CONTENTS Page No.
Preface Acknowledgement Concept of Motivation Nature of Motivation Types of Needs Motivation & behaviour Motivation & performance Role of Motivation
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s need hierarchy Herzberg’s Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene motivation- hygiene theory Equity Theory McGregor’ McGregor ’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory Z Alderfer’ Alderfer ’s ERG Theory McClelland’s need theory Vroom’s room’s Expectancy Theory Case Study
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10 11-13 14-16 17-22 23 24-25 26 27 28
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to express our gratitude to Professor R.K Singh for encouraging us to prepare the term paper .The term paper would not have been completed without his able guidance and ideas. It was our opportunity to work with such a literate .Our sincere thanks to the staff members of GHS-IMR library for helping in every possible way , co-operating& supporting without which the compilation of the term report would not have been in the present form . Finally, Finally, we would acknowledge the co-operation and hard work of our team members who put their time in successful completion of the term paper.
Group Members ANURAG YADAV APARNA PATHAK ARPIT SINGH ARSHI TANDON ARTI SAHNI ATUL SINGH KUSHWAHA
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PREFACE
The term paper has been undertaken in order to fulfil the compulsory part of the postgraduate diploma in management conducted by Dr. Gaur Hari Singhania Institute of Management and Research. The term paper has given an insight of the “motivational theories”. We hope that it will prove helpful for those who want to gain knowledge about the motivational theories.
CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION
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In order to understand the concept of motivation, we have to examine three terms : motive, motivating and motivation and their relationship. 1.
MOTIVE : “ A motive is an inner state that energises, activates, or moves and directs behaviour towards goals.”
2.
MOTIVATING: Motivating is a term which implies that one person includes another, to engage in action by ensuring that a channel to satisfy the motive becomes available and accessible to the individual.
3.
MOTIV MOTI VATION TIO N : Dubin has defined motivation as: “Motivation is the complex force starting and keeping a person at at work in an organisation. organisation. Motivation is something that moves the person person to action, and continues him in the course of action already initiated”
According to McFarland ; “ Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, aspirati -ons, strivings, or needs direct, control, or explain the behaviour of human being.
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NATURE OF MOTIVATION
Bas ed on o n Motives Mot ives : Motivation is based on individual’s motives which are internal to the individual . 1. Based These motives are in the form of feelings that the individual lacks something. In order to overcome this feeling , he tries to behave in a manner which helps in overcoming this feeling.
2. Affected by Motivating: Motivation is affected by way the individual is motivated . It can also activate the latent needs in the individual , that is , the needs that are the less strong and and somewhat dormant , and harness them in a manner that would would be functional for the the organisation.
Goal–di rected Behaviour Behav iour: Motivation leads to goal-directed behaviour. A goal-directed behaviour is 3. Goal–directed one which satisfies the cause for which behaviour takes place.
Relate d to Satisfaction Satisf action : satisfaction refers to the contentment experiences of an individual which he 4. Related derives out of need fulfilment. Thus satisfaction is a consequence of rewards and punishments associated with past experiences.
5. Complex Process: Motivation is a complex complex process ; complexity emerges because of the nature of needs and the type of behaviour that is attempted to satisfy those needs.
6. Person Motivated Mot ivated in Totalit Totality y : A person is motivated in totality and not in part . Each individual in the organisation is a self-contained unit and his needs are interrelated. These affect his behaviour in different ways.
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TYPES OF NEEDS
There are many needs which an individual may have and there are various ways in which these may be classified. The basic objective behind classification of needs into different categories is to find out similarity and dissimilarity in various needs so that incentives are grouped to satisfy the needs falling f alling under one category or the other. Thus needs may be grouped into three categories :
1.
Primary Pri mary Needs Nee ds: Primary needs are also known as psychological psychological , biological , basic or unlearned needs . These needs are common to all human beings , though their intensity may differ . Some of the needs are food , sleep , air to breathe etc. These needs arise out of the basic physiology physiology of life and are important for survival and preservation of species .These needs are conditioned by social practice .
2.
Secondary Needs: As contrast to the primary needs, secondary needs are not natural but are learned by by the individu individual al through through his experie experience nce and interactio interaction n .Therefore, .Therefore, these are also called called learned or derived needs. Emergence of these needs depends on learning . There may be different types of secondary needs like need of power, achievement, status, affiliation, etc.
3.
