in or!er to employ certain force of pro!uction% &n! !ifferent mo!e of pro!uction are !itin*uihe! #y !ifference in the force of pro!uction an! the relation of pro!uction% >hat e$actly !o "e !enote #y force of pro!uction ? n or!er to pro!uce' intrument of pro!uction are neceary' that i' tool' machine' mean of tranport' an! o on% But thee !o not pro!uce anythin* #y themelve% t i people "ho ma.e an! ue them% >ithout people "ith the .ill to ma.e an! ue the intrument of pro!uction' no pro!uction i poi#le% The force of pro!uction' therefore' conit of the intrument of pro!uction' an! people' "ith their pro!uction e$perience an! .ill' "ho ue thee intrument% & la#our force' "ith it e$perience an! .ill' i part of the force of pro!uctionA an! the *reater it e$perience an! the *reater it .ill' the more potent a force of pro!uction it i%
,ater' cience #ecome a ma/or in*re!ient of the force of pro!uction% &n! "hat !o "e mean #y the relation of pro!uction ? Thee relation are partly imple an! !irect relation "hich people enter into "ith one another in the actual pro!uction
proce itelfimple an! !irect relation #et"een people en*a*e! in a common pro!uctive ta.% But "hen people carry on pro!uction they mut nee! enter into ocial relation' not only "ith one another' #ut alo "ith the mean of pro!uction "hich they are utiliin*% By the mean of pro!uction "e !enote omethin* more than the intrument of pro!uction% >e !enote all thoe mean "hich are neceary to pro!uce the finihe! pro!uct- inclu!in* not only the intrument ("hich are part of the force of pro!uction)' #ut alo lan!' ra" material' #uil!in* in "hich pro!uction i un!erta.en' an! o on% n un!erta.in* pro!uction' then' it i neceary for people ocially to re*ulate their mutual relation to the mean of pro!uction% &n! thi i ho" property relation arie% n ocial pro!uction' the mean of pro!uction #ecome the property of variou people or *roup of people% ;or in carryin* on pro!uction an! e$chan*e it i neceary that ome arran*ement houl! #e ma!e' #in!in* on the mem#er of ociety' #y "hich it i .no"n "ho i entitle! to !ipoe of the variou mean of pro!uction an! of the pro!uct "hich i pro!uce! #y "or.in* "ith them% Thi re*ulation of people: mutual relation to the mean of pro!uction' an! cone+uently of their hare of the pro!uct' i not un!erta.en a a reult of any one collective an! !eli#erate actof any *eneral !eciion or ocial contract% t come a#out #y an unconciou or pontaneou proce% 4eople come to re*ulate their mutual relation to the mean of pro!uction' an! o alo to re*ulate the !ipoal of the ocial pro!uct' in a "ay a!apte! to the force of pro!uctionince other"ie they coul! not carry on pro!uction% &n! enterin* into thee relation in the proce of pro!uction' they #ecome conciou of them a property relation "hich are ocially o#li*atory an! le*ally #in!in*% n the very primitive pro!uction carrie! on #y a tri#e of hunter' the hunter enter into imple' !irect relation "ith one another a fello" hunter' fello" tri#emenA an! the lan! they hunt over an! the #eat they hunt are not re*ar!e! a the property of any particular in!ivi!ual or *roup% The "hole tri#e or*anie huntin* e$pe!ition' an! "hat they #rin* #ac. from the hunt i common property an! i hare! out amon* the tri#emen% But "hen !iviion of la#our arie' an! one peron pecialie in pro!ucin* thi an! another in pro!ucin* that' then the intrument ue! #e*in to #e re*ar!e! a the property of particular peron' an! o !oe the pro!uct pro!uce! #ecome the property of the pro!ucer' to #e !ipoe! of #y himelf% imilarly' "hen animal are !ometicate! an! her! are raie!' her! #ecome the property of particular familie' an! of the hea! of the family% &t a later ta*e' lan! #ecome private property% Thu a a reult of the !evelopment of the force of pro!uctionfor the !evelopment of a*riculture' han!icraft' an! o on' i preciely a !evelopment of the force of pro!uction an! a a reult of the !iviion of la#our "hich accompanie thi !evelopment' there *ra!ually arie o"nerhip of mean of pro!uction #y in!ivi!ual people or *roup of people% n other "of!' private property arie% =ere it can alrea!y #e een that the !rivin* force in ocial !evelopment i the !evelopment of the force of pro!uction% 4roperty relation are eentially ocial relation #et"een people' ariin* out of pro!uction% &t firt i*ht' property relation loo. li.e imple t"o-term relation #et"een in!ivi!ual people an! thin*' #et"een in!ivi!ual property-o"ner an! the property they o"n% Thi i not o' ho"ever% The appearance i illuory% o#inon Cruoe on hi ilan! "a not a propertyo"ner #ut imply a man on an ilan!% 4roperty relation are comple$ ocial relation #et"een people in ociety comple$ relation #et"een men in ociety' not imple relation #et"een men an! thin*% n the pro!uction "hich they carry on' men eta#lih ocial relation' or relation of pro!uction' #et"een one another "here#y the mean of pro!uction "hich 39 they utilie are the property of thi or that in!ivi!ual' or of thi or that *roup' an! imilarly "ith the pro!uct pro!uce!% 4roperty relation' therefore' are "ay of re*ulatin* people: mutual relationhip in the proce of utiliin* the mean of pro!uction an! !ipoin* of the pro!uct% To pea. of property i imply a "ay of *ivin* le*al e$preion to thee mutual relation of people in ociety% & property relation' thee appear a o#li*atory relation' #in!in* on ociety an! all the mem#er of ociety% o"' therefore' "e can !efine the relation of pro!uction a the mutual relation into "hich people enter in the proce of pro!uction an! !ipoal of the pro!uct' an! of "hich they #ecome conciou a property relation% The relation of pro!uction o#tainin* in any particular ociety are ai! to contitute the economic tructure of that ociety% $ploitation The pro!uct of pro!uctive activity are appropriate! in variou !ifferent "ay an! o !ifferently !itri#ute! amon* the mem#er of ociety' accor!in* to the type of economic tructure prevailin*%
>hat !etermine the "ay in "hich' in !ifferent ocietie' the pro!uct i appropriate! ? n *eneral' it i the form of o"nerhip of the mean of pro!uction' the nature of the property relation' "hich !etermine the form of appropriation an! the "ay in "hich the mean of life are !itri#ute!% n the mot primitive communitie the mean of pro!uction are communally o"ne!' they are hel! in common #y the pro!ucer% Thi i a cone+uence of the very primitive character of the intrument of pro!uction% >ith only very primitive tool an! implement' !iviion of la#our ha har!ly !evelope!' people have to "or. in common in or!er to urvive' an! "or. in common lea! to the common o"nerhip of the mean of pro!uction% The fruit of pro!uction' uch a they are' are accor!in*ly hare! #y the "hole community% Jut a the mean of pro!uction are not the property of any particular in!ivi!ual or *roup' o the pro!uct i not appropriate! #y any in!ivi!ual H0 or *roup% Thi primitive mo!e of life i neither comforta#le nor culture! nor ecure' #ut it !oe e$hi#it "ithin the tri#e #rotherhoo! an! communal oli!arity% n ocialit ociety' a*ain' the mean of pro!uction are ocially o"ne!% &n! then once more the pro!uct i ocially appropriate!' #ein* !itri#ute! to each accor!in* to hi la#our in the firt ta*e of ocialit ociety' an! to each accor!in* to hi nee! in the ta*e of fully !evelope! communit ociety% But in all the communitie .no"n to hitory #et"een primitive communim an! ocialim#et"een primitive pro!uction an! mo!ern lar*e-cale ocial pro!uctionmean of pro!uction are not ocially o"ne! #ut are the property of in!ivi!ual or *roup' an! mean of pro!uction of crucial importance are the property of a minority of the community% & a reult' thoe "ho o"n thee mean of pro!uction are a#le' #y virtue of their poition a o"ner' to appropriate the lion: hare of the pro!uct% &n! o it #ecome poi#le for them to live on the fruit of the la#our of other' in other "or!' to e$ploit other% Thoe "ho !o not o"n mean of pro!uction are compelle! to "or. for the #enefit of thoe "ho !o% =o" !oe uch a tate of affair come a#out ? n the firt place' the !iviion of la#our #rea. up the primitive ytem of communal pro!uction #y a "hole tri#e an! reult in o"nerhip of mean of pro!uction *ra!ually pain* into the han! of particular in!ivi!ual an! *roup% >ith thi conie the private appropriation of the pro!uct' for the pro!uct i appropriate! #y "hoever o"n the mean of pro!uction% & her! pa out of the common poeion of the tri#e into the o"nerhip of in!ivi!ual hea! of familie' a cultivate! lan! i allotte! to the ue of in*le familie' a han!icraft appear' o the correpon!in* pro!uct ceae to #e a communal poeion an! i privately appropriate!% ;urther' "ith private property there #e*in alo the tranformation of the pro!uct into a commo!itya proce "hich i finally complete! in capitalit ociety' "hen practically the "hole pro!uct ta.e the form of commo!itie% t i "hen pro!uct are e$chan*e! for other pro!uct that H1 "e call them @commo!itie52 commo!itie are pro!uct pro!uce! for the purpoe of e$chan*in* them for niher pro!uct% The rie of private property in her! an! article of lu$ury' "rote n*el in hi Ori*in of the ;amily' 4rivate 4roperty an! the late (chap% 7)' le! to e$chan*e #et"een in!ivi!ual' to the tranformation of pro!uct into commo!itie% ;or "hile in a communal mo!e of pro!uction people hare out their pro!uct amon*t themelve' thu carryin* on a mutual e$chan*e of activitie #ut not an e$chan*e of pro!uct' "hen private property !evelop the o"ner !oe not necearily re+uire the pro!uct he ha appropriate! for himelf #ut e$chan*e it for other pro!uct% &n! thi ha far-reachin* effect% >hen the pro!ucer no lon*er !irectly conume! their pro!uct themelve' #ut let it pa out of their han! in the act of e$chan*e' they lot control of it' n*el continue!% They no lon*er .ne" "hat #ecame of itA the poi#ility "a there that one !ay it "oul! #e ue! a*aint the pro!ucer to e$ploit an! oppre him%5 & commo!ity e$chan*e *ro" an!' "ith it' the ue of money' it act a a po"erful force in further #rea.in* up all former communal mo!e of pro!uction' concentratin* the o"nerhip of property into the han! of ome' "hile other are !ipoee!% The inevita#le reult of the *ro"th of private property i the !iviion of the community into @have5 an! @havenot5' thoe "ith property an! thoe "ithout it' poeor an! !ipoee!% n the econ! place' the !iviion of la#our' from "hich thee reult follo"' i lin.e! "ith a *ro"th of the pro!uctivity of la#our% >here formerly the pro!uctive la#our of a "hole tri#e coul! carcely pro!uce enou*h to atify the minimum re+uirement of all the pro!ucer' no" la#our pro!uce a urplu% Thoe "ho "or. can pro!uce enou*h to atify their o"n eential nee!' an! more #ei!e% =ence there arie the poi#ility that thoe "ho o"n mean of pro!uction may appropriate to themelve' "ithout la#our' the urplu from the la#our of other% &n! once thi poi#ility ha come into #ein*' it i oon ta.en a!vanta*e of% &n early reult i lavery% Once the pro!ucer can pro!uce HE #y hi la#our more than he himelf conume' it #ecome "orth "hile for ome people to enlave other% Thu there appear mater an! lave' the mater appropriatin* to themelve the "hole pro!uct of the lave: la#our an! allo"in* the lave only a much a i neceary to .eep them alive%
lavery i the implet an! mot !irect form of e$ploitation of man #y man% That !oe not imply that it "a necearily the firtA variou "ay in "hich a chief or proprietor e$tracte! ervice an! tri#ute from other re!uce! to variou !e*ree of !epen!ence on him are pro#a#ly at leat a ancient% ¬her imple form of e$ploitation i the feu!al' the e$ploitation of erf #y feu!al proprietor uch a "a "i!ely practie! in urope !urin* the Mi!!le &*e% =ere the lor! !oe not o"n the erf a the mater !oe the lave' #ut he o"n the lan! an! the erf i effectively tie! to the lan!' "hether #y la" or #y force of circumtance2 the erf i then permitte! to *et hi livin* from the lan! on con!ition that he ren!er up to the lor! a hi !ue a part of the pro!uce% & thir! form of e$ploitation i the capitalit' the e$ploitation of "a*e-"or.er #y capitalit% =ere the "or.er are le*ally free' in the ene that they can *o "here they li.e an! "or. for "hom they li.e' #ut are !eprive! of mean of pro!uction an! can ma.e a livin* only #y ellin* their la#our-po"er to the capitalit% The latter' a o"ner of the mean of pro!uction' appropriate the pro!uct% But "hatever the form of e$ploitation' the u#tance i al"ay the ame2 the pro!ucer pro!uce a urplu over an! a#ove their o"n eential re+uirement' an! thi urplu i appropriate! #y non-pro!ucer #y virtue of their o"nerhip of ome form of property% ;or the pro!ucer' e$ploitation therefore mean that only a part of their total la#our i ue! #y them for themelve' to pro!uce their o"n re+uirement' an! the ret i ta.en an! ue! #y another% >hen the pro!uctivity of la#our ha rien o that pro!ucer can pro!uce a urplu a#ove "hat they nee! for themelve' a part of their la#our #ecome urplu la#ouran! e$ploitation mean that thi urplu la#our i ta.en an! it pro!uct appropriate! #y another' #y virtue of o"nerhip of property% By ta.in* other people: H3 la#our' the e$ploiter can live "ell "ithout havin* to "or. themelve% @The eential !ifference' "rote Mar$ in Capital (vol% ' chap% 9' ect' i)' #et"een the variou economic form of ociety' #et"een' for intance' a ociety #ae! on lave la#our an! one #ae! on "a*e la#our' lie only in the mo!e in "hich thi urplu la#our i in each cae e$tracte! from the actual pro!ucer' the la#ourer%5 t i the !evelopment of pro!uction an! the !evelopment of property "hich *ive rie to e$ploitation% $ploitation mean that ome people' the minority of ociety' are #y virtue of their o"nerhip of property livin* "ithout la#our on the fruit of the la#our of other' of the ma/ority% t follo" that in every mo!e of pro!uction "hich involve the e$ploitation of man #y man' the ocial pro!uct i o !itri#ute! that the ma/ority of the people' the people "ho la#our' are con!emne! to toil for no more than the #aret neceitie of life% ometime' it i true' favoura#le circumtance arie "hen they can "in more' #ut more often they *et the #aret minimum an! at time not even that% On the other han!' a minority' the o"ner of the mean of pro!uction' the property o"ner' en/oy leiure an! lu$ury% ociety i !ivi!e! into rich an! poor% t further follo" that if "e are ever to !o a"ay "ith the e$treme of poverty an! "ealth' then thi can never #e achieve! imply #y callin* for a ne" mo!e of !itri#ution of the ocial pro!uct% Capitalit ociety' for e$ample' cannot #e reforme! imply #y !ecreein* a more e+ual !itri#ution of pro!uct' a i envia*e! in the reformit lo*an of fair !itri#ution of the procee! of la#our or fair hare for all% ;or the !itri#ution of the mean of conumption i #ae! on the o"nerhip of the mean of pro!uction% t i the latter "hich mut #e attac.e!% @The o-calle! !itri#ution relation' "rote Mar$ in Capital (vol% ll' chap% 71)' correpon! to an! arie from hitorically !etermine! pecific form of the proce of pro!uction an! mutual relation entere! into #y men in the pro!uction proce of human life% The hitorical character of thee HH !itri#ution relation i the hitorical character of pro!uction relation' of "hich they e$pre merely one apect% Capitalit !itri#ution !iffer from thoe form of !itri#ution "hich arie from other mo!e of pro!uction' an! every form of !itri#ution !iappear "ith the pecific form of pro!uction from "hich it i !ecen!e! an! to "hich it correpon!%5
#lasses and #lass Stru))les >ith the !evelopment of ocial pro!uction #eyon! the primitive commune' the community i !ivi!e! into *roup occupyin* !ifferent place in ocial pro!uction a a "hole' "ith !ifferent relationhip to the mean of pro!uction an! therefore !ifferent metho! of ac+uirin* their hare of the pro!uct% uch *roup contitute the ocial clae' an! their relation contitute the cla relation or cla tructure of a *iven ociety% The e$itence of clae i a cone+uence of the !iviion of la#our in ocial pro!uction% ;rom the !iviion of la#our follo" form of private property' an! thence the !iviion of ociety into clae% The variou ta*e of !evelopment in the !iviion of la#our are /ut o many !ifferent form of o"nerhip' "rote Mar$ an! n*el in The Derman !eolo*y% That i' the e$itin* ta*e in the !iviion of la#our !etermine alo the relation of in!ivi!ual to one another "ith reference to the material' intrument an! pro!uct of la#our%5 >hat contitute an! !itin*uihe clae' therefore' i not primarily !ifference in income' mentality or ha#it' a i vul*arly uppoe!' #ut the place they occupy in ocial pro!uction an! the relation in "hich they tan! to the mean of pro!uction% Thi i "hat !etermine their !ifference in income' ha#it' mentality' an! o on% @The fun!amental feature that !itin*uihe clae' ,enin e$plaine! in an article on Vul*ar ocialim an! aro!im' i the place they occupy in ocial pro!uction an!' cone+uently' the relation in "hich they tan! to the mean of pro!uction%5 n & Dreat Be*innin* ,enin propoe! the follo"in* more e$hautive !efinition of clae2 @Clae are lar*e *roup of people "hich !iffer from each other #y the place they occupy in a hitorically !efinite ytem of ocial pro!uction' #y their relation (in mot cae fi$e! an! formulate! in la") to the mean of pro!uction' #y their role in the ocial or*aniation of la#our' an!' cone+uently' #y the !imenion of the ocial "ealth that they o#tain an! their metho! of ac+uirin* their hare of it% Clae are *roup of people one of "hich may appropriate the la#our of another' o"in* to the !ifferent place they occupy in the !efinite ytem of ocial economy%5 >ith clae there arie cla anta*onim an! cla tru**le% Clae are anta*onitic "hen the place they occupy in the ytem of ocial pro!uction are uch that one cla o#tain an! au*ment it hare of ocial "ealth only at the e$pene of another% Thu the relation #et"een e$ploiter an! e$ploite! are inevita#ly anta*onitic% &n! o are the relation #et"een one e$ploitin* cla an! another "hen their metho! of e$ploitation come into conflict' that i' "hen the e$traction of urplu la#our #y the one *et in the "ay of the e$traction of urplu la#our #y the other% Thu the relation #et"een riin* #our*eoiie an! feu!al lor!' for e$ample' "ere anta*onitic' ince the one coul! maintain an! the other !evelop it metho! of e$ploitation only at the e$pene of the other% &*ain' in nineteenth century n*lan! there "a a certain anta*onim #et"een the in!utrial capitalit an! the lan!o"ner% @Thee "arrin* clae' "rote n*el in ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific (chap' i)' are al"ay the pro!uct of the con!ition of pro!uction an! e$chan*e' in a "or!' of the economic con!ition of their time%5 ociety #ae! on e$ploitation i inevita#ly !ivi!e! into anta*onitic clae% uch a ociety i torn #y cla conflict al"ay #et"een e$ploiter an! e$ploite!' an! ometime #et"een rival e$ploiter% ;or thi reaon' a The Communit Manifeto #e*an #y tatin*2 the hitory of all hitherto e$itin* ociety i the hitory of cla tru**le%5 Thee cla tru**le are roote! in conflict of material interet #et"een the !ifferent claeconflictin* economic H6 interet ariin* from the !ifferent place occupie! #y !ifferent clae in ocial pro!uction' their !ifferent relation to the mean of pro!uction' an! their !ifferent metho! of o#tainin* an! au*mentin* their hare of ocial "ealth% Of coure' not all cla relation are anta*onitic% f more than one metho! of e$ploitation i ue! to e$tract urplu la#our' that mean that ociety i foun!e! on more than one form of property an! ha a comple$ cla tructure containin* more than one e$ploitin* cla an! more than one e$ploite! cla% n that cae' there i no #aic anta*onim #et"een the !ifferent clae of the e$ploite!% On the contrary' thee clae are potential allie a*aint the e$ploitereven thou*h !ifference in their ha#it an! mentality an! aim' ariin* from !ifference in their relation to the mean of pro!uction' may prevent them actin* to*ether an! may ometime #e ue! #y the e$ploiter to et one cla a*aint the other% Thu' for e$ample' in a country "ith capitalit in!utry an! peaant a*riculture' the relation #et"een the ur#an "or.in* cla an! the e$ploite! peaantry are not anta*onitic% &*ain' in the ocialit ociety of the L%%%% there till remain to!ay t"o !itinct clae' the oviet "or.er an! peaant thou*h the !itinction #et"een them i #ecomin* #lurre!% ,i.e all cla !itinction' thi one i roote! in the !ifferent place
the clae occupy in ocial pro!uction% The oviet "or.er are en*a*e! in tate enterprie ocially o"ne! #y the "hole ociety in the peron of the ocialit tateA the collective farm peaant are en*a*e! in *roup' co-operative enterprie collective farm% The cla !itinction i #ae! on the !itinction #et"een pu#lic an! *roup property% But neither cla e$ploit the other' neither ac+uire an! au*ment it hare of ocial "ealth at the e$pene of the other' an! o there i no anta*onim #et"een them% ocial-conomic ;ormation >e have een that the mo!e of pro!uction involve t"o factorthe force of pro!uction' conitin* of intrument of pro!uction an! people "ith pro!uction e$perience an! .ill' an! the relation of pro!uction% The latter in their totality H contitute the economic tructure of ociety% ifferent economic tructure repreent o many economic formation "hich have come into #ein* an! then #een upere!e! in the hitory of man.in!% conomic tructure are not #eto"e! on man in ociety rea!y-ma!e #y 4rovi!ence' tailore! to lat him for ever' #ut evolve a men chan*e their relationhip "ith nature in pro!uction an! o chan*e their relationhip "ith one another% My tan!point' "rote Mar$ in the 4reface to the firt Derman e!ition of Capital' vie" the economic formation of ociety a a proce of natural hitory%5 >hat contitute !ifference of economic formation' an! ho" are !ifferent type of ocial-economic formation to #e claifie! ? ifference of economic formation are !ifference of pro!uction relation' an! !ifferent type of ocial-economic formation are !efine! in term of !ifferent .in! of pro!uction relation% 4eople al"ay !epen! for their livelihoo! on certain !efinite mean of pro!uction% The relationhip "hich people et up "ith one another "hich !etermine "ho perform pro!uctive la#our' "ho o"n mean of pro!uction' an! "ho ha "hat claim on the pro!uct' are the pro!uction relation in term of "hich the !ifference of ocial-economic formation "hich occur in the coure of hitory are !efine!% n claifyin* !ifferent type of hitorically contitute! ocial-economic formation' there i a fun!amental !itinction' in the firt place' #et"een thoe "ith ocial o"nerhip of mean of pro!uction an! thoe "ith private o"nerhip' or private property% >ith their firt emer*ence from the animal "orl! people "ere aociate! in mall *roup in "hich all the a#le-#o!ie! contri#ute! to pro!uction' the mean of pro!uction "ere hel! in common' an! the pro!uct "a hare! out amon*t the *roup' all of "hom ha! an e+ual claim on it% The evi!ence for thi conit of inference from "hat "e .no" a#out urvivin* primitive people' to*ether "ith the coni!eration that very primitive people coul! not "ell have live! in any other "ay% Thi type of economy ha #een calle! primitive communim% There i very little !ou#t that uch "a the economy of men HK for a very lon* timemore controverial are econ!ary +uetion' a#out .inhip relation' ocial cutom an! #elief' an! o on% Mo!ern ocialim' once more' preent an economic formation in "hich mean of pro!uction are ocially o"ne!% The *reat !ifference #et"een thi an! primitive communim i !ue to the fact that the intrument of pro!uction are of a very po"erful an! a!vance! .in!' an! pro!uction i on a very lar*e cale% 4eople are no lon*er mem#er of clan' #oun! to*ether an! to the lan!' their principal mean of pro!uction' #y cloe communal tie% ,an! an! mean of pro!uction are no lon*er parcelle! out amon*t mall commune' each of "hich i there#y u#or!inate to it mean of pro!uctionA mean of pro!uction are ocially o"ne! on a *ran! cale an! the "hole of pro!uction i planne! for the #enefit of ociety a a "hole% & pro!uction approache the point of a#olute a#un!ance' thi economic formation i carrie! from the ta*e "hen the claim on the pro!uct i !etermine! #y la#our performe! to the ta*e "hen it i !etermine! imply #y nee!% n ome re*ion the primitive communit "ay of life "a eventually !itur#e! #y improvement of techni+ue lea!in* to !iviion of la#our' the pro!uction of a urplu' commo!ity e$chan*e' an! the formation of private property% Thee event too. place in the !itant pat' they "ere never recor!e!' an! o "e to!ay can !ra" only more or le pro#a#le inference a to "here they too. place an! the e$act coure they follo"e!% >hat they +uite evi!ently le! to' an! that only after a very lon* proce' "a economic formation in "hich ociety "a !ivi!e! into clae an! man "a e$ploite! #y man% But the precie character of the pro!uction relation of early cla!ivi!e! ocietie i a matter of ome"hat !u#iou inference% There are fe" "ritten recor!in many cae' none at all% &n! "hile archaeolo*it can !i* up relic of pro!uctive force' pro!uction relation !o not leave uch material relic% The mot that can #e !one i to !ra" inference from variation in the ihen pro!uction i mainly a*ricultural' a "a the cae "ith all ocietie until a comparatively late perio! of hitory' the main metho! of e$ploitation mut conit of e$tractin* urplu la#our from the a*ricultural pro!ucer% The main mean of
pro!uction i lan!' an! to un!ertan! the metho! of e$ploitation it i therefore neceary to .no" ho" the primary pro!ucer "or.e! the lan! an! ho" they "ere relate! to it% t "oul! appear that in the early cla-!ivi!e! ocietie an! thee' it houl! #e remem#ere!' e$ite! for a perio! of many thouan! of year #efore "ritten hitory #e*in "ith claical Dreece an! omeurplu la#our "a e$tracte! from the primary pro!ucer in variou "ay' ometime #y force! la#our' al"ay #y e$actin* ome form of tri#ute% Tri#ute ha #een e$acte! #y central ruler' often claimin* to #e *o! an! o"in* their po"er to the fact that they ha! a monopoly over rare metal an! often mana*e! the "ater upply an! irri*ation "or.A #y royal con+ueror or their appointe! repreentative or atrap' in .in! or in ta$eA or #y local ma*nate% uch tri#ute "a ori*inally impoe! upon communitie of pro!ucer amon*t "hom there till remaine! tron* urvival of primitive communim% ecri#in* the metho! of e$ploitation in n!ia' characteritic of the @oriental5 or @aiatic5 mo!el of pro!uction prevailin* there prior to the Britih con+uet' Mar$ "rote of villa*e communitie #uilt upon the commcn o"nerhip of lan! "hich "ere *roun! !o"n #y ta$ation% The pro!ucer in thee commune' en*a*e! not only in a*ricultural #ut alo in variou form of primitive in!utrial la#our' "ere not confronte! #y private lan!o"ner #ut rather #y a tate "hich tan! over them a their lan!lor! an! imultaneouly a their overei*n% (Capital' vol% ll' in chapter E0' E3 an! H%) >herever commo!ity e$chan*e #ecame more !evelope!' 70 an! "ith it the po"er of money' the ori*inal commune or clan ytem' "hich urvive! "ithin earlier mo!e of e$ploitation' "a increain*ly #ro.en up% ,an! then #ecame lia#le to #e #ou*ht' ol! an! mort*a*e!% Communal hol!in* "ere e$propriate!' an! lan! #ecome private property "ith the inevita#le appearance of lar*e lan!hol!in*% 4ro!ucer parte! "ith urplu la#our alo a interet on !e#t' an! "hile mot "ere impoverihe! a fe" #ecame rich an! turne! into e$ploiter themelve% The peculiarity of lavery' a a !itinct an! ancient metho! of e$ploitation' i that the peron of the lave i o"ne! #y the mater' "ho alo o"n lan! an! other mean of pro!uction an! et the lave to "or. a he ee fit% vi!ently' lave "ere primarily o#taine! #y capture% But "here commo!ity e$chan*e !evelope!' they #ecame commo!itie to #e #ou*ht an! ol!' o that lave repreente! an invetment of money an! a ource of incomeA an! furthermore' many people #ecame enlave! for !e#t% t i pro#a#le that lavery "a a feature of the earliet cla!ivi!e! ociety' o that the e$ploitation of lave #e*an a oon a e$ploitation #e*an' an! e$ite! alon*i!e the e$ploitation of non-lave a*ricultural pro!ucer a a ource of a!!itional "ealth an! po"er to a part of the o"nin* clae% Thu there "ere temple lave' houehol! lave' lave en*a*e! in "or.in* metal' an! o on% But a pecifically lave economic formation arie only "hen' "ith !evelopment of commo!ity e$chan*e an! private o"nerhip of lan!' it ha #ecome profita#le to #uy lave for ue in e$tractive an! other in!utrieA or "hen a lar*e part of the peaantry ha #ecome impoverihe! #y !e#t or other e$action' an! ha #een e$propriate! an! replace! #y lavein hort' "hen lavery #ecome the ma/or or pre!ominant metho! of e$tractin* urplu la#our' a "a the cae "ith the *reat lave etate of ancient ome% nci!entally' the puret lave ytem that ever e$ite! "a that of the plantation of the outhern tate of &merica' "hich en!e! le than a century a*o% Thi "a a commo!itypro!ucin* economy' !epen!in* on tra!e "ith in!utrial capitalit economie "hich preently over"helme! itA an! the 71 lave "ere ac+uire! for cah from the lave-tra!er "ho playe! o #i* a part in the primitive accumulation of capital% Thi illutrate the fact that lavery #y itelf !oe not uffice to !efine one in*le an! uni+ue ocial-economic formation' an! i not peculiar to one particular ta*e of economic !evelopment% n fact' lavery ha #een a feature of many economic formation from very ancient time to very recently' /ut a "a*e-la#our ha alo #een% There i no economic formation of cla-!ivi!e! ociety "hich contain only one metho! of e$ploitation' an! "hich i therefore of a @pure5 type% ach formation that hitorically come into e$itence mut #e !efine! a a pecific hitorically contitute! comple$ of !ifferent metho! of e$ploitation' applie! to pecific technically-!efine! type of la#our' "ith one metho! pre!ominatin*% The pecific type of economic formation .no"n a feu!alim arie "hen lan! i o"ne! #y a here!itary no#ility an! "hen peaant' "ho poe their o"n intrument of pro!uction' have the ue of lan!to "hich they may #e le*ally tie! a erf on con!ition of payin* !ue in .in! or in money or #oth to the no#ilityA an! "hen li.e"ie han!icraft an! mall manufacture e$it in !epen!ence on the no#ility "hoe lan! they occupy' payin* !ue to them% ;eu!alim can arie in a fairly o#viou "ay from a ytem of lave etate #y the replacement of lave #y erf an! of lave-o"nin* lan!o"ner #y feu!al lan!o"ner% &n! there i no !ou#t that hitorically the feu!al ytem in urope !i! arie from the !ecline an! "rec. of the former oman lave ytem' "hen enterprie #ae! on lavery ha! either ceae! to pay or ha! #een #ro.en up #y invaion% There ha perhap not yet #een enou*h inveti*ation of "hat ha #een calle! the feu!al economy in China an! ele"here to !efine it "ith e$actitu!e or to .no" from "hat e$actly it aroe% Be that a it may' it i certain that capitalim aroe hitorically only from economic !evelopment "ithin a feu!al ociety% t
aroe "hen improvement in manufacture an! a*ricultural techni+ue ha! create! con!ition in "hich the #ul. of pro!uct coul! #e pro!uce! a commo!itieA "hen lan!o"ner' 7E ea*er to *et more money' ha! e$propriate! lar*e num#er of a*ricultural pro!ucer an! left them to their o"n !evice "ithout enlavin* them (thi happene! in n*lan!' for e$ample' firt #y e$propriation #y lan!o"ner turnin* their etate into heep run to ell "ool to the "ool merchant' an! then #y encloure for the a.e of !evelopin* capitalit metho! of farmin*)A an! "hen in mercantile centre lar*e um of money' accumulate! #y lootin* le !evelope! area' piracy' lave tra!in*' an! o on' "ere availa#le a capital in the han! of in!ivi!ual% >ith capitalim' the pro!ucer i e$propriate! from all mean of pro!uction an! can live only #y ellin* hi la#our-po"erto the capitalit o"ner of mean of pro!uction' "ho thu e$tract hi urplu la#our in the form of urplu value' or unpai! la#our% The value of the commo!itie pro!uce! in a !ay: "or. i *reater than that of the "or.er: o"n la#our-po"er' "hich he ell to the capitalitA an! thi !ifference i the urplu value "hich the capitalit appropriate' an! "hich he realie in cah an! to hi profit "hen he ell the *oo! pro!uce!% The hitorical e+uence of ocial-economic formation i a natural hitory or evolutionary proce in thi enethat pro!uction relation are al"ay a!apte! to *iven force of pro!uction' o that thoe that arie in a!aptation to more a!vance! force of pro!uction repreent a hi*her ta*e of !evelopment of the economic formation of ociety than thoe a!apte! to le a!vance! force of pro!uction% The ta*e of !evelopment that a *iven ociety ha attaine! i o#/ectively !eci!e! #y the level of the force of pro!uction an! #y ho" far it economic tructure permit people to e$tract the ma$imum po"er from thoe force of pro!uction% Thu evi!ently' primitive communim i the firt an! lo"et ocial-economic formation' an! ocialim the hi*het% ocialim i a hi*her' more !evelope! formation than capitalim' capitalim than feu!alim' feu!alim than the other formation that uccee!e! primitive communim' an! all of them than primitive communim% The ancient Dree. an! oman reache! a more !evelope! ta*e than their #ar#arian 73 nei*hhour' the Chinee or the uropean of the Mi!!le &*e than the oman' >etern capitalim than me!ieval feu!alim% &n! no" oviet communim i rapi!ly reachin* a more !evelope! ta*e than >etern capitalim% n a famou paa*e of the 4reface to Criti+ue of 4olitical conomy' Mar$ "rote2 n #roa! outline' aiatic' ancient' feu!al an! mo!ern #our*eoi mo!e of pro!uction can #e !ei*nate! a pro*reive epoch in the economic formation of ociety% The #our*eoi relation of pro!uction are the lat anta*onitic form of the ocial proce of pro!uction % % % the pro!uctive force !evelopin* in the "om# of #our*eoi ociety create the material con!ition for the olution of that anta*onim%5 t "oul! appear that the pro*re here referre! to i that in "hich (i) commo!ity pro!uction ha not yet reache! the point "here the communal o"nerhip of lan! an! harin* out of lan! amon*t mem#er of commune ha #een !irupte!' an! private o"nerhip of lan! i not yet "i!ely eta#lihe! (the @aiatic5 epoch)A (E) private o"nerhip of lan! an! other mean of pro!uction i hi*hly !evelope! an! a ma/or part of commo!ity pro!uction i carrie! on #y lave la#our (the @ancient5 epoch)A (3) lave ceae to #e "i!ely ue! an! their la#our i replace! #y that of erf an! other o"in* !ue to feu!al lan!o"ner (the @feu!al5 epoch)A (H) the *reater part of the ocial pro!uct i pro!uce! a commo!itie' an! "or.er in ma/or pro!uctive enterprie are completely e$propriate! from mean of pro!uction an! converte! into "a*e-la#ourer ellin* their la#ourpo"er to capitalit (the @#our*eoi5 epoch)% ;inally' in e$aminin* the typical correpon!in* economic formation that came into #ein* in variou re*ion' it alo appear that a in the economic !evelopment the pro!uctive force of primitive communim are urpae!' o ociety #ecome emancipate! from primitive pro!uction relation an! cone+uently alo from the i!eolo*ie that correpon! to them% The hi*her the ta*e of economic !evelopment' the more have the primitive communal relation #in!in* the pro!ucer to the mean of pro!uction #een !iipate!% Thee 7H remain tron* in all early cla-!ivi!e! ocietie' an! the principal economic a*ency reponi#le for their !iolution i commo!ity e$chan*e% Thi *ro" "ith pro!uction itelf' an! i a tron* force impoverihin* the primary pro!ucer an! lea!in* to their e$propriation from the lan!2 lavery' "herever it i "i!ely intro!uce!' play a #i* part here% & communal pro!uction relation amon* primary pro!ucer are !iipate!' o alo are clan tie an! clan authority un!ermine!' an! the authority of a tate po"er e$erte! over a territory ta.e their place% n!utrial capitalim' "hich finally accomplihe the complete e$propriation of "or.er from their mean of pro!uction' i then the prelu!e to ocialim an! the foun!ation of fully !evelope! communit ocietyfor then the "hole mean of pro!uction can #e ta.en into ocial o"nerhip #y the "hole of ociety%
#ha"ter Four T.E F/NDAMENTAL LA' OF SO#IAL DE+ELOPMENT De$elo"ment o( the Forces o( Production >e have !efine! the mo!e of pro!uction an! the type of pro!uction relationeconomic an! cla tructurethrou*h "hich pro!uction !evelop% Thi !evelopment of pro!uction i the #ai of the entire !evelopment of ociety% >e hall no" coni!er the caue of thi economic !evelopment' the la" "hich *overn the tranition from one economic formation to another' an! the force "hich effect the tranition% 4eople !evelop their force of pro!uction% They chan*e their relation of pro!uction' an! "ith thee chan*e ne" clae come to the fore% Chan*e in relation of pro!uction are cone+uent upon !evelopment of the force of pro!uction' #ein* ma!e in a!aptation to ne" force of pro!uction o a to ma.e poi#le their full or fuller employment' an! thee chan*e are effecte! throu*h cla tru**le an! #y the a*ency of !efinite claeuch i the fun!amental la" of ocial !evelopment in accor!ance "ith "hich people effect the hitorical !evelopment of one mo!e of pro!uction after another% ;irt "e hall coni!er the !evelopment of the force of pro!uction% n the coure of hitory' the intrument of pro!uction have #een !evelope! from cru!e tone tool up to mo!ern machinery% ach technical invention ha #een !epen!ent on previou one an! coul! not have #een ma!e ha! the earlier techni+ue not #een alrea!y availa#le% The hitory of technolo*y thu follo" a e+uence !etermine! #y the o#/ective propertie of 76 the material an! force in the phyical' chemical an! #iolo*ical environment availa#le for employment #y man% Thi !evelopment of techni+ue "a effecte! #y people' "ho !ei*ne! an! ue! the intrument of pro!uction% Cone+uently' the !evelopment of the intrument of pro!uction "a alo a !evelopment of peopleof their e$perience' .ill' .no"le!*e' an! a#ility to ma.e an! han!le the intrument of pro!uction% Thi !evelopment of the force of pro!uction' inclu!in* the !evelopment of the e$perience' .ill' .no"le!*e an! a#ilitie of people themelve' i the root caue of the "hole of ocial !evelopment% ;rom "hat !oe it arie ? t arie from men: contant trivin* to mater nature% &n! thi trivin* i not ome !ivine *ift #ut the natural cone+uence of the fun!amental oppoition or contra!iction #et"een men an! their natural environment' "hich i preent from the firt moment "hen men #e*an to fahion tool an! to co-operate in their uethat i' from the #irth of man.in!% @Man' "rote Mar$ in Capital (vol% ' chap% ' ect' i)' oppoe himelf to nature a one of her o"n force' ettin* in motion arm an! le*' hea! an! han!' the natural force of hi #o!y' in or!er to appropriate nature: pro!uction in a form a!apte! to hi o"n "ant% By thu actin* on the e$ternal "orl! an! chan*in* it' he at the ame time chan*e hi o"n nature% =e !evelop hi lum#erin* po"er an! compel them to act in o#e!ience to hi "ill%5 Men' ee.in* to atify their "ant' mana*e to improve their techni+ue' their tool an! their .illin other "or!' their pro!uctive force% &n! it i only "hen ne" pro!uctive force preent them "ith ne" poi#ilitie an! o aroue in them the feelin* of ne" nee!' that men #e*in to feel the neceity of a chan*e in pro!uction relation% The !evelopment of pro!uctive force i' ho"ever' far from #ein* a tea!y' continuou proce throu*hout the hitory of ociety% f every *eneration ha! al"ay improve! upon the pro!uctive force inherite! from the previou *eneration' hitory "oul! have move! a *reat !eal fater an! a *reat !eal more evenly than ha in fact #een the cae% On the contrary' 7 it ha fre+uently happene! that' havin* once ac+uire! certain techni+ue' people have ma!e !o "ith them for a very lon* time% &n! then their pro!uction relation have remaine! #aically the ame for a very lon* time' too% &*ain' ac+uirement have #een re*ional% >hile ome have for*e! ahea! "ith ne" techni+ue' thoe livin* in ome other re*ion have remaine! tuc. "ith ol! techni+ue% Thu' for e$ample' pro!uction remaine! at the level of the ol! tone a*e for hun!re! of thouan! of year' an! all thoe *eneration continue! to live the life of primitive communim% ome carcely move! at all until colonier arrive! from outi!e% &*ain' in ome re*ion metho! of a*riculture remaine! unchan*e! for thouan! of year' an! for all that time pro!uction relation remaine! virtually unchan*e!% But "hen' for "hatever reaon' ne" pro!uctive force are ac+uire!' then a proce #e*in reultin* eventually in chan*e of pro!uction relation amon*t thoe "ho have ac+uire! thoe pro!uctive force% e" techni+ue are intro!uce! "ithin the e$itin* pro!uction relation' #ut at a certain ta*e their employment lea! to people chan*in* their pro!uction relation% Very rapi! !evelopment of pro!uctive force i a feature of capitalit ociety% But it "a not the cae in mo!ern hitory that
firt capitalit relation of pro!uction "ere intro!uce! an! only after that !i! !evelopment of pro!uctive force #e*in% On the contrary' thi !evelopment #e*an "ithin the feu!al ytem' an! it "a only after"ar! that capitalit relation of pro!uction upplante! the feu!al relation% & "hole erie of invention !urin* the mi!!le a*e (ne" application of "ater po"er' the mo!ern type of plou*h' ne" metho! of navi*ation' the pinnin*-"heel' ne" minin* metho!' lathe' cat iron' etc%) provi!e! the con!ition for the !evelopment of capitalim% n carryin* on pro!uction' people necearily enter into !efinite relation of pro!uction% &n! in the lon* run' they al"ay #rin* thee relation of pro!uction into correpon!ence "ith their pro!uctive force% @ocial relation are cloely #oun! up "ith pro!uctive 7K force' "rote Mar$ in The 4overty of 4hiloophy% n ac+uirin* ne" pro!uctive force men chan*e their mo!e of pro!uction% % % % The han!-mill *ive you ociety "ith the feu!al lor!A the teammill' ociety "ith the in!utrial capitalit%5 S"ontaneous or /n"lanned De$elo"ment To un!ertan! the caue of thi !evelopment of pro!uctive force an! of correpon!in* pro!uction relation it i neceary to premie that in the pat people have not #rou*ht ne" pro!uctive force into employment' nor et up ne" pro!uction relation' a a reult of any plan or intention% n !evelopin* ne" tool an! techni+ue people have al"ay #een ee.in* ome imme!iate a!vanta*e' #ut have #een far from plannin* or inten!in* the revolutionary ocial reult "hich have in fact follo"e! from uch !evelopment% ;or e$ample' "hen manufacture firt tarte!' the manufacturer "ho tarte! it ha! no plan of creatin* *i*antic ne" pro!uctive forceA they "ere imply ee.in* their o"n imme!iate a!vanta*e% To carry on manufacture they #e*an to hire "a*e-la#our' in other "or!' to initiate capitalit relation of pro!uction% They !i! not !o thi #ecaue they ha! an am#itiou an! far-eein* plan for #uil!in* capitalimA they !i! it #ecaue that turne! out to #e the "ay in "hich manufacture coul! #et #e carrie! on% n thi "ay the !evelopment of ne" pro!uctive forcein our e$ample' thoe #rou*ht into operation #y manufacture "a never !eci!e! upon #ut happene! pontaneouly' "ithout any plan' a a reult of certain people ee.in* their o"n imme!iate a!vanta*e% &n! imilarly' the !evelopment of thee pro!uctive force le! to the intitution of ne" relation of pro!uctiononce more' pontaneouly' #y economic neceity' an! "ithout any plan% Thi i "hat Mar$ e$pree! #y ayin* that the !evelopment of pro!uction relation happene! in!epen!ent of men: "ill5% @n the ocial pro!uction "hich men carry on' he "rote in the 4reface to Criti+ue of 4olitical conomy' they enter into !efinite relation that are in!ipena#le an! in!epen!ent of their "illA thee relation correpon! to a !efinite ta*e 79 of !evelopment of their material force of pro!uction% The relation of pro!uction into "hich people enter in the coure of their ocial pro!uction are @in!ipena#le5- #ecaue they cannot carry on pro!uction "ithout enterin* into !efinite relation of pro!uctionA an! alo in!epen!ent of their "ill#ecaue they !o not !eci!e #eforehan! to intitute certain !efinite relation of pro!uction' #ut enter into thee relation in!epen!ent of any uch plan% =ence' firt the !evelopment of pro!uctive force an! then the chan*e of pro!uction relation i caue! #y ocial economic activitie "hich people perform #ecaue of the neceity of livin*pontaneouly' "ithout any !eli#erate !eciion or plan' in!epen!ent of their "ill% Thi i a feature of ocial !evelopment ri*ht up to the ocialit revolution% Only "ith the victory of the ocialit revolution !oe it happen that pro!uction relation are chan*e! a a reult of !eli#erate !eciion an! that thereafter the !evelopment of pro!uction i alo re*ulate! #y a plan% #han)es o( Relations o( Production Chan*e of the relation of pro!uction !epen! on !evelopment of the force of pro!uction% uch i the la" of ocial !evelopment% ;or it i a re+uirement of all ocial pro!uction that the relation "hich people enter into in carryin* on pro!uction mut #e uita#le to the type of pro!uction they are carryin* on% =ence' it i a *eneral la" of economic !evelopment that the relation of pro!uction mut necearily #e a!apte! to the character of the force of pro!uction% & "e have een' the very nature of pro!uction a a contra!ictory relationhip #et"een men an! nature implie a ten!ency for ne" techni+ue to #e !icovere! from time to time% But a for pro!uction relation' on the other han!' once eta#lihe! they ten! to remain fi$e!the economic tructure' the form of property' the ocial ytem' i a conervative factor "hich reit chan*e% The invention an! employment of ne" pro!uctive force intro!uce' a i o#viou' ne" !iviion of la#our an! create a *reater +uantity an! variety of pro!uct% But thi ne" 60 !iviion of la#our itelf *ive rie to ne" form of property' throu*h "hich the ne" !iviion of la#our i or*anie! an! "hich re*ulate the appropriation an! !itri#ution of the *reatly increae!
pro!uct% The property relation an! mo!e of e$chan*e of economic activitie an! pro!uct "hich aroe from an! correpon!e! to the earlier pro!uctive force no lon*er uffice for the or*aniation of a ne" !iviion of la#our an! the !itri#ution of it pro!uct% ;or thi reaon' the relation #et"een pro!uction relation an! pro!uctive force i a contra!ictory one% The ame pro!uction relation "hich "ere "ell uite! for the pro!uctive force in ue at one time are not "ell uite! to ne" pro!uctive force' an! o come to hin!er their !evelopment an! to act a a fetter on it% >hen thi happen' it i clear that intea! of pro!uction relation #ein* in conformity "ith pro!uctive force there i an active contra!iction #et"een them% &n! #ecaue pro!uction relation ten! to reit chan*e' #ecaue there are al"ay people "hoe material interet are #oun! up "ith certain pro!uction relation an! "ho therefore reit any chan*e' thi contra!iction iue in !eep ocial conflict% ;or e$ample' a "e have /ut een' the !evelopment of manufacturean!' "e houl! a!!' the !evelopment alo of ne" techni+ue in a*riculturere+uire! an! le! to the employment of "a*e-la#our% Only "ith capitalit relation coul! the ne"ly!evelope! force of pro!uction #e more fully employe!% But the e$itin* feu!al relation' "hich tie! the la#ourer to the lan! an! to the ervice of hi lor!' "ere a #arrier to the !evelopment of the ne" pro!uctive force% =ence thee relation' "ithin "hich pro!uction ha! once flourihe!' no" #e*an to act a a fetter% & contra!iction aroe #et"een the ol! pro!uction relation an! ne" pro!uctive force% o lon* a pro!uction relation are in conformity "ith pro!uctive force' they remain relatively unchan*e!% &n! in ome re*ion it ha come a#out that certain pro!uction relation' once eta#lihe!' have prove! o e$traor!inarily conervative that no impule to improve pro!uctive force ha arien "ithin themor if it !i! arie' it "a tran*le! at 61 #irth' an! the employment of ne" techni+ue "a !icoura*e! an! put !o"n% But "herever any people !o !evelop ne" pro!uctive force' thi !evelopment eventually reache a point "here it i hin!ere! #y the e$itin* relation of pro!uction% &n! it i at that point that a chan*e in the relation of pro!uction #ecome neceary' an! i carrie! into effect% The !evelopment of pro!uctive force i a la" of human hitory' "hich aert itelf !epite all paue an! et#ac.% &nythin* "hich oppoe thi irreiti#le !evelopment i #oun!' ooner or later' to #e "ept a"ay% o "hen relation of pro!uction #e*in to hin!er the ue of ne" pro!uctive force' the time i approachin* "hen the ocial ytem #ae! on them "ill fall% >hat ha ta.en place' up to the appearance of the capitalit economic formation' i that "henever people have !evelope! ne" force of pro!uction they have' in !oin* o' #e*un to enter into ne" relation of pro!uctionA an! then thoe ne" pro!uction relation have upplante! former one an! #een conoli!ate! into a ne" ocial-economic formation% Thu the communal ytem of primitive communim correpon!e! to a very primitive level of !evelopment of pro!uction% >hen the cultivation of crop an! !ometication of animal appeare!' the #e*innin* of private property an! commo!ity e$chan*e aroe' an! the ol! communal relation #e*an to #e chan*e!% & ne" .in! of community of eparate houehol! emer*e!' "ith ome more e+ual than other% >hen the ue of metal "a ac+uire!' then ociety #ecame further an! more !eeply !ivi!e!% The people "ho firt ettle! in river valley an! #e*an irri*ation "or. coul! not or*anie thoe "or. e$cept #y mean of ome form of property in "hich they "ere centrally controlle! #y a in*le authority% & ne" type of property "a eventually uperimpoe! upon the ol! property of the mem#er of the commune% & ne" type of ocial-economic formation aroe an! upere!e! the ol!' "hich "a incapa#le of !evelopin* the ne" type of pro!uction% The lan! "a ai! to #elon* to the *o!' an! thoe "ho upervie! pro!uction an! *ot the main hare of the pro!uct "ere calle! *o! or ervant of *o!2 thi 6E "a evi!ently an ima*inative "ay of !ecri#in* an economic arran*ement' a form of property an! of the e$ploitation of man #y man' "hich ha! come into #ein* #ecaue it "a capa#le of or*aniin* pro!uction in a "ay ol!er form of property "ere not% Thoe people "ho ac+uire! the ue of iron ac+uire! there#y many a!vanta*e over thoe "ho ha! not !one o% They "ere a#le to cultivate ne" lan!' an! to et up mall in!utrieA commo!ity e$chan*e an! the ue of money increae! an! #rou*ht to the fore ne" lan!e! an! financial interet "hich #ro.e an! !iplace! former aritocracie% >here' a in Dreece an! ome' a ocial-economic formation "ith lavery a the !ominant mo!e of e$ploitation aroe' thi too. place #ecaue lar*e-cale a*ricultural enterprie' e$tractive in!utrie an! #uil!in* coul! more effectively #e carrie! on #y lave la#our than #y clanmen payin* tri#ute% The former la#ourer an! proprietor "ere ruine!' an! the ol! pro!uction relation "ere replace! #y the pecific economic formation of the lave ytem of @claical5 time% n*el remar.e! (in part ' chap% H' of &nti-iihrin*) that thi !evelopment of lavery thorou*hly un!ermine! the remnant of primitive communal relation "hich ha! urvive! throu*hout all former ytem% t "a lavery' he "rote' that firt ma!e poi#le the !iviion of la#our #et"een a*riculture an! in!utry on a coni!era#le cale%%%% >e houl! never for*et that our "hole economic' political an! intellectual !evelopment ha a it preuppoition a tate of thin* in "hich lavery "a a neceary a it "a univerally reco*nie!% n thi ene "e may ay2 >ithout the lavery of anti+uity' no mo!ern
ocialim%n China an! other countrie of the at' the ancient economic !evelopment of "hich i till imperfectly un!ertoo!' communal relation amon* pro!ucer eem to have urvive! in a "ay that inhi#ite! any internal !evelopment to"ar! a capitalit mo!e of pro!uction' an! to have prove! a tron*ly conervative force until very recently "hen' the po"er of former lan!o"ner havin* #een a#olihe!' they coul! #e tranforme! into the ocialit relation of the people: commune% o lon* a lavery remaine! in force in urope a the main metho! of e$ploitin* la#our' improvement in pro!uction techni+ueepecially thoe ma.in* ue of natural force other than human mucle-po"er"ere inhi#ite!% But "hen' "ith invaion an! the "ea.enin* of the central lave-o"nin* po"er' the upply of lave #e*an to !ry up' improvement aociate! "ith the fuller ue of "ater po"er' improve! harne for !rau*ht animal' improve! plou*h' an! o on' #e*an to #e effecte!% lavery "a never a#olihe! at a in*le tro.eA lavela#our remaine! alon*i!e free la#our% But the improve! techni+ue "ere not eaily "or.a#le #y lave la#our' an! coul! #e ue! to a!vanta*e "ithin the feu!al rather than the ol! lave relation% ;eu!al metho! of e$ploitation then came to replace lavery% ,ater till' feu!alim in it turn came to hin!er the !evelopment of the pro!uctive force% ;eu!al o"nerhip' feu!al !ue an! retriction on tra!e hampere! the !evelopment of a*riculture an! manufacture employin* ne" invention "hich !eman!e! a ource of "a*e-la#our% ;eu!alim then *ave "ay to capitalim an! capitalit relation of pro!uction% The capitalit relation #rou*ht a#out a !evelopment of pro!uctive force on a cale an! at a pee! un.no"n #efore% Thi "a #ecaue cientific reearch no" came to #e a po"erful force of pro!uction' an! the !rive for profit an! accumulation of capital le! the capitalit o"ner continually to !evelop ne" techni+ue% But the fuller ue an! !evelopment of the force of pro!uction i no" #ein* #loc.e! #y capitalim% The fun!amental feature of the increae of the force of pro!uction #rou*ht a#out "ithin capitalim i the ocialiation of la#our% 4etty' in!ivi!ual pro!uction ha #een replace! #y the po"er of ocial la#our' in "hich men co-operate to*ether in *reat pro!uctive enterprie uin* po"er-!riven machinery% ocial la#our i capa#le of immene achievement' miracle of contruction for the "elfare of all man.in!% But it i fettere! #y the capitalit pro!uction relation' "hich nia.e the pro!uct the property of the capitalit an! compel ocial pro!uction to erve private profit% ocial pro!uction i in contra!iction "ith private capitalit 6H appropriation' an! mut nee! #rea. the fetter of the capitalit pro!uction relation% >hen ocial o"nerhip an! ocial appropriation i eta#lihe! to match ocial pro!uction' not only are all the #ra.e ta.en off technical a!vance' #ut the *reat pro!uctive force of ocial la#our are et freepeople are their o"n mater an! are "or.in* for themelve% The *eneral picture "hich emer*e of ocial !evelopment from one formation of pro!uction relation to another i' then' a follo"% ;irt' relation of pro!uction arie in conformity "ith the !evelopment of the pro!uctive force% But a time come "hen further !evelopment of ne" pro!uctive force i hin!ere! #y ol! relation of pro!uction% ;rom form of !evelopment of the ocial force of pro!uction' thee relation turn into their fetter% Then come a perio! of revolutionary chan*e' "hen one type of pro!uction relation i replace! #y another% =o"' then' #y "hat mean' #y "hat force' are uch chan*e #rou*ht a#out? #lass Stru))le as the Moti$e Force o( Social #han)e ociety !evelop throu*h a erie of ta*e' in each of "hich a !efinite type of property pre!ominate% Thi !evelopment i far from #ein* a mooth' *ra!ual proce of evolution' "or.in* itelf out throu*h a erie of impercepti#le chan*e an! a!/utment' "ithout conflict% On the contrary' property relation are chan*e! throu*h a erie of revolution% &n! after the firt eta#lihment of private property' thee are #rou*ht a#out #y people puruin* cla interet an! #y the tru**le of one cla a*aint another% & "e have een' "henever people !evelop ne" force of pro!uction they #e*in to enter into ne" relation of pro!uction% ;orm of property in mean of pro!uction come into e$itence appropriate to the or*aniation of thoe force of pro!uction% & metho! of e$ploitation' or of e$traction of urplu la#our from the pro!ucer' *oe "ith thoe form of property% &n! o' "ith the !evelopment of ne" force of pro!uction' ne" clae arie' an! ne" cla !iviion an! anta*onim "ithin ociety% Thee anta*onim inclu!e' firt of all' the anta*onim #et"een e$ploiter an! e$ploite!% The e$ploiter' a a cla' ee. all mean to conoli!ate their property' to e$tract more urplu la#our an! to increae their "ealth% Lnle utterly #eaten !o"n an! enlave!' the e$ploite! reit thi' an! ta.e "hatever action they can to .eep more of their la#our for themelve% Moreover' thoe e$ploite! clae "hich retain form of property of their o"nuch a mem#er of commune "ho have
lan! in common or' later' erf an! free peaant to*ether "ith mall in!epen!ent pro!ucer or petty tra!er' ee. to han* on to their property' to enlar*e it if they can' an! to reit encroachment from #i* e$ploitin* property interet% Thu there have #een' for e$ample' many peaant riin*' lave revolt' an! o on' aime! at *ettin* free from at leat ome e$action an! at "innin* ecurity of tenure or reettlement on the lan!% &*ain' mall men have reite! impoverihment an! e$propriationometime for a time uccefully' a "ith the #i* movement in ancient Dreece an! ome "hich *aine! uch !eman! a cancellation of !e#t% ;urther' throu*hout hitory *reat e$ploitin* clae have eta#lihe! empire% They have #y arme! force e$ten!e! their "ay over "i!e territorie' u#/ectin* the economically le !evelope! people there to e$ploitatione$actin* tri#ute' catchin* lave' lootin* their reource% Mo!ern imperialim' in eence the !iviion of the "orl! #et"een *reat monopoly capitalit interet for purpoe of e$portin* capital an! o#tainin* ra" material an! mar.et for metropolitan in!utrie' i #ut the mo!ern form of an imperialim "hich ha thouan! of year of hitory% mperial con+uet ha al"ay encountere! the reitance of the con+uere!% &n! time an! time a*ain' thi reitance ha eventually contri#ute! to the !o"nfall of e$ploitin* clae% >hen in the !itant pat *reat e$ploitin* clae' "ith their empire' have #een overthro"n #y #ar#arian invaion' thee invaion "ere el!om imply invaion #y noma! or other mi*ratin* people "ho "ere only after lan! or plun!er% They "ere invaion #y people "ho ha! the choice of either u#mittin* to e$ploitation #y ancient 66 imperialit' or ele attac.in* an! overthro"in* their empire% Mo!ern imperialim !oe not face any invaion #y @#ai:#arian#ut the mo!ern li#eration movement of colonial people i none the le fatal to it% econ!ly' there are anta*onim #et"een e$ploitin* clae% n particular' the e$ploitin* cla "hoe property an! metho! of e$ploitation i aociate! "ith the or*aniation of ne" an! improve! force of pro!uction al"ay come into anta*onim a*aint ol!er e$ploitin* clae% Conoli!atin* their property' tru**lin* #y all mean' inclu!in* arme! force' to increae their "ealth #y e$ten!in* their o"n metho! of e$ploitation' they come into colliion "ith the ol!er e$ploiter% &n! it i "hen circumtance favour thema they *enerally !o' #ecaue ne" force of pro!uction are more po"erful than ol! that the ol!er form of property are over"helme!' an! the ol!er e$ploitin* clae are either eliminate! alto*ether' #y #ein* ruine! or perhap .ille! off' or force! into a merely u#i!iary place in the ne" economy% >ith the rie of private property an! e$ploitation' an! the !iviion of ociety into anta*onitic clae' ocial life #ecome a cene of violence' cruelty an! "ar% =o"ever !ar. hi upertition an! miera#le hi con!ition' there i no !ou#t that primitive man "a comparatively peacea#le% =i life may have #een' a Thoma =o##e put it' naty' #rutih an! hort' #ut it "a not fille! "ith "ar an! civil trife% But the material interet of e$ploitin* clae !rive them into oppreion an! violenceinto impoin* #y force their e$action of urplu la#our' violent tru**le a*aint other clae' an! a**reive "ar% The pecific character an! aim of "ar !epen! on the metho! of o#tainin* "ealth "hich motivate the "ar' "hether to con+uer ne" lan!' catch lave' ecure ne" mar.et an! ra" material' or fin! outlet for invetment of capital% Thu it ha #een throu*h cla tru**le an! "ar that revolutionary ocial chan*e have #een effecte!% The "a*in* of cla tru**le ha al"ay' a The Communit Manifeto put it' en!e!' either in a revolutionary recontitution of ociety at lar*e' or in the common ruin of the conten!in* clae% Thi common ruin eem often to have overta.en 6 ocial or*anim in earlier time' conummate! often #y invaion #y #ar#arian% t "a' #y the "ay' thi fre+uent phenomenon in hitory "hich apparently le! 4rofeor &rnol! Toyn#ee' for e$ample' to formulate a theory a#out the la" of the rie an! inevita#le fall of all civiliation2 he ma!e a "eepin* *eneraliation from numerou #ut inufficiently analye! !ata% But it i alo poi#le that thi coul! #e the fate of our o"n civiliation' if anta*onim #et"een ol! an! ne" ocial formation en! in nuclear "arfare% very economic formation came into e$itence' overcame an ol!er one an! "a conoli!ate! un!er the lea! of a !efinite clanamely' the cla "hoe material interet "ere erve! #y the mo!e of !ipoin* of urplu la#our peculiar to that formation% &n! ince thi ne" cla appear a the opponent of the ol!er e$ploitin* cla an! of the e$itin* ytem of e$ploitation an! oppreion' the cla ma.in* a revolution appear from the very tart %%% a the repreentative of the "hole of ociety (Mar$ an! n*el' The Derman !eolo*y' part )% t i thu a#le to mo#ilie the upport of other clae oppoe! to it o"n main enemy' an! thi contri#ute to it victory% &fter"ar!' "hen a ne" metho! of e$ploitation #ecome !ominant in ociety' anta*onim #rea. out afreh% The #our*eoiie' in it #attle a*aint feu!alim' "a in thi "ay a#le to mo#ilie the *reater part of ociety a*aint it feu!al enemy% But "hen capitalim "a un!er "ay' ne" cla anta*onim #ro.e out% t i a peculiarity of capitalim that it implifie cla contra!iction #y #rin*in* to the fore the one *reat anta*onim #et"een capitalit cla an! "or.in* cla% The e$ploitin* cla i no" face! "ith no rival e$ploitin* cla #ut only "ith the cla of the e$ploite!% But thi i no" an e$ploite! cla or*anie! an! e!ucate! #y the very ocialiation of la#our "hich capitalim itelf #rin* into e$itence% t i an e$ploite! cla for the firt time a#le itelf to ta.e over lea!erhip of the "hole of ociety' not loo.in* #ac."ar! to ome ol!er form of petty property #ut for"ar! to ocial o"nerhip of the mean of pro!uction%
&t the ame time' capitalim *reatly harpen all cla 6K contra!iction% The firt ocialit revolution !i! not in fact ta.e place "here capitalim "a alrea!y mot hi*hly !evelope!% t too. place in uia' "here the capitalit cla "a till comparatively "ea. #ut "here all cla contra!iction ha! reache! their harpet e$preion#et"een "or.er an! capitalit' peaant an! lan!o"ner' national minoritie an! their oppreor% The uian "or.in* cla "a a#le to ta.e the lea! of all the e$ploite!' in or!er to overthro" all the e$ploiter an! finally en! the e$ploitation of man #y man% Indi$iduals and #lasses The theory of cla tru**le ena#le u to un!ertan! the role of prominent in!ivi!ual in hitory% o cla play a role in hitory "ithout lea!er' o that the activitie of pu#lic men play an eential part in *ettin* thin* !one"hether the lea!er are hea!in* revolutionary movement' conoli!atin* *ain' merely .eepin* thin* *oin*' or !efen!in* lot caue% The authority an! po"er of the hitorical perona*e' of the man "hoe action eem' unli.e thoe of hitorically anonymou people' to hape ociety for *oo! or ill an! to ma.e hitory' i !erive! from a cla% &n! unle he en/oy the upport of a cla "hoe interet an! ten!encie he repreent' he i impotent an! can e$ert no !eciive influence% =ence there arie in !ifferent hitorical perio! prominent men of !ifferent type' varyin* "ith the ta. their cla call on them to fulfill% The #ar#arian con+ueror' the tyrant' the pru!ent or viciou emperor' the *oo! or #a! .in*' the "ily politician' the fiery a*itator' the cientific ocialitall are pro!uct of the ocial con!ition in "hich they play their part% ;or the ame reaon' the type of peronality that come to the top i the one uite! to the /o# in han!' "hile other' perhap more *ifte! in other "ay' remain o#cure% imilarly' it i natural that in time of revolutionary chan*e *reat an! !ynamic peronalitie come to the fore' "hile at other time only me!iocritie ho" their face% =itorical !evelopment i not !etermine! #y the peronal !eciion of pu#lic men' #ut #y the movement of clae% The prominent men of a cla affect it fortune #y the "i!om or other"ie of their action' #ut they !o not ma.e or #rea. a cla% Moreover' "here a lea!er i evi!ently failin*' he ten! to #e !epoe! an! omeone more a#le to #e u#titute!% t i the ame "ith cultural an! intellectual lea!er% Thoe "ho ma.e their mar. are thoe "hoe "or. reflect the nee! of their time% @>hen it i a +uetion of inveti*atin* the !rivin* po"er "hich lie #ehin! the motive of men "ho act in hitory' "rote n*el in ,u!"i* ;euer#ac. (chap% H)' it i not a +uetion o much of the motive of in*le in!ivi!ual' ho"ever eminent' a of thoe motive "hich et in motion *reat mae' "hole people' an! a*ain "hole clae% To acertain the !rivin* caue "hich are reflecte! a conciou motive in the min! of actin* mae an! their lea!er %%% i the only path "hich can put u on the trac. of the la" hol!in* "ay #oth in hitory a a "hole an! at particular perio! in particular lan!%5 Thoe hitorian "ho fail to *rap the !eterminin* role of economic !evelopment an! the cla tru**le in hitory fin! themelve in !ifficultie "hen tryin* to e$plain hitorical eventan! even in !eci!in* "hich event are "orthy of #ein* clae! a @hitorical5% f it i a matter of the peronalitie an! motive of in!ivi!ual accountin* for "hat happen' then the hitorian i face! "ith the practical impoi#ility of fin!in* ufficient evi!ence to .no" their peronalitie an! their motive "ith any !e*ree of certainty% n!ee!' a it i uually har! enou*h to .no" the peronal motive of one: o"n ac+uaintance' an! even ometime of oneelf' it i evi!ent that till le can #e acertaine! a#out in!ivi!ual lon* !ea!' for "hoe character only o#viouly #iae! tetimonial are availa#le% The hitorian ha to fill in hi lac. of .no"le!*e from hi o"n #ia an! ima*ination2 the innocent Mi Catherine Morlan! in orlhan*er &##ey can #e e$cue! for ayin* of hitory2 often thin. it o!! that it houl! #e o !ull' for a *reat !eal of it mut #e invention%5 But hitorian have only themelve to than. if they are thu !riven into cepticim a#out the !icovery of hitorical 0 caue' an! into the concluion that "hat i actually @ important5 in hitory can #e !eci!e! only #y the u#/ective interet of the hitorian himelf% >hile the !etail of in!ivi!ual motive mut necearily remain hi!!en' the ocial caue of hitorical !evelopment are open to hitorical .no"le!*eA an! "hat i @important5 i o#/ectively !eci!e! #y it #earin* on the !evelopment of the mo!e of pro!uction%
The State and Re$olution =o" ha it #een poi#le' in ocietie !ivi!e! into e$ploiter an! e$ploite!' for an e$ploitin* minority to preerve it !omination over the ma/ority' an! for the ocial or*anim not to fall in piece un!er tre of cla tru**le ? t ha #een poi#le only #ecaue the minority poee! an! ha! control over a pecial or*aniation for coercin* the ret of ociety an! at the ame time preervin* the unity of ociety% That or*aniation i the tate% The tate i not an or*aniation of the "hole of ociety' #ut a pecial or*aniation "ithin ociety' arme! "ith po"er to repre an! coerce% >hatever the form of the tate"hether it #e an autocracy' a military !ictatorhip' a !emocracy' etc% it mot eential component are the mean to e$ercie compulion over the mem#er of ociety% uch compulion i e$ercie! #y mean of pecial #o!ie of arme! menol!ier' police an! o on% t i enforce! #y phyical mean#y the poeion of armA #y the poeion of tron* #uil!in*' prion' "ith loc. an! #arA #y the poeion of intrument to inflict pain an! !eath% The tate mut alo inclu!e a machinery of a!minitration' a corp of tate official% t alo !evelop a le*al ytem' an authority for ma.in* la" an! /u!*e to interpret an! a!miniter them% &n! it alo !evelop mean not only of coercin* men phyically' #ut mentally' #y variou type of i!eolo*ical an! propa*an!a a*encie% uch a pecial or*aniation #ecame neceary only "hen ociety "a !ivi!e! into anta*onitic clae% ;rom that time on"ar!' the tate #ecame neceary a a pecial po"er to prevent the ocial anta*onim from !iruptin* an! !etroyin* ociety% @The tate ha not e$ite! from all eternity' "rote n*el in The Ori*in of the ;amily' the tate an! 4rivate 4roperty (chap% 9)% &t a !efinite ta*e of economic !evelopment' "hich involve! the cleava*e of ociety into clae' the tate #ecame a neceity #ecaue of thi cleava*e%5 @& the tate aroe from the nee! to .eep cla anta*onim in chec.' #ut alo in the thic. of the fi*ht #et"een clae' he continue!' it i normally the tate of the mot po"erful' economically rulin* cla' "hich #y it mean #ecome alo the politically rulin* cla' an! o ac+uire ne" mean of hol!in* !o"n an! e$ploitin* the oppree! cla%5 The tate' "rote ,enin the The tate an! evolution (chap' i)' i an or*an of cla rule' an or*an for the repreion of one cla #y another5% &t each ta*e of !evelopment' a "e have een' a particular type of pro!uction relation #ecome pre!ominant in the ocial economy' an! the correpon!in* cla aume the !ominant place in ocial pro!uction% t can *ain an! maintain that place only in o far a it can enforce it o"n interet upon the ret of ociety% &n! it can !o that only in o far a it can *ain an! maintain control over the tate% n every epoch' therefore' o lon* a ociety i !ivi!e! into anta*onitic clae' a particular cla hol! the tate po"er an! there#y eta#lihe itelf a the rulin* cla% n a lave ociety it i the laveo"ner' in feu!al ociety the feu!al lor!' in capitalit ociety the capitalit' an! "hen capitalim i overthro"n the "or.in* cla #ecome the rulin* cla% >hen the "or.in* cla #ecome the rulin* cla' then there i no lon*er the rule of the minority of the e$ploiter over the ma/ority of the e$ploite!' #ut the rule of the ma/ority% n thi' "or.in*-cla po"er !iffer from all previou tate po"er% 4reviou tate po"er ha' a Mar$ e$pree! it in The i*hteenth Brumaire of ,oui Bonaparte (chap% ) perfecte! an enormou #ureaucratic an! military or*aniation% The ta. of the "or.in* cla i to mah it% >hen eventually all e$ploitation i eliminate!' the coercive po"er of the tate "ill no lon*er #e nee!e! an! the tate itelf "ill finally !iappear% n the hitory of cla tru**le every rulin* e$ploitin* cla E ha al"ay !efen!e! to the lat the property relation on "hich !epen!e! it "ealth an! influence an!' in!ee!' it very e$itence a a cla% t ha !one o #y it control over the tate% &n! o all clae "hich tan! in anta*onim to the rulin* cla are inevita#ly !riven into political action' if not to !etroy the tate po"er of the rulin* cla an! "ret control of the tate a"ay from it' then at leat to mo!ify an! influence that tate po"er in their o"n interet% @very cla tru**le i a political tru**le' "rote Mar$ an! n*el in The Communit Manifeto% Jut a' in the lat analyi' every ma/or political tru**le i a tru**le of clae' o the cla tru**le #ecome a tru**le to influence tate' that i' political affair an!' in revolutionary perio!' a tru**le for tate po"er% eciive revolutionary chan*e in the economic tructure of ociety are neceitate!' an! the "ay i prepare! for them' #y an economic proce "hich !evelop in!epen!ently of men: "ill#y the *ro"th of pro!uctive force an! the cone+uent incompati#ility of ol! pro!uction relation "ith ne" pro!uctive force% But uch chan*e are actually carrie! throu*h #y political action' very often ta.in* the form of "ar% ;or "hatever are the iue raie!' an! "hatever form the tru**le ta.e' thee are in the lat analyi the "ay in "hich men #ecome conciou of the economic an! cla conflict an! fi*ht them out%
