Theories of Personality Notes

Theories of Personality

8/28/2013 5:32:00 AM

8/28/13 Chapter 1A I am introverted, agreeable, conscientious, studious, loyal, motivated, caring, devoted, open-minded, stubborn, independent What is personality?  Origin of “personality” o Latin “persona” (mask) 

o Typical nature Technical definition: “Psychological qualities that contribute to an individual‟s enduring and distinctive patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving” o Enduing: somewhat consistent across time and situations o Distinctive- different individuals from each other

Issues addressed in the field  Human universals vs. cultural differences  

o Ex: basic emotions Individual differences and uniqueness Investigation based on personality theories

Topics to be covered:  Scientific study of people  Personality studied and analyzed through numerous viewpoints o Psychodynamic, humanistic, trait, biological, behaviorism, personal construct theory, social cognitive theory 9/9/13 What is a theory?  Related assumptions used by scientists for logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypothesis  Theories are not hypothesis  Tool for gathering and organizing

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Reliable, coherent and parsimonious Leads to hypothesis 1. Organize info o Keep track of what we know  2. New knowledge o Help scientists create new knowledge about field  3. New issues to study o New areas that otherwise would not have been studied (Hypotheses- statements about predicted relationships between variables, should be clear and testable ) Theory Hypothesis Research Data reshape/build theory Theory (gives meaning to data) Theory (general), Hypothesis (Specific) Why different theories?  Theory comes from o Scientific evidence o Theorist‟s perspective 

Psychology of science- scientists‟ personality traits influence their theories

Theories as toolkits  No one complete, comprehensive theory o Each separate theory provides unique insights  Multiple theories not necessarily bad o Not question of right vs. wrong  Elements of different theories as different tools to help in understanding of personality o Individual differences o Human motivation o Development of self-concept o Causes of emotions o Performance in work settings Five goals of personality theory

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1. Scientific observation o Systematic descriptions of people o 3 requirements  Large, diverse sample  Objective observations  Use of specialized tools 2. Systematic nature o Provide understanding of people o Logical, coherent description 3. Testability o Testable through objective scientific evidence 4. Comprehensiveness o Significant factors related to human functioning  Behaviors, cognitions, emotions 5. Applications o Conversion of theoretical ideas to real world applications  Clinical, educational, developmental, i/o psychology

Understanding Personality 

3 Questions about personality o 1. What?  People‟s characteristics  Organization o 2. How?  Influences on development o 3. Why?  Reasons for behavior

Important aspects of personality  Structure o Building blocks o Stable and enduring  Body parts o 5 factor model (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism- we all have these 5 to varying degrees)

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o Hierarchical nature  Analogous to organizations Process o Dynamic aspects of personality  Motivation, emotion, action o Emphasis on different motivational processes  Biology, future, conscious vs. unconscious Growth and development o Patterns of development common across people  Developmental stages  Individual differences o Nature vs. nurture Psychopathology and behavior change o Change  How people change  Resistance to change o Theorists as therapists  Systematic lessons from therapy o Importance of applicability, practicality of theory

Related issues in personality  1. Internal and external determinants o Internal  Temperament  Emotional, behavioral tendencies  Fearfulness  Evolutionary psychology  Predisposition toward certain behaviors 

Human universals

o External  Culture  Behaviors, rituals, beliefs  Social class  Status, roles, duties, privileges  Family  Parents:

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Role models Shape behavior

Peers Varying levels of emphasis on internal vs. external  Freud vs. Skinner  Now: both as essential aspects of behavior 2. Consistency o Consistency vs. inconsistency in behaviors o Time and consistency 3. States of awareness and the unconscious  

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o Mental activities outside of conscious awareness  Aspects of personality  Motivation  Emotions 4. Influence of past, present and future o Agreement regarding influence of present factors o Influence of past on present o Influence of future on present 5. Personality as a science o Other sciences mostly reductionist o Should personality be reductionist?