General Gene ral Needs Need s: There are a number of needs which lie in the grey area between the primary and secondary classifications. In fact, there are certain such needs for competence, curiosity, manipulation, affection etc.
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MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOUR Motivation causes goal-directed behaviour. Feeling of a need by an individual generates a feeling that he lacks something. This lack of something creates tension in the mind of individual. To overcome this state he engages himself in a behaviour to satisfy his needs. This is goal-directed behaviour. behaviour.
NEED
TENTION
GOALDIRECTED BEHAVIOUR
GOALFULFILMENT/ NEED SATISFACTION
FAVOURABLE ENVIRONMENT
Goal-directed behaviour leads to goal-fulfilment and the individual succeeds in fulfilling his needs and thereby overcoming his tension in the favourable environment. Behaviour ends the moment tension is released. However, satisfaction of one need leads to feeling of another need. Thus goal-directed behaviour is a continuous process.
FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE
MOTIVATION ABILITY
EXTRINSIC
RESOURCE
PERFORMANCE SENSE OF COMPETENCE
1.
ROLE PERCEPTION
REWARD
INTRINSIC
Motivation: Level of motivation derives an individual for work .
Motivation is based on motive which is a feeling that an individual lacks something . This feeling creates some sort of tension in his mind . In order to overcome this tension, he engages in goal-directed behaviour . Thus motivation becomes a prime mover for efforts and better work performance.
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2. Sense of Competence: Sense of competence denotes the extent to which an individual consistently regards himself as capable of doing a job.Sense of competence of an individual depends to a very great extent on his locus of control. Locus of control means whether people believe that they are in control of events or events control them.
3. Ability: Ability is expressed in the form of the following equation: Ability = knowledge x skill Knowledge refers to the possession of information and ideas in a particular field which may be helpful in developing relationships among different variables related to that field . Skill refers to expertness, practical ability or facility in action or doing something .
4. Role Perception : A role is the pattern of actions expected of a person in activities involving others . Role reflects a person’s position in the social system with its accompanying rights and obligations obligati ons . Role perception is how he thinks he is supposed to act in his own role and how others act in their role. There are two types of problems which emerge in role specification : role ambiguity and role conflict . Role ambiguity denotes the state in which the individual is not clear what is expected from him in the job situation . Role conflicts is the situation in which the individual engages in two or more roles simultaneously and these roles are mutually incompatible . 5.
Organisational Resource: Organisational Resources denote various types of
facilities – physical and psychological – which are available at the work place Physical facilities include la – physical and psychological – which are available at the work place. Physical facilities include layout of the work place and physical environment . Psychological facilities include training and development facilities , reward system, motivating leadership styles and so on
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ROLE OF MOTIVATION Motivation is one among the various factors affecting individual performance. All organisational facilities will go waste in the lack of motivated people to utilise the facilities effectively. effectively. The importance of motivation in an organization may be summed up as follows :
1. High Performance Level : Motivated employees put higher performance as compared to other employees. In a study it was found that motivated people employees worked close to 80-90 percent of their capability capabilit y. High perform -ance is a must for an organisation being being successful and this performance comes by motivation. 2.
Low Employee Turnover : Motivated employees stay in the organisation and
their absenteeism is quite low. low. High turnover and absenteeism creates many problems in the organisation.
3. Acceptance of Organisational Changes : Organisations are created in the society. society. Because of changes in society, society, organisation have to t o incorporate those changes to cope up with the recruitment of the time. When these changes are introduced in the organisation, there is a tendency to resist these changes by the employees. However if they are properly motivated, they accept, introduce, and implement these changes keeping the organisation on the right track of progress.
MASLOW NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
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A well known proponent proponent of the content theory is Abraham maslow who stated that there is a set of fine needs and that these become drivers or motivators when a deficiency state arises. These fine need in ascending order are as follows:1. Phys hysiolo iolog gical ical 2. Security 3. Social 4. Esteem 5. Self Self –act –actua uali lisa sati tion on
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Physiological needs:- this includes the most basic needs for survival survival including food, water, water, shelter,clothing and similar.when similar.when these needs has been fulfilled fulf illed , we move onto the next level.
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Security:- this encompasses the need for safety and a feeling of security .people with a high concern for this need may choose less risky public services jobs in preference to being a freelance consultant.