ocial revolution i' therefore' the tranfer of tate or political po"er from one cla to another cla% The +uetion of po"er i the fun!amental +uetion of every revolution' "rote ,enin' in an article On lo*an% evolution mean the overthro" of a rulin* cla "hich !efen! e$itin* relation of pro!uction' an! the con+uet of tate po"er #y a cla "hich i interete! in eta#lihin* ne" relation of pro!uction% very revolution' therefore' ma.e forci#le inroa! into e$itin* property relation' an! !etroy one form of property in favour of another form of property% @The a#olition of e$itin* property relation i not at all a !itinctive feature of communim' ai! The Communit 3 Manifeto% &ll property relation in the pat have continually #een u#/ect to hitorical chan*e cone+uent upon the chan*e in hitorical con!ition% The ;rench evolution' for e$ample' a#olihe! feu!al property in favour of #our*eoi property% The !itin*uihin* feature of communim i not the a#olition of property *enerally' #ut the a#olition of #our*eoi property%5 4ro*re an! $ploitation The *reat revolutionary chan*e of the pat have een the replacement of one e$ploitin* cla #y another e$ploitin* cla' an! thu the replacement of one metho! of e$ploitation #y another metho! of e$ploitation% n thi proce' the revolutionary ener*y of the e$ploite! mae in their tru**le a*aint the e$ploiter ha helpe! to !etroy one e$ploitin* clain or!er to replace it #y another e$ploitin* cla% Their tru**le ha erve! to #rea. up the ol! ytem an! to replace it #y a ne" an! hi*her ytem' #ut till a ytem of cla e$ploitation% Thu the revolt of lave a*aint laveo"ner helpe! to #rea. up the lave ytem#ut to replace it #y the feu!al ytem% &n! the revolt of erf a*aint their lor! helpe! to #rea. up the feu!al ytem#ut to replace it #y the capitalit ytem% The "hole of human pro*re i roote! in the increain* matery of men over nature' in the increae of the ocial force of pro!uction% n a!vancin* their matery over nature' men not only o#tain their material nee!' #ut enlar*e their i!ea' perfect their .no"le!*e' !evelop their variou capacitie% But yet thi pro*re ha #orne a contra!ictory character% & man ha matere! nature' o ha man oppree! an! e$ploite! man% The #enefit of pro*re #elon*e! at one pole of ociety' the toil an! "eat at the other% ach ne" ta*e of a!vance #rou*ht only ne" metho! of e$ploitationA an! "ith each tep' more people "ere e$ploite!% @ince civiliation i foun!e! on the e$ploitation of one cla #y another cla' "rote n*el in The Ori*in of the ;amily etc% (chap% 9)' it "hole !evelopment procee! in a contant contra!iction% very tep for"ar! in pro!uction i at the ame H time a tep #ac."ar! in the poition of the oppree! cla that i' of the *reat ma/ority% >hatever #enefit ome necearily in/ure otherA every freh emancipation of one cla i necearily a ne" oppreion for another cla%5 Thu every tep of pro*re ha #een ma!e at the e$pene of the "or.in* people% The *reat a!vance of @claical5 civiliation #rou*ht lavery in their train' an! coul! only #e carrie! throu*h #y mean of lavery% The #irth an! *ro"th of mo!ern in!utry involve! the "holeale ruin of mall pro!ucer' the e$propriation of mae of peaant from the lan!' the plun!er of colonie' enormou increae of e$ploitation% The *ro"th of mo!ern in!utry' ho"ever' ha increae! the po"er of pro!uction to an e$tent un.no"n #efore% The po"er no" e$it' an! for the firt time' to pro!uce plenty for everyone' "ithout anyone "earin* himelf out "ith manual la#our% n the pat the force of pro!uction "ere o limite! that it "a impoi#le to create con!ition of leiure for any #ut a privile*e! minority of ociety% & Chrit i reporte! to have ai!2 The poor ye have al"ay "ith you% But thi i no lon*er neceary to!ay% ;or /ut thi reaon' it i only no" that the "or.in* people have arrive! at a poition "hen they themelve can rule an! can ta.e over the *eneral mana*ement an! !irection of ociety% The lave an! erf in the pat coul! revolt time an! a*ain a*aint their ruler' #ut "ere not themelve capa#le of ta.in* comman! over pro!uction% They al"ay ha! to loo. to omeone ele to mana*e ocial affair% They al"ay loo.e! for a aviour' appealin* to .in* an! other unli.ely people to #rin* them /utice% ;or the very character of the pro!uctive ytem meant that they "ere necearily en*roe! in manual la#our' an! o ha! to loo. to ome privile*e! an! e!ucate! minority to carry out the "or. of *overnment% >e a" earlier that the !iviion of ociety into e$ploitin* an! e$ploite! clae "a a reult of the !iviion of la#our% &n! the !iviion into ruler an! rule! "a a further cone+uence% >ith the !evelopment of pro!uction' a num#er of function concerne! "ith afe*uar!in* the *eneral interet of the community necearily #ecame the province of a pecial 7 *roup "ithin the community%
@Thi in!epen!ence of ocial function in relation to ociety increae! "ith time' "rote n*el in &nti-ilhrin* (part ' chap% H)' until it !evelope! into !omination over ociety% Cone+uently' the ma/ority of the people "ere rele*ate! to the poition "here they "ere "holly occupie! "ith toil' an! the *eneral function of ocial mana*ement "ere aume! #y a mater cla% @o lon* a the "or.in* population "a o much occupie! in their neceary la#our that they ha! no time left for loo.in* after the common affair of ocietythe !irection of la#our' affair of tate' le*al matter' art' cience' etc%o lon* "a it neceary that there houl! e$it a pecial cla' free! from actual la#our' to mana*e thee affair% &n! then thi cla never faile! to impoe a *reater an! *reater #ur!en of la#our' for their o"n a!vanta*e' on the "or.in* mae% @Only the immene increae of the pro!uctive force attaine! throu*h lar*e-cale in!utry ma.e it poi#le to limit the la#our time of each in!ivi!ual to uch an e$tent that all have enou*h free time to ta.e part in the *eneral#oth theoretical an! practicalaffair of ociety% t i only no"' therefore' that any rulin* an! e$ploitin* cla ha #ecome uperfluou%5 t i not the cae' then' that throu*hout hitory all rulin* clae have #een paraite upon the #o!y of ociety% They have performe! a neceary ocial function% But a pro!uction ha a!vance!' a lar*er part of the rulin* clae ha #ecome paraitical' until no" they perform no neceary function "hatever% By the #e*innin* of the preent century capitalim ha! !evelope! to the ta*e of imperialim' "hen a fe" *iant monopolie !ivi!e! up the entire "orl! amon* themelve% &ll the people "ere u#/ect to them% There "a an enormou acceion of "ealth an! po"er into a fe" han!% ever #efore "a the contrat #et"een the "ealth an! po"er of the fe" an! the poverty an! u#/ection of the many o *larin*' nor ha! it e$ite! on uch a "orl! cale% But thi "a alo the time for the people themelve to ta.e over% The epoch of 6 imperialim i the epoch of ocialit revolutiona revolution of an alto*ether ne" .in!' "hich a#olihe all e$ploitation an! lay the foun!ation of a ociety "ithout cla anta*onim% By creatin* the ocialie! pro!uction of mo!ern lar*e-cale in!utry' capitalim ha create! con!ition in "hich for the firt time there e$it the poi#ility of ecurin* for all mem#er of ociety not only continually improvin* material tan!ar! #ut alo the completely unretricte! !evelopment of all their facultie% &n! it ha create! in the "or.in* cla an e$ploite! cla "hich' #y it very poition a the pro!uct of lar*e-cale in!utry' i fully capa#le of ta.in* over the mana*ement of ociety% The very a!vance of in!utry create the con!ition in "hich the "or.in* cla not only *ro" in num#er an! or*aniation' #ut train itelf for the ta. of ta.in* comman! of pro!uction% Thu the hitory of cla tru**le form a erie of evolution in "hich' no"a!ay' a ta*e ha #een reache! "here the e$ploite! an! oppree! clathe proletariatcannot attain it emancipation from the "ay of the e$ploitin* an! rulin* clathe #our*eoiie"ithout' at the ame time' an! once an! for all' emancipatin* ociety at lar*e from all e$ploita-% tion' oppreion' cla !itinction an! cla tru**le (n*el' 4reface to the 1KKK n*lih e!ition of The Communit Manifeto)% The principal concluion of the cientific inveti*ation of ocial !evelopment i' then' that of the hitorical neceity of the ocialit revolution% &n! the materialit conception of hitory reveal on "hat force ocialim mut rely' an! ho" it victory can #e "on% The ocialit revolution i !ifferent in .in! from every previou revolutionary chan*e in human ociety% n every revolution the economic tructure of ociety i tranforme!% very previou tranformation ha meant the #irth an! conoli!ation of a ne" ytem of e$ploitation% The ocialit revolution' on the other han!' once an! for all en! all e$ploitation of man #y man% n every revolution a ne" cla come to po"er' a rulin* cla% n every previou revolution po"er "a tranferre! into the han! of an e$ploitin* cla' a tiny minority of ociety% n the ocialit revolution' on the other han!' po"er pae into the han! of the "or.in* cla' at the hea! of all the "or.in* peoplethat i' into the han! of the vat ma/ority% &n! thi po"er i ue!' not to uphol! the privile*e of an e$ploitin* cla' #ut to !etroy all uch privile*e an! to en! all cla anta*onim% very revolution' ince cla ociety #e*an' ha #een an act of li#eration' inamuch a it ha achieve! the emancipation of ociety from ome form of cla oppreion% To thi e$tent' every revolution ha ha! a popular character% But in every previou revolution one form of oppreion ha #een thro"n off only to #e replace! #y another% The ener*y of the mae ha #een !evote! to !etroyin* the oppreion of the ol! ytem% But the ne" ytem "hich replace! the ol! "a #uilt un!er the !irection of ne" e$ploiter' "ho invaria#ly ma!e it their #uine to impoe ne" form of oppreion on the people% n the ocialit revolution' on the other han!' the people not only !etroy the ol! ytem' they are themelve the #uil!er of the ne"%
The con!ition of the tranition from capitalim to ocialim i the con+uet of po"er #y the "or.in* clain other "or!' the en!in* of capitalit cla rule an! the eta#lihment of the !ictatorhip of the proletariat% n or!er that the "or.in* people may #uil! ocialim' in or!er that capitalit property may #e a#olihe! in favour of ocialit property' the capitalit tate mut #e replace! #y a "or.er: ocialit tate% ,e! #y the "or.in* cla' an! "ith po"er in their o"n han!' the ta. of the "or.in* people i then to conficate capitalit property in the principal mean of pro!uction an! to ma.e them ocial property' uppre the reitance of the !efeate! capitalit cla' or*anie planne! pro!uction for the #enefit of ociety a a "hole' an! finally a#olih all e$ploitation of man #y man% ummin* up the principal leon of hitorical materialim' in a letter to J% >ey!emeyer (March 7th' 1K7E)' Mar$ "rote2
@o cre!it i !ue to me for !icoverin* the e$itence of clae in mo!ern ociety' nor yet the tru**le #et"een them% ,on* #efore me #our*eoi hitorian ha! !ecri#e! the hitorical !evelopment of thi tru**le of the clae' an! #our*eoi economit the economic anatomy of the clae% >hat !i! ne" "a to prove2 (1) that the e$itence of clae i only #oun! up "ith particular hitorical phae of the !evelopment of pro!uctionA (E) that the cla tru**le necearily lea! to the !ictatorhip of the proletariatA (3) that thi !ictatorhip itelf only contitute the tranition to the a#olition of all clae an! to a clale ociety%5
#ha"ter Fi$e T.E SO#IAL S/PERSTR/#T/RE The Ideas and Institutions o( Societ! The materialit conception of hitory' "rote n*el in the intro!uction to ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific' ee. the ultimate caue an! *reat movin* po"er of all important hitorical event in the economic !evelopment of ociety' in the chan*e in the mo!e of pro!uction an! e$chan*e' in the cone+uent !iviion of ociety into !itinct clae' an! in the tru**le of thee clae a*aint one another5% The fun!amental la" of ocial chan*e i the la" "hich *overn the chan*e in the mo!e of pro!uction% The *ro"th of the force of pro!uction come into conflict "ith the e$itin* relation of pro!uction' lea!in* to ocial revolution' to the fall of the ol! ytem of relation of pro!uction an! the creation of a ne" ytem' to the overthro" of the ol! rulin* cla an! the comin* to po"er of a ne" cla% But in coni!erin* uch tranformation' "rote Mar$ (4reface to Criti+ue of 4olitical conomy)' a !itinction houl! al"ay #e ma!e #et"een the material tranformation of the economic con!ition of pro!uction' "hich can #e !etermine! "ith the preciion of natural cience' an! the le*al' political' reli*iou' aethetic an! philoophicin hort' i!eolo*ical form in "hich men #ecome conciou of the conflict an! fi*ht it out% Jut a our opinion of an in!ivi!ual i not #ae! on "hat he thin. of himelf' o can "e not /u!*e of uch a perio! of tranformation #y it o"n conciouneA on the contrary' thi concioune mut #e e$plaine! rather from the contra!iction of material life' from the e$itin* conflict #et"een the ocial force of pro!uction an! the relation of pro!uction%5
;or intance' at the cloe of the Mi!!le &*e many people "ere prepare! to !ie for the a.e of the ne" 4rotetant reli*ion' an! fierce reli*iou "ar too. place% But "ere they really fi*htin* only for reli*ion ? Out of the reli*iou "ar aroe ne" tate an! ultimately the eta#lihment an! conoli!ation of capitalit ociety% The ur*e to ne" i!ea aroe a a reult of the formation of ne" relation of pro!uction an! ne" clae' an! people #ecame conciou of conflict #ae! on economic contra!iction a conflict of ne" i!ea an! i!eal a*aint ol! one%
&*ain' in Britain the ne" #our*eoiie at the time of the civil "ar fou*ht for parliamentary intitution a*aint the .in*% The civil "ar "a fou*ht a a "ar for parliament a*aint royalty' an! li.e"ie a a "ar of puritan a*aint churchmen% But the real content of the "ar "a a fi*ht of the #our*eoiie for po"er% The #our*eoiie controlle! parliament' it "a their intitution' ue! #y them in the fi*ht a*aint royalty% &n! "hen they !i! eta#lih parliamentary *overnment' it le! to the creation of con!ition for the unfettere! !evelopment of manufacture an! commerce% n *eneral' tru**le a#out i!ea an! intitution are tru**le throu*h "hich people #ecome conciou of their economic conflict an! fi*ht them outthrou*h "hich people on the one i!e !efen! an! on the other i!e attac. a *iven ytem of pro!uction relation% uch conflict arie from contra!iction #et"een the ocial force of pro!uction an! the relation of pro!uction' "hich neceitate the !evelopment of ne" relation of pro!uction% t i throu*h tru**le a#out intitution an! i!ea that the conflict are fou*ht out an! economic !evelopment effecte!% =ence in coni!erin* the !evelopment of ociety "e have not only to coni!er the #aic !evelopment of the mo!e of pro!uction an! the economic contra!iction "hich in the lat analyi !etermine that !evelopment% >e have alo to coni!er the "ay in "hich people' in their conciou ocial activity' #ecome conciou of conflict an! fi*ht it out% >e have to coni!er' in hort' the !evelopment of the i!ea an! intitution of ociety% ;or i!ea an! intitution play an active role in K1 ocial !evelopment' an! it i throu*h them that people carry on their ocial life an! fi*ht out the conflict ariin* from it% Social 8ein) and Social #onsciousness &ccor!in* to i!ealit conception of hitory' a oppoe! to the materialit conception' the primary' !eterminin* factor in ocial !evelopment i to #e foun! in the i!ea an! intitution of ociety% &ccor!in* to the i!ealit' men firt !evelop certain i!ea' then they create intitution correpon!in* to thoe i!ea' an! on that #ai they carry on their economic life% n thi "ay they place thin* e$actly upi!e !o"n% They put everythin* on it hea!% ;or intea! of i!ea an! intitution !evelopin* on the #ai of the material life of ociety' they ay that material life !evelop on the #ai of i!ea an! intitution% @The "hole previou vie" of hitory' ai! n*el in hi peech at Mar$: *ravei!e' "a #ae! on the conception that the ultimate caue of all hitorical chan*e are to #e loo.e! for in the chan*in* i!ea of human #ein*% % % % But the +uetion "a not a.e! a to "hence the i!ea come into men: min!%5 Once thi +uetion i a.e!' he "ent on to e$plain' the i!ea of each hitorical perio! are mot imply to #e e$plaine! from the economic con!ition of life' an! from the ocial an! political relation of the perio! "hich are in turn !etermine! #y thee economic con!ition%5 ,et u ta.e an e$ample% t i often uppoe! that our forefather overthre" the former feu!al relation of u#or!ination #ecaue the i!ea "a #orn in their min! that men "ere e+ual% But "hy houl! thi i!ea have u!!enly #ecome o influential? >hy houl! the feu!al relation of u#or!ination' "hich for centurie ha! #een hel! to #e natural an! /ut' u!!enly #e*in to appear unnatural an! un/ut? Thee +uetion lea! u from the phere of i!ea to the phere of the con!ition of material life% t "a #ecaue material' economic con!ition "ere chan*in* that influential clae of people #e*an to thin. in a ne" "ay' an! to con!emn intitution "hich up to then fe" ha! +uetione!% The e$itin* feu!al relation "ere no lon*er in .eepin* "ith KE !evelopin* economic con!ition% t "a the !evelopment of economic activity an! economic relation "hich create! the force "hich overthre" feu!alim an! lai! the foun!ation of capitalim% &n! o the rie an! prea! of the i!ea of e+uality' a oppoe! to feu!al ine+uality' follo"e! upon an! reflecte! the chan*e in material con!ition of life% &*ain' "hy houl! the i!ea of ocialim have u!!enly *ro"n o influential once capitalim "a un!er "ay? ;or centurie private property ha! #een re*ar!e! a natural an! /ut' an! even a the neceary #ai for any civiliation% But no"' on the contrary' it #e*an to appear unneceary an! oppreive% Once more' thi ne" "ay of thin.in*' an! the profoun! influence "hich ocialit i!ea #e*an to e$ert' aroe from ne" economic con!ition% Ln!er capitalim pro!uction "a ceain* to #e an in!ivi!ual matter an! "a #ecomin* a ocial matter' an! private property an! private appropriation #ae! on it "ere no lon*er in .eepin* "ith the ne" character of pro!uction% n *eneral' the rie of ne" i!ea can never #e re*ar!e! a a ufficient e$planation of ocial chan*e' ince the ori*in of i!ea an! the ource of their ocial influence mut al"ay itelf #e e$plaine!% &n! thi e$planation i to #e ou*ht in the con!ition of material life of ociety% >e hall fin! accor!in*ly that correpon!in* to the !ifferent con!ition of material life of ociety at !ifferent perio! +uite !ifferent i!ea are current' an! that the !ifference in the i!ea of !ifferent clae in !ifferent perio!an! li.e"ie in the or*aniation an! intitution "hich they upport an! et up are al"ay in the lat analyi to #e e$plaine! in term of !ifference in con!ition of material life%
@oe it re+uire !eep intuition' a.e! Mar$ an! n*el in The Communit Manifeto' to comprehen! that man: i!ea' vie" an! conception' in a "or!' man: concioune' chan*e "ith every chan*e in the con!ition of hi material e$itence' in hi ocial relation an! in hi ocial life?5 ummin* up in the 4reface to Criti+ue of 4olitical conomy' Mar$ "rote2 t i not the concioune of men that K3 !etermine their #ein*' #ut' on the contrary' their ocial #ein* that !etermine their concioune%5 8asis and Su"erstructure n enterin* into relation of pro!uction an! carryin* on the economic activitie of pro!uction an! !itri#ution people ac+uire !efinite interet an! re+uirement of life' an! #ecome involve! in conflict ariin* from contra!ictory interet an! re+uirement% &ll thee are o#/ective' material fact' "hich e$it in!epen!ently of "hat people may thin. a#out them% But people act conciouly' have i!ea a#out themelve an! their aim in life' an! in their conciou activity are or*anie! "ithin all .in! of intitution to erve all .in! of conciouly conceive! purpoe% n coni!erin*' therefore' the totality of ocial life "e have to !itin*uih' on the one han!' the economic tructure an! economic !evelopment of ociety' "hich e$it +uite in!epen!ently of "hat people thin. an! may #e !etermine! "ith the preciion of natural cienceA an!' on the other han!' the i!ea an! conciou aim "hich arie in people: min!' an! the intitution "hich are !evelope! in accor!ance "ith thoe i!ea an! aim% =ence in the tu!y of ociety "e houl! !itin*uih t"o !itinct apect' or interconnecte! tran! of ocial !evelopment2 on the one han!' the !evelopment of pro!uction relation an! the conflict ariin* from itA on the other han!' the "hole intellectual' political an! intitutional !evelopment of ociety% On the one han!' there i the !evelopment of pro!uctive force an! of relation of pro!uctionthe paa*e from one mo!e of pro!uction to another' of one ocialeconomic formation to another% On the other han!' there i the !evelopment of reli*ion' politic' art' philoophy' an! of churche' tate' partie' or*aniation an! movement' an! intitution of all .in!% >hat i the relation #et"een thee t"o tran! of !evelopment? Mar$ calle! it the relation of @#ai5 to @ upertructure5% &t "hatever ta*e of ocial evolution' people are en*a*e! to*ether in a mo!e of pro!uctionA on the #ai of KH their pro!uction relation they "or. out i!ea an! aociate in intitution' throu*h "hich they repreent to themelve their variou interet an! or*anie themelve in puruit of their interet% Thee are ai! to !evelop a a upertructure upon the #ai% Thu people conceive an! a!opt reli*iou' political' philoophical' moral or aethetic i!ea' an! aociate in intitution inten!e! to em#o!y them an! propa*ate them% But they !o not !o thi a it "ere in a vacuum% They are mem#er of a ociety .ept *oin* #y a certain mo!e of pro!uction' lin.e! to*ether #y !efinite pro!uction relation% uch relation contitute the neceary #ai for any ocial lifeA "ithout uch relation there can #e no ocial life at all' an! therefore no i!ea or intitution% Thee relation' therefore' al"ay contitute the #ai on "hich people come to*ether for any ocial purpoe the #ai of all i!eolo*ie an! intitution% t follo" that the i!ea an! intitution people a!opt are al"ay con!itione! #y their #aic ocial relation' the relation of pro!uction% &n! the i!ea "hich *ain currency an! the intitution throu*h "hich people carry on their ocial life chan*e "ith chan*e in the #aic pro!uction relation% &im' outloo. an! #elief' an! li.e"ie or*aniation an! intitution' are create! an"erin* to the opportunitie' nee! an! interetinclu!in*' of coure' conflictin* interet"hich are inherent in the relation of pro!uction% The !itinction of @#ai5 an! @upertructure5' a t"o tran! or level of ocial !evelopment' i a !itinction #et"een thoe ocial procee "hich are the mot o#viou an! open to inveti*ation' an! mot imme!iately affect the mem#er of ociety an! tri.e the attention of hitorian' an! thoe "hich are le imme!iately o#viou an! the !etail of "hich can only #e uncovere! #y patient reearche% >hat i mot o#viou i the i!ea "hich people are proclaimin*' the intitution they are or*anie! in' the ar*ument they are en*a*in* in' the peeche they are ma.in* an! the epithet they are thro"in* at each other' an! the political #attle an! "ar they are fi*htin*% ,e o#viou an!' a it "ere' #urie! #eneath all thi #ut neverthele utainin* it' are the economic relation an! K7 economic procee of ociety% &ll the hurly-#urly on the urface i con!itione! #y the un!erlyin* economic relationhip' an! erve a ocial function relative to their !evelopment% n carryin* on pro!uction an! enterin* into pro!uction relation a!apte! to their force of pro!uction' people re+uire' firt of all' "hat may #e calle! intitution of mana*ement' an! intitution of rule or tate intitution% n o far a pro!uction i mana*e! an! ociety i rule! in the interet of a particular cla' "ith mana*ement an! rule ervin* the purpoe of furtherin* a particular mo!e of e$ploitation' there alo ta.e hape form of or*anie! elf-protection an! reitance' or of revolutionary tru**le' on the part of the non-rulin* or e$ploite! clae% n feu!al urope' for intance' the manorial intitution an! *uil!' an! in later capitalit ocietie the firm' limite! lia#ility companie' cham#er of commerce' *overnment !epartment' tra!e union' an! o on' are all intitutional form throu*h
"hich pro!uction i mana*e! an! #aic economic conflict carrie! on% Thee form have their o"n !evelopment' an! may vary *reatly accor!in* to circumtance% ;or intance' in Britain to!ay the li*ht en*ineerin* in!utry i mana*e! throu*h the competition of numerou firm' the chemical in!utry i mana*e! mainly #y a in*le *reat monopoly' the rail"ay are mana*e! #y a nationalie! pu#lic authority% imilarly' form of mana*ement of ocialit in!utrie may !iffer in !ifferent circumtance' accor!in* to the !e*ree of centraliation or !ecentraliation of mana*ement' an! o on% ;urther' /ut a the !ifferent form of mana*ement an! rule ta.e hape hitorically an!' #y their form' influence the coure of hitorical !evelopment' the ame applie to the or*aniation of oppoition an! reitance% ;or intance' the peculiar hitoricallycontitute! tructure of the Britih la#our movement a compare! "ith that of other >etern uropean countrie or of the L%%&% ha it effect in the contemporary ocial tru**le in Britain% 4olitical an! economic i!ea' pro*ramme an! mo!e of thou*ht ta.e hape in connection "ith the function of mana*ement an! rule' either to promote or to reit the K6 particular form of mana*ement an! rule% Thi i the mot imme!iate or !irect "ay in "hich intitutional an! i!eolo*ical procee are connecte! "ith the #aic economic tructure% More remotely connecte! "ith the economic #ai' an! more !irectly relate! to the current intitutional an! political conflict' there arie further i!eolo*ical proceereli*iou' le*al' philoophical' artitic' an! o onan! the intitution aociate! "ith them% t i "orth notin*' further' that the relation of @#ai5 an! @upertructure5 i eentially a !ynamic an! not a tatic relation% t i eentially a relation #et"een inepara#le apect of the total ocial proce' one of "hich !evelop on the #ai of the other an! erve a ocial function relative to the other the i!eolo*ical an! intitutional proce on the #ai of the economic tructure' an! ervin* a ocial function relative to economic !evelopment% >or! can #e milea!in*' epecially "hen they ma.e ue of analo*ie' a !o the "or! @#ai5 an! @upertructure5% Thu if you thin. of ociety a li.e a #uil!in*' "hich ha a @#ai5 or @foun!ation5 #urie! in the earth' an! a @upertructure5 conitin* of the variou torey erecte! on the foun!ation' that i milea!in*for ociety' unli.e a #uil!in*' i continually chan*in* an! !evelopin*% Of "hat !oe ociety conit? t i not at all li.e a #uil!in*' ma!e of #ric. or-of a teel frame"or. "ith la# of concrete fi$e! on to it% ociety conit of in!ivi!ual people en*a*e! in ocial activitie% The precon!ition of all their activitie i pro!uction' in !oin* "hich they enter into ocial relation of pro!uction correpon!in* to their force of pro!uctionA they en*a*e in all other ocial activitie an! enter into all other ocial relation on the #ai of thee relation of pro!uction% t i in thi ene that the i!eolo*ical an! intitutional !evelopment of ociety ta.e place on the #ai of economic !evelopment% t i in thi ene that the i!ea "hich are current in any ociety at any time' the intitution' an! li.e"ie the i!eolo*ical controverie an! intitutional rivalrie' !evelop a a upertructure on the #ai of the pro!uction relation% The Methodolo)! o( .istorical E3"lanation >e a" a#ove that i!ealit conception of hitory' accor!in* to "hich i!ea an! intitution are the !eterminin* factor in ocial !evelopment' are !efective #ecaue they fail to an"er the +uetion "hence the i!ea come into men: min!5% On the other han!' the tran! of economic !evelopment i elf-e$planatory% f you a. "hy !i! certain economic relation arie?"hy !i! private property come into #ein*' "hy !i! pro!uct #ecome commo!itie' "hy !i! "a*e-la#our come into #ein*' an! o onthen you !o not have to loo. outi!e the phere of economic !evelopment itelf in or!er to fin! the e$planation% &n! then' havin* eta#lihe! the tren! of economic !evelopment an! the economic caue of it' it can #e e$plaine! "hy' on the #ai of that !evelopment' people *re" !iatifie! "ith ome i!ea an! !evelope! other one' re#elle! a*aint ome intitution an! et up other one% &t the ame time' the i!ea an! intitution "hich are !evelope! on the #ai of the economy are not imply a @refle$5 or #ypro!uctthey are not imply paive cone+uence' #ut play an active role in relation to the economy% The economic !evelopment of ociety i the !evelopment of men: matery over nature' to "hich en! they !evelop their force of pro!uction an! enter into correpon!in* relation of pro!uction% Men: i!ea an! intitution are not irrelevant to thi economic !evelopment% On the contrary' they play an in!ipena#le role in it% Thu' for e$ample' from the economic procee of feu!alim in urope aroe not only "hat "e no" term feu!al i!ea an! intitution #ut alo i!eolo*ical controverie an! intitutional rivalrie an! upheaval "hich reflecte! the conflict #et"een nacent capitalim an! !ecayin* feu!alimA *reat i!eolo*ical #attle' political upheaval an! reli*iou "ar too. placean! all thi playe! an in!ipena#le part in the !evelopment of the feu!al economy itelf an! in the economic chan*e from feu!alim to capitalim% imilarly to!ay' the #ai of current i!eolo*ie an! intitution' an! of i!eolo*ical an! intitutional conflict' i economic% But it i #y employin* i!eolo*ie an! -intitution' an! #y tru**le in the phere of i!eolo*y an! intitution' that "e to!ay "or. out our economic !etiny%
=ence in the hitory of ociety the economic proce i al"ay the #ai for e$plainin* the i!eolo*ical an! intitutional proce% But imultaneouly the i!eolo*ical an! intitutional proce ha a neceary function in relation to the economy' an! e$plain ho" the economic proce i actually carrie! on% ;or people cannot carry on their #aic economic activity they cannot live in ociety"ithout i!ea "here#y they repreent to themelve their tate of #ein* an! their purpoe' an! "ithout intitution throu*h "hich to realie their purpoe% et ho" they repreent themelve to themelve' an! "hat purpoe they et #efore themelve' mut al"ay !epen! upon their actual material circumtance their economic activity' their relation of pro!uction' an! the economic conflict "hich thence arie% >hat ma.e the economic proce #aic in ocial !evelopment i that the !irection of the economic proce i e$plica#le in term of economic la"% Once thee la" are *rape!' the "hole of ocial !evelopment' the "hole immenely comple$ interaction' #ecome e$plica#leat leat in *eneral outline% But in term of i!ea an! intitution alone' it cannot #e e$plaine!ince i!ea an! intitution !evelop on the #ai of the economy an! have no in!epen!ent !evelopment% They have no hitory' no !evelopment' Mar$ an! n*el !eclare! in The Derman !eolo*yA #ut men' !evelopin* their material pro!uction an! their material intercoure' alter' alon* "ith thi their real e$itence' their thin.in* an! the pro!uct of their thin.in*%5 o lon*' then' a i!ea are re*ar!e! a #ein* the !eterminin* factor in the !evelopment of ociety it i impoi#le to arrive at any cientific e$planation of ocial !evelopment' that i' to e$plain it in term of la" of !evelopment% ;or if the chan*in* i!ea an! motive operatin* in ocial life are coni!ere! #y themelve' a an in!epen!ent phere' then it i impoi#le to !icover any univeral la" that re*ulate them% n that cae' a the i*ht =on% =% &% ,% ;iher tate! in the 4reface to hi =itory of urope' there can #e only one afe rule for the hitorian2 that he houl! reco*nie in the !evelopment of human !etinie the play of the contin*ent an! the unforeeen% n other "or!' the very poi#ility of a cientific treatment of ocial phenomena' of a cience of ociety' i rule! out% t i only "hen "e turn to the economic #ai that "e !icover the univeral la" of ocial !evelopmentthat people enter into pro!uction relation correpon!in* to their force of pro!uction% Then the apparently fortuitou !evelopment of i!eolo*y' reli*ion' politic an! o on fit into a pattern an! fin! it e$planation% Mar$ "a the firt to put ociolo*y on a cientific #ai' "rote ,enin' in >hat the ;rien! of the 4eople &re' #y eta#lihin* the concept of the economic formation of ociety a the um total of relation of pro!uction' an! #y eta#lihin* the fact that the !evelopment of uch formation i a% proce of natural hitory%5 ,enin "ent on to point out that in Capital Mar$ not only e$hautively analye! the capitalit economic tructure an! it la" of !evelopment' #ut alo ho"e! ho" correpon!in* to it !evelopment there arie !efinite mo!e of concioune% =avin* in the 1KH0XK arrive! at the *eneral conception of hitorical materialim' Mar$ procee!e! to apply' !evelop an! verify it% @=e too. one of the economic formation of ocietythe ytem of commo!ity pro!uctionan! on the #ai of a vat ma of !ata *ave a mot !etaile! analyi of the la" *overnin* the functionin* of thi formation an! it !evelopment% @Thi analyi i trictly confine! to the relation of pro!uction #et"een the mem#er of ociety% >ithout ever reortin* to factor other than relation of pro!uction to e$plain the matter' Mar$ ma.e it poi#le to !icern ho" the commo!ity or*aniation of ociety !evelop' ho" it #ecome tranforme! into capitalit economy% % % % @uch i the F.eleton: of Capital% But the "hole point of the matter i that Mar$ !i! not content himelf "ith thi .eleton % % % that "hile e$plainin* the tructure an! !evelopment of the *iven formation of ociety e$cluively in term of 90 relation of pro!uction' he neverthele every"here an! al"ay "ent on to trace the upertructure correpon!in* to thee relation of pro!uction' an! clothe! the .eleton in fleh an! #loo!% % % % Capital % % % e$hi#ite! the "hole capitalit ocial formation to the rea!er a a live thin*"ith it every!ay apect' "ith the actual ocial manifetation of the anta*onim of clae inherent in the relation of pro!uction' "ith the #our*eoi political upertructure "hich preerve the !omination of the capitalit cla' "ith the #our*eoi i!ea of li#erty' e+uality an! o forth' "ith the #our*eoi family relation%5 Capital !emontrate!' #y the cloe cientific tu!y of a particular economic formation' ho" the pro!uction relation !evelop' an! ho" an entire upertructure of i!ea an! intitution !evelop on the #ai of the pro!uction relation% ,enin therefore conclu!e! that ince the appearance of Capital the materialit conception of hitory i no lon*er a hypothei #ut a cientifically !emontrate! propoition5% =itorical materialim provi!e a metho!olo*y for hitorical e$planation% t truth i !emontrate! #y applyin* thi metho!olo*y in concrete cae' an! fin!in* that it really !oe e$plain% .istorical Materialism $ersus 5+ul)ar Mar3ism5
;rom "hat ha alrea!y #een ai! it houl! #e evi!ent that the e$planation of the !evelopment of the variou element of the upertructure in the actual hitory of any people i #y no mean a imple matter% One pecie of overimplifie!' mechanitic or @vul*ar5 e$planation i that "hich ee. to e$plain the !evelopment of i!ea an! intitution !irectly from the pro!uctive force% Thu' for e$ample' it ha #een u**ete! that the rie of ne" i!eolo*ie in the ancient "orl! "a !ue to the !evelopment of ne" techni+ue' in employin* "hich people came to chan*e their i!ea% n!ee!' it i true that people converant "ith iron"or.in* !o thin. !ifferently from people "ho .no" only tone tool' /ut a people ac+uainte! "ith nuclear #om# an! electronic !o thin. !ifferently from people ac+uainte! only 91 "ith #o" an! arro" an! han!-la#our% t i therefore u**ete! alo that mo!ern i!ea an! intitution arie !irectly from the mo!ern force of pro!uctionan! o the preent i calle! the nuclear a*e or the a*e of cience% But "hile it i true that there e$it a certain correpon!ence #et"een i!ea an! intitution on the one han!' an! force of pro!uction on the other' it i not true that the former can ever #e e$plaine! !irectly from the latter% ;or employin* their force of pro!uction people enter into relation of pro!uction' an! it i on the #ai of the relation of pro!uction that they create their i!ea an! intitution% t i o#viou enou*h' for intance' that to!ay #oth capitalit an! ocialit countrie employ the ame pro!uction techni+ue yet the coure of the i!eolo*ical !evelopment an! the character of intitution !iffer *reatly in the t"o cae' for in the one cae there i a #ai of capitalit relation of pro!uction an! in the other cae of ocialit relation of pro!uction% & more common type of vul*ariation i that "hich treat the !evelopment of the upertructure on it economic #ai a an automatic proce% But i!ea an! intitution are not the automatic pro!uct of a *iven economic an! cla tructure' #ut pro!uct of people: conciou activitie an! tru**le% To e$plain the upertructure' thee activitie an! tru**le mut #e tu!ie! concretely' in their actual comple$ !evelopment% Therefore it i certainly not Mar$im' /ut a it i certainly not cience' to attempt to conclu!e from the pecification of certain economic con!ition "hat the form of the upertructure ariin* on that #ai i *oin* to #e' or to !e!uce every !etaile! characteritic of the upertructure from ome correpon!in* feature of the #ai% On the contrary' "e nee! to tu!y ho" the upertructure actually !evelop in each ociety an! in each epoch' #y inveti*atin* the fact a#out that ociety an! that epoch% Nuite a fe" vul*arier of Mar$imome callin* themelve @Mar$it5' other ervin* out a#ur! travetie of Mar$im in or!er to refute ithave repreente! Mar$im a ayin* that every i!ea an! intitution in ociety i !irectly pro!uce! #y an! erve ome imme!iate economic nee!% Of uch vul*arier n*el report (in a letter to C% chmi!t' &u*ut 7th' 1K90) that Mar$ himelf ue! to ay2 &ll .no" i that am not a Mar$it%5 n the ame letter n*el tree! that our conception of hitory i a#ove all a *ui!e to tu!y' not a lever of contruction% % % % &ll hitory mut #e tu!ie! afreh' the con!ition of e$itence of the !ifferent formation of ociety mut #e e$amine! in !etail' #efore the attempt i ma!e to !e!uce from them the political' civil-le*al' aethetic' philoophic' reli*iou' etc%' notion correpon!in* to them5% n*el repeate!ly tree! the nee! to e$amine concretely in every cae the "ay in "hich particular i!ea an! intitution arie an! ta.e hape on the #ai of *iven economic !evelopment' an! the influence "hich they in turn e$ert upon the further !evelopment of ociety% =e e$prely "arne! a*aint miun!ertan!in* ariin* from the manner in "hich he an! Mar$ ha! occaionally preente! the theory% @Mar$ an! are ourelve partly to #lame for the fact that youn*er "riter ometime lay more tre on the economic i!e than i !ue to it' he "rote to J% Bloch (eptem#er ait' 1K90)% >e ha! to emphaie thi main principle in oppoition to our a!verarie' "ho !enie! it' an! "e ha! not al"ay the time' the place or the opportunity to allo" the other element involve! in the interaction to come into their ri*ht%5 @&ccor!in* to the materialit conception of hitory' he continue!' in the ame letter' the ultimately !eterminin* element in hitory i the pro!uction an! repro!uction of real life% More than that neither Mar$ nor have ever aerte!% =ence if omeone t"it that into ayin* that the economic element i the only !eterminin* one' he tranform that propoition into a meanin*le' a#tract' enele phrae%5 @4olitical' /uri!ical' philoophical' reli*iou' literary' artitic' etc%' !evelopment are #ae! on economic !evelopment' n*el further "rotein a letter to =% tar.en#ur*' January E7th' 1K9H% But all thee react upon one another an! alo upon the economic #ai% t i not that the economic con!ition i the caue an! alone active' "hile everythin* ele i 93 only a paive effect% There i' rather' interaction on the #ai of economic neceity' "hich ultimately al"ay aert itelf%5 n*el alo emphaie! that "hile' in *eneral' i!ea an! intitution are pro!uct of economic con!ition' the e$act form "hich they ta.e in a particular country at a particular time cannot #e e$plaine! e$cluively from the economic con!ition of that country at that time% On the contrary' "hile the influence of economic !evelopment al"ay aert itelf' current i!ea
an! intitution mut al"ay !epen! on a variety of factor in a country: life' inclu!in* the character an! tra!ition of it people' the peronalitie of it lea!in* men' an!' a#ove all' it pat hitory% Coni!erin*' for e$ample' the !evelopment of le*al i!ea' n*el pointe! out that "hile la" al"ay reflect e$itin* economic con!ition' the form in "hich thi happen can vary coni!era#ly% t i poi#le' a happene! in n*lan!' in harmony "ith the "hole national !evelopment' to retain in the main the form of the ol! feu!al la" "hile *ivin* them a #our*eoi contentA in fact' !irectly *ivin* a #our*eoi meanin* to the ol! feu!al name% But alo' a happene! in >etern continental urope' oman la"' the firt "orl! la" of a commo!ity-pro!ucin* ociety % % % can #e ta.en a a foun!ation% % % % &fter the *reat #our*eoi revolution' uch a claic la" co!e a the ;rench Co!e Civil can #e "or.e! out on the #ai of thi ame oman ,a" (,u!"i* ;euer#ach' chap% H)% Thu in thee cae le*al i!ea an! co!e of la" aroe' not a a !irect pro!uct of economic con!ition' #ut #y a proce of "or.in* upon an! a!aptin* the alrea!y e$itin* la"' "hich #elon*e! to a pat epoch' into form uita#le for the ne" epoch% t ha #een the ame' n*el point out' "ith philoophy% coni!er the ultimate upremacy of economic !evelopment eta#lihe!' he "rote in a letter to C% chmi!t' Octo#er Eth' 1K90% But it come to pa "ithin con!ition impoe! #y the particular phere itelf2 in philoophy' for intance' throu*h the operation of economic influence ("hich a*ain *enerally act only throu*h political etc% !i*uie) upon the e$itin* philoophic material han!e! 9H !o"n #y pre!eceor%5 The actually e$itin* i!ea an! intitution of a country' therefore' cannot #e e$plaine! olely from the economic con!ition of that country at a particular time% conomy create nothin* a#olutely ne"' n*el "rote in the ame letter% But it !etermine the "ay in "hich e$itin* material of thou*ht i altere! an! further !evelope!%5 >hat i of fun!amental importance in the !evelopment of i!ea an! intitution i' then' imply that they !o not have an in!epen!ent !evelopment #ut are create! on the #ai of the *iven economy% The pro#lem al"ay remain of e$plainin* the peculiaritie of the !evelopment of i!ea an! intitution in each particular country' an! "hat role they play in each particular perio! of it hitory% Thi pro#lem can never #e olve! #y mean of *eneral formula alone' #ut only in the li*ht of the fact themelve% n hort' "hen it i a matter' not of the a#tract enunciation of *eneral principle' #ut of the application of thee principle in the e$planation of particular hitorical event' then the !etaile! tu!y of the actual mo!e of !erivation of i!ea an! intitution on the #ai of economic con!ition' an! of the active role they play in event' cannot #e ne*lecte!% &n! Mar$ himelf ha provi!e! e$ample of thi application in hi hitorical "ritin*% n The i*hteenth Brumaire of ,oui Bonaparte' for e$ample' he ho" in !etail ho" particular i!ea an! intitution' political partie' political conflict an! tren! of i!ea' aroe on the #ai of !efinite economic an! cla relation in ;rench ociety in the mi!-i*th century' an! ho" the enuin* tru**le in the realm of politic an! i!eolo*y influence! the fate of the variou clae an! of the ;rench economy a a "hole% uch !etaile! un!ertan!in* of the political an! i!eolo*ical factor' their #ai an! influence' i' of coure' vitally important in the analyi ma!e of a preent ituation "ith a vie" to mappin* out practical policy% >e cannot arrive at a policy for the "or.in*-cla movement in a *iven ituation imply from an analyi' ho"ever e$act' of the economic poition% t i neceary to ta.e into account all the e$itin* political 97 factor' in all their comple$ity' an! alo the variou tren! of i!ea' an! to un!ertan! ho" thee not only reflect #ut influence the economic ituation' in or!er to arrive at a practical policy% ;or in *iven economic circumtance' political action' an! alo i!eolo*ical tru**le *enerally' ha a !eciive effect in influencin* the further coure of economic !evelopment' the fate of the variou clae an! of the "hole economy%
#ha"ter Si3 #LASS IDEAS AND #LASS R/LE The Esta;lishment On the #ai of *iven relation of pro!uction there are al"ay create! i!ea an! intitution a!apte! to maintain' conoli!ate an! !evelop that #ai% Thee are i!ea "hich implicitly accept an! /utify the eta#lihe! property an! cla relation' an! intitution "hich "or. to preerve thoe cla relation an! to a!miniter' conoli!ate an! !evelop that form of property% 4eople coul! not carry on ocial pro!uction "ithout enterin* into !efinite relation of pro!uction' an! thoe relation of pro!uction coul! not #e maintaine! "ithout the appropriate i!ea an! intitution% Thu "hen a *iven economic ytem i eta#lihe! there al"ay crytallie out from the "hole proce of i!eolo*ical an! intitutional activity a comple$ of i!ea an! intitution "hich erve the !efinite function of preervin* the eta#lihe! or!er% To thi may #e conveniently applie! the ne"ly invente!' thou*h ill-!efine!' termthe eta#lihment% t i create! in controvery an! tru**le #y the cla "hoe interet it i to eta#lih an! conoli!ate the particular economic ytem% &t the centre of the eta#lihment i the tate po"er an! the le*al ytem% The tate an! the la" erve to !efen! property an! to re*ulate it ue an! inheritance% The political an! le*al ytem' "ith the correpon!in* i!eolo*y' #ecome eta#lihe! a *uar!ian of property% The oman' for e$ample' to conoli!ate their lave empire !evelope! firt repu#lican intitution to upplant the petty .in* of an earlier perio!' an! a repu#lican i!eolo*yA an! "hen thee intitution an! i!ea prove! una#le to hol! ocial anta*onim in chec.' they !evelope! a centralie! military !ictatorhip% >ith the #rea.-up of the oman mpire an! the rie of feu!alim in urope' the form of *overnment chan*e!% The .in*!om' principalitie' !u.e!om' etc%' "hich "ere eta#lihe! all over urope !evelope! a form of feu!al rule' "hich erve! to !efen!' maintain an! conoli!ate the feu!al ytem% &n! of central importance in "hat may #e terme! the feu!al eta#lihment in urope "a the Catholic Church% The riin* #our*eoiie came into conflict "ith the feu!al ytem an! "ith feu!al rule' an! a a pro!uct of it tru**le et up national repu#lic' parliamentary tate' contitutional monarchie' "hich allo"e! free cope to the !evelopment of capitalim' !efen!e! the interet of the #our*eoiie' too! *uar! over their property' an! o erve! to hape an! conoli!ate the #ai of capitalit ociety% ,atly' the "or.in* cla in it tru**le for ocialim ha to eta#lih a !emocratic ocialit tate' "hich "ill have the ta. of eliminatin* the remnant of capitalim' *uar!in* ocialit property' an! !irectin* the "or. of ocialit contruction% >ithout uch mean none of thee economie coul! have #een conoli!ate!% t i only "ith the help of a tate' of a political an! le*al ytem' an! of correpon!in* i!eolo*ie' that a ytem of economy #ecome eta#lihe! an! i a#le to !evelop% The e$act form an! character of the tate"hether it i a monarchy li.e Britain' or a repu#lic li.e the L%%&% an! of the political an! le*al i!ea an! intitution' an! the variou chan*e "hich they un!er*o' !epen! on a variety of circumtance in the life an! tra!ition of each people% uch feature are !etermine! hitorically #y pecial circumtance of time an! place% But they are al"ay u#/ect to the controllin* con!ition that they erve to conoli!ate an! !evelop a particular economic #ai% eli*ion' philoophie' literary an! artitic movement !evelop a ramification of the eta#lihment% o ocialeconomic formation coul! #e .ept in #ein* an! ma!e to "or. "ithout them' any more than "ithout politic an! la"% &n! 9K they are no more in!epen!ent of the economic #ai than are politic or la"% Thee type of i!eolo*y' an! the correpon!in* intitution' are !evelope! #y people on the #ai of their *iven pro!uction relationA an! in thi !evelopment there crytallie out reli*iou ortho!o$ie' philoophical chool' literary an! artitic canon' "hich come to aume a pecial authority a #ul"ar. of the ocial or!er% n the hey!ay of feu!alim in >etern urope the Catholic Church poee! enormou authority' an! Catholic ortho!o$y permeate! philoophy' literature an! the art% Thi ortho!o$y "a uphel! #y the temporal po"er#y the feu!al ruler an! their tate' an! #y the la"% The cruel ith the rie of the #our*eoiie' ne" reli*iou an! philoophical i!ea came into acen!ency% n reli*ion emphai "a place! on the in!ivi!ual concience an! the in!ivi!ual: !irect relation "ith Do!% 4hiloopher propoun!e! the overei*nty of cience an! reaon' an! from thi point of vie" u#/ecte! the ol! feu!al i!ea to !evatatin* criticim% They e$amine!
ane" the foun!ation of .no"le!*e an! trie! to ho" ho" .no"le!*e coul! #e e$ten!e! an! humanity #e et upon the roa! to pro*re% n thi they effectively erve! the ne" #our*eoiie in *ettin* ri! of feu!alim an! conoli!atin* capitalim% o"' "hen capitalim i in !ecay an! i #ein* challen*e! #y ocialim' the philoopher of the eta#lihment have a very !ifferent tale to tell% They ay that reaon i po"erle' that .no"le!*e i an illuion' that material pro*re i a mita.e an! that the mean "here#y men have hope! to achieve it lea! them into !ifficultie an! !iater% Thee ne" ortho!o$ie in turn help to !efen! the !yin* ytem an! to tave off the challen*e of ocialim% n the ame "ay can #e trace! out ho" the me!ieval on* an! torie an! reli*iou art' for e$ample' helpe! the feu!al ytem ta.e hape an! conoli!ate itelfA an! ho" the mo!ern novel' !rama' etc%' helpe! to eliminate feu!alim an! helpe! the capitalit ytem ta.e hape an! conoli!ate itelf% Rulin) #lass and Rulin) Ideas ince the !iolution of primitive communim' ociety ha #een !ivi!e! into anta*onitic clae' into e$ploiter an! e$ploite!' thee clae themelve #ein* pro!uct of economic !evelopment% &n! correpon!in* to the economic tructure of ociety at the *iven ta*e of !evelopment' to the *iven ytem of pro!uction relation' one or another cla ha occupie! the !ominatin* poition in economy an! ha aume! lea!erhip of ociety a a "hole% t i al"ay a particular cla "hich play the lea!in* part in eta#lihin* an! then in conoli!atin* a *iven economic ytem' in "hich that particular cla i !ominant' the rulin* cla% t i accor!in*ly al"ay thi cla "hich i primarily reponi#le for eta#lihin* the i!ea an! intitution to *uar! the ocial or!er% The eta#lihment i a cla eta#lihment !evelope! on the #ai of the form of property an! the cla relation "ith "hich the interet of the rulin* cla are #oun! up% @Lpon the !ifferent form of property' upon the ocial con!ition of e$itence' rie an entire upertructure of !itinct an! peculiarly forme! entiment' illuion' mo!e of thou*ht an! vie" of life' "rote Mar$' in The i*hteenth Brumaire (chap% 3)% The entire cla create an! form them out of it material foun!ation an! out of the correpon!in* ocial relation%5 The rulin* cla i a#le to achieve thi #ecaue of it o"nerhip of the material mean of pro!uction an! it control' throu*h the tate' of material po"er% The cla "hich i the rulin* material force in ociety i at the ame time it rulin* intellectual force' "rote Mar$ an! n*el in The Derman !eolo*y% ;or the cla "hich ha the mean of material pro!uction at it !ipoal ha control at the ame time over the mean of mental pro!uction' o that there#y' *enerally pea.in*' the i!ea of thoe "ho lac. the mean of mental pro!uction are u#/ect to it5% Thu Mar$ an! n*el !eclare! in The Communit Manifeto 2 The rulin* i!ea of each a*e have ever #een the i!ea of it rulin* cla%5 Thi i!eolo*ical !omination i' in!ee!' an eential element of cla !omination% Cla !omination cannot continue unle the rulin* cla can eta#lih rulin* intitution accor!in* to it o"n i!ea' an! #y the *eneral acceptance of thoe i!ea ecure the *eneral acceptance of it intitution an! rule% To maintain it material rule' the rulin* cla mut al"ay maintain it rule over the min! of men% t mut #in! the intellectual force of ociety to itelf' an! ecure the propa*ation of i!ea "hich' #y e$prein* it !ominance' foretall any challen*e to it !ominance% The Role o( Intellectuals >hen "e pea. of the i!ea of the rulin* cla #ein* the rulin* i!ea' thi !oe not mean' of coure' that all the mem#er of the rulin* cla participate in formin* an! propa*atin* thoe i!ea% The conoli!ation of the economic ytem' an! of the ytem of cla rule' al"ay re+uire certain in!ivi!ual to un!erta.e a!minitrative an! e$ecutive functionA an! imilarly' certain in!ivi!ual al"ay come to pecialie in an intellectual function% very cla "hich play an active a !itinct from a merely paive role in ocial chan*e al"ay fin! it o"n intellectual repreentative% &n! the rulin* cla ha al"ay it ca!re of intellectual' "ho no more contitute a eparate cla than !o a!minitrator an! official% t i true that uch pecialie! ection !o' from time to time' ac+uire vete! interet of their o"n% They #ecome a!ept at featherin* their o"n net% Thi may even' on occaion' a Mar$ an! n*el o#erve! in The Derman !eolo*y' !evelop into a certain oppoition an! hotility #et"een them an! the chief part of the rulin* cla% But in cae of a practical colliion' in "hich the cla itelf i en!an*ere!' thi al"ay automatically come to nothin*5% 101 >e can occaionally o#erve thi happenin* to!ay2 many intellectual "ho ha#itually pea. or "rite the ru!et thin* a#out in!utrialit or financier rally oli!ly aroun! them "henever the ytem itelf i en!an*ere!% The intellectual of the rulin* cla contitute' o lon* a that rule remain ecure' the !ominant intellectual force of ociety' "ho ela#orate it entiment' illuion' mo!e of thou*ht an! vie" of life% That they are in *eneral not conciou of performin* thi function !oe not contra!ict the fact that thi i the function they perform%
@!eolo*y i a proce accomplihe! #y the o-calle! thin.er conciouly' in!ee!' #ut "ith a fale concioune' "rote n*el in a letter to Mehrin* (July Hth' 1K93)% The real motive impellin* him remain un.no"n to him% % % % =e "or. "ith mere thou*ht-material' "hich he accept "ithout e$amination a the pro!uct of thou*htA he !oe not inveti*ate further for a more remote proce in!epen!ent of thou*ht%5 >e fin! thi i!eolo*ical proce tri.in*ly e$emplifie! to!ay% Thin.er "ith the mot !ivere vie"atheit an! !evout Chritian' ocial !emocrat an! conervativeare all impelle! to e$pre one an! the ame point of vie"' namely' that man i i*norant of hi fate an! at the mercy of event "hich he cannot control% >hat i thi #ut the point of vie" of the rulin* capitalit cla in the throe of it final crii ? Thee thin.er come from the mot !ivere ocial trata' #ut they all pe!!le the ame vie" in the ervice of the rulin* cla' poionin* the min! of hearer an! rea!er "ith the ame i!ea% The relation of intellectual "ith the cla they repreent "a !efine! #y Mar$ in "ritin* a#out the literary an! political repreentative of the petty #our*eoiie in the 1KHK perio! in ;rance% t houl! not #e ima*ine!' he "rote' that thee i!eolo*it of the hop.eeper are 2n!ee! all hop.eeper or enthuiatic champion of hop.eeper% &ccor!in* to their e!ucation an! their in!ivi!ual poition they may #e a far apart a heaven from earth% >hat ma.e them repreentative of the petty #our*eoiie i that fact that in their min! they !o not *et #eyon! the limit "hich the latter !o not *et #eyon! in life' 10E that they are cone+uently !riven' theoretically' to the ame pro#lem an! olution to "hich material interet an! ocial poition !rive the latter practically% Thi i' in *eneral' the relationhip #et"een the political an! literary repreentative of a cla an! the cla they repreent% (i*hteenth Brumaire' chap% 3%) Thu the intellectual of the rulin* cla are not necearily themelve mem#er of that cla' in the ene of #ein* #orn into it' or of o"nin* property' or of en/oyin* all it privile*e% ometime' in!ee!' far from en/oyin* uch privile*e their poition i inecurethey are merely hire! an! fire!' li.e court poet in the pat or /ournalit to!ay% Many lea!in* intellectual of the feu!al no#ility came from the peaantry' an! many lea!in* intellectual of the capitalit cla have #een !ra"n from the petty #our*eoiie or from the "or.in* cla% n!ee!' a Mar$ pointe! out in Capital (vol% ll' chap% 36)' the more a rulin* cla i a#le to aimilate the mot prominent men of a rule! cla' the more oli! an! !an*erou i it rule5% Thi proce alo "or. in revere% >hen a rulin* cla i in !ecay' an! another cla i riin* to challen*e it' in!ivi!ual from it o"n ran.' inclu!in* *enerally ome of the mot a#le an! intellectually *ifte!' pa over to erve the rival revolutionary cla% & "e have tate!' every cla "hich i active in the arena of hitory fin! it o"n intellectual repreentative' "ho e$pre it ocial ten!encie' it entiment an! vie"% t i evi!ent' therefore' that in time of profoun! ocial chan*e' "hen all clae are #rou*ht into activity' a *reat creative ferment of i!ea ta.e place% The intellectual life of uch perio! e$pree' not the activity of one cla only' #ut the ferment of activity of all clae% The cla "hich play the lea!in* part in hapin* the ocial or!er ha not only to fin! mean to formulate an! ytematie it o"n i!ea' #ut ecure their acceptance #y the "hole of ociety% =ere revolutionary intellectual' revolutionary thou*ht an! propa*an!a' have an important part to play% >hen the ol! ocial or!er i in !ecline' the i!ea of the rulin* cla #e*in to loe their vitality' #ecome incapa#le of further !evelopment' 103 an! are more an! more re/ecte! #y "i!e ection of people% &ll the har!er !o the ruler fi*ht to retain their hol! an! to ue all the mean at their !ipoal to !icre!it an! perecute @!an*erou5 thou*ht% The revolutionary cla' on the other han!' in ta.in* the lea! of the "hole movement a*aint the ol! ocial ytem' ha not only to *et it o"n i!ea "or.e! out #ut ma.e them the rallyin*' mo#iliin* force of the "hole movement% t "a "ith thi in min! that Mar$ "rote' in the Criti+ue of =e*el: 4hiloophy of ,a"% Theory #ecome a material force a oon a it ha *rippe! the mae%5 The Trans(ormation o( the Su"erstructure n thoe revolutionary perio! "hen the material force of pro!uction come into conflict "ith the e$itin* relation of pro!uction' the entire eta#lihment "hich *uar! the e$itin* form of property #e*in to #e ha.en% n uch perio!' the property relation "hich ha! erve! a form of !evelopment of the material force of pro!uction' turn into their fetter% &n! in the phere of ocial concioune thi fact e$pree itelf in concioune of the !ominant i!ea an! intitution a fetter' in other "or!' a outmo!e!' oppreive' un/ut' fale% e"' revolutionary' i!ea arie% @>hen people pea. of i!ea that revolutionie ociety' Mar$ an! n*el "rote in The Communit Manifeto' they !o #ut e$pre the fact that' "ithin the ol! ociety' the element of the ne" one have #een create!' an! that the !iolution of the ol! i!ea .eep even pace "ith the !iolution of the ol! con!ition of e$itence%5 The cla tru**le' #y "hich the ocial tranformation i effecte!' i #ae! on the conflict of economic interet #et"een
clae occupyin* !ifferent place in the ytem of pro!uction relation' each cla trivin* for it o"n economic interet% t i at #ai economic% But it i carrie! on an! fou*ht out in the phere of politic an! la"' of reli*ion an! philoophy' of literature an! art% t i carrie! on an! fou*ht out' not only #y mean of the economic preure plu coercion an! violence e$erte! #y one cla a*aint another cla' #ut alo #y mean of a #attle of i!ea' in "hich are e$pree! the ten!encie of 10H all clae of ociety% @&ll hitorical tru**le' "hether they procee! in the political' reli*iou' philoophical or ome other i!eolo*ical !omain' are in fact only the more or le clear e$preion of the tru**le of ocial clae' "rote n*el in hi 4reface to the thir! Derman e!ition of Mar$: i*hteenth Brumaire% Jut a there i a !itinction #et"een the pro!uction relation an! the correpon!in* form of ocial concioune' o there i a !itinction #et"een the material economic interet of the conten!in* clae an! their concioune of their aim an! of the iue over "hich they conten!% But "hen the !eciive moment of action arrive' the un!erlyin* economic interet an! aim are al"ay openly reveale!% @& in private life one !ifferentiate #et"een "hat a man thin. an! ay of himelf an! "hat he really i an! !oe' "rote Mar$ in the i*hteenth Brumaire (chap% 3)' o in hitorical tru**le one mut !itin*uih till more the phrae an! fancie of partie from their real interet' their conception of themelve from their reality% % % % Thu the Torie of n*lan! lon* ima*ine! that they "ere enthuiatic a#out Monarchy' the Church' an! the #eautie of the ol! n*lih Contitution' until the !ay of !an*er "run* from them the confeion that they are only enthuiatic a#out *roun! rent%5 Contra!iction an! conflict are al"ay ariin* in the upertructure of ociety' in the phere of ocial concioune' /ut #ecaue on the #ai of *iven relation of pro!uction men cannot live to*ether in complete harmony% uch contra!iction may fin! temporary olution' only to #rea. out a*ain in ne" form% o even the #et eta#lihe! i!ea an! the mot conervative intitution un!er*o chan*e% n uch contra!iction fou*ht out in the upertructure "e houl! !itin*uih thoe "hich only reflect a rea!/utment to ne" event on the #ai of the ame relation of pro!uction' an! thoe "hich reflect the trivin* of a revolutionary cla to chan*e the relation of pro!uction% Of coure' the rulin* an! poein* clae themelve are continually enmehe! in contra!iction' "hich receive e$preion in i!eolo*ical an! political controverie a a reult 107 of "hich the eta#lihment may #e chan*e!' perhap profoun!ly' in repone to chan*e! circumtance% &n! it often happen that @revolt5 #rea. out a*aint ome or other part of the eta#lihment' e$prein* the !icontent of ome particular *roupin*% uch revolt ometime fi<hen' a outcome of the cla tru**le' the ol! rulin* cla i overthro"n' then' a Mar$ put it in the 4reface to Criti+ue of 4olitical conomy' "ith the chan*e of the economic foun!ation the entire immene upertructure i more or le rapi!ly tranforme!5% The upheaval in the economic phere' in the #aic ocial relation' #rin* an upheaval alo throu*hout the "hole phere of i!ea an! intitution% The ol! i overcome #y the ne"% Thi mean' primarily' that the former revolutionary i!ea #ecome !evelope! into the authoritative i!ea of a ne" eta#lihmentA an! in part ne" intitution' contitute! in accor!ance "ith thee i!ea' replace the ol! one' "hile in part ol! intitution are recontitute! in accor!ance "ith ne" i!ea an! to erve ne" purpoe% >ith thi the entire content of ocial concioune i eventually chan*e!% >ith the !iolution of ol! relation of pro!uction' i!ea "hich "ere forme! on that #ai #ecome at firt outmo!e! an! reactionary' an! in the en! irrelevant an! a#ur!% !eolo*ical controverie "hich a#or#e! attention on the ol! #ai #ecome 106 pointle' an! ne" one ta.e their place% But of coure thi !oe not mean that nothin* remain from the ol! upertructureor that !evelopment in the upertructure procee! only #y revolutionary ne*ation' an! not at all #y evolution% @Men never relin+uih "hat they have "on' "rote Mar$ in a letter to &nnen.ov (ecem#er aKth' 1KH6)% But thi !oe not
mean that they never relin+uih the ocial form in "hich they have ac+uire! certain pro!uctive force% On the contrary' in or!er that they may not #e !eprive! of the reult attaine!' an! forfeit the fruit of civiliation' they are o#li*e!' from the moment "hen the form of their intercoure no lon*er correpon! to the pro!uctive force ac+uire!' to chan*e all their tra!itional ocial form%5 >hen thi chan*e i ma!e' the fruit of civiliation "on in the pat are preerve!% They are preerve! #y the ne" ocial form' "herea they "ere place! in /eopar!y #y the !ecay an! !eca!ence of the ol! ocial form% Thu not only the pro!uctive force ac+uire!' #ut a!vance achieve! in culture' are retaine! an! carrie! for"ar! in ne" "ay% ven "hen omethin* i lot' perhap for a lon* time' a a reult of revolution an! "ar' it i eventually re*aine!% n*el remar.e! that much of the ol! oman la" in urope "a eventually utilie! in the !evelopment of #our*eoi la"% &n! "hy i thi ? t i #ecaue the oman la" containe! much that i of value for re*ulatin* men: relationhip not only in lave ociety #ut in any commo!ity-pro!ucin* ociety #ae! on private property% imilarly' "hile certain vie" e$pree! in Dree. art #elon*e! to a lave ociety an! have !iappeare!' the inpiration of that art ha not !iappeare! an! i not li.ely to !o o% That i #ecaue Dree. art *ave e$preion not only to pecial apect of life an! human relationhip in lave ociety #ut to univeral apect of life an! human relationhip in any ociety% t i alo #ecaue Dree. art ma!e a permanent contri#ution to artitic techni+ue% ;or thee reaon' inci!entally' Dree. art i li.ely to urvive much lon*er than oman la"' ince "hile oman la" "ill have nothin* #ut a purely 10 hitorical interet left in communit ociety' Dree. art "ill till retain a livin* interet% &t the preent !ay the "hole herita*e of culture ac+uire! up to an! !urin* the capitalit perio! i #ein* threatene! in the phae of the !eca!ence of capitalimnot only #y the "ell .no"n an! !e*ra!in* ten!encie of commercialim' #ut #y phyical annihilation% t i #ein* claime!' preerve! an! carrie! for"ar! in the fi*ht for ocialim% Institutions7 Ideas and #lasses >hat i the practical concluion to #e !ra"n from the Mar$it theory of the #ai an! upertructure ? t i that !ominant i!ea an! intitution "hich are pro!uct of a particular economic tructure can no more #e re*ar!e! a acroanct an! unchan*ea#le than the economic tructure itelf% They e$pre neither eternal truth nor inviola#le form of human aociation% They imply e$pre the outloo. an! interet correpon!in* to the *iven economic tructure of ociety% &n! in ociety #ae! on e$ploitation' thi outloo. an! thee interet can #e none other than the outloo. an! interet of the !ominant e$ploitin* cla% The ancient Dree.' for e$ample' "ere tau*ht that their la" "ere intitute! #y !ivinely inpire! le*ilator% &n! o thee la" "ere re*ar!e! a acroanct% But Mar$im ho" that in fact thee la" "ere the la" of a lave ociety' !efinin* the privile*e' ri*ht an! !utie of the citietern value' of the conception of in!ivi!ual li#erty' an! o on% &n! o thee intitution an! the i!ea "ith "hich they are aociate! are repreente! a acroanct' /ut a +uite !ifferent intitution an! i!ea "ere repreente! in the pat% But Mar$im ho" that in fact thee intitution are intitution of capitalit ociety' #ae! on the capitalit economic ytem' e$prein* 10K the interet of the rulin* capitalit cla% The Chritian i!eal' >etern value' conception of in!ivi!ual li#erty are in fact capitalit i!eal' capitalit value' a capitalit conception of li#erty% Mar$im' therefore' #y callin* attention to the economic' cla #ai of eta#lihe! intitution an! i!ea' teache u to re*ar! no intitution an! no i!ea a @acre!5% @4eople al"ay "ere an! al"ay "ill #e the tupi! victim of !eceit an! elf-!eceit in politic' "rote ,enin' a lon* a they have not learne! to !icover the interet of one or another of the clae #ehin! any moral' reli*iou' political an! ocial phrae' !eclaration an! promie% The upporter of reform an! improvement "ill al"ay #e foole! #y the !efen!er of the ol!' a lon* a they "ill not realie that every ol! intitution' ho"ever a#ur! an! rotten it may appear' i .ept in #ein* #y the force of one or other of the rulin* clae% &n! there i only one "ay of #rea.in* the reitance of thee clae' an! that i to fin!' in the very ociety "hich urroun! u' an! to enli*hten an! or*anie for tru**le' the force "hich can an!' #y their ocial poition' mut form the po"er capa#le of "eepin* a"ay the ol! an! of eta#lihin* the ne"% (Three ource an! Three Component 4art of Mar$im%Y >hen the clae !icontente! "ith the e$itin* ocial ytem #e*in to ta.e up the tru**le a*aint it' they imme!iately fin! themelve confronte! "ith a "hole et of intitution' la"' cutom' principle an! vie" "hich erve to protect the e$itin* ytem an! to uppre oppoition to it%
;rom the very moment "hen the Britih "or.er' for e$ample' #e*an to com#ine to !eman! hi*her "a*e an! horter hour of "or.' they foun! themelve confronte! "ith oppreive la" enacte! #y oppreive intitution "hich th"arte! their !eman!% They foun! themelve confronte! "ith a parliament from "hich they "ere e$clu!e!' #y la" "hich protecte! the employer' #y vie" "hich approve! the profit-ma.in* of the rich "hile con!emnin* any com#ination of the poor% imilarly' at an earlier ta*e' the n*lih #our*eoiie ha! come into conflict "ith the royalit re*ime of Iin* Charle % Their economic e$panion "a #loc.e! #y royal monopolie an! ta$eA an! "hen they "ante! thee remove!' they imme!iately came into conflict "ith #oth *overnment an! la"' an! "ere !enounce! #y churchmen an! cholar for !arin* to infrin*e upon the !ivine ri*ht of .in*5% n *eneral' the cla "hich in puruit of it material' economic interet conie into oppoition a*aint the rulin* cla' i there#y al"ay #rou*ht into oppoition a*aint the "hole eta#lihment% The "hole recor! of cla tru**le prove that the !ominant' eta#lihe! i!ea an! intitution of any ociety protect an! uphol! the economic tructure of that ociety an!' therefore' the interet of the rulin* cla% Mar$im' then' a!vie u al"ay to loo. for the cla' material' economic interet #ehin! an! motivatin* all !eclaration an! principle' all intitution an! policie% t a!vie u not to repect #ut to !epie i!ea an! intitution "hich erve the capitalit cla a*aint the "or.in* cla' an! to fi*ht for ne" i!ea an! ne" or tranforme! intitution "hich "ill help or*anie an! inpire the #roa! alliance of all "or.in* people to #rea. the po"er an! overcome the reitance of the capitalit' an! #uil! ocialit ociety% #ha"ter Se$en SO#IALISM AND #OMM/NISM Social Production and Social Ownershi" ocialim mean the eta#lihment of ne" relation of pro!uction' a ne" economic #ai for ociety' namely' the ocial o"nerhip of the principal mean of pro!uction% >ith uch an or*aniation of pro!uction' all e$ploitation of man #y man i finally !one a"ay "ith% The capitalit o"nerhip of factorie' mill' mine' tranport an! other mean of pro!uction i a#olihe!A the entire ytem of finance an! tra!e i ta.en out of capitalit han!A the o"nerhip of lan! #y lan!lor! i a#olihe!% &fter that' no "or.er i lavin* any more for capitalit profit' no mall pro!ucer i fleece! #y lan!lor!' moneylen!er or mi!!lemen% The !rive to oppre an! e$ploit other people an! to force a "ay into mar.et i en!e!% o lon*er i any pro!uctive e+uipment un!erS employe! #ecaue it i not profita#le to ue it% o lon*er are any "or.er unemploye! #ecaue it i not profita#le for the capitalit to #uy their la#ourpo"er% o lon*er i *oo! lan! ma!e "ate #y *ree!y e$ploitationA no lon*er i foo! pro!uction limite!' an! toc. hoar!e! or !etroye!' "hile million are un!ernourihe!% There are no more economic crieA for their root cauethat "hile ocial pro!uction e$pan!' the capitalit appropriation of the pro!uct ren!er the ma of people incapa#le of #uyin* #ac. the *oo! pro!uce! i !one a"ay "ith% o one ha a motive for "ar' or tan! to ma.e a profit out of it% >ith ocialim' pro!uction i no lon*er un!erta.en for profit' #ut for the a.e of pro!ucin* "hat people nee!% The primary coni!eration i to raie the tan!ar! of the people% 111 4ro!uction relation no lon*er act a fetter on pro!uction' #ut are a!apte! to the continuou !evelopment of ocial pro!uction in or!er to atify the continuouly riin* re+uirement of the "hole of ociety% ocialim i the or*aniation of plenty% The mean to create plenty for all are alrea!y in #ein*' than. to the !evelopment of the ocial force of pro!uction un!er capitalim% >hat remain i to ue them% n ocialit pro!uction' the entire ocial pro!uct i !ipoe! of #y the pro!ucer' an! i ue! (a) to replace mean of pro!uction ue! up' to #uil! reerve an! further to e$pan! pro!uction' (#) to carry on an! e$pan! ocial ervice' (c) to maintain !efence force o lon* a a ocialit country i threatene! #y hotile capitalit nei*h#our' an! (!) to provi!e mean of conumption to the in!ivi!ual mem#er of ociety% t i in it po"er to increae the total ocial "ealth that ocialim prove it uperiority over capitalim% @n every ocialit revolution' ,enin "rote in The mme!iate Ta. of the oviet Dovernment' there come to the forefront the fun!amental ta. of creatin* a ocial ytem uperior to capitalim' vi<% raiin* the pro!uctivity of la#our% Thi ta. i olu#le' #ecaue ocialim can not only ta.e over all the technolo*ical achievement of capitalim' an! then #etter themA the *reatet po"er of ocialim' "hich ma.e it a ocial ytem uperior to capitalim' i the po"er of people' of ocial la#our releae! from the fetter "hich compel it to erve private profit% The !rive for hi*her pro!uctivity i not un!erta.en a an en! in itelf' or a a ta. impoe! upon people #y elf-appointe! ta.mater% t i un!erta.en for the a.e of en/oyin* plenty' of
