Applied Linguistics
1.What is Applied Linguistics? An interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates and offers solution to language related real-life problems.
2.What is grammar? Grammar is the knowledge speakers have about the rules of language. These These rules allow allow the speaker to combine sounds, form words, words into phrases and phrases into sentences.
3.Difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammar. grammar. Descriptive grammar (definition (definition #1) refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar (definition #2) refers to the structure of a language as certain peop le think it should it should be be used. kinds of grammar are concerned with w ith rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar (called linguists) linguists) study the rules ru les or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the t he other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) lay out rules about what they believe to be the ³correct´ or ³incorrect´ use of language. (See What Is a SNOOT?) Both
Interfacing With Grammar
To illustrate these different approaches, let's consider the wo rd interface. interface. The descriptive grammarian would note, among other things, that the word is made up of a common prefix(interprefix(inter) and a root word ( face) face) and that it¶s currently used as bot h a noun and a verb. The prescriptive grammarian, however, would be more interested in deciding whether or not it is ³correct´ to use interface as a verb. 4.
The value of studying grammar.
The study of grammar all by itself will not necessarily make you a better writer. But by gaining a clearer understanding of how our language works, you should also gain greater control over the way you shape s hape words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs. In short, studying grammar may help you become a more effective writer. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness correctness: language, they say, isn't good goo d or bad; it simply is is.. As the history of the glamorous word grammar word grammar demonstrates, demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a
continually evolving affair. Within a generation o r two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear. Prescriptive grammarians prefer giving practical advice about using language: straightforward rules to help us avoid making errors. The rules may be over-simplified at times, but they are meant to keep us out of trouble--the kind of trouble that may distract or even confuse our readers.
5.Inductive versus deductive Appr oach.
a. Induction, Inductive language education
The process of induction is GENERAL -> SPECIFIC. In Second Language Acquisition, this means: GENERAL SAMPLES OF THE LANGUAGE to SPECIFIC RULES by which the language appears to be governed. The idea is that the teacher gives general samples of compositions in the target language, and students are supposed to induce (figure out) the specific rules.
b. Deduction, deductive language education The process of deduction is: SPECIFIC -> GENERAL.
In Second Language Acquisition, this means from SPECIFIC RULES of the language to GENERAL PRODUCTION. That means: the teacher explicates (gives) some specific rules and then the students DEDUCE (figure out) general production of the target language.
6.
Different Approaches.
A. The audio-lingual approach
The audio-lingual approach dominated foreign language teaching in the 1950s and 1960s.
Its rise is partly due to the fact that because of the rapid increase of international trade, travel, and commerce, ever more people needed to learn English (the new lingua franca). That includes µintellectually less gifted¶ peop le. The major aim is to enable all learners to use English in everyday oral communication. Speaking is put before and above writing. The claim is that by the imitation of good examples and the fast correction of errors everyone can learn a second language. There is no need for abstract rule knowledge. (³Englisch für alle´, 1964). Pattern drills and the use of the language laboratory are typical of the teaching methods used under the audio-lingual approach. B.
Cognitive-Code Approach
The term cognitive-code refers to any conscious attempt made to organize material around a grammatical syllabus while allowing for meaningful practice and use of language. Subskills in listening ,speaking, reading, and writing such as sound discrimination, pronunciation of specific elements, d istinguishing between letters that are similar in appearance a nd so on are learned before the student participates in real communication activities. Lessons are highly structured using a deductive process, and o ften practicing the `rule of the day,¶ A Mini-Lesson Using Cognitive-code Approach: Grade 2. OBJECTIVE: To learn the "rule of the day" using deductive method. Introduce words beginning with short and long vowel sound "i." PK : Students know short and long vowels sounds of a and e. TEACH: using picture-cards with the letter "i" on the back. DEDUCE: iguana, ice, igloo, ice-cream, ink, ivy,insect, idea begin with the letter i ACTIVITY: draw pictures for the above words. Make a collage. Play bingo Although cognitive-code approach devotes "a great deal of time to temporally
related but often unmotivated (contextually unjust ified) discourse," a teacher can make learning more interesting and fun as mentioned above for K-3.