Conclusion  Theories in personality o What is a theory? o Key functions of theories o Theories as toolkits o Goals of personality theory  

Understanding personality o Important aspects (personality structure) Issues to consider

5-6 questions based on reading or assign own article to the class but it must be approved 2 weeks before presentation and include brief summary of article on how it relates to topic +3 bonus points  Are the questions though provoking?

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Do you demonstrate that you understand the reading? How well the group facilitates class discussion- ask interesting follow up questions How well prepared the group is?

9/11/13 Theory and Research  Theory without research o Speculation 

Research without theory o Aimless fact gathering

LOTS data  Life history or life record o School records (test scores, report cards), Court records  Observed data o Information from observers (teachers, parents, friends), Questionnaires 

Tests and experiments o Intelligence tests, Standardized tests, Experimental manipulation (disgust makes judgment harsher, mood makes problem solving better, rejection and aggression)  Ayduk, Gyurak & Luerssen  Influence of rejection sensitivity (anticipate rejection) on participants after rejection  Anxious about rejection  Ambiguous situations- more likely to see 

rejection Participants told they were involved in study about partner selection on dating websites  Wrote short bio sketches  Were told bio sketches would be sent to member of opposite sex  Waited at computer to see if other “participant” selected them

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Control condition  “Technical difficulties”  Internet access cut off- no one rejected or liked you Rejected condition  Email from “Beth” (actually experimenter) regarding rejection Then- asked helped set up for second stage of experiment for Beth  Beth hates spicy food  Participant left alone with hot sauce Rejection increased aggression (hot sauce placed on Beth‟s food) only in high RS participants  High rejection sensitivity more aggression after rejection

Self-report o Questionnaires o Advantages  Convenient  

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Sometimes only way to get at topic  Self-monitoring scale Limitations  Response distortion  Social desirability/ faking  Self-knowledge  Match.com article  Context  Time of day  Order of questions  Wording  Retrieval  Schwarz o How you phrase questions with scales can shape the answers Attempts to get around limitations  Situational judgment tests

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 Conditional tests (eye for an eye meaning) More than one method  Implicit measures  Diary methods Fixed vs. flexible measures  Fixed  Same measures given to all participants  Advantages o Simple o Objective 

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Limitations o Irrelevant to some o Not sufficient for some  Nomothetic approach o Scientific laws o Fixed personality variables Flexible  Unstructured personality tests  Idiographic approach

o Tailored to individual participants o Unique individual Assessment type and data  Guided by theory  Unit of analysis Theory needed to collect, interpret data

Conclusion  Theory and Research o LOTS data   

Types Limitations Fixed vs. flexible measures

9/16/13 Goals of research  Reliability o Internal consistency

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o Replicability, stability  Test- retest (you‟ll get the same scores if you take it twice) o Factors affecting reliability  Test takers (age...)  Aspects of test (wording...) Validity o Are you accurately describing/ measuring the psychological phenomenon you are interested in? o Problems with pervious methods E.g. phrenology  Different parts of brain responsible for different functions, characteristics  Some parts underdeveloped, while other developed Validity and Reliability o Must be reliable to be valid o Both necessary aspects of sound measures Personality measurement now 

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o Recent examples  Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)  Extraversion- Introversion  Intuition- Sensing  Thinking- Feeling  Judging- Perceiving  NEO Personality Inventory  Openness to experience  Conscientiousness

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 Extraversion  Agreeableness  Neuroticism Ethical behavior o APA‟s Ethical Principles  Treatment of participants  Informed consent  Confidentiality

 Interpretation, presentation of results o Institutional Review Board  Risks/ benefits 3 Approaches to research  Case studies and clinical research o In-depth analysis of each case  Focus on:  Structures  Processes o More common in clinical psychology o Matthew- dependent personality disorder o Advantages  More in-depth  May be only way to study certain psychological variables  Takes individuals into account o Limitations  Not always generalizable

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 No definite causal explanation  High level of subjectivity  Verbal reports not always accurate Correlational research o Relationships among variables  Positive vs. negative o Use of personality measures  How certain variables are correlated  E.g. tendency to experience positive emotions and life expectancy o Correlation coefficient  Degree to which variables related  -1 to 1 o Advantages  No need for manipulation  More info about variables that are impossible or unethical to manipulate