ma.in* plenty availa#le to every in!ivi!ual% verythin* for the a.e of man' for the #enefit of man i the lo*an of a ocialit party% The Road to Socialism ocialim came onto the a*en!a of hitory an! #ecame eta#lihe! a a reult of the concurrence of three caue% ;irt' after the eta#lihment of capitalim the pro!uctive force of mo!ern in!utry !evelope! rapi!ly an! reache! the point "here they ha! only to #e #rou*ht un!er ocial o"nerhip to #e capa#le of pro!ucin* plenty for all% econ!' the "or.in* cla achieve! that !e*ree of or*aniation an! elfe!ucation "here it "a capa#le of ta.in* comman! of pro!uction for itelf% Thir!' cientific ocialit theory "a eta#lihe!' !efinin* the ocialit ta. an! the neceary mean to it fulfilment% The victory of ocialim i an! can only #e the outcome of cla tru**le' con!itione! #y the totality of ocial anta*onim #rou*ht into #ein* #y capitalim% Ln!er a "or.in*-cla lea!erhip *ui!e! #y cientific ocialit theory the ma/ority of the e$ploite! uccee! in "innin* a political victory over the e$ploiter an! !eprivin* them of tate po"er% The ocialit revolution i not' ho"ever' a in*le act #ut occupie a "hole epoch of many year !uration% The epoch in "hich the a!vance! capitalit countrie !evelop to the monopoly ta*e an! e$ten! their imperialit con+uet over the "hole "orl! i alo the epoch in "hich imperialim i increain*ly un!ermine! an! finally a#olihe!' an! in "hich ocialim i eta#lihe!' *ro" in tren*th an! finally triumph every"here% The ocialit revolution #e*an "ith the Octo#er evolution of 191% &fter the econ! "orl! "ar' ocialit revolution "a ucceful too in part of atern urope' in China an! other part of &ia an!' later' in Cu#a' in ,atin &merica% t i al"ay "here the cla contra!iction are harpet an! the economic an! political po"er of capital "ea.et that the #rea.-throu*h i ma!e% &t the ame time' the L%%%% prove! a tron* frien! an! protector for the ne"er ocialit tate2 "ithout thi protection the people: !emocracie of urope "oul! har!ly have ecape! lar*e-cale imperialit intervention' an! certainly not the revolutionary re*ime of Cu#a% ;rom Octo#er 191 thoe ocialit of all lan! "ho "ere #oth incere an! cientific re*ar!e! the !efence of the ocialit oviet Lnion a amon*t their firt concern' #ecaue it ucce "a a ucce for ocialim every"here' an! it !efeat "oul! have #een a !iater for ocialim every"here% p The Octo#er evolution *ave a *reat impetu to antiSimperialit tru**le in the colonial empire% ;rom that time' the reitance of colonial people a*aint imperialit e$ploitation *re" into tron* an! or*anie! li#eration movement' "ith ever more clearly formulate! anti-imperialit aim% &fter the econ! "orl! "ar the #arrier #e*an to crac.% To!ay a lar*e part of the former colonial "orl! ha alrea!y "on political in!epen!ence% The in!epen!ence of the ret cannot #e lon* !elaye!% &n! the politically li#erate! people can count on the aitance of the economically tron* ocialit ector of the "orl! in #uil!in* their economie a omethin* other than ra" material #ae an! phere of invetment for capitalit monopolie% The economic *ro"th of the ocialit countrie' "hich have come to*ether to contitute a "orl! ocialit #loc' an! the !o"nfall of colonialim' have #rou*ht a#out a !eciive chan*e in the #alance of "orl! economic an! political force in favour of ocialim% The imperialit are hemme! in' an! cannot any lon*er !o a they pleae "ith the people of the "orl!% @The "orl! i *oin* throu*h an epoch of revolution' ai! Ihruhchev' pea.in* for the Central Committee at the 1961 Con*re of the Communit 4arty of the oviet Lnion% ocialit revolution' anti-imperialit national-li#eration revolution' people: !emocratic revolution' #roa! peaant movement' popular tru**le to overthro" facit an! other !epotic re*ime' an! *eneral !emocratic movement a*aint national oppreionall thee mer*e in a in*le "orl!-"i!e revolutionary proce un!erminin* an! #rea.in* up capitalim% %'% % To!ay practically any country' irrepective of it level of !evelopment' can enter on the roa! lea!in* to ocialim%5 The economically more !evelope! capitalit countrie have' a i o#viou' #een economically ripe for ocialim for a lon* time% The #uil!in* of ocialim in thee countrie "oul! not face thoe !ifficultie of #uil!in* up in!utrie from cratch "hich ocialit contruction ha o far ha! to face "henever it ha #een un!erta.en% ocialim i !elaye! primarily #y political caue#y the firmly conoli!ate! economic an! political po"er of the monopolie' #y the influence they e$ert over people: min! #y hun!re! an! hun!re! of "ell-"orn channel' an! #y the e$itence' itelf an effect of economic caue' of an opportunit lea!erhip "ithin the "or.in*-cla movement "hich i not merely in!ifferent #ut hotile to cientific ocialit i!ea% =o"ever' the revolutionary movement in thee countrie !oe not face uch !icoura*ement an! inupera#le !ifficultie a it enemie li.e to preten!% t i the monopolie that have to face inupera#le !ifficultie in vie" of their o"n economic contra!iction' the *ro"in* tren*th of the ocialit "orl! an! of the colonial li#eration movement' an! the !eman! of the people of their o"n countrie% Capitalim i fallin* #ehin! in competition "ith ocialim' "hich year #y year "ill increain*ly !emontrate not only it technical uperiority #ut it po"er to raie the people: tan!ar! of livin*% very !ay the rationality an! practicality of the i!ea of cientific ocialim for the "or.in*-cla movement #ecome more evi!ent% t i clear' therefore' that the central fortree of capitalim are #y no mean impre*na#le% ocialit revolution' occurrin* at !ifferent ta*e of the !evelopment of the "orl! crii of capitalim an! un!er !ifferent local
con!ition' follo" !ifferent coure an! e$hi#it !ifferent pattern% The uian evolution "a accomplihe! in the mi!t of "ar' #y the forci#le eiith private o"nerhip' pro!uction cannot #e planne!% t i planne! "ithin the "or.hop or' "here an in!utry i ufficiently monopolie!' for a "hole in!utry#ut not for ociety *enerally% There i often tal. of plannin* un!er capitalim' #ut the fact that the mean of pro!uction are privately o"ne! an! the pro!uct privately appropriate! ma.e plannin* impoi#le% 4articular capitalit concern or *roupin* plan their pro!uctionA #ut each concern plan for it o"n profit% &n overall plan' on the other han!' "oul! re+uire that all #ranche of pro!uction houl! #e planne! to*ether a a in*le "hole' the pro!uction of each ector #ein* u#or!inate! to the re+uirement of the *eneral plan rather than to it o"n *reatet imme!iate profit% &n! yet' un!er capitalim' each concern mut purue it o"n profit' or *o un!er% &ny overall plan #rea. !o"n% The fact that ome in!utrie or pu#lic ervice may #e nationalie! ma.e no eential !ifference here% The fact that rail"ay' or fuel an! po"er' may #e nationalie!' a in Britain' can #e of ome a!vanta*e to the *reat private monopolie "hich ma.e ue of their erviceA #ut it !oe not mean that pro!uction a a "hole can #e planne!' any more than it coul! if private o"nerhip "ere univeral%
t i only "hen ociety ha ta.en over the "hole !irection of all the principal #ranche of pro!uction on the #ai of ocial o"nerhip' an! a!apt pro!uction to the ytematic improvement of the con!ition of the mae of the people' that plannin* come effectively into operation over pro!uction a a "hole%
&n! then then pro!uction pro!uction not only only can #ut #ut mut mut #e planne!' planne!' if it i to *o *o on uccefu uccefully% lly% 4lannin* 4lannin* i an econom economic ic neceity neceity of of ocialit pro!uction% ;or o#viouly if there "ere no plan' an! !ifferent people in !ifferent ector of pro!uction !i! a they pleae!' everythin* "oul! oon #e in confuion% & ocialit ocialit plan ta.e' ta.e' to #e*in "ith' the form form of a la" promul* promul*ate! ate! #y a ocialit ocialit *overnmen *overnment% t% The "or! @la"5 ha ha t"o ene2 there are @la"5 enacte! #y *overnment' "hich are thu e$preion of the "ill of menA an! there are o#/ective la" "hich re*ulate real relationhip an! procee of #oth nature an! ociety in!epen!ent of the "ill of men% The ue of the ame "or! "ith t"o uch !ifferent meanin* i no !ou#t !ue to the hitorical fact that people ori*inally #elieve! that la" of nature "ere !ecree of Do! impoe! upon hi creation /ut a la" are !ecree! #y *overnment% Dovernment' ho"ever' are not li.e Do!' thou*h they ometime thin. they are% >hen Do! ai! ,et there #e li*ht' there "a li*htor o "e are tol!% But "hen a *overnment promul*ate a la"' "hat come of it !oe not !epen! only on the intention of the *overnment #ut on o#/ective la" re*ulatin* the ocial relation of the people "ho are uppoe! to o#ey the la"% 4ro!uction i an activity carrie! on #y people in ociety' an! the actual reult of "hat people !o #y "ay of pro!uctive activity !epen! on #oth the o#/ective propertie of their mean of pro!uction an! on the inter!epen!encie of their o"n ocial relation an! ocial procee% n pro!uction people are relate! to one another an! to nature2 the reult of pro!uctive effort !epen! on the la" of thee relation% =ence any pro!uction plan "hich i capa#le of #ein* fulfille! mut #e #ae! on .no"le!*e of thoe la"' an! mut ta.e account of them% f you "ant to pro!uce reult' you mut .no" the la" "hich re*ulate the pro!uction of uch reult an! procee! in 11K conformity to thoe la" an! in no other "ay% Thu' for e$ample' no plan to #uil! teel-frame! #uil!in* "ill come off unle there i a upply of teelA there "ill #e no upply of teel unle it i ma!e an! tranporte!A it "ill not #e ma!e unle iron an! the other in*re!ient are !u* up an! procee!' an! it "ill not #e tranporte! unle oil or coal i o#taine!' or electric po"er pro!uce!% &*ain' if you "ant to pro!uce an a#un!ance of any .in! of conumer *oo! nylon toc.in*' aythen you mut pro!uce the e+uipment neceary for ma.in* them2 no e+uipment for the artificial fi#re in!utry' no nylon toc.in*% imilarly' if you provi!e uch e+uipment in e$ce of "hat i re+uire! for "hatever it i propoe! to pro!uce' then ome of it "ill tan! i!le% &n! o on% &*ain' in the fiel! fiel! of of finance finance an! !itri#ution' !itri#ution' that amount amount of currency currency mut mut #e provi!e! provi!e! "hich i nee!e! nee!e! for the the e$chan*e e$chan*e of activitie an! pro!uct "hich are actually *oin* to ta.e placeA e$ce or !eficiency "ill ali.e caue !ilocation% uppoe' then' that the *overnment of a ocialit country enacte! a ;ive-ear 4lan ,a" !ecreein* a vat increae of pro!uction' #ut "ithout ta.in* e$actly into account the e$itin* economic reource of the country' it e$itin* ource of ra" material an! pro!uctive capacity% >oul! uch a la" #e effective? t certainly "oul! not' an! "hat "oul! happen "oul! not #e a vat increae of pro!uction #ut a vat increae of mu!!le an! !icontent% & ocialit ocialit plan' therefo therefore' re' mut mut #e !ra"n !ra"n up on the the #ai of cientific cientific .no"le!*e .no"le!*e of economic economic la" la" an! of cientifically cientifically acertaine! economic an! technical !ata% Thi .no"le!*e mut #e e$act an! +uantitative% 4olitical lo*an an! va*ue economic *eneraliation incapa#le of mathematical e$prer ion are' #y themelve' lia#le to #e "ore than uele% Thi cientific .no"le!*ethe .no"le!*e of o#/ective neceity the appreciation of "hich a!! up to the free!om of ocialit plannin*relate #oth to the ocial-economic relation of human #ein* an! to the propertie of the material an! natural force ue! in pro!uction% n the cience of ocialit plannin* there i alrea!y comin* into #ein* the unity of the natural an! ocial cience%
;rom thi it follo" that much more i re+uire! for ocialit plannin* than political lo*an an! enthuiam' an! that it i not at all a +uetion of ar#itrarily ettin* tar*et% The fact that mean of pro!uction are ocially o"ne! !oe not imply that mita.e' an! eriou mita.e' cannot eaily #e ma!e in ocialit plannin*% Metho! of improviation an! !ecree' "hich may #e neceary in the imme!iate aftermath of ocialit revolution an! are #ae! lar*ely on political e$pe!iency' nee! to #e a#an!one! a +uic.ly a poi#le% oe thi imply that plannin* houl! #e in the han! of a commiion of e$pert' a .in! of technocracy ? Of coure' it nee! e$pertA an! the more e$pert they are' an! the #etter they "or. to*ether a a collective' the more effective "ill #e the plannin*% But a ocialit plan i carrie! out #y people an! for people% t i people' "ith their .ill an! enthuiam' "ho !o the "or.' an! it i their re+uirement "hich the plan i meant to atify% O#viouly' people: re+uirement cannot #e !ictate! to them #y e$pert' nor can they #e her!e! an! !irecte! li.e heep% ince people are themelve the mot important of all the force of pro!uction' a ocialit plan fail unle people are mo#ilie! for pro!uctionA an! the pro!uctive force of people "or.in* for themelve i not mo#ilie! #y !eciion of any commiion of e$pert' #ut only #y !eciion of thoe very people% ucceful ocialit plannin* mut' therefore' com#ine the ue of the mot e$act cientific .no"le!*e of nature an! of economic la" "ith the mot !emocratic metho! of !eci!in* "hat i to #e !one an! of or*aniin* the !oin* it% There i no contra!iction heree$cept in the min! of uch hi*h an! mi*hty e$pert a re*ar! the ma/ority of "or.in* people a the common her!' invinci#ly i*norant an! incapa#le of .no"in* "hat they "ant or "hat i *oo! for them%
Moreover' the initiative of "or.in* people in fin!in* their o"n mean of tac.lin* a particular /o# i a tremen!ou factor in the !evelopment of pro!uctiona the ta.hanov movement in uia' or apect of the Dreat ,eap in China' enationally !emontrate!% e" invention' ne" techni+ue' ne" "ay of "or.in* to*ether prin* from the !emocratic 1E0 cooperation of "or.in* people "ho are their o"n materA *reat talent' #oth in!ivi!ual an! collective' an! #oth mental an! manual' come to li*ht% Thu the eta#lihment of !emocracy in "or. i itelf a revolutioniin* element in the force of pro!uction% t i the !icovery of ho" to releae an! ue in pro!uction the talent of the mae' "hich i compara#le to the !icovery of ho" to ue a ne" ource of phyical ener*y team po"er' or nuclear po"er% From Socialism to #ommunism #ommunism >hen ocialim i eta#lihe!' ho" !oe ociety continue to !evelop ? Mar$ ho"e! that after pro!uction ha #een place! on a ocialit #ai an! all e$ploitation of man #y man ha !iappeare!' ZX further ta*e of tranition #e*inthe tranition to communit ociety% =e re*ar!e! ocialim a only the firt phae of communit ocietya comparatively #rief phae of tranition from ociety #ae! on the e$ploitation of one cla #y another to a fully !evelope! clale ociety% @Bet"een capitalit an! communit ociety lie the perio! of the revolutionary tranformation of the one into the other' he "rote in Criti+ue of the Dotha 4ro*ramme% &n! in thi perio!' the perio! of ocialim' there i communit ociety' not a it ha !evelope! on it o"n foun!ation' #ut' on the contrary' /ut a it emer*e from capitalit ocietyA "hich i thu in every repect' economically' morally an! intellectually' till tampe! "ith the #irthmar. of the ol! ociety from "hoe "om# it emer*e%5 n "hat repect i ocialim a it emer*e from capitalim till tampe! "ith the #irthmar. of the ol! ociety ? n "hat repect !oe it reveal it tranitional character? &n! ho" are thee !efect to #e *ot over? @To each accor!in* to hi nee! The firt repect in "hich ocialim reveal it tranitional character i in pro!uction itelf an! in the "ay the ocial pro!uct i !itri#ute!% ocialim tart off "ith the pro!uctive force at the level they have reache! un!er capitalim% =ence "hile the aim of ocialit plannin* i to atify every 1E1 re+uirement of every in!ivi!ual' thi aim cannot #e fully realie! for a lon* timenot until there ha #een an immene a!vance of pro!uction' far a"ay #eyon! capitalit pro!uction% uch an a!vance i certainly practical% The ao-year plan a!opte! #y the oviet Lnion in 1961' "hich i a o#er an! cientific plan' envia*e that in t"enty year oviet in!utry "ill pro!uce nearly t"ice a much a i no" pro!uce! in the "hole of the non-ocialit "orl!' an! that the pro!uction of oviet a*riculture "ill increae #y three an! a half time% Meantime in!ivi!ual can only receive a hare of the ocial pro!uct' not accor!in* to the full nee! of each' #ut accor!in* to the +uantity an! +uality of the "or. each ha contri#ute!% & pro!uction i till retricte!' the principle of ocialit pro!uction i2 ;rom each accor!in* to hi a#ility' to each accor!in* to hi "or.% But in the hi*her phae of communim pro!uction ha #een o much enlar*e! that an entirely !ifferent principle operate2 ;rom each accor!in* to hi a#ility' to each accor!in* to hi nee!%5 n Criti+ue of the Dotha 4ro*ramme Mar$ re*ar!e! the principle of e+ual pay for e+ual "or.the principle of ocialima till a han*over of #our*eoi la"% Thi la" i only finally a#olihe! in communit ociety% Then all have an e+ual ri*ht to atify their nee!% Of coure' the principle of e+ually atifyin* the nee! of all implie an ine+uality in "hat each receive' ince nee! are not e+ual-/ut a e+ual pay for e+ual "or. implie ine+uality' ince ome !o more "or. than other% t i "orth notin*' therefore' that the i!ea that the ocial pro!uct houl! #e e+ually !ivi!e! amon*t all ha nothin* to !o "ith either ocialim or communim% The ocial pro!uct i al"ay une+ually !ivi!e!' firt correpon!in* to une+ual "or. an! then correpon!in* to une+ual nee!% The e+uality "hich communim #rin* i the e+ual opportunity for everyone to !evelop all hi capacitie a a many-i!e! in!ivi!ual% The ine+uality of nee! ha a peculiarly o#viou application a #et"een men an! "omenalthou*h thi o#viou fact i often o#cure! #y pea.in* of the "hole human race a @him5% >omen have pecial nee!' a "omenA an! to *ive 1EE "omen the ame opportunitie in life a men' "hich ha never #een !one to thi !ay' "oul! till never #e !one #y allocatin* to them the ame hare a men' or #eto"in* on them e+ual pay for e+ual "or.% The e+uality of "omen !oe not mean that they houl! have the ame a men% t mean that they' a "omen' houl! have every opportunity to live fullyto have chil!ren an! en/oy #rin*in* them up' to *ain .no"le!*e' to !o creative "or.' an!' *enerally pea.in*' to en/oy life "ithout ufferin* any !ia!vanta*e a compare! "ith men% The Status o( La;our
& econ! econ! repect repect in "hich ocialim ocialim reveal reveal it tranitional tranitional character character i in in the tatu tatu of of la#our la#our an! people: attitu!e attitu!e to "or.% "or.% Ln!er capitalim' the "or.er ell their la#our-po"er to the capitalit% ,a#our i therefore a ta. un!erta.en for omeone ele' a #ur!en% t i' in Bi#lical phrae' the cure of &!am5% n ocialim' la#our-po"er i no lon*er #ou*ht an! ol!% The pro!ucer "ho receive accor!in* to hi "or. i not receivin* the price of the la#our-po"er he ha ol!% =e i receivin* hi hare of the ocial pro!uct accor!in* to the contri#ution he ha ma!e to ocial pro!uction% &n! o the more he help to pro!uce' the more he "ill receive"hich i not the cae un!er capitalim' !epite the promie that "hen pro!uctivity increae everyone: real "a*e "ill *o up2 they have never *one up yet e$cept after a har! #attle% =o"ever' @incentive5 are till re+uire! for la#our% &n! thee incentive are provi!e! in ocialit ociety preciely #y the principle2 To each accor!in* to hi "or.% ach .no" that the #etter he "or.' the more he "ill *et% &t the ame time' the ocial incentive *ro" in i*nificance% 4eople "or. #ecaue it i a *oo! thin* to !o' #ecaue of companionhip an! the !eire to contri#ute to ocial "ell-#ein*' #ecaue of the ocial approval it earn% &n! thi ocial incentive *ro" in i*nificance a the memorie of capitalit con!ition fa!e an! a the re"ar! for la#our increaeA an! alo a' "ith technical innovation' "or. #ecome le !ull an! heavy' more interetin* an! en/oya#le' an! the "or.in* !ay horter% @4ro!uctive la#our' intea! of #ein* a mean to the u#/ection of men' "ill #ecome a mean to their emancipation' #y *ivin* each in!ivi!ual the opportunity to !evelop an! e$ercie all hi facultie' phyical an! mental' in all !irection' "rote n*el in &nti-iihrin* (part ' chap% 3)% 4ro!uctive la#our "ill #ecome a pleaure intea! of a #ur!en%5 Only "ith the appearance of uch a tatu of la#our an! uch an attitu!e to it coul! communit ociety e$it% >hen each receive no lon*er accor!in* to hi "or. #ut accor!in* to hi nee!' it i evi!ent that "or. i no lon*er !one un!er any .in! of compulion #ut #ecaue people ta.e pleaure in it an! it i reco*nie! a an in!ipena#le part of life% n capitalit con!ition' !riven #y the lah of economic compulion' "or.in* people acrifice a thir! or more of their live "or.in* for other% & man: o"n life #e*in only "hen he .noc. off "or.A hi "or.in* time i not hi o"n' he i ro##e! of it% Only for a privile*e! fe" i reerve! the pleaure of creative "or.' the concioune that in their "or.in* time they are livin* their o"n live a they "ih to live' an! not #ein* ro##e! of life% ;or the ma of the people' their life i a o#ert Treell !ecri#e! it in The a**e! Trouere! 4hilanthropit2 >hen the "or.er arrive! in the mornin* they "ihe! it "a #rea.fat time% >hen they tarte! "or. after #rea.fat they "ihe! it "a !inner time% &fter !inner they "ihe! it "a one o:cloc. on atur!ay% o they "ent on' !ay after !ay' year after year' "ihin* their time "a over an!' "ithout realiin* it' really "ihin* that they "ere !ea!%5 n communim' the "hole of people: time i their o"n% The contrat "a pointe! #y >illiam Morri' in hi ima*inary converation in Me" from o"here "ith people of a communit ociety% To the +uetion' =o" you *et people to "or. "hen there i no re"ar! of la#our' came the an"er2 The re"ar! of la#our i life% that not enou*h ? % % % =appine "ithout !aily "or. i impoi#le% &n! the +uetion' & to ho" you *aine! thi happine "a an"ere!2 Briefly' #y the a#ence of artificial coercion' an! the free!om of every man to !o "hat he can !o #et' /oine! to the .no"le!*e of "hat pro!uction of la#our "e really "ant%5 Di$ision o( La;our and the Indi$idual & thir! thir! repect repect in "hich ocialim ocialim reveal reveal it tranition tranitional al character character i in the continue! continue! u#or!inati u#or!ination on of the the in!ivi!ual in!ivi!ual to the principle of !iviion of la#our% iviion of la#our i a fun!amental feature of the a!vance of pro!uction% t i carrie! to a very hi*h pitch in mo!ern in!utry' "here co-operative pro!uction !epen! on the !iviion of la#our into' an! the co-or!ination of' a very lar*e num#er of la#our procee' #oth manual an! mental% But in ociety #ae! on e$ploitation' an! in capitalit ociety in particular' in the !iviion of la#our' man i alo !ivi!e!% &ll other phyical an! mental facultie are acrifice! to the !evelopment of one in*le activity% &n! thi repreent' a n*el "ent on to init in &nti-ilhrin* (part ' chap% 3)' a u#/ection of the pro!ucer to the mean of pro!uction% ;or it i not the pro!ucer "ho control the mean of pro!uction' #ut the mean of pro!uction "hich control the pro!ucer%5 ocialim' #y intitutin* ocial o"nerhip of the mean of pro!uction' #e*in to ma.e the "or.er no lon*er the ervant of the machine' #ut it mater% &ociate! pro!ucer !o no" control their mean of pro!uction% Therefore the "ay i open to overcome the tuntin* of men: facultie caue! un!er capitalim #y the !iviion of la#our% But thi i a lon* proce% t involve a thorou*h-*oin* retrainin* of la#ourto e!ucate an! train all-roun! people "ho' mater of their "hole pro!uction proce' are not in!ivi!ually tie! to one particular part of it% Mar$ pointe! out in Capital (vol% ' chap% 17' ect% 9) that "hile the effect of capitalim i to turn the "or.er into a !etail
la#ourer' neverthele the !evelopment of in!utrial pro!uction !eman! the oppoite% t !eman! "ell-e!ucate!' all-roun! "or.er "ho can ta.e on ne" /o# correpon!in* to ne" technical !evelopment% Mo!ern in!utry' in!ee!' compel ociety' un!er penalty of !eath' to replace the !etail "or.er of to!ay' cripple! #y life-lon* repetition of one an! the ame operation an! thu re!uce! to a mere fra*ment of a man' #y the fully-!evelope! in!ivi!ual' rea!y to face any chan*e of 1E7 pro!uction' an! to "hom the !ifferent ocial function he perform are #ut o many mo!e of *ivin* free cope to hi o"n natural an! ac+uire! po"er%5 & the techni+ue of capitalit pro!uction ha a!vance!' o ha !ea!enin* repetition "or. of the conveyor-#elt type #ecome more prevalent% But the ne$t tep of technical a!vance i automation' "here all repetitive !ru!*ery i !one #y machine' an! "or.er nee! to #e hi*hly .ille! an! a!apta#le' a#le to mater an! un!ertan! the machine they control an! not merely to erve them% The fullet cope of in!utrial !evelopment re+uire uch people' #ut capitalit e$ploitation tran*le them% ;or uch people can flourih only a the mater of in!utry an! not a "a*e-lave% n ocialim there #e*in the proce of removin* the u#or!ination of the in!ivi!ual to !iviion of la#our an! creatin* @all-roun!5 in!ivi!ual% uch people an! only uch people are the creator of the *reat ne" pro!uctive force of communim% n thi "ay' a*ain' ocialim i the firt ta*e of communim2 in ocialit pro!uction i #ein* create! the ne" man of communit ociety% Thi proce alo implie the en!in* of the very ol!et effect of the !iviion of la#ourthe eparation' amountin* to an antithei' of mental from manual la#our' an! of to"n from countryi!e% The uperior tatu of the mental compare! "ith the manual "or.er an! the e$cluion of the one from the privile*e of the other' an! the uperior opportunitie of to"n a compare! "ith country life' "hich till inevita#ly perit !urin* the firt phae of ocialit ociety' lea! to the tuntin* of in!ivi!ual% The mental "or.er #ecome !ivorce! from reality' an! the manual "or.er from the full un!ertan!in* of itA the to"nman #ecome !ivorce! from the life of nature' an! the countryman too much immere! in it% Thee !iviion "ill #e #rou*ht to an en! a people create communim% Then a*riculture "ill #ecome a hi*hly e+uippe! technically a in!utry' an! the in!utrial centre not #e cut off from the countryi!eA the level of all "or.er "ill #e raie! to that of men of cience' an! there "ill not #e any tratum of intellectual "ho ima*ine themelve a cut a#ove the other% A Sin)le Form o( Pu;lic Pro"ert! The fourth an! final repect in "hich ocialim reveal it tranitional character i in the continue! e$itence of !ifferent form of property% The "hole ten!ency of the !evelopment of capitalim i to e$propriate in!ivi!ual pro!ucer' !eprivin* them of o"nerhip of their mean of pro!uction an! convertin* them into "a*e"or.er' an! to !rive mall tra!er out of #uine "hile capital i more an! more concentrate! into the han! of a mall num#er of very #i* concern% But thi i never more than a tron* ten!ency% Monopoly capitalim i never more than a *i*antic upertructure impoe! on a #ai of petty pro!uction an! petty tra!in*% ocialim #e*in "ith the e$propriation of the #i* capitalit concern an! #i* lan!o"ner' convertin* their property into pu#lic property' the property of the "hole people% There remain a ma of mall pro!ucer an! mall tra!er' inclu!in* e$ploiter of la#our% &n! thee have to #e eventually a#or#e! into the fa#ric of ocialim' #y ma.in* their property either pu#lic or co-operative property' a far a poi#le ecurin* their conent #y ma.in* thi "orth their "hile a in!ivi!ual' partly enforcin* it #y economic preure an! le*ilative meaure% Thi pro#lem epecially concern a*riculture% n Britain the e$propriation of in!ivi!ual pro!ucer ha #een carrie! throu*h #y capitalim in a*riculture a "ell a in in!utry% =ere not only in!utrial #ut a*ricultural pro!uction i performe! mainly #y "a*e-la#our% But Britain i not typical in thi repect% n many other countrie "here capitalim ha !evelope! or into "hich it ha penetrate!' a*riculture ha remaine! pre!ominantly a peaant economy' in "hich the *reater part of pro!uction i carrie! on' not #y "a*e-la#our' #ut #y mall peaant proprietor% Ln!er uch con!ition' coul! it #e propoe! not only to e$propriate the #i* capitalit an! lan!lor! #ut alo the "or.in* peaant ? eco*niin* the neceity of the "or.in* cla formin* an alliance "ith the "or.in* peaantry in the fi*ht a*aint capitalit an! lan!lor!' n*el an"ere! thi 1E +uetion lon* a*o% n The 4eaant Nuetion in ;rance an! Dermany he "rote2 >hen "e are in poeion of tate po"er "e hall not even thin. of forci#ly e$propriatin* the mall peaant% Our ta. relative to the mall peaant conit in effectin* a tranition from hi private enterprie an! private poeion to cooperation' not forci#ly #ut #y !int of e$ample an! the proffer of ocial aitance for thi purpoe%5 ;or peaant a*riculture the ta. of #uil!in* ocialim involve e$propriatin* the lan!lor!' eliminatin* the e$ploitation of "a*e-la#our' an! convertin* mall-cale peaant farmin* into lar*e-cale co-operative farmin* an! in!ivi!ual peaant property into co-operative property% &t the ame time' "hile the main #ranche of farmin* *o over to co-operative metho!' it i +uite poi#le for the in!ivi!ual farmer to retain mall plot of lan! for their o"n family ue%
o then there arie' a in the L%%%% an! all other ocialit countrie at the preent time'' t"o form of ocialit property2 pu#lic an! co-operative% Both are ocialit' #ecaue they are #oth form throu*h "hich aociate! pro!ucer hol! their mean of pro!uction in common an! !ipoe of the pro!uct' "or. for themelve an! not for e$ploiter' an! receive accor!in* to their "or.% Their eential !ifference i the !ifference #et"een a tate or pu#lic enterprie' "hich #elon* to the "hole people' an! a co-operative enterprie "hich #elon* to a particular *roup of people% Thi !itinction mean that "hile in!utrial pro!uction can #e planne! in a !irect "ay' ince all the mean of pro!uction are pu#lic property the plannin* of a*ricultural pro!uction mut procee! #y in!irect metho! of encoura*in* a particular volume an! !irection of co-operative' peaant pro!uction #y offerin* uita#le economic incentive in the form of price% Thi i "hy ocialit plannin* ha encountere! *reater !ifficultie in the phere of a*riculture than of in!utry% >hen pro!uctivity ha! !evelope! ufficiently' thee !ifferent form of property "ill fue into a in*le form of pu#lic property% ;or "hen not only !oe each "or. accor!in* to hi a#ility #ut receive accor!in* to hi nee!' there i no ene left in ome claimin* e$cluive' even thou*h co-operative' o"nerhip of 1EK particular mean of pro!uction an! cone+uently appropriatin* the pro!uct% & they can receive all they nee! from the common pro!uct of the pro!uction of all' there i no a!vanta*e to them in co-operative o"nerhip' an! it retention "oul! imply prove a hin!rance to the or*aniation of ocial pro!uction an! !itri#ution% Thi perpective' a envia*e! in the L%%%% #y the Central Committee of the Communit 4arty' "a outline! #y Ihruhchev at the 1961 Con*re% The till e$itin* remnant of !itinction #et"een clae "ill #e eliminate!' he ai!' clae "ill fue into a clale ociety of communit "or.in* people% % % % &*riculture "ill acen! to a hi*h level that "ill ma.e it poi#le to *o over to communit form of pro!uction an! !itri#ution% % %% ,ife itelf i tea!ily #rin*in* the national an! co-operative form of property cloer to*ether' an! "ill ultimately lea! to the emer*ence of a in*le' communit property an! a in*le' communit principle of !itri#ution%5 The !evelopment of a complete communit ociety from it firt phae of ocialim i the cone+uence' then' of a *reat increae of ocial pro!uction% t mean that' a The Communit Manifeto put it' all pro!uction ha #een concentrate! in the han! of a vat aociation of the "hole nation' "hich plan pro!uction in all it #ranche in accor!ance "ith the nee! of the peopleA the "hole ocial pro!uct i then at the !ipoal of the ame vat aociation' o that it may #e !itri#ute! accor!in* to nee!% The tuntin* of human capacitie #y ine+ualitie of opportunity ha #een en!e!% There i poi#le "hat Mar$' in the Criti+ue of the Dotha 4ro*ramme' calle! the all-roun! !evelopment of the in!ivi!ual' an! all the prin* of cooperative "ealth flo" more a#un!antly5% The tranition from ocialim to communim !oe not entail any harp revolutionary #rea.' any revolutionary chan*e in the relation of pro!uction% On the contrary' ocialim an! communim are phae of one an! the ame ocial-economic formation' !itin*uihe! a phae imply #y the !e*ree of economic !evelopment an! the completene of the elimination of all earlier form of o"nerhip of mean of pro!uction an! of appropriation of the pro!uct% The veti*e of the economic an! ocial relation of the ol! cla-!ivi!e! ociety of e$ploitation' in tru**le a*aint "hich people #uil! ocialim' *ra!ually !iappearA an! a they are lou*he! off' the hi*her phae emer*e% Lnli.e the openin* phae' "hich i till tampe! "ith the #irthmar. of the ol! ociety' the hi*her phae of communim' therefore' !evelop entirely on it o"n foun!ation' that i' on the foun!ation of ocial o"nerhip of all the mean of pro!uction%
#ha"ter Ei)ht TO'ARDS A ./MAN 'AC OF LIFE Measures o( Transition (rom Socialism to #ommunism By "hat mean i the tranition from ocialim to communim effecte! in practice? &lon* "ith the intro!uction of ever hi*her techni+ue an! increae of la#our pro!uctivity *oe the neceity of a erie of relate! ocial meaure% t i neceary to provi!e all-roun! e!ucation' "ith a #ai in cientific an! technical e!ucation' for all mem#er of ociety' an! finally hi*her e!ucation for all% t i neceary to raie the *eneral .ill of all "or.in* people' to plan incentive accor!in*ly' to level out !itinction an! en! the #rac.et of lo"er-pai! un.ille! an! emi-.ille! "or.er% t i neceary to provi!e for all ever fuller an! more open opportunitie for the e$ercie an! !evelopment of all their facultie' for culture an! .no"le!*e' for contri#utin* to life an! un!ertan!in* an! en/oyin* life% &n!' in cloe aociation "ith all thi' it i neceary pro*reively to horten the "or.in* !ay% Mar$ pointe! out in Capital (vol% ll' chap% HK) that people mut al"ay pen! time pro!ucin* to atify their "ant% >hen e$ploitation of man #y man i a#olihe!' he "rote' they can accomplih thi ta. "ith the leat e$pen!iture of ener*y an! un!er con!ition mot favoura#le to an! "orthy of their human nature% But it none the le remain a realm of neceity% Beyon! it #e*in that !evelopment of human ener*y "hich i an en! in itelf' the true realm of free!om' "hich' ho"ever' can #loom forth only "ith thi realm of neceity a it #ai% The hortenin* of the "or.in* !ay i it #aic prere+uiite% hortenin* of the "or.in* !ay i a fun!amental meaure in ocialit pro!uction' an! a con!ition "ithout "hich the allS 131 roun! !evelopment of people: phyical an! mental a#ilitie cannot #e achieve!% Thi all-roun! !evelopment i' a Mar$ !eclare!' an en! in itelf% t i not ou*ht in or!er to increae pro!uction% On the contrary' the technical a!vance of pro!uction i ou*ht in or!er that thi !evelopment hall #e achieve!% &lon* "ith all thee meaure *o uch meaure a provi!in* full maintenance for all citi
a#olihe!% Cla tru**le "ithin the country then #ecome a thin* of the pat% Of coure' !icontent an! protet on the part of in!ivi!ual i li.ely to continueA an! o lon* a they have *roun! for !icontent' their protet i not anti-ocial% @t "oul! #e "ron*' ai! Ihruhchev' reportin* for the Central Committee at the 1961 Con*re of the C%4%%L%' to thin. that there i a "all #et"een a tate of the !ictatorhip of the proletariat an! the tate of the "hole people% ;rom the moment of it inception' the !ictatorhip of the proletariat contain feature of univeral ocialit !emocracy% & ocialim !evelop' thee feature #ecome accentuate!' an! follo"in* it complete victory they #ecome !eterminant% The tate !evelop from an intrument of cla !omination into an or*an e$prein* the "ill of the "hole people%5 =o" i thi chan*e from !ictatorhip of the proletariat to tate of the "hole people effecte!? By tren*thenin* the elective #ai of all or*an of central an! local *overnment' an! 133 e$ten!in* their real po"erA #y enlar*in* the activitie of ma or*aniation uch a the tra!e union' the co-operative an! cultural an! e!ucational ocietie' an! e$ten!in* pu#lic control over the activitie of all *overnment #o!ieA #y !ra"in* more an! more peoplenot in hun!re! or thouan! #ut' a ,enin ai!' in millioninto "or. of !ay to !ay a!minitrationA #y the practice of nation-"i!e !icuion of the mot important plan an! la"A an! #y re!ucin* the num#er of tate official an! re*ularly rene"in* the compoition of *overnment #o!ie' o ma.in* *overnment le of a full-time career or profeion% &ll thi mean that the role of tate po"er a an intrument of coercion #ecome le% @The interference of the tate po"er in ocial relation #ecome uperfluou in one phere after another' "rote n*el in ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific (chap% 3)' an! then ceae of itelf% The *overnment of peron i replace! #y the a!minitration of thin* an! the !irection of the procee of pro!uction% The tate i not a#olihe!' it "ither a"ay% &n! in The Ori*in of the ;amily etc% (chap% 9) he conclu!e!2 The ociety that "ill or*anie pro!uction on the #ai of a free an! e+ual aociation of the pro!ucer "ill put the "hole machinery of tate "here it "ill then #elon*2 into the mueum of anti+uitie' #y the i!e of the pinnin*-"heel an! the #rone## put it lon* a*o in their oviet Communim (chap% 7)' it e$it to fulfil the vocation of lea!erhip% >ithout the e$ercie of uch a vocation #y a party e+uippe! "ith ocial cience' it i impoi#le to rally million an! lea! them alon* the roa! to communim% ,enin' in >hat i to #e !one ?' !ecri#e! the party a not only the van*uar! #ut the tri#une of the people% Thi' too' remain it function in ocialit ociety% ;rom the very nature of the tate' a a pecial or*an of a!minitration an! coercion' no tate i immune from ten!encie to #ureaucracy' ar#itrarine an! even tyranny% t i for the party to repreent an! uphol! the interet of the people in enurin* that the ocialit 137 tate !oe fulfil their re+uirement an! that the people !o ta.e char*e of it% =o" ele houl! thi #e !one? o !emocracy can function imply #y a*reement of the people' pontaneouly an! "ithout a party to repreent them an! act a their voice% The e$perience of the L%%%% ha !emontrate! ho" real i the !an*er of tate or*an of coercion *ettin* out of han!% Thi only #ecame poi#le #ecaue the
party itelf "a to ome e$tent prevente! from functionin*it !emocratic machinery "a impaire! an! it mem#er "ere intimi!ate!A in!ee!' that "a "here intimi!ation #y the talin re*ime "a chiefly !irecte!% ,ater' it "a the action of the party "hich put matter to ri*ht% The ocialit ta#lihment The ocialit tate an! the party are the centre of "hat' in the terminolo*y of a previou chapter' may #e calle! the ocialit eta#lihment% But thi eta#lihment i o !ifferent from anythin* that e$ite! previouly that the ue of the ame "or! #ecome !ou#tful% The Communit 4arty came into e$itence an! too. hape in the tru**le a*aint capitalim' an! the form of the ocialit tate "herever it i eta#lihe! i !etermine! #y the character of the prece!in* tru**le an! of the or*aniation an! intitution that too. part in them% n thi the ocialit eta#lihment i /ut li.e any otherintitution' partie an! i!ea #orn of the tru**le a*aint the ol! ytem #ecome the formative element of the ne" eta#lihment% The !ifference #e*in in thi' that the capitalit or*aniation an! i!ea' an! the capitalit tate' are pro!uct of the !evelopment of the capitalit metho! of e$ploitation an! erve the purpoe of uphol!in* the e$ploitation of man #y manA "herea ocialit or*aniation an! i!ea' an! the ocialit tate' are pro!uct of the tru**le a*aint e$ploitation an! erve the purpoe of #rin*in* all e$ploitation of man #y man to an en! an! conoli!atin* a ocialit ociety% The o#/ect of the one i to impoe a ytem of e$ploitation' #ut to !o thi un!er a !i*uienot openly' #ut in the name of li#erty' free enterprie' the ri*ht of the in!ivi!ual' la" an! 136 or!er' reli*ion% The o#/ect of the other i to further the complete emancipation of the "hole of ociety from every form of e$ploitation an! oppreion' an! not un!er any cover #ut in the name of human emancipation% The !evelopment of the tructure an! function of the ocialit tate an! party an! all ocialit intitution' an! li.e"ie of the political' philoophical' le*al' literary an! artitic i!ea of ocialim' i un!erta.en "ith a conciou purpoe of ecurin* people: emancipation from all oppreive an! limitin* con!ition an! ena#lin* them to live in #rotherhoo!' pro!ucin* an! atifyin* all their nee! an! !evelopin* all their capacitie% ntitution an! i!ea all ta.e hape in a conciou tru**le to overcome "hatever erve! the function of uphol!in* the ol! metho! of e$ploitation' an! to !evelop "hatever i ueful to help #uil! the ne" ociety "ithout e$ploitation an! to enrich it material an! cultural life% Thi !ifference lea! to a econ! one% n ociety #ae! on e$ploitation' the "hole eta#lihment erve to impoe thi e$ploitation an! to /utify it an! ma.e people accept it% There are propa*ate! the #iae! an! !eceptive i!ea of a minority' "hich are impoe! on the ma/orityA an! the intitution are impoe! intitution% t i +uite other"ie in ocialit ociety% There the i!ea proper to the eta#lihment teach people ho" to com#ine in aociation to atify their material an! cultural nee!' an! the intitution erve the ame purpoe% ntitution an! i!ea are not impoe! on the people' #ut are of the people an! erve their !eepet interet% =ence intea! of the intitution of ociety #ein* run #y a privile*e! fe"' a they are in capitalit ociety even "hen everyone ha the vote' the aim i to !ra" "i!er an! "i!er mae of people into runnin* them% &n! intea! of i!ea #ein* ela#orate! #y an intellectual elite to*ether "ith a corp of hire! hac. (an! it i ometime !ifficult to ma.e thi !itinction)' the aim i to have "i!er an! "i!er popular !e#ate an! !icuion a#out all i!ea% Of coure' all thi i eaier ai! than !one% Ol! "ay !ie har!% &n! /ut #ecaue ocialit i!ea are at firt the i!ea of a minority' an! ocialit intitution have the ta. of enforcin* 13 the re+uirement of the ne" ociety a*aint reitance from the remnant of the ol!' it i not urpriin* if ten!encie e$it to"ar! a fe" authoritative peron .eepin* a ti*ht hol! on intitution an! to"ar! authoritarianim an! !o*matim in i!ea' upiciou of !emocratic "ay an! !emocratic !icuion% =o"ever' if uch ten!encie houl! *ro" intea! of #ein* put !o"n' it i to the !etriment of the !evelopment of ocialim% aturally' the intitution an! i!ea of ocialit ociety #ecome enlivene! an! enriche! a a reult of the ever "i!er participation of people in hapin* them' an! #ecome oifie! an! impoverihe! in the contrary cae% Thir!ly' in capitalit an! other ocietie #ae! on e$ploitation the eta#lihe! intitution !o not ta.e hape to ena#le eople to realie their common interet' #ut to erve the interet of the rulin* e$ploitin* claA an! the eta#lihe! i!ea li.e"ie erve the interet of the e$ploitin* cla an! cannot a!vance man.in!: un!ertan!in* of the real con!ition of life e$cept in o far a uch un!ertan!in* may #e ueful to the e$ploiterapart from that' eta#lihe! i!ea !i*uie reality% There i nothin* to *ain for ocialim' on the other han!' from i!ea "hich in any "ay !i*uie' !itort or falify thin*even if a fe" in!ivi!ual may temporarily ininuate themelve into niche "here they have a vete! interet in uch i!ea% On the contrary' the truer' the clearer an! the more profoun! i people: un!ertan!in* of nature an! ociety' the #etter "ill their i!ea erve their ocial purpoe% ocialit i!ea are !evelope! in the earch for uch un!ertan!in* an! in the fi*ht a*aint "hatever contra!ict it% imilarly' the o#/ect of ocialit intitution i to ena#le people to co-operate to*ether to atify their nee!' an! they are !evelope! #y uch co-operation an! #y removin* "hatever hamper it%
Cone+uently' the !evelopment of the i!ea an! intitution of ocialit ociety i effecte! in the proce of people: a!vancin* their un!ertan!in* of the real con!ition of life an! or*aniin* themelve to ecure their common interet% >hatever !oe not atify thee con!ition *et altere!' a ocialim *ro" into communimnot a a reult of any conflict of contra!ictory interet' #ut a a reult of the aertion of the 13K community of interet% Thi mean that the #ai for i!ea a#out ociety an! nature i cientificA that the #ai for the !evelopment of culture an! the art i the e$ploration an! e$preion of people: real relation "ith one another an! "ith natureA that the #ai for intitution i that they ena#le people to atify their nee!A an! apart from that' every .in! of authority i et ai!e% >ith the complete achievement of communim' therefore' anythin* reem#lin* an eta#lihment come to an en!% >here i ocialit an! communit !evelopment lea!in*? The economic !evelopment of communit ociety' procee!in* on the #ai of man: complete matery of hi o"n ocial or*aniation' i firt an! foremot a *i*antic !evelopment of man: matery of nature% t i the matery of nature' achieve! #y intelli*ent "or.' that !itin*uihe the human "ay of life from that of the lo"er animal% The animal merely ue e$ternal nature' an! #rin* a#out chan*e in it imply #y hi preence' "rote n*el in The 4art 4laye! #y ,a#our in the Tranition from &pe to Man% Man ma.e it erve hi en!' mater it% Thi i the final' eential !itinction #et"een man an! other animal' an! it i la#our that #rin* a#out thi !itinction%5 The oppoition of man an! nature' "hich i #orn a oon a human ociety i #orn' ha al"ay containe! an element of anta*onim' in the ene that uncontrolle! natural force threaten human e$itence an! frutrate the realiation of human purpoe% Thu in primitive ociety natural force aume the proportion of menacin* enemie' "hich have to #e fou*ht' ca/ole! or tric.e!% atural catatrophe perio!ically !etroy "hat man ha ma!e% n o far a natural force are not un!ertoo! an! are not controlle!' they are anta*onitic to man an!' even "hen their action i #eneficent' they al"ay contain an element of threat an! !an*er% n the coure of the !evelopment of pro!uction' men have increain*ly matere! natural force% ncreain* matery of nature i' in!ee!' the eential content of material pro*re% 139 n materin* natural force men learn their la" of operation an! o ma.e ue of thoe la" for human purpoe% Man !oe not mater natural force #y omeho" "ea.enin* them' or chan*in* their propertie an! la" to uit hi !ei*n' #ut #y learnin* to .no" them an! ue them' to turn them from enemie into ervant% But men: matery of natural force ha #een offet #y their o"n u#/ection to the mean of pro!uction "hich they have create! in materin* them' an! to their o"n pro!uct% They are u#/ect to their o"n mean of pro!uction in the ene that the cultivator i himelf !ominate! #y the oil' an! the machine-min!er #y the machine% &n! "hen pro!uct are pro!uce! a commo!itie' the pro!ucer are u#/ect to their o"n pro!uct' in the ene that they !o not pro!uce "hat they "ant in or!er to en/oy it #ut are utterly !epen!ent on "hatever happen to their o"n pro!uct in the mar.et' "here the pro!uct themelve eem to ta.e control over the fate of the pro!ucer% &n! in thi common u#/ection' man ha #een u#/ect to an! e$ploite! #y man% n communit ociety' ho"ever' every o#tacle i remove! "hich their o"n ocial or*aniation offer to the furthet !evelopment of men: free!om% 4eople no" *o for"ar! "ithout hin!rance to .no" an! control the force of nature' to ue them a ervant' to rema.e nature' co-operatin* "ith nature to ma.e the "orl! a human "orl! ince humanity i nature: hi*het pro!uct% n communit ociety the ocial control #y aociate! pro!ucer over the ue of their mean of pro!uction an! the !ipoal an! en/oyment of their ocial pro!uct i at len*th ma!e a#olute' un+ualifie!' unlimite!% ach in!ivi!ual i free from the trait/ac.et hitherto place! on hi all-roun! !evelopment #y the ocial !iviion of la#our' an! i free from the retriction to hi atifyin* hi nee! hitherto impoe! #y the neceity of payin* for the mean of atifaction% n communit ociety' people in aociation' actin* throu*h the economic plannin* or*an of ociety' can plan pro!uction in a complete an! !irect "ay #y imply rec.onin* up their pro!uctive force an! their nee!' an! then !ipoin* of the pro!uctive 1H0 force in uch a "ay a to pro!uce the nee!% & >illiam Morri ma!e hi communit people ay in Me" from o"here2 The "are "e ma.e are ma!e #ecaue they are nee!e!A men ma.e for their nei*h#our: ue a if they "ere ma.in* for themelve' not for a mar.et of "hich they .no" nothin*' an! over "hich they have no control% >e have no" foun! out the thin* "e "ant' an! "e have time an! reource enou*h to coni!er our pleaure in ma.in* them%5
The End o( Alienation and Estran)ement
>ith communim' then' there !iappear the lat veti*e of the !omination of man #y hi o"n mean of pro!uction an! hi o"n pro!uct% =encefor"ar! man i fully the mater of hi o"n ocial or*aniation an! increain*ly the lor! of nature% >ith thi' a Mar$ ai!' the prehitory of man.in! en! an! human hitory #e*in% n!ee!' "hat mot profoun!ly !itin*uihe man from other animal i man: concioune of hi o"n aim an! hi conciou ue of the la" of the o#/ective "orl! in puruit of hi aim% =itherto men have matere! natural force in the proce of pro!uction' #ut have not #een mater of their o"n ocial or*aniation% They have pro!uce!' #ut not #een mater of their o"n mean of pro!uction an! their o"n pro!uct% n pro!ucin*' they have create! ocial force an! et in motion economic la" "hich have rule! human !etinie a an alien po"er% That "a not human hitory' #ut only the hitory of man in the ma.in*% n hi earliet philoophical "or.' the conomic-4hiloophic Manucript of 1KHH' Mar$ "rote of the human con!ition of @alienation5 an! @etran*ement5% Thi conception "a actually the fountainhea! of the i!ea of communim% & men men emer*e emer*e from from the con!ition con!ition of primitive primitive commun communim im they they #e*in to cut themelve themelve free free from the navel navel trin* trin* "hich "hich tie them to nature% n primitive communim the in!ivi!ual i o !epen!ent on an! o u#mer*e! in the *roup that he ha har!ly any in!ivi!uality' an! the *roup i tie! to an! !epen!ent on it natural ha#itat an! the mean of life it 1H1 offer% Once people procee! from primitive foo!-*atherin* to foo!-pro!ucin*' an! #e*in a aociate! in!ivi!ual "ith !iviion of la#our to interfere !ratically "ith their natural environment' private property an! e$ploitation #e*in% &n! "ith them come "hat Mar$ calle! alienation an! etran*ement% &lienation &lienation mean mean that that "hat "hat #elon* #elon* to a man pae pae out out of hi poeion' poeion' an! may #e #e ue! a*aint a*aint him% 4eople 4eople alienate alienate the pro!uct of their la#ourA an! "hen they are e$ploite!' their very la#our #ecome alienate! #ecaue' a "e have een' it i ta.en from them an! ue! #y other% More' "ith private property an! cla !iviion' people: ocial creation pa out of their o"n controlA in!epen!ent of their "ill' they et up ocial relation an! create intitution an! or*aniation "hich they cannot control an! to the action of "hich they #ecome u#/ect% n thi con!ition' people #ecome etran*e! from one another% Of coure' people !eire thin* an! it i *oo! to poe the ue of thin*A #ut no" attachment to thin* contra!ict attachment to people' an! people treat one another a thin* to #e o"ne! an! ue!% The poeion of thin* #ecome the *reat an! neceary o#/ect of life' an! in puruin* thi o#/ect people #ecome etran*e! an! treat one another a mean to #e ue! to help *ain poeion of thin*% t i eay to reco*nie that thi con!ition ha not #een eae! #ut ha rather #een "orene! "ith the !evelopment of cla!ivi!e! ociety% The hatefulne an! inhumanity of capitalim i !ue to the fact that men: alienation of their o"n po"er an! pro!uct an! etran*ement from one another i carrie! to the hi*het pitch un!er capitalit con!ition% Throu*hout the a*e' artit an! "riter' viionarie an! reformer' have #een a"are of thi' an! have portraye! it effect an! tru**le! a*aint them' "ithout fully un!ertan!in* their caue% Communim #e*in "ith thi un!ertan!in*% &n! the *reat an! humane aim of communim i to en! forever the human con!ition of alienation an! etran*ement% t i then that' a Mar$ e$pree! it in hi earliet "ritin*' the human eence "ill achieve it realiation% >hat !oe thi mean? t !oe not mean ome "on!erful tranfi*uration of man ma!e perfect% >hat i eential to the human animal' !ifferentiatin* him from other' i purpoive co-operation to pro!uce the mean of life% Communim imply mean that thi i !one' "ith .no"le!*e of nature an! "ithout hin!rance from man: o"n ocial or*aniation% Communim mean that people li.e u' "ith our han! an! #rain' ene or*an an! phyical nee!' co-operate to pro!uce "hat "e "ant an! to allo" to each the opportunitie to #enefit from the common toc. of all% >hat i there in thi contrary to human nature? The i!ea of communim i #ae! on cientific un!ertan!in* of human nature an! of the la" of man: ocial !evelopment% t ha lon* #een fahiona#le to neer at communim a the i!ea of a @millennium5% Thi neer "a an"ere! lon* a*o #y o#ert O"en' in an &!!re to the nha#itant of e" ,anar.2 >hat i!ea in!ivi!ual may attach to the Millennium .no" notA #ut .no" that ociety may #e forme! o a to e$it "ithout crime' "ithout poverty' "ith health *reatly improve!' "ith little' if any' miery' an! "ith happine increae! a hun!re!fol!%5 The Future o( #ommunist Societ! The tranition from capitalim to ocialim i' a "e no" .no"' a prolon*e! an! uneven proce' ome nation achievin* ocialim "hile other till remain capitalit or even' in ome repect' pre-capitalit% t follo" from thi that' on a "orl! cale' the tranition from ocialim to communim "ill alo #e a prolon*e! an! uneven proce' ince ome nation "ill a!vance to communim "hile other la* #ehin! an! may even till remain in the capitalit ta*e% >hat "ill happen after communim? Thi i a natural enou*h +uetion' #ut one "hich "e cannot poi#ly an"er at preent' or can an"er only in the va*uet term%
n *eneral' it may #e ai! that there i no reaon "hatever to #elieve that the ame fun!amental la" of ocial !evelopment "hich have al"ay operate! "ill not continue to operate% ;or thee are la" of the human con!ition itelf% t remain true that in carryin* on pro!uction people enter into relation of pro!uction "hich mut correpon! to the character of their pro!uctive force% t remain true that people: concioune i !etermine! #y their ocial #ein*% t remain true that a pro!uction !evelop o mut ne" ocial ta. !evelop "ith it% But intea! of aertin* their "ay throu*h cla conflict' crie an! catatrophe' an! #y the frutration of men: intention' the la" of ocial !evelopment "ill #e more an! more conciouly utilie! #y aociate! humanity' /ut li.e the la" of nature' in the interet of ociety a a "hole' to realie men: intention% &ociate! on the #ai of a common interet' men "ill #e in full control of their o"n ocial coure% They "ill #e a#le to !irect it #y the compa of their .no"le!*e of their o"n nee! an! of the real con!ition of their ocial e$itence% &ll that that "e can .no" .no" in a!vance a!vance a#out commu communit nit ociety ociety follo" follo" from "hat "hat "e alrea!y alrea!y .no" a#out previou ociety' ociety' an! a#out capitalit an! ocialit ociety in particular% Thu "e .no" that certain feature of capitalit an! ocialit ociety' "hich "e have analye!' "ill have to #e eliminate!' an! "e can "or. out in a *eneral "ay ho" that can #e !one an! "hat ort of ociety "ill e$it after"ar!% >hatever *oe #eyon! that "e have no mean of pre!ictin*% >hen a "orl! e$it o completely !ifferent from our preent "orl!' ho" are "e to ay "hat the people "ho live in it "ill !eci!e to !o ? Of coure' "e cannot ay% &n! if "e !i! ay anythin*' they "oul! ta.e no notice of uA for "hat they !o "ill #e #ae! on their o"n re+uirement' an! not on our% &t mot mot "e "e can venture venture to to aert aert t"o propoition% propoition% (i) n communit ociety' property ha reache! it hi*het ta*e of !evelopment% 4rivate property ha ceae! to e$it% t i imply the cae that people in aociation ma.e ue of all the reource of nature' inclu!in* their o"n human reource' to atify all their nee!% Thee reource #elon* to no one in particular' the pro!uct of aociate! la#our #elon* to the 1HH "hole of ociety' an! mean of conumption are !itri#ute! amon* the mem#er of ociety accor!in* to their nee!' a their o"n peronal property for purpoe of peronal ue% 4roperty a "e no" *enerally un!ertan! ita the o"nerhip an! control of mean of pro!uction an! pro!uct #y particular in!ivi!ual' *roup an! or*aniationha' in fact' ceae! to e$it% That i "hat i meant #y the hi*het ta*e of !evelopment of property% f' then' thi i "hat ha happene! to property' it "ill never a*ain #e the cae that people "ill feel the neceity of chan*in* property relation an! intitutin* any hi*her form of property% (E) &t the ame time' ociety nee! not tan! till% There may "ell ta.e place ne" !evelopment of the force of pro!uction' !erive! from ne" !icoverie of cience% >hat thee "ill #e "e cannot tellif "e .ne" of !icoverie #eforehan!' they "oul! not #e !icoverie% To!ay "e ten! to #e very impree! #y the potentiality of the phyical cience' ma.in* availa#le ne" ource of ener*y an! poi#ilitie not only of tranformin* the earth: urface #ut of travellin* to the moon or other planet% t i poi#le that !icoverie of the #iolo*ical cience may prove even more revolutionary' ena#lin* u to control the *ro"th of livin* or*anim an! to prolon* *reatly the pan of human life% n any cae' "ith ne" !icoverie ne" horihen >hen all man.in! man.in! i free free from e$ploitation' people "ill live "ithout "ant' in ecurity an! happine' an! "ill #e fully capa#le of ta.in* care of the future% >e nee! not further concern ourelve a#out their future pro#lem' #ut rather a#out our o"n pro#lem% ;or the future of man.in! !epen! on ho" "e olve the preent contra!iction of ociety% #onclusions
>hat concluion can "e !ra" from the materialit conception of man an! hi ocial !evelopment? (i) The epoch in "hich "e live i the one in "hich man.in! i finally ta.in* the !eciive tep to the achievement of truly human con!ition of e$itence% =itorical materialim li*ht up the "on!erful perpective "hich lie #efore the preent *eneration% =itherto' ince the firt phae of primitive communim' ociety ha al"ay #een #ae! on the e$ploitation of the mae of "or.in* people% The "ealth of the fe" ha contrate! "ith the poverty of the many% The *reat a!vance of material pro!uction' "hich have create! that "ealth' have #een achieve! only at the e$pene of increae! e$ploitation of the pro!ucer% The over"helmin* ma/ority have #een !enie! the en/oyment of the culture the creation of "hich "a ma!e poi#le #y their la#our% There ha #een continual "ar of cla a*aint cla an! of people a*aint people% ;rom uch con!ition of ocial e$itence man.in! i emer*in* to create a ne" or!er of ociety in "hich e$ploitation of man #y man i a#olihe!' an! in "hich the !evelopment of ociety no lon*er ta.e place throu*h conflict an! upheaval #ut i conciouly re*ulate! in accor!ance "ith a rational plan% &ll thi thi ha #ecome #ecome neceary neceary #ecaue #ecaue the the ne" force of ocial ocial pro!uction pro!uction prove incompa incompati#le ti#le "ith "ith private private o"nerhip o"nerhip of the mean of pro!uction an! private appropriation of the pro!uct% 1H6 They can #e fully utilie! an! !evelope! only on the #ai of ocial o"nerhip an! ocial appropriation% Mo!ern cience an! techni+ue ma.e it poi#le for the firt time in hitory for everyone to en/oy a hi*h an! riin* tan!ar! of life' an! for everyone to en/oy leiure' e!ucation an! culture% To realie thi poi#ility' ociety mut ta.e over control of the "hole of pro!uction an! plan it for the atifaction of the nee! of the "hole of ociety% That mean that everyone "ill #e a#le to en/oy "ithout +uetion the #aic material neceitie of life*oo! houin*' foo! an! the maintenance of health% Monotonou an! ar!uou "or. "ill #e a#olihe! #y hi*h techni+ue' an! all "ill #e free to "or. creatively% >or. "ill ceae to #e a #ur!en an! #ecome one of life: neceitie' a matter of pri!e an! pleaure% et an! leiure' e!ucation an! a culture! life' "ill #e en/oye! #y all% &ll "ill #e a#le to raie their +ualification an! !evelop their variou a#ilitie% uch are the truly human con!ition of life "hich it i the *oal of ocialim to eta#lih% (E) ocialim can #e eta#lihe! only throu*h the action of the revolutionary cla in mo!ern ociety' the "or.in* cla' in it tru**le "ith the capitalit cla% ocialim cannot poi#ly #e achieve! #y any *ra!ual tranition #ae! on cla-colla#oration' ince #y it very con!ition of e$itence the capitalit cla i #oun! to reit to the en! the intro!uction of ocialim' "hich "oul! !eprive it of it property an! profit% On the contrary' it can #e achieve! only #y the tru**le of the "or.in* cla to emancipate itelf from capitalit e$ploitation% By emancipatin* itelf' the "or.in* cla "ill there#y emancipate ociety at lar*e from all e$ploitation% To achieve ocialim the "or.in* cla mut unite' an! lea! all the "or.in* people to tru**le to en! capitalit rule an! eta#lih a ne" !emocratic tate' #ae! on the rule of the "or.in* cla in alliance "ith all the "or.in* people% (3) To !efeat capitalim an! #uil! ocialim the "or.in* cla mut have it o"n political party' the Communit 4arty' e+uippe! "ith cientific ocialit theory an! a#le to apply it% Throu*h the e$perience of ma tru**le the "or.er #e*in 1H to #e conciou of the anta*onim of their interet "ith thoe of the employer' of the nee! to unite an! or*anie% But thi concioune can #ecome ocialit concioune only "ith the ai! of cientific theory% Only "ith the #enefit of ocialit theory can the "or.in* cla ee the nee! not only to fi*ht for #etter "a*e #ut to en! the "a*e ytem' an! realie ho" to carry thi fi*ht throu*h to victory% Thu "hat i neceary for the "a*in* of the tru**le for ocialim i a#ove all the union of cientific ocialim "ith the ma "or.in*-cla movement% (H) To!ay the cientific theory of Mar$im-,eninim i trie! an! tete! an! ha prove! it truth in practice% Dui!e! an! inpire! #y it' ocialim ha #een #uilt in the oviet Lnion an! the hape of the future communit ociety i #ecomin* clear% e" ocialit people are at "or.' more prou! an! free than any "ho have tro! the earth #efore% Million more are a!vancin* to ocialim% & ne" "orl! ha come into e$itence "hoe *ro"th the force of the ol! are utterly po"erle to prevent% Completely !ifferent i the "orl! of capitalim' !yin* on it feet' torn #y inolu#le crii an! conflict% =ere the rulin* monopolie try to olve their pro#lem an! increae their profit #y cuttin* at the people: tan!ar!' #y !eceivin* the people an! un!erminin* their li#ertie' an! #y pilin* up armament% They pin their hope for the futureor rather' for !elayin* the futureon the hy!ro*en #om#% Their final accomplihment i the mean of ma !etruction%
Our final concluion' then' i clear% &ll over the "orl! the common people can an! mut unite to preerve peace% >e mut trive for co-operation "ith the countrie "hich are alrea!y #uil!in* ocialim an! *uar! their achievement% >e mut "or. for the en!in* of capitalim an! eta#lihment of ocialim in our o"n country% &D ,T The follo"in* are the principal "ritin* #y Mar$' n*el an! ,enin availa#le in n*lih ettin* forth the theory of hitorical materialim% =o"ever' everythin* they ever "rote ha relevance to thi theory an! contain an application of it% >or. mar.e! "ith an ateri. are the #et for #e*inner% M&U & D, The Communit ManifetoX The Derman !eolo*y Correpon!ence M&U Capital' volume ' an! Criti+ue of 4olitical conomy' 4reface:1: Criti+ue of the Dotha 4ro*rammeX The 13th Bruniaire of ,oui Bonaparte conomic-4hiloophic Manucript of 1KHH D, ocialim' Ltopian an! cientificX peech at the Dravei!e of Iarl Mar$X ,u!"i* ;euer#achX The Ori*in of the ;amily' 4rivate 4roperty an! the tateX The 4art 4laye! #y ,a#our in the Tranition from &pe to ManX &nti-Lhrin* , >hat the ;rien! of the 4eople are an! ho" they ;i*ht the ocial-emocrat Materialim an! mpirio-Cnticim Iarl Mar$X The tate an! evolutionX mperialimX WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
Dialectical Materialism: An Introduction +olume Three o( the -,$olume The Theor! o( nowled)e 8! Maurice #orn(orth B 1?22 FORE'ORD T= theory of .no"le!*e 681 i concerne! "ith +uetion a#out i!eatheir ource' the "ay they reflect reality' the "ay they are tete! an! !evelope!' their role in ocial life% Thee +uetion have al"ay forme! an important part of philoophy% n #our*eoi philoophy the theory of .no"le!*e ha come to occupy the firt place' on the *roun! that #efore any philoophical concluion can #e !ra"n a#out anythin* "hatever "e mut firt ma.e certain of "hat "e really !o .no" an! the foun!ation on "hich "e .no" it% But #our*eoi philoopher have *enerally approache! the u#/ect in the mot a#tract poi#le "ay% Ta.in* nothin* ele for *rante! than the #are e$itence of the in!ivi!ual human min!' they have a.e! ho" .no"le!*e coul! #e #orn an! *ro" up in it% But ince human in!ivi!ual' an! till le their min!' !o not e$it in a voi!' thi .in! of in+uiry "a #oun! to raie unan"era#le +uetion an! to remain comparatively terile% Mar$im' on the other han!' coni!er that "e ou*ht to tu!y the u#/ect more concretely' an! to a. ho" i!ea actually arie' !evelop an! are tete! in the concrete con!ition of real human life' in the material life of ociety% Thi volume i a#out ho" human concioune actually arie an! !evelop% t trie to trace thi proce tep #y tep from it #e*innin* in the imple con!itione! refle$' "hich i the #aic "ay in "hich an animal or*anim enter into active relationhip "ith the e$ternal "orl!' up to the !evelopment of human .no"le!*e an! human free!om% Part One T.E NAT/RE AND ORI9IN OF T.E MIND #ha"ter One MIND AND 8ODC Matter and Mind T i very commonly #elieve! that ho"ever cloely the min! may #e connecte! "ith it #o!y it i neverthele !itinct an! epara#le from the #o!y% &ccor!in* to thi #elief' the min! @animate5 the #o!y an! ma.e ue of the or*an of the #o!y #oth to receive impreion of the e$ternal "orl! an! to act on the e$ternal "orl!A #ut it e$itence !oe not !epen! on that of the #o!y% Moreover' "hile in ome of it activitie the min! ma.e ue of the #o!y' in other of it activitie it !oe not% ;or intance' the min! ma.e ue of the #o!y in it enuou activitie' #ut in it @purer5 intellectual or piritual activitie it !oe not% Thi i in eence a very ancient conception% Thu ome primitive people thin. of the oul a #ein* a very fine vapour thi i "hat the "or! @pirit5 ori*inally meant"hich rei!e in the #o!y #ut "hich can come out of it an! lea! an in!epen!ent e$itence% ;or e$ample' the oul /:ourney out of the #o!y !urin* leep' iuin* forth from the mouth% &*ain' the "ron* oul can ometime *et into the "ron* #o!ya in @poeion52 a lunatic or an epileptic i ai! to uffer from an evil pirit havin* *ot into hi #o!y% &n! a part of thi primitive conception of the oul there arie the conception of the urvival of the oul after !eath an! alo of the pre-e$itence of the oul #efore #irth% !ealit philoophical theorie a#out the min! are' in the lat analyi' only refinement an! rationaliation of uch upertition% &mon*t uch refinement an! rationaliation i the !octrine that min! an! #o!y are t"o !itinct u#tance 10 piritual u#tance an! material u#tance% Material u#tance' or #o!y' i e$ten!e!' ha "ei*ht' move a#out in pace% piritual u#tance' or min!' thin.' .no"' feel' !eire% Thi vie" i till very "i!ely hel!% t i #elieve! that uch propertie a thin.in*' feelin* an! o on are o a#olutely !ifferent from the propertie of matter' that ho"ever cloely our thin.in* an! feelin* may #e #oun! up "ith the tate of our #o!ie' they #elon* to an immaterial u#tance' the min!' "hich i !itinct from the #o!y% !ealit philoopher' "ho coni!er that the min! i epara#le from the #o!y' maintain that thou*ht' feelin* an! o on are in no ene pro!uct of any material proce% f "e thin. an! feel an! act intelli*ently' for e$ample' uch #ehaviour i not to #e e$plaine! from the con!ition of our material e$itence #ut from the in!epen!ent functionin* of our min!% &!mitte!ly' the min! ma.e ue of the #o!ily or*anA #ut intelli*ent #ehaviour tem from the fact that the #o!y i animate!' informe! an! controlle! #y an immaterial principle or a piritual #ein*' the min!% But uch i!ealit theorie' "i!eprea! a they are' have lon* #een offet #y oppoin* materialit vie"% &ccor!in* to
materialim' o far from min! #ein* epara#le from #o!y' all mental function !epen! on their appropriate #o!ily or*an an! cannot #e e$ercie! "ithout them% &ll people: conciou an! intelli*ent activitie can #e trace! #ac. to material caue' o that far from uch activitie #ein* e$cluive pro!uct of min!' min! itelf i a pro!uctthe hi*het pro!uctof matter% Mo!ern materialim' "hich i e+uippe! "ith the reult of cientific inveti*ation into the form of or*anic life an! "ith the conception of evolution' i a#le to *ive a !eciive an"er to the i!ealit conception of the min!% Min! i a pro!uct of the evolutionary !evelopment of life% ,ivin* #o!ie "hich have reache! a certain level of !evelopment of the nervou ytem' uch a "e fin! in animal' can an! !o !evelop form of conciouneA an! in the coure of evolution thi concioune eventually reache the ta*e of thou*ht' the activity of the human #rain% The mental function' from the lo"et to the 11 hi*het' are function of the #o!y' function of matter% Min! i a pro!uct of matter at a hi*h level of the or*aniation of matter% Once thi i a!mitte!' there i an en! to the conception of the min! or oul a epara#le from the #o!y an! capa#le of leavin* it an! urvivin* it% & min! "ithout a #o!y i an a#ur!ity% Min! !oe not e$it in a#traction from #o!y% To ay that min! !oe not e$it in a#traction from #o!y i not' ho"ever' to ay that mental procee !o not e$it or that the min! of man i a myth% Of coure' min!' concioune' thou*ht' "ill' feelin*' enation an! o on are real% Materialim !oe not !eny the reality of rnin!% >hat materialim !oe !eny i that a thin* calle! the min! e$it eparate from the #o!y% The min! i not a thin*' or a u#tance' !itinct from the #o!y% Thi point can #e illutrate! #y any e$ample "hen "e or!inarily pea. a#out the min!% 4hiloopher an! theolo*ian have ima*ine! that the min! ha an e$itence of it o"n' an! +ualitie an! activitie of it o"n' !itinct from the #o!y% But nothin* of the ort i ever implie! in practical life "hen "e tal. a#out the min!% uppoe' for e$ample' that you are a.e!' >hat: in your min!? Thi mean +uite imply' >hat are you thin.in* a#out? n other "or!' it i a variant of the +uetion' >hat are you !oin*? t !oe not in the leat imply that there e$it a thin* calle! your min!' !itinct from your #o!y% imilarly' if you are tol!' ou have a firt-rate min!' or ou have a !irty min!' or ou ou*ht to improve your min!' all thee remar. are un!ertoo! a referrin* to certain thin* "hich you normally !o% &n! if you !ie' or if you are hit on the hea! or in ome other "ay uffer a !itur#ance of the #rain' then thee remar. a#out your min! no lon*er apply% ;or the activitie to "hich they refer can then no lon*er #e performe!' ince the mean of performin* them have #een !etroye!% & man i en!o"e! "ith min!' then' in o far a he thin.' feel' !eire an! o on% But all thee activitie are activitie' function' of the man' of a material #ein*' an or*anie! #o!y' 1E !epen!ent on appropriate #o!ily or*an% Diven a #o!y "ith the appropriate or*aniation an! the appropriate con!ition of life' thee activitie arie an! !evelop% etroy the #o!y or it or*an' an! thee activitie are !etroye! "ith it% &ll the mental function an! activitie' "hich are ai! to #e pro!uct of min! a !itinct from matter' are function or activitie of a livin* material or*anim% The min! i a pro!uct of material or*aniation% #onsciousness and the Ner$ous S!stem ot every #o!y i capa#le of thin.in* an! feelin*' #ut only or*anic' livin* #o!ie% &n! not every livin* #o!y manifet thoe activitie "hich are aociate! "ith the !evelopment of min!% The appearance of min! i in fact #oun! up "ith the evolution of the central nervou ytem in animal% >hen livin* #o!ie evolve! the nervou ytem' an! "hen from the central nervou ytem there !evelope! the #rain' then the elementary function of min!' centrin* on enation' came into #ein*% &n! "ith the further !evelopment of the #rainof the cere#ral corte$ an! it hi*her centre' "hich "e fin! in manthere came into #ein* the hi*her function of min!' the function of thou*ht% The #rain i the or*an of thou*ht% Thin.in* i a function performe! #y the #rain% ;e" people no"a!ay "oul! !eny thee "ell-eta#lihe! fact% everthele #elief are "i!ely hel! "hich contra!ict them% uch' for e$ample' i the #elief in peronal urvival after !eath% Thoe "ho hol! thi #elief uually uppoe that in our future conciou e$itence after !eath many thin* "ill #ecome much clearer to u than they are no"% n other "or!' they #elieve that our min! cannot attain their full !evelopment until after "e are !ea!% They #elieve that o far from the #rain #ein* the or*an of thou*ht' our thou*ht "ill reach perfection only "hen "e have no #rain left to thin. "ith% ,enin maintaine! that in or!er to arrive at an analyi an! e$planation of mental procee' in or!er to un!ertan! their nature an! ori*in' it "a neceary to et a#out ma.in* a !irect tu!y of the material u#tratum of mental phenomena the nervou procee% (>hat the ;rien! of the 4eople &re' 13 etc%' 4art %) The foun!ation of thi tu!y have #een lai! #y mo!ern phyiolo*y' in "hich the "or. of the uian phyiolo*it van 4avlov "a epecially i*nificant%