C. Communicative language teaching Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as ³communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages´ or simply the ³Communicative Approach´.
y
7.
A.
Theories of language learning .
The behaviorist theory believes that ³infants learn oral language fro m other human role
models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in an infant¶s environment provide the stimuli and rewards,´ (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). When a child attempts oral language or imitates the sounds o r speech patterns they are usually praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus, praise and affection becomes the rewards. However, the behaviorist theory is scrutinized for a variety of reasons. If rewards play such a vital component in language development, what about the parent who is inattentive or not present when the child attempts speech? If a baby¶s language learning is motivated strictly by rewards would the speech attempts stop merely for lack of rewards (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)? Other cases against this theory include ³learning the use and meaning of abstract words, evidence of novel forms of language not modeled by others, and uniformity of language acquisition in humans´ (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). Behaviorism (1930-1950¶ s) B. F. Sk inner . (1957 ) V erbal Behavior .
Knowledge is based on experience
Learning is the establishment of stimulus-response connection
The study of learning should be restricted to observable inputs and outputs Behaviorism and T eaching M ethodologies
Audiolingual Method
o o
R einf orcement
o y
B
Memorize and repeat whole sentences designed to highlight where L1 and L2 differed The goal: Learn new habits Methods
Students rewarded for correct productions to develop stimulus-response connections Much like L1 acquisition theory of reinforcement
.The innatist theory states that learning is natural for human beings. They believe that babies
enter the world with a biological propensity, an inborn device, to learn language (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). This human built in device for learning language has been coined the (LAD) language acquisition device. The innatist theory does somewhat explain how children can generate or invent language they have never heard. Researcher, N. Chomsky backed this theory stating that children use the LAD to generate and invent complex speech. Although this theory provides what some claim is a reasonable e xplanation about acquiring language, this theory lack sufficient evidence. Some of the cases against this theory include, ³timing of language learning varies greatly within cultures, environment shapes how much and what language is learned, and feedback from other language users affects language acquisition´ (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).
1. Innate Ideas
The philosophy of innatism is sometimes divided into two areas: 1. Knowledge innatism - this doctrine asserts that humans have acces s to knowledge that is possessed innately. 2. Idea innatism - also known as co ncept innatism, this doctrine asserts that humans have access to certain inborn ideas.
Knowledge innatism seems to entail idea innatism.
Idea innatism does not necessarily entail know ledge innatism, although this is debatable.
An innatist might endorse an innatist account of ideas, or of knowledge, or (the most common innatist position) of both ideas and knowledge
2. T he difference between innatism and nativism
In general usage the terms innatism and nat ivism are synonymous as they both refer to notions of preexisting ideas present in the mind. However, more correctly innatism refers to the philosophy of Plato and Descartes who assumed that innate ideas and principles are placed in the human mind by a God or an equivalent being or process. While nativism represents an adaptation of this, grounded in the fields of genetics, cognitive psychology and psycho linguistics. Nativists hold that innate beliefs are in some way genetically programmed to arise in our mind, that is to say that innate beliefs are the phenotypes of certain genotypes that all humans have in common.
C. The cognitive theory is often known as the compromise between t he behaviorist
theory and innatist theory. ³Cognitivists believe that not only do cognitive and maturational factors influence language acquisition, but a lso the process of language acquisition itself may in turn affect cognitive and social skill development´ (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). The behaviorist theory explains why babies learn language while the innatist theory reveals why babies born to English-speaking parents speak English instead of Spanish. The cognitive theory seems to explain the majority of the language acquisition questions and is a nice b lend of the previous two theories, behaviorist and innatist (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). D. The social interactionist theory, ³assumes that language acqu isition is influenced
by the interaction of a number of factors ± physical, linguistic, cognitive, and soc ial,´ (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). This theory shares many of the same explanations as the other three theories. Vygotsky¶s work is often placed with this theory b ecause of the emphasis he placed on the importance of social interaction to learn language. M.A.K. Halliday believes that children learn language out of need to function in society. Babies acquire language in order to survive, have their needs met, and express themselves (Coot er & Reutzel, 2004).