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Social:-this covers our need for love, affection, belongings and sacrificing relationship with family, family, friends, colleques and more intimate contacts
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Esteem :-maslow believed that people generally need to have a good evaluation of themselves and they desire that others also value and respect them .he says that it is only from having our needs for love basically met that we can aspire to working on this level of need .the majority of people on level 3 and 4 , having satisfied 1 and 2.
•
Self actualization:-when a person has satisfied all four needs of the lower level needs. maslow maslow proposed that they could direct attention to the highest level needs ssss
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Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory (Two Factor Theory)
To better understand employee attitudes a ttitudes and motivation, Frederick Herzberg Her zberg performed studies to determine which factors in an employee's work environment caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction. He published his findings in the 1959 book The Motivation to Work . The studies included interviews in which employees where asked what pleased and displeased them about their work. Herzberg found that the factors causing job satisfaction (and presumably motivation) were different from those causing job dissatisfaction. He developed the motivation-hygiene theory to explain these results. He called the satisfiers motivators and the dissatisfiers hygiene factors , using the term "hygiene" in the sense that they are considered maintenance factors that are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction but that by themselves do not provide satisfaction. The following table presents the top six factors causing dissatisfaction and the top six factors causing satisfaction, listed in the order of higher to lower importance.
Factors Affecting Job Attitudes Leadin Leading g to Dissat Dissatisf isfact action ion
•
Company policy Supervision Relationship w/Boss Work conditions Salary
•
Relationship w/Peers
• • • •
Leadin Leading g to Satisf Satisfact action ion
•
Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement
•
Growth
• • • •
Herzberg reasoned that because the factors causing satisfaction are different from those causing dissatisfaction, the two feelings cannot ca nnot simply be treated as opposites of one another. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather, no satisfaction. Similarly, the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction. While at first glance this distinction between the two opposites may sound like a play on words, Herzberg argued that there are two distinct human needs portrayed. First, there are physiological needs that can be fulfilled by money, for example, to purchase food and shelter. Second, there is the psychological need to achieve and grow, and this need is fulfilled by activities that cause one to grow.
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From the above table of results, one observes that the factors that determine whether there is dissatisfaction or no dissatisfaction are not part of the work itself, but rather, are external factors. Herzberg often referred to these hygiene factors as a s "KITA" "KITA" factors, where KITA KITA is an acronym for f or Kick In The A..., the process of providing incentives or a threat of punishment to cause someone to do something. Herzberg argues that these provide only short-run success because the motivator factors that determine whether there is satisfaction or no satisfaction are intrinsic to the job itself, and do not result from carrot and stick incentives.
s
Implications for Management If the motivation-hygiene theory holds, management not only must provide hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction, but also must provide factors intrinsic to the work itself in order for employees to be satisfied with their jobs. Herzberg argued that job enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation, and that it is a continuous management process. According to Herzberg: • •
•
The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the employee. Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given increasing levels of responsibility. If a job cannot be designed to use an employee's full abilities, then the firm should consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one who has a lower level of skill. If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there will be a motivation problem.
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Critics of Herzberg's theory argue that the two-factor result is observed because it is natural for people to take credit for satisfaction and to blame dissatisfaction on external factors. Furthermore, job satisfaction does not necessarily imply a high level of motivation or productivity. productivity. Herzberg's theory has been broadly read and despite its weaknesses its enduring value is that it recognizes that true motivation comes from within a person and not from f rom KITA KITA factors.
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Adams' Equity Theory The Theory Summarized: The Adams’ Equity Theory is named for John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioural psychologist, who developed this job motivation theory in 1963. Much like many of the more prevalent theories of motivation (theories by Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg's Theory, Theory, etc.), the Adams’ Equity Theory acknowledges that subtle and variable factors fa ctors affect an an employee’s employee’s assessment and perception of their relationship with their thei r work and their employer. employer. The theory is built-on the belief that employees become de-motivated, both in relation to their job and their employer, if they feel as though their inputs are greater than the outputs. Employees can be expected to respond to this is different ways, including de-motivation (generally to the extent the employee perceives the disparity between the inputs and the outputs exist), reduced effort, becoming disgruntled, or, in more extreme cases, perhaps even disruptive.