Or)anism and En$ironment Before 4avlov' the nervou ytem "a *enerally re*ar!e! a fulfillin* the primary function of co-or!inatin* the action of the !ifferent part of the or*animA ir Charle herrin*ton calle! thi the inte*rative action of the central nervou ytem% 4avlov inite!' ho"ever' on the nee! to inveti*ate a econ! immene part of the phyiolo*y of the nervou ytem% ;or he re*ar!e! it a a ytem "hich primarily eta#lihe the relation' not #et"een the in!ivi!ual part of the or*anim' "ith "hich "e have #een mainly concerne! hitherto' #ut #et"een the or*anim an! it urroun!in*%5 The primary function of the central nervou ytem i not imply to re*ulate the functionin* of the !ifferent part of the or*anim in relation to one another' #ut to re*ulate the functionin* of the or*anim a a "hole in relation to it urroun!in*% Throu*h the functionin* of it nervou ytem' the animal in the coure of it activity #uil! up mot complicate! relation "ith it environment' than. to "hich it i a#le to live in it environment' to o#tain it re+uirement an! to react to !efinite con!ition in a !efinite "ay% Thu the animal relate itelf to it urroun!in* in uch a "ay that it i actively a"are of it urroun!in*' react appropriately to event' an! in turn act #ac. upon them% To !o all thi' the animal ue it ene or*an an! it lim#' an! the or*an controllin* the "hole proce the #rain% The implet ort of refle$' "here#y a timulu affectin* the ene or*an evo.e a mucular repone' contitute a relation or connection #et"een the animal an! it environment% uch an! uch a timulu evo.e uch an! uch a repone thi !ecri#e an active relationhip of the animal "ith it urroun!in*% 4avlov ho"e! that the active relationhip of the animal "ith it urroun!in* #e*in from certain fi$e! an! contant connection #et"een the animal an! the e$ternal 1H "orl!' "hich he calle! uncon!itione! refle$e' an! !evelop throu*h the #uil!in* up of temporary an! varia#le connection' "hich he calle! con!itione! refle$e% n or!er to tu!y the !evelopment of refle$e' 4avlov ue! the very familiar fact that animal !ichar*e aliva from the alivary *lan! in their mouth a a preparation for eatin* foo!% Thu a !o* preente! "ith foo! !ichar*e a certain amount of aliva% Thi i a imple' uncon!itione! refle$% 4reent the !o* "ith foo!' an! aliva form in it mouth% 4avlov then foun! that if a #ell "a run* "henever a !o* "a preente! "ith foo!' then' after a time' the oun! of the #ell "oul! itelf #e ufficient to caue the !o* to alivate' even thou*h the foo! ha! not yet #een preente!% Thi he calle! a con!itione! refle$% ;or a a reult of !efinite con!ition' that i to ay' the repeate! aociation of the #ell "ith foo!' the !o* ha! #ecome con!itione! to react to the #ell"herea it never ha! to #e con!itione! to react to the foo!% n other "or!' the !o* ha! learne! to aociate the #ell "ith foo!' an! ha! come to e$pect foo! on hearin* the #ell an! o to *et rea!y for the foo! even #efore it "a actually preente!% >herea uncon!itione! refle$e are a part of the here!ity of the animal' !evelope! in the coure of the evolution of the pecie' con!itione! refle$e are #rou*ht into #ein* in the coure of the life of the in!ivi!ualan!' havin* #een #rou*ht into #ein*' can alo #e chan*e! or !etroye!% Thu if after a time foo! i no lon*er preente! "hen the #ell rin*' then the !o* "ill ceae to react to the #ellA or it can #e tau*ht to react not to any #ell #ut only to a #ell of a particular pitchA an! o on% The mechanim of refle$e i foun! in the #rain' in the connection "hich e$it #et"een the enory an! motor centre of the #rain% The enory centre are !itinct from the motor centre' the function of the former #ein* to receive mea*e an! of the latter to en! mea*e out% They are connecte! in uch a "ay that "hen a mea*e come in from the ene or*an to the enory centre' it travel acro to the motor centre' "hich then !ipatch a mea*e to the mucle' *lan!' etc%o that to a *iven timulu an appropriate repone i ma!e% &n uncon!itione! refle$ i #ae!' then' on a fi$e! an! contant connection "hich e$it #et"een the enory an! motor centre of the #rain% &n! con!itione! refle$e are #ae! on temporary' varia#le an! con!itione! connection "hich are forme! #et"een the enory an! motor centre in the coure of the animal: life% uch connection #et"een enory an! motor centre "ithin the animal: #rain contitute connection #et"een the animal an! the e$ternal "orl!% ;or the function of the connection ini!e the animal: #rain i to connect the animal "ith "hat lie outi!ethat i' "ith it urroun!in*% Thu the uncon!itione! foo!-aliva connection "ithin the !o*: #rain connect the !o* "ith it urroun!in* in uch a "ay that "hen foo! i preente! the !o* *et rea!y to eat an! !i*et it% &n! the con!itione! #ell-aliva connection "ithin the !o*: #rain connect the !o* "ith it urroun!in* in uch a "ay that "hen a #ell oun!' "hich the !o* ha learne! to aociate "ith foo!' then' once a*ain' the !o* *et rea!y to eat% &n animal live only #y mean of it connection "ith it urroun!in*' that i' #y it e$ternal connection "hich are eta#lihe! throu*h the internal connection "ithin it o"n #rain% 4avlov ho"e! that thee connection of the animal "ith it urroun!in* are forme! throu*h the !evelopment of con!itione! connection from uncon!itione! connection' that i' #y the !evelopment of con!itione! refle$e from uncon!itione! refle$e%
To um up% &n uncon!itione! connection i a relatively contant' inherite! connection #et"een an animal an! it environment% f' for intance' omethin* u!!enly pae in front of the eye' the eyeli! #lin.2 thi i an uncon!itione! connection' "hich erve to protect the eye% Nuite irrepective of the varyin* con!ition "hich it encounter' the animal relate itelf to the urroun!in* "orl! throu*h uch refle$e% t i #orn "ith uch refle$e' "hich "ere forme! in the coure of the evolution of the pecie% & con!itione! connection' on the other han!' i a temporary an! very varia#le connection #et"een the animal an! it 16 environment' "hich i ac+uire! #y it in the coure of it in!ivi!ual life' an! "hich can li.e"ie !iappear% & !o*' for intance' "ill *o to a certain place for it !inner% Thi i a connection "hich it ha ac+uire! in the coure of it life2 it ha #ecome con!itione! to ee. it !inner in that place' in other "or!' it ha learne! to ee. it !inner there% &n! if con!ition chan*e' then uch con!itione! connection can #e chan*e! correpon!in*ly% The !o* can learn to loo. for it !inner ome"here ele% 4avlov ho"e! that the nervou ytem of the hi*her animal ha the function of ac+uirin* an! eta#lihin* temporary an! varia#le connection #et"een the animal an! it urroun!in*' "here#y the animal a!/ut it reaction to the varyin* con!ition of it environment' an! alo' #y mean of it o"n action on it environment' a!/ut it environment to the re+uirement of the animal% Thi function i performe! in the #rain' an! cone+uently 4avlov calle! the #rain the or*an of the mot complicate! relation of the animal to the e$ternal "orl!5% Acti$it! and #onsciousness Sensations 4avlov inite! that mental activity i the ame a hi*her nervou activity' an! that the !ifferent apect of mental life mut #e e$plaine! #y !ata o#taine! from the inveti*ation of hi*her nervou activity% The !ualim "hich re*ar! the oul an! the #o!y a +uite eparate thin* i till too firmly in*raine! in u' he "rote% ;or the cientit' uch !ifferentiation i impoi#le%5 Mental activity i an activity of the #rain% &n! if the #rain i the or*an of the mot complicate! relation of the animal to the e$ternal "orl!' then "e mut re*ar! mental activity a a part of the activity "here#y the animal relate itelf to the e$ternal "orl!% t #ai i the formation of con!itione! refle$e% Mental life #e*in "hen thin* #e*in to ta.e on a meanin* for the animal' an! thi happen "hen the animal' a a reult of the formation of con!itione! refle$e' #e*in to learn to connect one thin* "ith another% omethin* ha a meanin* 1 for an animal "hen the animal ha learne! to connect it preence "ith omethin* ele% ;or e$ample' a !o* learn to connect a particular timulation of it ene of mell "ith the preence of ome particular foo!' or of another !o*' or of it mater' etc%' &n animal i contantly receivin* an enormou num#er of timuli throu*h it e$ternal an! internal ene or*an' an! it learn to connect the variou timuli "ith variou thin*% Thu the variou timuli #ecome not imply timuli to "hich a fi$e! repone i automatically calle! forth' #ut they contitute for the animal a ytem of i*nal of the e$ternal "orl! an! of it o"n relation to the e$ternal "orl!' to "hich a "hole variety of repone are ma!e% Thu the animal #ecome actively a"are of thin*% To #e a"are of thin* i eentially an active tate' an! not a paive tate% To #e a"are of thin* i not imply to #e affecte! #y them' #ut to repon! to them% &"arene mean firt of all that the animal' #y the ue of it ene or*an' !icriminate certain feature of it environment from the total environment' an! repon! to them% ;or e$ample' it pic. out it foo! #y mell' touch an! i*ht' an! eat it% &n! a"arene mean' econ!ly' that the animal attache a meanin* to variou feature of it environment' in the ene that it connect them "ith other thin*% ;or e$ample' certain thin* #ecome for the animal i*nal of the preence of foo!' or of the approach of omethin* !an*erou' an! o on' an! the animal repon! accor!in*ly% Thu the active a"arene of thin* "hich i en*en!ere! #y the formation of con!itione! refle$e mean that the animal learn to connect the timuli "hich it actually receive "ith other thin* #y "hich it i not at the time !irectly affecte!% &n! o it i a#le to form e$pectation an! to learn #y e$perience% n thi "ay the formation of con!itione! refle$e *ive rie to the !ifference #et"een the u#/ective an! the o#/ective% Thi !ifference' "hich ha #een the u#/ect of much peculation an! mytification #y philoopher' ha a natural e$planation% ;or the !ifference #et"een the u#/ective an! the o#/ective #e*in to arie a oon a animal #e*in to #e a"are of thin*% 1K t i imply the !ifference #et"een the totality of actually e$itin* material con!ition an! the apect of them of "hich the animal i a"are an! the meanin* it attache to them%
=ence the u#/ective a oppoe! to the o#/ective' the mental a oppoe! to the phyical' a"arene a oppoe! to that "hich it i a"arene ofall thee !ifference arie a a reult of the !evelopment of the hi*her nervou activity of animal throu*h the #uil!in* up #y con!itione! refle$e of ever more complicate! relation of the animal "ith the e$ternal "orl!% The u#/ective i !ifferent from the o#/ective' #ecaue (a) the animal i a"are only of ome part or apect an! not of the "hole of it urroun!in*' an! (&) the meanin* it attache to thin* may #e "ron*that i to ay' thin* may #ecome connecte! to*ether u#/ectively in !ifferent "ay from thoe in "hich they are connecte! to*ether o#/ectively' in actual fact% &n! the o#/ective i prior to the u#/ective' #ecaue (a) the e$itence of thin* i a con!ition for a"arene of them "herea a"arene of thin* i not a con!ition for their e$itence' an! (H) thin* e$ite! lon* #efore any a"arene of them aroe or coul! have arien on the part of livin* or*anim% t i' then' in the activity of the nervou ytemthe activity of #uil!in* complicate! an! varia#le relation "ith the e$ternal "orl!that concioune arie% >hen' throu*h the formation of con!itione! refle$e' the timulation "hich an animal receive #e*in to function for it a i*nal an! it learn to reco*nie uch i*nal an! to re*ulate it #ehaviour in accor!ance "ith them' then a ne" +uality come into e$itence in the nervou proce of the animal' namely' concioune% Concioune i not a myteriou @omethin*5 "hich come into #ein* parallel to' i!e #y i!e "ith' the material life proce of the #rain% t i rather the ne" +uality "hich !itin*uihe that life proce% The #rain proce #ecome a conciou proce a a reult of the #rain: functionin* a the or*an of the mot complicate! relation of the animal to the e$ternal "orl!% Concioune i the peculiar +uality of the relationhip of the animal to the e$ternal "orl! effecte! #y the life proce of the #rain% Thi relationhip #ecome one in "hich the animal i a"are of it urroun!in* throu*h the timulation of the 19 variou centre of it #rain an! the connection eta#lihe! in the #rain% n o far a an animal live in uch relationhip "ith it urroun!in*' it i conciou an! it e$itence i conciou e$itence% The elementary form of concioune amon*t animal i enory concioune' or enation% Thi arie "hen' throu*h the formation of con!itione! refle$e' variou timulation of it ene or*an ac+uire a meanin* an! #ecome i*nal for the animal% ;or an e$ternal o#erver' thee timulation are imply mo!ification of the ene or*an to "hich the animal repon! in !efinite "ay% But the life of the animal ha then #ecome a enuouly conciou life% t #rain proce' or rather' a part of it #rain proce' ha #ecome a conciou proce in "hich timulation of the ene or*an #ecome enation% evelopment of the =i*her Mental &ctivity of Man The hi*her mental activity of man' peech an! thou*ht' i not eparate! #y any un#ri!*ea#le *ap from the enory concioune "hich man poee in common "ith other animal% On the contrary' it arie from the evolutionary !evelopment of the tructure an! function of the human #rain' a the or*an of the connection of the animal to the e$ternal "orl!% @>hen the !evelopin* animal "orl! reache! the ta*e of man' 4avlov "rote' an e$tremely important a!!ition "a ma!e to the mechanim of the hi*her nervou activity% Thi a!!ition conite! of the !evelopment of peechan! thou*ht procee' i!ea' are inepara#le from peech% t i .no"n that peech ha it material #ai in certain centre of the human #rain' the evolution an! "or.in* of "hich contitute! that a!!ition to the mechanim of the hi*her nervou activity of "hich 4avlov "rote an! "hich i peculiar to man% f thi part of the #rain i in/ure! or !etroye!' not only i the a#ility to pea. impaire! or lot #ut o i the a#ility to thin.% peech !evelop a a mean of communication #et"een in!ivi!ual in ociety' "ithout "hich their ocial life an! o the urvival of the pecie "oul! #e impoi#le% The ue of peech' the a#ility to pea. an! to un!ertan! "hat i ai!' i roote! in man: enory activity' "hich he ha in common "ith other E0 animal% t ha evi!ently !evelope! a an a!!ition to that enory activity en*en!ere! #y the ne" uni+ue con!ition of the human mo!e of ocial life an! #ae! on the enlar*ement of the tructure an! function of the human #rain% Many animal have evolve! mean of communicatin* "ith other mem#er of their pecie a#out ituation of "hich they are a"are throu*h their enation% Thu #ir! have a "arnin* call to alert other #ir! to !an*er% n ome cae +uite complicate! communication occur% Thu a #ee returnin* to the hive perform a !ance in repone to "hich other #ee fly off in an in!icate! !irection "here the firt #ee ha foun! nectar% By peech the human #ein* can li.e"ie communicate to other particular fact of "hich he i a"are throu*h hi enation% But peech ena#le u to !o far more than thi% ;or it conit not /ut of crie or *eture' #ut the com#ination of "or!% Throu*h it enation an animal reco*nie o#/ect an! their eni#le character' an! o repon! to the !ifferent ituation "hich confront it% n #uil!in* up con!itione! connection "ith thin* throu*h enation' the animal i alrea!y learnin* to react to an! o !itin*uih "hat i common to !ifferent thin*' that i to ay' to reco*nie the ame .in! of thin*
an! the ame propertie of thin* on !ifferent occaion% n human peech there are "or!' in the firt place' for the !ifferent .in! of o#/ect an! the !ifferent propertie of o#/ect "hich "e reco*nie throu*h our enation% &n! o' #y com#inin* thee "or!' "e can pea. at "ill a#out !ifferent .in! of o#/ect' attri#ute !ifferent propertie to them' an! o communicate not merely information a#out particular eni#le fact of "hich "e are imme!iately a"are an! "hich call for an imme!iate repone' #ut a#out the .in! of thin* "hich urroun! u an! the propertie they have' a#out ho" they can #e chan*e!' a#out not only "hat i imme!iately an! eni#ly preent #ut a#out the pat' an! future' an! the far !itant in pace' an! a#out not only "hat i actual #ut "hat i poi#le or ima*ina#le% peech perform an a#tractin* an! *eneraliin* function in relation to "hat "e are a"are of throu*h enation' an! o ma.e poi#le the communication of plan an! i!ea' an! the E1 "hole hi*her activity of thou*ht% To have i!ea i to have "or! an! the ue of peech% &n! thi affor! u much "i!er connection "ith the "orl! a#out u an! far !ifferent relation "ith each other than thoe poi#le to animal "ithout peech% =uman #ein* communicatin* #y peech are placin* themelve in a ne" an! more comple$ relationhip "ith the urroun!in* "orl! an! "ith each other compare! "ith other animal' "hich are limite! to the connection they #uil! up throu*h enation alone% The human #rain i the or*an of thi relationhipA an! the a#tractin*' *eneraliin*' plannin* an! thin.in* activity of the human #rain i the activity of !evelopin* thi relationhip% vi!ently' "ithout the enation "hich people have in common "ith other animal there can #e no peech an! no thou*ht' ince thee !evelop from man: enory activity% &t the ame time' the !evelopment of human enation i alo mo!ifie! #y peech% Our enory a"arene i con!itione! an! !irecte! #y our i!ea% Thu "e !o not merely have enation of i*ht' oun!' touch' etc%' to "hich "e repon!' #ut thee enation are inte*rate! into perception of o#/ect of "hich "e have i!ea an! .no" the name% Thi i ho"n' for e$ample' #y the fact that in chil!ren the namin* of thin* i an in!ipena#le part of the e!ucation of their eneA or a*ain' #y the fact that people "ho throu*h ome #rain in/ury have for*otten the name of thin* #ecome confue! in their reaction to thoe thin*% >e may conclu!e' then' that not only our enation #ut our thou*ht an! i!ea a "ell' all the hi*her intellectual an! piritual activitie of man' ta.e their ori*in from the material procee of the human or*anim' !epen! on a #o!ily or*an of "hich they are the function' an! *ro" out of the interaction of the human or*anim "ith it environment' natural an! ocial' me!iate! #y the hi*her nervou activity of the #rain%
> hall in thi chapter try #riefly to ummarie the main concluion a#out the relation of matter an! min! "hich have #een reache! #y Mar$im an! are confirme! #y every cientific inveti*ation' contratin* them "ith the vie" hel! #y i!ealim% Mental function are function of hi*hly !evelope! matter' namely' of the #rain% Mental procee are #rain procee' procee of a material' #o!ily or*an% The eential feature of mental procee i that in an! throu*h them the animal continually #uil! up mot complicate! an! varia#le relation "ith it urroun!in*% >hen "e perceive thin* "e are relatin* ourelve to e$ternal o#/ect throu*h the perceptual activity of the #rain% &n! "hen "e thin. of thin*' "e are relatin* ourelve to e$ternal o#/ect throu*h the thou*ht activity of the #rain% Believin* that concioune #elon* to a min! "hich e$it in eparation from matter' i!ealim *enerally relie upon the metho! of intropection in or!er to *ive an account of our concioune% Thi i the metho! of loo.in* ini!e one: o"n concioune' o to pea.' an! tryin* to analye "hat i foun! there% The outtan!in* e$ample of the ue of the intropective metho! in mo!ern pycholo*y i pycho-analyi% 4ychoanalyi ha evolve! a pecial techni+ue of controlle! intropection' applie! #y the co-operation of a patient an! a pycho-analyt% By in!ucin* the patient to report on "hatever come into hi min!' to relate hi !ream' an! o on' the pycho-analyt claim to !icover #eneath concioune a "hole realm of the unconciou% &n! o there ha #een !evelope! a very ela#orate theory of the !ifferent part of the min! an! of their relation an! functionof the conciou an! the unconciou' the e*o' the i! an! the uper-e*o% Thi i #ut an e$tenion of the metho! ue! #y all i!ealit philoopher an! pycholo*it "hen they try to analye the contituent part of the human min!' claifyin* them' relatin* them an! tryin* to trace their !evelopment' all the time treatin* concioune a thou*h it "ere a "orl! on it o"n' !ivorce! from the e$ternal material "orl!% &!optin* uch a metho!' many i!ealit philoopher have come to the concluion that the perception an! i!ea "hich contitute the content of concioune are a pecial .in! of o#/ect "hich have a mental e$itence !itinct from the material e$itence of o#/ect outi!e our concioune% ;or uch i!ealit philoopher' "hat "e are a"are of in our conciou life i not material o#/ect at all% >e .no" only our
i!ea of thin*' an! not the thin* in themelve% Thu the n*lih philoopher John ,oc.e "rote in hi ay on the =uman Ln!ertan!in*2 The min!' in all it thou*ht an! reaonin*' hath no other imme!iate o#/ect #ut it o"n i!ea' "hich it alone !oe or can contemplate%5 =ence i!ealit conclu!e that only Do! .no" "hat are the propertie of thin* in themelve' for they coni!er our enation an! i!ea to #e a .in! of "all ini!e our concioune' cuttin* it off from the e$ternal "orl!% ome *o a tep further' an! conclu!e that there i no reaon to #elieve that e$ternal' material thin* e$it at all2 nothin* e$it e$cept our min! an! the enation an! i!ea in our min!% f there "ere e$ternal #o!ie' "rote Deor*e Ber.eley in hi 4rinciple of =uman Ino"le!*e' it i impoi#le "e houl! ever come to .no" itA an! if there "ere not' "e mi*ht have the very ame reaon to thin. there "ere a "e have no"%5 But there i another metho! of tu!yin* our concioune' namely' the metho! of cience' "hich tu!ie livin*' conciou or*anim in their active relationhip "ith their urroun!in*% Thi metho! !oe not treat concioune a a pecial o#/ect of intropective contemplation% &n! o it !oe not tu!y concioune a thou*h it "ere omethin* e$itin* in a#traction from the life proce of livin* conciou or*anim' #ut' on the contrary' it tu!ie their conciou activity% & Mar$ an! n*el #riefly e$pree! it in The Derman !eolo*y2 Concioune i al"ay conciou e$itence%5 & "e have ai!' the eence of conciou activity i to #uil! up complicate! an! varia#le active relation #et"een the conciou or*anim an! it urroun!in*' an! thi function i performe! #y the #rain% Cone+uently the procee of concioune are procee "here#y "e relate ourelve to the e$ternal "orl!% ;ar from tan!in* in the "ay of our apprehenion of e$ternal thin*' our enation an! i!ea are the mean "here#y "e apprehen! them% @enation i the !irect connection #et"een concioune an! the e$ternal "orl!' "rote ,enin% The ophim of i!ealit philoophy conit in the fact that it re*ar! enation a #ein* not the connection #et"een concioune an! the e$ternal "orl!' #ut a a fence' a "all' eparatin* concioune from the e$ternal "orl!% (Materialim an! mpirio-Crilicimt chapter i%) &!optin* the cientific approach to the tu!y of concioune' Mar$im therefore !enie the i!ealit theory that "hen "e perceive' feel or thin. there are t"o eparate procee *oin* onthe material proce of the #rain an! the mental proce of concioune% Only one proce i involve!' namely' the material proce of the #rain% Mental procee are imply one apect of the procee of the functionin* of the #rain a the or*an of mot complicate! relation to the e$ternal "orl!% &n! o Mar$ "rote that thin.in* i the life proce of the human #rain% (Capital' 4reface to an! e!ition%) #onsciousness is a Product o( the De$elo"ment o( Matter (a) &ccor!in* to i!ealim' uch phenomena a perception' feelin* an! thou*ht coul! not #e pro!uce! #y the "or.in* E7 of any material ytem% !ealim hol! that the peculiar +uality of concioune' "hich !itin*uihe mental procee' cannot #e e$plaine! a ariin* from any poi#le com#ination of material con!ition' #ut i a +uality a#olutely incompati#le "ith all +ualitie of material ytem% uch a +uality' i!ealim conclu!e' can #elon* only to omethin* non-material' namely' the min!% But all the .no"n fact point to the concluion that concioune i a pro!uct of the !evelopment of matter' namely' of livin* #o!ie "ith a central nervou ytem' an! that perception' feelin* an! thou*ht are' in fact' the hi*het pro!uct of matter% @f the +uetion i raie!2 "hat' then' are thou*ht an! concioune an! "hence they came' "rote n*el in &ntiuhrin*' 4art ' chapter 3' it #ecome apparent that they are pro!uct of the human #rain' an! that man himelf i a pro!uct of nature' "hich ha #een !evelope! in an! alon* "ith hi environment%5 @The material' enuouly percepti#le "orl! to "hich "e #elon* i the only reality' n*el further "rote in ,u!"i* ;euer#ach' chapter E% Our concioune an! thin.in*' ho"ever upraenuou they may eem' are the pro!uct of a material' #o!ily or*an' the #rain% Matter i not a pro!uct of min!' #ut min! itelf i merely the hi*het pro!uct of nature%5 >hen animal !evelop a nervou ytem an! #e*in actively to relate themelve to their environment #y con!itione! connection' then the nervou proce #ecome a conciou proce' a proce of enation an!' in man' of thin.in*% =ence enation an! thou*ht are the peculiar pro!uct of the nervou proce% enation' "rote ,enin in Materialim an! mpirio-Criticim' chapter i' i one of the propertie of matter in motion5% @Matter actin* on our ene-or*an pro!uce enation' he continue!% enation !epen! on the #rain' nerve' retina' etc%' i%e%' on matter or*anie! in a !efinite "ay% % %% enation' thou*ht' concioune are the upreme pro!uct of matter
or*anie! in a particular "ay%5 #onsciousness is Re(lection o( the Material 'orld (3) Many i!ealit' "ho #elieve that the min! e$it in eparation from the #o!y an! that perception an! thou*ht cannot #e pro!uct of any material proce' ay that perception an! thou*ht are creation of the min! "hich occupy our concioune in!epen!ently of the e$itence of e$ternal' material thin*% But Mar$im maintain that perception an! thou*ht are nothin* #ut reflection of material thin*% The procee of concioune are procee reflectin* e$ternal' material reality' an! nothin* can come to #irth in concioune e$cept a a reflection of the material "orl!% Mar$ "rote' in the 4reface to the an! e!ition of Capital' that the i!eal i nothin* ele than the material "orl! reflecte! #y the human min! an! tranlate! into form of thou*ht%5 =e coni!ere! that in the proce of thin.in*' an! in concioune in *eneral' there i pro!uce! a reflection of !ifferent part or apect of the material "orl! in one particular material proce' namely' the life proce of the #rain% n our concioune' !ifferent part or apect of the material "orl! are tranlate! into form of conciouneperception an! thou*ht% They are repro!uce! in the life activity of the #rain' in form appropriate to that activity% Thu' for e$ample' the propertie of variou #o!ie a#or#in* an! reflectin* li*ht are' in the enory activity of the #rain' repro!uce! in the form of enation of colour% &*ain' the relation an! common feature of thin* are' in the thin.in* activity of the #rain' repro!uce! in the form of concept% >hat e$actly !o "e mean #y @reflection5' "hen "e ay that concioune i a reflection of material reality? There are four feature of the proce of reflection to "hich "e may pecially !ra" attention Material Realit! is Primar! and its Mental Re(ection is Secondar! or Deri$ati$e (a) The proce of reflection involve a relationhip #et"een t"o eparate material procee' uch that feature of the firt proce are repro!uce! in correpon!in* feature of the econ! E proce% The firt proce i primary' an! it reflection in the econ! i econ!ary or !erivative% ;or the firt proce !evelop in complete in!epen!ence of the econ!' "herea the repro!uction of feature of the firt proce #y reflection in the econ! coul! not occur unle thoe feature "ere firt there to #e repro!uce! or reflecte!% Thi fun!amental feature of any proce of reflection i illutrate! #y reflection in a mirroralthou*h' a "e hall ee' the active reflection of e$ternal reality in concioune !iffer in important repect from the paive reflection "hich ta.e place in a mirror% Thu "hen o#/ect are reflecte! in a mirror' thoe o#/ect "hich are et #efore the mirror !o not !epen! on #ein* reflecte! in the mirror for either their e$itence or their characteriticA #ut' on the other han!' the reflection in the mirror !epen! on "hat i et #efore the mirror' an! nothin* i reflecte! in the mirror "hich !oe not repro!uce in ome "ay the characteritic of "hat i et #efore the mirror% =ence the o#/ect i primary' an! it reflection econ!ary or !erivative% imilarly' the e$itence of material o#/ect !oe not !epen! on our #ein* conciou of themA #ut' on the other han!' there i nothin* in our concioune "hich !oe not repro!uce in ome "ay or other omethin* "hich e$it in the material "orl!% There are many characteritic of thin* "hich are not repro!uce! in our enationA #ut "e have no enation "hich !oe not correpon!' in ome "ay or other' to ome !efinite characteritic of thin*% There are many relation of thin* an! common feature of thin* "hich are not repro!uce! in our conceptA #ut "e can form no concept in our min! "hich !oe not repro!uce' in ome "ay or other' even if in fantatic "ay (a in a !itortin* mirror)' ome feature or ome relationhip of thin*% Of coure' many concept *ive an appearance of havin* no #ai in the reflection of material reality' /ut #ecaue' once forme!' concept can #e freely com#ine! in all ort of fantatic "ay% ;or e$ample' everyone .no" that no real animal i reflecte! in the concept of a mermai!' #ut that thi concept i forme! #y com#inin* i!ea of real animal' namely' of EK "omen an! fihe% imilarly' materialit can conitently ar*ue that no real o#/ect correpon! to the concept of Do! a a trinity of peron "ith infinite po"er an! infinite .no"le!*e' #ut that the everal concept of peron' po"er' .no"le!*e an! infinity have all #een forme! a reflection of material reality% >hen "e ay' therefore' that material reality i reflecte! in concioune' "e mean that feature of material reality are repro!uce! in concioune' an! that material reality i primary an! it repro!uction in concioune econ!ary or
!erivative% @Our concioune i only an ima*e of the e$ternal "orl!' "rote ,enin' in Materialim an! mpiric-Criticim' chapter i' an! it i o#viou that an ima*e cannot e$it "ithout the thin* ima*e!' an! that the latter e$it in!epen!ently of that "hich ima*e it%5 Material Realit! is Re(lected in #onsciousness in Forms Determined ;! the Acti$it! o( the 8rain (#) >hat e$it in one form in the primary proce i repro!uce! in another form in the econ!ary proce of reflection% >hat e$it in!epen!ently in one form i' o to pea.' tranlate! into another form in the proce of reflection% The proce of reflection i therefore a proce of tranlation or tranformation from one form into another% &n! the form of the reflection !epen!' of coure' on the nature of the proce of reflection% >hen "e ay' therefore' that material reality i reflecte! in concioune' "e mean that feature of material procee are repro!uce!in another material proce' namely' in the life proce of the #rainin pecial form' namely' in the form of perception an! thou*ht% Thee form are create! in the operation of the procee of the #rain% Material reality i thu repro!uce! or reflecte! in concioune in form create! #y an! a!apte! to the practical re+uirement of livin*' conciou or*anim% Our enation' for e$ample' are the reflection in the conciou proce of our #rain of feature of material thin*% Thoe feature are not' ho"ever' themelve enation #ut are reflecte! in enation' an! our enation are the form in E9 "hich "e are perceptually conciou of them an! o are a#le to react to them% Thu "hen "e ee colour' for intance' "e are not eein* thin* "hich e$it only in our min!a ome philoopher have aerte!#ut are eein* thin* "hich e$it in!epen!ently' outi!e our min!' the propertie of "hich are reflecte! in our enation of colour% 4ropertie "hich e$it in real thin* a propertie of the a#orption an! reflection of li*ht are reflecte! in our perceptual concioune in the form of enation of colour% Thu ,enin' in the chapter alrea!y +uote!' "rote2 f colour i a enation only !epen!in* on the retina (a natural cience compel you to a!mit)' then li*ht ray' fallin* upon the retina' pro!uce the enation of colour% Thi mean that outi!e u' in!epen!ently of u an! of our min!' there e$it a movement of matter % % % "hich' actin* upon the retina' pro!uce in man the enation of a particular colour% Thi i preciely ho" natural cience re*ar! it% t e$plain the enation of variou colour #y the variou len*th of li*ht-"ave e$itin* outi!e the human retina' outi!e man an! in!epen!ently of him%5 Thou*ht' a*ain' pro!uce a more a#tract' more *eneral reflection of reality than perception% n "hat form i reality reflecte! in our thou*ht? t i reflecte! in the form of propoition% Thou*ht iue in propoition in "hich' for e$ample' a u#/ect i com#ine! "ith a pre!icate% The material "orl! !oe not e$it in the form of a com#ination of u#/ect an! pre!icate% Thi com#ination i a pro!uct of peech' of the thin.in* activity of the #rain' an! throu*h it reality i reflecte! in thou*ht% Thi i ho" the material "orl! i tranlate! into form of thou*ht%5 Coni!er' for e$ample' any o#/ecta re! pencil' ay% >hen "e thin. a#out uch an o#/ect "e e$pre our concluion a#out it in propoition' uch a' Thi pencil i re!% Thi propoition i !ivi!e! into a u#/ect an! pre!icate' "hich are com#ine! in the propoition% But the o#/ect i not o !ivi!e! in concrete reality% & re! pencil !oe not !ivi!e into t"o part i u#/ect' the pencil' an! a pre!icate' re!% everthele' it i 30 o#viou that "hen "e ay' Thi pencil i re!' the propoition !oe reflect the o#/ective reality of the pencil' "hich i thu correctly tranlate! into form of thou*ht5%
The Re(lection o( Material Realit! in #onsciousness Ta0es Place throu)h the Acti$e Relationshi" o( the Li$in) Or)anism and its Surroundin)s (c) eflection i al"ay a pro!uct of the relationhip an! interaction of the proce in "hich the reflection occur an! the primary proce "hich i reflecte!% t ource i the primary proce% Thu the life proce of the #rain repro!uce or reflect in it pro!uctperception an! thou*htthe urroun!in* material reality' "hich i the ource of all perception an! thou*ht% &n! thi reflection ta.e place in' an! i the reult of' the interaction of the conciou or*anim "ith it environment% Thi interaction i re*ulate! #y the #rain' a the or*an of the mot complicate! relation of the animal to it environment% The #rain i continually active in the proce of reflection' continually pro!ucin* the reflection of e$ternal o#/ect in concioune% t follo"' therefore' that the "ay in "hich the material "orl! i reflecte! in concioune i *overne! #y the active relationhip #et"een the livin* conciou or*anim an! it urroun!in*' #y the circumtance of the animal' #y it internal tate a "ell a #y it e$ternal relation% >hen "e ta.e thi into account' it #ecome o#viou that in the proce of reflection of e$ternal reality in our concioune' the o#/ect reflecte! can #ecome coni!era#ly altere! in the reflection% ;or the reflection i not at all li.e a !irect mirrorima*e of the o#/ect' #ut i the pro!uct of a comple$ proce of interaction in "hich the #rain i continually active% Thi account for the "ell .no"n fact that our perception of o#/ect are very often milea!in*A they may mirepreent o#/ect' or even (a in certain illuion an! hallucination) lea! u to uppoe that o#/ect are preent "hich are not really there at all% Many philoopher have oppoe! the materialit vie" that 31 concioune reflect e$ternal reality% &n! one of the ar*ument they have a!vance! for oppoin* thi vie" i #ae! imply on the character of our perception% @Ta.e a penny' they ay% ou #elieve that the material penny ha a !efinite hape an! ihat men perceive an! "hat they thin. !oe not arie #y a !irect proce of the repro!uction of e$ternal reality in perception an! thou*ht' #ut i con!itione! #y their e$perience' manner of life an! ocial relation% Thu it i "ell .no"n that !ifference in people: e$perience an! manner of life !etermine !ifference in "hat they perceive in thin*% The perception of a .ille! en*ineer e$aminin* a comple$ machine' for e$ample' are not the ame a thoe of a man not familiar "ith uch machine' althou*h their ene or*an may #e affecte! in preciely imilar "ay% The
perception of a farmer loo.in* at a country cene are not the ame a thoe of a to"nman' an! an artit perceive the ame cene in till other "ay% till *reater are the !ifference "hich arie #et"een men: concept an! thou*ht a#out thin* on the #ai of !ifference in cla' e$perience an! up#rin*in*% n the human #ein*' moreover' i!ea a#out thin* alo e$ert an influence #ac. on perception% The fact that "e !o not merely perceive thin* #ut form i!ea of them influence perception% Thi "a e$emplifie!' in!ee!' in the e$ample /ut cite!% f a .ille! en*ineer perceive more in a machine than other men !o' thi i #ecaue he ha more i!ea a#out it than they% &*ain' "hile artit may perceive more in thin* than inartitic people' !ifferent artit alo perceive thin* !ifferently accor!in* to their i!ea of them% Thi i ho"n' for e$ample' in the very !ifferent "ay in "hich painter of !ifferent outloo. 33 portray human #ein*% The reflection of our urroun!in* an! of our connection "ith our urroun!in* in our concioune i a very active factor in !eterminin* our activity of chan*in* our urroun!in*% The fact that concioune i reflection !oe not mean that concioune i not an active factor in life% Concioune i in the firt place a pro!uct of life activity' in the econ! place it i a pro!uct "hich play a ma/or part in !irectin* that very activity of "hich it i a pro!uct% n concioune' life ha pro!uce! the mean of !irectin* life to"ar! !efinite en!% n!ee!' "e can ay that that i "hy concioune "a #oun! to #e pro!uce! in the coure of the evolution of livin* or*anim% Conciou e$itence i life activity *overne! #y the reflection of e$ternal con!ition in the #rain% Thi reflection i' in the firt place' a pro!uct of the active relationhip of the conciou or*anim to it urroun!in*A an!' in turn' it actively con!ition the further !evelopment of thoe relationhip throu*h the practice of men in chan*in* their urroun!in*% Man: concioune i a pro!uct of hi practice "hich play the part of !irectin* hi practice% ;inally' in coni!erin* thi active role of concioune "e houl! #ear in min! that the reflection of the material "orl! in concioune !oe not ta.e the form only of perception an! thou*ht% n hi active' conciou e$itence man alo feel emotion% &ccor!in* &ccor!in* to many i!ealit i!ealit'' emotion emotion "ell "ell up out of man: inner piritu piritual al #ein*% #ein*% But for material materialim' im' emotion' emotion' too' are mo!e of the reflection of material reality in the concioune of man% They reflect the active relationhip of man to hi environment% &n! #ein* active' #ein* affecte! #y thin* in hi activity' an! ta.in* a !efinite attitu!e to"ar! thin* an! poi#le chan*e in thin*' man feel emotion a#out thin* an! i impelle! in hi activity #y emotion% n hi conciou e$itence man i not only a"are of thin* in perception an! thou*ht' #ut alo feel hi active relationhip to thin* emotionally% motional concioune i' then' a neceary part of life% & 3H man relate himelf to urroun!in* reality #y perceivin* it an! formin* i!ea a#out it' #ut thi relationhip nee! to #e complete! #y the emotion he feel a#out it% imilarly' emotion nee! to #e *ui!e! an! !irecte! #y perception an! i!ea% Matter and its Re(lection To conclu!e% There i no concioune apart from a livin* #rain% The ource of all concioune' of everythin* that enter into concioune' i the material "orl!% n concioune there occur the reflection of the material "orl! in the life proce of the #rain' an! thi reflection i "hat contitute the content of concioune% There are not' therefore' t"o eparate an! !itinct phere of e$itence' material an! piritual% There are not t"o "orl!' the material an! the piritual "orl!% But there e$it only the material "orl!' only material procee% @The antithei of matter an! min! ha a#olute i*nificance only "ithin the #oun! of a very limite! fiel!' ,enin "rote in Materialim an! mpirio-Criticim' chapter 3' e$cluively "ithin the #oun! of the fun!amental pro#lem of "hat i to #e re*ar!e! a primary an! "hat a econ!ary% Beyon! thee #oun! the relative character of thi antithei i in!u#ita#le%5 n the coure of material !evelopment there arie the reflection of material procee in one particular material proce' the life proce of the #rain% &n! "hen "e !itin*uih material an! piritual' matter an! min!' "hat "e are !itin*uihin* i imply material #ein*' movement in pace an! time' from it reflection in the life proce of the #rain% The proce "hich *ive rie to the reflection an! the proce in "hich the reflection occur are #oth material procee%
But the reflection i not material #ut mentalthat i to ay' not material #ut a reflection of matter% #ha"ter Three SO#IAL LA8O/R AND SO#IAL T.ININ9 The .uman 8rain and 'hat 'e Do with It T= human #rain' "hich alone i capa#le of pro!ucin* & *eneral i!ea' conceptual concioune' thin.in*' i the pro!uct of a lon* evolution of the form of life% t i the culmination of a proce of evolution in the iith the ue of the han! "ent the phyical !evelopment of the han! into the human han!' an! "ith that' the !evelopment of the #rain "hich control the han! into the human #rain% The firt men alrea!y ha! the ame .in! of #rain a "e have' /ut a they ha! the ame .in! of han!' feet' eye' noe' teeth' tomach an! o on% Our or*an' inclu!in* our #rain' 36 are no !ifferent from their' althou*h in the meantime "e have learne! to !o many thin* "hich they !i! not !o% Thu once #iolo*ical evolution ha! pro!uce! the human #rain an! han!' man tarte! a ne" .in! of evolution of hi o"n% The evolution of man i not #iolo*ical% >hat man evolve i hi ocial or*aniation' hi techni+ue' hi culture an! hi .no"le!*e' hi conciou matery over himelf an! e$ternal nature% =ence in relation to the #rain' "hat ha !evelope! ince man firt came into e$itence i not hi #rain #ut the ue he ha ma!e of ithi !evelopment of the capacitie containe! in it% Man ha !evelope! hi material activitie' hi perception an! hi thou*htA an! throu*h !oin* thi ha continually revolutionie! hi o"n con!ition of life an! increae! hi capacitie an! po"er% From Perce"tions to Ideas Thin.in* arie only out of ene-perception an! mut #e prece!e! #y it% To thin. a#out the "orl! "e mut firt perceive the "orl!% >e can form no concept that i not #ae! on an! prompte! #y perception% &n! in *eneral' no i!ea at all are %forme! "ithout the perception "hich are the neceary material on "hich the activity of thin.in* ha to "or.% & man man iolate! iolate! from from chil!hoo! chil!hoo! in a confine! confine! pace' for intance' intance' mi*ht have a *oo! a #rain a anyone ele' #ut he "oul! have very little to thin. a#out' an! hi i!ea an! the ran*e of hi i!ea "oul! #e very limite!% imilarly' the ran*e of i!ea of primitive people i limite! a compare! "ith civilie! men' thou*h their #rain are in no "ay inferior% t i a our perception increae "ith increae! activity an! ocial contact that our i!ea !evelop% Thin.in*' then' *ro" out of perception% &n! thi !evelopment ta.e place only in an! throu*h the active relationhip to the e$ternal "orl! "hich men eta#lih for themelve in the coure of their practical ocial activity% 4erception itelf i not /ut a paive receivin* of impreion from e$ternal o#/ect% The !evelopment of enation into perception i the pro!uct of the !evelopment of active relationhip to the 3 e$ternal "orl!% &n! the more varie! an! comple$ i the active relationhip of the or*anim to it urroun!in*' the more varie! an! comple$ "ill #e the content of the perception of thoe urroun!in*% @The real intellectual "ealth of the in!ivi!ual !epen! entirely on the "ealth of hi real connection' "rote Mar$ an! n*el (The Derman !eolo*y' 4art i' ection E%)% =uman perception i much "i!er in cope than that of any other animal% &n! thi i #ecaue man ha "i!er activitie an! interet' an! in !evelopin* thee activitie an! interet ha effecte! a correpon!in* !evelopment of hi ene% t i #ecaue man ha !evelope! hi activitie an! hi perception that he ha #een a#le to thin. an! to !evelop hi i!eaan! thi ha then reacte! #ac. a*ain on the further !evelopment of hi activitie an! of hi perception% @The ea*le ee much further than man' #ut the human eye ee coni!era#ly more in thin* than !oe the eye of the
ea*le' "rote n*el% The !o* ha a far .eener ene of mell than man' #ut it !oe not !itin*uih a hun!re!th part of the o!our that for man are !efinite feature of !ifferent thin*% &n! the ene of touch' "hich the ape har!ly poee in it cru!et initial form' ha #een !evelope! i!e #y i!e "ith the !evelopment of the human han! itelf' throu*h the me!ium of la#our% (The 4arty 4laye! #y ,a#our in the Tranition from &pe to Man)% The #ai for thi hei*htene! perception an! "i!er ran*e of perception in man "a eta#lihe! #y our early ancetor' "hen they firt #e*an to tan! erect' to loo. aroun! them' an! to ue their han!' not to "in* amon* the #ranche of tree an! *ra# foo!' #ut to fahion tool an! implement% & man: man: activity activity !evelope!' !evelope!' o there !evelope! !evelope! the "ealth "ealth of hi connection connection "ith the the "orl! "orl! aroun! aroun! him% him% Man achieve! achieve! a hei*htene! perception an! "i!er cope of perception' an! then peech' "hich mar. the tranition from concrete eneperception to a#tract' *eneral i!ea% The interaction in the coure of man: activity of hi i!ea "ith hi enation le! to the till *reater !evelopment of hi perception' an! o a*ain to the further !evelopment of i!ea%
The capacity of the human #rain to perceive an! then to thin. i realie! an! !evelope! in human activity% La;our Man live in ociety' an! act to*ether "ith hi fello" men% =i "hole mo!e of life i ocial% Therefore /ut a it i in hi ocial activity that he enlar*e hi perception' o it i in hi ocial activity that' tartin* from thee perception' he #e*in to form i!ea' to thin. an! to !evelop hi i!ea% The #ai of man: ocial activity i la#our% t i in an! throu*h la#our that man firt of all enlar*e hi perception an! firt of all #e*in to ue hi #rain to thin.to form i!ea an! to communicate them' to !evelop thou*ht an! lan*ua*e% n la#our' then' i to #e foun! the ource an! ori*in of thou*ht an! lan*ua*e% @,a#our %%% i the primary #aic con!ition of all human e$itence' "rote n*el in hi eay on The 4art 4laye! #y ,a#our in the Tranition from &pe to Man' an! thi to uch an e$tent that' in a ene' "e have to ay that la#our create! man himelf%5 n the evolution of man' n*el pointe! out' the firt !eciive tep "a ta.en "hen an erect poture "a a!opte!% Thi et free the han!% &n! "hen men #e*an to fahion tool an! implement "ith their han! for ue in chan*in* e$ternal o#/ect an! pro!ucin* the mean of life' that "a the real #e*innin* of men an! of human ociety% @The firt premie of all human hitory i' of coure' the e$itence of livin* human in!ivi!ual' "rote Mar$ an! n*el% Thu the firt fact to #e eta#lihe! i the phyical or*aniation of thee in!ivi!ual an! their cone+uent relation to the ret of nature% But havin* eta#lihe! that fact' it i neceary to eta#lih "hat they !otheir activity' their mo!e of life% Men %%% #e*in to !itin*uih themelve from animal a oon a they #e*in to pro!uce their mean of u#itence' a tep "hich i con!itione! #y their phyical or*aniation% By pro!ucin* their mean of u#itence men are in!irectly pro!ucin* their actual material life% (The Derman !eolo*y' 4art ' chapter i%) t i in pro!ucin* their mean of u#itence an! o in!irectly pro!ucin* their actual material life that men' con!itione! #y their phyical or*aniation' #e*in to act a men' to !evelop ocial or*aniation an! ma.e their o"n hitory' an! in o !oin* to form i!ea' to thin. an! to pea.% itinctive ;eature of =uman ,a#our >hat are the !itinctive feature of human la#our' a compare! "ith the "ay in "hich other animal ecure the mean of life? (i) ;irt' men fahion tool an! implement' chan*in* natural o#/ect o a to ue their propertie to #rin* a#out !eire! en!% @&n intrument of la#our' "rote Mar$ (Capital' Volume ' chapter ' ection i)' i a thin*' or a comple$ of thin*' "hich the la#ourer interpoe #et"een himelf an! the u#/ect of hi la#our' an! "hich erve a the con!uctor of hi activity% =e ma.e ue of the mechanical' phyical an! chemical propertie of ome u#tance in or!er to ma.e other u#tance u#ervient to hi aim%5 The animal' on the other han!' collect an! rearran*e o#/ect to han!' #ut !oe not tranform them an! ue their propertie an! the natural force containe! in them for pro!ucin* hi mean of life an! affectin* lar*e-cale tranformation
of hi urroun!in* in accor!ance "ith hi o"n nee!% @The tool implie pecific human activity' the tranformin* reaction of man on nature' pro!uction' "rote n*el% &nimal in the narro"er ene alo have tool' #ut only a lim# of their #o!ie2 the ant' the #ee' the #eaver% &nimal alo pro!uce' #ut their pro!uctive effort on urroun!in* nature in relation to the latter amount to nothin* at all% Man alone ha uccee!e! in imprein* hi tamp on nature' not only #y hiftin* the plant an! animal "orl! from one place to another' #ut alo #y o alterin* the apect an! climate of hi !"ellin* place' an! even the plant an! animal themelve' that the cone+uence of hi activity can !iappear only "ith the *eneral e$tinction of the terretrial *lo#e% (ialectic of ature' ntro!uction%) @&nimal chan*e e$ternal nature #y their activitie /ut a man !oe' if not to the ame e$tent' n*el further "rote% %%% But if animal e$ert a latin* effect on their environment' it happen unintentionally' an!' a far a the animal are concerne!' it i an acci!ent% The further men #ecome remove! from the animal' ho"ever' the more their effect on nature aume the character of a preme!itate!' planne! action' !irecte! to"ar! !efinite en! .no"n in a!vance% % % % @n hort the animal merely ue e$ternal nature' an! #rin* a#out chan*e in it imply #y it preenceA man #y hi chan*e ma.e it erve hi en!' mater it% (Tlu 4art 4laye! #y ,a#our in the Tranition from &pe to Man%) By hi la#our' then' man mater nature' fahionin* tool an! uin* them o a to ma.e nature erve hi en!% n the la#our proce' "rote Mar$' man: activity' "ith the help of the intrument of la#our' effect an alteration' !ei*ne! from the commencement' in the material "or.e! upon% (Capital' Volume ' chapter ' ection %) &n! it i in thu materin* an! chan*in* nature that man chan*e himelf' !evelop hi o"n human attri#ute% (E) The econ! !itinctive feature of human la#our follo" from the firt' an! lie in it conciou an! co-operative character% n ma.in* tool an! uin* them' in compellin* natural o#/ect an! natural force to erve hi en!' man i conciou of hi en!' ha an i!ea of the reult he inten! to #rin* a#out% &n! men "or. co-operatively' accor!in* to a conciou !ei*n an! plan' to #rin* a#out the en! they inten! to achieve% >hile uch ocial creature a #ee' for e$ample' #uil! ela#orate tructure' they !o o in an automatic "ay' #y intinct% =uman #uil!er' on the other han!' "or. accor!in* to a conciou plan% @>e preuppoe la#our in a form "hich tamp it a e$cluively human' "rote Mar$% & pi!er con!uct operation that reem#le thoe of a "eaver' an! a #ee put to hame many an architect in the contruction of her cell% But "hat !itin*uihe the "ort of architect from the #et of #ee i thi' that the architect raie hi tructure in ima*ination #efore H1 he erect it in reality% &t the en! of every la#our proce "e *et a reult that alrea!y e$ite! in the ima*ination of the la#ourer at it commencement% (Capital' Volume ' chapter ' ection i%) La;our7 S"eech and Thou)ht Thee !itinctive feature of la#ourthat la#our i the ue of tool an! implement to effect chan*e of e$ternal o#/ect #y human #ein* co-operatin* to realie reult "hich they conciouly et #efore themelvee$plain "hy la#our necearily *ive rie to peech an! thou*ht' an! cannot !evelop "ithout the ai! of peech an! thou*ht% @The matery over nature' "hich #e*in "ith the !evelopment of the han!' "ith la#our' "i!ene! man: hori
@The little that even the mot hi*hly !evelope! animal nee! to communicate to one another can #e communicate! even "ithout the ai! of articulate peech' n*el pointe! out% &nimal i*nal to one another the preence of particular o#/ecta in the *eture ma!e #y #ee' the o-calle! !ance #y "hich they in!icate the preence of a ource of honey in a particular !irectionA they aroue one another to particular action a in the call of the lea!er of a pac.% But that i all% f their mo!e of life "ere uch that they nee!e! to communicate "ith one another a#out the !ifferent propertie of thin*' a#out ho" thee "ere to #e ue!' an! a#out the en! they aime! to achieve #y !ifferent form of co-operative activity' then uch *eture an! call "oul! no lon*er avail them% ;or they "oul! then nee! to communicate not the particular #ut the *eneral% &nimal have no uch nee!% But men !o have uch a nee! imme!iately they em#ar. upon even the mot elementary form of ocial la#our% They then have omethin* they nee! to ay to one another' a n*el pointe! out% &n! o they !evelop the mean to ay it% @The nee! le! to the creation of it or*an' n*el continue% The un!evelope! laryn$ of the ape "a lo"ly #ut urely tranforme! #y mean of *ra!ually increae! mo!ulation' : an! the or*an of the mouth *ra!ually learne! to pronounce one articulate letter after another% Comparion "ith animal prove that thi e$planation of the ori*in of lan*ua*e from an! in the proce of la#our i the only correct one%5 Men nee!e! to communicate "ith one another a#out the propertie of o#/ect an! the practical ue to #e ma!e of thoe propertie% &n! n*el here !ecri#e ho" they !evelope! the ue of the laryn$ an! the mouth in or!er to articulate "or! an! entence #y "hich to effect thi communication% Ideas peech mar. the a!vance from enation to i!ea%
,an*ua*e ha "or! for the propertie an! relation of o#/ect "hich "e have come to reco*nie throu*h our ene in the coure of practical life% &n! o "hile [veperceive only "hat i actually confrontin* u' accor!in* to the impreion it ma.e on our ene or*an' "e can pea. an! thin. of the o#/ect "e perceive not merely in their *iven relation' "ith their *iven propertie' #ut in !ifferent relation an! "ith chan*e! propertie% =ence "e can pea. an! thin. of "hat "e can !o "ith o#/ect of !ifferent .in!' an! ho" "e can chan*e their propertie for variou purpoe% n thi rei!e the po"er of thou*ht% >e can thin. of "hat i to #e !one "ith thin*' of chan*e "hich "e inten! to #rin* a#out' an! can "or. out the mean to achieve thoe chan*e% n thin.in* "e "or. out e$periment in our hea!' a it "ere repreentin* "hat mut #e !one' "hat mut happen' in or!er that ome chan*e! tate of affair hall #e realie!% The concluion of the e$periment in thou*ht are then chec.e! #y the reult of practice% Thi i the very eence of the proce of thin.in*' a it arie out of the proce of la#our% >e houl! here note that i!ea are not the ame a ima*e% The i!ea or concept of' for e$ample' a colour or hape i not the ame a the ima*e of a colour or of a hape "hich "e can form in the ima*ination% The ol!er empiricit philoopher (epecially Ber.eley an! =ume) ue! to confoun! i!ea an! ima*eA #ut' on the contrary' they houl! #e carefully !itin*uihe!% ma*e are only a continuation of enationA #ut i!ea mar. the !evelopment of peech' repreentin* an a#traction from reality an! permittin* the formin* of *eneraliation% o !ou#t the hi*her animal a "ell a man can form in their min! enuou ima*e of o#/ect% ;or intance' a fo$ can no !ou#t picture to itelf the proce of fin!in*' huntin*' .illin* an! eatin* a ra##it' an! then procee! to turn thi ima*e into reality% t can' an! !oe' ho" coni!era#le cunnin* an! forei*ht in carryin* out it purpoe% But a man "ho ue even the implet intrument of pro!uction employ metho! "hich no other animal coul! employ% To ma.e an! ue even the implet intrument of pro!uction' he mut not only have HH picture! thin* to himelf #ut have forme! i!ea of the propertie of thin* "hich can #e put to ue in realiin* the en! he !eire% Thu "e can ee in "hat "ay thou*ht i a hi*her form of concioune than ene-perception% ene-perception repro!uce thin* a they imme!iately appear throu*h their action on our ene or*an% >hen "e form i!ea' on the other han!' "e can thin. of thin* in their eential character apart from their particular e$itence an! mo!e of appearanceA an! o "e can repreent to ourelve in thou*ht "hat tranformation thin* un!er*o in !ifferent circumtance' ho" they interact' their variou potentialitie' interconnection an! la" of chan*e an! motion% t i evi!ent' therefore' "hat a tremen!ou leap "a ma!e in the !evelopment of concioune "hen i!ea "ere forme!% Thi leap to human concioune "a imply the i!eal i!e of the leap from the animal to the human mo!e of life' ma!e "hen men #e*an to !ei*n an! ue tool%
Jut a man no lon*er merely collect' rearran*e an! ue natural o#/ect' a animal !o' #ut mater nature' o in hi i!ea he !oe not merely re*iter the appearance of thin*' a in perception' #ut trace their interconnection an! caue% #ha"ter Four T.O/9.T7 LAN9/A9E AND LO9I# Lan)ua)e and Thou)ht The po"er #elon*in* to i!ea' of repreentin* thin* not & merely in their imme!iate e$itence a preente! to the ene #ut of repreentin* propertie an! relation in a#traction from particular thin*thi po"er i a pro!uct of peech% The !evelopment of thin.in* an! the po"er of thou*ht are inepara#le from an! !epen!ent on the !evelopment an! po"er of peech% peech arie' a "e have ai!' in the ocial activity of man' a a pro!uct an! intrument' in the firt place' of ocial la#our% ;rom the very #e*innin* it erve a a me!ium of human ocial communication% peech' therefore' o#viouly coul! not !evelop a the peronal or private poeion of in!ivi!ual' each of "hom ue it for hi o"n purpoe "ithout relation to other in!ivi!ual% On the contrary' it arie #ecaue' from the #e*innin* of human ocial activity' men nee! to communicate *eneral i!ea an! concluion to one anotheran! o they evolve the mean of !oin* thi% peech' therefore' arie throu*h the formation of a lan*ua*e common to a ocial *roup% Thoe people .no" an! un!ertan! a lan*ua*e "ho can ue it for communicatin* "ith one another% & common territory' a common economic activity an! tra!ition *o "ith a common lan*ua*ean! thi i "hy a common lan*ua*e form part of the very !efinition of people an! nation% & lan*ua*e i characterie! #y voca#ulary an! ynta$that i' #y a toc. of "or! the contant reference of "hich ha #ecome fi$e! in the common ue of a ocial *roup' an! #y H6 rule *overnin* the "ay the "or! are com#ine! to*ether for purpoe of communication% t i "hen men #e*in to ue tool for ocial pro!uction that they alo #e*in to pea. an! to evolve a lan*ua*e' an! there#y to form i!ea a#out the urroun!in* "orl!% t "a from an! in the proce of la#our that lan*ua*e ori*inate!% &n! thi ori*in e$plain the eential' elementary feature of lan*ua*e a an intrument for communication an! e$chan*e of thou*ht% But lan*ua*e "hich thu ori*inate in man: pro!uctive activity erve the "hole of the human ocial intercoure an! activity that !evelop alon* "ith an! on the #ai of pro!uction% n everythin* that people !o to*ether they ma.e ue of lan*ua*eA an! all their thou*ht' plan an! apiration' all their i!ea a#out the "orl! an! a#out one another' come to #irth only #ecaue they have lan*ua*e in "hich to e$pre an! communicate them% #an there ;e Thou)ht without Lan)ua)e> The tu!y of the naturethe material #ai' the function an! the la" of !evelopmentof thou*ht an! lan*ua*e lea! to the concluion that the formation of i!ea an! the e$chan*e of i!ea are impoi#le "ithout lan*ua*e' an! that i!ea only ta.e hape an! !evelop throu*h the mean of lan*ua*e% !ea are forme! an! ta.e hape only throu*h "or! an! the com#ination of "or!% t i #y mean of "or! an! the com#ination of "or! in entence that reality i repro!uce! in thou*ht% Thou*ht only #ecome !efinite thou*ht in o far a they are' a talin e$pree! it in hi Concernin* Mar$im in ,in*uitic' re*itere! an! fi$e! in "or! an! in "or! com#ine! into entence% !ea "ithout lan*ua*e are a non-e$itent a pirit "ithout #o!ie% oe thi mean that to thin. i the ame thin* a to utter "or!' an! that the proce of thin.in* i a proce of tal.in* to oneelf ? o% ;or in the firt place' it i poi#le to utter "or! an! entence "ithout meanin* anythin* #y them% &n! in the econ! place' once one ha learne! the ue of lan*ua*e many procee of thou*ht can #e performe! "ithout actually utterin*' either alou! or to oneelf' all the "or! an! H entence "hoe ue "oul! #e nee!e! for the full enunciation of the thou*ht involve!% t i "ell .no"n' for e$ample' that "ith people "ho have often !icue! ome u#/ect to*ether a fe" "or! are enou*h for them mutually to un!ertan! ome very comple$ point' "hich it "oul! ta.e many "or! for them to e$plain to an outi!er% Thi i #ecaue they have #een throu*h their e$planation to*ether earlier' an! thee fe" "or! recall all thoe e$planation% t i very much the ame "ith thou*ht procee in an in!ivi!ual #rain% One can come to concluion "ithout the intervention of ela#orate procee of inner ver#aliation% But at the ame time' a man !eceive himelf if he uppoe that he ha i!ea
of thin* for "hich he lac. "or!' or that he ha thou*ht "hich he i una#le to e$pre in lan*ua*e% Of coure' thi !oe not mean that there i no !itinction #et"een an i!ea an! ome particular "or! or phrae% t mean that i!ea only e$it a em#o!ie! in particular "or! or phrae' "hich are ue! to e$pre i!ea% !ea have no eparate !iem#o!ie! e$itence apart from their e$preion% ;or e$ample' the n*lih "or! @re!5 an! the ;rench "or! @rou*e5 #oth e$pre the ame i!ea of a colour% o the i!ea cannot #e i!entifie! "ith either "or!% But the i!ea of colour no more e$it apart from "or! in "hich it i e$pree!' than colour e$it apart from particular coloure! o#/ect% >hat ma.e the t"o "or! e$preive of the ame i!ea i that they have the ame i*nificance in the repective lan*ua*ethat i' the t"o "or! play imilar part in ela#oratin* throu*h lan*ua*e connection #et"een man an! the e$ternal "orl!% The thin.in* activity of the #rain conit in nothin* #ut uch ela#oration of connection "ith the e$ternal "orl!A an! thi i !one not prior to lan*ua*e' nor apart from lan*ua*e' #ut preciely an! only #y mean of lan*ua*e% Lan)ua)e #on$entions and 'hat The! E3"ress & feature of lan*ua*e i it apparently ar#itrary or conventional character% & particular oun! i ue! for a particular purpoe in a lan*ua*e#ut ome other oun! "oul! have HK !one e+ually "ell an! i' perhap' ue! for that very ame purpoe in ome other lan*ua*e% The !icovery that "or! are in thi "ay ar#itrary or conventional i*n "a an important !icovery in cience' o#viou a it may eem% ;or it ue! often to #e #elieve! an! ome people till #elieve it to!aythat a particular "or! i in ome myteriou "ay the ri*ht "or! for a particular thin*' an! that "or! are connecte! "ith thin* #y ome internal tie' an! not merely #y the convention of lan*ua*e% The ancient conception of a ecret tie #et"een "or! an! thin* "a #oun! up "ith ma*ic an! reli*ion% Thu it "a thou*ht that each man ha! a name "hich "a peculiarly hi o"n an! that no other name for him coul! fit% =i real name "a then often .ept a ecret' for it "a #elieve! that if hi enemie .ne" it' then they coul! cure hi name an! o !o him an in/ury% imilarly' the name of *o! "ere #elieve! to #e amon* the eential propertie of the *o!% &n! imilarly "ith other "or!' #ei!e proper name% Thu there "a an ol! prover# (+uote! #y C% I% O*!en an! % &% ichar!' in The Meanin* of Meanin*) "hich tate!' The ivine i ri*htly o calle!2 thi e$pree! the i!ea that there "a omethin* peculiarly !ivine a#out the "or! @!ivine5% But not only i the voca#ulary of a lan*ua*e conventional' it rule of *rammar an! ynta$ are conventional too% ;or !ifferent lan*ua*e employ !ifferent rule% Thu the rule of the Chinee lan*ua*e' for e$ample' are entirely !ifferent from thoe of any uropean lan*ua*eA the rule of n*lih are !ifferent from thoe of ,atin or lavonic lan*ua*eA an! the rule of "hat "e are pleae! to call @primitive5 lan*ua*e are a*ain !ifferent from them all% everthele' the ame propoition can #e tate! in all thee lan*ua*e' an! any one can #e tranlate! into any other% Thi ho" that not only voca#ulary #ut *rammar i a conventional feature of lan*ua*e% The particular oun! "hich contitute the "or! in a *iven lan*ua*e' an! the particular rule of it *rammar' are' then' conventional% They are conventional in the ene that thee particular oun! an! rule come to #e ue! #y a particular people for hitorical reaon' "herea the ame thou*ht coul! H9 e+ually "ell #e e$pree! #y !ifferent oun! an! !ifferent rule' uch a are employe! #y the hitorically evolve! lan*ua*e of other people% But they are not' of coure' conventional in the ene that they "ere ever reolve! upon an! fi$e! #y ome lin*uitic !eciion of the people concerne!% n *eneral' lin*uitic convention are forme! #y an unconciou proce in the live of people% Only at a late ta*e are they recor!e! in !ictionarie an! *rammar an! !o people #e*in conciouly an! !eli#erately to recor! an! fi$ the convention of their lan*ua*e% But "hile #oth voca#ulary an! *rammar are in the a#ove ene conventional' neverthele "hat "or! a lan*ua*e poee' in the ene of the o#/ect !enote! #y it voca#ulary' i not conventional' #ut i !etermine! #y the o#/ective con!ition an! re+uirement of life of the people uin* the lan*ua*e% ;or e$ample' "hatever oun! are ue! for the purpoe' a lan*ua*e mut have "or! for all the thin*' propertie' relation' etc%' "hich are of practical importance in the life of the people% n *eneral' the hi*her the ta*e of !evelopment of pro!uction the *reater i necearily the #aic "or! toc. of lan*ua*e% imilarly' the relation an! connection amon* thin* an! people "hich are e$pree! #y com#inin* "or! into entence accor!in* to the rule of *rammar an! ynta$ are not conventional either' #ut are !etermine! #y "hat ha to #e reflecte! in entence% ;or e$ample' "hatever the *rammar of a lan*ua*e i' it mut have convention for e$prein* the action of one thin* on another' the connection #et"een a thin* an! it !ifferent or chan*in* propertie' an! o on% ifferent lan*ua*e employ
!ifferent convention for e$prein* propoition' #ut thoe convention mut all atify the ame re+uirement ariin* from "hat ha to #e e$pree!' "hich i common to all lan*ua*e% =ence "hile people fi$ the convention of their lan*ua*e' #oth a re*ar! it "or! toc. an! it *rammar' thoe convention e$pre o#/ective re+uirement common to every 70 lan*ua*e' an! mut al"ay atify thoe ame re+uirement% Lan)ua)e and Lo)ic >hatever thou*ht "e thin.' an! "hatever lan*ua*e they are e$pree! in' they mut atify the #aic re+uirement of the reflection of reality in thou*ht% Thee re+uirement *ive rie to la" of thou*ht' to principle of lo*ic% ;or thou*ht are reflection of the real "orl!' an! in the proce of reflection' a Mar$ ai!' the material "orl! i tranlate! into form of thou*ht% Thi proce of reflection an! tranlation ha it o"n la"the la" of thou*ht' the principle of lo*ic% The la" of thou*ht involve' in the firt place' the lo*ical principle for contructin* i*nificant propoition% There are' for e$ample' imple propoition an! compoun! propoition% The contruction of imple propoition involve uch lo*ical operation a affirmation' ne*ation' relation an! o onA an! compoun! propoition are contructe! #y com#inin* imple propoition throu*h uch lo*ical operation a "e e$pre #y "or! li.e @an!5' @or5' if%%% then' an! o on% Thu' Thi i re!' Thi i not re!' Thi i *ettin* re!' Thi i re!!er than that' are all imple propoition% &n! Thi i re! an! that i *reen' ither thi i re! or am colour #lin!' an! f thi i re! then it "ill oon #e *reen' are compoun! propoition% The contruction of all uch propoition involve !efinite lo*ical principle *overnin* the contruction of i*nificant propoition% The la" of thou*ht involve' in the econ! place' the lo*ical principle for !eterminin* "hich propoition lo*ically follo" from other propoition an! "hich are lo*ically inconitent "ith them% Thee are the principle "hich "e ue in ar*ument an! reaonin*% ;or e$ample' f all & i B' an! all B i C' then all & i C% Thi i a *eneral lo*ical principle' "hich tell u that the thir! propoition lo*ically follo" from the firt t"o% Thi particular principle "a ori*inally formulate! #y &ritotle' "ho calle! it the firt fi*ure of the yllo*im5% uch a principle' of coure' contain no *uarantee a to the truth of propoition2 it i concerne! "ith their lo*ical 71 relation "ith one another' not "ith their truth% Thu it tell u that if "e have !icovere! that the firt t"o propoition are true' then "e nee! no further inveti*ation to aure ourelve of the truth of the thir!' for it follo" from the firt t"o% But if the firt t"o propoition are in fact untrue' then' thou*h the thir! propoition follo" from them' it may #e true or it may #e fale% ,o*ic #y itelf tell u nothin* a#out the truth of propoition' "hich can #e !icovere! an! verifie! only #y empirical inveti*ation% ¬her e$ample of a lo*ical principle i the principle of non-contra!iction"hich "oul! #e #etter calle! the principle of conitency% Thi tate that a propoition mut not #e com#ine! "ith it ne*ation% The ne*ation of & i B i & i not B' an! if you ay & i B an! & i not B' the t"o part of "hat you ay cancel each other out o that you have ai! nothin* (/ut a in mathematic plu an! minu cancel each other)% n that cae "hat you ay i inconitent or elfcontra!ictory% t i "orth notin* that ever ince the lo*ical principle of noncontra!iction "a firt formulate! #y &ritotle it ha le! to a lot of confuion in the !icuion of lo*ic% Thu the cholatic philoopher formulate! it a a la" *overnin* the "ay in "hich @attri#ute5 #elon* to @u#/ect5% Thi alle*e! la" ai! that the ame attri#ute cannot #oth #elon* an! not #elon* to the ame u#/ectA an! it "a couple! "ith a econ! la"' calle! the la" of e$clu!e! mi!!le' "hich ai! that an attri#ute mut either #elon* or not #elon* to a u#/ect% Thi "a then ta.en to mean that you can al"ay !eci!e !efinitely "hich i true2 & i B or & i not B% One mut #e true an! the other fale% But it i not !ifficult to ee that uch a !eciion cannot al"ay #e ma!e' o that thi i not a correct formulation of a la" of lo*ic% ;or ince thin* e$it only in interconnection an! motion' a thin* can very "ell manifet ome characteritic only in certain repect an! relation an! not in othero that you cannot !efinitely !eci!e "hether it ha or ha not that attri#ute% &n! it i e+ually evi!ent that if a thin* i in proce of chan*e' it may #e impoi#le either truly to affirm or to !eny that it ha ome fi$e! characteritic%