 Childhood abuse and adult aggression o Limitations  Ambiguous interpretation of cause and effect  Correlation does not equal causation o Questionnaires  Advantages  Large sample sizes can be studied relatively easy  Reliability, validity  Limitations  Narrow range of info Self-report not always accurate Response style  Acquiescence (more likely to check true)  Social desirability Experimental studies o Participants assigned randomly to conditions o Variables manipulated  Alcohol consumption  Rejection  

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o Causal effects  Random assignment  Effect of manipulation o Advantages  More info regarding cause-effect o Limitations  Artificiality of lab setting  Applicability of finding to real world settings  Extraneous influences

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 Demand characteristics  Experimenter expectancy Some things cannot be studied in a lab

9/18/13 Freud: Early history  Born 1856 raised in Vienna

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7 siblings, 2 step-siblings o Mother‟s favorite  So felt like a conqueror and had confidence 1873: University of Vienna med student o Met Josef Breuer  Josef met Anna O  1880: Symptoms after father‟s death  Headaches  Paralysis of certain body parts  Multiple personalities    

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o Catharsis method  Release of pent-up emotions  Ultimately recovered  True identity o Bertha Pappenheim o Feminist, social worker Implications of catharsis for Freud  Mind as energy system o Release of energy 

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Visual disturbances Difficulties with speech Hallucinations Inability to drink o Woman with dog at a party (led to fear of drinking) Treatment o Hypnosis o Talking seemed to reduce symptoms

Energy of mental content that people are not aware of o Different parts of mind “unconscious” Catalyst for psychoanalysis Disagreement between Breuer and Freud  Freud- role of sexual interpretation Considered cornerstone case for psychoanalysis Beginning of use of “talking treatment”

o 1885: Went to France to study with Jean-Martin Charcot  Charcot known for :  Hypnosis  Hysteria treatment  Studies regarding traumatic paralysis  Hysteria and genitals  Freud‟s subsequent theory regarding sexual issues and neurosis o 1897: Father dies leading to depression  Self-analysis o 1900: The Interpretation of Dreams (Book) o Late 1900‟s: Gains recognition o 1939: Dies in London Freud‟s view of the person  Architecture of mental life  Biological, mechanistic point of view o Mind and body are connected o Energy system 

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Active nature of mental contents o Instinctual drives o Forces on mind Limited amount of energy o Energy used for one purpose less available for others Energy doesn‟t simply disappear Desire for state of balance, calmness o Tension from bodily needs behavior balance/calmness  E.g. no food hunger search for food satiation o Goal of all behavior Common view in this time: tabula rasa Freud‟s view o Sex, aggression innate o Pleasure principle  Society to restrain natural tendencies  Taboos  Social norms

Freud‟s Personality theory  Reliance on case study evidence o No labs, no tests o Importance of details  Structure of the mind o 2 models of the mind  Levels of consciousness  Conscious  Aware of at any moment 

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Preconscious  Not currently conscious of but can be if asked to be Unconscious  Drives, urges, instincts, not in awareness  Still motivate behaviors, thoughts  Anxiety- provoking Influence on unconscious on conscious  “Freudian slip” Manifest content (dreams)  Storyline Latent content  Unconscious ideas, emotions, instinct  High levels of symbolism  Unconscious wishes 3 Reasons we dream  Wish fulfillment  Release of tension

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Sleep protection systems Oldest, most primitive Present in everyone o Stays same over time Pleasure principle o Release of tension/anxiety

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o Non-moral Drive energy o Life instincts+ death instincts Completely unconscious Reality principle o Rational o Mediator between id and external world 3 masters

o Desires of ID o Constraints of external environment o Morals on superego  Changes over time Superego  Changes over time o Life experiences, parents, culture  Moral compass o Ideals, ethical standards o Control over behavior

9/23/13 Development of thinking  Primary vs. secondary o How the mind processes information  Primary process- language of unconscious  Unconscious

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 Illogical  No distinction between reality, fantasy  Young children  Dreams Secondary process- language of conscious  Conscious  Logical  Developed after primary process, with ego

