Phonology in Language learning and teaching Dr. Ali Saleh Jarrah Languages and Translation Department, College of Art and Humanities, Taibah University, Madinah, Saudi Arabia
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Abstract: This article aims at absorbing the pronunciation teachers task and how much phonology should teachers know. Teachers and future teachers need a well-rounded concept of the phonology of the language they are going to teach and the native language of learners. Emphasis must be placed on the understanding of language as a system of rules and as a network of interrelated parts. They should be respectably solvent in both segmental and suprasegmental features of the two languages and they should have a solid grounding in theory and knowledge about how the sound systems of the two languages work . Thus the phonological training must involve our students learning about the sounds of English and Arabic as well as learning how to produce them. It is expected that this interplay of theoretical and practical aspects will be highly beneficial in helping students to become both proficient speakers of English and effective teachers of the language. Dziubalska-Kołaczyk (2002) states that “Making the learner metalinguistically aware of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax as well as socio-pragmatics will facilitate his/her acquisition of a second language, i.e. the development of second language competence.” It is our belief that our students’ future teaching practice will demand precisely this: heightened quality of competence originated by metalinguistic awareness. Trainees will become linguistic models for their pupils and as stated by Gimson (2001) one of their major responsibilities will be centered around providing as close approximation to a chosen model of pronunciation as possible.
Related resources by keyword: Phonetics, Phonology, Pronunciation, learning, Teaching
Introduction Teaching English phonology is one of the most interesting and difficult subjects. Students at languages and translation department, college of Education and College of Arts and Humanities, Taibah University, Saudi Arabia, Madinah Munawwarah, learn phonology among other courses to become English as a foreign language teachers. And we call them future teachers here. When students reach the university level they already took primary courses in English in the public schools for six years, which are not enough for them to master the language. The writer has been teaching 1
English phonetics and phonology for 15 years there for those future teachers. Some of the problems that face our Arab students are phonological, i.e., they do not know how to articulate English sounds correctly. For example, the alveolar sounds [d, t, s] are pronounced dental as in Arabic, so, their effects on their neighboring sounds differ from those of English language. The books used here are Roach, P (2009), and Hancock, M (2003) For several decades of the 20th century, the main interest of pronunciation teaching research was in applying contrastive analysis techniques to the sound segments of the L1 and L2 to identify differences between them and so, it was assumed, to highlight areas where L1 transfer errors were likely to occur. Later in the century, pronunciation teaching research began to move on both by embracing more sophisticated approaches to interlanguage phonology, taking universal, developmental, and other processes into account as well as transfer (see, e.g., the range of research interests documented in Ioup & Weinberger, 1987), and by focusing increasingly on suprasegmental features along with segmental. Still more recently and radically, a number of researchers have ceased treating pronunciation as a somewhat isolated, self-contained linguistic and pedagogic phenomenon, but are forging links with research into other aspects of language and language teaching and also maximizing the opportunities offered by technological advances. The term phonology refers to the patterns of phonetic elements used in the phonological forms of meaningful entities of a language. These elements, i,e, phonemes, are abstractions and have no content. They are described in opposition to each other: change of a phoneme in a word creates a different word (eg. /kæp tæp læp/). Errors in pronunciation can be either allophonic or phonological. When, for instance, the word 'pat' is perceived as 'bat' by the listener, the error is phonological; when the word 'milk' is pronounced with the clear /l/ instead of the dark one, the word can be perceived correctly and the error is allophonic. Individual phonological errors, like the one above, do not very often occur in real conversation, because the redundancy embedded in the context makes it possible for listeners to amend what they hear. The importance of phoneme contrasts is often overemphasized in teaching at the cost of some other, more important aspects of phonology. Phenomena that are important to learn are, for instance, .the way in which the foreign language links phonemes together, physically 2
carries out sequences of sounds in stressed and unstressed positions in connected speech, shapes words and builds up word combinations, and gives them their rhythm in sentences and longer stretches of discourse. (Lehtonen et al. 1977: 9-10). The phoneme paradigm constituting the phonological system of a given language makes part of the native speakers competence. It makes it possible for him to expect certain types of constructions and recognize certain physical differences of sounds. The phonemic system of the language also allows the speaker-hearer to subconsciously overlook differences and constructions that could be predicted theoretically.