Many cru!e an! inaccurate formulation of lo*ical principle have #een "ritten !o"n #y philoopher "ith a metaphyical rather than a !ialectical approach% ialectic ho" u ho" to correct uch mita.e% But !ialectic !oe not there#y *o a*aint or chan*e the principle of lo*ic% The aim of the !ialectical metho! i to ena#le u lo*ically an! coniten!y to e$pre the real interconnection an! motion of thin*% ;or e$ample' i a certain man @#al!5 or not #al!? &ccor!in* to the cholatic or metaphyical philoopher' "ith their
inaccurate formulation of lo*ical principle' a !efinite !eciion mut al"ay #e ma!e% et "hile in ome cae it may #e poi#le to !eci!e' in many other cae no uch !efinite !eciion i poi#le% &re "e then' in uch cae' !riven to accept an inconitency2 =e i #al! an! he i not #al! ? ot at all% uch cae can #e conitently !ecri#e! #y mean of a +ualification2 =e i partly #al! or =e i *oin* #al!5% 4eople "ith a metaphyical approach try to e$pre chan*in* thin* in fi$e! cate*orie' an! try to e$pre the relation of thin* in cate*orie uite! only to coni!erin* thin* in eparation% & a reult' they are often lan!e! in inconitency% Jut a "hen a motor car plutter "e .no" there i omethin* "ron* "ith the en*ine' o "hen a peron contra!ict himelf "e .no" there i omethin* "ron* "ith hi i!ea% ialectic ena#le u to or!er our i!ea o a to .eep clear of lo*ical contra!iction an! to #e a#olutely conitent% =ence !ialectic al"ay repect the lo*ical principle of non-contra!iction or conitency' althou*h metaphyic often lea! to it violation% ,o*ical principle are la" of thou*ht' not la" of realityA they are not the la" of material procee' #ut the la" of the reflection of material procee% &n! #ecaue they are re+uirement of the reflection of reality in thou*ht' ariin* from the very nature of the form of the reflection a it ha !evelope! in the coure of human practice' the la" of lo*ic re+uire to #e atifie! in the "or.in* out an! e$preion of vie"% f our thou*ht violate the la" of lo*ic' then they #ecome incoherent an! elf-contra!ictory% Thi account for "hat i ometime calle! the @normative5 character of the la" of lo*ic' an! for their character of 73 @lo*ical a oppoe! to @natural5 neceity% Our thou*ht nee! not #e lo*ical' #ut unle they are they cannot atify the re+uirement of the reflection of reality2 thi i "hy the la" of lo*ic contitute a @norm5 for thou*ht% &n! the la" of lo*ic arie from the very nature of thou*ht' +uite in!epen!ent of the particular o#/ect of thou*ht2 thi i "hy the la" of lo*ic have a elf-evi!ent an! a$iomatic character' a !itinct from the la" of nature' "hich have to #e !icovere! throu*h an empirical inveti*ation of e$ternal reality% o "hatever the vie" "hich are #ein* "or.e! out in ociety' they are all u#or!inate to the ame la" of thou*ht' to the ame principle of lo*ic% Jut a the ame lan*ua*e i ue! to e$pre !ifferent vie"' o !o !ifferent vie" employ the ame la" of thou*ht' the ame lo*ic% e" vie" !o not' therefore' *ive rie to a ne" lo*ic' any more than they *ive rie to a ne" lan*ua*e% On the contrary' the principle of lo*ic are inherent in the very proce of thou*ht an! of it e$preion in lan*ua*e' an! are not altere! "ith alteration of vie"% ome people' of coure' i*nore lo*ic in the "or.in* out of their vie"% o much the "ore for their vie"% Thi !oe not mean that they have evolve! a !ifferent lo*ic' #ut rather that they fail to #e lo*ical% o !icuion' no controvery or ar*ument' no !evelopment of thou*ht "hatever "oul! #e poi#le' if the la" of thou*ht chan*e! an! "ere !ifferent for !ifferent people% &nyone "ho thin. that the la" of thou*ht chan*e' that !ifferent epoch have a !ifferent lo*ic' there#y !enie the very poi#ility of thou*ht a a reflection of o#/ective reality% ,o*ic arie from the univeral re+uirement of the reflection of reality in thou*ht' an! not from the particular interet "hich particular procee of thou*ht may erve from time to time% =ence if' for e$ample' a ocialit i ar*uin* "ith a !efen!er of capitalim' they #oth appeal to an! try to #ae their ar*ument on the ame principle of lo*ic' /ut a they #oth pea. the ame lan*ua*e% Jut a t"o plu t"o e+ual four for the accountant of a capitalit or of a ocialit enterprie' o if all & i B' then ome & i B for a !efen!er of ocialim or of capitalim% imilarly' anyone "ho ha rea! account of the la#our of Chritian miionarie amon* primitive people "ill realie that #oth partie to the ar*ument appeal to the ame la" of lo*ic' thou*h it mut #e confee! that the primitive people are often more lo*ical than the miionarie% >hat i here ai! a#out lo*ic !oe not' ho"ever' apply to the philoophical vie" e$poun!e! #y thoe "ho have "ritten #oo. a#out lo*ic% Thoe philoophical vie"' often la#elle! @,o*ic5' are' of coure' the vie" of particular clae an! of particular epoch% Thu "e conclu!e that lan*ua*e !evelop a the mean of e$prein* an! communicatin* thou*ht #y people in ociety' ariin* from an! !evelope! in the coure of their pro!uctive activity an! all their other ocial activityA an! that the thou*ht of men' e$pree! in lan*ua*e' are u#or!inate to lo*ic' to the la" of thou*ht a reflection of material reality% &t the ame time' the ocial vie" "hich are e$pree! in lan*ua*e an! "or.e! out "ith the ai! of lo*ic !evelop on the #ai of men: economic relation' of the activitie an! interet of ocial clae% Part Two T.E DE+ELOPMENT OF IDEAS
#ha"ter Fi$e A8STRA#T IDEAS The Formation o( A;stract Ideas >=, thou*ht an! i!ea' li.e lan*ua*e' ori*inate from la#our' men li.e"ie !evelop their thin.in* an! their i!ea in the coure of the "hole of their ocial activity% >ritin* of the !evelopment of i!ea or of human conciounefor the peculiarity of human concioune i that man i conciou of thin* not only throu*h perception #ut alo throu*h i!eaMar$ an! n*el ho"e! that man: concioune arie an! !evelop only from the nee!' the neceity' of intercoure "ith other men% % % % Concioune i therefore from the very #e*innin* a ocial pro!uct' an! remain o a lon* a men e$it at all% (The Derman !eolo*y' 4art ' chapter %) !ea are not the pro!uct of a pure intellectual proce' nor are they mere automatic repone to timuli reachin* u from e$ternal o#/ect% They are pro!uce! #y human #rain in the coure of human ocial activity% They reflect the connection of men "ith one another an! "ith the e$ternal "orl!' the real con!ition of men: e$itence% Mar$ an! n*el "ent on to point out that concioune i at firt merely concioune concernin* the imme!iate enuou environment an! concioune of the limite! connection "ith other peron an! thin*% % % % Thi #e*innin*' they a!!e!' i a animal a ocial life itelf at thi ta*e% t i mere her! concioune5% The firt an! mot elementary i!ea are i!ea !irectly !erive! from imme!iate practical intercoure "ith other people an! urroun!in* o#/ect% They are forme! #y *ivin* name to 7K the common feature of thin* reco*nia#le in perception% ;rom the tart' a Mar$ ha tree!' the pro!uction of i!ea arie from the material activity an! material intercoure of men% &n! out of thi activity an! material intercoure at it mot elementary level i alrea!y forme! a comple$ of elementary i!ea of e$ternal o#/ect' of the elf an! of other people of the .in! an! propertie of o#/ect an! their variou connection "ith an! ue for people% n uch i!ea are more or le !irectly reflecte! the alient feature of o#/ect an! human activitie a "e are imme!iately a"are of them in perception% uch i!ea contitute the #aic' elementary e+uipment of human thou*ht an! communication% They are e$pree! in "or! !enotin* familiar o#/ect' an! propertie an! relation of o#/ect' an! every!ay activitie% >e all poe a rich e+uipment of uch i!ea% Our poeion of them repreent a coni!era#le ocial achievement' #ut "e ta.e them +uite for *rante!' ue them all the time' an! every chil! learn them at an early a*e% uch are our i!ea of the thin* a#out u "ith "hich our normal affair are concerne!' uch a men an! "omen' ta#le' chair' motor car' tree' flo"er' !o*' cat' etc%' etc%A of eni#le propertie of thin*' uch a re!' #lue' har!' oft' #i*' mall' an! o onA an! of action an! relation' uch a runnin*' "al.in*' fallin*' a#ove' #elo"' etc%' etc% Our o"n e+uipment of elementary i!ea i o#viouly far *reater than that of primitive man' preciely #ecaue "e !o many more thin* an! concern ourelve "ith many more o#/ect an! relation% everthele' the concioune repreente! #y uch elementary i!ea remain' a Mar$ an! n*el put it' concioune concernin* the imme!iate enuou environment an! concioune of the limite! connection "ith other peron an! thin*5% The feature of uch elementary i!ea i that they have a concrete' enuou content' #ecaue to them correpon! o#/ect !irectly percepti#le to the ene% The !evelopment of ocial intercoure' ho"ever' lea! to the formation of i!ea to "hich no !irectly percepti#le o#/ect correpon!% Can "e form i!ea to "hich no !irectly percepti#le o#/ect correpon! ? e' of coure "e can' an! "e !o% ;or e$ample' men are !irectly percepti#le o#/ect' an! their propertie of #ein* tall' hort' thin' fat' an! o on' are !irectly percepti#le propertie% But "e alo thin. of men in term other than thee' althou*h nothin* !irectly evi!ent to the ene correpon! to "hat "e thin. a#out them% f ee a very fat man an! ay =e: a #loate! capitalit' hi percepti#le fatne correpon! to the "or! @#loate!5' #ut no correpon!in* property correpon! to the "or! @capitalit5% everthele' the i!ea of @capitalit5 an! @capitalim5 are "ell thou*ht-out' "ell eta#lihe! i!ea% >e are' in fact' continually employin* in or!inary peech' an! till more in theoretical "or.' an enormou ran*e of uch i!ea% ;or e$ample' all .in! of ocial an! political i!ea' moral an! le*al i!ea' cientific i!ea' aethetic i!ea an! philoophical i!ea are of thi .in!% To un!ertan! ho" uch i!ea arie' an! their function in the procee of thou*ht in "hich the "orl! i reflecte! in term of i!ea' "e houl! remem#er that i!ea are al"ay em#o!ie! in "or!% To have an i!ea i to have the ue of certain "or!' an! !ifferent .in! of i!ea correpon! to !ifferent ue of "or!% f' then' one ay that The fat man i runnin*' one i uin* "or! in uch a "ay a to refer to the percepti#le motion (runnin*) of a percepti#le o#/ect (a fat man)% t i +uite eay to e$plain "hat one mean% One nee! only point to a fat man' an! to omeone runnin*' an! ay2 mean that a man li.e that i !oin* that% f' on the other han!' one ay The capitalit e$ploit the "or.er' one i till referrin* to certain familiar
eni#le o#/ect (men)' #ut one i at the ame time ma.in* a *eneraliation a#out them "hich refer to a relationhip #et"een them "hich i not open to imme!iate o#ervation #ut "hich re+uire a very ela#orate !efinition in term of other relationhip% One cannot e$plain "hat one mean #y @capitalit5 an! @e$ploitation5 in the ame "ay a one can e$plain "hat one mean #y @fat5 an! @runnin*5% & complicate! e$planation of another .in! i re+uire!the ort of e$planation "hich Mar$ re+uire! many pa*e of Capital to ela#orate% The i!ea of capitalit e$ploitation i !erive! #y *eneraliation' not from the !irect comparion of a num#er of percepti#le o#/ect' #ut from reflection upon very complicate! 60 procee an! relationhip in "hich uch o#/ect are involve!% Our i!ea' then' are not confine! to the reflection of the common feature of e$ternal o#/ect preente! to the ene% !ea are al"ay forme! accor!in* to the nee! of ocial intercoure% &n! "ith the !evelopment of pro!uction an! the cone+uent !evelopment of pro!uction relation' an! of ocial relation an! ocial activity *enerally' i!ea are !evelope! #eyon! the ta*e of concioune of the common feature of o#/ect perceive! throu*h the ene% Men form *eneral concept an! vie" a#out the "orl! an! their o"n ocial life% uch i!ea #ecome forme! an! em#o!ie! in "or! an! ue of "or! a a pro!uct of men: active relationhip to e$ternal nature an! to one another' an! erve the !evelopment of ocial intercoure #ae! on thoe relationhip% But no !irectly percepti#le o#/ect correpon! to them% t i to uch i!ea that the term @a#tract5 i commonly applie!% The Sources o( A;stract Ideas &ll a#tract i!ea' "ithout e$ception' have their ource throu*h e$perience in the o#/ective material "orl!' in men: practical relation "ith thin* an! "ith one another% ;or it i !efinite e$perience of men' !erive! from their intercoure "ith one another an! "ith nature' "hich lea! them to form a#tract i!ea% Thee i!ea erve the continuance an! !evelopment of that intercoure% &n! they reflect !efinite relation o#/ectively e$itin* #et"een thin*' #et"een men' an! #et"een men an! thin*' "hich are tranlate! in the min! of men into term of i!ea% One important ource of the !evelopment of a#tract i!ea i the !evelopment of ocial relationhip #et"een people% Thu' for e$ample' the primitive *entile or*aniation of ociety "ith it complicate! rule a#out "ho can marry "hom' "ho #elon* to "hat *en' an!' in *eneral' "ho can !o "hat*ive rie to a "hole et of i!ea a#out ocial relationhip' "hich are at once the pro!uct of thoe ocial relationhip an! their re*ulator% ,ater' i!ea of ocial tatu' chieftainhip an! o on arie% &n! later' "ith the !evelopment of property' i!ea 61 connecte! "ith property relation% ;or e$ample' "hen certain people have ta.en poeion of the lan!' then there are forme! i!ea of lan!o"ner hip an! of correpon!in* !utie' ri*ht an! privile*e% uch i!ea of o"nerhip are a#tract i!ea' to "hich correpon! no o#/ect imme!iately percepti#le to the ene% Thu the i!ea of a plou*he! fiel!' ay' i the i!ea of a reality preente! to our eneA #ut the i!ea of the o"nerhip of that fiel! i an a#tract i!ea to "hich no !irectly percepti#le o#/ect correpon!% imilarly' the pro!uce of that fiel! i a concrete' percepti#le reality"e can eat it' for e$ampleA #ut the ri*ht of the lan!o"ner to ta.e poeion of that pro!uct i not percepti#le% But thee a#tract i!ea are the i!eal reflection of omethin* real an! o#/ectivethe pro!uction relation eta#lihe! at a !efinite ta*e of the evolution of ocial pro!uction% Other a#tract i!ea are forme! a a cone+uence of the !evelopment of men: pro!uctive an! other activitie concerne! "ith e$ternal nature% ;or e$ample' thi i the ource of uch i!ea a thoe of caue an! effect' an!' a*ain' of all i!ea concerne! "ith countin* an! meaurin*' uch a thoe of num#er' pace an! time% One very important influence in the !evelopment of men: i!ea i their relative i*norance an! helplene in the mi!t of their ocial activitie% Thi tart off the !evelopment of all .in! of mytical an! illuory a#tract i!ea% &t a very early ta*e of ociety people #e*in to thin. a#out the un!erlyin* caue "hich operate in the variou procee "ith "hich they are familiar an! on "hich they !epen! for their livelihoo!% Thu' for e$ample' people ee the crop *ro"in* or the animal multiplyin*' an! they are a"are of "hat they themelve have to !o to promote thee procee% But they !o not ee an! are not a"are of the un!erlyin* caue "hich operate in thee procee' nor have they any #ut mot ina!e+uate mean of controllin* them% &n! o they #e*in to form the concept of uneen po"er% Mot primitive people have the concept of a ecret po"er rei!in* in men' animal an! thin*' "hich they re*ar! a omethin* not percepti#le to the ene "hich neverthele penetrate an! 6E control all eni#le thin*% Thu certain e! n!ian tri#e calle! thi po"er "a.an!a' an! one of their el!er' tryin* to e$plain the i!ea to a viitin* anthropolo*it' tol! him2 o man ha ever een "a.an!a% ;rom thi type of a#tract i!ea thi i!ea of uneen po"er!evelop the a#tract i!ea of reli*ion an! theolo*y% Di$ision o( Mental (rom Material La;our &#tract i!ea are forme!' a "e can ee from thee fe" e$ample' a a cone+uence of the proce of ocial !evelopment% &n! Mar$ an! n*el connecte! the !evelopment of a#tract i!ea "ith the fun!amental ocial proce of
!iviion of la#our% The formation of all a#tract i!eaof "hatever type' an! "hatever the particular ource of the i!eapreuppoe a certain !evelopment of men: pro!uctive po"er an! ocial relation% t therefore preuppoe a certain !iviion of la#our% Thi !iviion of la#our #e*in to eparate the in*le pro!uctive *roup or @her!5 into !itinct in!ivi!ual!itinct not merely a !ifferent mem#er of the pecie #ut a peron "ith !itinct ocial function an! poition' "ith in!ivi!uality% Thi *ive rie to the activitie' relation an! e$perience from "hich the formation of a#tract i!ea arie% &n! it li.e"ie #rin* to an en! the ta*e of @her!5 concioune' an! permit the !evelopment of in!ivi!ual thou*ht% >ith the formation of a#tract i!ea' a !iviion of mental from material la#our appear% t mar. a !efinite #e*innin* of mental a !itinct from material la#our% &n! "ith thi' there #e*in to appear "ie men' el!er an! lea!er of variou .in! "ho are the pecialit in i!ea an! "ho e$poun! an! !evelop them% Thi pecialiation in i!ea !evelop a an in!ipena#le feature of ocial lifeA for "ithout i!ea' !iviion of la#our an! the variou cone+uent pro!uctive procee an! ocial relation cannot #e maintaine! or !evelope!% &n! o Mar$ an! n*el o#erve! in The Derman !eolo*y2 iviion of la#our only #ecome truly uch from the moment "hen a !iviion of mental an! material la#our appear%5 n *eneral' the formation of a#tract i!ea correpon! to 63 ne" ocial nee! ariin*% &t the ame time' the !evelopment of i!ea #ecome a pecial form of ocial activity' a pecial !epartment of the !iviion of la#our% &n! the enuin* eparation of mental from material la#our then lea! to further cone+uence% Once an a#tract i!ea i forme! an! em#o!ie! in "or!' then the poi#ility arie that thee "or! "ill #e ta.en to refer to pecial .in! of o#/ect "hich e$it apart from the o#/ect of the material "orl! "hich are reflecte! in eneperception% &n! thi poi#ility i the more apt to #e realie!' the more the han!lin* of a#tract i!ea #ecome a pecial ocial activity eparate! from material la#our% t i o#viou that thi ta.e place "ith concept of uneen po"er' upernatural #ein*' an! o on% The people "ho employ thee i!ea coni!er that certain myteriou #ein* an! po"er' "hoe e$itence i eparate from an! in!epen!ent of the e$itence of percepti#le' material thin*' correpon! to the i!ea% &n! the "itch !octor' priet or theolo*ian "ho pecialie in uch i!ea "or. out the mot ela#orate !octrine in term of them% But imilar illuion can *ro" up aroun! all a#tract i!ea% &#tract i!ea are uch that no !irectly percepti#le o#/ect correpon! to them% But they !o relate to percepti#le o#/ect% To e$plain uch an i!ea' to ay "hat the "or! in "hich it i em#o!ie! mean' it i neceary to refer to !efinite percepti#le o#/ect an! procee an! their relationhip "hich are reflecte! in the i!ea% On the other han!' it i poi#le to for*et a#out the concrete reality "hich i reflecte! in i!ea' an! to manipulate i!ea a thou*h they !ealt "ith ome eparate realm of a#traction reveale! to the intellect #ut in!epen!ent of the percepti#le "orl! of e$perience an! practice% @The approach of the min! to a particular thin*' the ta.in* of a cat of it' "rote ,enin' in hi 4hiloophical ote#oo.' i not a imple' !irect act' a lifele mirror reflection' #ut a comple$' t"ofol!' hat i more' it har#our the poi#ility that the a#tract i!ea may #e tranforme!' impercepti#ly an! un"ittin*ly' into fantayan! 6H in the lon* run' into Do!% ;or even the implet *eneraliation an! the mot elementary *eneral i!ea i a fra*ment of fantay%5 Thi flyin* a"ay of the a#tract i!ea from reality i the more apt to ta.e place' the more mental la#our i !ivorce! from material la#our' the more theoretical activity i !ivorce! from practical activity% >ith the !evelopment of a#tract i!ea' then' thin.in* i no lon*er tie! !o"n to the feature of thin* an! the connection of peron an! thin* of "hich "e are imme!iately a"are in practice throu*h the ene% &n! /ut #ecaue thin.in* #ecome the pecial province of mental a !itinct from material la#our' all the more !oe it cut looe from the practice an! the e$perience of or!inary "or.in* life% t #ecome free to ela#orate all manner of *eneral concept an! *eneral vie" a#out the "orl! an! a#out ociety% >hat "e thin. #ecome !itinct from "hat "e e$perience or perceive% @;rom thi moment on"ar!' "rote Mar$ an! n*el' in The Derman !eolo*y' concioune can really flatter itelf that it i omethin* other than concioune of e$itin* practice' that it i really conceivin* omethin* "ithout conceivin* omethin* real i%e%' omethin* !irectly percepti#le to the eneM%C%\% ;rom no" on' concioune i in a poition to emancipate itelf from the "orl! an! to procee! to the formation of Fpure: theory' theolo*y' philoophy' ethic' etc%5 Learnin) .ow to Thin0 & con!ition for the !evelopment of a#tract i!ea i the eparation of mental from material la#our% &n! it contain "ithin itelf contra!ictory potentialitie% On the one han!' it permit the ac+uiition of profoun!er .no"le!*e of the real connection of thin* an! of the con!ition of human e$itence than i containe! in imme!iate perceptual concioune% On the other
han!' it permit the *ro"th of all .in! of fantaie an! illuion% Cone+uently the "hole proce of the intellectual !evelopment of ociety preent contra!ictory apect% On the one han!' there ha #een the un!ou#te! *ro"th of *enuine .no"le!*e' in other "or!' of true i!ea' "hoe correpon!ence "ith reality ha #een verifie!' concernin* nature' ociety an! the relation of men "ith nature% On the other han!' there ha #een the *ro"th an! ela#oration of illuory i!ea% & ociety ha !evelope!' o men have !evelope! in their min! illuion a#out themelve an! the "orl! they inha#it% ach epoch ha a!!e! to the um total of human .no"le!*e% &n! at the ame time' each epoch ha pro!uce! it characteritic illuion' "hich circumcri#e!' penetrate! an! coloure! the entire intellectual pro!uction of that epoch% t i here' then' that "e fin! the root of the oppoition an! tru**le of materialit an! i!ealit ten!encie "hich ha run ri*ht throu*h the "hole !evelopment of thou*ht% The oppoition of materialit an! i!ealit ten!encie i a fun!amental oppoition' ariin* from the very nature of thou*ht itelf' once it ha !evelope! to the level of a#tract i!ea% t arie "ith the eparation of mental from material la#our% >hen mental la#our firt #e*in to emancipate itelf from the "orl! a a theoretical activity' an! to #ecome omethin* other than e$itin* practice' then there imme!iately arie the t"o alternative path of theoryto trive to un!ertan! thin* in their o"n connection an! to e$plain "hat happen in the material "orl! from the material "orl! itelf' "hich i materialimA or to launch out into the realm of pure thou*ht an! repreent the material' enuou "orl! a !epen!ent on thou*ht an! the pro!uct of thou*ht' "hich i i!ealim% n other "or!' to re*ar! #ein* a prior to thin.in*' or thin.in* a prior to #ein*% Ln!ertoo! in thi li*ht' the tru**le of the materialit ten!ency in thou*ht a*aint the i!ealit ten!ency i un!ertoo! a a tru**le' carrie! for"ar! throu*h a*e of human hitory from primitive time up to the preent !ay an! into the future' to learn to thin. truthfully an! correctly' in a "ay that truthfully reflect the real con!ition of human e$itence an! help human pro*re% t i the tru**le for .no"le!*e an! enli*htenment a*aint i*norance an! upertition% #ha"ter Si3 IDEOLO9C The Formation o( Ideolo)ies the coure of the !evelopment of ociety a#tract i!ea are ue! for the ela#oration of more or le ytematic theorie' !octrine or vie" a#out thin*% Deneral vie" an! "ay of thin.in*' ytem of a#tract i!ea' #ecome eta#lihe! a characteritic of the outloo. of a "hole ociety' or of a ection of ociety% &n! coni!era#le !ifference e$it #et"een the vie" entertaine! in !ifferent ocietie an! in !ifferent ta*e of ocial !evelopment% ach poee it typical ocial vie" of politic' morality' la"' property' reli*ion' philoophyan! thee vie" penetrate ocial thin.in* on all particular topic' an! moul! an! influence the !evelopment of i!ea of all in!ivi!ual% >ith the !evelopment of private property an! the tate' for e$ample' i!ea a#out le*al an! political @ri*ht5 are al"ay forme!% But in !ifferent ta*e of the !evelopment of property' the vie" "hich are hel! a#out ri*htthe theorie "hich are entertaine! a#out them' the ytematic !octrine a#out ri*htvary coni!era#ly% n lave ociety' lave "ere thou*ht to have no ri*ht "hatever% n feu!al ociety' everyone "a thou*ht to have ri*ht' #ut the character of hi ri*ht !epen!e! on hi actual poition in the feu!al or!er' o that the ri*ht of a erf "ere not e+ual to thoe of a lor!% >ith the rie of capitalim' the theory of human ri*ht #e*an to #e forme!the vie" that every man' imply a a human #ein*' poee certain inaliena#le human ri*ht "hich are the ame for all menan! there ha #een a *reat !eal of ar*ument a to the 6 e$act !efinition of thee ri*ht an! from "hat they may #e !e!uce!% &*ain' from the very #e*innin* of ocial pro!uction people have forme! i!ea a#out the caual procee in nature% But in !ifferent ta*e of ociety the vie" a#out cauality in nature have varie! coni!era#ly% The mot primitive theory i the theory of animim' "hich thin. of everythin* a thou*h it "ere alive an! conciou% ,ater on' animim i *iven up' an! everythin* i thou*ht to #e !irecte! #y it pecific form or principle' "hich !etermine it nature' it place in the hierarchy of #ein* an! it peculiar "ay of actin* on other thin* an! reactin* to them% Thi vie" of cauality "a ela#orate! in *reat !etail !urin* the Mi!!le &*e% Then a*ain there ha !evelope! the mechanitic vie" of cauality "hich "a characteritic of the #e*innin* of mo!ern natural cience' accor!in* to "hich the motion of all #o!ie are *overne! #y a in*le et of natural la" an! everythin* that happen i !etermine! #y the e$ternal interaction of #o!ie ta.in* place in accor!ance "ith thee la"% uch more or le ytematic vie"' "hich are hitorically evolve! #y !efinite ocial *roup in !efinite ta*e of ocial !evelopment' an! "hich vary accor!in* to their ocial ori*in' are calle! i!eolo*ie% &n! the !evelopment of uch vie" i calle! i!eolo*ical !evelopment%
The Material Bai of !eolo*ical evelopment !eolo*y i eentially a ocial rather than an in!ivi!ual pro!uct% n !ealin* "ith the !evelopment of i!eolo*y' "e are !ealin* "ith the ocial !evelopment of i!ea% >e are not o much concerne! "ith ho" i!ea are forme! an! ela#orate! in the min! of the in!ivi!ual' a "ith ho" #roa! current of i!ea are forme! a characteritic of a "hole phae of ocial !evelopment% Of coure' in!ivi!ual contri#ute a in!ivi!ual' accor!in* to their capacitie an! circumtance' to the formation of i!eolo*ie% On the other han!' the i!eolo*ie prevailin* or riin* in ociety al"ay contitute the #ac.*roun! an! con!ition for the !evelopment of the opinion an! vie" of every in!ivi!ual in ociety% n!ivi!ual' in their o"n opinion an! vie"' are al"ay influence! #y the i!eolo*ie' e$pre them' are their mouthpiece% n the coure of ocial !evelopment there i chan*e an! !evelopment of i!eolo*y% One i!eolo*y upplant another% &n! in the ame ociety' !ifferent an! rival i!eolo*ie interact an! clah "ith one another% But i!eolo*y ha no in!epen!ent !evelopment% There i no hitory of thou*ht' in!epen!ent of the !evelopment of the material con!ition of ocial life% &n i!eolo*y i al"ay the i!eolo*y of !efinite people' livin* in !efinite con!ition' !epen!in* for their life on a !efinite mo!e of pro!uction' "ith !efinite ocial relation' !oin* !efinite thin* "ith !efinite !eire an! aim% &n! their i!eolo*y i not forme! in!epen!ently of the proce of their material life% @>e et out from real' active men' "rote Mar$ an! n*el' an! on the #ai of their real life proce "e !emontrate the !evelopment of the i!eolo*ical refle$e an! echoe of thi life proce% The phantom forme! in the human #rain are alo' necearily' u#limate of their material life proce' "hich i empirically verifia#le an! #oun! to material premie% Morality' reli*ion' metaphyic' all the ret of i!eolo*y' an! their correpon!in* form of concioune' thu no lon*er retain the em#lance of in!epen!ence% They have no hitory' no !evelopmentA #ut men' !evelopin* their material pro!uction an! their material intercoure' alter' alon* "ith thi their real e$itence' their thin.in* an! the pro!uct of their thin.in*% (The Derman !eolo*y' 4art ' chapter i%) t i the !evelopment of pro!uction' an! the cone+uent !evelopment of pro!uction relation an! of the ocial intercoure #ae! on them' "hich *ive rie to the con!ition for the formation of a#tract i!ea an! to the ocial nee! for the i!eolo*ical !evelopment of uch i!ea% !eolo*ie !evelop not a a cone+uence of the inner "or.in* of men: min! *oin* on in!epen!ently of the material life of ociety #ut a a cone+uence of the !evelopment of the material life of ociety' "hich con!ition the pro!uct of intellectual pro!uction% n cla-!ivi!e! ociety' therefore' i!eolo*ie ta.e on a cla character% ifferent vie" are !evelope! on the #ai of the !ifferent place occupie! #y !ifferent clae in ocial pro!uction' their !ifferent relationhip to the mean of pro!uction' their !ifferent role in the ocial or*aniation of la#our' their !ifferent "ay of o#tainin* their hare of the ocial "ealth' their !ifferent material interet% The !ifferent i!eolo*ie are thu !evelope! in the ervice of !ifferent cla interet% The Ideolo)ical Re(lection o( Realit! !eolo*ical !evelopment i' then' *overne! #y the material !evelopment of ociety#y the !evelopment of pro!uction' of the relation of pro!uction' an! of clae an! the cla tru**le% =ence the caue impellin* i!eolo*ical !evelopment in one or another !irection are al"ay to #e foun!' in the lat analyi' not "ithin the phere of i!eolo*ical !evelopment itelf #ut in the phere of the con!ition of material life% To e$plain' for e$ample' "hy the #our*eoi i!ea of human ri*ht upplante! the feu!al i!ea of ri*ht' it i neceary to coni!er the chan*e ta.in* place in the mo!e of pro!uction of material lifefor thee chan*e *ave rie to a contra!iction #et"een the feu!al i!ea of ri*ht an! the actual ri*ht the reco*nition of "hich "a neceary to carry on the #our*eoi mo!e of pro!uction' an! neceitate! a chan*e in the i!ea of ri*ht to correpon! "ith reality% imilarly' in the phere of i!ea a#out nature' thee ame chan*e in the mo!e of pro!uction imparte! a ne" !irection to the !evelopment of i!ea a#out nature% &n! in *eneral' feu!al i!eolo*y "a upplante! #y #our*eoi i!eolo*y #ecaue' in the material life of ociety' feu!al ocial relation "ere #ein* upplante! #y #our*eoi ocial relation% But at the ame time' i!eolo*ical !evelopment' a a !evelopment of a#tract thin.in*' ha it o"n pecial characteritic' it o"n internal la"% t !irection i !etermine! #y the !evelopment of the material life of ociety' an! every i!eolo*y i !evelope! on the #ai of !efinite material ocial relationhip an! activitie in the ervice of !efinite material interet% But it remain none the le true that i!eolo*y mut al"ay atify certain intellectual re+uirement' an! that thee 0 re+uirement are continually poe! an! met in the coure of i!eolo*ical !evelopment% !eolo*ie are !evelope! to erve !efinite cla interet% They are intellectual intrument' intellectual "eapon' ma!e an! for*e! #y !efinite clae correpon!in* to the material poition an! re+uirement of thoe clae% But /ut #ecaue they are intellectual intrument an! intellectual "eapon' to #e ervicea#le they mut atify intellectual re+uirement% They
mut o#ey the rule of "or.in* "ith i!ea' /ut a' for e$ample' material intrument an! material "eapon mut o#ey the rule of "or.in* "ith' ay' metal% ;rom "hat !o thee internal' intellectual re+uirement of i!eolo*ical !evelopment arie? They arie rom the fact that i!eolo*y i a reflection of the real' material "orl! in the form of a#tract i!ea% very i!eolo*y i an attempt ma!e #y people to un!ertan! an! *ive an account of the real "orl! in "hich they live' or of ome apect of it an! of their o"n live' o that it may #e of ervice to them in the !efinite con!ition in "hich they live% Therefore they mut al"ay trive to !evelop their i!eolo*y a a coherent ytem of i!ea "hich +uare "ith the fact o far a they have e$perience! an! acertaine! them% Thi poe intellectual re+uirement to #e atifie! #y i!eolo*ie' an! to atify them i a la" "hich i continually at "or. influencin* the !evelopment of i!eolo*ie% !eolo*ie mut #e ma!e to atify' in the firt place' the *eneral re+uirement of the reflection of reality in i!ea' that i to ay' the la" of lo*ic% n the econ! place' they mut atify the particular re+uirement of the reflection of a particular part of reality' that i to ay' they mut #e ma!e to +uare "ith the fact o far a people have e$perience! an! acertaine! them% !eolo*ie' therefore' are !evelope! on the #ai of the *iven tructure of ociety to erve the interet of one or another cla' an! in thi i!eolo*ical !evelopment the effort i al"ay #ein* ma!e to ren!er the vie" !evelope! elf-conitent an! lo*ical' an! to ma.e them cover an! *ive ome conitent account of the principal fact "hich emer*e in the e$perience of ociety at the *iven ta*e of !evelopment% Thi *ive rie to continual contra!iction in the !evelopment of i!eolo*ie% ;or on the one han!' the vie" !evelope! #y the repreentative of variou clae prove lo*ically inconitent an! inconitent "ith plain factA an! on the other han!' fact an! the re+uirement of lo*ic lea! to concluion "hich !o not accor! "ith vie" tenaciouly hel!% uch contra!iction *ive rie to a continual proce of the ela#oration of i!eolo*ie' a the i!eolo*it en!eavour to fin! "ay an! mean of reolvin* them% The #riticism o( Ideolo)ies o matter "hat fiel! of i!ea i in +uetion' the !evelopment of i!ea e$pree the effort to ar*ue them out' ma.e them conitent' preent them lo*ically' an! a!apt them to the fact of e$perience% &n! thi effort play a ma/or part in the !etaile! ela#oration of i!eolo*ie% n!ee!' the more concretely "e tu!y the !evelopment of particular i!eolo*iethat i to ay' the more "e tu!y their !evelopment in !etail' rather than confinin* attention to their mot *eneral featurethe more i it neceary to ta.e into account the intellectual apect of i!eolo*ical !evelopment% ;or the effort to +uare up i!ea "ith o#truive fact' an! to eliminate contra!iction an! preent a conitent' ar*ue! cae' influence very *reatly the real !evelopment of i!ea% &n! in the coure of thi !evelopment' it inevita#ly happen that the e$preion of economic relation an! cla interet in the *iven fiel! of i!ea #ecome le o#viou' le !irect' more o#cure an! roun!a#out% Thu n*el "rote' for intance' of the !evelopment of le*al i!eolo*y2 @,a" mut not only correpon! to the *eneral economic con!ition an! #e it e$preion' #ut mut alo #e an internally coherent e$preion "hich !oe not' o"in* to inner contra!iction' re!uce itelf to nou*ht% &n! in or!er to achieve thi' the faithful reflection of economic con!ition uffer increain*ly% % % % Thu to a *reat e$tent the coure of the :!evelopment of la": only conit' firt' in the attempt to !o a"ay "ith the contra!iction ariin* from the !irect tranlation of economic relation into le*al principle an! to eta#lih a harmoniou E ytem of la"' an! then in the repeate! #reache ma!e in thi ytem #y the influence an! preure of further economic !evelopment' "hich involve it in further contra!iction% (,etter to C% chmi!t' Octo#er E' 1K90%) The ame proce ta.e place in all i!eolo*ical pherein philoophy' theolo*y' moral i!ea' i!ea a#out nature' an! o on% !eolo*ie are al"ay peculiarly vulnera#le an! open to criticim on the core of elf-contra!iction an! of failure to rec.on "ith e$perience! fact% Thoe "ho' a intellectual repreentative of a *iven cla' epoue a *eneral point of vie" in i!eolo*y' are al"ay #ein* !riven for thi reaon to ela#orate their i!eolo*y' "hich lea! them to the creation of often very complicate! an! far-fetche! i!eolo*ical tructure% Then a*ain' a n*el o#erve!' the tructure #ecome unuita#le for the ervice of the *iven interet in ne" con!ition' an! the proce #e*in ane"% Thi ho" itelf in philoophy' for intance' in the multiplication of @ytem5 of philoophy% f thi proce of criticim *oe on in the !evelopment of the i!eolo*y of a particular cla' it ta.e a !ifferent an! harper form "hen' on the #ai of ne" factor in the material life of ociety' ne" an! rival vie" #e*in to #e forme!' e$prein* the interet of !ifferent clae% uch ne" vie" !o not emer*e until the !evelopment of material life *ive #irth to them% But once they emer*e' then they attac. from the ne" point of vie" the manifol! inconitencie of the alrea!y eta#lihe! vie"%
They ma.e ue of lo*ic an! appeal to fact a po"erful intellectual "eapon "ith "hich to !icre!it an! !emolih the ol! vie"% =itorian of i!ea have mot often erre! #y attemptin* to un!ertan! i!eolo*ical !evelopment e$cluively in term of the poin* an! atifaction of intellectual re+uirement% & Mar$ an! n*el pointe! out' that cannot #e !one' ince one cannot ay "hy ne" vie" houl! arie at particular time' or "hy the vie" houl! #e of one rather than another type' "ithout loo.in* for the reaon in the material life of ociety% But it i alo impoi#le to trace the !evelopment of i!eolo*ie "ithout ta.in* the intellectual re+uirement into account% &n! 3 Mar$im certainly never ay that "e houl! attempt to !o o% Thi i the oppoite error into "hich ome chool of ociolo*it have fallennamely' thoe "ho em#race the !octrine of economic !eterminim' "hich re*ar! economic activity a the ole a*ency !eterminin* the "hole of ocial !evelopment in all it apect% ;ailin* to reco*nie that in i!eolo*y there ta.e place a proce of the reflection of the real "orl! in men: i!ea' they re*ar! i!eolo*y e$cluively a a !evelopment of variou i!ea e$prein* an! ervin* variou material' economic interet% Thi lea! them to one or other of t"o concluion% On the one han!' they conclu!e that ince all i!ea are merely practical intrument ervin* variou material interet' no i!ea' inclu!in* their o"n' can lay any claim correctly to reflect realityo that every i!eolo*y' inclu!in* their o"n' i a illuory a every other in all repect% On the other han!' they are le! to ma.e an e$ception of themelve an! of their o"n i!ea' repreentin* themelve a pecial people "ho' #y ome intellectual miracle' have trancen!e! every cla point of vie" an! can loo. !o"n on the ret of man.in! from an ivory to"er of complete an! a#olute @o#/ectivity5% n either cae' they are clearly involve! in elfcontra!iction% =o"ever' there i al"ay an! al"ay ha #een a #ai for the criticim of i!eolo*ie in term of reaon an! e$perience that i to ay' for their critical comparion "ith reality% &n! thi comparion ha #een continually carrie! out in the coure of i!eolo*ical !evelopment itelf% t ha not #een carrie! out #y people "ho have mana*e! to !etach themelve from ocial life' for uch people !o not e$itA #ut it ha #een carrie! out in the coure of the lon* !evelopment of human practiceof pro!uction' of cience an! of the cla tru**le% Thu in the !evelopment of i!eolo*ie there !oe ta.e place a !evelopment of the truthful an! coherent reflection of the real "orl! in men: i!ea% ;or the continuou proce of rec.onin* "ith fact an! trivin* for conitency!epite all the intellectual !ihonety' pecial plea!in*' invention' fantay' ophim an! inconitency "hich accompanie it at every ta*e !oe continuouly yiel! poitive reult% &n! thee reult are H continuouly verifie!' conoli!ate!' criticie! an! carrie! for"ar! throu*h the !evelopin* practice of man.in!% Truth and Illusion in Ideolo)ies &ll i!ea are a reflection of o#/ective material reality' "hich i their ultimate ource% But "hile' a "e have /ut een' there i a !evelopment in i!eolo*y of the truthful reflection of reality in i!ea' thi ta.e place ami! a !evelopment of all .in! of illuion' of !itorte!' fantatic reflection of reality% The oppoition an! interpenetration of truth an! illuion in i!eolo*ical !evelopment e$pree the fact that the reflection of reality in i!ea i effecte! in !ifferent "ay' throu*h !ifferent procee' #y !ifferent route% One "ay in "hich our i!ea a#out thin* are forme! an! ela#orate! i in the proce of our practical interaction "ith thin*' foun!e! on an! tete! in practical e$perience' an! further !evelope! #y cientific inveti*ation of real procee' of the real propertie of thin*' their motion an! interconnection% n o far a i!ea a#out thin* are forme! in thi "ay' the i!ea an! concluion a#out them em#o!ie! in i!eolo*ie are more or le truthfulthat i to ay' they more or le correctly reflect reality an! correpon! "ith it% But thi i not the only "ay in "hich i!ea are forme!% They are alo forme! in a more in!irect an! roun!a#out "ay% &n! i!ea forme! in a more in!irect an! roun!a#out "ay are profoun!ly influential in the formation of i!eolo*ie% Thi roun!a#out proce "hich enter into the formation of i!eolo*ie involve three main tep% ;irt' a#tract i!ea are forme! on the #ai of variou ocial relationhip an! e$perience of people% econ!' thoe a#tract i!ea are eparate! from the actual e$perience an! relationhip from "hich they "ere !erive!% Thir!' #oth particular concluion an! *eneral i!ea a#out all .in! of thin* are then "or.e! out "ith the ai! of thoe a#tract i!ea% ;or e$ample' "hen ociety !ivi!e into clae an! a rulin* cla i forme!' then' on the #ai of !efinite ocial relation an! ocial e$perience an! activitie' there i forme! the i!ea of the relationhip #et"een ruler an! rule! an! of the 7 po"er an! prero*ative of the ruler% ;rom that' the ne$t tep i to eparate thi a#tract i!ea from the actual e$perience an! relationhip from "hich it "a ori*inally !erive!' to coni!er it a e$prein* a *eneral truth a#out the univere' an! to *o on to form the i!ea of Do!' the ruler of the univere% The thir! an! lat tep i to procee! to interpret e$itin* ocial relation a !ecree! #y Do!' an! to interpret nature a the creation of Do!%
>hen i!ea a#out thin* are forme! an! "or.e! out in thi "ay' it mean that "e are approachin* thin* "ith certain more or le fi$e! preconception a#out them alrea!y in our min!% n!ee!' uch preconception are often o fi$e! in our min! a a reult of e!ucation an! ha#it' that "e never !ream of +uetionin* them' #ut ta.e them a a$iom' a natural an! o#viou "ay of thin.in*% &n! then "e form our *eneral vie" an! particular concluion a#out thin* not primarily a a reult of critical inveti*ation an! practical verification of concluion #ut in!epen!ent of practice' uncritically' "ithout inveti*ation% >hen i!ea a#out thin* are forme! in thi "ay' then they *enerally ceae to #e truthful an! #ecome more or le illuory% They !o not correctly reflect an! correpon! "ith reality' #ut' on the contrary' they *ive an incorrect' illuory' fantatic or !itorte! picture of reality% lluion' ho"ever' are al"ay foun!e! in reality% They are not pure invention of the min!' #ut they arie' a "e have /ut een' #y a proce of formin* i!ea from one ource' an! then e$trapolatin* them (i%e%' e$ten!in* them #eyon! the phere in "hich they "ere ori*inally eta#lihe!) an! uin* them a preconception applie! in many !ifferent conte$t' replacin* the critical formation an! verification of i!ea throu*h actual practice an! e$perience% very illuion ha it ource in reality% t reflect !efinite con!ition of material life' arie from !efinite ocial relation' e$perience an! activitie% That i "hy many illuion are o peritent% t i not imply a +uetion of the in!octrination of in!ivi!ual "ith certain illuory i!ea' #ut it i a +uetion of e$itin* ocial relation continually *eneratin* certain illuion' an! of thee illuion ervin* !efinite material interet% lluion ta.e t"o main form% n the firt place' there arie illuion a#out real thin* miconception of real procee an! relation familiar in e$perience an! practice% uch' for e$ample' i the illuion that certain ocial relation an! intitution follo" from human nature' or "ere !ecree! #y eaon% n the econ! place' illuion !evelop into heer mytholo*y an! fantay' the invention of ima*inary thin*% Thu people not only miconceive nature an! ociety' #oth of "hich really e$it' #ut they alo form i!ea of heaven an! hell' of the piritual "orl!' an! o on' "hich have no e$itenceA they invent all .in! of ima*inary #ein*' uch a *o!' fairie an! !evil% n thi connection' "e houl! note that illuion cannot #e imply e+uate! "ith error% Of coure' illuion i errorA #ut it i a pecial .in! of error% uppoe' for e$ample' that omeone ay that thirteen +uare! e+ual % Thi i a imple error' an error in calculation (ince the ri*ht an"er i 169)% But uppoe' on the other han!' he ay that thirteen i an unluc.y num#er% Thi i not li.e an error in calculation' "hich can #e ma!e #y people poein* on the "hole correct i!ea a#out num#er% t e$pree an illuion' namely' the illuion that num#er are luc.y or unluc.y% uch an error !oe not arie imply from a mita.e in operatin* "ith num#er' #ut it arie from applyin* to num#er preconceive! i!ea a#out luc. "hich' thou*h they have a !efinite ource in e$perience an! practice' are "ron*ly an! uncritically applie! to num#er% imilarly' if omeone ay that the Britih Contitution "a intro!uce! into 4arliament #y Oliver Crom"ell' thi i an erroneou tatement' ariin* from an inufficient tu!y of Britih contitutional hitory% But uppoe he ay that the Britih Contitution i an e$preion of the uni+ue *eniu of the &n*lo-a$on race' or i Do!: *ift to the Britih people% Thee tatement' thou*h alo erroneou' are not imply error in hitory% They arie from applyin* to ocial affair preconceive! i!ea a#out racial *eniu or Do!% Thu illuion contitute a pecial .in! of error' ariin* from a +uite !efinite mo!e of miconceivin* thin* in term of preconceive! i!ea% Scienti(ic and Illusor! Ideolo)! Both procee of the formation of a#tract i!eathat i to ay' #oth the proce of formin* more or le truthful i!ea critically throu*h practical e$perience an! interaction "ith thin*' an! the proce of formin* more or le illuory i!ea a preconception applie! in the formation of vie"enter into the formation of actual i!eolo*ie% &t the ame time' one or other of thee procee may !ominate in the contitution of particular i!eolo*ie' o that they are pre!ominantly cientific in the one cae or pre!ominantly illuory an! uncientific in the other cae% &ll i!eolo*y in cla-!ivi!e! ociety i !evelope! #y the intellectual repreentative of !efinite clae' an! correpon! to the actual poition an! erve the re+uirement of !efinite clae in their cla tru**le% Thi #ein* o' "e can ee ho" inevita#ly the t"o procee interact an! interpenetrate in the formation of cla i!eolo*ie%
On the one han!' in o far a the interet of a cla !o !eman! a true apprehenion of reality #ae! on critical inveti*ation of ome .in!' it i!eolo*y !oe contain a cientific element% ;or e$ample' the cla interet of the capitalit cla certainly !o re+uire that coni!era#le "or. houl! #e !one on !icoverin* the real la" *overnin* variou natural procee' an! uch !icoverie !o play their part in #our*eoi i!eolo*y% The ame interet alo re+uire that certain ocial inveti*ation houl! #e carrie! on' an! from thi ource a*ain a certain cientific element !oe enter into #our*eoi i!eolo*y% On the other han!' in o far a the interet of a cla an! the place it occupie in ocial pro!uction *ive rie to certain preconception an! illuion "hich erve the cla in it tru**le' it i!eolo*y i illuory% &n! o' for e$ample' if "e coni!er #our*eoi i!eolo*y' there are many element in it "hich merely em#o!y the illuion of the #our*eoi cla an! the vie" peculiar to #our*eoi ociety% Bour*eoi i!eolo*y' in!ee!' i forme! #y the !evelopment K of #oth procee% &n! thi *ive rie to contra!iction in it !evelopment' ince the pro!uct of the t"o procee continually come into contra!iction an! the reolution of uch contra!iction ha to #e ou*ht in the !evelopment of i!eolo*y% The ame ha #een true of the i!eolo*ie of other clae' thou*h the cientific element i far tron*er in #our*eoi i!eolo*y' o that the contra!iction have #ecome harper% Thu' in the !evelopment of #our*eoi philoophy' for e$ample' there ha #een a continual effort to reconcile cientific !icoverie "ith #our*eoi preconception% The mot o#viou "ay in "hich thi contra!iction ha e$pree! itelf in #our*eoi philoophy i in the contra!iction #et"een the materialit picture of the "orl! affor!e! #y cientific !icoverie an! the reli*iou vie" "hich form an eential part of the i!eolo*ical preconception% 4hiloopher have continually ou*ht "ay an! mean of reolvin* thi contra!ictionA they .eep reolvin* it to their o"n atifaction' an! a often a they reolve it' it crop up a*ain% &*ain' in #our*eoi cience' !icoverie are al"ay #ein* interprete!"ith the help of philoopherin term of the #our*eoi preconception% >e can ee thi happenin* to!ay' for e$ample' in the !evelopment of phyic' "here the !icoverie of +uantum phyic are interprete! a meanin* that event are unpre!icta#le an! their real nature un.no"a#le% Thi i imply an application in phyical cience of #our*eoi i!eolo*ical preconception *enerate! #y the *eneral crii of capitalim% On the other han!' certain preconception' at leat in their ol! form' have ha! to #e *iven up an! replace! #y other' #ecaue of their contra!iction "ith a!vancin* .no"le!*e of nature% Thi ha happene!' for e$ample' "ith reli*iou !octrine' "hich have often #een mo!ifie! in the coure of the tru**le to reconcile reli*ion "ith ciencea "hen the theolo*ian eventually !itche! #oth &!am an! ve a a conceion to the theory of evolution% Coni!erin* uch e$ample' "e can ee that the oppoition an! interpenetration of cientific an! illuory element in i!eolo*y cannot #e conceive! o imply' a if i!ea a#out one thin* "ere cientific "hile i!ea a#out ome other thin* "ere illuory% The fact i rather that cientific an! illuory element oppoe each other an! interpenetrate in the i!ea forme! a#out one an! the ame thin*% Thu #our*eoi i!eolo*y' for e$ample' i a contra!ictory compoun! of truthful an! illuory element' "ith the latter al"ay peritin* an! maintainin* themelve% t mi*ht #e ai! that the cientific element i tron*er in the #our*eoi vie" a#out natural procee' "hile the illuory element i tron*er in the #our*eoi vie" a#out ocial procee% But #oth element enter into all part an! all fiel! of #our*eoi i!eolo*y' an! the illuory element i the mot characteritic feature of the i!eolo*y% >hat tamp #our*eoi i!eolo*y a peculiarly #our*eoi i the character of it illuion% The ame may #e ai! of other i!eolo*ie of the pat% &t the ame time' "e may conitently claim' an! !o claim' that ocialit or Mar$it i!eolo*y i primarily a cientific i!eolo*y' an! in thi repect !itin*uihe itelf from every other i!eolo*y "ithout e$ception% Thi i #ecaue the tru**le to en! capitalim an!' "ith it' all e$ploitation of man #y man' "hich thi i!eolo*y erve' !oe !eman! a#ove all a true apprehenion of reality an! oppoe itelf to all the illuion of ocietie #ae! on e$ploitation% #ha"ter Se$en IDEOLO9I#AL ILL/SIONS Ideolo)ical Re(lection o( Production Relations thi chapter "e hall coni!er the !evelopment of i!eolo*ical preconception or illuion' an! "ill then turn' in the ne$t t"o chapter' to the !evelopment of cientific i!ea% There are five main' characteritic feature of the !evelopment of i!eolo*ical illuion in cla-!ivi!e! ociety' "hich can #e trace! in every i!eolo*y up to an! inclu!in* #our*eoi i!eolo*y% (i) The firt feature of i!eolo*ical illuion i that they al"ay arie a reflection of particular' hitorically contitute! relation of pro!uction% Their ource i the pro!uction relation of ociety%
n the !evelopment of i!eolo*ical illuion' it eem a if a#tract i!ea' *eneral theorie' "ere #ein* pun out of people: hea!!evelope! an! controlle!' to all appearance' imply #y the thin.in* proce itelf% et ho" !i! uch i!ea come into people: hea!? >hat i their ource? Lnle "e are to #elieve that i!ea are forme! pontaneouly in the min!' or that "e are #orn alrea!y e+uippe! "ith innate i!ea' then "e mut uppoe that a ource in o#/ective reality outi!e the min! can #e foun! for all our i!ea' inclu!in* the mot a#tract an! illuorya ource from "hich they are !erive! an! of "hich they are the reflection% Concioune i never anythin* #ut a reflection of material e$itence% ;irt there i matter' o#/ective #ein*' an! then' econ!arily' there i concioune' the reflection of matter% The min! ha no inner ource of it o"n' from "hich i!ea can #e !erive!% very i!ea' every element of i!eolo*y' i !erive! K1 from an! reflect ome o#/ective reality' ome real apect of the material "orl!% The ource of the illuion in i!eolo*y i al"ay the real economic tructure of ociety% & men live' o !o they thin.% Correpon!in* to the relation they enter into in pro!ucin* the mean of life' they pro!uce ocial i!ea an! ocial theorie% Thu' for e$ample' it i the real relation of lan!o"ner an! erf eta#lihe! in the feu!al mo!el of pro!uction that are reflecte! in the feu!al i!ea of lan!o"nerhip' an! in feu!al i!eolo*y in *eneral% imilarly' it i the capitalit relationhip "hich are reflecte! in capitalit i!eolo*y% &n! it "a the far impler relationhip "ithin the tri#e' the oli!arity of the in!ivi!ual "ith the tri#e' "hich "ere reflecte! in the @primitive5 i!eolo*y of primitive communim% Thu a ociety !evelop' the i!ea "hich reflect the property relation of ociety #ecome ela#orate! in the form of ytem an! theorie concernin* politic' ocial ri*ht an! o#li*ation' la"' an! o on% &ll uch i!eolo*y ha it ource in the ocial relation of pro!uction' an! contitute' in the lat analyi' nothin* #ut an i!eolo*ical reflection of thoe relation% The ame i true of moral i!ea% f "e have i!ea of a#olute tan!ar! of *oo! an! #a!' ri*ht an! "ron*' virtue an! vice' thee i!ea are reflection not of any o#/ective property of peron or action #ut of the ocial relation into "hich people have entere! an! "ithin "hich their peronal activity ta.e place% o "on!er' therefore' that moral /u!*ement chan*e "ith fun!amental chan*e in ocial relationA an! that there i only one o#/ective tan!ar! for ayin* that one morality i hi*her than another' namely' that it reflect an! erve a hi*her ocial ytem% &n! the ame i true of the i!eolo*y of the upernatural' of reli*iou i!eolo*y% The upernatural "orl! "hich men con/ure up for themelve in their i!ea i never' in the lat analyi' anythin* other than a reflection of the real "orl! of ociety' of the ocial relation "ithin "hich men live their earthly live% The "orl! of the upernatural al"ay erve a the *uar!ian of the #aic fa#ric of ociety% The tri#al reli*ion tan! *uar! over the tri#e an! protect tri#al relation' /ut a the i!ea of Chritianity to!ay have #een o a!apte! that heaven eem to tan! *uar! over the #our*eoi or!er of ociety% The upernatural "orl! "hich *uar! an! /utifie the ocial or!er i create! in the ima*e of that ocial or!er% Thee are e$ample of the "ay in "hich variou form of i!eolo*ical illuion are !evelope! in term of a#tract i!ea "hoe ource lie in the !evelopment of ocial relation' more preciely' of the relation of pro!uction% The o#/ective reality "hich i reflecte! in uch i!ea i never anythin* ele than the e$itin* comple$ of ocial relation "hich prin* from the pro!uction of the material mean of life% The S"ontaneous #haracter o( Ideolo)ical Illusion (E) The econ! feature of i!eolo*ical illuion i that' althou*h their ource lie in the comple$ of real ocial relation' they are neither conciouly !erive! from that ource nor are they put for"ar! a an analyi of e$itin* ocial relation% The i!ea "hich people employ may reflect their ocial relation' #ut their i!eolo*ical illuion are not create! #y their conciouly reflectin* on their o"n ocial relation an! "or.in* out for themelve' in a cientific manner' an accurate an! ytematic account of the ocial tructure "hich they fin! in e$itence% The i!ea of political economy' for e$ample' a et forth in uch a #oo. a Mar$: Capital' are !erive! from a conciou' metho!ical inveti*ation of actually e$itin* relation of pro!uction% ;or that reaon they are not illuory #ut cientific in character% !eolo*ical illuion' on the other han!' arie a an unconciou' uninten!e! reflection of an e$itin* ocial tructure' e$pree! in *eneral i!ea a#out the "orl!% t ha an unconciou' pontaneou character% That i "hy' if "e "ant to !icover the mot eential feature of ome illuory i!eolo*y' "e hall not !icover them in the reaone! form in "hich men have preente! their i!ea' #ut rather in the unreaone! aumption' the preconception "hich they ta.e for *rante!' "hich un!erly their reaonin*% p ;or e$ample' in the i!eolo*y of the me!ieval Catholic Church' the "hole "orl!' heaven an! earth' "a re*ar!e! a K3 a hierarchy in "hich the lo"er mem#er "ere necearily u#or!inate to the hi*her% n the pro!uction of thi i!eolo*y there
"a no intention of *ivin* an account of the feu!al or!erA the conciou intention "a to *ive an account of the neceary or!er of the "hole "orl!' an! thi "a conciouly "or.e! out a a lo*ical ytem% But yet the i!eolo*y "a in fact a reflection of the e$itin* feu!al ocial relation' "hich "ere thu repro!uce! in men: i!ea #y a pontaneou' uninten!e!' unconciou proce% The *eneral i!ea employe! "ere a reflection of actual ocial relation' #ut they "ere not conciouly pro!uce! a uch a reflection' #ut aroe unconciouly an! pontaneouly in men: min!% Thee i!ea then #ecame fi$e! a preconception "hich "ere ue! for the purpoe of interpretin* an! "or.in* out the theory of everythin* "hich people "ere interete! in' "hether in nature or ociety or the ima*inary realm of heaven% The pontaneou' unconciou character of the i!eolo*ical reflection of relation of pro!uction i !ue to the pontaneou' unconciou character of thoe relation of pro!uction themelve% Men: relation of pro!uction' "rote Mar$' are in!ipena#le an! in!epen!ent of their "ill% Thi i the .ey to un!ertan!in* the nature of the illuory i!eolo*ical reflection of thoe relation in a#tract i!ea a#out the "orl! an! ociety% The *iven relation of pro!uction are not !eli#erately intitute!' #ut they are at the ame time' at the *iven ta*e of ocial !evelopment' in!ipena#le% &n! #ecaue people never !eci!e! to intitute them #ut at the ame time cannot *et on "ithout them' they are not conciou of them a tranitory ocial relation "hich have #een intitute! at a !efinite time' in !efinite circumtance' to an"er !efinite #ut only temporary hitorical nee! of ociety% ather !o they appear a part of the neceary or!er of thin*% The characteritic feature of men: ocial relation an! relationhip "ith nature' "hich are in fact the hitorically !etermine! reult of a !efinite mo!e of pro!uction' are reflecte! in a#tract i!ea in the form of preconception an! illuion a#out the nature of man an! ociety' a i!ea a#out Do! an! !ivine provi!ence' a#out ri*ht an! /utice' a#out the eternal an! neceary characteritic of all #ein*' the ultimate nature of reality' an! o on% The Illusion o( Pure Thou)ht (3) The thir! feature of i!eolo*ical illuion i that' /ut #ecaue their pontaneou character preclu!e people: #ein* a"are of their true ource' they eem to themelve to have pro!uce! them #y a free proce of thou*ht' #ut a pure an! unfettere! operation of the min!% @!eolo*y KH81 i a proce accomplihe! #y the o-calle! thin.er conciouly' in!ee!' #ut "ith a fale concioune' "rote n*el in a letter to Mehrin*' July 1H' 1K93% The real motive impellin* him remain un.no"n to him' other"ie it "oul! not #e an i!eolo*ical proce at all% =ence he ima*ine fale or apparent motive% Becaue it i a proce of thou*ht' he !erive #oth it form an! it content from pure thou*ht' either hi o"n or that of hi pre!eceor% =e "or. "ith mere thou*ht material "hich he accept "ithout e$amination a the pro!uct of thou*ht' an! he !oe not inveti*ate further for a more remote proce in!epen!ent of thou*ht%5 &n! a*ain' n*el "rote that i!eolo*ythe "or.in* out of i!eolo*ical illuioni occupation "ith thou*ht a "ith in!epen!ent entitie' !evelopin* in!epen!ently an! u#/ect only to their o"n la"% That the material life con!ition of the peron ini!e "hoe hea! thi thou*ht proce *oe on in the lat reort !etermine the coure of thi proce' remain of neceity un.no"n to thoe peron' for other"ie there "oul! #e an en! of all i!eolo*y% (,u!"i* ;euer#ach' chapter ote KH81\ Mar$ an! n*el often ue! the term @i!eolo*y5 to refer e$cluively to the proce of i!eolo*ical illuion' thu employin* it in a retricte! ene% >hen the term i ue! in thi retricte! ene' cientific mo!e of thou*ht are #y !efinition e$clu!e! from the i!eolo*ical proce% But the term @i!eolo*y5 i more often ue! in a "i!er ene' o that one may pea.' for e$ample' of cientific ocialit i!eolo*y' an! characterie Mar$im a uch an i!eolo*y% n thi #oo. have employe! the term throu*hout in the "i!er ene' o that the "or! @i!eolo*y5 i ue! to !enote the typical outloo. or theory of a perio! or of a cla' in "hich #oth illuory an! truthful or cientific element may enter' an! "hich' "ith the rie of the revolutionary "or.in* cla movement an! of ocialim' #ecome primarily cientific an! !ipene "ith the illuory mo!e of thou*ht of previou i!eolo*ie%
Ideolo)ical In$ersion (H) The fourth feature of i!eolo*ical illuion i that a proce of inverion ta.e place in them' #y "hich real ocial relation are repreente! a the realiation of a#tract i!ea% ! the proce of i!eolo*ical illuion' pro!uct of a#tract thou*ht are treate! a thou*h they "ere in!epen!ent of the material ocial relation "hich they in fact reflect% &n! o it follo" that reality i turne! upi!e !o"n in thi proce% The ource of a#tract i!ea i ta.en to #e the min!' rather than the material reality of ocial relation% &n! o the ultimate *roun! for the e$itence of thoe relation themelve i conceive! a #ein* the a#traction of the min!% &ccor!in* to thi inverte! "ay of loo.in* at thin*' men create their ocial relationhip in o#e!ience to their a#tract i!ea' an! not the other "ay roun!% Ta.e' for e$ample' a#tract conception of ri*ht an! /utice' "hich contitute an important part of all i!eolo*y% &#tract ri*ht an! /utice are repreente! a in!epen!ent of actual ocial relationhip' an! thoe relationhip are repreente! a reflectin* an! realiin*perhap imperfectlyan a#tract ri*ht an! /utice% &ccor!in* to thi topy-turvy "ay of loo.in* at thin*' the a#tract i!ea of ri*ht an! /utice eem to !etermine the real relationhip of men' "herea in fact it i the real
relationhip of men that !etermine their i!ea of ri*ht an! /utice% &n! imilarly' the ocial ytem eem to #e /utifie! #y ho" far it correpon! to a#tract i!ea of ri*ht an! /utice' "herea in fact i!ea of ri*ht an! /utice are /utifie! #y ho" far they erve the material pro*re of ociety% @conomic' political an! other reflection are /ut li.e thoe in the human eye' "rote n*el% They pa throu*h a con!enin* len an! therefore appear upi!e !o"n' tan!in* on their hea!% Only the nervou ytem "hich "oul! put them on their feet a*ain for repreentation i lac.in*% % % % Thi inverion %%% form "hat "e call i!eolo*ical conception% (,etter to C% chmi!t' Octo#er E' 1K90%) &n! Mar$ an! n*el further "rote2 @f in all i!eolo*y men an! their: circumtance appear upi!e !o"n a in a camera o#cura' thi phenomenon arie K6 /ut a much from their hitorical life proce a the inverion of o#/ect on the retina !oe from their phyical life proce% (The Derman !eolo*y' 4art ' chapter i%) & a reult of thi i!eolo*ical inverion' it follo" that in every epoch people have hare! the illuion that their intitution an! pu#lic activitie are the e$preion of their a#tract i!eaof their reli*ion' philoophy' political principle' an! o on% Thu the lave o"ner of ancient ome thou*ht of themelve a actuate! #y repu#lican principle' /ut a mo!ern capitalit thou*ht of themelve (an! till try to *et other to thin. of them) a actuate! #y !emocratic principle% The "ar of the Mi!!le &*e "ere fou*ht avo"e!lyX for reli*iou principle' /ut a the "ar of to!ay are fou*ht avo"e!ly for national or political principle% &ccor!in* to thi "ay of loo.in* at thin*' "rote Mar$' each principle ha ha! it o"n century in "hich to manifet itelf% The principle of authority' for e$ample' ha! the eleventh century' /ut a the principle of in!ivi!ualim ha! the ei*hteenth century %%% it "a the century that #elon*e! to the principle' an! not the principle to the century% n other "or!' it "a the principle that ma!e the hitory' an! not the hitory that ma!e the principle% (The 4overty of 4hiloophy' chapter:' ection i' 7th o#ervation%) very epoch' then' pro!uce it characteritic illuion' "hich are e$pree! in it !ominant i!eolo*yilluion a to the real *roun! an! motive force of it intitution an! activitie% @;or intance' "rote Mar$ an! n*el' % % % an epoch ima*ine itelf to #e actuate! #y purely political or reli*iou motive' althou*h reli*ion an! politic are only form of it true motive% % % % t i thi "hich contitute the illuion of that epoch% n thi illuion' the i!ea' the conception of thee con!itione! men a#out their real practice i tranforme! into the ole !eterminin* active force "hich control an! !etermine their practice% (The Derman !eolo*y' 4art ' chapter i%) n i!eolo*ical illuion' the pro!uct of the min! are repreente! a the !ominatin*' compellin* influence in human affair% &n! o it alo happen that thee pro!uct of the K min!' "hich are mere !itorte! fantam of real con!ition of e$itence' come to #e en!o"e! in men: ima*ination "ith a real e$itence of their o"n% n thi "ay are create! "hat Mar$ calle! the mit-envelope! re*ion of the reli*iou "orl!% n that "orl! the pro!uction of the human #rain appear a in!epen!ent #ein* en!o"e! "ith life' an! enterin* into relation #oth "ith one another an! the human race% (Capital' Volume ' chapter i' ection H%) &n! o' "hile men ima*ine their "hole ocial life an! intitution to #e #ae! on an! motivate! #y their i!eolo*y' at the ame time thi i!eolo*y con/ure up a fantatic "orl! of po"er an! force uperior to an! in!epen!ent of #oth man an! nature' to "hich men feel themelve u#/ect' on "hich their !etinie eem to !epen! an! "hoe ai! they ee. to enlit for their enterprie% The reli*iou "orl!' a Mar$ ai! in Capital (Volume ' chapter i' ection H)' i never anythin* #ut the reflection of the real "orl!5% n the mot primitive ocial or*aniation men are relatively helple in the face of natural forceA they are #an!e! to*ether to *et a livin*' an! "oul! #e !oome! to !etruction "ithout thi elementary ocial coheion an! co-operation% Thi fact i reflecte! in their min! in the illuion of ma*ic% Men eem to poe a pecial po"er an! virtue a mem#er of their tri#e or clan' an! thi virtue ta.e the form' in their ima*ination' of a pecial ma'W'ical force% &ll ort of proce!ure are invente! for e$ertin* itan! later' "ith !iviion of la#our' it come to #e re*ar!e! a the poeion an! concern of certain in!ivi!ual only' an! not of the "hole people% &t the ame time' natural o#/ect an! natural force are aume! to #e animate!' an! are later peronifie!A o that the "hole intercoure of man "ith man' an! of man "ith nature' i repreente! a !epen!in* on the activity of uneen' myteriou po"er% The !evelopment an! ramification of reli*iou i!ea ha .ept pace "ith an! reflecte! the !evelopment of men: ocial life%
@The primitive reli*iou notion' "hich in the main are common to each *roup of .in!re! people' "rote n*el' KK @!evelop' after the eparation of the *roup' in a manner peculiar to each people' accor!in* to the livin* con!ition fallin* to their lot% (,u!"i* ;euer#ach' chapter H%) & "ith all i!eolo*y' reli*ion i not create! ane" in each ne" phae of ocial !evelopment% On the contrary' every i!eolo*y in it !evelopment ma.e ue of tra!itional materia: "hich are ta.en over from previou i!eolo*y' an! incorporate in itelf material #orro"e! from other i!eolo*ie% t i the ame in reli*ionA an! o' for e$ample' "e can till reco*nie even in the reli*iou !octrine an! practice of 4rotetant Chritianity to!ay element "hich have #een carrie! over from primitive tri#al ma*ic' overlai! an! tranforme! a they may #e "ith ne" meanin*% @eli*ion' once forme!' n*el continue!' al"ay contain tra!itional material' /ut a in all i!eolo*ical !omain tra!ition i a *reat conervative force% But the tranformation "hich thi material un!er*oe prin* from cla relation that i to ay' out of the economic relation of the peron "ho e$ecute thee tranformation%5 Thi characteritic of all i!eolo*ical illuionthat' #ecaue it i occupation "ith thou*ht a "ith in!epen!ent entitie' it continually !evelop i!ea out of the material of other i!ea effectively !i*uie the fact that every i!eolo*y' an! every element of i!eolo*y' i #ut a reflection of material ocial e$itence' an! ma.e it appear a thou*h it "ere really "hat it purport to #e' an in!epen!ent march of i!ea% The nature of i!eolo*y i never o#viou on the urface' #ut come to li*ht only a a reult of Mar$: profoun! cientific !icovery' that the mo!e of pro!uction of material life con!ition the ocial' political an! intellectual life proce in *eneral% (Criti+ue of 4olitical conomy' 4reface%) o lon* a men are not the mater of their o"n ocial or*aniation' o lon* are their real ocial relation reflecte! in i!eolo*ical inverion "hich' far from ren!erin* their real ocial relation intelli*i#le' mytify them an! conceal their real character' to*ether "ith the real prin* an! la" of human ocial action' #ehin! a veil of reli*iou' political' le*al' artitic an! philoophical illuion% Ideolo)! and #lass Interest (7) The fifth feature of i!eolo*ical illuion i that' in ociety !ivi!e! into clae' they contitute a cla-motivate! ytem of !eception' a mo!e of !i*uiin* the real ocial relation in the interet of a !efinite cla% lluion al"ay reflect the real ocial relation in uch a "ay a to !i*uie them% ;or e$ample' the reli*iou i!eolo*y of the Mi!!le &*e' "ith it conception of a heavenly hierarchy "hich reflecte! the feu!al or!er' meant that the e$ploitation of the erf #y the lor! "a !i*uie! a a u#or!ination of the erf to hi natural uperior un!er the rule of Do!% &n! imilarly' the na.e! fact that the feu!al lor! appropriate! the pro!uce of the erf: la#our "a !i*uie! #y the a#tract feu!al i!ea of o"nerhip' !ue' ri*ht an! o#li*ation% Once a*ain' the na.e! fact that the capitalit appropriate the value pro!uce! #y the "or.er: unpai! la#our i !i*uie! #y the a#tract capitalit i!ea of o"nerhip' contract an! e+uality of ri*ht% Thi !i*uie i complete! #y capitalit form of reli*ion% That i "hy' thou*h #our*eoi i!eolo*y ha often ta.en non-reli*iou or anti-reli*iou form' it al"ay leave a loophole for reli*ion an! continually come #ac. to it' "hile in perio! of crii' "hen the ytem i eriouly en!an*ere!' reli*iou i!eolo*y i al"ay #rou*ht to the fore an! ta.e the offenive% @;or a ociety #ae! upon the pro!uction of commo!itie' "rote Mar$' in "hich the pro!ucer in *eneral enter into ocial relation "ith one another #y treatin* their pro!uct a commo!itie an! value' "here#y they re!uce their in!ivi!ual private la#our to the tan!ar! of homo*eneou human la#our for uch a ociety' Chritianity' "ith it cultu of a#tract man' more epecially in it #our*eoi !evelopment' 4rotetantim' eim' etc%' i the mot fittin* form of reli*ion% (Capital' Volume ' chapter i' ection H%) The "hole of #our*eoi i!eolo*y' from it reli*ion to it political economy' !i*uie the fact of capitalit e$ploitation% The !i*uie an! !eception inherent in all i!eolo*ical 90 illuion i al"ay ocially motivate!% n other "or!' it erve !efinite ocial en!' !efinite ocial interet% n primitive ocietie' #efore the #irth of clae' it erve to tren*then an! conoli!ate the #on! of oli!arity #et"een mem#er of the tri#e' on "hich their urvival !epen!% &n! in con!ition "hen people are almot totally i*norant of the natural force "hich environ them' ma*ical i!ea ma.e them feel that neverthele they can control thee force% 4rimitive i!eolo*y i thu motivate! #y the elf-preervation of the "hole tri#e' #y the interet of the "hole people to preerve their ocial or*aniation an! to feel tron* an! ecure in it%