Personality process  Motivation o Instincts, drives  Energy  Questions to be addressed o Basic human instinctual drives  Life and death instincts  Part of id  Energy driving human lives 

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Life instinct (eros)  Preserve self  Reproduce  Libido  Primarily sexual in motivation Death instinct (thanatos)  Death  Self-destruction  Aggression

 Search for calmness  Expression of instincts  Blocked  Modified expression  Expressed directly  Object of gratification  Change  Displacement Anxiety in psychodynamic theory o Painful emotional experience  Information regarding potential threat  Signal of danger to ego  Previous trauma  Conflict between id‟s desires and threat of punishment o Defense mechanisms  Protections from anxiety

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Repression- avoiding anxiety by not allowing painful or dangerous thoughts to become conscious Isolation of affect/ Intellectualization- Avoiding painful feelings by focusing only on ideas, separate emotions from thoughts Projection- Attributing own unacceptable impulses, motives, desires to others Undoing- Person tries to make up for unacceptable desires or acts through “magical” ritualistic behavior Displacement- Feelings toward dangerous object switched onto safer substitute Reaction formation- Express opposite of unacceptable impulse Sublimation- Expression of impulse or desire in socially acceptable manner, funneling energy into higher order goal

Growth and Development  All people develop in stages o Significant events and development of personality styles  Influence on personality o Development of instinct  Erogenous zones through development  Psychosexual stages  Oral (infancy)- oral pleasures oral fixation  Anal (2-3 yrs)- pleasure from excretion,

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retention of feces anal fixation; first conflict between individual (pleasure principle)and society Phallic (4-5 yrs)- pleasure from genitals, castration anxiety in boys, penis envy in girls, oedipal complex/ electra complex

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Latency (6-puberty)- sex drive dormant, repression of desires, energy funneled to other pursuits  Genital (puberty-adult)- refocus on genitals, “normal” heterosexual relationship, energy focused on opposite sex  “Maturity”- never fully conceptualized, ultimately psychologically healthy person (rare) o Erikson- personality develops throughout life, personality determined by psychosocial development  Trust vs. mistrust (1 yr) (Oral)- Trust, optimism or mistrust, pessimism  Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (2-2 yrs) (Anal)- Self control, can make choices or rigid, doubtful, self conscious  Initiative vs. guilt (4-5 yrs) (Phallic)- happy with accomplishments, purpose or guilt about goal-directed behaviors  

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Industry vs. Inferiority (6- adolescence) (Latency)productivity, pride in completed work vs. cannot work Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) (Genital)Confidence in consistent personality or unsure of self, no consistent standards Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adolescence)- sharing of thoughts, feelings work or avoid intimacy, superficial relationships Generativity vs. stagnation (adulthood)- can lose

oneself in work, relationships or loss of interest in work, relationships  Integrity vs. Despair- order and meaning, content with self or fear of death, bitterness o Marcia  Identity achievement- exploration then sense of identity, high functioning, independent thought and

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resistance to group pressure, intimacy in relationships, moral reasoning Identity moratorium- identity crisis, can be high functioning, struggle with “who they are” Identity foreclosure- commitment to identity without exploration, rigidity, conforming, conventional, reject deviation from norm Identity diffusion- no strong sense of identity, selfesteem very sensitive, problems with intimacy

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Self and group o Individualist  The self should be independent of the group o Collectivist  The self should be dependent on the group Self- concept o Individualist  Self-concept primarily defined by internal attributes o Collectivist Self- concept primarily defined by social roles and relationships Socialization o Individualistic  People socialized to be unique, to validate internal attributes o Collectivists  People socialized to belong occupy their proper place Self- esteem 

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o Individualistic  Based on ability to engage in self- expression and ability to validate internal attributes o Collectivists  Based on ability to adjust to the group, restrain his or her own desires, and maintain social harmony 9/25/13

Assessment in psychoanalysis  Should be: o Valid o Efficient  Problem with assessment in psychoanalysis o Unconscious content o Client‟s hesitation o Free association  Projective tests