1.Advantages i
Creating a supportive community to lower students¶ anxiety and help them overco me threatening affective factors, such as making erro rs or competing with peers.
i
This situational approach to language learning encourages the meaningful use of language which the learner can store, synthesize and use in new situat ions.
2.Disadvantages i
The teacher may be too nondirective and rely heavily on inductive strategies of learning.
i
There is the risk that the group might not accept the co mmon task of learning, as some students may be more motivated to acquire the language than others. 3. What is the Zone of Proximal Devel opment?
-
-
Vygotsky (1978) maintained the child follows the adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help or assistance. He called the difference between what a child can do with help and what he or she can do without guidance the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). Proximal Zone (Distal zone) -> Learning (social interaction) -> Present knowledge : Cognitive development E.
Mentalist Theory
Noam Chomsky (1957) Syntactic Structures.
Linguistics should be concerned about deeper, abstract, universal properties of language Compare to behaviorist concern with observed input-output, and observable differences between languages
Goal of linguistics: discover the underlying grammar that generates an infinite set of grammatical sentences
o
H ow
do we k now meaningless sentences are grammatical?
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. *Colorless sleep ideas green furiously. o
H ow
can we disambiguate two meanings?
Behaviorist
investigation only concerned with actual output. Need to look ³deeper´ into the structure
V isiting
relatives can be boring.
³Relatives who visit can be boring.´ ³To visit relatives can be boring.´ o S urface and abstract/underlying structures posited Who do you want to see? Who do you wanna see? Who do you want to feed the dog? *Who do you wanna feed the dog? You want to see who? You want who to feed the dog? Whoi do you want to see t i? Whoi do you want t i to feed the dog?
Domain of linguistic investigation: Linguistic competence.
o
Investigated by self introspection of native speaker
o
Any evidence from performance was irrelevant.
o
Language considered an innate part of the brain y
Notion of the ³black box´, a place in the brain that controls language, but we have no direct access to it.
M entalist T heories Influenced Ideas about L1 and L2 Acquisition
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) o o o
Innate mental organ Used in L1 and L2 acquisition Evolved to search for patterns in the input and formulate ³rules´ of grammar Lead to the ³Active Construction of a Grammar´ theory in L1 acquisition
o o
Children were searching out patterns Lead to the construction of an underlying grammar Lead to the idea of an ³interlanguage´ in L2 acquisition
o o y
Learners of L2 followed fairly consistent sequence of acquisition Commonalities due to factors beyond L1 characteristics L2 learners using LAD to form new underlying grammars
4.What
is universal grammar?
Universal grammar (UG) is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared
by all languages, thought to be innate to humans (linguistic nativism). It attempts to explainlanguage acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. Universal grammar proposes a set of rules intended to explain language acquisition in child development. The idea can be traced to Roger Bacon's observation that all languages are built upo n a common grammar, substantially the same in all languages, even though it may undergo in them accidental variations, and the 13th century speculative grammarians who, following Bacon, postulated universal rules underlying all grammars. The concept o f a universal grammar or language was at the core of the 17th century projects for philosophical languages. The 18th century in Scotland saw the emergence of a vigorous universal grammar school. Later linguists who have influenced this theory include Noam Chomsky, Edward Sapir and Richard Montague, developing their version of the theory as they considered issues of the Argument from poverty of the stimulus to arise from the constructivist approach to linguistic theory. The app lication of the idea to the area of second language acquisition (SLA) is represented mainly by the McGill linguist Lydia White.
8.