>hen ociety plit into anta*onitic clae' an! "hen' cone+uently' hitory #ecome the hitory of cla tru**le' then cla interet #ecome the main motivation of i!eolo*y% very i!eolo*y #ecome the i!eolo*y of a cla' e$prein*' in ho"ever roun!a#out a "ay' the con!ition of e$itence of a !efinite cla an! ervin* that cla in it tru**le a*aint other clae% The !ominant i!eolo*y in any perio! i that of the rulin* cla% &n! "hen thi i!eolo*y i challen*e!' that i #ut the e$preion of the fact that the e$itin* tate of cla relation i #ein* challen*e! #y another cla% The !i*uie an! !eception of cla i!eolo*y' motivate! a it i #y cla interet' i not to #e interprete!' ho"ever' a primarily a !eli#erate' conciou !eception% To uppoe that the thin.in* repreentative of a cla !eli#erately invent milea!in* i!ea "ith the conciou purpoe of !i*uiin* from the people "hat they .no" to #e the real character of the ocial relation i to uppoe that thee thin.er !o in fact .no" "hat i the real character of the ocial relation% But the very eence of i!eolo*ical illuion i that it i a fale concioune of ocial relation% The mytifyin* i!eolo*ical conception of thee relation ta.e the place of a correct' cientific conception% Thi fale concioune arie' a "e have een' not #y a !eli#erate proce #ut rather #y a pontaneou' unconciou proce% t i not !eli#erate falehoo! #utilluion% f thi i !eception' it i alo elf-!eception% Thoe "ho "oul! interpret i!eolo*ical illuion a mere !eli#erate !eception' therefore' mita.e the very nature of 91 "hat Mar$ an! n*el calle! fale concioune% ;or they uppoe that the cla "hoe interet are erve! #y the i!eolo*y poee in fact a true concioune of the #ai of it e$itence"hich i /ut "hat no e$ploitin* cla poee or ever can poe% The e$planation of i!eolo*ie a pro!uct of "elllai! plan to !eceive the people in the interet of a cla li un a#ur! vul*ariation of Mar$im% That i not ho" i!eolo*ie arie% Of coure' po.emen an! i!eolo*it of rulin* clae !o contantly en*a*e in conciou' !eli#erate !eception of the people% But #ehin! the ytem of !eli#erate !eception lie al"ay a ytem of elf-!eception% & a cae in point "e may ta.e the e$ample of 4lato' "ho "a a repreentative of e$treme i!eolo*ical reaction in ancient Dreece% n hi epu#lic he a!vocate! that' to .eep the people !o"n' the ruler houl! propa*ate "hat he calle! a no#le lie2 althou*h they .ne" very "ell it "a not true' they houl! proclaim that ruler an! rule! "ere men of t"o !ifferent .in!' the ruler #ein* @*ol!en5 men an! the ret #ein* men of mere #ra an! iron% &t the ame time' 4lato maintaine! that aritocracy "a the #et ytem of ociety an! that any !eparture from it meant anarchy an! !e*eneration% Thi' ho"ever' he un!ou#te!ly #elieve!% t "a one of the illuion of hi cla' an! contitute! the very #ai of hi outloo.% ;rom the point of vie" of the aritocratic lave-o"ner: i!eolo*y' "hich 4lato e$poun!e! an! "hich he !i! much to hape' it "a +uite in or!er to tell the people lie' an! uch lie "ere @no#le5% uch ha #een the ituation "ith all rulin* cla i!eolo*ie% Denuine fale concioune #ecome involve! in !eli#erate !eception' o that the t"o #ecome cloely intert"ine! an! even' at time' in!itin*uiha#le% Thi i epecially the cae in capitalit ociety' in "hich all thin*' inclu!in* i!ea' are #ou*ht an! ol!% Thoe "ho have i!ea to ell come to re*ar! them a commo!itie to #e e$chan*e! for cah' not a truth to #e #elieve!% The cla-motivate! character of particular i!eolo*ie ha lon* #een reco*nie!% >hen a ne" cla i riin* to po"er' an! cone+uently poin* a ne" i!eolo*y a*aint that of the ol! rulin* cla' it *enerally reco*nie that the ol! i!eolo*y e$pree the interet of it political opponent% t attac. thi i!eolo*y' therefore' a a ytem of falehoo! motivate! #y cla interet% t a!vance it o"n i!eolo*y' on the other han!' a a ytem of truth' correpon!in* to the profoun!er nee! of the "hole of ociety% @ach ne" cla "hich put itelf in the place of the one rulin* #efore it' "rote Mar$ an! n*el' i compelle!' merely in or!er to carry throu*h it aim' to repreent it interet a the common interet of all the mem#er of ociety' put in an i!eal formA it "ill *ive it i!ea the form of univerality' an! repreent them a the only rational' univerally vali! one% The cla ma.in* a revolution appear from the very tart' merely #ecaue it i oppoe! to a cla' not a a cla' #ut a the repreentative of the "hole of ociety% (The Derman !eolo*y' 4art ' chapter i%) & ne"ly forme! i!eolo*y' therefore' *enerally tart "ith a profoun! impule to !evelopment' a a univeral ytem of i!ea openin* up ne" hori
The Ideas o( the Production Process &,OD "ith the !evelopment of the illuory' inverte! reflection in concioune of the relation of pro!uction *oe the !evelopment of men: true i!ea of the material o#/ect "hich environ them an! "ith "hich they are concerne! in the proce of pro!uction' of the pro!uction proce itelf an! of their o"n activitie an! ocial relation% ;or the !evelopment of pro!uction' an! of the ocial intercoure "hich arie from pro!uction' !eman! an! *ive rie to the "or.in* out of true i!ea a#out thin* an! their interconnection an! motion' an! a#out variou human activitie an! relation% Lnle people !o evolve uch true i!ea' they cannot uccefully carry on pro!uction or mana*e their ocial affair% &n! the more variou an! po"erful their force of pro!uction' an! the more variou an! comple$ their ocial activitie' the more !o they nee! to fin! out a#out nature an! a#out themelve in or!er to #rin* their variou pro/ect to a ucceful concluion% n the !evelopment of i!eolo*y' a Mar$ an! n*el pointe! out' concioune can really flatter itelf that it i omethin* othei than concioune of e$itin* practice% But at the ame time a concioune thu a#tract itelf from e$itin* practice' the concioune of e$itin* practice alo !evelop a practice !evelop% That very !evelopment of pro!uction' of !iviion of la#our' an! of relation of pro!uction' "hich lea! to illuory fli*ht of inverte! i!eolo*y' alo lea! to a *ro"th of men: true i!ea a#out their real con!ition of life% uch true i!ea !o not arie of themelve% They have to #e la#oriouly forme!' "or.e! out an! tete! in practice% They repreent o many !icoverie ma!e #y people in the coure of their ocial practice% The firt ource of people: !icoverie i the practice of ocial pro!uction% >e have alrea!y een that it i a characteritic of the ocial proce of pro!uction that in it men have an i!ea of "hat they aim to pro!uce% There i an! can #e no pro!uction' in the human ene' not even the mot primitive .in! of foo!*atherin* an! huntin*' "ithout thi concioune% &n! o in pro!ucin*' men are alo necearily formin* their i!ea of the o#/ect "ith "hich they come into relation' of the material they ue an! the techni+ue "hich they employ' an! ma.in* !icoverie a#out the propertie of thoe o#/ect an! material an! a#out "hat can #e !one "ith them% @The elementary factor of the la#our proce' "rote Mar$ (Capital' Volume ' chapter ' ection i)' are (i) the peronal activity of man' i%e%' "or. itelfA (E) the u#/ect of "or.A an! (3) it intrument% &n! none of thee factor can #e et in motion "ithout correpon!in* i!ea an! !icoverie% >ith !evelopment of pro!uction an! !iviion of la#our' the form of "or. #ecome more varie!' it u#/ect e$ten! an! it intrument are improve!% &n! thi mean that men: i!ea are correpon!in*ly enlar*e! an! that they ma.e ne" !icoverie% 4rimitive man' for e$ample' "ho e$pree! hi ocial relation an! relationhip "ith nature in a ma*ical i!eolo*y' ha! alrea!y very precie an! accurate i!ea of the !ifferent pecie of animal "hich he hunte!' an! of their variou ha#it an! propertiea i ho"n' amon* other thin*' #y the recor! he ma!e of hi .no"le!*e in cave paintin*% >ith the !evelopment of a*riculture an! han!icraft ne" !icoverie "ere ma!e an! men: i!ea of natural o#/ect an! their propertie' an! of the principle involve! in the variou pro!uction procee' "ere *reatly enlar*e!% &n! no"' in mo!ern capitalit ociety' the very ame intitute an! univeritie "hich churn out all manner of #our*eoi reli*iou' political an! philoophical illuion' are the repoitorie of a vat an! *ro"in* tore of accurate an! ytematic .no"le!*e of nature an! of the principle #y the application of "hich man a!vance hi matery of nature% 97 &ll thi i the fruit of thouan! of year of human en!eavour an!' in particular' of the mi*hty a!vance in pro!uction achieve! in the capitalit era% Thu if men: illuion have their ultimate ource in the relation of pro!uction' men alo continually ma.e !icoverie "hich arie in the lat analyi from the pro!uction proce itelf% n thee !icoverie there i a !evelopment of a#tract i!ea "hich reflect variou feature an! propertie of thin* an! of the pro!uction proce "ithout i!eolo*ical preconception' inverion or !i*uie% uch i!ea of nature an! of technolo*ical procee contitute' in fact' an important apect of the pro!uctive force themelve% The force of pro!uction inclu!e people' "ith their pro!uction e$perience an! .ill% 4eople: pro!uction e$perience an! .ill i recor!e!' *eneralie! an! ytematie! in their i!eaA an!' e+uippe! "ith thee i!ea' they utilie the intrument of pro!uction an! alo improve them% ;urther' the *ro"th of .no"le!*e of the pro!uction proce' of it u#/ect an! intrument' of the principle of technolo*y an! of nature *enerally' i not only an eential con!ition for the continuance of pro!uction at a *iven levelA un!er uita#le con!ition it contri#ute to ne" a!vance of pro!uction' an! o may #ecome one of the factor ma.in* eventually neceary revolutionary chan*e in the relation of pro!uction to #rin* them into correpon!ence "ith ne" force of pro!uction% The Rise o( Natural Sciences
The natural cience prin* from the i!ea' or the .no"le!*e' accumulate! in the pro!uction proce% @;rom the very #e*innin*' n*el "rote in ialectic of ature' the ori*in an! !evelopment of the cience ha #een !etermine! #y pro!uction%5 Throu*hout anti+uity' he o#erve!' cientific inveti*ation proper remaine! retricte! to atronomy' mathematic an! mechanic% ;or atronomy %%% if only on account of the eaon' "a a#olutely in!ipena#le for patoral an! a*ricultural people% &tronomy can only !evelop "ith the ai! of mathematic% =ence thi alo ha! to #e tac.le!% ;urther' at a 96 certain ta*e of a*riculture an! in certain re*ion (raiin* of "ater for irri*ation in *ypt)' an! epecially "ith the ori*in of to"n' #i* #uil!in* operation an! the !evelopment of han!icraftmechanic% Thi "a oon nee!e! alo for navi*ation an! "ar% Moreover' it re+uire the ai! of mathematic an! o promote the latter: !evelopment% ,ater' "ith the *reat ne" !evelopment of the force of pro!uction "hich le! to an! then too. place "ithin the capitalit ytem' ne" cience aroe one after the otherphyic' chemitry' the #iolo*ical cience' *eolo*y% f%%% the cience u!!enly aroe ane" "ith un!reame!-of force' !evelopin* at a miraculou rate' once a*ain "e o"e thi miracle topro!uction%5 f the !evelopment of the cience i !etermine! #y pro!uction' thi alo account for the uneven rate in hitory of the !evelopment of the cience an! for the often one-i!e! character of that !evelopment% The varyin* character of pro!uction an! of the emphai place! on !ifferent pro!uction procee account for it% Thu chemitry' for e$ample' "a never far !evelope! until mo!ern time' thou*h mechanic an! certain part of the #iolo*ical cience ha! a coni!era#le !evelopment% &*ain' the a*ricultural cience are relatively ne*lecte! un!er mo!ern monopoly capitalim' "hile all the cience connecte! "ith "ar pro!uction are ener*etically fotere!% Sciences as S"ecialised /nderta0in)s Distinct (rom Production cience are eentially pecialie! un!erta.in*' "ith their o"n pecialit techni+ue an! theorie% The rie of cience occur "hen' a a pro!uct of !iviion of la#our' there #e*in a pecial inveti*ation of the propertie of variou natural o#/ect an! natural procee' !itinct from pro!uction itelfA an! "hen' cone+uently' there alo occur a pecial ela#oration' a *eneraliation an! ytematiation' of i!ea in connection "ith uch inveti*ation% Only un!er uch con!ition may "e pea. of cience% Thu "e "oul! har!ly allo" the title of @cience5 to the .no"le!*e poee! #y primitive tri#e' e$tenive an! accurate a it i' of the variou .in! of animal an! plant' or of the propertie 9 of variou material' or of the ucceion of the eaon% uch .no"le!*e i raie! to the level of cience only "hen thee thin* are ma!e the u#/ect of pecial inveti*ation !itinct from actual pro!uctionin the firt place from huntin*' ma.in* tool' *ar!enin* an! the li.eA an! "hen' cone+uently' "hat i !icovere! a#out them i *eneralie! an! ytematie! a a pecial #o!y of .no"le!*e% >e may !itin*uih three outtan!in* characteritic of cience' "hich pro*reively !itin*uih cientific theory from the .no"le!*e of natural o#/ect an! procee inherent in the pro!uction proce itelf an! contitutin* the pro!ucer: o"n concioune of their "or.' it u#/ect an! intrument% (i) cience en*a*e in ytematic !ecription an! claification of natural o#/ect an! procee% uch' for e$ample' i the chartin* of the heavenly #o!ie an! their apparent movement un!erta.en #y the pioneer of atronomical cience' li.e the ancient *yptianA or the natural hitorie compile! #y early tu!ent of livin* nature' li.e &ritotle' "hoe
pai! to !o it' #ecaue they "ih to #ecome famou' or #ecaue they "ih to !o opponent a #a! turn #y provin* them "ron*% Many !ifferent u#/ective motive may an! !o operate in cientific "or.' an!' of coure' thee motive may an! !o influence the character an! outcome of the "or.% ;urther' once cience i put on the trac. of certain !icoverie' thee often lea! of themelve to other' an! the proce of follo"in* up concluion an! *eneraliin* an! ytematiin* the reultin* i!ea procee! "ith a lo*ic of it o"n' in!epen!ent of particular practical pro#lem connecte! "ith pro!uction% ;or thi reaon important cientific pro#lem are often eluci!ate! in a!vance of practical nee! an! even lon* #efore any practical application i poi#le% ;or e$ample' cientific concluion a#out the e$itence of electroma*netic "ave "ere reache! "ell in a!vance of any practical application in ra!io techni+ue% &tomic fiion "a !icovere! many year #efore any practical application of the releae of atomic ener*y "a attempte!% Thu cientific a!vance ten! to ac+uire a momentum of it o"n in!epen!ent of practical application% >hat i more' even "hen that application #ecome technically poi#le' it i often !elaye! on account of political an! economic circumtance% cience' a the theory of pro!uction' are thu from the outet !itinct from the practice of pro!uction' #oth in their or*aniation an! in the peronal activity an! concioune of their practitioner% &t the ame time' the character of the cience an! their level !o al"ay !epen! on thoe of pro!uction' their pro#lem arie in the lat analyi from pro!uction' an! their reult are fe! #ac. into pro!uction% The !evelopment of cience i al"ay !epen!ent on the !evelopment of pro!uction' an! in turn utain an! puhe for"ar! 99 pro!uction% The !itinction of cience from pro!uction i not a !iconnection' #ut a very cloe connection% &n! in the event that thi un!erlyin* connection ever #ecome evere!' the cience themelve al"ay #e*in to ta*nate an! then to !ecay% n *eneral' the time "hen a ne" impetu i *iven to cience are time "hen ne" techni+ue of pro!uction are #ein* !evelope!% Thoe "ho then pioneer the ne" path in cience are uually cloely aociate! in their practical interet "ith the ne" pro!uctive procee% Then follo" a proce of the cientific ela#oration an! !evelopment of the ne" i!ea an! !icoverie% But thi proce cannot #e lon* utaine! if it fail to achieve technical application an! lac. the timulu of pro#lem ariin* from that application% Science and #lasses >hat ha #een ai! ho" that the rie of cience i a pro!uct of !iviion of la#our% cience are !evelope! a a pro!uct of mental a !itinct from phyical la#oura a pecial fiel! of theoretical activity eparate! from the la#our of pro!uction% t follo" from thi that the !evelopment of the cience i cloely #oun! up "ith that of clae% &t !ifferent time' !ifferent clae have ta.en a han! in the !evelopment of the cience an! have' in cone+uence' influence! that !evelopment to uit their cla re+uirement' an! impoe! on the cience certain feature of their cla i!eolo*y% ;rom the !iviion of la#our aroe private property an! e$ploitin* clae' an! o the !iviion #et"een the ma of pro!ucer' "holly en*a*e! in pro!uctive toil' an! the privile*e! an! leiure! minority "ho too. over the *eneral mana*ement an! !irection of ociety% The !evelopment of cience' a a #ranch of mental la#our' "a !epen!ent upon the e$itence of uch a minority' free! from the phyical la#our of pro!uction an! a#le to un!erta.e uch mental la#our% Thu the cla "hich' in any particular perio!' ha ta.en over the *eneral mana*ement an! !irection of ociety' an! therefore of the tate' reli*ion an! o on' alo ta.e char*e of the cience an! e$ercie a controllin* influence over their !evelopment% cience !evelop eentially a part of the mean "hich are re+uire! for the *eneral !irection an! mana*ement of ocial affair' a "ell a of particular un!erta.in*% =ence the cience !evelop a mean or intrument in the han! of variou clae' ervin* their re+uirement in the "ay of (Z<) carryin* on an! e$pan!in* pro!uction' an! (#) mana*in* %an! controllin* ocial affair *enerally% Thee clae promote an! foter the !evelopment of cience in o far a their interet re+uire that they fin! thin* out' a !itinct from merely remainin* in i*norance or inventin* fale theorie% Thu the e$panion of cience' an! alo the limit to that e$panion' are *overne! #y the interet ariin* from the con!ition of e$itence of particular clae from time to time% n lave ociety an! in feu!al ociety' for e$ample' the con!ition of e$itence of the rulin* clae' "hich "ere #oun! up "ith the e$itence of a comparatively lo" level of !evelopment of #oth a*riculture an! in!utry' !ictate! only a mot limite! interet in the !evelopment of cience% But once the #our*eoiie aroe' it interet !eman!e! an enormou e$tenion of cientific "or.' connecte! primarily "ith the !evelopment of manufacture an! in!utrie' #ut alo' in the con!ition of it revolutionary tru**le' "ith man an! hi ocial relation% Mo!ern cience i the creation of the #our*eoiie' one of the mot typical pro!uct of #our*eoi ociety' the mean for un!ertan!in* an! controllin* the procee of nature an! ociety create! un!er the con!ition of the !evelopment of capitalim% #lass Ideolo)! in Science
The fact that a particular cla ta.e the lea!in* part in the *eneral !evelopment of cience alo place !efinite con!ition an! limit upon the !evelopment of the i!ea of cience% On the #ai of the material con!ition of e$itence of a cla' preconception are forme! "hich !etermine the character of the cla i!eolo*y% Thee preconception are ue! an! applie!' in one "ay or another' #y the intellectual repreentative of the cla in% every phere of their i!eolo*ical activity% &n! o they are ue! an! applie! in cientific "or.' penetrate 101 into an! impoe themelve upon the theory of the cience' an! in that "ay influence an! colour the entire !evelopment of the cience in each particular perio!% n lave ociety' for e$ample' the i!ea "a !evelope!' an! it "a more fully "or.e! out in feu!al ociety' that everythin* "hich e$ite! contitute! a hierarchy' tretchin* !o"n from Do!' throu*h the *ra!e of inferior piritual #ein*' to the *ra!e of men' animal' plant an! mineral% verythin* e$ite! for a purpoe' correpon!in* to it place in the ytem' an! thi "a "hat !etermine! it eential propertie a "ell a it movement an! chan*e% Thi type of conception !ominate! the cience% very theory concernin* man or nature ha! to #e formulate! in term of it an! ma!e to fit in "ith it% ;or e$ample' it "a coni!ere! that the heaven #eyon! the circle of the moon "ere of a uperior nature' #elon*e! to a uperior *ra!e of #ein*' to the earth #eneath% =ence the heavenly movement ("hich "ere uppoe! to #e necearily circular' #ecaue uch movement "ere uppoe! to #e the mot perfect) "ere coni!ere! to #e movement o#eyin* !ifferent la" from earthly one% arthly #o!ie naturally ten!e! to fall to"ar! the centre' "hich accounte! for *ravitation a o#erve! on the earthA #ut thi !i! not apply in the heaven% uch i!ea "ere e$pree! in the 4tolemaic conception of the #ae earth at the centre of the univere' "ith the un an! tar circlin* #eyon! it% Copernicu' puttin* the un at the centre an! ma.in* the earth one of the planet' effecte! a !eciive #rea. "ith thi type of conception' an! pave! the "ay for the e"tonian conception of univeral *ravitation an! the la" of motion' "hich u#ume! the movement of all the #o!ie in the univere un!er one univeral cheme of mechanical cauality% Bour*eoi i!eolo*y in *eneral an! #our*eoi cience in particular attac.e! an! in the en! lar*ely *ot ri! of the ol!' tra!itional conception% Thi attac. aroe from an! !evelope! on the #ai of the *ro"th of the #our*eoi ocial relation% >hat too. the place of the ol! conception "ere ne" an! typically #our*eoi conceptionconception of the #aic +ualitative i!entity of all material #ein*' an! of mechanical 10E cauality% &t the ame time' apart from it mot ra!ical repreentative' the #our*eoiie #y no mean thre" over the conception of Do! an! of pirit% But in place of the in*le *ra!e! hierarchy of #ein*' from the #aet ort of material #ein* at the #ottom to the hi*het ort of piritual #ein* (or Do!) at the top' there "a intro!uce! the !iviion of the univere into t"o totally !ifferent pherematerial #ein* u#/ect to fi$e!' !eterminitic la" on the one han!' an! Do! an! the piritual "orl! on the other han!% n one "ay or another uch #our*eoi conception have entere! into the "hole theoretical fa#ric of mo!ern cience' a lave an! feu!al conception !i! into that of ancient an! me!ieval cience% But there i thi !ifferencethat "herea the ol! conception "ere hotile to the e$ploration of nature #y e$perimental metho!' the ne" conception "ere favoura#le to it an! !eman!e! it% Disco$er! and Preconce"tion Becaue of thi cla i!eolo*ical influence in cientific theory' a !itinction i al"ay ariin* in the !evelopment of the cience #et"een the !icoverie "hich cience ma.e an! the preconception "hich cience ta.e over an! ue% & !icovery i ma!e "hen' a a reult of inveti*ation' omethin* #ecome .no"n a#out the .in! of thin* "hich e$it' their propertie' interconnection an! la"% But !icoverie mut al"ay #e e$pree! in propoition formulate! "ith the ai! of !efinite concept' an! uch propoition are al"ay ma!e to form part of a *eneral theory% Coni!erin*' therefore' the um total of the i!ea an! theorie of the cience at any time' "e fin! that' in one apect' they conit of the formulation of actual !icoverie' an! in another apect' they conit of the *eneral preconception in term of "hich the !icoverie are formulate! an! .nitte! to*ether into a *eneral theory% Thi !itinction #et"een !icovery an! preconception' "hich i al"ay preent in cience' often *ive rie to a contra!iction #et"een !icovery an! preconception% &n! thi contra!iction i continually at "or. in the !evelopment of 103 the cience% Thi contra!iction i in eence a contra!iction #et"een content an! form in ciencea contra!iction #et"een the actual content of the !icoverie of cience an! the theoretical form in "hich they are e$pree! an! *eneralie!% t can "or. out in either of t"o "ay' a poitive "ay or a ne*ative "ay% 4oitively' ne" !icoverie help to hatter ol! preconception an! to lea! to ne" "ay of un!ertan!in* thin*% e*atively' the retention of ol! preconception hin!er the a!vance to ne" !icoverie% ;or e$ample' at the !a"n of mo!ern natural cience the ol! preconception "ere hin!erin* the a!vance to ne" !icoverie
a "hen the notion that heavenly motion "ere completely !ifferent from earthly one hin!ere! the a!vance of atronomy an! mechanic% &n! then the ne" !icoverie in atronomy an! mechanic helpe! to hatter the ol! conception an! to lea! the "ay to a ne" outloo.% &*ain' in mo!ern #our*eoi natural cience a contra!iction ha arien #et"een the !icoverie of cience an! the tra!itional' #our*eoi mechanitic-metaphyical metho! of interpretin* them% p Thu n*el pointe! out that the cumulative effect of the !icoverie of mo!ern natural cience i to ho" that in the lat reort nature "or. !ialectically an! not metaphyically% %%% But the naturalit "ho have learne! to thin. !ialectically are fe" an! far #et"een' an! thi conflict of the reult of !icovery "ith preconceive! mo!e of thin.in* e$plain the en!le confuion no" rei*nin* in theoretical natural cience% (ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific' chapter 3%) On the one han!' thi contra!iction lea! to en!le confuion in cience' "hich hol! up the a!vance of cience% n #iolo*y' for e$ample' e$tremely ri*i! mechanitic i!ea a#out livin* procee "ere impoe! an!' "hen thee create! !ifficultie' recoure "a ha! to mytical i!ea a#out life force' reultin* in a terile controvery #et"een @mechanim5 an! @vitalim5% &*ain' "hen mo!ern !icoverie in phyic upet the tra!itional cheme of mechanitic cauality' it "a claime! that the "hole i!ea of cauality ha! #ro.en !o"n 10H an! that no picture coul! #e *iven of fun!amental phyical procee% On the other han!' the accumulation of !icoverie ha le! to ne" "ay of thin.in*' to the upplantin* of #our*eoi i!eolo*y #y !ialectical materialim% Thu ,enin conclu!e! from hi e$amination of ne" !evelopment in phyic2 Mo!ern phyic in in travail' it i *ivin* #irth to !ialectical materialim% (Materialim an! mpiric-Criticim' chapter 7' ection K%) o far "e have !icue! only the natural cience% But there i alo ocial cience% The !evelopment of natural cience' "hich carry out inveti*ation into the propertie an! la" of natural phenomena' ha ultimately #een !etermine! #y pro!uction% That of ocial cience' on the other han!' "hich carrie out inveti*ation into the propertie an! la" of ocial phenomena' ha #een !etermine! #y the cla tru**le% ocial cience ha it root in the e$perience of variou clae *aine! in the coure of their cla tru**le% cience al"ay arie from ome nee!% t i' in the lat analyi' the nee! of pro!uction "hich call forth natural cience' an! their inveti*ation are carrie! out on #ehalf of "hatever cla i !irectin* pro!uction% n turn' the nee! of the *eneral mana*ement an! control of ocial affair call forth ocial cience% &n! it inveti*ation are carrie! out on #ehalf of "hatever cla i either actually mana*in* an! controllin* ocial affair or i tru**lin* to ecure uch mana*ement an! control% The inveti*ation of ocial phenomena ha ha! coni!era#le !evelopment !urin* lave' feu!al an! capitalit ociety% The mot painta.in* inveti*ation have #een ma!e into the variou !ifferent form of ociety an! of *overnment' an! into the ocial la" "hich any *overnment mut ta.e co*niance of' a "ell a the inveti*ation of hitorian' "hich have eta#lihe! the e+uence of pu#lic event in the hitory of variou communitie% But up to the emer*ence of the mo!ern "or.in* cla' thee 107 inveti*ation have #een carrie! out #y repreentative of e$ploitin* clae% &n! o it ha #een primarily the leon an! concluion a#out man an! ociety !ra"n #y the e$ploitin* clae "hich have #een incorporate! into ocial cience% Thi ha *iven ocial cience a character profoun!ly !ifferent from natural cience% & !evelope! #y repreentative of e$ploitin* clae' ocial cience"hich !eal "ith men: relation an! interaction "ith one anotherha #een completely eparate! from natural cience"hich !eal "ith e$ternal nature an! man: action on nature% &n! it ha prove! impoi#le to eta#lih the #ai of a trut"orthy cience of ociety in the "ay that the ame clae have #een a#le to !o in the cae of e$ternal nature% There are four principal feature of ocial cience "hich have fun!amentally !itin*uihe! it from natural cience% (1) Cla interet inhi#it certain inveti*ation an! !icoverie in ocial cience' in a "ay they !o not in natural cience% The fact that ocial cience ha #een !evelope! #y e$ploitin* clae a an ai! to their cla tru**le et impaa#le limit on the poi#ilitie of !icovery #y ocial cience o lon* a it remain in the han! of thoe clae% t i true' of coure' that variou !icoverie a#out nature have #een reite! for a time #y repreentative of the rulin* clae' for their o"n i!eolo*ical reaon% &n! in thi repect the path of the natural cience ha ometime #een anythin* #ut mooth% uch "a the cae' for e$ample' "ith Dalileo' or more recently ar"in' or more recently till Michurin% But invaria#ly' in the en!' the fact themelve compel reco*nition' the !icoverie are aimilate! an! ue!' an! the i!eolo*ie a!apt themelve to the ne" !icoverie% But in the ocial fiel!' on the other han!' reitance i much tron*er% &n e$ploitin* cla "ill not reco*nie fact an! la" a#out ociety if thi "oul! fatally pre/u!ice it cla interet% t "ill not reco*nie fact "hich "oul! e$poe the real nature of it o"n ytem of e$ploitation' an! la" "hich "oul! ma.e clear the inevita#le !o"nfall of that ytem%
(E) >hile e$ploitin* clae have !evelope! the natural cience a intrument of men: collective matery over 106 nature' they have not !evelope! ocial cience correpon!in*ly a an intrument of men: collective matery over their o"n ocial or*aniation% The e$ploitin* clae have !evelope! ocial cience only a an intrument to help them ecure an! maintain their o"n cla rule% Many inveti*ation a#out ociety have #een un!erta.en' from "hich theoretical an! practical concluion have #een !ra"n% But in contrat to the inveti*ation an! concluion of the natural cience' thee have never ena#le! people to ecure uch control over the reult of their action that they coul! !irect an! plan their cooperative effort to the realiation of !efinite en!% $ploitin* clae have #een interete! in !evelopin* intrument of pro!uction "hich have #een the mean for people: eta#lihin* an! increain* their matery over nature% &n! o' un!er the patrona*e of thee clae' the natural cience have more an! more helpe! to realie man: matery over nature% But at the ame time' the !evelopment of private property an! e$ploitation ha ma!e people u#/ect to effect of their o"n ocial relation "hich lie #eyon! their conciou ocial control% &n! thi mut #e o for a lon* a e$ploitation continue to e$it% =ence the very ame hitorical proce "hich create for the e$ploitin* clae the poi#ility of !evelopin* a natural cience "hich help to realie man: matery over nature' "ithhol! from them the poi#ility of !evelopin* a ocial cience "hich help to realie man: matery over hi o"n ocial or*aniation% (3) >hile e$ploitin* clae have #een a#le to !evelop further an! further the cientific inveti*ation not only of the urface phenomena of nature #ut of the un!erlyin* caue an! la" of thee phenomena' their ocial cience i never a#le to penetrate to the #aic caue an! la" of the movement of ociety% The #aic caue an! la" of the movement of ociety lie in the phere of the pro!uction relation' of the property an! cla relation% But it i impoi#le to carry throu*h to the en! a cientific inveti*ation in thi phere "ithout finally e$poin* the truth a#out the #ai of the privile*e! poition of the e$ploitin* clae' an! the contra!ictory an! tranitory nature 10 of the ytem of e$ploitation' "hiclr thee clae are vitally concerne! to hi!e an! !i*uie% =ence even "hen' !urin* a pro*reive phae' the ocial cience of an e$ploitin* cla #e*in to ma.e a more profoun! analyi of the economic #ai of ociety (a "ith the Britih #our*eoiie in the initial phae of in!utrial capitalim)' the cla oon fall #ac. from it o"n achievement' an! it ocial inveti*ation revert to a uperficial !ecriptive level' replete "ith milea!in* i!ea% The ociolo*it of e$ploitin* clae can in the en! never ri*htly claify' analye an! e$plain the phenomena inveti*ate!' an! contantly intro!uce illuory motive an! fale e$planation into their account of ociety% (H) n the han! of the e$ploitin* clae' ocial cience ha remaine! far more profoun!ly un!er the influence of cla i!eolo*y than the natural cience% n the natural cience' cla i!eolo*ical preconception have often hin!ere! #ut in the en! not prevente! the cience from !icoverin* many of the o#/ective la" an! eential interconnection of the phenomena they "ere inveti*atin*% n ocial cience' on the other han!' the *eneral theory of ociety ha #een primarily !etermine! #y cla i!eolo*ical preconception% Becaue cla interet prohi#it certain inveti*ation an! !icoverieA #ecaue the clae in char*e of ocial cience cannot !evelop it a a mean to"ar! man: matery over hi o"n ocial or*aniation an! o u#mit it concluion to the tet of ocial practiceA #ecaue ocial cience !ra" #ac. from inveti*atin* the #aic caue an! la" of the movement of ocietyit follo" that the *eneral conception of ociety employe! in ocial cience are not !erive! from cientific inveti*ation #ut have the character of fale concioune' of cla i!eolo*ical illuion% Cone+uently' the inveti*ation an! concluion of ocial cience have ten!e!' in the han! of repreentative of e$ploitin* clae' to !evelop primarily a a mere ela#oration of cla i!eolo*ical preconceptiona a claifyin* an! interpretin* of ocial fact in uch a "ay a to reinforce a *iven cla: illuion a#out ociety' an! to provi!e ar*ument to upport it political policie% ;or all thee reaon' therefore' ocial cience in the han! 10K of repreentative of e$ploitin* clae ha not attaine!' an! never coul! attain' the ame cientific tatu a the natural cience% &n! it ha contantly ten!e! to !e*enerate into mere rulin* cla apolo*etic% The Social Functions o( Science >e hall um up thi chapter "ith ome concluion a#out the nature of cience an! the part it play in ocial life' in economic an! cultural !evelopment% Then in the ne$t chapter "e hall coni!er ome of the *eneral feature of the hitorical !evelopment of cience' an! the part it i !etine! to play in the future' in the contruction of ocialit ociety% The !itinction #et"een cientific an! illuory mo!e of concioune i !epen!ent on the !ifferent metho! of formin* i!ea a#out thin*on the one han!' formin* i!ea on the #ai of practical interaction "ith thin*' !evelopin* them #y ytematic inveti*ation an! tetin* them continually in practiceA on the other han!' procee!in* from i!eolo*ical preconception% Thee t"o mo!e of concioune are not mutually e$cluive% They are oppoite' #ut they interpenetrate% They are
oppoite ten!encie at "or. in the total !evelopment of ocial concioune' "hich interpenetrate at every ta*e' an! "hich to*ether !etermine the actual formation of the i!ea entertaine! a#out nature an! ociety' an! a#out particular apect of nature an! ociety% &n! thi in turn *ive rie to continual contra!iction in uch i!ea% & "e have een' the cientific mo!e of concioune ha *ra!ually #ecome the pre!ominant influence in the formation of i!ea a#out nature' "hile the illuory mo!e of concioune ha remaine! the pre!ominant influence in the formation of i!ea a#out ociety% cientific inveti*ation an! !icovery i #oun! up "ith ocial practice' "ith the practice of pro!uction an! "ith the practice of the cla tru**le% n the lat analyi' it al"ay arie from an! i *overne! #y the re+uirement of practice% &n! meetin* the re+uirement of practice' it ma.e an eential contri#ution to practice% cientific inveti*ation an! !icovery play an in!ipena#le 109 part in the !evelopment of the force of pro!uctionA an! the hi*her the !evelopment of the force of pro!uction the *reater an! the more neceary i the part playe! #y cience in their !evelopment% ;or e$ample' cience playe! no part in the force of pro!uction in the tone &*e% t #e*an to play a part in the !evelopment of a*riculture' metal"or.in*' pu#lic "or.% t play a ma/or part in the mo!ern force of pro!uction' ince mo!ern technolo*y "oul! #e impoi#le "ithout cienceA more than that' it play a lea!in* part' ince cientific reearch pioneer the "ay of technolo*ical !evelopment an! lea! !irectly to *reat revolution in technolo*y% Contri#utin* thu to the !evelopment of force of pro!uction' cience #ecome a revolutioniin* force in ociety% ;or it i a principal factor in thoe a!vance of the force of pro!uction "hich #rin* them into conflict "ith e$itin* relation of pro!uction an! thu ren!er neceary a chan*e in the "hole economic tructure of ociety% Thi i evi!ent to!ay in the !evelopment of phyical cience' for e$ample% Thu atomic ener*y pro!uction i one of the factor "hich ma.e the replacement of capitalim #y ocialim ur*ently neceary' in or!er that uch pro!uction may #e fruitfully !evelope! in the ervice of ociety% &t the ame time' cience play a part in cla tru**le% The natural cience play uch a part in!irectly an! a a econ!ary function' ocial cience !irectly an! a a primary function% The primary ocial function of natural cience i to ait pro!uction% ;rom thi follo" it econ!ary function in the cla tru**le% efinite a!vance in cience an! technolo*y erve the interet of !efinite clae' either in their tru**le for po"er or in the conoli!ation of their re*ime "hen they are in po"er% Thu' for e$ample' the early a!vance of mo!ern cience an! technolo*y erve! the riin* #our*eoiie in t"o "ayfirt' #y ena#lin* them to increae their "ealth an! o tren*then their ocial poitionA econ!' i!eolo*ically #y helpin* their tru**le a*aint the feu!al i!eolo*y% &n! "hen the #our*eoiie "a eta#lihe! in po"er' cience an! technolo*y "ere po"erful ai! in conoli!atin* the capitalit re*ime% To!ay they till erve the re*ime of monopoly capitalim% &t 110 the ame time' they are alo pree! into the ervice of the "or.in* cla an! the caue of ocialim' an! !evelope! in that ervicein the countrie "here ocialim i #ein* #uilt' a a mainprin* in ocialit contructionA an! every"here a part of the eential e+uipment of ocialit i!eolo*y% Variou .in! of ocial inveti*ation' on the other han!' erve the cla tru**le !irectly' an! the re+uirement of cla tru**le provi!e the principal motivation of uch inveti*ation% &n! in the cae of e$ploitin* clae' thi' a "e have een' account for the fact that cla i!eolo*ical illuion play a far *reater part in ocial than in natural cience% The comparative tu!y of !ifferent form of ociety an! of *overnment' the !ecription an! claification of variou form of ocial activity' the inveti*ation of the #et "ay of carryin* out variou form of economic activitythee have #een eential occupation of the variou rulin* an! e$ploitin* clae' "hich have erve! them in plannin* an! !irectin* their activitie #oth in *ainin* po"er an! conoli!atin* it' an! in !evelopin* their cla vie" in the i!eolo*ical tru**le "ith other clae% n the cla tru**le of the "or.in* cla' in the tru**le for ocialim' ocial cience i for the firt time !evelope! a an eential mean for fin!in* out ho" to tranform ocietyA an! in thi it for the firt time #e*in to attain a cientific tatu e+uivalent to that of the natural cience% The chief an! mot eential ocial function of cience i' then' to #e foun! in the part it play in the !evelopment of ocial practice% By carryin* on cientific inveti*ation to fin! thin* out an! to reach *eneral concluion on the #ai of "hat they have foun! out' people are a#le to e$pan! an! !evelop their pro!uctive force' an! re*ulate their ocial intercoure' their in!ivi!ual an! ocial activitie' correpon!in* to the level of their pro!uctive force an! the cone+uent character of their pro!uction relation% Thu the !evelopment of cience i an eential mean to the perfection of human life' ervin* to increae men: matery over nature' their ocial "ealth' the cope an! po"er of their activitie' their a#ility to mana*e their affair an! atify their re+uirement% Thi #ear on the +uetion' formerly raie! amon*t Mar$it' "hether cience !evelop a part of the cla i!eolo*y con!itione! #y the economic relation of ociety% it correct to contrat #our*eoi cience an! ocialit cience a rival i!eolo*ie ervin* rival clae an! ocial ytem ? On the one han!' ince cla i!eolo*ical preconception !o enter into cience' it i clear that in actual practice the theorie current in particular fiel! of cience !o inclu!e vie" "hich arie an! !evelop a part of a cla i!eolo*y% uch
preconception arie preciely a pro!uct of a *iven #ai of property an! cla relation' erve the conoli!ation an! !evelopment of thoe relation' an! !iappear "hen that economic #ai !iappear% >e cannot un!ertan! the hitory of cience' or it pecific character an! contra!iction at any particular ta*e' "ithout ta.in* into account the fact that it i !evelope! #y !efinite clae' "hoe cla preconception play an active part in it !evelopment' an! "hoe economic interet may further it !evelopment in one !irection an! inhi#it it in another% n thi ene it i +uite correct to contrat #our*eoi cience an! ocialit cience' ince the !evelopment of cientific "or. i !ifferently con!itione! in #our*eoi an! ocialit ocietie% On the other han!' the content of the !icoverie of cience i not !etermine! #y cla interet or an economic #ai% Thoe !icoverie are !irectly connecte! "ith the nee! of pro!uction an! of ocial intercoure cone+uent on pro!uction' reflect o#/ective fact an! la"' erve ociety *enerally an! remain vali! for any economic #ai% & !icovery i a !icovery' "hoever ma.e it% To ta.e a concrete e$ample' that of +uantum phyic a it ha #een !evelope! in #our*eoi ociety to!ay% The !icoverie concernin* the la" of motion of matter on the u#-atomic level reflect thoe la" of motion' em#o!y the reult of e$periment' an! o are in no "ay !etermine! #y the i!eolo*ical preconception of particular clae con!itione! #y economic relation an! economic interet% Thi i "hy cientit from capitalit an! ocialit countrie can meet in a cientific conference on common *roun!' compare their reult an! ait one another in furtherin* the a!vance of cience o far' at leat' a the ecurity re*ulation of their *overnment allo"% But the theory that event happen "ithout caue' "hich ha #een #uilt aroun! thee !icoverie an! "hich no e$periment can confirm' i a characteritic pro!uct of #our*eoi i!eolo*y% =ence in it eential !icoverie +uantum phyic ha not !evelope! a a cla i!eolo*y' #ut certain temporary feature of it *eneral theory have #een influence! #y cla i!eolo*y% o' !oe cience !evelop a a cla i!eolo*y? The economic an! cla relation of ociety !o con!ition the !evelopment of cience' an! the i!eolo*ical preconception of !efinite clae !o enter into cience an! influence it !evelopment% They influence it !evelopment either poitively or ne*atively' aitin* cientific !icovery or hin!erin* it/ut a' in *eneral' the economic #ai of property an! cla relation may #e favoura#le or unfavoura#le to the further !evelopment of cience% But the !icoverie of cience an! the a!vance of cientific theory !o not reflect the preconception an! interet of any clae #ut !irectly reflect the procee of the o#/ective "orl!an! thi i ecure! #y the pro*reive application of cientific metho!' "hich are fact-fin!in* metho! an! not metho! for pinnin* out theorie to uit the interet of any particular people% Moreover' it i evi!ent that cience itelf play a very important part in the i!eolo*ical !evelopment of ociety% cientifically forme! concept' cientific !icoverie' enter into i!eolo*ie' an! cience i a tron* an! *ro"in* influence in the formation of i!eolo*ie"hich thu' in ome of their feature' #ecome cientific rather than illuory% The hi*her the !evelopment of cience the *reater the part it mut play in *eneral i!eolo*ical !evelopment% ;or e$ample' the conception of the evolution of pecie throu*h natural election' the conception of the cell a the unit throu*h "hich life !evelop' the conception of the atom' the conception of the earth a part of the olar ytem "ithin the ilan! univere of the mil.y "ay' are all cientifically forme! conception "hich have #ecome part of the accepte! vie" of nature in #our*eoi ociety' an! o part of the current #our*eoi i!eolo*y% n *eneral' #our*eoi i!eolo*y not only penetrate cience #y impoin* preconception on it #ut i alo itelf penetrate! #y cience' at the ame time often ee.in* to @interpret5 an! e$plain a"ay cientific !icoverie% But a#ove all' cience play a part a a "eapon of criticim in the !evelopment of i!eolo*y% e" concept an! !icoverie of cience conflict "ith e$itin* i!eolo*y' an! ha.e it preconception an! the concluion !erive! from them% o "hen ne" clae are riin* to challen*e the "ay of the ol! rulin* clae' an! ne" i!ea are #ein* oppoe! to the ol! i!ea' cientific inveti*ation an! the concluion !erive! from it #ecome a revolutionary "eapon of criticim% &#ove all' therefore' cience play a pro*reive an! li#eratin* part in ocial !evelopment% t !icoverie enhance men: collective po"er to atify their re+uirement' an! erve a mean of enli*htenment' !ipellin* the clou! of error an! upertition' an! furnihin* men "ith .no"le!*e of nature an! of themelve% 4articular clae' an! particular nation le! #y particular clae' have ma!e their contri#ution to the !evelopment of the cience' temporarily tampin* upon them their o"n peculiar characteritic an! limitation' an! often' havin* a!vance! o far in cientific !icovery' !ra"in* #ac.' confuin* the theory of cience "ith their o"n illuion an! pervertin* it ue% But "hatever the limitation an! et#ac.' "hat ha #een achieve! #y one cla or nation i ta.en over an! carrie! on #y another% =ence in the hitory of cience there ha !evelope!' an! i !evelopin*' a herita*e of human .no"le!*e an! po"er% Thi i the common herita*e of man.in!' !etine! to #e ue! for the emancipation of all the people% #ha"ter Nine
S#IEN#E AND SO#IALISM Achie$ements o( 8our)eois Science 4O to mo!ern capitalit time' the cience !evelope! JT mainly at the mot elementary' !ecriptive an! claificatory level% The !icoverie of cience' coni!era#le a they "ere in certain fiel!' "ere piecemeal in character' #ein* concerne! "ith the propertie of particular o#/ect an! "ith particular la" an! conception' not yet penetratin* to the more *eneral an! fun!amental la" or affor!in* any relia#le *eneral picture of the interconnection in nature% ince cientific "or. "a mainly confine! to !ecription an! claification' the a#traction an! *eneraliation of the cience' "hich contitute the t"o other ma/or apect of cientific "or.' "ere of neceity mainly peculation an! *uee% &n! the *eneral theory of nature "a !evelope! a a part of philoophy an! theolo*y' an! em#o!ie! all the philoophical an! theolo*ical illuion of the time% t "a a feature of cience in thi ta*e that it ma!e ue of ome e$tremely primitive conception a#out nature% The alchemit' for intance' accumulate! a coni!era#le tore of .no"le!*e a#out chemical u#tance an! their com#ination' #ut their chemical theory "a e$tremely primitive' in the literal ene that it ma!e ue of i!ea ta.en over from primitive time% uch' for e$ample' "a their i!ea that chemical u#tance "ere livin* #ein* ma!e up of matter an! pirit' an! alo poein* e$ual attri#ute% &*ain' there "a a coni!era#le !evelopment of atronomical o#ervation in lave an! feu!al ociety' #ut the comolo*ical theorie a#out the layout of the univere remaine! un!er the influence of primitive i!ea% n*el' in a letter to C% chmi!t' Octo#er E' 1K90' pointe! out that there ha e$ite! a prehitoric toc. of "hat "e houl! to!ay call #un.' "hich ha #een !ra"n on (it i till ometime !ra"n on' #y the "ay) for the purpoe of men: *eneral conception of nature% @Thee variou fale conception of nature' he "rote' %%% have for the mot part only a ne*ative economic #aiA the lo" economic !evelopment of the prehitoric perio! i upplemente! an! partially con!itione! an! even caue! #y the fale conception of nature% &n! even thou*h economic neceity "a the main !rivin* force of the pro*rein* .no"le!*e of nature an! #ecome ever more o' it "oul! urely #e pe!antic to try to fin! economic caue for all thi primitive nonene% The hitory of cience i the hitory of the *ra!ual clearin* a"ay of thi nonene or of it replacement #y freh #ut al"ay le a#ur! nonene%5 The poition "a' therefore' that the i!eolo*y of the rulin* clae impoe! a certain philoophical an! theolo*ical character upon the *eneral theory of the cience% &n! at the ame time' the relatively lo" level of economic !evelopment #rou*ht it a#out that many primitive an! nonenical conception foun! their place in the theorie a#out particular thin*% Thee factor coul! not #ut hin!er the !evelopment of the cience% They acte! a po"erful ne*ative factor "hich ha! to #e "ept a"ay #efore the mo!ern !evelopment of cience' an! of pro!uction' coul! #ecome poi#le% Mo!ern natural cience aroe in the perio! "hen the po"er of the feu!al no#ility "a #ein* #ro.en an! the mo!ern uropean #our*eoi nation "ere #ein* forme!% atural cience !evelope! in the mi!t of the *eneral revolution an! "a itelf thorou*hly revolutionary' "rote n*el in ialectic of ature' &n! the ame cla force "hich "ere carryin* throu*h the revolution carrie! throu*h the !evelopment of cience% cience appeare! a a *reat force of enli*htenment' #rea.in* throu*h pat i*norance an! upertition% t challen*e! the ol! authoritie "ith .no"le!*e #ae! on o#ervation an! e$periment% The men "ho lai! the foun!ation of mo!ern natural cience "ere of a very !ifferent type from the 116 cler. an! mon.ih cholar of the feu!al or!er% They "ere intenely interete! in the !evelopment of in!utry an! tra!e' in ne" techni+ue' in travel an! !icovery% n their han! the !icoverie of cience #ecame intrument for improvin* the con!ition of human life% The rie of ne" cience "a cone+uent upon a ne" !evelopment of in!utry% @;ollo"in* the crua!e' in!utry !evelope! enormouly an! #rou*ht to li*ht a +uantity of ne" mechanical ("eavin*' cloc.ma.in*' millin*)' chemical (!yein*' metallur*y' alcohol)' an! phyical (lene) fact' an! thi not only *ave enormou material for o#ervation' #ut alo itelf provi!e! +uite other mean for e$perimentin* than previouly e$ite!' an! allo"e! the contruction of ne" intrumentA it can #e ai! that really ytematic e$perimental cience ha! no" #ecome poi#le for the firt time% (n*el' ialectic of Mature%) p n the mo!ern !evelopment of natural cience "hich "a thu initiate!' the a#traction an! hypothee of the cience ceae! to #e mere peculation an! *uee' an! #e*an to #e eta#lihe! a verifie! cientific truth% cientific theory #e*an to replace the former couplin* of primitive #un. "ith philoophical an! theolo*ical peculation% &n! "hat ma!e thi poi#le for thoe no" en*a*e! in cientific "or. "a the ne" e+uipment "hich they poee! for accurate o#ervation an! controlle! e$periment' an! the fact that cientific theorie #e*an to #e tete! not only #y cientific o#ervation an! e$periment #ut in the practice of ocial pro!uction% The ne" uccee of natural cience "ere !epen!ent' therefore' on a!vancin* technolo*y in ocial pro!uction an! the ocial utiliation of cience a a force of pro!uction%
;rom thi tartin* point' mo!ern #our*eoi natural cience ha *one on to core *reat achievement% (i) There ha #een achieve! the ucceive !evelopment of eparate #ranche of natural ciencethe evolution of the !ifferent cience one from another' an! their !if;erentiation one from another% n thi proce' the uccee core! in one fiel! have create! the poi#ility of #e*innin* the cientific inveti*ation of ne" fiel!% The "hole proce ha unfol!e! out 11 of the !evelopment of the pro!uctive force of capitalit ociety' "hich at one an! the ame time have preente! ne" pro#lem for cience to tac.le an! provi!e! the technical mean for tac.lin* them% (a) n all the ucceive fiel! of cience there have #een ma/or achievement of analyithe analyi of the phenomena of nature into their part or element' the !emontration of the propertie' interconnection an! la" of motion of the part' an! o of the la" of motion of the "hole% &n! at the ame time a thi analyi of nature ha #een carrie! out there ha #een carrie! out a proce of *eneraliation' !emontratin* ho" the mot !ivere propertie an! motion of thin* are all the cone+uence of the operation of very *eneral' univerally applica#le la"% (3) & thir! ma/or achievement of mo!ern natural cience ha #een the !icovery of the la" of chan*e an! !evelopment in nature% n the initial perio! of mo!ern natural cience the vie" prevaile! that' !epite ceaele chan*e an! interaction' nature in it main feature al"ay remaine! e$actly the ame% The planet an! their atellite' once et in motion #y the myteriou :firt impule:' circle! on an! on in their pre!etine! ellipe for all eternity% % % % The tar remaine! for ever fi$e! an! immova#le in their place% % % % The earth ha! perite! "ithout alteration% % % % The five continent of the preent !ay ha! al"ay e$ite!% % % % The pecie of plant an! animal ha! #een eta#lihe! once an! for all "hen they came into e$itence% % % % &ll chan*e' all !evelopment in nature "a !enie!% (n*el' ialectic of ature' ntro!uction%) But the ucceive !icoverie of the ciencein atronomy an! como*ony' in phyic' in chemitry' in *eolo*y an! in the #iolo*ical ciencehattere! thi "hole picture of the fi$ity of nature% t "a !emontrate! that nature in all it part chan*e an! !evelop% &n! thi concluion emer*e! not a a *eneral peculationuch a ha! #een put for"ar!' for intance' in ancient Dree. philoophy#ut a a reult of !etaile! inveti*ation' of the analyi of the variou procee of nature an! the !icovery of their la" an! interconnection%
(H) ;inally' from the !icoverie of the natural cience there ha *ra!ually emer*e! a .no"le!*e of nature "hich i at once *eneral an! !etaile!*eneral' in the ene that it em#race the main procee "hich ta.e place in nature an! their inter' connectionA an! !etaile!' in the ene that it em#race particular la" an! interconnection of thin*% &n! thi .no"le!*e to an increain* !e*ree ha ena#le! the cience to *ive an account of natural procee entirely #ae! on an! tete! in the inveti*ation of thoe procee themelve% @>e have arrive! at the point' "rote n*el' "here "e can !emontrate a a "hole the interconnection #et"een the procee in nature not only in particular phere #ut alo in the interconnection of thee particular phere themelve' an! o can preent in an appro$imately ytematic form a comprehenive vie" of the interconnection in nature #y mean of the fact provi!e! #y empirical natural cience itelf% (,u!"i* ;euer#ach' chapter E%) & a reult' cientific .no"le!*e of nature *ra!ually upplant philoophical peculation a#out nature% The account "hich i *iven #oth of particular procee an! of their *eneral interconnection i #ae! on an! tete! in !etaile! inveti*ation' an! not arrive! at #y philoophical !e!uction or ima*inative *uee% ;ormerly' a n*el o#erve!' a comprehenive vie" of nature coul! #e arrive! at only #y puttin* in place of the real #ut a yet un.no"n interconnection i!eal an! ima*inary one' fillin* out the miin* fact #y fi*ment of the min! an! #ri!*in* the actual *ap merely in ima*ination% But once cientific inveti*ation have upplie! the miin* fact' uch a proce!ure #ecome not only uperfluou' #ut a tep #ac."ar! (,u!"i* ;euer#ach' chapter E)% Of coure' many *ap remainA an! thou*h they .eep on #ein* fille!' *ap "ill al"ay remain% n!ee!' the fillin* in of one *ap often reveal ne" an! hitherto unupecte! one% et even #y the latter part of the lat century cience ha! !icovere! enou*h to !icre!it the ol! type of philoophicaltheolo*ical account of nature% t ha #ecome clear that miin* .no"le!*e mut al"ay #e upplie! #y puhin* on "ith 119 cientific inveti*ation an! not #y any other mean% Limitations o( 8our)eois Science The cience' #y aitin* in the !evelopment of in!utry an! tra!e' have playe! an in!ipena#le part in ma.in* poi#le the eta#lihment an! !evelopment of the capitalit mo!e of pro!uction% But the eta#lihment of the capitalit mo!e of pro!uction ha then et limit upon the further !evelopment of the cience%
The *reat achievement of capitalim i to have tranforme! mall-cale in!ivi!ual pro!uction into lar*e-cale ocial pro!uction' "hich i a#le to harne natural force an! ma.e ue of mo!ern mechanical intrument of pro!uction% The *ro"th of ocial pro!uctiona#ove all in in!utry' ince a*riculture remaine! relatively #ac."ar!#rou*ht a#out' an! "a aite! #y' an unprece!ente! *ro"th of the cience% n fiel! after fiel! !icoverie "ere ma!e' ne" cience "ere eta#lihe! an! !evelope! rapi!ly' nature *ave up her ecret to man an! the principle "ere eta#lihe! for correctly un!ertan!in* the la" an! interconnection of natural procee% But ocial pro!uction "a !irecte! to !efinite capitalit en!% t "a capital "hich e$ercie! the controllin* an! !irectin* function in ocial pro!uction% The co-operation in la#our' "hich i the eential feature of ocial pro!uction' "a not #rou*ht a#out #y the la#ourer themelve #ut #y the capital "hich employe! an! e$ploite! them% t "a not theif o"n act #ut the act of the capital "hich #rin* an! .eep them to*ether% % % % The !irectin* motive' the en! an! aim of capitalit pro!uction i to e$tract the *reatet poi#le amount of urplu value' an! cone+uently to e$ploit la#our-po"er to the *reatet poi#le e$tent% (Mar$' Capital' Volume ' chapter 13%) Mar$ re*ar!e! cience a a !itinct #ut neceary part of the pro!uction proce in mo!ern ociety% ocial la#our' he o#erve! (Capital' Volume ' chapter 7' ection 7)' inclu!e la#our of t"o .in!% ;irt there i the cientific i!e' involvin* the cientific matery of material an! procee' iuin* in invention an! !icoverie "hich improve the e$itin* 1E0 intrumerit of pro!uction an! create ne" one% Thi he terme! univeral la#our% &n! econ!ly' there i co-operative la#our itelf' the co-operation of "or.er in utiliin* the intrument of pro!uction% n capitalit pro!uction thee t"o .in! of la#our are eparate!' an! #oth compelle! to erve capital% Co-operative la#our i the ource of urplu value' an! the la#ourer i imply a han! to "or. un!er the !irection of the capitalit' or hi mana*er' for the profit of the capitalit% &!vance in pro!uction techni+ue are ma!e an! applie! not #ecaue they li*hten la#our or help to atify human nee! #ut #ecaue an! in o far only a they yiel! an increae! profit% &n! therefore cience' the theory of pro!uction' !oe not !evelop a an a!/unct an! intrument of ocial la#our #ut a an a!/unct an! intrument of capital "hich e$ploit la#our-po"er an! !irect pro!uction to"ar! capitalit profit% @The la#ourer i #rou*ht face to face "ith the intellectual potencie of the material proce of pro!uction' a the property of another' an! a a rulin* po"er' "rote Mar$% Mo!ern in!utry % % % ma.e cience a pro!uctive force !itinct from la#our an! pree it into the ervice of capital% (Capital' Volume ' chapter 1H' ection 7%) &t firt cience coul! a!vance "ith *iant tri!e "ithin the limit of the capitalit relation% ;or capital nee!e! to penetrate the ecret of the natural procee "hich it ue! in it !rive for profit' an!' realiin* the vital importance of cience' "a alo "illin* to encoura*e reearch alon* line for "hich no imme!iate practical application "a in i*ht% cientit felt themelve free an! unfettere!A it eeme! to them that they "ere con!uctin* their reearche for the a.e of humanity' or for .no"le!*e for it o"n a.e' an! that ociety "a rea!y to honour an! re"ar! them for their !icoverie an! to put their !icoverie' "here circumtance permitte!' to practical ue% everthele' the reality of thi #our*eoi free!om of cience "a that cience "a "or.in* all the time for capital' "hich relie! on it !icoverie' invention an! theorie to effect thoe improvement in pro!uction "hich "oul! "ell capitalit profit%
>ith the !evelopment of capital to it mo!ern' monopoly ta*e' ho"ever' the !irect an! open u#/u*ation of cience to monopoly capital ha *ra!ually come a#out% Thi ha #een ai!e! #y the very a!vance of cience itelf' "hich ha entaile! a *reat increae in cot an! o ren!ere! the cience almot completely !epen!ent on financin* #y the monopolie' !irectly or throu*h the tate% ot only the reearche' invention an! !icoverie of cientit have #een pree! into the ervice of capital' #ut cientit peronally% They have lot their former in!epen!ent tatu' an! #een turne! into employee an! a*ent of the monopolieor of the tate' "hich i itelf u#/u*ate! to the monopolie% &n! their "or. i correpon!in*ly re*imente!% The effect of thi i to !ior*anie cientific "or.' "hich can procee! only in !irection "hich the monopolie "ill pay forA to pervert it' principally an! increain*ly for military en!' "ith the *ro"in* evil of ecrecy an! @ecurity5' police an! military uperviion' @loyalty5 tet an! tet of i!eolo*ical ortho!o$yA an! finally to ma.e cience appear not a a ource of tren*th an! hope to humanity #ut a a menace% The u#/ection of cience to capital' an! latterly to monopoly capital' i e+ually reflecte! in the theory of cience% ;rom the vie"point of the capitalit cla' cience' neceary a it i' ha al"ay har#oure! a !an*erou i!eolo*ical tren!% Thi i #ecaue of the materialit ten!ency of it concluion' "hich #e*in to e$plain everythin* in men: e$perience from the material "orl! alone% The #our*eoiie early #e*an to realie that cientific materialim can #e ocially u#verive' if it #e*in to u#mit the foun!ation of ociety an! of rulin* cla privile*e to cientific criticim an! to ho" ho"' arme! "ith cience' the people can achieve their emancipation% =ence for a lon* time philoophical theorie have #een "oven aroun! cience' ee.in* to e$plain a"ay it ra!ical materialit ten!ency' an! a#ove all ee.in* to impoe limit upon it poi#le !evelopment an! application% Thu it ha #een lai! !o"n that cience can only !eal "ith certain apect of the force of nature' #ut not "ith the un!erlyin*
an! controllin* piritual force in the "orl!A that' in!ee!' it cannot penetrate to the real force at "or. in nature' #ut can only !eal "ith ome of their effectA that' finally' it can only recor! an! correlate the enation "hich are pro!uce! in our min!' "hile the real "orl! outi!e remain un.no"a#le an! myteriou% uch vie" a#out cience an! in cience' "hich have #ecome e$tremely "i!eprea! in the capitalit "orl! to!ay' "ere alrea!y #ein* !evelope! a lon* a*o a the eventeenth century (for e$ample' #y Male#ranche' ialo*ue on Metaphyic an! eli*ion' 16KK)% o "e fin! eminent cientit proclaimin* that cience i compati#le "ith almot any .in! of @faith5e$cept faith in humanityA that the real "orl! i un.no"a#leA that the aim of pro*re #ae! on cientific .no"le!*e i illuory% &t the ame time' the a!vance of cientific !icovery cannot #e halte!% Dreat ne" !icoverie continue to #e ma!e' #ae! on the ne" techni+ue !evelope! in mo!ern ociety% But cientit themelve #ecome all the more acutely a"are of the retriction impoe! upon them in practice #y monopoly interet an! in theory #y anti-cientific i!ea% Many #e*in to ee. the "ay out' ome in a .in! of anarchic an! frutrate! in!ivi!ualim' other in /oinin* the "or.in*-cla tru**le for a ne" ocial or!er in "hich cience "ill have unretricte! !evelopment in ervin* the interet of all mem#er of ociety% Science (or the Peo"le n capitalim the !irection of ocial pro!uction i a function of capital' "hoe aim i capitalit profit% n ocialim' on the other han!' the !irection of ocial pro!uction #ecome a function of ocial la#our itelf' the aim of "hich i atifaction of the material an! cultural re+uirement of ociety% The ta. of !evelopin* the theory of pro!uction mut al"ay #e in the ame han! a the !irection of it practice:% n capitalim cience i eparate! from la#our an! pree! into the ervice of capital "hich e$ploit la#our% But in ocialim' cience #ecome unite! "ith la#our% ocialit cience i the cientific !epartment of ocial la#ourin other "or!' that !epartment "hich carrie out the reearch' invention an! theoretical "or. neceary continuouly to e$pan! an! perfect ocialit pro!uction' an! to atify the contantly riin* material an! cultural 1E3 re+uirement of ocialit ociety% emove! from the control of the monopolie an! turne! into a pu#lic concern' the all-roun! !evelopment of cience #ecome a u#/ect of plannin* un!er ocialim% Thi !oe not mean' of coure' that the !icoverie to #e ma!e over a perio! are planne! in a!vance' ince no one can .no" "hat i *oin* to #e !icovere! until the !icovery i ma!e% t mean that the allocation of the reource an! the !irection for reearch in all fiel! are planne!% uch plannin* entail the com#ination of hort-term an! lon*-term coni!eration% &t one an! the ame time cience concentrate on the olution of imme!iate practical pro#lem' an! un!erta.e fun!amental reearche !ictate! #y the re+uirement of theoretical a!vance an! apirin* to reult far #eyon! current practice% & ne" type of cientit emer*e' recruite! from the ran. of the "or.in* people% &n! cience' from #ein* the preerve of a in*le ocial *roup aociate! "ith the e$ploiter' eventually #ecome the common poeion an! concern of all% Thi can only et free immene ne" force for cientific "or. an! for the utiliation of it reult' an! lea! to an immene acceleration an! e$panion of cience% &t the ame time' i!eolo*ical preconception are finally thro"n off% The theory of cience i !evelope! in line "ith it !icoverie' on the #ai of ocialit practice' a a *ui!e to further !icovery an! practical application' "ith free !icuion an! criticim% &t an early ta*e' #efore the !evelopment of the eparate cience' cience "a carcely !itin*uihe! from philoophy% One feature of the hitory of philoophy an! of cience i the eparatin* of the cience from philoophy% & cience #ranch off from philoophy' *eneral i!ea a#out nature are eta#lihe! on the #ai of the cientific inveti*ation of nature% et' a "e have een' philoophical i!ea continue to penetrate the cience' influencin* particularly the more a#tract part of cientific theory% The emancipation of cience from philoophical preconception i only complete! "ith the !evelopment of cience un!er ocialim% ;or then philoophy ceae to e$it in it ol! form a a theory of the "orl! in!epen!ent of 1EH cience an! impoin* it vie" on cience' #ut !evelop a a ummation of the principle inherent in cientific thou*ht itelfthe principle of lo*ic an! !ialectican! therefore a a theoretical intrument an! *ui!e in cientific "or.% Commentin* on the relation of cience an! philoophy' n*el "rote in ialectic of ature2 @atural cientit #elieve that they free themelve from philoophy #y i*norin* or a#uin* it% They cannot' ho"ever' ma.e any hea!"ay "ithout thou*ht' an! for thou*ht they nee! thou*ht !etermination% They ta.e thee cate*orie unreflectin*ly from the common concioune of o-calle! e!ucate! peron% % % % =ence they are no le in #on!a*e to philoophy' an! thoe "ho a#ue philoophy mot are lave to preciely the "ort vul*arie! relic of the "ort philoophie%%%% atural cientit allo" philoophy to prolon* a peu!o-e$itence #y ma.in* hift "ith the !re* of the ol! metaphyic% Only "hen natural an! hitorical cience ha a!opte! !ialectic "ill all the philoophical ru##ih %%% #e uperfluou' !iappearin* in poitive cience%5
n ocialim alone' moreover' can there #e realie! completely the true !iinterete!ne eential to the fullet !evelopment of cience% The proce of cientific inveti*ation !eman! that concluion hall #e !ra"n on the #ai of thorou*h inveti*ation alone' "ithout coni!eration for "hat thi or that interet "oul! li.e to #e the cae' or thi or that chool of thou*ht #elieve% &n! it !eman! that every concluion hall #e u#/ect to criticim on the #ai of further inveti*ation% Thi neceary characteritic of cientific "or. "a repeate!ly tree! #y Mar$% Thu' for e$ample' in contratin* icar!o: cientific approach in political economy to that of Malthu' he "rote in hi Theorie of urplu Value of icar!o: !iinterete!ne an! cientific honety' of icar!o: cientific impartiality' "hich come out /ut a inconi!erately a*aint the #our*eoiie a in other cae he come out a*aint the proletariat an! the aritocracy% Malthu' on the other han!' committe! a in a*aint cience #y a!aptin* hi concluion to the interet of rulin* cla apolo*etic% The 1E7 contempti#le Malthu !ra" %%% only thoe concluion "hich are accepta#le an! ueful to the aritocracy a a*aint the #our*eoiie an! to #oth a a*aint the proletariat% =e ou*ht to accommo!ate cience to a point of vie" not !erive! from cience itelf % % % #ut #orro"e! from outi!e' from e$trinic interet forei*n to cience5% n ociety #ae! on e$ploitation #arrier cannot #ut arie a*aint !iinterete! in+uiry% nveti*ation are tarte!' #ut the point come "hen tron*er an! tron*er ocial preure operate to perua!e many cientit to trim their concluion to variou i!eolo*ical an! political re+uirement of the rulin* cla' or even to #rin* the inveti*ation to a premature en!% Only "hen e$ploitation of man #y man i a#olihe!' an! in+uiry i conciouly !irecte! to the en! of ma.in* life more a#un!ant for everyone' are all the #arrier to !iinterete! in+uiry thro"n !o"n% ;or then the very interet "hich promote in+uiry that i to ay' the common interet in o#tainin* relia#le .no"le!*e a a mean to life!eman! that nothin* hall tan! in the "ay of proecutin* in+uirie to the en!% Of coure' the ol! ha#it of !eman!in* that inveti*ation hall prove "hat ome particular *roup "ihe to #e prove!' an! of o#/ectin* to any +uetionin* of certain concluion' i one "hich !ie har!% The !evelopment of ocialim' on the other han!' !eman! that cience hall #e truly !iinterete!' an! hall carry on it in+uirie "ithout coni!eration for "hat any particular peron or peron have aerte! or "ih to #e #elieve!% Thi "a vi*orouly aerte! #y talin% t i *enerally reco*nie! that no cience can !evelop an! flourih "ithout a #attle of opinion' "ithout free!om of criticim% (Concernin* Mar$im in ,in*uitic%) cience i calle! cience /ut #ecaue it !oe not reco*nie fetihe' /ut #ecaue it !oe not fear to raie it han! a*aint the o#olete' an! anti+uate!' an! #ecaue it len! an attentive ear to the voice of e$perience' of practice% (peech at ;irt &il-Lnion Conference of ta.hanovite%) n *eneral' ocialim et cience free from all the limitation an! retriction hitherto impoe! on it !evelopment% Jut a the ocialit o"nerhip of the mean of pro!uction remove the fetter impoe! on the !evelopment of pro!uction #y 1E6 private o"nerhip an! appropriation' an! ren!er poi#le the unretricte! !evelopment of pro!uction to atify people: nee!' o !oe it remove the fetter impoe! on the !evelopment of the cience% The metho! of cientific inveti*ation are no !ifferent un!er ocialim from capitalimA for thee metho!' *ra!ually perfecte! !urin* the ucceive ta*e of economic !evelopment' are not the pro!uct of any particular ytem% The point i that the economic' political an! i!eolo*ical factor hin!erin* their univeral application are remove!% ;rom ocialim' "rote n*el in ialectic of ature' "ill !ate a ne" epoch in hitory' in "hich man.in! itelf' an! "ith man.in! all #ranche of it activity' an! epecially natural cience' "ill e$perience an a!vance that "ill put everythin* prece!in* it in the !eepet ha!e5% The Science o( Societ! Bour*eoi cience coul! penetrate !eeply into the la" of natural procee #ecaue the #our*eoiie nee!e! uch .no"le!*e for the a.e of it profit% The capitalit !o not "ant fairy torie a#out electricity' for e$ample' #ut .no"le!*e of it rcaf la" (althou*h their i!eolo*y till impel them to #elieve not a fe" fairy torie)% But a re*ar! the la" of ocial !evelopment' the capitalit' thou*h they can ue mae of uperficial !ata a#out ociety' can never reco*nie them% ;or to !o o "oul! lea! trai*ht to the concluion of the fall of themelve an! their "hole ytem% >hatever the achievement of the natural cience in capitalit ociety' the *reatet limitation "hich that ociety place on the !evelopment of the cience conit of the !ivorce of natural from ocial cience% There i no unifie! cience% ntea! there are natural cience' "ith no cience of ociety' an! o no cientific .no"le!*e of ho" to !evelop an! apply the cience in the ervice of man.in!% The placin* of ocial cience on a firm #ai' the !icovery of the fun!amental la" of !evelopment of ociety' only #e*in "ith the #e*innin* of the tru**le for ocialim' an! continue only in aociation "ith that tru**le an! then "ith the actual #uil!in* of ocialit ociety% The cience of ociety !evelop a 1E the cientific theory *ui!in* the "or.in*-cla tru**le for ocialim% t arie an! !evelop a the theoretical #ai for the ocial conception of the "or.in* cla% Bour*eoi ocial cience reache! it hi*het !evelopment in the "or. of the Britih inveti*ator &!am mith an! avi!