How Much Phonetics and Phonology should teachers know? Phonetics is defined as the study of sounds, while Phonology extends to the study of sounds within a language system. Teachers must be well informed about articulatory phonetics and the phonetics of the mother tongue(s) and target language of learners; target languages cannot be addressed in isolation. The amount of phonetic knowledge appropriate is age-dependent. School-age learners need guiding (virtually no theory but lots of carefully structured, phonetically-informed practice); older learners need guiding and informing (facilitating self-help, including use of interactive websites). The effectiveness of ear-training (based on knowledge that hearing and recognition of sounds must precede attempts to make them, see Jones 1948) is supported by Pisoni, et al. 1994, Rvachew & Jamieson 1995, etc.; the value of theoretical understanding as part of the learning process is convincingly illustrated by Catford & Pisoni 1970. Additionally, the ability to read transcription is essential to access information in a pronouncing dictionary for languages without phonetic spelling; pronunciation must be learnt in parallel with meaning and use for every new word.
Here, at the languages and translation department, we begin teaching phonetics with an intensive contrastive course in articulatory phonetics. This teaching focuses on the mechanism of sounds production in Arabic and English to our future teachers. Teachers need a good grasp of articulatory phonetics; a well-trained ear; knowledge of the phonology contrasts, major allophones, processes and prosodies of both the mother tongue and the target language. Teachers will anticipate likely problems 3
arising from the interface between the first and the target languages (utilising knowledge of comparative phonetics and phonology), notice and analyse actual problems as they occur (using practical phonetic skills derived from ear-training experience), remedy the situation with bespoke exercises (applying knowledge of articulatory phonetic theory and pedagogy). Differences in sound systems have a phonological basis: they depend on variation in speech organs positions or breath control. Teachers must understand the physical aspects of sound production. This brings us back to the notion that any language use in the classroom involves matters of phonology. Teachers will not necessarily teach these to students, but this knowledge will provide a basis for teachers to identify the physical reasons for inaccurate approximations of foreign language sounds, enabling them to give precise instructions which will help students correct their incorrect pronunciation. Unless teachers understand how students are using their speech organs in producing a native language sound and what they should be doing to reproduce the foreign language sound acceptably, teachers will not be able to help students beyond a certain stage of earnest but inaccurate imitation. Incorrectly articulated consonants will affect the production of vowels, as vowels will affect consonants. Students therefore require steady practice and muscle training. Pronunciation is a motor skill that needs practice. Teachers must know the applied theory. The applied theory provides in depth study of the sound system of Arabic and English. Emphasis is placed on the understanding of languages as systems of rules and as a network of interrelated parts. The goal of this application is to enable students to understand the principles of phonology as they are applied to English and apply those principles to teaching. Phonology can be divided into a number of categories: a. sounds and phonemes: vowels and consonants, Hearing: physical demonstration. Discrimination exercises e.g. ship or sheep? /ɪ/ or /i:/ ? Which vowel sounds occur in: "it", "bit", "beat", "fit", "feet", "seat", "sit" ? Which vowel sounds occur in: "it", "bit", "eat", "fit", "feet", "seat", "sit"? b. Production: Physically making sounds. c. Expanded contexts with longer utterances. Phrases and sentences as well as phonemes between closed consonants d) stress (word and sentence) and rhythm 4
e) features of connected speech f) intonation All higher units such as words, phrases, clauses, and sentences, are made up of sounds and ultimately analysable as sounds. The phonological systems of two languages differ in a number of ways (Lehtonen et al. 1977:9,Wiik 1965, 1966). The difference is physical when certain target language speech sounds are physically new to a learner (e.g. the English /v, p, and ŋ / are physically new to Arabic). The difference is relational when similar sounds in both languages are related to each other in a phonologically different way (e.g. t, d, s, z , n, l,r] are alveodental in Arabic, but in English they are alveolars. When the distribution of similar sounds in both languages is not the same, the difference is distributional (in English the distribution of the dark allophone of /l/ is different from that of the Arabic /1/). A difference in segmentation occurs when phonetically similar fragments are found in both languages but they are segmented into phonemes in different ways (reduced vowels between consonants are in Arabic perceived as belonging, in a way, to the consonant segments, while in English they are perceived as vocalic ones. As is obvious on the basis of what has been said above, however, the contrasting of two languages cannot be a simple one-to-one equation between the best possible structural descriptions of the two, if we want to produce materials for the purposes of language learning and teaching. There is a very obvious reason for this: many of the difficulties in language learning and language use in the area of pronunciation cannot be accredited to phoneme paradigms. What is necessary for us to be able to explain the reasons for the difficulties is a more profound view of language reception and production and of the actual operations that are needed when speakers are faced with the need to produce or receive chains of speech. Within this kind of approach, contrastive linguistics means the study of how people communicate in two or more languages and what the consequences are for language learners and foreign language users when the systems of the languages clash in foreign language learning situations.