How to Apply the Adams' Equity Theory: It is important to also consider the Adams’ Equity Theory factors when striving to improve i mprove an employee's job satisfaction, motivation level, etc., and what can be done to promote higher levels of each. To do this, consider the balance or imbalance that currently exists between your employee's inputs and outputs, as follows:
Inputs typically include: • • • • • • •
Effort Loyalty Hard Work Commitment Skill Ability Adaptability
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• • • • • • •
Flexibility Tolerance Determination Enthusiasm Trust in superiors Support of colleagues Personal sacrifice, etc.
Outputs typically include: •
•
Financial rewards (salary (salar y, benefits, perks, etc.) Intangibles that typically include: Recognition Reputation Responsibility Sense of Achievement Praise Stimulus Sense of Advancement/Growth Job Security • • • • • • • •
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Douglas mcgregor - theory x y Douglas McGregor's XY Theory, managing an X Theory boss, and William Ouchi's Theory Z
Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his fa mous X-Y theory in his 1960 book 'The Human Side Of Enterprise'. Theory x and theory y are still referred to commonly in the field of management and motivation, and whilst more recent studies have questioned the rigidity of the model, Mcgregor's X-Y Theory remains a valid basic principle from which to develop positive management style and techniques. McGregor's XY Theory remains central to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture. McGregor's X-Y theory is a salutary and simple reminder of the natural rules for managing people, which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily forgotten. McGregor maintained that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. Many managers tend towards theory x, and generally get poor results. Enlightened managers use theory y, y, which produces better performance and results, and allows people to grow and develop.
theory x ('authoritarian management' style) • •
•
• • • • •
• •
The average person dislikes work and will avoid it he/she can. Therefore most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work towards organisational ob jectives. The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid responsibility; is relatively unambitious, and wants security above all else. Work is inherently distasteful to most people, and they will wil l attempt to avoid work whenever possible. Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed. Most people have little aptitude for creativity in solving organizational problems. Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels of Maslow's of Maslow's Needs Hierarchy. Hierarchy. Most people are self-centered. As a result, they must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives Most people resist change. Most people are gullible and unintelligent.
Essentially, Essentially, theory x assumes that the primary source of most employee motivation is monetary, with security as a strong second.
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The Hard Approach and Soft Approach Under Theory X, management approaches to motivation range from a hard approach to a soft approach. The hard approach to motivation relies on coercion, implicit threats, micromanagement, and tight controls -essentially an environment of command and control. The soft approach, however, is to be permissive and seek harmony in the hopes that, in return, employees will cooperate when asked. However, neither of these extremes is optimal. The hard approach results in hostility, hostility, purposely low-output, and extreme union demands. The soft approach results in increasing desire for greater reward in exchange for diminishing work output. It would appear that the optimal approach to human resource management would be lie somewhere between these extremes. However, McGregor asserts that neither approach is appropriate since the foundations of theory x are incorrect.
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Characteristics of the X theory manager
Perhaps the most noticeable aspects of McGregor's XY Theory - and the easiest to illustrate - are found in the behaviours of autocratic managers and organizations which use autocratic management styles. What are the characteristics of a Theory X manager? Typically some, most or all of these: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
results-driven and deadline-driven, to the exclusion of everything else intolerant issues deadlines and ultimatums distant and detached aloof and arrogant elitist short temper shouts issues instructions, directions, edicts issues threats to make people follow instructions demands, never asks does not participate does not team-build unconcerned about staff welfare, or morale proud, sometimes to the point of self-destruction one-way communicator poor listener fundamentally insecure and possibly neurotic anti-social vengeful and recriminatory does not thank or praise withholds rewards, and suppresses pay and remunerations levels scrutinises expenditure to the point of false economy seeks culprits for failures or shortfalls
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• • • • • • •
seeks to apportion blame instead of focusing on learning from the experience and preventing recurrence does not invite or welcome suggestions takes criticism badly and likely to retaliate if from below or peer group poor at proper delegating - but believes they delegate well thinks giving orders is delegating holds on to responsibility but shifts accountability to subordinates relatively unconcerned with investing in anything to gain future improvements
How to manage upwards - managing your X theory boss Working for an X theory boss isn't easy - some extreme extre me X theory managers make extremely unpleasant managers, but there are ways of managing these people upwards. Avoiding Avoiding confrontation (unless you are genuinely being bullied, which is a different matter) and delivering results are the key tactics. •
•
•
•
•
•
Theory X managers (or indeed theory Y managers displaying theory X behaviour) are primarily re sults oriented - so orientate your your own discussions and dealings with them around results - ie what you can deliver and when. Theory X managers are facts and figures oriented - so cut out the incidentals, be able to measure and substantiate anything you say and do for them, especially reporting on results and activities. Theory X managers generally don't understand or have an interest in the human issues, so don't try to ap peal to their sense of humanity or morality. Set your own objectives to meet their organisational aims and agree these with the managers; be seen to be self-starting, self-motivating, self-disciplined and wellorganised - the more the X theory manager sees you are managing yourself and producing results, the less they'll feel the need to do it for you. Always deliver your commitments and promises. If you are given an unrealistic task and/or deadline state the reasons why it's not realistic, but be very sure of your ground, don't be negative; be constructive as to how the overall aim can be achieved in a way that you know you can deliver. Stand up for yourself, but constructively - avoid confrontation. Never threaten or go over their heads if you are dissatisfied or you'll be in big trouble afterwards and life will be a lot more difficult. If an X theory boss tells you how to do things in ways that are not comfortable or right for you, then don't questioning the process, simply confirm the end-result that is required, and check that it's okay to 'streamline the process' or 'get things done more efficiently' if the chance arises - they'll normally agree to this, which effectively gives you control over the 'how', provided you deliver the 'what' and 'when'.