icar!o' "hoe in+uiry into the la" of the pro!uction an! !itri#ution of the mean of u#itence in human ociety lai! the foun!ation for the cience of political economy' the cience of the economic #ai of ociety% Thee inveti*ation "ere un!erta.en to erve the nee! of mana*ement of nacent capitalit economy% But the con!ition of !evelopment of capitalit rule an! capitalit e$ploitation inhi#ite! any further cientific a!vance #y #our*eoi inveti*ator% They coul! not *o on' a Mar$ !i!' to uncover' #y the% !icovery of urplu value' the ecret of capitalit e$ploitation% u#e+uent #our*eoi economic' an! #our*eoi ocial cience *enerally' ha #uie! itelf "ith the accumulation of a vat array of fact an! correlation of fact% t ha alo accumulate! a coni!era#le amount of practical .no"le!*e a#out ho" to operate the capitalit ytem% But it ha e!ulouly avoi!e! inveti*ation into the real relation of pro!uction on "hich thoe fact are #ae! an! from "hich alone they can #e un!ertoo!' u#titutin* uperficial or fale e$planation% >hat Mar$ ai! of @vul*ar5 #our*eoi economic can #e ai! of #our*eoi ocial cience *enerally% t !eal "ith appearance only % % % ee. plaui#le e$planation of the mot o#truive phenomena for #our*eoi !aily ue' #ut for the ret confine itelf to ytematiin* in a pe!antic "ay' an! proclaimin* for everlatin* truth' the trite i!ea hel! #y the elfcomplacent #our*eoiie "ith re*ar! to their o"n "orl!' to them the #et of all poi#le "orl!% (Capital' Vol% ' ch% i' ection H (footnote))% &n! "ith uch cience' it "a no lon*er a +uetion "hether thi theorem or that "a true' #ut "hether it "a ueful to capital or harmful' e$pe!ient or ine$pe!ient' politically !an*erou or not% n place of !iinterete! in+uirer' there "ere hire! pri
The n! of the Ol! !eolo*y Becaue the ocialit movement !evelop cientific conception of ociety' of ocial relation an! the la" of ocial !evelopment' it follo" that it oppoe an! #e*in to !etroy i!eolo*ical illuion% The ocialit movement oppoe cientific i!ea to the i!eolo*ical preconception of the e$ploitin* clae% n other "or!' in the tru**le for ocialim cientific i!ea are pitte! a*aint ol! illuion% The aim of ociety "ithout e$ploitation carrie "ith it the tru**le to en! i!eolo*ical illuion of all .in! an! to upplant them #y ciencein other "or!' to !evelop a univeral cientific i!eolo*y% ntea! of !evelopin* a fale concioune' the tru**le for ocialim re+uire the en!eavour to conceive thin* a they are an! not in fantatic connection% ntea! of employin* illuory i!ea to !i*uie real ocial relation an! real ocial motive to erve the e$ploitation of one cla #y another' it re+uire true i!ea to erve the en!in* of all e$ploitation an! the atifaction of the nee! of the "hole of ociety% n the tru**le un!er capitalim' the "or.in*-cla party mut continually fi*ht to era!icate the influence of capitalit i!eolo*y in it o"n ran. an! amon* the "or.in* people' to #ae it "hole policy' ma "or. an! propa*an!a on cientific theory an! to e!ucate the "hole movement in thi theory% Lnli.e the vie" of the e$ploitin* clae' the vie" of ociety 1E9 of the "or.in* cla' "hich erve the "or.in*-cla tru**le' !oe not' an! cannot' arie an! !evelop pontaneouly a a cla i!eolo*y' #ut arie an! !evelop a a cience% &n! "hen the "or.in* cla ha con+uere! po"er an! i lea!in* in the #uil!in* of ocialit ociety' then the ta. i poe! of finally era!icatin* all the han*over of the ol! i!eolo*y from all !epartment of ocial life% ;rom i!eolo*ical miconception' ociety a a "hole mut a!vance to a cientific outloo.% Thi a!vance i poi#le an! neceary #ecaue the i!eolo*ie of the ol! ociety #ae! on e$ploitation' "ith their fale concioune an! mytification' loe their #ai "hen ocialim come into #ein*% n ocialim' property in the mean of pro!uction i pu#lic or co-operative property' an! pro!uction i conciouly re*ulate! an! planne!% ;or "hat ort of i!ea' then' !oe ocialit economy provi!e the #ai? 4reciely for cientific i!ea' !evelopin* throu*h the e$tenion of cientific un!ertan!in* of man an! hi con!ition of life% uch i!ea alone can erve the conoli!ation an! !evelopment of the ocialit economic #ai% ;or thi en! cannot #e erve! #y i!ea "hich mytify an! !elu!e people% t ucce re+uire .no"le!*e of the la" of nature an! ociety' an! a ocial concioune informe! #y uch .no"le!*e% n o far' therefore' a other mo!e of concioune perit in ocialit ociety' they are merely han*over from the ol! con!ition' in/uriou to the conoli!ation an! !evelopment of the ocialit ytem% They mut therefore #e actively com#ate!' an! eventually mut *ive "ay an! !iappear #efore the ne" cientific ocialit concioune% The illuion "hich lat lon*et are thoe of reli*ionthee #ein* alo the ol!et% ;or o lon* a num#er of people remain comparatively poor an! i*norant' ome #ai remain for reli*iou illuion% Moreover' a reli*iou form can #e *iven alo to ocialit trivin*A an! in thi repect reli*ion can' un!er certain con!ition' play even a u#i!iary poitive role in the #uil!in* of ocialim' a "e ee in the cae of the reforme! churche in ocialit countrie% @The reli*iou refle$ of the real "orl! can' in any cae' only finally vanih' "rote Mar$' "hen the practical relation of every!ay life offer to man none #ut perfectly intelli*i#le an! reaona#le relation "ith re*ar! to hi fello" men an! nature% @The life proce of ociety' "hich i #ae! on the proce of material pro!uction' !oe not trip off it mytical veil until it i treate! a pro!uction #y freely aociate! men' an! i conciouly re*ulate! #y them in accor!ance "ith a ettle! plan% (Capital' Volume ' chapter i' ection H%) >hen the life proce of ociety i in!ee! carrie! on #y freely aociate! men in accor!ance "ith a ettle! plan' an! "hen in cone+uence men are involve! in none #ut perfectly intelli*i#le an! reaona#le relation "ith their fello" men an! nature' then' naturally enou*h' there i no #ai left for any illuion a#out the con!ition of human life' for any mytification' an! human concioune finally he! uch mytification an! illuion%
Scienti(ic Foundations o( #ommunist #onsciousness The ne" communit concioune' "hich i achieve! a a univeral mo!e of concioune in communit ociety' i the concioune of ne" communit peopleof "or.in* people "ho have never .no"n e$ploitation an! "ho are mater of their country' "ho live #y co-operation an! are free of the elfih in!ivi!ualim of the private property o"ner% The conciou e$itence of uch people re+uire no i!eolo*ical illuion% On the contrary' it re+uire a clear' unclou!e! concioune' contantly enriche! an! !evelope! a a reult of free in+uiry' !icuion an! criticim% Thi preuppoe .no"le!*e of ociety an! it la"' an! of ho" to utilie thoe la" in the interet of ocietyA an! .no"le!*e of nature an! of ho" to ma.e it erve man#oth contitutin* part of a in*le !evelopin* "hole of cientific .no"le!*e% n communit ociety' natural an! ocial cience are no lon*er !ivorce!% Only if cience tart from nature i it real cience' "rote Mar$% % % % =itory itelf i a real part of natural 131 hitory' of the !evelopment of nature into man% ,ater natural cience "ill inclu!e the cience of man in the ame "ay a the cience of man "ill inclu!e natural cience% There "ill #e only one cience% (conomic-4hiloophical Manucript%) n thi one cience' Mar$ o#erve!' @man5 or ociety' #ecome the o#/ect of material conciouneA that i to ay' the conception of man an! ociety loe it former illuory i!eolo*ical character' an! i a cientifically #ae! a the conception of nature% &n! imilarly' the hi*her nee! of :man a man: #ecome real nee!A that i to ay' in place of illuory i!ea concernin* the hi*her nee! of man' "hich in fact e$pre the i!eolo*y of e$ploitin* clae "ho tifle the atifaction of the real nee! of the mae' the conception of man: nee! i #ae! on hi real nee!% Thee real nee! "hich !evelop on the #ai of the material life of ociety inclu!e far more than elementary phyical nee!' ince from thi #ai arie the nee! of culture' .no"le!*e an! fello"hip% The eential feature of man a man' of man a !itinct from the animal' i the creation an! atifaction of hi o"n nee! throu*h the ocial matery of nature% n ociety #ae! on e$ploitation' the ma of people are pro!ucin* for the #enefit of other' not for themelveA only their minimum phyical or animal nee! are atifie!A hence they are !enie! a properly human e$itence' an!' a a compenation' their hi*her nee! are repreente! a #elon*in* to ome piritual life' !ivorce! from material life% n communit ociety' "hen e$ploitation of man #y man i a#olihe!' the "hole of men: re+uirement' material an! piritual' can #e un!ertoo! a ariin* from their co-operative matery of nature' an! a #ein* atifie! on the #ai of the continuou e$panion an! perfection of ocial pro!uction% & a reult of the !evelopment of ocialim' therefore' it eventually come a#out that cience play the !eterminin* part in formin* people: "hole outloo.% 4eople "ill then have ma!e themelve free to #uil! up .no"le!*e an! control of all the apect of their live' for the a.e of "elfare an! happine an! of realiin* the fullne of life% Part Three TR/T. AMD FREEDOM #ha"ter Ten TR/T. A;solute and Partial Truth > have een that in the !evelopment of our i!ea all .in! of illuion arie' #ut alo truth% >hat' then' i truth? t i correpon!ence #et"een i!ea an! o#/ective reality% uch correpon!ence #et"een our i!ea an! reality i only *ra!ually eta#lihe!' an! then the correpon!ence i often no more than partial an! incomplete% ;or an i!ea may not in all repect correpon! to it o#/ect #ut may correpon! only partiallyA an! there may #e much in the o#/ect "hich i not repro!uce! in the i!ea at all' o that the i!ea an! it correpon!ence to the o#/ect are incomplete% n uch cae' "e houl! not ay that our i!ea "a fale' #ut yet it "oul! not #e a#olutelycompletely an! in all repecttrue% Truth' therefore' i not a property "hich an i!ea' or a propoition' either poee or !oe not poeA it may #elon* to an i!ea to a certain !e*ree' "ithin certain limit' in certain repect% Of coure' there can #e no !ou#t that ome propoition are in!ee! a#olutely true2 they are +uite "ell enou*h eta#lihe! for u to #e a#le confi!ently to aert thi% Thi applie' for e$ample' to many tatement of particular fact% Thee fact "ere the cae' an! cone+uently the propoition "hich tate them are true' a#olutely true' an! al"ay "ill #e true "ithout mo!ification% >illiam the Con+ueror !i! in fact inva!e n*lan! in the year 10662 therefore the propoition aertin* that fact i an a#olute truth%
&n! certain *eneral tatement' too' are a#olutely true% ,enin intance! t"o of them in Materialim an! mpirio- 136 Criticimpeople cannot live "ithout eatin*' an! platonic love alone "ill not #e*et #a#ie% Thee *eneral tatement correpon! to fact' an! their correpon!ence i a#olute% &n! there are plenty more uch *eneral tatement "hoe title to a#olute truth nee! never #e +uetione!% But mot of the tatement "hich "e ma.e cannot #e ai! in thi "ay to #e a#olutely true% ;or "e !o not in *eneral confine our tatement to @truim5 an! to the #al! aertion of "ell-eta#lihe! fact% Mot of the tatement "e ma.e' "hether tatement of particular fact or of *eneral concluion' may #e true enou*h for certain purpoe #ut yet not #e a#olutely true' in the ene of an a#olute correpon!ence #et"een tatement an! reality% On the contrary' they re+uire to #e correcte!' improve! upon' retate! in the li*ht of ne" e$perience an! ne" .no"le!*e% But they are not for that reaon untrue2 they are partial' relative' appro$imate truth% Thi characteritic of truththat it i for the mot part partial an! not a#olute' appro$imate an! not e$act' proviional an! not finali very "ell .no"n to cience% The la" "hich cience eta#lihe certainly reflect o#/ective proceeA they correpon! to the real motion an! interconnection of thin* in the e$ternal "orl!% et cience ha eta#lihe! fe" la" "hich can claim to #e a#olute truth% ;or e$ample' the la" of claical mechanic' "hich formulate the principle of the mechanical interaction of #o!ie an! are continually an! confi!ently employe! in all .in! of en*ineerin* pro/ect' are no" .no"n not to correpon! to the movement of matter on a u#-atomic cale% n other "or!' they are not a#olute truth% But "e !o not for that reaon hol! that claical mechanic i no" ho"n to #e fale% Nuantum mechanic provi!e a #etter appro$imation than claical mechanic' #ecaue it la" not only correpon! to the movement of matter on a u#-atomic cale #ut alo inclu!e the la" of claical mechanic a limitin* caeA #ut even o' no cientit "oul! claim that +uantum mechanic either "a an a#olute truth% n *eneral' cience ha no interet in a#olute truth% n!ee!' if once any propoition i aerte! a an a#olute truth' there 13 i an en! of all further in+uiry2 if a#olute truth i attaine!' then there i no room for further inveti*ation% The claim to eta#lih a#olute truth i therefore actually antithetical to cience' ince uch a claim mut prevent u from carryin* on further inveti*ation' from a!vancin* our .no"le!*e' from procee!in* from le appro$imate to more appro$imate truth' in other "or!' from puruin* cience% @eally cientific "or. therefore a a rule avoi! uch !o*matic an! moral e$preion a error an! truth' "rote n*el' "hile thee e$preion meet u every"here in "or. %%% in "hich empty phraemon*erin* attempt to impoe on u a the overei*n reult of overei*n thou*ht% (&nti-iihrin*' 4art ' chapter 9%) Truth and Error f "e reco*nie that' outi!e a very limite! fiel! of tatement of un!ou#te! fact' the truth of every tatement i partial' appro$imate an! proviional only' then it follo" that "e mut al"ay #e prepare! to correct an! mo!ify our tatement in the li*ht of ne" e$perience% But more than that% >hen ne" e$perience arie' callin* for the correction an! mo!ification of certain tatement' then to perit in till aertin* them in their ol!' unmo!ifie! form mean that they turn from truth into falehoo! in the ne" con!ition% ;or e$ample' the la" of claical mechanic are till a true a ever they "ere for mot en*ineerin* purpoe' an! no one propoe to !ipene "ith them an! re/ect them a fale% everthele' ince e$perience ha ho"n that they !o not hol! "ithout mo!ification for all .no"n movement of matter' it follo" that to aert the e"tonian la" a applyin* "ithout +ualification to all matter in motion "oul! #e to aert an untruth% &n appro$imate an! partial truth' "hich i true enou*h "ithin certain limit' can #ecome' therefore' an untruth if it i applie! #eyon! thoe limit% &*ain' Mar$ an! n*el tate! that "hen ocialit ociety "a eta#lihe!' then the tate "oul! eventually "ither a"ay% Thi "a an! i true#ut not "ithout +ualification% Mar$ an! n*el coul! not tate the +ualification' #ecaue they lac.e! the neceary e$perience% But the e$perience of #uil!in* ocialim in one country' the oviet Lnion' ha ho"n that o lon* a ocialit an! capitalit countrie continue to coe$it the tate mut remain in #ein* in ocialit countrieA only "hen ocialim i eta#lihe! on a "orl! cale can the tate finally "ither a"ay% t follo" that to aert no"' "ithout +ualification' that "hen ocialim i eta#lihe! the tate "ill "ither a"ay i to aert omethin* fale% n!ee!' it "oul! #e to aert omethin* not merely fale #ut !efinitely harmful in relation to e$itin* ocialit countrie2 for uch an aertion "oul! lea! to a lac. of concern for tren*thenin* the ocialit tate' therefore to a poi#le "ea.enin* of the ocialit tate an! to the capitalit: ta.in* a!vanta*e of thi "ea.enin* to intervene an! overthro" the ocialit ytem%
Thi ho" that' a n*el pointe! out in &nti-Lhrin*' truth an! error' li.e all concept "hich are e$pree! in polar oppoite' have a#olute vali!ity only in an e$tremely limite! fiel! %%% & oon a "e apply the antithei #et"een truth an! error outi!e that narro" fiel! % % % #oth pole of the antithei chan*e into their oppoite' truth #ecome error an! error truth%5 Jut a truth are for the mot part only appro$imate an! contain the poi#ility of #ein* converte! into untruth' o are many error foun! to #e not a#olute falehoo! #ut to contain a *erm of truth% >hatever people ay i ai! in term of the e$perience an! i!ea availa#le to them% t follo" that "hile they may #e le! to ma.e +uite erroneou tatement' neverthele it can happen that erroneou tatement reflect' thou*h erroneouly' omethin* "hich i actually the cae% ;or intance' the 4uritan in the n*lih evolution ai! they "ere the elect of Do!% But even thi containe! a *erm of truth namely' that they "ere in fact the riin* pro*reive ocial force "hich "a #oun! to overthro" the !ecayin* force of the ol! ociety% Their i!ea a#out #ein* the elect of Do! "ere certainly erroneouA #ut tlii "a their "ay of e$prein* omethin* "hich "a un!ou#te!ly the cae% imilarly many erroneou vie" in cience an! philoophy' "hich have ha! to #e' not mo!ifie!' #ut re/ecte! a error' conceale! a certain truth "hich receive! in them an erroneou' !itorte! e$preion% n *eneral' error "hich are imply plain' !o"nri*ht error an! nothin* eleerror "hich contain no element of truth at all are le important an! are more eaily !ipoe! of than error "hich have a certain #ai in fact% The former can #e refute! #y pointin* to fact "hich contra!ict them' or can #e e$poe! a imple nonene% The latter are apt to #e far more influential' an! therefore far more !an*erou% &n! to refute uch error' it i neceary not imply to re/ect them an! "eep them ai!e #ut to ho" ho" the truth i !itorte! in them an! to re-tate that truth free of !itortion% Thi illutrate "hat ,enin meant "hen he "rote in hi 4hiloophical ote#oo. 2 @4hiloophical i!ealim i only nonene from the tan!point of cru!e' imple' metaphyical materialim% On the other han!' from the tan!point of !ialectical materialim' philoophical i!ealim i a one-i!e!' e$a**erate! % % % !evelopment %%% of one of the feature' i!e' facet of .no"le!*e into an a#olute' !ivorce! from matter' from nature' apotheoie!% !ealim i clericalim% True% But philoophical i!ealim i %%% a roa! to clericalim throu*h one of the ha!e of the infinitely comple$ .no"le!*e % % % of man% %%% t i not *roun!leA it i a terile flo"er un!ou#te!ly' #ut it i a terile flo"er that *ro" on the livin* tree of%%% human .no"le!*e%5 >e houl! reco*nie' then' that certain erroneou vie"' inclu!in* i!ealit vie"' coul! repreent' in their time' a contri#ution to truthince they "ere' perhap' the only "ay in "hich certain truth coul! firt #e*in to come to e$preion% But that !oe not mean that "e nee! have the li*htet ue for uch erroneou vie"' once their erroneoune can #e !etecte!% !ealit ma!e a contri#ution to philoophy' for e$ample2 #ut that !oe not imply that "e houl! have the li*htet ue for i!ealit philoophy to!ay' in our preent con!ition' "hen uch truth a "a e$pree! #y i!ealim can #e e$pree! much 1H0 #etter "ithout it' an! "hen the eential !itortion an! falehoo! containe! in i!ealim can #e fully e$poe!% The Relati$it! o( Truth >e have een' then' that mot truth i appro$imate' partial an! incomplete' an! that error i to #e foun! in truth' an! truth in error% =ence on any u#/ect "e *enerally poe a meaure of truth' #ut not the a#olute truth% The meaure of truth a#out anythin* "hich "e can achieve at any particular time' an! ho"in "hat term an! ho" a!e+uately"e e$pre it' !epen! on the mean "hich are availa#le at that time for !icoverin* an! e$prein* truth% Truth i al"ay relative to the particular mean "here#y "e have arrive! at it% >e can only e$pre the truth a#out thin* in term of our o"n e$perience of them an! of the operation "here#y "e have come to .no" a#out them% But at the ame time' thi truth !oe relate to the o#/ective' material "orl! an! contitute an ever more a!e+uate reflection of the real propertie an! la" of motion of o#/ective thin* an! procee% Therefore "hile the form of e$preion of truth an! the limit of it appro$imation to o#/ective reality !epen! on u' it content' "hat it i a#out' the o#/ective reality to "hich it correpon!' !oe not !epen! on u% n thi ene there i an element of #oth relativity an! a#olutene' of u#/ectivity an! o#/ectivity' in every truth% Truth i relative inamuch a it i e$pree! in term !epen!in* on the particular circumtance' e$perience an! mean of arrivin* at truth of the people "ho formulate it% t i a#olute inamuch a "hat i e$pree! or repro!uce! in thee term i
o#/ective reality' e$itin* in!epen!ently of men: .no"le!*e of it% f the i!e of relativity only i tree!' then there reult u#/ective i!ealim an! relativim' for "hich truth relate e$cluively to our o"n o#ervation an! operation' not to the o#/ective "orl!' the nature of "hich i ai! to #e un.no"a#le an! ine$prei#le% ir &rthur !!in*ton' for e$ample' notin* that our .no"le!*e of the atom "a mainly !erive! from 1H1 o#ervation of pointer rea!in* an! flahe on creenince thee "ere the in!ication affor!e! #y the apparatu ue! to e$plore the atomic "orl!conclu!e! that "e in fact .ne" nothin* a#out atom e$itin* in the o#/ective "orl! #ut only a#out the pointer rea!in* an! imilar in!ication% (The Mature of the 4hyical >orl!' chapter 1E%) f' on the other han!' only the other i!e i tree!' the i!e of a#olutene or o#/ectivity' then "hat reult i !o*matim% Thu earlier phyicit' for e$ample' confi!ent that their phyical theorie !i! reflect o#/ective material reality' tate! that the "orl! conite! of nothin* #ut little' har! particle li.e microcopic #illiar! #all' an! that no other .in! of material reality e$ite!% Clearly' it i neceary to ta.e into account' #oth that truth i reflection of o#/ective reality' an! that thi reflection i at the ame time con!itione! an! limite! #y the particular circumtance un!er "hich it "a create!% @;or !ialectical materialim' "rote ,enin' there i no impaa#le #oun!ary #et"een relative an! a#olute truth% %% % The materialit !ialectic of Mar$ an! n*el certainly !oe contain relativim' #ut i not re!uci#le to relativim' that i' it reco*nie the relativity of all our .no"le!*e' not in the ene of the !enial of o#/ective truth' #ut in the ene of the hitorically con!itione! nature of the limit of the appro$imation of our .no"le!*e of thi truth% (Materialim an! mpirioCriticim' chapter E%) &.in* oe o#/ective truth e$it? ,enin pointe! out that t"o +uetion mut #e !itin*uihe! an! not confoun!e! to*ether2 @(i) there uch a thin* a o#/ective truth' that i' can human i!ea have a content that !oe not !epen! on a u#/ect' that !oe not !epen! either on a human #ein* or on humanity ? @(E) f o' can human i!ea' "hich *ive e$preion to o#/ective truth' e$pre it all at one time' a a "hole' uncon!itionally' a#olutely' or only appro$imately' relatively?5 The an"er to thee +uetion i clear% (i) =uman i!ea can' an! !o' have a content that !oe not !epen! either on particular people or on humanity *enerally' 1HE ince thee i!ea repro!uce o#/ective reality e$itin* in!epen!ently of any peron: i!ea of it% (a) Thee i!ea !o not repro!uce o#/ective reality in it entirety an! "ith complete faithfulne' #ut only appro$imately' an! relatively to the "ay in "hich people have #een a#le to !icover an! e$pre truth% ince truth conit in the correpon!ence of i!ea "ith o#/ective reality' it i evi!ent that "e have al"ay to rec.on "ith #oth i!e of the relationhipthe u#/ect a "ell a the o#/ect% On the one han! i o#/ective reality' "hich !epen! in no "ay on the i!ea "hich "e may form a#out it% On the other han!' i!ea are forme! in the proce of human activity an! are therefore con!itione! #y the nature of the activity out of "hich they are pro!uce!% =o"' in "hat form' "ith "hat appro$imation' reality i e$pree! in our i!ea !epen! on u an! our activitythat i' on the u#/ective factor% But that "hich i e$pree! in our i!ea' their content' "hat they are a#out' !oe not !epen! on any u#/ective factor' #ut contitute a ,enin e$pree! it in the ame chapter' an o#/ectively e$itin* meaure or mo!el e$itin* in!epen!ently of humanity to "hich our relative .no"le!*e appro$imate5% Relati$e and A;solute Truth: #ausalit!7 S"ace and Time & an e$ample of ho" a#olute truth i e$pree! throu*h relative truth' "e can coni!er the conception of cauality' an! of pace an! time% Our i!ea a#out cauality in nature are pro!uce! a a reult of our e$perience in !ealin* "ith natural o#/ect% >e learn from e$perience that "e ourelve can pro!uce chan*e in nature in a re*ulate! "ay' an! on thi #ai "e formulate i!ea of caual connection an! caual la"% Thu the "ay in "hich "e come to reco*nie cauality' an! the i!ea of caual connection "hich "e e$pre from time to time' are u#/ectively con!itione!% >ith the !evelopment of pro!uction an! of ocial relation an! ocial activitie' the conception of cauality ha #een mo!ifie! an! chan*e!animim' final caue' mechanical interaction an! !ialectical interaction #ein* o many ta*e in the !evelopment of the i!ea of cauality% But "hile our i!ea a#out cauality arie from our e$perience an! !epen! upon the character of that e$perience' the
e$itence of cauality in nature i an o#/ective fact' alto*ether in!epen!ent of ourelve an! our e$perience% t i #ecaue "e' a u#/ect' e$perience our o"n po"er to caue chan*e in e$ternal o#/ect' an! imilarly e$perience the compellin* po"er of thoe o#/ect upon ourelve' that "e firt arrive at the i!ea of caualityA an! that i!ea i ela#orate! an! !evelope! in relation to the !evelopment of ocial life% But the reality "hich correpon! to thi i!ea' an! "hich i repro!uce! "ith a *reater or leer !e*ree of a!e+uacy in our i!ea of caual connection' i an o#/ective reality' in!epen!ent of ourelve' in!epen!ent of any relationhip #et"een u#/ect an! o#/ect% !ealim tree only the u#/ective i!e of the i!ea of cauality% !ealit philoopher have maintaine! that cauality "a invente! imply to #rin* a rational or!er into our e$perience an! that it i then erroneouly attri#ute! to the e$ternal "orl! in!epen!ent of e$perience% But in oppoition to i!ealim' the reco*nition of o#/ective la" in nature an! the reco*nition that thi la" i reflecte! "ith appro$imate fi!elity in the min! of man i materialim% (,enin' Materialim an! mpiric-Criticim' chapter 3%) t i the ame "ith our conception of pace an! time% tartin* "ith our perception of the paa*e of time an! of the patial characteritic an! relation of o#/ect' an! "ith the !icovery of metho! of e$prein* the patial an! temporal propertie an! relation of thin* #y mean of meaurement' our *eneral conception of pace an! time have #een *ra!ually !evelope! an! ela#orate!% The conception of pace an! time i al"ay relative to human e$perience' #ut pace an! time !o not !epen! on human e$perience% On the contrary' the #aic form of all #ein* are pace an! time (n*el' &ntiiihrin*' 4art ' chapter 7)' an! human conception of pace an! time are al"ay appro$imate reflection of real patial an! temporal relation% @eco*niin* the e$itence of o#/ective reality' i%e%' matter in motion' in!epen!ently of our min!' materialim mut alo inevita#ly reco*nie the o#/ective reality of pace an! time' 1HH "rote ,enin% % % % The muta#ility of human conception of pace an! time no more refute the o#/ective reality of pace an! time than the muta#ility of cientific .no"le!*e of the tructure an! form of matter in motion refute the o#/ective reality of the e$ternal "orl!% %%% t i one thin*' ho"' "ith the help of variou ene-or*an' man perceive pace' an! ho"' in the coure of a lon* hitorical !evelopment' a#tract i!ea of pace are !erive! from thee perceptionA it i an entirely !ifferent thin* "hether there i an o#/ective reality in!epen!ent of man.in! "hich correpon! to thee perception an! conception of man.in!%%%% Our e$perience an! our perception a!apt themelve more an! more to o#/ective pace an! time' an! reflect them ever more correctly an! profoun!ly% (Materialim an! mpiric-Criticim' chapter 3%) The Pro)ress o( Truth =o" far i the human min! capa#le of attainin* to an! eta#lihin* truth? Complete' full' a#olute truththe "hole truth an! nothin* #ut the truth a#out everythin*i omethin* "e can never attain% But it i omethin* to"ar! "hich "e are al"ay appro$imatin*% >e a!vance to"ar! full' comprehenive truth' em#racin* not only particular fact #ut *eneral la" an! interconnection' #y mean of a erie of particular' proviional an! appro$imate truth% The truth "hich can #e formulate! #y any in!ivi!ual' or #y man.in! at any particular time' i al"ay appro$imate' incomplete an! u#/ect to correction% But in!ivi!ual learn from each other' #oth from each other: achievement an! from each other: mita.eA an! the ame applie to the uccee!in* *eneration of ociety% Therefore the um of incomplete' particular' proviional an! appro$imate truth i al"ay approachin* nearer to #ut never reachin* the *oal of complete comprehenive' final an! a#olute truth% The "orl! "hich i repro!uce! in our i!ea an! tatement really e$it% They are true in proportion a they correpon! to it an! repro!uce it correctly% >e tet thi truth in e$perience' in practice% The correpon!ence i never complete' e$act' a#olute% But it continually approache yet i al"ay infinitely !itant from that a#olute limit a truth an! .no"le!*e continually a!vance' a men perfect their intrument of pro!uction an! their mean of ac+uirin* .no"le!*e% Thu n*el "rote (&nti-tihrin*' 4art ' chapter 3)2 @The perception that all the phenomena of nature are ytematically interconnecte! !rive cience on to prove thi ytematic interconnection throu*hout' #oth in *eneral an! in !etail% But an a!e+uate' e$hautive' cientific tatement of thi interconnection' the formulation in thou*ht of an e$act picture of the "orl!-ytem in "hich "e live' i impoi#le for u an! "ill al"ay remain impoi#le% @f at any time in the evolution of man.in! uch a final' concluive ytem of the interconnection "ithin the "orl! phyical a "ell a mental an! hitorical"ere #rou*ht to completion' thi "oul! mean that human .no"le!*e ha! reache! it limit% % % % Man.in! therefore fin! itelf face! "ith a contra!iction2 on the one han!' it ha to *ain an e$hautive .no"le!*e of the "orl! ytem in all it interrelationA an! on the other han!' #ecaue of the nature #oth of man an! of the "orl! ytem' thi ta. can never #e completely fulfille!% But thi contra!iction lie not only in the nature of the t"o factorthe "orl! an! man
it i alo the main lever of all intellectual a!vance' an! fin! it olution continuouly' !ay #y !ay' in the en!le pro*reive evolution of humanity% % % % @ach mental ima*e of the "orl! ytem i an! remain in actual fact limite!' o#/ectively throu*h the hitorical ta*e' an! u#/ectively throu*h the phyical an! mental contitution of it ma.er%5 everthele' throu*h the en!le pro*reive evolution of uch limite! mental ima*e of the o#/ective "orl!' man.in! continually attain more complete truth' more comprehenive .no"le!*e% @ human thou*ht overei*n? n*el a.e!' meanin* there#y2 can "e achieve the complete truth a#out everythin*' can "e achieve comprehenive an! fully certifie! .no"le!*e ? @Before "e can an"er ye or no "e mut in+uire2 "hat i 1H6 human thou*ht? it the thou*ht of the in!ivi!ual man? o% But it e$it only a the in!ivi!ual thou*ht of many #illion of pat' preent an! future men% %%% n other "or!' the overei*nty of thou*ht i realie! in a erie of e$tremely unoverei*nly-thin.in* human #ein*A the .no"le!*e "hich ha an uncon!itional claim to truth i realie! in a erie of relative errorA neither the one nor the other can #e fully realie! e$cept throu*h an en!le eternity of human e$itence% @=ere a*ain "e fin! the ame contra!iction a "e foun! a#ove' namely' #et"een the character of human thou*ht' necearily conceive! a a#olute' an! it reality in in!ivi!ual human #ein* "ith their e$tremely limite! thou*ht% Thi i a contra!iction "hich can only #e olve! in the infinite pro*reion' or "hat i for u' at leat from a practical tan!point' the en!le ucceion' of *eneration of man.in!% n thi ene human thou*ht i /ut a much overei*n a not overei*n' an! it capacity for .no"le!*e /ut a much unlimite! a limite!% t i overei*n an! unlimite! in it !ipoition' it vocation' it poi#ilitie an! it hitorical purpoeA it i not overei*n an! it i limite! in it in!ivi!ual e$preion an! in it realiation at each particular moment% (n*el' &nti-iihrin*' 4art ' chapter 9%) The materialit theory of truth ho" u ho" to avoi! !o*matim' "hich lay !o"n *eneral principle' ho"ever arrive! at' a unaltera#le an! final truthrefuin* to e$amine their foun!ation an! refuin* to alter an! correct them' or if nee! #e re/ect them alto*ether' in the li*ht of ne" e$perience an! ne" circumtance% &n! at the ame time it ho" u ho" to avoi! the narro" empiricim "hich confine itelf to collectin* an! co-or!inatin* fact' i not interete! in !icoverin* the un!erlyin* la" of motion an! interconnection manifete! in thoe fact' an! i ceptical a#out all #ol! *eneraliation an! theorie% ,i.e !o*matim' empiricim cannot ee #eyon! the limite! e$perience of the preent moment% Thee attitu!e' common enou*h in philoophy an! the cience' confront u alo in the "or.in*-cla movement% n the "or.in*-cla movement !o*matim conit in learnin* 1H certain formula #y rote an! thin.in* that every ne" pro#lem can #e olve! #y imple repetition of thee formula% & a reult of thi' people fail to aimilate the leon of e$perience an! prove una#le #ol!ly to a!vance ne" policie to meet a ne" ituation% mpiricim' on the other han!' conit in #ein* en*roe! in petty' !ay-to-!ay @practical5 pro#lem' atten!in* only to thee an! re*ar!in* ail other +uetion a unimportant' a the concern of @intellectual5 an! not of practical "or.er% & a reult of thi' too' people fail to aimilate the leon of e$perience an! prove una#le #ol!ly to a!vance ne" policie% Thu #oth !o*matim an! empiricim lea! to the ame reult' an! are capa#le of !oin* *reat harm to the "or.in*-cla movement' preventin* it from fin!in* the ri*ht roa! lea!in* to"ar! the achievement of ocialim% Mar$im i #oth critical an! revolutionary% t i critical #ecaue it i a*aint !o*ma' init on continual tetin* an! re-tetin* of all i!ea an! all policie in the cruci#le of revolutionary practicereco*niin* that truth chan*e' that "hat i true enou*h to!ay may #ecome fale tomorro" unle it i correcte! an! !evelope! into ne" truth% But imply to #e critical i not enou*h% & merely critical attitu!e i ne*ative an! can lea! to paralyi of action% Mar$im i alo revolutionary% t i revolutionary #ecaue it !oe not only criticie' it *oe for"ar! to replace the ol! #y the ne"% t i firm in it tan!point' certain of the truth an! /utice of it caue' confi!ent in the correctne of it principle a the #ai for the future a!vance' an! verifie it revolutionary i!ea in revolutionary practice%
#ha"ter Ele$en T.E ROOTS OF NO'LED9E 'hat is nowled)e> achievin* true i!ea a#out thin* "e alo "in an! e$ten! .no"le!*e a#out them% >hat' then' i .no"le!*e? Lnle "e ma.e our i!ea correpon! "ith reality' "e certainly !o not poe .no"le!*e% To "in .no"le!*e i to replace i*norance or untrue i!ea #y true i!ea% =ence the *ro"th of .no"le!*e i to #e foun! in the *ro"th of true i!ea "ithin the totality of i!ea' ome of "hich are true "hile other are not% But imply to e+uate .no"le!*e "ith truth i not to !efine .no"le!*e% ;or the +uetion arie2 =o" !o "e .no" that our true i!ea are true? imply to tate or #elieve omethin* true i not to .no" it% ;or e$ample' ome atronomer ay there i life on Mar% 4erhap there i' in "hich cae "hat they ay i true% But they !o not yet .no" there i life on Mar' for they have not yet *athere! ufficient evi!ence% The +uetion "ill #e ettle! "hen pace-hip ma.e a thorou*h urvey of Mar% On the other han!' "hen atronomer ay that Mar i a planet they are e$prein* .no"le!*e of the matterA for in thi cae "hat they ay i #ae! on relia#le metho! of inveti*ation% &*ain' the ancient Dree. philoopher ai! that #o!ie "ere compoe! of atom% >e to!ay .no" that thi i true#ut they !i! not% t "a imply a luc.y *ue on their part% =o" !o "e .no" that #o!ie are compoe! of atom? t i #ecaue "hile they merely peculate! an! ma!e luc.y *uee a#out the nature of matter' "e have ytematically inveti*ate! it' have #ae! our i!ea on uch inveti*ation' an! o have tete! 1H9 an! prove! the truth of thoe particular i!ea% On the other han!' there remain many thin* a#out "hich "e .no" no more than the ancient Dree."e are merely peculatin* a#out uch thin*' /ut a they "ereA an! /ut a "ith them' it remain to #e foun! out ho" near the truth are our peculation% >e *ain .no"le!*e' then' only in o far a "e !evelop our i!ea in uch a "ay that their correpon!ence "ith reality i prove! an! tete!% Only then can "e lay claim to .no"le!*e% The !evelopment of .no"le!*e i therefore the !evelopment of a pecial +uality "ithin the total !evelopment of our i!ea' theorie an! vie" a#out thin*% Many i!ea' theorie an! vie" a#out thin* have #een "or.e! out' often in the mot ytematic an! lo*ical "ay' #ut they have #een merely peculative even if true' an! have motly #een +uite illuory% But in the coure of the !evelopment of i!ea there alo occur a !evelopment of .no"le!*e' "hich i the !evelopment of i!ea "hich not only correpon! "ith reality #ut "hoe correpon!ence i prove! an! tete!% Our .no"le!*e' then' i the um of our conception' vie" an! propoition "hich have #een eta#lihe! an! tete! a correct reflection' o far a they *o' of o#/ective reality% The Social #haracter o( nowled)e Ino"le!*e i eentially a ocial pro!uct% t i #uilt up ocially' a a pro!uct of the ocial activity of men% ome philoopher *ive #oth themelve an! their rea!er a lot of trou#le #y tryin* to trace the *ro"th of .no"le!*e in the min! of the iolate! in!ivi!ual an! to fin! it root in in!ivi!ual e$perience% n tryin* to !o thi' they et themelve an inolu#le pro#lem' ince .no"le!*e i not' an! cannot #e' #uilt up in that "ay% &n in!ivi!ual actin* alone' cut off from contact "ith other people an! relyin* only on himelf' coul! ac+uire carcely any .no"le!*e at allan! that only of particular fact% =ence ome of thee philoopher "ere only follo"in* their o"n premie throu*h to the lo*ical concluion "hen they announce! that a man can .no" nothin* e$cept hi o"n momentary e$itence' an! certainly not the e$itence 170 of the material "orl! an! of other peoplethou*h they "ere le lo*ical in pu#lihin* thi concluion' ince on their o"n ho"in* they ha! no reaon to #elieve that there e$ite! anyone capa#le of rea!in* it% Of coure' .no"le!*e i #uilt up #y in!ivi!ual-/ut a everythin* man create i create! #y in!ivi!ualA #ut it i #uilt up #y in!ivi!ual actin* in co-operation' !epen!in* on one another' communicatin* their e$perience an! their i!ea% Many in!ivi!ual in ociety can !o "hat none of them in!ivi!ually coul! poi#ly !oan! one of thee thin* i to #uil! up human .no"le!*e% very in!ivi!ual ac+uire a *reat !eal of .no"le!*e from hi o"n e$perienceA #ut he "oul! not !o o apart from hi aociation "ith other' an! if he !i! not learn from other "hat they ha! alrea!y learne!% The very mean for formin* an! e$prein* i!ea' namely' lan*ua*e' "ithout "hich no i!ea "oul! #e poi#le' i a ocial pro!uct an! e$it only a the common poeion of a ociety% ome in!ivi!ual ma.e epecially *reat contri#ution to #uil!in* up ne" .no"le!*e' "hile many ma.e no contri#ution at allA yet the former "oul! not have ma!e their contri#ution if they ha! not #een mem#er of a particular ociety' if they "ere not in communication "ith their fello"' if they ha! not learne! "hat their ociety ha! to teach' if they ha! not ha! at their !ipoal the numerou material an! intellectual mean for ac+uirin* .no"le!*e "hich their ociety ha! pro!uce!%
t i' then' only in ociety that .no"le!*e i ac+uire! an! #uilt up' an! it root lie in the ocial activitie of man% t i #uilt up #y the interchan*e of e$perience an! i!ea #et"een mem#er of ociety in the coure of their variou form of ocial activity' an! it i ifte! an! tete! in the ame proce% & a reult' the um of ocial .no"le!*e-r-that i' of .no"le!*e tore! an! availa#le to ocietyi al"ay *reater than the .no"le!*e poee! #y in!ivi!ual% Many people an! many *eneration #uil! up far more .no"le!*e than any in!ivi!ual can poi#ly ac+uire% Thi .no"le!*e i tore! #y ociety' #ein* !itri#ute! in the firt place amon*t the many memorie of many people' an! econ!ly' #ein* permanently recor!e! in "ritin*o that in thi repect #oo. an! recor! 171 of variou .in! erve a a phyical repoitory of the .no"le!*e ac+uire! in ociety% ;or intance' no one .no" all the telephone num#er in ,on!on' #ut thi .no"le!*e i ocially availa#le an! contantly ma!e ue of throu*h the telephone !irectory% &*ain' no one .no" everythin* !icovere! #y the cience' #ut the totality of thi .no"le!*e i ocially availa#le' an! the or*aniation e$it (thou*h it coul! #e *reatly improve!) for ma.in* ue of it% o there e$it in ociety an accumulation of ocial .no"le!*e' to "hich in!ivi!ual contri#ute an! "hich in!ivi!ual can !ra" upon% Social Practice and Social nowled)e &ll human aociation arie an! !evelop from man: #aic aociation in pro!uction% The !evelopment of .no"le!*e' therefore' "hich i a pro!uct of human aociation' !epen! in the lat analyi upon the !evelopment of ocial pro!uction% Men firt #e*an to form i!ea in the proce of pro!uction% &n! the !evelopment of thou*ht an! of .no"le!*e' #e*innin* in men: pro!uctive activity' can at no point #e !iociate! from it% n the coure of hitory .no"le!*e ha #een "on an! conoli!ate! tep #y tep% &n! it i a men have triven to !evelop their force of pro!uction' an! to recontitute their pro!uction relation correpon!in* to the !evelopment of their force of pro!uction' that they have #een impelle! to trive for ne" .no"le!*e an! to overcome #oth the i*norance an! fale i!ea "hich impe!e! their material pro*re% The um total of .no"le!*e' an! it character' at any ta*e of ocial !evelopment i al"ay !epen!ent on an! relative to the ta*e of !evelopment of pro!uction% ;or "hat men have #een a#le to fin! out a#out nature an! ociety al"ay !epen! on their practical intercoure "ith nature an! "ith one another' relate to the practical pro#lem et #y that intercoure' an! i tete! in the practical olution of thoe pro#lem% On thi #ai they "or. out the cate*orie of thou*ht' mo!e of inference an! metho! of inveti*ation #y mean of "hich the e!ifice of .no"le!*e i #uilt% But "hile the !evelopment of .no"le!*e !epen! in the lat analyi on the !evelopment of pro!uction' it !oe not 17E !epen! on pro!uction alone' #ut it !evelopment i me!iate! #y the variou form of ocial activity an! relationhip "hich arie from pro!uction% The #uil!-up of .no"le!*e' !epen!ent on material pro!uctive activity' i alo !epen!ent' in cla ociety' on clae an! the cla tru**le% The ta. of preervin* an! enlar*in* the #o!y of .no"le!*e ha in the main !evolve! upon the repreentative of !efinite clae% &n! it ha #een lar*ely a a reult of the activity an! tru**le economic' political' cientific an! artiticof !ifferent clae in !ifferent perio! that ne" .no"le!*e' #oth of nature an! of ociety' ha #een "on% Theor! and Practice in the 8uild,u" o( nowled)e n *eneral' the ac+uiition of .no"le!*e in ociety i omethin* "hich arie out of the um total of the practical activitie of the mem#er of ociety' their intercoure "ith e$ternal nature an! "ith one another% &part from uch practical activitie' uch active relationhip' "e coul! not ac+uire .no"le!*e of anythin*' for there "oul! #e no #ai on "hich to !erive i!ea "hich correpon!e! "ith o#/ective reality or to tet that correpon!ence% =ence ,enin "rote2 The tan!point of life' of practice' houl! #e firt an! fun!amental in the theory of .no"le!*e% (Materialim an! mpirio-Criticim' chapter E%) >hat e$actly !o "e mean #y @practice5 or practical activity ? (1) ;irt of all' practice conit of movement of the or*an of the human #o!y "hich caue chan*e in the urroun!in* "orl!% (E) But not imply any uch movement' any uch act' count a practice or a practical activity% ;or intance' "e "oul! not count variou imple refle$ action a e$ample of practice% or "oul! "e *ive the title of practical activity to the action of a leep"al.er% 4ractical activity i eentially human conciou activityA that i to ay' it i !one !eli#erately' "ith (a) an i!ea of the en! reult' or aim' to #e achieve!' an! (#) ome concioune of the con!ition of the action an! of the propertie of the u#/ect of the action an! of the mean throu*h 173 "hich the aim can #e achieve!%
(3) Thir!ly' practice i ocial% There i' of coure' in!ivi!ual practicethat i' the practical activitie carrie! out #y an in!ivi!ual on hi o"nan! alo ocial practice' activitie "hich can #e carrie! out only #y a num#er of in!ivi!ual actin* in aociation% But no conciou practical activity "oul! !evelop apart from man: ocial life an! the con!itionin* of in!ivi!ual #y their ociety% n ociety' people !evelop many mean to their practical activity% peech' #y "hich "e communicate "ith one another' i one of them% =ence a lar*e an! important part i playe! in our practical activity #y peech' for thi i certainly an important mean of #rin*in* thin* a#out% The a#ove three point !efine "hat "e mean #y @practice5% Ino"le!*e' then' arie out of practice #ecaue it arie out of the !evelopment of i!ea correpon!in* to the variou con!ition' u#/ect an! mean of our practical activitie% 4ractice !eman! uch i!ea' an! they are !evelope! in accor!ance "ith the !evelopment of practice% Ino"le!*e i ac+uire! /ut in o far a practice create the !eman! for true i!ea a#out variou thin*' an! provi!e the mean an! opportunitie for "or.in* them out an! tetin* them% &t all time it ha #een ocial practice "hich ha impelle! people to !evelop an! perfect their .no"le!*ethe rec/uirement of the !evelopment of material pro!uctive activity' an! no le the re+uirement of the !ifferent clae' "ho have e$perience! the neceity of ac+uirin* ever !eeper .no"le!*e a#out variou apect of nature an! ociety in or!er to carry for"ar! their o"n practical interet% Thu a men have improve! their intrument of pro!uction' their pro!uction techni+ue' their practical a#ility to mater nature' o ha their .no"le!*e of nature a!vance!% ;or chan*e in pro!uction et pro#lem for .no"le!*e an! at the ame time provi!e the mean for tac.lin* them% e" fiel! of .no"le!*e are thu opene! up' an! ne" an! far-reachin* concluion reache!% Thee in turn contri#ute to further technical a!vance an! are tete!' an! alo further !evelope!' in their application in practice% The capitalit cla' in un!erta.in* the !evelopment of mo!ern in!utry' *ave a profoun! impule to the !eepenin* of natural .no"le!*e' particularly of phyical an! chemical procee% The "or.in* cla in turn' in un!erta.in* an! lea!in* the #uil!in* of ocialim' re+uire an! create the con!ition for far more comprehenive natural .no"le!*e% imilarly' a men have triven to improve their "ell-#ein* an! have uccee!e! in eta#lihin* ne" an! hi*her ocial relation in place of ol! an! outmo!e! one' o ha their .no"le!*e of themelve an! of ociety a!vance!% The .no"le!*e of the la" of ocial chan*e em#o!ie! in cientific ocialim coul! #e achieve! only "hen' "ith the !evelopment of the "or.in* cla' the tru**le for ocialim #ecame a practical +uetion% n *eneral' in each hitorical epoch the e$tent of .no"le!*e of ociety an! it la" ha al"ay correpon!e! to the practical ocial ta. of the epoch% Thu capitalim' #y the !evelopment of the "orl! mar.et an! then the !iviion of the "orl! amon* imperialit po"er' timulate! tu!ie in "orl! hitory an! in ocietie at variou ta*e of their !evelopment' "hich reulte! in a tremen!ou enlar*ement of ocial an! hitorical reearch% Doin* #eyon! thi' the tru**le for ocialim lai! the #ai for truly cientific .no"le!*e of ociety' penetratin* to the #aic ocial relationhip an! la" of ocial !evelopment% On the other han!' people !o not an! cannot ac+uire .no"le!*e of thin* a#out "hich their practice ha not yet *iven them the nee! or opportunity of fin!in* out anythin*% ;or e$ample' "hile people till live! in mall local commune an! ue! very primitive intrument of pro!uction they !i! not an! coul! not !evelop any .no"le!*e of *eo*raphy' or mathematic' or atronomy' or mechanic% They .ne" very little' thou*h they ha! all ort of i!ea a#out thin* of "hich they .ne" little% Before capitalim an! the emer*ence of the "or.in* cla people !i! not an! coul! not ac+uire much .no"le!*e a#out the la" of !evelopment of ociety% They ha! all ort of i!ea a#out uch thin*' inclu!in* i!ea of ocialim' #ut very little .no"le!*e% Ino"le!*e' "hich arie out of practice' i tete! in practice% 177 ;or the correpon!ence of our i!ea a#out the con!ition' u#/ect an! mean of practical activity "ith the o#/ective reality in!epen!ent of our i!ea i tete!' an! can in the lat reort only #e tete!' #y the reult of the activity "hich i *ui!e! #y thoe i!ea% very act i !one "ith certain e$pectation' "hich are #ae! on the i!ea "hich *ui!e the act% The only final tet of the correpon!ence of i!ea "ith reality lie in the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of the e$pectation #ae! on i!ea% f' on the other han!' "e have i!ea "hich are in no "ay relate! to e$pectation of the reult of practice' an! "hich therefore cannot #e tete! #y reference to the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of e$pectation' then there i no "ay of ever !eci!in* the correpon!ence or non-correpon!ence of uch i!ea "ith realityin other "or!' they can form no part of .no"le!*e' #ut are merely illuory or peculative%
o Mar$ "rote2 The +uetion "hether o#/ective truth can #e attri#ute! to human thin.in* i not a +uetion of theory #ut i a practical +uetion% n practice man mut prove the truth' i%e%' the reality an! po"er' the Fthi-i!e!ne: of hi thin.in*% The !ipute over the reality or non-reality that i' the correpon!ence or non-correpon!ence "ith realityM%C%\ of thin.in* "hich i iolate! from practice i a purely cholatic +uetion% (Thee on ;euer#ach' %) >e *ain .no"le!*e' then' #y "or.in* out i!ea ariin* out of pro#lem of practice' an! "e tet our .no"le!*e tep #y tep' in other "or!' eta#lih it a .no"le!*e' #y reference to the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of our e$pectation in practice% =ence .no"le!*e in it !evelopment continually pae throu*h a cycle of three phae2 1i) ocial practice' the !evelopment of pro!uction an! of ocial relationhip' ettin* pro#lem for theoretical olution% (E) The ela#oration of theorie ariin* from thoe pro#lem' #ae! on the availa#le e$perience' an! the lo*ical "or.in* out of thoe theorie% (3) The application of thoe theorie in ocial practice' tetin*' verifyin* an! correctin* them in the proce of puttin* them to ue% Thi i a never-en!in* proce% ;or "hatever may #e our .no"le!*e' ne" !eman! of practice lea! to ne" e$tenion of .no"le!*e% Moreover' e$itin* .no"le!*e mut al"ay #e #rou*ht into conformity "ith the leon an! !eman! of practice% =ence a ne" .no"le!*e i "on' ol! theorie are reformulate!' e$itin* .no"le!*e i #oth correcte! an! !eepene!% Sense,Perce"tion7 the 8e)innin) o( All nowled)e n thi "hole proce of ac+uirin* an! #uil!in* .no"le!*e' on "hat !o "e have to rely in o#tainin* information a#out thin*' an! in carryin* out the tet of the fulfilment or nonfulfilment of e$pectation? >e have to rely on our ene% eparatin* .no"le!*e from practice' many philoopher have alo maintaine! that .no"le!*e i #uilt up #y a proce of pure thou*ht% The ene' they ay' are unrelia#le' an! cannot #e a ource of .no"le!*e' to *ain "hich "e houl! i*nore the !ata of ene an! rely on the intellect alone% et human .no"le!*e' capa#le a it i of in!efinite e$panion' i al"ay the "or. of the human #rain% The #rain i the or*an of the mot complicate! relation of man "ith the e$ternal "orl!' an! in ela#oratin* thee relationhip "e are !epen!ent' in the firt place' on the information receive! throu*h the ene a a reult of our interaction "ith the thin* outi!e u% The #e*innin* of all our .no"le!*e' then' can #e nothin* ele than the ene perception "e ac+uire in the coure of life activity% Ino"le!*e can #e #uilt on no other #ai than the information *aine! throu*h the e$ercie of our ene' throu*h ene perception "hich have their ource in the o#/ective material "orl!% Thi materialit point of vie" in the theory of .no"le!*e "a em#o!ie! in ,enin: "ell-.no"n !efinition of matter' a the o#/ective reality "hich i *iven to man #y hi enation' an! "hich i reflecte! #y our enation "hile e$itin* in!epen!ently of them% (Materialim an! mpirio-Criticim' chapter E%) Thi emphaie that the material "orl! i the "orl! accei#le to the ene% >hat "e .no" a#out the material "orl! i !erive! from the e$ercie of our ene% &ny uppoe! .no"le!*e "hich *oe #eyon! that i not .no"le!*e #ut fantay' an! any uppoe! o#/ective reality inaccei#le to the ene i not real #ut ima*inary% t may #e o#/ecte! that thee are !o*matic tatement% But there i no !o*ma here% On the contrary' once "e *et a"ay from thi fun!amental materialit poition "e *et a"ay from all verifia#le .no"le!*e an! into the realm of pure peculation% Once "e allo" ourelve to tart inventin* @realitie5 "hich cannot in any "ay #e !etecte! #y the intrumentality of the ene' "e are a"ay into the clou!% >e are face! "ith the ort of +uetion the later cholatic ue! to a.2 =o" many an*el can tan! on the point of a nee!le? There i no poi#le "ay of !etectin* them' an! o of chec.in* the an"er to the +uetion% That i "hy "e can #e ure that uch +uetion an! uch peculation have nothin* "hatever to !o "ith .no"le!*e' an! are imply "ay of #am#ooe houl! not trut thoe "ho ee. to impoe their vie" #ecaue they claim to poe ome pecial intellectual *ift' or to have #een initiate! into ome mytery' or to #e empo"ere! "ith ome pecial authority% >e houl! #e ceptical' an! accept nothin* from
anyone "hich cannot #e e$plaine! an! /utifie! in term of practice an! ene e$perience% ;or "e cannot .no" of the e$itence or propertie of anythin* e$cept in o far a it e$itence an! propertie are capa#le of #ein* !etecte!' in ome "ay' !irec!y or in!irectly' #y our ene% The elia#ility of the ene But can "e trut our ene ? =o" !o "e .no" that our ene !o not al"ay !eceive u' a they ometime !o in hallucination an! !ream? More *enerally' ho" !o "e .no" that anythin* at all e$it correpon!in* to our perception? To an"er thee +uetion "e mut remem#er that "e ac+uire an! #uil! up our perception of o#/ect only in the coure of practical activity% The information "hich "e *ain throu*h the ene !oe not /ut come to u% >e *et it in practical life' #y conciou' practical interaction "ith the o#/ect outi!e u% & ne"-#orn #a#y' for e$ample' tart "ith a ma of confue! impreion of itelf an! the outi!e "orl!% t #e*in to ue it ene an! to *et information a#out the o#/ect "hich urroun! it "hen it #e*in to reach out for thoe o#/ect' to ee "hat it can !o "ith them' to inveti*ate them' to e$periment "ith an! tet them in all ort of "ay% Jut a each mem#er of the human race tart *ettin* information a#out the "orl! in that "ay' o that i the "ay in "hich all .no"le!*e a#out the "orl! i ac+uire! an! #uilt up% Our firt confue! impreion of an unfamiliar thin* are certainly not relia#le an! provi!e little if any information a#out it% >e ue our ene to o#tain information a#out it #y inveti*atin* it% &n! "e continually tet the relia#ility of our perception of it in the coure of our practical !ealin* "ith it% &part from uch practical !ealin* "ith thin* outi!e u' "e have no "ay of tellin* "hether our perception a*ree "ith o#/ect or' in!ee!' "hether any o#/ect at all correpon! to them% But "hen "e act on our perception' an! "hen "e turn thin* to our o"n ue accor!in* to the +ualitie "e perceive in them' then "e tet "hether or not' an! ho" far' our perception a*ree "ith reality outi!e ourelve% & philoopher ittin* alone in hi tu!y an! tryin* to con/ure up .no"le!*e from the inner reource of hi o"n min! may ma.e *reat !ifficulty a#out thi% =e "on!er "hether hi tu!y' hi #oo.' the chair he i ittin* on' an! hi o"n #o!y ittin* on it' really e$it' or "hether they are ome .in! of !ream or illuion in hi min!% But outi!e hi tu!y' outi!e the aca!emic !icuion of philoopher' there i no !ifficulty% @=uman action ha! olve! the !ifficulty lon* #efore human in*enuity invente! it' "rote n*el% The proof of the pu!!in* i in the eatin*% ;rom the moment "e turn to our o"n ue thee o#/ect accor!in* to the +ualitie "e perceive in them' "e put to an infalli#le tet the correctne or other"ie of our ene perception% f thee perception have #een "ron*' then our etimate of the ue to "hich an o#/ect can #e turne! mut alo #e "ron*' an! our attempt mut fail% But if "e uccee! in accomplihin* our aim' if "e fin! that the o#/ect !oe a*ree "ith our i!ea of it' an! !oe an"er the purpoe "e inten!e! for it' then that i poitive proof that our perception of it an! of it +ualitie' o far' a*ree "ith reality outi!e ourelve% %%% o lon* a "e ta.e care to train an! ue our ene properly' an! to .eep our action "ithin the limit precri#e! #y perception properly ma!e an! properly ue!' o lon* "e hall fin! that the reult of our action prove the conformity of our perception "ith the o#/ective nature of the thin* perceive!% (ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific' ntro!uction%) The material "orl! e$it' an! "e are part of it% >e learn a#out the #o!ie outi!e u an! a#out the tate of pur o"n #o!ie #y our ene% o naturally "e have no other "ay of fin!in* out a#out the "orl!that i' of *ainin* .no"le!*e than throu*h the e$ercie of our ene% or can our ene #e o contitute! a al"ay or even uually to !eceive u% f they "ere' "e "oul! not #e a#le to live at all% @The pro!uct of the human #rain' "rote n*el' #ein* in the lat analyi alo pro!uct of nature' !o not contra!ict the ret of nature #ut are in correpon!ence "ith it% ( &ntiuhrin*' 4art ' chapter 3%) Our ene are necearily o contitute! a to provi!e u "ith perception "hich a*ree "ith reality outi!e ourelve% Thee perception' "hich are the #e*innin* of all our .no"le!*e' are *aine! in the coure of practical activity' an! their a*reement "ith reality i #rou*ht a#out an! tete! in practical activity% o all our .no"le!*ethat i to ay' the um of our conception "hich are eta#lihe! an! tete! a correct reflection o far a they *o' of o#/ective realityi eta#lihe! on the #ai of the perception "e *ain in our practical activity' an! i li.e"ie tete! in the ame activity%
The E3"ansion7 Incom"leteness and #riticism o( nowled)e ome philoopher have #elieve! that the *oal of .no"le!*e i to attain a complete' roun!e!-off ytem' encompain* .no"le!*e of everythin* that e$it to #e .no"n% &n! a fe" have #elieve! that they themelve ha! actually attaine! uch a *oala "a alle*e! of the late Mater of Balliol' 4rofeor B% Jo"ett2 =ere tan!' my name i Jo"ett' There: no .no"le!*e #ut .no" it% am Mater of thi Colle*e' &n! "hat !on:t .no" in:t .no"le!*e% et neither a a "hole nor in any of it variou !epartment can human .no"le!*e ever #e finihe!' finalie! an! roun!e!off% Ino"le!*e i al"ay *ro"in* an! !evelopin*% n!ee!' thi i o#viou "hen "e coni!er that our .no"le!*e all arie from an! i tete! in practice' an! i !erive! from the ene perception "e *ain in practical activity% >e hall never have !one everythin* that can #e !one' or have e$amine! every apect of everythin* that ever e$ite!' e$it or "ill e$it% There "ill al"ay #e more to !o' more to fin! out in !oin* it' an! therefore more to .no"% o .no"le!*e i al"ay e$pan!in*' or' at leat' capa#le of e$panionA an! therefore al"ay incomplete% &n! there are t"o apect of thi e$panion an! incompletene of .no"le!*e% The firt apect i a +uantitative one% e" .no"le!*e i al"ay #ein* a!!e! to ol! .no"le!*e' o that "e come to .no" more% &n! thi e$panion ta.e place in t"o !imenion' o to pea.in #rea!th an! !epth of .no"le!*e% >e *et to .no" a#out ne" thin* "hich "e !i! not .no" a#out #eforeA an! "e *et to .no" more a#out the thin* concernin* "hich "e alrea!y .ne" omethin*% n thi "ay "e can al"ay .no" more' #ut never .no" all% ;or e$ample' in mo!ern phyic "e have *ot to .no" a#out fun!amental particle the e$itence of "hich "a not previouly .no"nA an! in *ettin* to .no" a#out them' "e have alo increae! or !eepene! our .no"le!*e a#out atom an! their tructure' concernin* "hich omethin* "a alrea!y .no"n% But #ecaue "e have in thi "ay increae! the #rea!th an! !epth of our phyical .no"le!*e' "e cannot conclu!e that "e have complete! our phyical .no"le!*e% On the contrary' all "e houl! conclu!e i that "hile "e have more phyical .no"le!*e than our pre!eceor' our ucceor' tartin* "here "e leave off' "ill have more till% The econ! apect i a +ualitative one% >hen "e *et to .no" more' the a!!ition of thi more to "hat "e alrea!y .ne" !oe not leave "hat "e alrea!y .ne" unaffecte!% On the contrary' .no"le!*e of ne" thin* an! more .no"le!*e of ol! thin* thro" a ne" li*ht' o to pea.' on "hat "e alrea!y .ne"% & a reult' "e can fin! ne" implication an! ne" i*nificance in "hat "e ha! alrea!y eta#lihe!A an! at the ame time "e fin! that' in the li*ht of the ne" .no"le!*e' certain implication !ra"n from the ol! "ere "ron*' an! it mut #e reconi!ere! an! reformulate! in variou "ay% ;or e$ample' ne" !icoverie in phyic "hich "ere umme! up in +uantum mechanic cat a ne" li*ht on the ol!er !icoverie in phyic "hich "ere umme! up in claical mechanic% & a reult' the ol! .no"le!*e ha! to #e reconi!ere! an! reformulate! in variou "ay' an! it #ecame clear that ome of the concluion !ra"n from it "ere "ron*% &*ain' "hen in the practice of #uil!in* ocialim in one country' the oviet Lnion' ne" .no"le!*e "a *aine! a#out the nature an! function of the ocialit tate' it #ecame neceary to reconi!er an! reformulate ome of the propoition a#out the ocialit tate previouly put for"ar! #y Mar$im' an! it #ecame clear that ome of the concluion !ra"n from it "ere "ron*% one of thi mean that ol! .no"le!*e turn out to have #een illuory an! o not to have #een real .no"le!*e at all% &ll it mean i that the incompletene of ol! .no"le!*e lea! to the neceity of it #ein* critically reformulate! in the li*ht of ne" .no"le!*e% &n! the ame "ill apply' of coure' to the ne" .no"le!*e itelf' "hen it in turn #ecome ol! .no"le!*e% Ino"le!*e *ro" throu*h a proce of not only a!!in* to #ut alo perfectin* an! correctin* the alrea!y e$itin* #o!y of .no"le!*e% n no fiel! i .no"le!*e ever perfect' final an! complete% Cone+uently' "hatever .no"le!*e ha #een eta#lihe! mut #e accepte! only a a point of !eparture for further a!vance of .no"le!*e-/ut a "hatever ha #een achieve! in practice houl! not #e re*ar!e! a a final achievement #ut only a a point of !eparture for further *ain% Thi mean that "e mut alo #e prepare! to reco*nie that all .no"le!*e i al"ay limite!' incomplete' !efective' an! o re+uire not only upplementation #ut alo criticim in or!er to carry it for"ar! an! a!vance to ne" con+uet%
#ha"ter Twel$e T.E 9RO'T. OF NO'LED9E From I)norance to nowled)e T= ac+uiition of .no"le!*e' an! the #uil!-up of .no"le!*e' i #y it very nature al"ay a proce of the paa*e from i*norance to .no"le!*e' from not .no"in* thin* to .no"in* them% >hether "e coni!er our .no"le!*e in *eneral' or our .no"le!*e of ome particular thin*' it i al"ay the cae that firt "e .ne" nothin* an! then *ra!ually ac+uire! .no"le!*e% =ence in hi ncyclopae!ia article on Iarl Mar$ ,enin "rote that the theory of .no"le!*e mut tu!y the tranition from ne"-.no"le!*e to .no"le!*e% >e mut not re*ar! our .no"le!*e a rea!y ma!e' he "rote' % % % #ut mut !etermine ho" .no"le!*e emer*e from i*norance' ho" incomplete' ine$act .no"le!*e #ecome more complete an! more e$act% (Materialim an! mpiric-Criticim' chapter E%) Many philoopher' on the other han!' have ta.en it for *rante! that .no"le!*e can only #e !erive! from previou .no"le!*e% Therefore they have uppoe! that there mut #e fun!amental certaintie' from "hich all .no"le!*e i !erive!% Thi lea! them to t"o oppoite #ut e+ually milea!in* concluion% On the one han!' they invent variou principle "hich they ay are certain' an! then claim that they .no" an! have prove! all the propoition !e!uce! from thee principle% On the other han!' they !eny a *reat part of our real .no"le!*e' #ecaue it cannot #e o !e!uce!% Thu' for e$ample' philoopher have !e!uce! all manner of concluion a#out Do! an! the ultimate nature of reality from firt principleA an! on the other han!' they have re/ecte! the 16H "hole of our .no"le!*e a#out the material "orl! on the *roun! that it cannot #e /utifie! #y anythin* they are prepare! to accept a a#olutely certain an! elf-evi!ent% et the real tartin* point of .no"le!*e i not .no"le!*e #ut i*norance' an! not certainty #ut uncertainty% >e al"ay #uil! up .no"le!*e from a previou tate of lac. of .no"le!*e% =ence to try to #uil! up ytem of .no"le!*e from elfevi!ent premie i to miun!ertan! the "hole pro#lem of #uil!in* .no"le!*e' an! mut al"ay #e in vain% =o"' then' i .no"le!*e #uilt up from i*norance? Thi i !one' an! can only #e !one' throu*h our enuou interaction "ith thin*% t i !one #y human #rain' "hich' a "e have repeate!ly ai!' are the or*an of the mot complicate! relation #et"een man an! the e$ternal "orl!% By the perceptual a"arene of thin* "hich reult from enterin* into variou active relation "ith them' "e come to .no" them "here previouly "e !i! not .no" them% &n! the more variou the relation "ith thin* into "hich "e enter' the more !o "e cone+uently *et to .no" a#out them% =ence .no"le!*e i the pro!uct of our conciouly enterin* into active relation "ith thin*% The tranition from lac. of .no"le!*e to .no"le!*e i "rou*ht #y human activity pain* from lac. of relation "ith thin* to relation "ith thin*% ;or intance' "e !i! not .no" the ource of the ileA "e *ot to .no" it #y *oin* there% >e !i! not .no" the compoition of atomA "e *ot to .no" it #y performin* e$periment% >e !i! not .no" the !itance of the tarA "e *ot to .no" #y !eviin* metho! of meaurin* them% >e !i! not .no" the la" of !evelopment of human ocietyA "e *ot to .no" #y conciouly trivin* to utilie them for #rin*in* a#out a ne" ta*e of ocial !evelopment% 4erception an! Ju!*ment The firt re+uiite for the #uil!-up of .no"le!*e i o#tainin* perceptionthat i' ma.in* o#ervation ariin* out of variou relationhip "ith thin*% ;irt "e ha! no o#ervation relative to ome thin* or proce' then "e o#taine! uch o#ervationA thi i the firt tep% >ithout performin* it' 167 there can only #e i*norance' not .no"le!*eeither #lan. i*norance or ele' a often happen' i*norance camoufla*e! #y illuory or peculative theorie a#out thin*% econ!ly' havin* entere! into relationhip "ith thin* an! o#taine! o#ervation a#out them' "e mut *o on to formulate /u!*ment or propoition a#out them an! their propertie an! relation% >e mut employ the la" of thou*htthat i' the lo*ical la" for the reflection of o#/ective reality in term of i!eain or!er to e$pre in i!ea' in /u!*ment or propoition' the reult of o#ervation% The #uil!-up of .no"le!*e al"ay involve the paa*e from enation to i!ea% &ll the hi*her animal have enation' an! in their enation poe !efinite' concrete information a#out thin*' "hich they learn to ma.e more relia#le an! "hich they ue in their life activity% But only in man i thi information provi!e! #y the ene converte! into .no"le!*e' in the ene of #ein* e$pree! in i!ea an! propoition% =ere "e un!ertan! the term @.no"le!*e5 in the !efinite ene of human .no"le!*e% The ene in "hich' for e$ample' a !o* .no" the "ay home i !ifferent from the ene in "hich a man .no" the "ay' for in the latter cae it i e$prei#le in i!ea an! propoition "hich can #e communicate!% !ea an! propoition are communicate!' hare! an! !icue! #y people in their ocial life' an! it i thi e$preion of information in i!ea an! propoition "hich contitute the eential feature of human .no"le!*e% 4eople ac+uire an! poe .no"le!*e /ut in o far a they pa from the enation "hich
are particular to each in!ivi!ual an! "hich they poe in common "ith all animal' to the i!ea' /u!*ment' propoition "hich are ocially communicate! an! are peculiar to man% 4erception #y itelf' then' i only the con!ition of .no"le!*e' #ut not a yet it realiation% The .no"le!*e of thin* poee! #y man i achieve! #y pain* from enation to /u!*ment foun!e! on enation% Thu .no"le!*e i al"ay #ein* #uilt up #y a continual cycle of +ualitatively !itinct activitie "hich to*ether ma.e up the "hole proce of .no"in*enterin* into active relationhip "ith thin*A o#tainin* from thi relationhip 166 perception an! o#ervationA formulatin* /u!*ment out of the o#ervationA utiliin* thee /u!*ment to !irect the further active relationhip "ith thin*' lea!in* to further o#ervation' further /u!*ment' an! o on "ithout en!% From Su"er(icial to More Pro(ound ud)ments ene perception repro!uce thin* a they imme!iately appear throu*h their action on our ene or*an% The ene *ive only particular piece of information a#out particular thin* con!itione! #y the particular circumtance un!er "hich "e are perceivin* them% By e$prein* the information o#taine! from perception in propoition people arrive at /u!*ment e$prein* concluion from the comparion an! puttin* to*ether of many particular !ata of perception% The firt tep in the proce of .no"le!*e' "rote Mao Te-tun* in hi eay On 4ractice' in "hich he umme! up the eential of the materialit theory of .no"le!*e' i contact "ith the thin* of the e$ternal "orl!A thi #elon* to the ta*e of perception% The econ! tep i a ynthei of the !ata of perception #y ma.in* a rearran*ement or recontructionA thi #elon* to the ta*e of conception' /u!*ment an! inference%5 ;or e$ample' from many perception of many mem#er of ociety "e reach uch concluion (all of "hich repreent elementary item of ocial .no"le!*e) a !o* #ar.' co" *ive mil.' "ater turn into ice in col! "eather' an! o on% uch /u!*ment are' a Mao e$pree! it' a ynthei of the !ata of perception5% To form uch /u!*ment a#out thin* !epen! not on a in*le o#ervation #y a in*le peron #ut on everal or many o#ervation #y everal or many people% &n! the more variou the o#ervation' the more variou the circumtance in "hich an! the an*le from "hich they are ma!e' an! the more variou the chan*e an! relationhip of the o#/ect "hich they cover' the more comprehenively an! faithfully can the /u!*ment reflect the o#/ective propertie' relation an! form of motion of the o#/ect% O#ervation i itelf an activity' ince "e mut conciouly 16 #rin* ourelve into relation "ith omethin* if "e are to o#erve it' an! mut #rin* ourelve into more varie! relation notin* variou !ifferent apect of the thin*' it variou chan*e' an! o onif "e are to o#erve it more fully% But o#ervation itelf pae from "hat may #e calle! paive o#ervation to active o#ervation' an! it i the latter "hich i of primary importance for #uil!in* up fuller .no"le!*e of thin*% O#ervation in itelf !oe not chan*e that "hich i o#erve!% n thi ene' it i paive% & #ir!-"atcher' for e$ample' o#tain .no"le!*e a#out #ir!' #ut he !oe not interfere "ith them in any "ay in ma.in* hi o#ervationA on the contrary' in thi cae he mut #e very careful not to !o o% &ctive o#ervation arie "hen "e ourelve' #y our activity' ta.e a part in #rin*in* a#out variou chan*e in thin*' an! o#erve the reult of the relationhip or chan*e "hich "e ourelve have effecte! un!er our o"n control% One of the mot important metho! of active o#ervation of thin* i' for e$ample' to meaure them% The proce of meaurement' "hatever it may #e "e are meaurin*' involve #rin*in* one thin* into relationhip "ith another thin* an! notin* the reult% Other metho! of active o#ervation are' for e$ample' to #rea. omethin* !o"n into it part or element an! then to recontitute it a*ain' or to effect chan*e in it propertie throu*h the a*ency of other thin*% n *eneral' #y ela#oratin* metho! of active o#ervation uita#le to the !ifferent thin* "e "ant to .no" a#out an! "hat "e "ant to .no" a#out them' "e o#tain many i*nificant o#ervation' lea!in* u to concluion a#out their propertie' relation' motion' la" of motion' caue an! effect' compoition' an! o on% =avin* ac+uire!' throu*h #oth paive an! active o#ervation an! their' tranlation into /u!*ment' a certain #o!y of .no"le!*e e$pree! in /u!*ment' "e can then ma.e ue of thi .no"le!*e in or!er to o#tain more .no"le!*e% ;or it "ill u**et ne" fiel! of e$ploration an! metho! for eta#lihin* ne" relationhip "ith thin*% Ino"le!*e alrea!y #uilt up i utilie! for the !irection of more activity an! the o#tainin* 16K out of it of more o#ervation% By thi mean' the .no"le!*e alrea!y #uilt up i further tete! an! correcte!' an! the "hole #uil!-up of .no"le!*e i continue!% The proce of pain* from o#ervation to /u!*ment' an! then from more active an! comprehenive o#ervation to more comprehenive /u!*ment' #rin* a#out' in the firt place' a correction of imme!iate concluion #ae! on inufficient o#ervation%
Or!inary e$perience alrea!y teache u that there i a !ifference #et"een the firt appearance of thin* in eneperception an! their reality% ;or it often happen that thin* turn out to #e !ifferent from "hat they at firt appear to #e' an! thi i ho"n in practice #y the non-realiation of e$pectation #ae! on firt appearance% n the proce of #uil!in* up .no"le!*e "e are al"ay pain* from concluion "hich e$pre only the apparent propertie' relation an! motion of thin* to concluion "hich appro$imate more fully to thin* a they really are% ;or e$ample' "hen "e perceive the un it loo. a relatively mall #o!yan! for a lon* time people conclu!e! that it "a in fact +uite mall% But "e have come to .no" that the un i in fact very #i*% &*ain' the un loo. a if it *oe roun! the earth an! for a lon* time people conclu!e! that it !i! in fact *o roun! the earth% But "e have come to .no" that it i the earth "hich really *oe roun! the un% n the econ! place' in the proce of formin* more comprehenive /u!*ment a#out thin* "e pa from fra*mentary .no"le!*e of particular thin*' "ith their particular propertie' relation an! motion' to more connecte! .no"le!*e of their la" of e$itence' chan*e an! interconnection% The firt .no"le!*e "hich i #ae! on the firt o#ervation of thin* i .no"le!*e of a num#er of fact a#out thoe thin*' #ut not of the la" of their e$itence an! the interconnection #et"een them "hich manifet themelve in an! !etermine thoe fact% &t the ame time' therefore' a "e correct the concluion #ae! on the firt appearance of thin* an! form /u!*ment a#out their real propertie' relation an! motion "hich *ive rie to the appearance' "e alo form /u!*ment 169 a#out the *eneral la" an! interconnection "hich are manifete! in the particular propertie' motion an! relation of thin* firt evi!ent to o#ervation% ;or e$ample' havin* eta#lihe! the main fact a#out the olar ytemthat the planet' of "hich the earth i one' *o roun! the un"e alo eta#lih the la" "hich are manifete! in the ytem an! #y the operation of "hich it e$it an! remain in #ein*% &*ain' .no"in* from common e$perience that "ater turn into ice "hen it *ro" col! enou*h' "e *o on to eta#lih a a reult of the ynthei of' an! inference !ra"n from' many pecial o#ervationthe reaon for thi phenomenon' namely' that it i !ue to a rearran*ement of the molecule caue! #y chan*e in their motion "hen the temperature i lo"ere!% Thu in the proce of pain* from o#ervation to /u!*ment "e alo uccee! in pain* from uperficial to more profoun! /u!*mentfrom /u!*ment "hich imply tate "hat "e have o#erve! to /u!*ment "hich *o further' an! !ra" concluion a#out the compoition an! internal or*aniation of thin*' a#out their caue an! effect' interaction' interconnection an! motion' an! la" of interconnection an! motion% Thi i a +ualitative chan*e in the content of /u!*mentA a pain* from /u!*ment of uperficial content to /u!*ment o a more profoun! contentA from /u!*ment in term of elementary i!ea to "hich correpon! o#/ect !irectly percepti#le to the ene' to /u!*ment in term of a#tract i!ea' "hich tate the caue' reaon' e$planation' effect an! la" of the thin* "e o#erve% From Su"er(icial to Dee"er nowled)e >e can conclu!e that .no"le!*e in *eneral i realie! only #y pain* from perception to /u!*ment' an! that then the proce of !evelopin* the .no"le!*e e$pree! in /u!*ment' of e$ten!in* an! !eepenin* it' pae throu*h t"o +ualitatively !itinct ta*efirt' the uperficial an! fra*mentary .no"le!*e of thin* !irectly !erive! from perception of themA an! econ!' .no"le!*e of their eential propertie' 10 interconnection an! la"% n the firt ta*e' our /u!*ment e$pre merely "hat Mao Te-tun* calle! the eparate apect of thin*' the e$ternal relation #et"een uch thin*% n the econ! ta*e' "e arrive at /u!*ment "hich' a he e$pree! it' no lon*er repreent the appearance of thin*' their eparate apect' or their e$ternal relation' #ut em#race their eence' their totality an! their internal relation5% The paa*e from the firt ta*e to the econ! ta*e involve' in the firt place' active o#ervation% >ithout active o#ervation' the !ata on "hich to foun! more profoun! an! comprehenive /u!*ment "ill #e lac.in*' an! any /u!*ment "hich may #e ma!e can only #e peculative or illuory% n the econ! place' ho"ever' it involve a proce of thou*ht ariin* from o#ervationa proce of the iftin* an! comparion of o#ervation' of *eneraliation an! formation of a#tract i!ea' of reaonin* an! !ra"in* concluion from uch *eneraliation an! a#traction% =avin* reache! concluion' they mut #e a*ain chec.e! "ith active o#ervation' in or!er to enure that they accor! "ith it an! that the a#tract *eneraliation reache! #y thou*ht !o e$pre the concrete
fact *iven in perception% The paa*e from the firt ta*e to the econ! ta*e therefore involve a paa*e from /u!*ment "hich !irectly e$pre the !ata of perception' to /u!*ment "hich are !erive! from the !ata of perception throu*h a proce of a#traction an! *eneraliation% The paa*e from the /u!*ment that the un i hot to the /u!*ment that it urface temperature i a#out 6'000 !e*ree Centi*ra!e repreent' for e$ample' uch a paa*e of .no"le!*e from the firt to the econ! ta*e% The /u!*ment that the un i hot !irectly e$pree one "ay in "hich the un affect our ene% But the /u!*ment a#out it temperature involve' firt' that "e have forme! the a#tract i!ea of temperature' an! econ!' that "ith the ai! of thi i!ea "e have reache! concluion a#out the un: temperature #y an ela#orate proce of active o#ervation an! reaonin* #ae! on it% & a reult "e pa from a /u!*ment "hich merely e$pree certain o#ervation a#out the un' to one "hich e$pree it internal tate% &*ain' uppoe that "e are coni!erin* the tate or*aniation of a *iven country' of Dreat Britain' let u ay% The firt o#ervation "hich may #e ma!e concern particular fact uch a that the capital i ,on!on' that la" are ma!e #y people ittin* in t"o =oue of 4arliament' that thee la" are i*ne! #y the Nueen an! enforce! #y policemen' an! o on% Many in+uirie into the character of Britih parliamentary !emocracy never *et further than formulatin* the /u!*ment ummariin* uch o#ervation' "hich mean that they *o no further than the firt ta*e of .no"le!*e% f' ho"ever' in+uiry i carrie! further' if the tate i coni!ere! in it hitorical !evelopment on the #ai of the "hole !evelopment of the economic tructure of ociety' an! if reaone! concluion are !ra"n from thi in+uiry' then "e "ill arrive at the /u!*ment that the Britih parliamentary tate i the or*an of rule of the Britih capitalit cla% Thi i to a!vance .no"le!*e of the tate to the econ! ta*e' "hich em#race not merely a num#er of o#erve! fact a#out it #ut it eential nature% n hi "or. on the theory of .no"le!*e (On 4ractice\' Mao Te-tun* "rote that in the firt ta*e .no"le!*e i confine! to the eparate apect of thin*' the appearance' the e$ternal relation of thin*' "herea in the econ! ta*e it ta.e a #i* tri!e for"ar! to em#race the "holene' the eence an! internal relation of thin*' !icloe the internal contra!iction of the urroun!in* "orl!' an! i therefore capa#le of *rapin* the !evelopment of the urroun!in* "orl! in it totality' in the internal relation #et"een all it apect5% Many philoopher (thoe #elon*in* to the o-calle! @empiricit5 an! @poitivit5 chool) have !enie! that .no"le!*e !evelop throu*h t"o uch ta*e% &ccor!in* to them' firt "e o#tain variou ene !ata' an! then "e compare an! relate thee !ata in or!er to formulate /u!*ment or propoition ummariin* the o#ervation% &n! for them' that i the "hole proce of .no"le!*e% =ence' for them' .no"le!*e i entirely confine! to the eparate apect of thin*' the appearance' the e$ternal relation of thin*' an! it i an illuion to uppoe that there can #e any more profoun! .no"le!*e of thin*of their reality a oppoe! to their appearance to u' of their eential propertie' interconnection an! la"% n oppoition to thi empiricit or poitivit type of philoophy' Mar$im trace the *ro"th of .no"le!*e from a lo"er to a hi*her ta*e% ;irt of all' in o#tainin* information throu*h the ene "e pa from enation to /u!*mentA an! then' in the !evelopment of our .no"le!*e e$pree! in i!ea an! /u!*ment' "e pa from uperficial .no"le!*e of the appearance an! e$ternal relation of thin* to !eeper .no"le!*e of their eential characteritic an! internal relation% &ppearance an! eality n pain* from elementary to a#tract i!ea' from uperficial to more profoun! /u!*ment' the paa*e i ma!e from the appearance of thin* to their reality% n coni!erin* .no"le!*e' a !itinction mut al"ay #e ma!e #et"een appearance an! reality#et"een the particular phenomena "hich are imme!iately evi!ent to o#ervation an! the hi!!en procee' interconnection an! la" "hich are manifete! in the appearance an! un!erlie the o#erve! fact% The ta. of .no"in* thin* i al"ay to a!vance from appearance to reality' o a to *et to .no" more a#out the real movement an! interconnection of thin* manifete! in their particular e$itence an! mo!e of appearance% Thu Mar$ tree! that the ta. of cience i al"ay to procee! from the imme!iate .no"le!*e of appearance to the !icovery of the reality' the internal connection an! la" un!erlyin* the appearance' an! o finally to reach a comprehenive un!ertan!in* of the appearance% n+uiry' he "rote' ha to appropriate the material in !etail' to analye it !ifferent form of !evelopment' to trace out their inner connection% Only after thi "or. i !one can the actual movement #e a!e+uately !ecri#e!% f thi i !one uccefully %%% the life of the u#/ect matter i i!eally reflecte! a in a mirror% (Capital' 4reface to econ! e!ition%) o Mar$ tree! that .no"le!*e of the real character an! la" of any u#/ect-matter mut al"ay #e !erive! from a 13 !etaile! analyi of all the relevant fact' an! mut in turn erve to e$plain themto !emontrate their inner connection an! actual movement% =i o"n "or. in the ocial cience provi!e e$ample of thi point% Thu in Capital Mar$ pointe! out that "herea the
vul*ar economit !ealt only "ith the urface appearance of capitalit economy' cientific political economy ee. to uncover the real relation of pro!uction un!erlyin* the appearance' an! on that #ai e$plain the appearance% f the un!erlyin* procee ha! #een evi!ent on the urface to uperficial o#ervation' there "oul! have #een no nee! for further profoun! in+uiry% But the reality i never evi!ent on the urface' an! can #e !icovere! only #y painta.in* cientific analyi% @The "ay of thin.in* of the vul*ar economit' "rote Mar$' !erive from the fact that it i al"ay only the imme!iate form in "hich relationhip appear "hich i reflecte! in the #rain' an! not their inner connection% f the latter "ere the cae' moreover' "hat "oul! #e the nee! for a cience at all? &n! e$plainin* hi o"n metho! of cientific analyi of capitalit economy' he pointe! out that at the en! of it' "e have arrive! at the form of appearance "hich erve a the tartin* point for the vul*ar2 *roun! rent comin* from the earth' profit (interet) from capital' an! "a*e from la#our% But from our point of vie" the thin* i no" een !ifferently% The apparent movement i e$plaine!% (,etter to n*el' June E' 1K6' an! &pril 30' 1K7K%) t i clear from thi' inci!entally' that the poitivit philoophy' "hich confine .no"le!*e entirely to !ealin* "ith urface appearance' "a completely in accor! "ith the proce!ure of the vul*ar economit "hom Mar$ criticie!' an! their proce!ure "ere completely in accor! "ith it% Thi philoophy' in!ee!' i the mot uita#le philoophy for the apolo*it of capitalim' "hoe "hole outloo. !epen! on their never loo.in* #elo" the urface of ocial life% & a vivi! e$ample of the importance of /u!*in* thin*' not from uperficial appearance #ut from the point of vie" of their inner relationhip an! connection' "e coul! ta.e the 1H cae of "a*e% f "e /u!*e only from e$ternal appearance' then "a*e are imply payment for "or.% & man "or. o many hour an! i pai! o much per hour% n that cae' "e coul! perceive no !ifference #et"een "a*e in' ay' capitalit ociety an! in ocialit ociety% >hether he "or. in a capitalit or a ocialit factory' a man "or. o many hour an! *et pai! o much% >hat i the !ifference? The !ifference i that the e$ternal form of "a*e e$pree !ifferent ocial relation% n capitalit ociety' "a*e are the price of the "or.er: la#ourpo"er' "hich he ha ol! to the capitalit% n ocialit ociety' "a*e are no lon*er the price of la#our-po"er' ince the factorie #elon* to the "or.in* people' "ho !o not ell their la#our-po"er to themelve% >a*e no" e$pre the allocation to the "or.er of a !efinite hare of the value he ha pro!uce! accor!in* to the "or. he ha contri#ute!% o "hile in capitalit ociety the "or.er can maintain or raie their "a*e only #y ri*htin* the capitalit cla an! threatenin* to tri.e' in ocialit ociety they continually raie their tan!ar! #y increain* pro!uction% n other "or!' the la" "hich !etermine "a*e are totally !ifferent in ocialit from capitalit ociety% But "hy they are !ifferent can only #e un!ertoo! "hen "e *o #ehin! the appearance of thin* an! ee. to !icover the inner relationhip an! connection "hich !etermine the appearance% Re$olutionar! Theor! and Re$olutionar! Practice To pa from uperficial to profoun! /u!*ment a#out thin*' an! from their appearance to their reality' i' a "e have ai!' to pa from one ta*e of .no"in* thin* to another% uch a +ualitative chan*e in .no"le!*e i alo a a rule a revolutionary chan*e% t i revolutionary #ecaue it #rin* a#out a revolutionary chan*e in "hat "e can !o% >hen practice i *ui!e! only #y "hat "e have learne! concernin* the e$ternal appearance of thin*' then it lac. the po"er of .no"in*ly #rin*in* a#out profoun! chan*e in thoe thin*' or of utiliin* them e$tenively for far-reachin* purpoe% On the contrary' "hen "e .no" thin* only #y their appearance "e *enerally have in practice to "ait on "hat happen' to a!apt ourelve to thin*often #a!ly an! ufferin* urprie' et-#ac. an! mifortunerather than materin* them an! a!aptin* them to purpoe of our o"n% But "hen "e #e*in to *rap the reality "hich !etermine the appearance' then "e can !eal "ith thin* more effectively' #rin* a#out profoun! chan*e in them an! utilie them for our o"n purpoe% ;or e$ample' up to mo!ern time people ha! only uperficial .no"le!*e of chemical procee' an! o there coul! #e little effectively planne! ue of thee procee in pro!uction% But mo!ern chemitry ena#le u to #rea. u#tance !o"n an! #rin* them into #ein* a*ain from their contituent' o that many material can #e ma!e #y ynthetic metho!' "ith propertie to uit our o"n re+uirement% >e can plit atom' #rea. !o"n one element into other an! utilie the ener*y pro!uce! in the proce' an! even create ne" man-ma!e element' uch a plutonium% &*ain' the Ltopian ocialit an! the ol! "or.in*-cla movement coul! not effectively chan*e ociety% But Mar$it theory' "hich penetrate to the reality of ocial procee' ha ena#le! the "or.in*-cla movement thorou*hly to tranform ociety in ome countrie an! to #e*in to #uil! ocialim% >hether "e coni!er .no"le!*e of nature or of ociety' "henever .no"le!*e ha #een raie! to .no"le!*e of reality an! not only of appearance' then thi ha #een a revolutionary !evelopment' a revolution in "hat people can !o%
uch profoun! a!vance in .no"le!*e"hether they have #een conciouly lin.e! "ith practice or not #y thoe "ho playe! the ma/or theoretical part in effectin* themare al"ay in the lat analyi the pro!uct of revolutionary trivin* in ocial practice% t i "hen people trive to !o omethin* ne" o a to increae their po"er an! improve their con!ition' that they e$perience the neceity of !eepenin* their .no"le!*e% There can #e no revolutionary practice "ithout .no"le!*e' for "ithout .no"le!*e it lac. !irection an! cannot attain it *oal% & leap for"ar! in .no"le!*e i a con!ition for the realiation of a revolution in practice% &n! it i impoi#le to raie the level of .no"le!*e apart 16 from or in a!vance of the correpon!in* practice' /ut a practice *rope in the !ar. "ithout the neceary .no"le!*e% &part from the appropriate practice no *enuine .no"le!*e i poi#le' #ut only *ue"or. an! peculation% &ll *enuine .no"le!*e arie out of practice' an! in turn i tete! in practice thou*h thi !oe not mean that the theoretical !e!uction from a !icovery may not a!vance #eyon! the carryin* into effect of all it potential practical cone+uence% There i no other "ay to !icover the la" of the real "orl! than the "ay of enterin* into practical relation "ith real o#/ect an! procee' trivin* to mater an! chan*e them/ formin* concept on the #ai of the e$perience *aine!' an! then tetin* the theoretical concluion once more in livin* practice% Thin)s in Themsel$es t follo" from thi analyi of the *ro"th of .no"le!*e that' in all it ta*e' it i the *ro"th of the faithful reflection in human concioune of the o#/ective "orl!% Many philoopher have maintaine! that our .no"le!*e i limite! to the appearance of thin* in our o"n min!' an! that thin* in themelve' thin* a they really are in themelve an! in!epen!ently of ho" they appear to u' mut #e un.no"a#le% &ccor!in* to uch philoopher there i an impaa#le *ulf #et"een the !ata of ene *iven in our concioune on the one han! an! the thin* e$itin* in!epen!ently of our concioune' thin* in themelve' on the other han!% &n! many not only !eny that "e can .no" thin* in themelve #ut alo that uch thin* e$it at all% &n! yet alrea!y in /u!*ment !irectly #ae! on perception "e are *ainin* .no"le!*e of thin* in themelvenot in the firt place complete or profoun! .no"le!*e #ut .no"le!*e at leat of variou eparate apect an! e$ternal relation of thin*% >e *ain thi .no"le!*e preciely #y mean of the !ata of ene% &n! "hen #y further inveti*ation an! reaonin* "e reach concluion a#out the relation of thin*' their propertie' the procee into "hich they enter an! their la" of motion' then "e are *ainin* !eeper .no"le!*e of the very ame thin*' e$itin* in!epen!ently of our concioune of them' "hich #efore "e .ne" only uperficially% There i' then' no *ulf #et"een thin* in themelve an! their appearance or @phenomena5% >e .no" thin* preciely #y mean of their appearance to u' an! the more "e tu!y the appearance the more "e can fin! out a#out the thin*% or i there any *ulf #et"een the appearance of thin* an! their reality' ince the appearance i a manifetation of the reality' an! "e !o not .no" the reality eparately from the appearance #ut only throu*h it% f you .no" all the +ualitie of a thin*' you .no" the thin* itelf' "rote n*el in the ntro!uction to ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific% >e .no" a#out the real propertie an! relation of thin* #y practice an! tu!y% By fin!in* out "hat "e can !o "ith thin*' an! #y tu!yin* the variou appearance of their variou apect un!er many con!ition' "e *ain more an! more .no"le!*e of the thin* themelve% =ence all our .no"le!*e i .no"le!*e of real tilin* "hich certainly e$it in!epen!ently of their appearance to u% The materialit affirm the e$itence an! .no"a#ility of thin* in themelve' "rote ,enin' in Materialim an! mpirio-Criticim' chapter E% ;irt "e .no" thin* uperficially throu*h perception' an! then more !eeply an! comprehenively #y thou*ht operatin* "ith the !ata of perception% There i' an! can #e' no !ifference #et"een the thin* .no"n to u an! thin* in themelve% The only !ifference i #et"een "hat i .no"n an! "hat i not yet .no"n' an! #et"een "hat i .no"n only uperficially in certain of it apect an! "hat i .no"n more thorou*hly% O$ercomin) the Limits o( nowled)e &re there' then' limit to human .no"le!*e? &t any particular ta*e in the !evelopment of humanity .no"le!*e conie up a*aint limit et #y the necearily limite! character of the e$perience availa#le an! of the e$itin* mean of o#tainin* .no"le!*e% But humanity a!vance #y overcomin* uch limit% e" e$perience thro" !o"n the limit of ol! e$perienceA ne" 1K techni+ue' ne" mean of o#tainin* .no"le!*e thro" !o"n the limit of ol! techni+ue an! ol! mean of o#tainin* .no"le!*e% e" limit then once a*ain appear% But there i no more reaon to uppoe thee ne" limit a#olute an! final than there "a to uppoe the ol! one a#olute an! final% &t every ta*e there are people "ho thin. that the limit ha #een reache!