What is the Critical Peri od Hypothesis?` The Critical Period Hypothesis is the subject of a long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age. The hypothesis claims that there is an ideal 'window' of time to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which th is is no longer possible. The Critical Period Hypothesis states that the first few years of life is the cruc ial time in which an individual can acquire a first language if presented with adequate stimuli. If
language input doesn't occur until after this time, the individual will never achieve a full command of language ² especially gra mmatical systems.
9.
Synthetic versus analytic language. A synthetic language, in linguistic typology, is a language with a high morpheme-per-
word ratio. This linguistic classification is largely independent of morpheme-usage classifications (such as fusional, agglutinative, etc.), although there is a co mmon tendency for agglutinative languages to exhibit synthetic pro perties. While the term analytic , referring to a morphological type, is synonymous with the term isolating in most contexts. However, it is possible to define analytic as referring to the expression ofsyntactic information via separate grammatical words instead of via morphology (with bound morphemes). Obviously, using separate words to express syntactic relationships would lead to a more isolating tendency while using inflectional morphology wou ld lead to the language having a more synthetic tendency.
10. Identify and describe two social factors affecting language learning and teaching in the classroom.
1. An element that affects the teaching and learning of English in the Caribbean is lack of motivation
of
the students. Students are comfortable using there mother tongue/ native
language and they se no real reason to learn English ³beyond satisfying the statutory and examination requirements´ (Robertson 1995). Additionally there are not sufficient and adequately knowledgeable individuals who can pose as competent speakers of English to present themselves as role models to the students. Subsequently, students are of the opinion that they already master the competence of speaking English because of the general overlap that exist between the two codes.
2. Other elements that affect the teaching and learning of English in the Caribbean come from
the society at large. Firstly, ministry officials, policy planners and curriculum implementers focus on mainly on policies, plans and documents that cater to the passing of an examination therefore they are ignorant about the needs and goals of learning language (English). They place no primary focus on the long term learning of English; therefore curriculums are centred on examination principles and content resulting in effective teaching of English. Robertson posits that education administrative in the Caribbean ³rely exclusively on the CXC syllabus¶´ and ³these
syllabuses
are
in
the
first
place,
rather
examination
rather
than
teaching
documents«.schools do not attempt to articulate the various and integrate the English curriculum across the various levels in schooling,´ and in doing so they do not provide adequate support for language learning and teaching.
11. What is c onstrastive analysis? The systematic study of a pa ir of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities. (Wikipedia.org) Contrastive analysis is concerned with comparing the structure of the speaker¶s first /native language (L1) with the target language (TL) or second language (L2), the language which the speaker is trying to learn in order to identify how the L1 influences the learner¶s ability to acquire L2. Contrastive Analysis approach was widely accepted in the 1960¶s but was soon rejected in the1970¶s because it was exploited by behaviourists (R onald Sheen, PhD 1996). Behaviourist was becoming unpopular in the classroom, because of its approach to teaching language through a series of drills. Contrastive analysis was closely associated with behaviourisms, hence it was rejected. 1.Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis Where two language are similar, positive transfer will occur; where they are different, negative transfer or interference w ill result: a priori predictions. Type of Difficulty
L1:
English
L2:
Example
Spanish por
x
1. Split
for
x
para
y 2. New
Ø------- x
Marking grammatical gender
3. Absent
x------- Ø
Do as a tense carrier
x
4. Coalesced
x
his/her is realized as a single form su
Y 5. Correspondence
12. What is
Error
x------- x
-ing = -ndo used as a complement with verbs of perception (hear talking, oir hablando)
analysis?
Error analysis deals with thelearners¶ performance in terms of the cognitive processes they make use of in recognizing or coding the input they receive from the target language. Therefore, a primary focus of error analysis is on the evidence t hat learners¶ errors provide with an understanding of the underlying process of second language acquisition.
1.Two areas of Error Analysis Theoretical analysis of errors, as mentioned before, primarily concerns the process
and strategies of language learning and its similarities with first language acquisition. In other words, it tries to investigate what is going on in the minds of language learners. Secondly, it tries to decode the strategies of learners such as overgeneralization and simplification, and thirdly, to go to a conclusion that regards the universals of language learning process whether there is an internal syllabus for
learning a second language.