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Sound systems of Arabic and English This study is both descriptive and explanatory in that it provides a phonetic description of Arabic (L1) as opposed to English (L2). The factors influencing the phonetic and phonological transfers are systematically highlighted. I observed my university English major students who are going to be future English language teachers for a full year, (two consecutive semesters), and found out that most of their difficulties were due to the phonological differences between the two languages.
Segmental phonology 1. Consonants BILABIALS: [b, p, w, m], these sounds are pronounced by the two lips, the difference between Arabic pronunciation and English pronunciation is that Arab students do not bring the two lips very tight together like in English, but they sound Arabic because of the affect of the Arabic pronunciation on students which are produced with a slight or a fast touch between the two lips from inside the two lips then the two lips are released fast. This means lips are not as tight as it is in English pronunciation of these sounds. In addition [p] is not part of Arabic sound system, it is pronounced [b] instead. LABIODENTALS, [f, v] the same with bilabials the upper teeth barely touches the lower lip leaving a bigger space between the upper teeth and the lower lip than that of English, and [v] is pronounced [f] because Arabic do not have this sound in its sound system. ALVEALARS: [t, d, s, z, n, l] these sounds are produced while the tip of the tongue touches the back of the upper teeth in Arabic and the blade touches the alveolar ridge, students pronounce them as such and get foreign accent. While in English they are pronounced with the blade of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge without letting the tip of the tongue touching the back of the upper teeth. [tʃ] is replaced by[ʃ], [z] is replaced by [dʒ] PALATO-ALVEOLARS: [tʃ, dʒ] big problem because of the closeness of the places of articulation of the first and second members of the sounds and because of clustering of these the first and second members. 6
PALATAL [j] the front of the tongue is not raised as high against hard palate as it is in English. VELARS [k, g, ŋ] [k, and g] are pronounced little further front than the English ones, and [ŋ] is the most difficult among Arab students, it is always pronounced [n] instead of [ŋ] GLOTTALS: [h, ʔ] no problems
The foreign accent students have, then, is a result of not articulating English sounds from their exact places of articulation. Those places differ even in similar sounds like [t, d]. Pre and post vocalic 'r': all are pronounced but mostly our students tend to pronounce the flap [r] instead of the retroflex [r]. While in English the post-vocalic 'r' is not pronounced, our students tend to pronounce it like in ‘part’ [pa:t] is pronounced [bart]. [l] is only pronounced clear pre and post vocalic, no dark 'l' whatsoever except in the word ‘ALLAH’ (God)
2. Vowels Vowels are more problematic for Arab students than consonants. Arabic language has only three vowels and their long counterparts, while English has twelve vowels. English vowels: [i, i:, e, æ, ʌ, a:, o, o:, u, u:, ə:, ə] Arabic vowels [a, a: i, i:,, u, u:]
/e/ is always pronounced like /i/ 'set', /set/ is pronounced /sit/ /a:/ is pronounced like /æ/ specially before /r/, car /ka:/ is pronounced /kær/ 7
/o/ is pronounced /u/ /ei/ is pronounced /e:/ 'late' is pronounced like [le:t] /eə/ is pronounced /ea/ 'dear' /deə/ is pronounced /dear/ /iə/ is pronounced /ia/, deer /iə/ is pronounced /diar/ /əu/ is pronounced /au/ or /o:/ 'note' is pronounced like [no:t] /uə/ is pronounced /u:/ 'poor' is pronounced as /pu:r/ not /puə/ /æ/ and /8/ are mixed up /ə:/ is pronounced /i/ 'bird', /bə:d/ is pronounced /bird/
Connected speech problems Supra-segmental phonology The syllable In addition to a description of the phoneme inventory of both languages, a description is required of what happens when sounds are combined in larger units. Languages differ in what and how much they include in a syllable, and in how the phonemes are organised within the syllable. When Arab students learn English at school, they relate their pronunciation to their syllable system. This means that the students have problems in pronouncing syllables which are not part of their system. Arabic syllable structure is simpler than in English. The phonotactic structure of Arabic syllables is CV(V)C(C) where parentheses indicate optional elements. In English it is possible to have sequences of up to three consonants in syllable onset and four in coda position. Consonant clusters are therefore difficult for the Arab students. The learners modify the complex syllable structures to make them conform to their present level of phonetic ability. Underlying this description there are two basic principles along which Arabic learners seem to operate.