an! "ho loo. no further% But there are al"ay' ooner or later' other people "ho thro" !o"n thoe limit an! #ol!ly a!vance #eyon! them to ne" limit% Therefore .no"le!*e i al"ay limite!' an! a!vance #y overcomin* e$itin* limit% ;or e$ample' it "a impoi#le for people in feu!al ociety to .no" anythin* a#out ocialit ociety an! it la"' to formulate the truth a#out ocialim an! the tranition from ocialim to communim% Thi #ecame poi#le only "ith the !evelopment of capitalit ocietyA only then !i! the mean #ecome availa#le for formin* a cientific conception of ocialim% imilarly it i impoi#le for u to!ay to .no" ho" a fully communit ociety' after it i eta#lihe!' "ill further !evelopA #ut in !ue coure people "ill #e a#le to acertain the truth a#out thi further !evelopment an! it la"% &*ain' it "a impoi#le to *ain .no"le!*e of the atom an! it tructure #efore the invention of mo!ern techni+ue of electronic% To!ay "ith thee techni+ue "e have pae! "hat "ere once thou*ht to #e the limit of all poi#le phyical .no"le!*e% Thee techni+ue themelve involve' ho"ever' their o"n limit to phyical .no"le!*eo that no" ome phyicit aert the impoi#ility of ever .no"in* anythin* more a#out u#-atomic procee than i allo"e! for in contemporary +uantum theory% But it "oul! #e #oth !o*matic an! hort-i*hte! to aert that thee limit are any more a#olute than "ere the once inurmounta#le limit of other techni+ue in the pat% >hile yeter!ay the profun!ity of thi .no"le!*e !i! not *o #eyon! the atom' an! to!ay !oe not *o #eyon! the electron' "rote ,enin' % % % !ialectical materialim init on the temporary' relative' appro$imate character of all thee miletone in the .no"le!*e of nature *aine! #y the pro*rein* cience of man% The electron i a ine$hauti#le a the atom' nature i infinite% %%% ( Materialim an! mpiric-Criticim' chapter 7%) &t every ta*e an! in all circumtance .no"le!*e i incomplete an! proviional' con!itione! an! limite! #y the hitorical circumtance un!er "hich it "a ac+uire!' inclu!in* the mean an! metho! ue! for *ainin* it an! the hitorically con!itione! aumption an! cate*orie ue! in the formulation of i!ea an! concluion% But thi !evelopment of .no"le!*e' every ta*e of "hich ha uch a con!itione! character' i a !evelopment of .no"le!*e of the real material "orl!' the !icovery of interconnection an! la" of motion of real material procee' inclu!in* human ociety an! human concioune% t i a pro*reive !evelopment' in "hich the #oun! of .no"le!*e are ta*e #y ta*e enlar*e!' in "hich the a*reement of i!ea an! theorie "ith o#/ective reality i ta*e #y ta*e increae!' an! in "hich ta*e #y ta*e "hat "a proviional an! hypothetical *ive place to "hat i aure! an! verifie!% The pro*re of .no"le!*e al"ay come up a*aint #arrier "hich arie from the limitation of e$itin* .no"le!*e an! e$itin* practice% But "hile the pro*re of .no"le!*e al"ay face #arrier to further a!vance' .no"le!*e pro*ree #y fin!in* ho" to *et over them% >= .no"le!*e a!vance to the ta*e of .no"le!*e of the la" of motion an! interconnection "hich !etermine the appearance of thin*' then "e #e*in to un!ertan! the apect of neceity "hich #elon* to phenomena of #oth nature an! ociety% >e call that neceary "hich from the nature of the cae coul! not #e other"ie% >hen the real procee "hich !etermine the mo!e of e$itence of a thin* are uch that it i #oun! to manifet certain characteritic an! not other' an! to !evelop in a certain "ay an! not in another' then thoe characteritic an! that !evelopment are un!ertoo! a neceary% n *eneral' in o far a "e *ain .no"le!*e of the inner connection an! la" of !evelopment of thin*' "e are a#le to tate not merely "hat the fact are #ut to e$plain them' to un!ertan! the reaon for them' to comprehen! their neceity% n the fiel! of natural cience' for e$ample' the !icoverie of e"ton concernin* the principle of mechanic reveale! the neceity of many phenomena of nature% Thu amon* other thin* e"ton: principle !emontrate! the neceity of certain feature of the olar ytem of "hich the earth i a part% t i a fact' for intance' that the planet move roun! the un in elliptical or#it% Thi fact "a eta#lihe! #y Iepler% But the neceity of Iepler: la" of planetary motion "a !emontrate! #y e"ton' "hoe analyi of the mechanic of the olar ytem ho"e! that from the very nature of the force 1K1 operatin* in uch a ytem the planet "ere #oun! to move in elliptical or#it' an! not in circle or any other .in! of or#it% Thu the *eneral character of the olar ytem i not acci!ental it i a neceary cone+uence of the nature of uch a ytem' of it inner connection an! la" of !evelopment% &*ain' to ta.e an e$ample from ocial life' it i a fact that in Britain the police al"ay intervene in in!utrial !ipute on the i!e of the employer% ;rom the point of vie" of uperficial o#ervation' thi i merely a fact% But yet it i not acci!ental% ;or once "e have *rape! the nature of the contemporary Britih tate a a capitalit tate' then "e can un!ertan! that if the police help the employer thi i no acci!ent #ut a neceary cone+uence of the capitalit re*ime% f' ho"ever' "e come to un!ertan! the neceity of certain apect of thin*' an! of certain type of event' thi !oe not
mean that everythin* i un!ertoo! a neceary' that there i no place left in the "orl! for acci!ent% On the contrary' particular event al"ay have a chance or acci!ental character% The reco*nition of neceity in thin* i inepara#le from the reco*nition at the ame time of acci!ent% ;or e$ample' the police in a capitalit tate necearily erve the capitalit cla% But they !o not necearily "ear #lue uniform% On the contrary' they coul! erve the capitalit /ut a "ell in uniform of ome other colourA an! o the fact that the Britih police "ear #lue uniform i an acci!entit i !ue to acci!ental circumtance% imilarly' "hile it i a neceary feature of the olar ytem that the earth move roun! the un in an elliptical or#it' it i not a neceary feature that the earth i the e$act ie are imply confronte! "ith o#erve! fact an! e$ternal connection #et"een them% & "e have not yet *rape! the la" of chan*e an! interconnection "hich *overn an! manifet themelve in the thin* "e are o#ervin*' every fact "e o#erve i apprehen!e! imply a a fact "hich coul! +uite "ell have #een other"ie% very fact coul! #e the cae or not #e the cae' an! everythin* ele remain the ame (,%>itt*entein' Tractate ,o*ico-4hiloophicu' i%ai)2 uch i the concluion of a uperficial "ay of vie"in* thin*% But profoun!er inveti*ation reveal that "here on the urface acci!ent hol! "ay' there actually it i al"ay *overne! #y inner' hi!!en la" an! it i only a matter of !icoverin* thee la"% (n*el' ,u!"i* ;e"r#ach' chapter H%) Their !icovery !oe not' ho"ever' eliminate the conception of the acci!ental% ather !oe it reveal that the neceary feature of thin* manifet themelve throu*h a erie of acci!ent' an! that the acci!ental' on the other han!' i al"ay *overne! #y the neceary% Thu it i a hitorical neceity that in the !evelopment of ociety capitalim houl! #e upere!e! #y ocialim% $actly "hen an! ho" thi revolution ta.e place involve a erie of acci!ental circumtance' #ut the !evelopment of thee circumtance i' in turn' *overne! #y hitorical neceity% imilarly in nature' the !evelopment of matter necearily follo" a certain path' thou*h e$actly "hen an! ho" in a particular material ytem the !ifferent ta*e of !evelopment are realie!' or "hether in particular cae they are realie! at all' !epen! upon acci!ental circumtance% o' !ealin* "ith the inter-relation of acci!ent an! neceity in nature' n*el "rote that the olar ytem "a pro!uce! in a natural "ay #y tranformation of motion "hich are #y nature inherent in movin* matter' an! the con!ition of "hich therefore alo mut #e repro!uce! #y matter' even if only after million an! million of year an! more or le #y chance #ut "ith the neceity that i alo inherent in chance% &n! he un!ertoo! the emer*ence of concioune' a the hi*het form of motion of matter' in the ame "ay% t i the nature of matter to a!vance to the evolution of thin.in* #ein*A hence' too' thi al"ay necearily occur "herever the con!ition for it (not necearily i!entical at all place an! time) are preent% (ialectic of ature%) n*el therefore conclu!e! that "hat i maintaine! to #e neceary i compoe! of heer acci!ent' an! the o-calle! acci!ental i the form #ehin! "hich neceity hi!e itelf5% f the neceary i that "hich from the nature of the cae coul! not #e other"ie' the acci!ental i that "hich coul! #e other"ie% Both apect are al"ay preent in everythin*% n *eneral' it i certain overall characteritic of event' an! the overall character of their outcome' "hich are neceary% On the other han!' the !etail' the particular feature of in!ivi!ual event' an! the cone+uent !etaile!' particular feature of their outcome' are not neceary #ut acci!ental% t i in thi ene that "hat i neceary i compoe! of acci!ent% t i preciely in the acci!ental !etail that the inherently neceary manifet itelf' an!' acci!ental in themelve' they are at the ame time hape! an! *overne! #y "hat i neceary%
Necessit!7 Accident and #ausalit!
The !icovery of neceity in nature an! ociety i #oun! up "ith the !icovery of caue an! of the la" *overnin* the relationhip of caue an! effect% >hat i neceary i neceary #ecaue of the operation of caue% f there "ere thin* "hich came into #ein* "ithout any caue' if there "ere event "hich too. place a#olutely at ran!om an! "ithout re*ulation #y caual la"' then there coul! #e no neceity !icovera#le in uch thin* an! event% o if a certain characteritic i a neceary characteritic of certain event' an! if a certain reult i their neceary outcome' thi i cone+uent upon the nature of the caual procee "hich operate in thee event% To *et to un!ertan! the neceity inherent in event i to reach a profoun! .no"le!*e of the caual procee operatin* in them% ;or e$ample' if capitalim "ill necearily #e upere!e! #y ocialim' thi i #ecaue the caue of the tranition from capitalim to ocialim are *enerate! "ithin the capitalit ytem% f "e profoun!ly .no" the nature of capitalim' then "e .no" that uch caue are preent an! cannot #ut #e preent an! continue to operate in uch a ytem% &t the ame time' the .no"le!*e of caue alo ena#le u to un!ertan! the acci!ental feature of thin*% The caue of ocialim' for e$ample' come into #ein* an! operate "ithin capitalim' an! o the outcome of ocialim i .no"n to #e neceary% But the particular feature of thee caue are acci!ental% There i no neceity a#out them% Thu it i neceary that the "or.in* cla houl! increae in num#er an! or*aniation a capitalim !evelopA thi i #oun! to happen' an! i one of the caue "hy capitalim "ill *ive rie to ocialim% But "hile the continue! !evelopment of capitalim necearily implie that there "ill #e more "or.er an! that they "ill or*anie an! eventually overthro" the ytem' it !oe not necearily imply that' ay' Mr% Jone an! Mr% mith "ill /oin an or*aniation an! play a prominent part a lea!er of the movement% There are #oun! to #e lea!er' #ut "hether a particular chil! of particular parent "ill #ecome a lea!er !epen! on many acci!ental factor% uch acci!ental factor' ho"ever' are' in the a**re*ate an! in the lon* run' #oun! to have the reult that lea!er "ill arie% Thu the operation of cauality #rin* it a#out that there i #oth neceity an! acci!ent in the "orl!' an! that the neceary manifet itelf throu*h the acci!ental% t follo" that it i "ron* to aert' a ha often #een aerte!' that "hen a caue ha #een ai*ne! for anythin*' then that thin* ha there#y #een ho"n to #e neceary% t i e+ually "ron* to !efine the acci!ental a that "hich happen "ithout a caue% &ll event have caue' neceary event an! acci!ent ali.e% Merely to trace omethin* #ac. to it remote caue i not to prove it neceity' for acci!ent i at "or. ri*ht throu*hout the chain of event% f omethin* i neceary' thi i not a cone+uence of particular caue #ut of *eneral la"% The inter-relation of acci!ent an! neceity in event i *rape!' then' a a cone+uence of the a!vance of .no"le!*e from the e$ternal to the internal connection of thin*' from appearance to reality' from uperficial o#ervation an! correlation of fact to inveti*ation of the real !ialectic of !evelopment% Then "e ee that neceary cone+uence of the real interconnection of thin* manifet themelve throu*h a erie of acci!ental circumtance' an! that acci!ental event are con!itione! an! *overne! #y an internal neceity an! contri#ute to #rin*in* a#out a neceary outcome% Necessit! and Freedom in .uman Practice >e have coni!ere! the inter-relation of neceity an! acci!ent an! ho" #oth arie from the univeral operation of cauality in nature an! ociety% o" "e hall coni!er the #earin* of thee concluion on practical life% >hen "e carry out practical activitie' !o "e poe any free!om in "hat "e are !oin* or i it all necearily !etermine! in!epen!ently of our "ill ? Thi i the +uetion "e mut no" an"er% &n! a it i ometime thou*ht that neceity an! acci!ent are incompati#le oppoite' uch that "here the one i preent the other mut #e a#ent' o the ame thin* i often thou*ht a#out neceity an! free!om% t i thou*ht that "here neceity i preent there can #e no free!om an! that' on the other han!' if "e !o act freely then "e mut omeho" have ecape! from neceity% f thi i!ea "ere correct' then human free!om "oul! #e an illuion% &ll men: activitie' li.e everQthin* ele in the "orl!' are in all repect *overne! #y caual la"% The operation of cauality *ive rie to neceary characteritic of event an! !etermine their neceary outcomeA an! thi applie a much to human action a to anythin* ele' o that men can never ma.e themelve in!epen!ent of neceity in nature an! ociety% But it i "ron* to oppoe free!om an! neceity a incompati#le% On the contrary' neceity *ive rie to free!om an! i it precon!ition% The operation of natural an! ocial la" an! the neceitie cone+uent on thi are in!epen!ent of our "ill an! of our concioune% =ence "hatever "e may thin. or !eire or !eci!e' our action are al"ay !etermine! in accor!ance "ith the
la" of nature in *eneral an! of our o"n nature in particular' an! conform' in their carryin* out an! in their cone+uence' to the !ictate of neceity% Man i himelf a part of nature' an! the neceity of nature i primary' an! human "ill an! min! econ!ary% The latter mut necearily an! inevita#ly a!apt themelve to the former% (,enin' Materialim an! mpirio-Criticim' chapter 3' ection 6%) >hat characterie human practice' ho"ever' an! !itin*uihe it from animal #ehaviour' i that men in the coure of their ocial practice *ain .no"le!*e of neceity' in the firt place of neceity in nature' an! o learn to act on that .no"le!*e an! to ue it to pro!uce inten!e! aim' to realie their o"n purpoe% Thi #e*in "ith the pro!uction proce itelf' in "hich man et in motion the natural force of hi #o!y in or!er to appropriate nature: pro!uction in a form a!apte! to hi o"n "ant' an! o realie a purpoe of hi o"n% (Mar$' Capital' Volume ' chapter ' ection i%) Cone+uently men are not' li.e the animal' contraine! to follo" a pre!etermine! pattern of #ehaviour% They !o not' li.e the animal' imply a!apt themelve to their environment' #ut alo #y their o"n volition a!apt their environment to themelve% They ma.e themelve free to ee. an! realie en! "hich they themelve have conceive! an! "ille!% &n! in o !oin* they alo chan*e themelve' chan*e their o"n nature% But the matery over nature' "hich !itin*uihe man from the animal' !oe not imply the leat in!epen!ence of man from natural la" an! natural neceity% On the contrary' "hat it !epen! on i not the a#ro*ation of natural la" an! natural neceity #ut .no"le!*e an! conciou utiliation of them% imilarly' "hen men learn alo to control an! plan their o"n ocial life in or!er to atify their material an! cultural re+uirement' thi a*ain !oe not imply that they have achieve! in!epen!ence of the o#/ective la" of ociety' of ocial neceity% On the contrary' "hat it !epen! on i not the a#ro*ation of o#/ective ocial la" #ut .no"le!*e an! conciou utiliation of thee la"not the en!in* of neceity in ociety #ut it reco*nition' an! the !irection of ocial activity in accor!ance "ith that reco*nition of neceity% Men are therefore never' in any repect' in any of their activitie' in!epen!ent of natural or ocial la" an! of their neceary cone+uence% t follo" that in o far a they lac. .no"le!*e of thee la" an! of their cone+uence' they are contraine! an! unfree% Thee la" "ith their neceary cone+uence then aert themelve a an alien po"er' "ith une$pecte! or !etructive effect' frutratin* human purpoe% But in o far a men *ain .no"le!*e of thee la" an! .no"le!*e of their neceary cone+uence' they can learn to utilie them for their o"n purpoe% ;ree!om !oe not conit in cuttin* looe from the operation of cauality #ut in un!ertan!in* them% t !oe not !epen! on *ettin* ri! of neceity #ut on *ettin* .no"le!*e of it% There i' therefore' no incompati#ility #et"een the e$itence of neceity an! of human free!om% On the contrary' a "e have tate!' neceity *ive rie to free!om' namely' "hen men *ain .no"le!*e of neceity an! o can reco*nie it an! ma.e their !eciion in the li*ht of real un!ertan!in* of "hat they are !oin*% >hat i mo're' a "e have alo tate!' o far from #ein* in oppoition to human free!om' the e$itence of neceity i it precon!ition% >hat "oul! happen if there "ere no caual la" in nature an! ociety' if there "ere no o#/ective neceity re*ulatin* the coure of event? n that cae' anythin* coul! happen% >e coul! not !eci!e upon or carry out even the implet action' for "e coul! never .no" "hat to !o in or!er to ecure the reult "e inten!e!% >e "oul! not poe even the free!om to ma.e a cup of tea' for e$ample' for "e "oul! never .no" "hether the "ater "oul! #oil or' "hen "e poure! it into the teapot' "hat the reultin* #re" "oul! turn out li.e% till le coul! "e carry out any more comple$ ocial activitie' for everythin* "oul! #e in chao% n fact' "e coul! not e$it at all% t i only #ecaue thin* are u#/ect to la"' #ecaue o#/ective neceity !oe e$it in nature an! ociety' that "e are a#le to !eci!e upon !efinite action an! to carry them out% Thi i the con!ition for human free!om% &n! that free!om i realie! in proportion a "e e$ten! our .no"le!*e an!' cone+uently' our a#ility to ma.e !eciion on the #ai of .no"le!*e an! o to carry them into effect% ;urther' "hen "e !o .no" the la" *overnin* thin*' then "e can carry out activitie in relation to them "hich "e coul! not carry out "ithout uch .no"le!*e% ;or e$ample' people often !reame! a#out flyin*' #ut until recently coni!ere! that the la" of nature prevente! them from #ein* a#le to fly% 1KK >hen' ho"ever' "e !icovere! the la" *overnin* flyin*' then "e "ere a#le to contruct the mean of fli*ht% n many uch cae' .no"le!*e of the la" "hich have *iven rie to certain limitation on our action ena#le u in practice to trancen! thoe limitation%
nowled)e as the Means to .uman Freedom But are not our o"n action !etermine! #y variou caue an! are they not therefore u#/ect to an overri!in* neceity? =o"' then' can "e #e free ? t i true that "e ourelve are the pro!uct of !efinite con!ition' "oul! have #een !ifferent ha! thoe con!ition #een !ifferent' an! act accor!in* to the neceity of our o"n circumtance an! our o"n nature% But thi !oe not in the leat contra!ict the poi#ility of our #ein* free a*ent% >hatever "e !o' there "a ome caue of our !oin* it% f thi caue "a an e$ternal force of ome .in!' actin* on u in uch a "ay a to ma.e u !o omethin* "ithout the intervention of any act of "ill on our part' then certainly in uch a cae "e are contraine! an! not free% ;or e$ample' if omeone in a cro"! puhe me in uch a "ay that puh omeone ele' then in thi cae am not a free a*ent% The +uetion of free!om only come in "hen "e !o thin* of our o"n volitionthat i to ay' "hen the caue of "hat "e !o i our o"n act of "ill% But ho" i our o"n "ill !etermine! ? f it i !etermine! #y variou e$ternal force operatin* on an! moul!in* our "ill o a to effect purpoe "hich are not our o"n' then "e till lac. free!om% n that cae "e may have the illuion of actin* freely' #ut it i only an illuion% But latly' if our "ill i !etermine! #y our .no"le!*e of the circumtance pf our action an! of "hat mut #e !one to realie a purpoe "hich "e have ma!e our o"n' then in that cae "e not only feel free #ut really are free% uch a +uality of free operation i not inherent in the "ill #ut come into #ein*% &n! it comin* into #ein* an! the e$tent of it !evelopment follo" in turn from !efinite caue "hich come into operation in ocial life% & a reult of the operation of the la" of our o"n 1K9 !evelopment' a a reult of the neceitie of our o"n nature' "e *ain .no"le!*e of e$ternal thin* an! of our o"n nature an! re+uirement' an! then "e act on the #ai of uch .no"le!*e% n proportion a thi ta.e place' "hat "e !o follo" from our o"n conciou !eciion #ae! on .no"le!*e of our o"n re+uirement an! of ho" to realie them% &n! o "e are free% >hat other ort of free!om !o "e e$pect or can "e !eire ? Thi' inci!entally' i a point "hich "a' in it eential' ma!e clear lon* a*o #y the *reat materialit philoopher pinoe have alrea!y coni!ere! the lin.a*e in nature an! ociety of neceity an! acci!ent' an! have een that neceity realie itelf throu*h a erie of acci!ent% To act freely on the #ai of .no"le!*e further mean' then' that "e' a conciou a*ent' mut e$ercie practical control over thee acci!ent' o a to eliminate the acci!ental or chance element in the !etermination of the reult of our activity an! ma.e thoe reult fully conform "ith our o"n intention% n other "or!' the e$ercie of our free!om of action mean that' in carryin* out activitie !irecte! to a !efinite en!' "e' on the #ai of our .no"le!*e of the la" of the u#/ect of our action' e$ercie uch control over the u#/ect that the operation of chance are eliminate! in the !etermination of the reult% Thu "hile the realiation of free!om of human action !oe not in any ene mean *ettin* ri! of neceity' it !oe' in a certain ene' mean *ettin* ri! of acci!ent' or eliminatin* chance% n carryin* out an un!erta.in* "e houl! not' a everyone .no"' leave to chance anythin* "hich affect the ucce of the
un!erta.in*% f "e !o' then the ucce of the un!erta.in* i /eopar!ie!% f it uccee!' that-i !ue to luc. an! not to /u!*mentA circumtance have #rou*ht a#out ucce for u' an! it "a not "e "ho #y our o"n !eli#erate action achieve! ucce for ourelve% But circumtance cannot *enerally #e relie! on to #e o favoura#le% Thoe or*aniin* treet-corner meetin*' for e$ample' ometime for*et to arran*e for anyone to #rin* the platform alon*% They leave it to chance' an! o occaionally fin! themelve "ithout a platform% ometime they may even #e "ithout a pea.er for the ame reaon% aturally enou*h' anyone "ho or*anie anythin* ha the /o# of ta.in* all the factor affectin* the ucce of the un!erta.in* into account an! leavin* none of them to chance% The elementary characteritic of free action' namely' 191 .no"le!*e of neceity an! elimination of chance' are e$emplifie! in the la#our proce' the fun!amental proce of human activity% n the la#our proce man #y hi "or.' uin* the intrument of la#our' operate on the u#/ect of the "or. to effect a !ei*ne! alteration in it% To !o thi he ha to .no" an! rec.on "ith the neceary characteritic of the u#/ect of "or.' an! he ha alo to eliminate the effect of chance on the u#/ect of "or.% The more lar*e-cale an! am#itiou *ro" the un!erta.in* of human la#our' the more !oe man uccee! in eliminatin* the factor of chance in hi un!erta.in*% Thi i a very important coni!eration in any en*ineerin* "or.% To #uil! a #ri!*e' for intance' the en*ineer #ae their plan on their .no"le!*e of the eential nature of the location an! of the material employe!' an! on a rec.onin* "ith the variou chance factor to "hich the tructure may #e u#/ecte!% &n e$ample of failure to rec.on "ith chance "a affor!e!' not many year a*o' #y the ea !efence on the eat coat of n*lan!% Thoe "ho "ere reponi#le for thee !efence ha! omitte! to rec.on "ith the chance that an e$ceptionally hi*h ti!e mi*ht coinci!e "ith an e$ceptionally tron* eat "in!% >hen thi chance coinci!ence too. place' the ea #urt throu*h the !efence% But if ea !efence' or any other en*ineerin* "or.' are properly planne!' then uch chance are rec.one! "ith an! their effect eliminate!% The Elements o( #onscious #ontrol By coni!erin* uch e$ample "e can !ra" ome further concluion a#out the inter-relation of neceity' acci!ent an! human free!om% To ay that free!om entail the elimination of chance !oe not mean' of coure' that #y the e$ercie of free!om "e omeho" contrive to !o a"ay "ith the lin.a*e of acci!ent an! neceity% The operation of acci!ent or chance' an! it lin.a*e "ith neceity' i an o#/ective fact' a univeral feature of event in #oth nature an! ociety' "hich "e have to rec.on "ith an! to "hich "e have to a!apt our action% t e$it in!epen!ently of ourelve an! "e can #y no mean !o a"ay "ith or alter it% >hat "e have to !o to realie free!om of action i' throu*h .no"le!*e of neceity' to #rin* a "hole proce' inclu!in* the chance inherent in it' un!er our control an! o !irect it to an en! !eci!e! #y ourelve% o eliminatin* chance mean controllin* it' o a to !irect it operation an! to ren!er the outcome no lon*er acci!ental% Thi i !one #y mean of (a) e$erciin* a !irect control over chance factor ati! (#) e$erciin* forei*ht an! ta.in* precaution to cope "ith them in o far a they remain outi!e !irect control% Thi i "hy a ocialit economic plan' for e$ample' mut al"ay inclu!e the #uil!in* up of @reerve5% One apect of forei*ht in relation to chance i e$pree! in the ayin*' =ea! "in' tail you loe% f uch a ituation can #e #rou*ht into #ein*' then have enure! that "in% f the outcome !epen! on the acci!ent of the pin of a coin' then it i !eci!e! in!epen!ently of man: volition an! not #y man: volition% But if it i arran*e! that "hatever chance' ome uita#le precaution ha #een contrive! to #rin* a#out the !eire! outcome' then it i man: volition that !eci!e the outcome% f people are ma.in* #et' thi i calle! cheatin*A #ut "e !o not coni!er it cheatin* in relation to nature% ¬her apect of eliminatin* chance i illutrate! #y pinnin* a coin in "hich "e have #een careful to intro!uce a #ia% >e have een that neceity realie itelf throu*h a erie of acci!ent' an! alo that acci!ental event are *overne! #y an internal neceity% >hen thi point i *rape! in a practical "ay' an! "hen "e are e+uippe! "ith .no"le!*e of the la" of the u#/ect of our activitie' then "e are in a poition to rec.on "ith an! control the acci!ental factor inherent in the u#/ect' o that "e ourelve !irect them to a neceary outcome in accor!ance "ith our intention% Thi further re+uire that our .no"le!*e houl! #e not only .no"le!*e of the inevita#le #ut alo of the pro#a#le% n relation to a *iven proce' for intance' "e mut .no" not only "hat effect univerally follo" from "hat caue' o that #y #rin*in* the caue into #ein* "e can enure the correpon!in* effectA #ut "e mut alo .no" the pro#a#ilitie of variou caue comin* into operation an! of variou effect follo"in*% Thi ena#le u to /u!*e ho" to act in or!er to control the "hole proce' inclu!in* it acci!ental feature%
Ju!*ment of pro#a#ility e$pre our e$pectation of the occurrence of acci!ent% &ccor!in* to ome theorie' pro#a#ility i purely u#/ective' in the ene that a /u!*ment of pro#a#ility i an e$preion of nothin* #ut our o"n u#/ective uncertainty or lac. of .no"le!*e% But on the contrary' the i!ea of pro#a#ility reflect an o#/ective realityor rather' one apect of o#/ective realitynamely' the operation of acci!ental caue in a "hole e+uence of event or in an a**re*ate of intance% Thi i /ut a much an o#/ective reality a the operation of a in*le caue on a in*le occaion' "hich i not a u#/ect of pro#a#ility% n proportion a "e .no" the pro#a#ilitie inherent in event an! can arrive at correct /u!*ment of pro#a#ility' "e are a#le the #etter to rec.on "ith all the factor operatin* in the coure of a "hole proce' inclu!in* the acci!ental factor' an! o to !irect the "hole proce to"ar! a !efinite en!% To um up% ;ree!om i control over ourelve an! over e$ternal nature "hich i foun!e! on .no"le!*e of neceity% uch .no"le!*e alo re+uire that "e .no" "hat chance factor enter into the proce "ith "hich "e are concerne!' an! the pro#a#ilitie characteriin* their operation' o that "e can (a\ control the operation of chance an! (#) ta.e precaution to meet it operation in o far a "e !o not control it' a a reult of "hich the "hole proce i !irecte! to a !eire! en!% @Chance i only the one pole of a relation "hoe other pole i calle! Fneceity:' "rote n*el% % % % The more a ocial activity' a erie of ocial procee' #ecome too po"erful for men: conciou control an! *ro" a#ove their hea!' an! the more it appear a matter of pure chance' then all the more urely "ithin %thi chance the la" peculiar to it an! inherent in it aert themelve a if #y natural neceity% (The Ori*in of the ;amily' etc%' chapter 9%) >hen event in "hich "e are concerne! thu ta.e place 19H "ithout our conciou control over them' then the outcome i !etermine! #y a natural neceity realie! throu*h a erie of acci!ent% But in proportion a "e !o achieve a conciou control over event' it i "e ourelve "ho conciouly !etermine their coure' #y actin* on our .no"le!*e of the la" of uch event an! of the factor influencin* the outcome% #ha"ter Fourteen T.E REALISATION OF FREEDOM The 'innin) o( Freedom MOT of the theoretical !ifficultie people run into "hen thin.in* of the pro#lem of free!om reult from thin.in* that free!om i an innate +uality of the "ill% But free!om i not an innate +uality of the "ill' nor i it any ort of *ift or en!o"ment "hich Do! or nature ha #eto"e! upon man% t i omethin* "hich i "onan! "hich i "on *ra!ually' #it #y #it' create! an! realie! in the coure of a*e of human ocial activity% J% J% oueau #e*an hi #oo. on The ocial Contract "ith the famou "or!' Man i #orn free% But man i not #orn free% On the contrary' man i #orn "ith no free!om "hatever' #ut i #orn a a creature !etermine! #y circumtance in!epen!ent of hi "ill% But than. to hi ocial life an! the la" of it !evelopment' he *ra!ually !evelop in ocial practice thoe capacitie "hich ma.e him #ecome free% Thi he !oe in tru**le "ith e$ternal nature' in ocial an! cla tru**le' an! alo in in!ivi!ual tru**le% =e create for himelf an! "in for himelf uch free!om a he poee' an! o he can never poe more than he ha create! an! "on for himelf% ;ree!om i not an innate +uality' nor i it an all or none affair% Metaphyician ar*ue that either "e are free or ele "e are not free% Thi i to for*et that "e may #e free in ome repect #ut not in other' an! that "e may #e more or le free% n the ar*ument #et"een voluntarim' "hich ay that the "ill i not !etermine!' an! !eterminim' "hich ay that the "ill if !etermine!' Mar$im ta.e the !eterminit i!e' ince every act of "ill ha a caue% But the important +uetion i not that of "hether our action are !etermine!ince there i no !ou#t that they are !etermine!#ut of ho" an! #y "hat they are !etermine!#y e$ternal caue or #y our o"n .no"le!*e of our nee! an! of ho" to atify them% >hen the +uetion i put li.e thi' then it i evi!ent that free!om i a matter of !e*ree% >e ma.e ourelve free only in o far a "e #rin* it a#out that our o"n conciou !eciion #ae! on .no"le!*e i the thin* "hich !etermine "hat "e !o an! achieve% But uch free!om can el!om if ever #e a#olute% The more it i our o"n !eciion #ae! on .no"le!*e "hich !etermine our action an! their outcome' an! the le they are !eci!e! for u #y other factor' the *reater i the !e*ree of free!om of action "hich "e have achieve!%
Freedom o( the Indi$idual and Freedom in Societ! ;ree!om i omethin* "hich i realie! #y the in!ivi!ual% t i not man.in! in *eneral' or ociety' that i free' #ut in!ivi!ual "ho are free% But in the firt place' the in!ivi!ual realie free!om only throu*h ociety% The mean to free!om i .no"le!*e' an! thi i ocial% The free!om of the in!ivi!ual !epen! on the ac+uirement of the ociety to "hich he #elon*' on the e!ucation an! aitance "hich ociety ha affor!e! him' an! alo on the e$tent to "hich' in ociety' he can co-operate "ith other an! *et them to co-operate "ith him% n the econ! place' therefore' the in!ivi!ual attain to that !e*ree of free!om "hich ha #een attaine! #y an! i permitte! to him #y the ociety to "hich he #elon*% The cope of hi free!om i !epen!ent on the ac+uirement of hi ociety' #ut it i alo !epen!ent on ho" far ociety "ill permit him to hare it an! ma.e ue of thoe ac+uirement% The potential cope of hi free!om i a *reat a the e$itin* ocial .no"le!*e an! the mean !icovere! to utilie it% &t the ame time' hi actual en/oyment of thi potential free!om may #e !enie! to him #y limitation place! #y ociety on hi o"n ac+uirement an! hi o"n action%
The free!om of in!ivi!ual' then' !epen! upon the poitive ac+uirement of ociety an! the opportunitie ociety affor! to in!ivi!ual to utilie thoe ac+uirement% Thi #ein* o' in!ivi!ual tru**le to*ether#oth "ith one another an! a*aint one anotherfor a hi*her !e*ree of free!om% &n! they there#y raie the !e*ree of free!om poee! #y all in!ivi!ual an! realie! #y them in ociety% t follo"' then' that an in!ivi!ual !evelop a a free a*ent in the coure of hi life' correpon!in* to the e!ucation' incentive an! opportunitie affor!e! him #y ociety% &n! imilarly' men in ociety have !evelope! human free!om in the coure of ocial evolution% Man.in! *ra!ually a!vance on the roa! of *reater free!om of action% Thi free!om of action i' in!ee!' a meaure or criterion of ocial pro*re% The Stru))le (or Freedom n primitive ocietie' people: free!om i retricte! mainly #y their lac. of matery over nature% They are very much at the mercy of e$ternal nature' an! the ava*e: e$itence i to a very *reat e$tent !etermine! for him #y e$ternal con!ition' a i the cae "ith animal% & civiliation ha !evelope!' o ha people: matery over nature !evelope!% =ence their free!om in thi repect ha #ecome le an! le retricte!' more an! more enlar*e!% But a ne" retriction ha come into operation% n civilie! ocietie hitherto' people: free!om ha #een retricte! #y ocial circumtance' an! in particular #y the oppreion of one cla #y another% =ence a the free!om aociate! "ith the matery over nature ha increae!' o ha it #een offet #y cla oppreion% Thi mean that people have #een e$ploite! an! coerce!' an! at the ame time have #een !enie! the opportunity of utiliin* for their o"n interet the .no"le!*e an! po"er "hich e$it in ociety% f people are to #e free' then neither in their economic activitie nor in any other of their activitie houl! they #e contraine! to "or. or to act or to thin. contrary to their o"n interet' to the !etriment of their o"n eential re+uirement' #y e$ternal preure an! for the #enefit of other% &n! they houl! not #e !enie! the opportunity of utiliin* all ociety offer for the atifaction of their re+uirement% uch con!ition are a ne*ation of people: free!om% Their prevalence hitherto ha #een !ue to the !iviion of ociety into e$ploitin* an! e$ploite! clae% Metaphyical philoopher have carefully eparate! the +uetion of the o-calle! free!om of the "ill from the +uetion of economic an! political free!om' an! thi eparation ha helpe! them to milea! people a#out #oth% But in fact thee are not eparate +uetion #ut t"o apect of the one +uetion of men: tru**le for free!om% n a ociety in "hich one cla e$ploit another' the main part of the tru**le for free!om i the tru**le to thro" off the e$itin* form of e$ploitation an! oppreion% &n! it i in thi tru**le that men act freely' ma.e themelve free an! enlar*e the frontier of human free!om% & paive lave i imply a lave' #ut a lave in revolt i actin* a a free man even thou*h he till "ear hi chain% uch people are pioneer of human free!om% t follo" that' in cla ociety' free!om an! the "innin* of free!om ha al"ay a cla #ac.*roun! to it% &n! the concept of free!om ha therefore a cla i*nificance% n the firt place' the free!om "hich ha #een "on an! realie!' at any ta*e' an! alo the lac. of free!om' i al"ay the free!om or lac. of free!om of !efinite clae% n the econ! place' the free!om or lac. of free!om of one cla !iffer in concrete "ay from the free!om or lac. of free!om of another claA an! cone+uently !ifferent clae alo have !ifferent i!ea of "hat contitute free!om% =uman free!om ha #een contantly a!vance! #y the cla tru**le' an! variou clae' trivin* to realie their o"n aim
an! to ma.e themelve free to purue thoe aim' have a!vance! the free!om of people *enerally from one ta*e to another% ach ta*e i realie! a a reult of tru**le a*aint the retriction on free!om place! #y a !efinite ytem of cla rule' an! in turn pro!uce it o"n retriction on free!om% Thu' for e$ample' feu!al rule an! erf!om "ere en!e! a a reult of the tru**le le! #y the #our*eoiie a*aint feu!al retriction% Thi "a a tep for"ar! in men: free!om% t #rou*ht "ith it ne" form of e$ploitation an! oppreion' #ut it alo #rou*ht ne" a!vance' the "innin* of #roa!er political ri*ht an! li#ertie' ne" an! more po"erful or*aniation' a!vance in .no"le!*e an! culture% &t the ame time' it ha meant in practice !ifferent thin* for the t"o main clae of capitalit ociety% The capitalit cla i concerne! to maintain it rule an! increae it profit% The "or.in* cla' on the other han!' i confronte! "ith the ta. of *ettin* ri! of capitalit rule an! capitalit e$ploitation' an! of uin* the free!om "hich it ha alrea!y "on in or!er to a!vance to a hi*her or!er of free!om% imilarly' retriction of free!om are e$perience! !ifferently #y the !ifferent clae% very ytem of e$ploitation impoe !efinite form of coercion an! oppreion on the e$ploite!A an! the "or.in* cla to!ay' for e$ample' e$perience thi% &t the ame time' each rulin* cla' "hich eem to itelf to have realie! it o"n free!om #y e$ploitin* other' fin! in practice that it free!om i lar*ely illuory% The #our*eoiie' for e$ample' fin! themelve enlave! #y the la" of their o"n ytem' an! mut *o on accumulatin* capital' competin* "ith one another an! fi*htin* "ith one another to the en!% To a poor family to!ay' !e#atin* "hether to e$ercie their free "ill in payin* the rent or #uyin* ome foo!' it often eem that a rich capitalit i far freer than they are% They !o not realie the e$tent to "hich the unfortunate man i the lave of hi o"n #uine' ufferin* hi*h #loo! preure an! perpetual "orry an! frutration% f they !i!' imple humanity mi*ht prompt them to et him free from thee care' an! !o themelve a #it of *oo! too' #y ta.in* over hi #uine from him an! allo"in* him the free!om of honet "or.% Mem#er of variou e$ploitin* clae have often #elieve! that riche an! po"er "oul! *ive them complete free!om% But even their o"n philoopher have a!ly #ut truly pointe! out to them that riche an! po"er enlave their poeor at the ame time a they are en*a*e! in enlavin* other% From Lac0 o( Freedom to Freedom The tru**le for free!om mean in eence people: tru**le to #e a#le to atify their o"n re+uirement' material an! cultural' for "hich i nee!e! .no"le!*e of thoe re+uirement an! of ho" to atify them' an! the po"er to effect that atifaction% >hen in ocialit ociety people' havin* alrea!y *reatly e$pan!e! their matery over nature' #rin* their o"n ocial or*aniation un!er their o"n conciou control #y virtue of the ocial o"nerhip of the mean of pro!uction' then a !eciive tep for"ar! i realie! in human free!om% n ocialit ociety' "hen there i no e$ploitation of man #y man an! "hen the mean of pro!uction are common property an! are utilie! for the purpoe of atifyin* the re+uirement of every in!ivi!ual' people #e*in le to tru**le for free!om then to en/oy it an! learn ho" to *o for"ar! to e$ercie it to the full% &n! "hen in communit ociety people finally !o a"ay "ith all trace of the u#or!ination of people to their o"n mean of pro!uction an! pro!uct' then people "ill have attaine! to the hi*het !e*ree of free!om "e can envia*e% Then' a n*el put it' for the firt time man' in a certain ene' i finally mar.e! off from the ret of the animal .in*!om' an! emer*e from mere animal con!ition of e$itence into really human one%%%% t i the acent of man from the .in*!om of neceity to the .in*!om of free!om% (ocialim' Ltopian an! cientific' chapter 3%) >e can ay that people tarte! off from mere animal con!ition of e$itence' #ut #e*an to create con!ition of free!om "hen they firt #e*an ocial pro!uctionthat i to ay' "hen they #e*an to ue tool an! implement to chan*e thin*' in accor!ance "ith the o#/ective la" of nature' "ith conciou intent to atify their o"n re+uirement% n pro!ucin*' people have entere! into relation of pro!uction' an! in the coure of a*e of tru**le to atify their o"n ever*ro"in* re+uirement they have continually a!vance! their .no"le!*e an! cone+uently their control over their o"n affair an! over e$ternal nature% Thi tru**le ha a!vance! throu*h a erie of ta*e' in each of "hich people have chan*e! their relation of pro!uction to correpon! "ith the !evelopment of their force of pro!uction' an! in each of "hich !ifferent clae have enlar*e! their o"n phere of free activity only at the cot of ne" form of !omination of one cla over another an! of ne" form of u#/ection to the o#/ective la" of their o"n ocial or*aniation% &t len*th the cla tru**le ha reache! that ta*e in "hich the tru**le of the e$ploite! cla for it o"n emancipation "ill finally emancipate ociety at lar*e from all e$ploitation an! oppreion' an! o "ill #rin* a#out con!ition in "hich men: o"n ocial or*aniation come un!er their o"n conciou' ocial control an! #ecome the reult of their o"n free action% Then' too' the la#our proce' #y "hich men #e*an their /ourney to free!om #ut "hich #ecame a proce of enlavement' "ill #ecome the conciou mean #y "hich they achieve the atifaction of all their nee!A an! #y limitin* the hour of la#our each "ill #e a#le freely to !evelop an! en/oy the e$ercie of all hi capacitie% n thi "ay' #y a proce "hich i entirely la" *overne!' "hich i !etermine! at every point #y the operation of o#/ective la"' people *ra!ually emer*e from a con!ition of complete lac. of free!om' "hen "hat they !o an! achieve i !etermine!
not #y their o"n conciou !eciion #ut #y their circumtance' an! *ra!ually "in free!om' attainin* at len*th a con!ition in "hich in!ivi!ually an! collectively they can conciouly !eci!e their o"n fate on the #ai of .no"le!*e of their o"n nee! an! of conciou control over the con!ition for their atifaction% Moralit! The ta*e of the evolution of free!om are cloely connecte! "ith the evolution of morality' or ethic% The !evelopment of moral i' in fact' one i!e or apect of the !evelopment of free!om' an! the variou ta*e of the !evelopment of moral i!ea are o many ta*e of the evolution of human free!om% Many moral philoopher have o#erve! that morality i an e$preion of free!om an! that the moral life ha meanin* only in o far a people are actin* freely% &n! of coure' if all our action "ere merely the !etermine! cone+uence of e$ternal caue' then there "oul! #e no ene in callin* them ri*ht or "ron*' or in ayin* that "e ha! a !uty to !o one thin* rather than another' ince in that cae "e coul! not help "hat "e !i!% n thi' thee philoopher "ere evi!ently ri*ht% >hat they !i! not o#erve i that free!om i omethin* "hich !evelop ocially on the #ai of the activitie of !efinite clae' an! that the ame i true of moral% =uman morality i not an e$preion of ome eternal moral la" !ecree! #y heaven an! omeho" reveale! to man.in!A nor i it' a Iant ima*ine!' the e$preion of a cate*orical imperative inherent in the human "illA #ut it i a natural pro!uct of men: ocial or*aniation% ince men live in ociety' they necearily evolve a moral co!e to re*ulate their mutual relation an! activitie in ociety% Thi aume in relation to in!ivi!ual the appearance of an e$ternally impoe! an! morally #in!in* force' #ecaue of it character of a ocial re*ulator of con!uct% t aume the peculiar character of a @moral5 force2 "e !o not have to act ri*htly' #ut "e ou*ht to !o o% Morality conit of certain tan!ar! an! principle of con!uct' an! ay that certain thin* ou*ht to #e !one an! other thin* ou*ht not to #e !one' irrepective of "hether in!ivi!ual "ant to !o them or not' or actually !o them or not% The "hole ene of moral term' li.e @*oo!5' @#a!5' @ou*ht5' an! o on' i containe! in the aertion of tan!ar! "hich !o not !epen! on the particular !eire' impule an! action of in!ivi!ual% &n! uch tan!ar! come to #e conceive!' an! necearily come to #e conceive!' preciely #ecaue of the ocial neceity of re*ulatin* in!ivi!ual con!uct% Of coure' it i one thin* to conceive an! reco*nie uch tan!ar! an! another thin* to operate them% Denerally pea.in*' every ociety evolve variou form of anction to teach an! perua!e people to !o "hat they ou*ht' ran*in* from mil! praie or #lame to ytem of re"ar! an! punihmentthe latter' ho"ever' #ein* motly reerve! for action !irectly involvin* ecurity of life or property% But in ocietie containin* cla anta*onim' an! "here people profit at other: e$pene an! compete "ith one another' a lar*e part of morality invaria#ly aume the form of omethin* "hich i preache! to other #ut "hich one trie to eva!e oneelf% Morality i inepara#le from hypocriy% ;inally' "hen moral tan!ar! are not merely often eva!e! #ut are place! in !ou#t an! i*nore! alto*ether' an! "hen the variou moral anction vacillate an! "ea.en' that i one i*n that the ocial ytem concerne! i #rea.in* up an! chan*in*% The "hole of ocial intercoure i con!itione! #y an! #ae! on the pro!uction relation of ociety% &n! o morality' a a re*ulator of ocial intercoure' i in every ociety the pro!uct of !efinite pro!uction relation% t reflect them an! chan*e "ith them' an! each cla in ociety evolve it o"n moral i!ea correpon!in* to it peculiar cla poition% @Men conciouly or unconciouly !erive their moral i!ea in the lat reort from the practical relation on "hich their cla poition i #ae!' "rote n*el' from the economic relation in "hich they carry on pro!uction an! e$chan*e%%%% &ll former moral theorie are the pro!uct' in the lat analyi' of the economic ta*e "hich ociety ha! reache! at the particular epoch% (&nti-iihrin*' 4art ' chapter 9%) Thi #ein* o' it i natural that moral i!ea houl! in many "ay !iffer a #et"een !ifferent ocial ytem an! !ifferent clae% &t the ame time' "e houl! e$pect to fin!' a "e !o fin!' that there i al"ay omethin*' an! often a *reat !eal' in common #et"een them% ;or the !ifferent ocial ytem an! clae repreent !ifferent ta*e of the ame hitorical !evelopment an! have therefore a common hitorical #ac.*roun!' an! for that reaon alone they necearily have much in common% ven more% n imilar or appro$imately imilar ta*e of economic !evelopment moral theorie mut of neceity #e more or le in a*reement% ;or e$ample' :-:from the moment "hen private property in mova#le o#/ect !evelope!' in all ocietie in "hich thi property e$ite! there mut #e thi moral la" in common2 Thou hall not teal% (n*el' &nti-uhrin*' 4art ' chapter 9%) The ethic of any ocial *roup i the e$preion of the concrete nature of their free!om an! their apiration for free!om "hich ha it #ai in the place they occupy in ocial pro!uction an! their relationhip to the mean of pro!uction% n o far a uch a *roup may remain un!er the influence an! "ay of ome other *roup' they may accept the moral i!ea of that other *roupoften to their o"n !etriment an! to the a!vanta*e of the other' ince it erve to .eep them in u#/ection% But in o far a they #ecome conciou of an! #e*in to tru**le for their o"n aim' #e*in to play an active an! not merely a paive part in the proce of ocial chan*e' #e*in to aert their o"n free!om' they !evelop their o"n morality in the proce%
>hy !oe free!om entail moral ? t i #ecaue free!om in action i the very oppoite of actin* on impule or #ecaue of e$ternal compulion% n o far a people act on impule or #ecaue of e$ternal compulion' they are the very revere of free #ut are contraine! #y chance or e$ternal caue% 4eople act freely "hen they themelve' !eli#erately an! .no"in*ly' !etermine their coure of action% =ence in realiin* an! e$erciin* their free!om people create their ma$im or principle of action' "hich contitute their moral i!ea% Their moral then correpon! to the con!ition an! aim of their tru**le' a !etermine! on the #ai of their actual con!ition of material life% &t the ame time' they create intitution an! ocial anction "hich' in thi repect' erve a the e$ternal em#o!iment an! !efence of their moral an! of the .in! an! !e*ree of free!om of action "hich they have attaine! or are trivin* for% The mo!ern "or.in* cla' for e$ample' ha create!' an! i creatin*' it o"n morality' "hich receive particular e$preion in uch intitution a the tra!e union movement an! the Communit 4artya morality of oli!arity an! of mutual aitance' an! of puttin* the common tru**le #efore the particular an! hort-term interet of the in!ivi!ual% Bour*eoi morality !iffer from thi in many "ay% f many "or.in* people remain un!er the influence of #our*eoi moralityor "hat thi often come to to!ay' #our*eoi lac. of morality that imply mean that they remain relatively paive lave of the capitalit ytem' althou*h they may themelve thin. an! #e aure! #y their employer that they are #ehavin* "ith *reat tren*th of min! an! in!epen!ence% Thu if a "or.er ur*e! to ta.e part in hi tra!e union tru**le replie that he "ill not !o o #ecaue everyone houl! loo. after himelf' that imply mean that he ha im#i#e! the in!ivi!ualitic element of #our*eoi morality' "hich have #een pumpe! into him #y capitalit propa*an!a% t alo mean that he !oe not in fact .no" ho" to loo. after himelf' ince the i!ea evolve! #y the capitalit for loo.in* after their o"n affair are not uite! to the entirely oppoite purpoe of aitin* the "or.er% n cla-!ivi!e! ociety' morality i al"ay an! necearily cla morality% t e$pree preciely the re+uirement' the ocial concioune an! the meaure an! .in! of free!om of the variou clae% &n! "hen a cla i *oin* !o"n' it morality *oe !o"n "ith it' an! *ive "ay to a !ifferent morality% >e can ay that that morality i hi*her "hich erve to a!vance ociety a tep further on the roa! of material pro*re an! free!om% Thee t"o thin* are inepara#le' ince in tru**lin* for more free!om people realie their material pro*re' an! in tru**lin* for material pro*re they realie more free!om% To live more fully i the *oal of all free an! active life' an! thi alone provi!e the o#/ective criterion for /u!*in* "hat morality i hi*her% &t preent' no morality i hi*her than that "hich i the e$preion of the cla tru**le of the "or.in* cla% f thoe "ho #emoan the !ecline of moral in capitalit ociety "ant to fin! e$ample of moral principle' thi i "here they houl! loo.% They !o not !o o #ecaue they are #oth ahame! an! fri*htene!% @Our morality i entirely u#or!inate! to the interet of the cla tru**le of the proletariat% Our morality i !erive! from the interet of the cla tru**le of the proletariat' "rote ,enin% % % % Morality i "hat erve to !etroy the ol! e$ploitin* ociety an! to unite all the toiler aroun! the proletariat' "hich i #uil!in* up a ne"' communit ociety% Communit morality i the morality "hich erve thi tru**le' "hich unite the toilerS (The Ta. of the outh ,ea*ue%) >hen cla anta*onim are a#olihe! in ocialit an! communit ociety' then morality !oe #ecome human an! not cla morality% @& ociety ha hitherto move! in cla anta*onim' morality "a al"ay a cla morality' "rote n*el% t ha either /utifie! the !omination an! the interet of the rulin* cla' or' a oon a the oppree! cla ha #ecome po"erful enou*h' it ha repreente! the revolt a*aint thi !omination an! the future interet of the oppree!% That in thi proce there ha on the "hole #een pro*re in morality % % % cannot #e !ou#te!% But "e have not yet pae! #eyon! cla morality% & really human morality "hich trancen! cla anta*onim an! their le*acie in thou*ht #ecome poi#le only at a ta*e of ociety "hich ha not only overcome cla contra!iction #ut ha even for*otten them in practical life% (&nti-uhrin*' 4art ' chapter 9%) uch morality e$pree the principle an! ma$im of free action in an aociation in "hich the free !evelopment of each i the con!ition for the free !evelopment of all% (Mar$ an! n*el' Manifeto of the Communit 4arty' chapter E%) t i !e!uce! from nothin* ele than .no"le!*e of human re+uirement an! of ho" to atify them% &n! in con!ition "here people have !eli#erate' conciou control over the mean of atifyin* their re+uirement' it i the e$preion of their free!om an! the principle *ui!in* their free activitie% The ethic of the free!om tru**le of the "or.in* cla' "hich !oe not re/ect #ut incorporate all that i poitive an! !ura#le in the "hole moral evolution of man.in!' prepare the "ay an! lay the #ai% <hou*h human morality !oe not yet e$it' "e can perhap *ue at ome of it characteritic% t i not !o*matic' #ut cientific an! elf-critical% t !oe not encoura*e elfri*hteoune an! moral plutterin* an! frothin*' #ut i calm an! reaona#le% ;or it' immoral #ehaviour i imply anti-ocial #ehaviour !ue to "ea.ne an! lac. of e!ucation' an! it aim i