And this is really the essence of managing upwards X theory managers - focus and get agreement on the results and deadlines - if you consistently deliver, you'll increasingly be given more leeway on how you go about the tasks, which amounts to more freedom. Be aware also that many X theory managers are forced to be X theory by the short-term demands of the organisation and their own superiors - an X theory manager is usually someone with their own problems, so try not to give them any more.
The Problem Probl em with X The Theory ory
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Drawing on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, McGregor argues that a need, once satisfied, no longer motivates. The company relies on monetary rewards and benefits to satisfy employees' lower level needs. Once those needs have been satisfied, the motivation is gone. This management style, in fact, hinders the satisfaction of higher-level needs. Consequently, Consequently, the only way that employees can attempt atte mpt to satisfy higher level needs at work is to seek more compensation, so it is quite predictable that they will focus on monetary rewards. While money may not be the most effective way to self-fulfilment, it may be the only way available. People will use work to satisfy their lower needs, and seek to satisfy their higher needs during their leisure time. Unfortunately, employees can be most productive when their work goals align with their higher level needs. McGregor makes the point that a command and control environment is not effective because it relies on lower needs for motivation, but in modern society those needs are mostly satisfied and thus no longer motivate. In this situation, one would expect employees to dislike their work, avoid responsibility re sponsibility,, have no interest in organizational goals, resist change, etc., thus creating a self-fulfilling prophecy. To To McGregor, motivation seemed more likely with the Theory Y model. model.
XY Theory Management Application - Business Implications for Workforce Motivation If Theory Y holds holds true, an organization can ca n apply these principles of scientific management to improve i mprove employee motivation: •
•
•
•
Decentralization and Delegation - If firms decentralize control and reduce the number of levels of management, managers will have more subordinates and consequently will be forced to delegate some responsibility and decision making to them. Job Enlargement - Broadening the scope of an employee's job adds variety and opportunities to satisfy ego needs. Participative Management - Consulting employees in the decision making process taps their creative capacity and provides them with some control over their work environment. Performance Appraisals - Having the employee set objectives and participate in the process of evaluating how well they were met.
If properly implemented, such an environment would result in a high level of workforce motivation as employees work to satisfy their higher level personal needs through their jobs.
Theory X (authoritarian management style) • •
•
• • • •
The average person dislikes work and will avoid it he/she can. Therefore most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work towards organisational ob jectives. The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid responsibility; is relatively unambitious, and wants security above all else. Work is inherently distasteful to most people, and they will wil l attempt to avoid work whenever possible. Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed. Most people have little aptitude for creativity in solving organizational problems. Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels of Maslow's Needs Hierarchy. Hierarchy.
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•
• •
Most people are self-centred. As a result, they must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives Most people resist change. Most people are gullible and unintelligent.
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his fa mous X-Y theory in his 1960 book 'The Human Side Of Enterprise'. Theory x and theory y are still referred to commonly in the field of management and motivation, and whilst more recent studies have questioned the rigidity of the model, McGregor's X-Y Theory remains a valid basic principle from which to develop positive management style and techniques. McGregor's XY Theory remains central to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture. McGregor's X-Y theory is a salutary and simple reminder of the natural rules for managing people, which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily forgotten. McGregor maintained that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. Many managers tend towards theory x, and generally get poor results. Enlightened managers use theory y, y, which produces better performance and results, and allows people to grow and develop.