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o Ambiguous items o Client‟s interpretation o Personality, unconscious content revealed in indirect ways Rorschach Test o Symmetrical inkblots on paper o Shown to hospital patients o 10 cards selected  Based on responses from different psychiatric groups o Patients asked:  Interpretation of inkblot  Reasons o Interpretation  Response formation  Match to inkblot  Content  Interpretation based on content details  Behavior during session  Hypothesis formed

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Thematic Apperception Test o Cards with ambiguous scenes o Patient creates story o Unconscious content thought to be exposed in story Sentence Completion tests o “I regret...” Word completion test o CH_ _R

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Draw a person test Evaluation o Are these tests valid?  Multiple outcomes  Different scoring procedures, testing systems  Test scope  Long term research, scholars suggest no o Are these tests reliable?  Interrater reliability

Psychoanalysis and psychopathology  Freud: Neuroses found in everyone  Personality types o Influence on developmental stages o Psychopathology based on fixations from development o Stages of psychosexual development  Too little, too much gratification  Seeking similar satisfaction later in life o 3 types: 

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Narcissistic View of others related to what they might provide Envious, jealous Quick to anger Depressed Always asking for something Success= “I get” Struggle with power Anal triad  Cleanliness  Stinginess  Obstinacy (stubborn) Seek power, control Concern with duty, responsible Avoid waste, loss of control

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 Conflict between submitting and rebelling  Success= “I control” Phallic  Gender differences  Men o Hyper masculine o Excessively demonstrates masculinity  Convince others that he has not been castrated o Competitive

o Success= “I am a man”  Women o Overly feminine o Seductive, flirtatious but deny sexuality o Naïve o Idealization of partners, love o Conflict and defense  Fixation at developmental stages 

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Problem  Want gratification  Past trauma  Conflict  Anxiety Defense mechanisms  Successful: anxiety reduced  Less successful: pathological symptoms  Repressed impulse being expressed

o Therapeutic process  Psychopathology: fixation, conflict, anxiety  Freud‟s therapeutic process  Free association  Dream interpretation  Patient must gain insight regarding wishes, anxiety  Transference

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Attitudes, conflicts towards parental figures directed toward therapist Oral patients: concern with “feeding” and receiving Anal patients: control Phallic patients: competition Transferences encouraged  Patient on couch  Frequent appointments  Therapist as blank screen Transference neurosis  Play out old conflicts o Understand nature of conflicts o Gain satisfaction that was previously denied  Freedom to gratify desires in more healthy manner Deal with conflicts in safe environment “Corrective emotional experience” from:   

Less intense conflict Analyst does not behave like parents Patients more mature (ego more developed)

9/30/13 Evolution of psychoanalysis  Freud devoted entire life to psychoanalysis  Had numerous “disciples” 

Authoritarian nature o Cut off those who strayed from his ideas  Alfred Adler  1870: Born in Vienna  Sickly child  Desire to prove doctor wrong  1895: Medical degree from University of Vienna

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Carl   

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Read Interpretation of Dreams and went into psychiatry First to break from Freud  Libido as more general life force  Influence of inferiority complex and compensation o Inherent inferiority of infants/ obstacles from environment  Emphasis on social factors  Role of conscious planning for the future Presented ideas to Vienna Psychoanalytic society  Hostile response  Left with 8 members Individual psychology  Society for individual psychology Emphasis on social urges, conscious thoughts  Compared to Freud‟s focus on sexual instincts, unconscious Striving for future (rather than result of past) Feelings of inferiority compensation Will to power  Striving for superiority o Neurotic form o Healthy from Jung 1875: Born in Switzerland Religious and troubled family In childhood, noticed Personality 1 and 2  1: school boy  2: man in touch with past 1900: Medical degree 1906: Published article get‟s Freud‟s attention  Very close to Freud: “crown prince” of psychoanalysis 1909: Deterioration begins 1913: Psychology of the Unconscious

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Resigns as president of APA Disagreement with Freud:  Libido as life energy o Jung‟s vs. Freud‟s reason for breakup (Jung was going through oedipal complex)  Emphasis on reasons for current behavior o Instinctual urges vs. meaning in life Evolutionary foundations of mind Unconscious 