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The fact that the Arabic syllable is simple and that the distribution rules are different from English indicates that, and explains why, the Arab learners of English are facing problems in their pronunciation of English. The result of the difficulties with consonant clusters is that the borders between the words are poorly marked and it is difficult to understand the speech. English has many consonant clusters in the onset and the coda of a syllable, the maximum consonant cluster in the onset is three and in the coda is four. Arabic does not allow consonant cluster in the onset position, but allow it in the coda, where the maximum consonant cluetr is two. English consonant clusters Onset cluster 1. ccv
2. cccv Coda clusters 3. vcc 4. vccc 5. vcccc
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Since there is a tendency of Arabic syllable structure to avoid consonant clusters, these clusters tend to be simplified. The most frequent syllable simplification is vowel insertion to break the clusters: � Onset consonant cluster: The learners tend to insert a vowel between the first and the second consonant or before the first consonant, 'try' is pronounced [itrai] or [tirai] while they insert a vowel before the first consonant in three consonant cluster 'spray' is either pronounced [isprei] or a vowel is inserted after the first consonant [siprie/ � Word medial consonant cluster: insertion of a consonant after the second consonant if the there are more than two consonants. � Coda consonant cluster: there is an insertion of a vowel after the second consonant with three and four clusters.
Assimilation This is when a sound changes to become more like another sound which follows or precedes it, or the influence of a sound on an adjacent sound. In other words we change a consonant phoneme so that the manner or place of articulation is more similar throughout the consonant cluster. For example, the /n/ in the particle in- before labials is changed into /m/ as the case in the word 'impossible', i.e, the feature /alveolar/ is changed into the feature /labial/. Arab students pronounce all consonants in words as they are written. Arabic has limited assimilatory processes which are different from those of English, but English has many, Arab students pronounce all written consonants as they are without assimilating them to the neighboring consonant, as shown bellow:
1. Labialisation:
/ t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p / like in the following words Basket maker
best book
Private property
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/ d / changes to / b / before / m / / b / or / p / Bad man
blood bank
blood pressure
/ n / changes to / m / before / m / / b / or / p / Iron man
man plan
chicken breast
2. Velarisation / t / changes to / k / before / k / or /g/ Short cut
best girl
first class
what glass
/ d / changes to / g / before / k / or / g / Had cash
bad game bird cage
red gate
/ n / changes to /ŋ/ before / k / or / g / In case
action group
scan good
tin can
3. Palatalisation / s / changes to /ʃ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / followed by a rounded vowel sound Nice shirt
did you eat
dress shop
nice yacht
/ z / changes to /ʒ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / followed by a rounded vowel sound Rose shop
prize jeeb
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4. Alveolarisation /θ/ changes to / s / before / s / Eighth set
bath seat
birth certificate
fourth season
Stress and Intonation Stress is the amount of force we put on a particular syllable to make it louder than the other syllables in a word. As movement of pitch is heard on stressed syllables in the English language, practice of English intonation and stress patterns are closely linked. Success or failure in this area probably has more to do with successful recognition of stress and intonation patterns and paralinguistic and gestural signals which (together with the acoustic signals) help in this purpose. The future teachers ability in identifying the placement of stress, tone and sense groups is vitally important in the attempt to extract meaning from informal speech. In phonology, stress patterns and tunes are all interrelated. To achieve the correct rhythm, it is necessary to know when to use weak forms [this frequently involves the neutral vowel "schwa"], which is under-deployed by many EFL/ESL learners. Learners whose native languages have many consonant sounds, but relatively few vowel sounds, especially long vowels and diphthongs [e.g. native speakers of Arabic languages and dialects], are likely to have poor stress timing and to make insufficient use of pitch variation (i.e. intonation). Contrastive stress and intonation practices here are necessary to learn.