Essentially, Essentially, theory x assumes that the primary source of most employee motivation is monetary, with security as a strong second.
Theory Y (participative management style) • •
• • •
• • •
Effort in work is as natural as work and play. People will apply self-control and self-direction in the pursuit of organisational objectives, without external control or the threat of punishment. Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement. People usually accept and often seek responsibility. responsibility. The capacity to use a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving organisational problems is widely, not narrowly, narrowly, distributed in the population. In industry the intellectual potential of the average person is only partly utilised. Work can be as a s natural as play if i f the conditions are favourable. People will be self-directed and creative to meet their work and organizational objectives if they are committed to them.
People will be committed to their quality and productivity objectives if rewards are in place that address higher needs such as self-fulfilment • •
The capacity for creativity c reativity spreads throughout organizations. Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population.
Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility. responsibility.
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Tools for teaching, understanding and evaluating evaluat ing X-Y theory factors
‘Theory X’
‘Theory Y’
management
staff
Theory X - authoritarian, authoritarian, repressive style. Tight control, no development. Produces limited, depressed
Theory Y - liberating and developmental. Control, achievement and continuous improvement
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management staff
Comments on Theory X and Theory Theo ry Y Assumptions
McGregor sees these two theories as two quite separate attitudes. Theory Y is difficult to put into practice on the shop floor in large mass production operations, but it can be used initially in the managing of managers and professionals. In "The Human Side of Enterprise" McGregor shows how Theory Y affects the management of promotions and salaries and the development of effective managers. McGregor also sees Theory Y as conducive to participative problem solving. It is part of the manager's job to exercise authority, and there are cases in which this is the only method of achieving the desired results because subordinates do not agree that the ends are desirable. However, in situations where it is possible to obtain commitment to objectives, it is better to explain the matter fully so that employees grasp the purpose of an action. They will then exert self-direction and control to do better work - quite possibly by better methods - than if they had simply been carrying out an order which the y did not fully understand. The situation in which employees can be consulted is one where the individuals are emotionally mature, and positively motivated towards their work; where the work is sufficiently responsible to allow for flexibility and where the employee can see her or his own position in the management hierarchy. If these conditions are present, managers will find that the participative approach to problem solving leads to much improved results compared with the alternative approach of handing out authoritarian orders. Once management becomes persuaded that it is under estimating the potential of its human resources, and accepts the knowledge given by social science researchers and displayed in Theory Y assumptions, assumptions, then it can invest time, money and effort in developing improved applications of the theory. theory. McGregor realizes that some of the theories he has put forward are unrealizable in practice, but wants managers to put into operation the basic assumption that: •
Staff will contribute more to the organization if they are treated as responsible and valued employees.
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Theory Z - William Ouchi First things first - Theory Z is not a McGregor’s idea and as such is not McGregor's extension of his XY theory. theory. Theory Z was developed by not by b y McGregor, but by William William Ouchi, in his book 1981 'Theory Z: How American management can Meet the Japanese Challenge'. William Ouchi is professor of management at UCLA, Los Angeles, Angeles, and a board member of several large US organisations. Theory Z is often referred to as the 'Japanese' management style, which is essentially what it is. It's interesting that Ouchi chose to name his model 'Theory Z', which apart from anything else tends to give the impression that it's a McGregor idea. One wonders if the idea was not considered strong enough to stand alone with a completely new name... Nevertheless, Theory Z essentially advocates a combination of all that's best about theory Y and modern Japanese management, which places a large amount of freedom and trust with workers, and assumes that workers have a strong loyalty and interest in team-working and the organisation. Theory Z also places more reliance on the attitude and responsibilities of the workers, whereas McGregor's XY theory is mainly focused on management manage ment and motivation from the manager's and organisation's perspective. There is no doubt that Ouchi's Theory Z model offers excellent ideas, albeit it lacking the simple elegance of McGregor's model, which let's face it, thousands of organisations and managers around the world have still yet to embrace. For this reason, Theory Z may for some be like trying to manage the kitchen at the Ritz before mastering the ability to cook a decent fried breakfast. To develop your understanding of McGregor's X-Y Theory, Theory, complete the free test which indicates indicate s whether your organisation is more Theory-X or Theory-Y, Theory-Y, as well as indicating your own (or the particular individual's) preference to be managed by X or Y style. The test is a simple reflective tool, not a scientifically validated instrument, designed to give a broad indication of XY Theory tendencies and to aid understanding of the model.