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Collective unconscious o Experience from past generations o Universal o Shared by everyone o Archetypes  Across cultures  E.g. “mother” archetypes Opposing forces in humans  Face (private self) vs. mask (persona) 

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Masculine (animus) vs. feminine (anima) o Man rejecting feminine o Woman rejecting masculine The self= most important archetype  Fundamental goal of people: find unity Introversion vs. extraversion  Introvert: inward orientation o Hesitant, reflective  Extravert: outward orientation

o Active, adventuresome Additional theories  Mid 1900s: Motivational forces and personality  Role on interpersonal interactions  Freud:  Biological urges personality structures social relationships  Interpersonal psychodynamic theorists

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 Social relationships personality structures Karen Horney  Cultural influences on individual development  Culture and gender identity  European vs. American culture  1922: Presentation at psychoanalytic congress in Berlin o Womb envy  Explanation for consistent discrimination against women  

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Feelings on inferiority

Basic anxiety  Influence of social factors  Feeling of being lonely, helpless in hostile world Coping with basic anxiety in neurotic form  Move toward o Want to be accepted, approved of o Dependent

o Unselfish, undemanding  Moving against o Assumption that world is hostile o Struggle against others o Deny need for others  Moving away o Detachment, including emotional detachment Object Relations theory  

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Developmental processes before oedipal period Object= person  Drive toward object that can reduce tension  E.g. object= mother Influence of early relationships on:  Self  Relationship with others Focus on development of mental models

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Attachment theory  John Bowlby  Influence of separation from parents  Attachment Behavior System (ABS) o Present from birth o Motivation  Formation of mental representations o Self o Parents  Mary Ainsworth  

Strange situation Role in interpersonal relationship o Secure  Feel comfortable in relationships  From secure attachment to caregiver o Anxious  Want to be close to others, but others do not reciprocate Seek approval From insecure attachment to caregiver o Avoidant  Little to no desire to for close relationships with others  Wish to remain independent  From insecure attachment to caregiver  

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Relationship Rating From o Viability  Acceptance  Respect  Trust o Intimacy  Confiding o Understanding

o Passion  Fascination  Exclusiveness  Sexual intimacy o Care  Giving  Assistance o Global satisfaction  Success  Enjoyment

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 Reciprocity  Esteem Commitment 1 Avoidant men- lowest levels of:  Commitment, satisfaction, trust, acceptance, intimacy, caring, commitment Women with avoidant men- less

negative ratings o Anxious and avoidant women  Less satisfaction, intimacy and caring o Men with anxious partner  More conflict, less commitment, less satisfaction and intimacy o Thus: men and women both less satisfied when a woman is anxious 

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Time 2 o Stability  Anxious men- lowest Time 3 o Stability  Anxious women- highest Highest stability o Avoidant men

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o Anxious women Expectations for romantic partner based on attachment style o Problems with  Avoidant- avoidant  Anxious- anxious Lowest stability for: o Anxious men o Avoidant women Not set in stone

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o Time o Relationships Limitations of studying relying on self-report

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Psychodynamic theory: evaluation  5 criteria o 1. Basis in scientific observations  No objective data  Freud and free- association Limitations  Lack of diversity in patients  Subjectivity  Suggestion in therapy o 2. Systematic  Logical, interconnected nature of theory  Connection of process and structure  Id, ego, superego (structure)  Gratification of instincts (process) 

o 3. Testability  Impossible to prove wrong  Can explain any outcome o 4. Comprehensive  Extremely comprehensive  Issues addressed  Mind  Relationship between individual and society

 Dreams  Sexuality  Development  Therapies o 5. Applications  Therapy for clients who need change  Other therapies also beneficial  No emphasis on underlying drives TEST #1 10/9/13 Carl Rogers  4th of 6 children  Close to mother  Religious household o Early focus on moral, ethical issues o Hard work   