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It would be easy here to list a whole repertoire of auditory and visual signals which help in identifying stress. Arab learners have problems with the alternation between stressed and unstressed syllables. They must learn the stressed syllables, they produce each syllable with the same amount of stress. According to Kriedler (2004), stress assignment in English depends on three factors: 1. syntactic: the part of speech determines stress position 2. morphological: the addition of some morphemes changes the position of stress 3. phonological: weight of syllables, the existence of light and heavy syllables determines stress position Sentence and contrastive stress can also be illustrated and practiced by writing a long sentence on the board in both languages, which can be made to carry many different meanings or points of emphasis. Practicing placement of stress within sentences is also essential if learners are to become good teachers and listeners, since the same sentence can take on different meanings depending on where the speaker chooses to place the primary stress. Future teachers must learn Features of English and Arabic stress, and intonation which in turn must be enrich instruction in best practices for teaching and learning pronunciation, because any EFL course must focus on the supra-segmental aspects of English pronunciation: stress, rhythm, pitch and intonation patterns found in connected speech in both formal and casual situations, if future teachers do not have this type of phonological aspects, their lessons will be poorly taught. As movement of pitch is heard on stressed syllables in the English language, practice of English intonation and stress patterns are closely linked. Teachers with such knowledge of stress and intonation of both languages will be aware of the tendency of students to use their first language stress types and intonation patterns instead, so, they will help their students to use English stress and intonation patterns instead.
Phonology and Orthography The difference between spelling and pronunciation in English is very problematic for Arab students. One of the most important differences between Arabic and English is the connection between pronunciation and writing, which is highly misleading for learners. The connection between 13
pronunciation and writing is very essential for teachers and learners, because speaking and writing are very crucial for them. In Arabic, there is a regular correspondence between spelling and writing, that is, all consonants and vowels must be pronounced which means that each grapheme must be given a phonetic value, while in English, some consonants and vowels are written but not pronounced, like in words ‘talk’, ‘half’, and ‘beautiful’, and so on; in addition, some vowels are spelled the same way they are written but are pronounced differently, like the pronunciation of “oo” in ‘blood’ and ‘spoon’, and some words are spelled differently and pronounced the same like the words ‘I’, and ‘eye’. One of the most problematic problems for Arab learners is that some vowels are reduced into schwa when pronounced, like in the last vowel in the words ‘beautiful’,’ breakfast’, among many other words. Teachers are required to offer different types of activities to students to practice the differences between spelling and pronunciation using different teaching strategies like using rimes, cards, filling the blank, finding silent letters, minimal pairs, and so on.
Conclusion In conclusion I would say that teachers need a good understanding of articulatory phonetics; a well-trained ear; knowledge of the phonology contrasts, major allophones, processes and prosodies, orthography and pronunciation of both the mother tongue (Arabic) and the target language (English). Teachers will anticipate likely problems arising from the interface between Arabic and English, utilising knowledge of comparative phonetics and phonology, notice and analyse actual problems as they occur, using practical phonetic skills derived from ear-training experience, remedy the situation with bespoke exercises, applying knowledge of articulatory phonetic theory and pedagogy. The specific needs of all engaged in pronunciation teaching are encompassed by a mix of theoretical knowledge and practical skills: sufficient general phonetic theory, some comparative phonetics and phonology, practical phonetics (transcription skills, ear-training, production-training) At the end of the year, I found out that my future teachers acquired knowledge and understanding of the different phonemic systems of Arabic and English languages, of the processes in continuous speech and their effect on fluency and became capable of identifying their own mistakes in pronunciation. 14
Bibliograghy and references
Ashby, P. (1995) Speech Sounds. London: Routledge. Avery, P. and S. Erlich (1992) Teaching American English Pronunciation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Baker, A. and S. Goldstein (1990) Pronunciation Pairs. An Introductory Course for Students of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bradford, B. (1994) Intonation in context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brazil, D. (1994) Pronunciation for Advanced Learners of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Catford, J.C. and D.B. Pisoni (1970) 'Auditory vs Articulatory Training in Exotic Sounds.' in Modern Language Journal. 54/7, pp 447-81. Crowther, J., Ed. (1995) Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Phonetics Editor, M.G. Ashby. Cruttenden, A., Ed. (2001) Gimson's Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London: Arnold. 6th edition. Dalton, C. and B. Seidlhofer (1994) Pronunciation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dziubalska-Kołaczyk, Katarzyna. 2002. Beats-and-Binding Phonology. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Friend, D. (2000) Pronunciation Programme. Sky Software House. Hancock, M. (2003) English Pronunciation in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cauldwell, R. ( 2002) Streaming Speech. Birmingham: Speech in action. Gimson, A.C. (1981) A Practical Course of English Pronunciation. London: Edward Arnold Publishers.