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer developed another need theory that streamlines Maslow’s. Alderfer does not disagrees with Maslow’s Maslow’s hierarchy of needs completely. completely. He suggests that as more concrete needs are satisfied, less concrete c oncrete needs become more important. Instead of the five needs that Maslow believes should be satisfied, Aderfer says the there are only three important needs: existence relatedness, and growth
.
Grow th
Relatedness
Existence
Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory differs from Maslow’s theory in three respects.
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First, the theory collapses Maslow’s five need categories into three: 1) Existence Existence needs needs are desires desires or physi physiologic ological al and material material well well being. being. 2) Relatedness Relatedness needs needs are desires desires for satisfyi satisfying ng interperson interpersonal al relationships relationships.. 3) Growth Growth needs are desires desires for for continued continued personal personal growth growth and developme development. nt. Second, whereas Maslow’s theory argues that individuals move up the hierarchy as a result of the satisfaction of lower order needs, ERG theory includes a unique frustration-regression component. This suggests that an already satisfied need can become activated when a higher need cannot be satisfied .Thus if a person is continually frustrated in his or her attempts to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs can again surface as key motivators. ERG theory offers a more flexible approach to understanding human needs than does Maslow’s strict hierarchy. hierarchy. There are some differences between the ERG theory and the Hierarchy of Needs theory. theory. For one, the ERG theory does not believe in the levels of needs. A lower level need does not need to be gratified. This theory accounts for a variety of individual differences, which would cause a worker to satisfy the need at hand, whether or not a previous need has been satisfied. The second difference is that if a more important need is not gratified, the desire to gratify a lesser need will increase. However, the frustration of higher-older needs might lead le ad workers to regress to a more concrete need category. The The two major motivational premises that the ERG theory gives are: the more lower-level needs are gratified, the more higher-level need satisfaction is desired; the less higher-level needs are gratified, the more lower-level satisfaction is desired.
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McClelland's Theory of Needs
In the late 1940's psychologist David McClelland and his co-workers began experimenting the thematic appreciation test(TAT)as a way of measuring human needs. The TAT as a way of measuring human needs. The TAT is a projective technique t echnique that ask people to t o view pictures and write stories about what they see. McClelland identified three themes on such TA TAT stories, with each ea ch corresponding to an underlying need that he believes important for understanding individual behaviour. these need include :
Need for achievement(nAch): The desire to do something better or more efficiently efficie ntly,, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks;
Need for affliation(nAff ): ): The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others; and
Need for power(nPower): The desire to control others, to influence their behaviour, behaviour, or to be responsible for others. The preferences for persons high in needs for achievement, affiliation, and power include
:
High need achievement : Individual responsibility but double goals; feedback on perf ormance(e.g., challenging quota and opportunity).
High need affliation- Interpersonal relationships. Opportunities to communicate(e.g., customer service, members of group unit subject to group bonus)
High need power: Influence over other person’s person’s attention ; recognition(e.g. r ecognition(e.g. formal position of supervisory responsibility).People having these needs have certain ways of dealing with their jobs.People who are high in the need for achievement tend to be mostly concerned with performing better than other perform. They are usually more innovative and perform long term goal involvement .people with high need for affiliation are more concerned with establishing interpersonal relations with other people. They tend to communicate more frequently .Finally the people with high need for power wish to make an impression or influence others .They are very concerned with personal personal prestige .therefore, McClelland believes that managers can motivate motivate workers by knowing what kinds of need they have and provide them with a job that matches that need . a person behaviour is not determine by needs alone alone .a person’s person’s habit ,skills and environmental environmental opportunities are also factors. McClleland says that there is no one-to-one correspondence corre spondence between needs and behaviour. McClleland need theory has created many prediction about a bout many aspects of human motivation .Recentl y, a
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researcher found that American males with high achievement need come more often from the middle class than from the lower or upper class. They have better memory for incomplete tasks and more apt to volunteer as subjects for psychological experiments .They are more active in college and community activities,choose experts over friends as working partners and are more resistant to social pressure .They also cannot give accurate reports of what their “inner concern” with achievement is therefore,it might be assumed that such subjects-the “highs”-would always do better at any kind of task under any circumstances. Other research as suggested that appealing for cooperation leads those in the group who have strong need for affliation,to work harder ,rather than those with high need in achievement.