While applied error analysis, on the other hand, concerns organizing remedial courses, and devising appropriate materials and teaching strategies based on the findings of theoretical error analysis.
2.Types of Errors
Interlingual I nterference
Is the book of my friend.
Intralingual Overgeneralization
I wonder where are you going.
Simplification (redundancy reduction)
I studied English for two year.
Communication Based
Using ³airball´ for balloon (coinage)
I nduced
She cries as if the baby cries. FOR She cries like a baby.
errors (teacher¶s presentation) of material, as if = like)
3.Approaches f or Error Identification and Analysis . Where is the problem? What is the type of problem? How can you explain the problem?
Identification of Error Definition/Classification of Error Explanation/ Exemplication 1. State type of grammar . 2. Give correct form to show constrast with inappropriate or deviated form. 3. Give example to show rule in action.
4.Classifying Errors
Ellis (1997) maintains that ³classifying errors in these ways can help us to diagnose learners¶ learning problems at any stage o f their development and to plot how changes in error patterns occur over time.´ This catego rization can be exemplified as follows: Omission :
Morphological omission *A strange thing happen to me yesterday. Syntactical omission * Must say also the names? Addition: In morphology * The book s is here. In syntax * The London In lexicon * I stayed there during five years ago. Selection: In morphology * My friend is oldest than me. In syntax * I want that he comes here. Ordering :
In pronunciation * fignisicant for µsignificant¶; *prulal for µplural¶ In morphology * get upping for µgetting up¶ In syntax * He is a dear to me friend. In lexicon * key car for µcar key¶
13. Distinguish between err or and mistake. An error reflects gap in a learners knowledge. While mistake is knowing it is wrong but cannot be bothered to correct it. Error:
* A
a systematic deviation made by learners who have not yet mastered the rules of the L2.
learner cannot self-correct an error because it is a product reflective of their current stage of L2 development.*
M istak e: a random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc.
*Learners can readily self-correct mistakes.*
14. Difference between L1 and L2. L1 is the native language while L2 is the second or target language.
15.Difference between learning and acquisiti on. Children acquire language through a subconsc ious process during which they are unaware of grammatical rules. This is similar to the way they acqu ire their first language. They get a feel for what is and what isn¶t correct. In order to acquire language, the learner needs a source of natural communication. The emphasis is on t he text of the communication and not on the form. Young students who are in the process of acquiring English get plenty of ³on the job´ practice. They readily acquire the language to communicate with classmates. While language learning, on the ot her hand, is not communicative. It is the result o f direct instruction in the rules of language. And it certainly is not an age-appropriate activity for your young learners. In language learning, students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that knowledge. They can fill in the blanks on a grammar page. Research has shown, however, that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or writing.r A student who has memorized the rules of the language may be able to succeed on a standardized test of English language but may not be able to speak or write correctly.
16. Differences Between First and Second Language Acquisiti on/Learning 1st Language
2nd Language
always acquired
usually learned
continual input/interaction with caregiver sporadic interaction no emotional barrier
may be emotional barrier
no explicit methodology
focus on method
motivation to comprehend
may be less motivation
no "inter-language"
reliance on "inter-language"
S econd language teaching methods
y y y
Grammar-translation -- emphasis on memorization Audio-lingual -- emphasis on developing verbal habits Communicative approach -- emphasis on language function rather than form
17. R ole of f ormal instruction in language learning and teaching 1. Instruction does not circumvent the processes responsible for the sequence of development evident in transitional structures such as negat ives an interrogative in naturalistic SLA. 2. When classroom learners are required to produce structures beyond their competence, idiosyncratic forms are likely to result. 3. The distorted input may prolong certain stages of development and slow down the emergence of some grammatical features. 4. Classroom learners are able to make use of knowledge acquired through formal instruction when they are focused on form.