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Gimson, A.C. (2001). Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 6th edition.Revised by Alan Cruttenden. London: Arnold Goodman, J.C. and H.C. Nusbaum (Eds) (1994) The Development of Speech Perception: The Transition from Speech Sounds to Spoken Words. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press Hancock, M. (2003) English Pronunciation in Use, Self-Study and classroom Use. Camridge University Press. Handke, J. (2000) The Mounton Interactive Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Berlin, New York: Mounton de Gruyter. Hewings, M. (2004) Pronunciation Practice Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. International Phonetic Association (1999) Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ioup, G., and Weinberger, S. (Eds.). (1987) Interlanguage Phonology. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House. Jones, D. (1948) 'The London School of Phonetics.' in Zeitschrift fr Phonetik und allegemeine Sprachwissenschaft. 1948. Vol II, 3/4, pp127135. Kenworthy, J. (1987) Teaching English Pronunciation. Harlow: Longman. Kenworthy, J. (2000) The Pronunciation of English: A Workbook. London: Edward Arnold. Kreidler, C. W. (2004) The Pronunciation of English. Second edition. Blackwell Publishing. Ladefoged, P. (2001) A Course in Phonetics. Orlando: Harcourt College Publishers. 4th edition. Lehtonen, J., K. Sajavaara & A. May (1977). Spoken English: the perception and production of English on a Finnish-English contrastive basis. Jyväskylä: Gummerus.
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MacCarthy, P.A.D. (1978) The Teaching of Pronunciation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mott, B. (2000) English Phonetics and Phonology for Spanish Speakers. Edicions Universitat de Barcelona Penington, Martha, C. (1996) ‘ Phonology in English Language Teaching’, Longman. Pisoni, D.B., E.S. Lively and J.S. Logan (1994) 'Perceptual learning of non-native speech contrasts: Implications for theories of speech perception.' in Goodman & Nusbaum 1994, pp121-166. Protea Textware (2001) Connected Speech. Protea Textware Pty Ltd. Hurstbridge Victoria Roach, P. (2009) English Phonetics and Phonology, Cambridge University Press. Roach, P., J. Hartman & J. Setter, (eds.) (2003) English pronouncing dictionary. 16th edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Rudd, E. (1971) SCOPE Handbook 2. Pronunciation: for Immigrant Children from India, Pakistan, Cyprus and Italy. London: Books for Schools Ltd. Rvachew, S. and D.G. Jamieson (1995) 'Learning new speech contrasts: Evidence from adults learning a second language and children with speech disorders.' in Strange 1995, pp 411-432. Strange, W. (Ed.) (1995) Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Issues in Cross-Language Research. Baltimore: York Press. Wells, J.C. (2000) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Harlow: Longman. New edition. Wells, J.C. and G. Colson (1971) Practical Phonetics. Bath: Pitman Press. Wells, J.C. (2000) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Second edition. Longman. To enhance both the teaching and the learning process the following multimedia material is used throughout the three-semester course: 17
Wiik, Kalevi 1965. Finnish and English Vowels: A comparison with special reference to the learning problems met by native speakers of Finnishlearning English. Annals of the University of Turku. No. 94. University of Turku. Wiik, K. (1966). Finnish and English laterals: a comparison with special reference to the learning problems met by native speakers of Finnish learning English. Turun yliopiston fonetiikan laitoksen julkaisuja 1. Turku: University of Turku.
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