Studied agriculture, seminary, then clinical psychology 1931: PhD from Columbia View of the individual o Subjectivity of experience  Perceptions of “reality”  Phenomenal field  Subjective construction  Make up “reality”  Influenced by Outer world Inner world  Subjective needs, goals, beliefs o Authenticity vs. alienation  Psychological distress from psychological detachment  Approval vs. adhering to one‟s own values  Path to alienation  Instincts as wisdom  

 Society vs. adhering to one‟s own values  Well adjusted individual o Human nature  Fundamentally positive  Desire for growth  Destructive, evil behaviors result of:  Fear  Defensiveness  Freedom= positivity o Phenomenological perspective  Emphasis on conscious, subjective experiences  How does individual experience the world? o Humanistic  Person as whole  Self-perceptions  Potential for growth o Structure  The self  Part of phenomenological experience  Conscious  Organized pattern that is pervasive  Idea of “me” or „I”  Actual self vs. ideal self o Measuring self-concept  Two methods used  Q- Sort Technique  Set of cards with personality characteristics on each

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o “Has high aspiration level for self” o Expresses hostile feelings directly” o Values own independence and autonomy” Cards sorted o 7- “Most descriptive of _me/idea self__ “ o 1- “Least descriptive of ___ “

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 Forced distribution Semantic Differential  Rate concepts on each polar opposite adjective scale (bad-good, clean-dirty, beautiful-ugly, strong-weak, active-passive, cruel-kind) o “My self” o “My ideal self” o “Father” o “My college”

o Personality Process  Self-actualization  Fundamental motivational principle  Simplicity to complexity  Dependence to independence  Self consistency and Congruence  Maintain consistent notion of self  Value system  Organization of values, behaviors  

Consistency of behaviors Congruence vs. incongruence o Congruence  Self and experience  Values and behaviors o Incongruence  Untrue to self  Distress  Anxiety

Defensive processes  Denial  Distortion- “I am a bad student” self-concept and good grade Need for positive regard  Desire to be accepted and respected by others 

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Own values, own actualization vs. other‟s acceptance  Detachment  Alienation In childhood  Unconditional love  Conditions of worth o Natural tendencies vs. parents‟ positive regard o Denying aspects of self

o Growth and Development  Is the child free to self-actualize?  Self actualization process throughout the life  Developmental factors  Parent-child relationships  Unconditional positive regard  Acceptant, democratic attitudes  Internal psychological structures  Congruence vs. incongruence and defense Healthy development  Unconditional acceptance o Self-esteem  Self-evaluation  Influencing factors  Parental:  Acceptance, affection, interest, warmth, permissiveness and punishment, style (democratic vs. dictatorial) 

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Roger‟s view of the client o Power of client  Capable agent (rather than dependent patient) o Inborn drive toward health, growth o No differentiation between pathology types o Pathological functioning  Discrepancy between self and experiences  Defense against incongruent experiences

 Distress from ideal self vs. actual self discrepancy o Healthy functioning  Congruence between self and experience  Incorporate experiences into self-concept o Psychological change  Main focus psychotherapy  Conditions necessary for change  1. Reflection of feeling  Therapist as a mirror  2. Client-centered therapy 

 Actively understanding client 3. Therapeutic climate  Nature of relationship, interactions between therapist and client o Conditions  1. Genuineness  Comfortable relationship between therapist and client

2. Unconditional positive regard  Caring, respect for client  3. Empathic understanding  Active listening, understanding o Efficacy of client-centered therapy  Distress from incongruence, feelings of inadequacy  Evidence for therapeutic change from Roger‟s methods  1. Reflection of felling 

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 2. Client-centered therapy  3. Therapeutic change Types of changes  Decrease in defensiveness  More congruent self  More positive feelings toward others

Human potential movement

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Emphasis on self-growth Self-actualization Maslow o Focus of positive factors o Individuals fundamentally good  Desire for good o Psychopathology  Frustration  Stifling of potential o Improvement from freedom to express oneself o Motivation  Biological vs. psychological needs (physiological, safety, love/belongingness. Esteem, actualization)  Higher level motivational processes o Focus on self-actualizing individuals  Einstein, Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela  Common characteristics  Acceptance of self, others  Care for self, others