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VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY This theory brings together many of the elements of previous theories . It combines the perceptual aspects of equity theories with the behavioral aspects of the other theories Basically ,it comes down to this “equation”: M = E * I * V or Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence M (motivation) is the amount a person will be motivated by the situation in which they find themselves. It is the function of the following : E (expectancy) = The person’s perception that effort will result in performance. In other words, the person’s. I (instrumentality) = t he person’s perception that performance will be rewarded/punished, i.e. , the person’s person’s assessment of how well the amount of reward correlates with the quality of performance. (note here that model is phrased in terms of extrinsic motivation, motivation, in that it asks ‘what are chances I am going to get rewarded if I do a good job?’.But for intrinsic situations, we can think as asking ‘how good will I feel if I can pull this off?’). V(valence) = the perceived strength of the reward or punishment that will result from the performance. Valence may be positive (Individual prefers attaining zero valance, but is indifferent towards the outcome) or negative Valance (individual prefers not to attain). If the reward is small , the motivation will be small, even if expectancy and instrumentality are both perfect (high). The model of Vroom’s theory may be as follows
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CASE STUDY Performance Perfor mance and Motivation Mot ivation in M cdonal cdonalds ds People are the most important resources of an organisation. They ensure the interaction of financial, industrial, and other resources so that the organisation can function. Nowadays experienced managers realize that he financial reward cannot c annot stay the only kind of an employee encouragement. The employees' needs should be viewed as an entity that leads to the search of non financial motives. There exist many non financial motives that are connected with the employee's satisfaction of needs, such as his/her recognition, participation in the decision-making, self-fulfillment, personal growth and others. The practice shows that the full use of human resources of an organisation is one of the most significant advantages, which allow companies to occupy the leading positions in the world market. The 'McDonalds' company flourishes owing to the logical integration of the staff into the problem solving. The company adheres to the principle: 'The result is done by a man'. 'McDonalds' examines its employees as the primary source of progress in the field of quality and productivity. This organisation organisation has based its success on the motivation theories having altered only some aspects of them. 'McDonalds' adheres to four simple principles, which give the possibility to increase the performance of its employees: 1. The company must elaborate different systems of motivation for every department. 2. The personnel must have clear and attainable aims. It is better to have one aim per a person. 3. The aims must change: managers should have one aim for half of a year. For example, at first a manager examines the number of clients, then he/she examines the number of returning clients; and then he/she should analyze the increase in business sales. This method gives the possibility to find new abilities of employees and to check new methods of work. 4. The rise of salary amount must be sensible for an employee. The 'McDonalds' company applies three components of the motivation system: financial encouragement, non financial encouragement, and social policy. policy. All the three factors are a re described in Maslow's motivation theory t heory.. However, Maslow states that all the needs must be fulfilled one after another. The research of the 'McDonalds' company, company, its strategy and structure shows that only a simultaneous si multaneous fulfilment of employee's needs will increase an employee's performance. It is not necessary to fulfil all the needs of every level. In the reality an employee has a set of needs in every concrete moment. Summarising, the 'McDonalds' company has effective motivation system that makes it possible to increase incre ase employees' performance, and hence the company's productivity. productivity. The situational approach applied by 'McDonalds' administration staff has turned out to be the most relevant to the current situation. The administrators have used the specific techniques on the basis of motivation theories. Having applied the procedure of assembly line in food preparation, 'McDonalds' has ensured the standard quality of the production and the high performance. Besides, the company has implemented effective motivation strategy that is based on the existing motivation theories. Consequently, on the basis of the researc h we can say that every company has its own system of behaviour explanation and every concrete case should be examined as the 'McDonalds' company case. Motivation theories, such as Maslow's theory and Self Determination Deter mination Theory should serve as the basis for elaborating a strategy which will direct manager's forces towards the aim - employee satisfaction via intrinsic motivation and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs model.
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REFERENCES
Principle & Practices of management ( L.M. L.M. Prashad )
Organizational Behavior ( Robbins, Robbins, Judge, Sanghi)
Organizational Behavior (Nelson & Quick)
WEBSITES http://www.Businessballs.com------27/july/2009
http://www.envisionsoftware.com/articles/-----27/july/2009
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki--------27/july/2009
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