 Intimate relationships  Resist conformity  Remain realistic Positive psychology movement  Other schools of thought o Overemphasis on psychopathology, problems with human condition  E.g. Freud o Classification of human strengths 

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Criteria used  Enduring  Beneficial across numerous domains  Encouraged by parents, society as a whole Seligman and Peterson  Six categories of qualities  Wisdom, Courage, Love, Justice, Temperance, Transcendence

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Importance of listing qualities  Different focus of positive psychology

Shimai Et Al  Kindness, love, humor, gratitude, open-mindedness, fairness Evaluation of humanistic theories  5 criteria o Scientific observation  Objectivity in data collection Objective methods  Q sort  Limitations  Explicit measures  Lack of diversity o Systematic nature  Integrated propositions regarding individual personality  Parent-child interactions  Types of self-concept 

 Psychological distress vs. well-bring  Limitation  Not enough information in theory o Testability  Certain elements testable, while others now  Testable elements  Actual self vs. ideal self  Q sort  Conditions of therapeutic change Limitations  No evidence of universal nature of self actualization motive  No clear construct  No objective assessment tool o Comprehensiveness  Not enough info regarding the influence of:  Evolution, emptions, biological impulses, genetics 

o Applications  Importance of client-therapist relationships  Techniques for building relationships  Client as person  Capable of improving selves 10/15/13 Overview: Freud, Rogers Vs. Trait Theorists  Freud

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o No objective collection o Case studies Rogers o More focused on measurement o Still no way of measuring some key concepts Trait theorists o Emphasis on measurement o Approach personality much like a physical science

Trait Concept  Personality trait o Colloquial use o Definition: consistent patterns in how people  Behave, feel, think o Connotations of “traits”  Consistency  Across roles, time  Distinctiveness 

View of personality o Focus on measurement  Reliable and valid o Theory based on collected data (not speculation)  Contrast to Freud and Rogers o Purpose of trait constructs  Description  Describe typical behavior

Basic descriptive facts Taxonomy  Personality scheme  Aid in classification based on traits Prediction  Predict everyday behavior  Important applications  E.g. selection for job o Myers-Briggs type o OCEAN  

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Explanation  Scientific understanding of causes  NOT the same as prediction  Not pursued by all trait theorists  Includes:  Traits explaining behavior  Figuring out possible biological factors o Shared assumptions across theories  People have predispositions to behave in certain ways 

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There exists a relationship between having a certain trait and trait-related behaviors  Direct relationship  Extraverted behaviors related to higher levels of extraversion  Contrast to psychoanalysis Behavior, personality in hierarchy

Trait theorists 

Allport, Cattell, Eysenck o Allport  Youngest of 4 children  Protestant upbringing  Strict  Purity of thoughts, behaviors  1919: Graduated from Harvard

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Emphasis on healthy, organized parts of human behavior Criticism of psychoanalysis  Too much focus on unconscious Traits as building blocks of personality Three properties of traits  Frequency  Intensity  Range of situations Personality structure 

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Focus on traits as units  Consistent, stable tendencies  Separate from temporary states, activities Types of traits  Cardinal traits o Extremely influential in every behavior o Rare  Central traits o More limited in influence o More common  Secondary dispositions o Least generalized, least consistent (across situations) Influence of situation  Traits not expressed in all situations o E.g. extraversion at party vs. first day at job o Trait: general tendencies across many

sitautions Limitations to Allport‟s theory  Not enough research conducted  “Trait” idea  No research on influence of heredity No model to explain psychological processes behind behavior  Motivation for trait-related behaviors

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Problem with use of case studies, idiographic methods

Traits: factor analysis  How do we know that certain behaviors are related to a certain underlying trait?  Intuitive correlation- sea monsters o By looking at the correlations between all the parts we can see (observable behaviors), we can infer something about their underlying nature (theoretical constructs) o Factor analysis- statistical method that looks at how lots of different observations correlate and determines how many theoretical constructs could most simply explain what you see  Patterns in correlations  Set of factors that summarize how different variables are inter-correlated  Factor analytic study  Test items given to participants  Certain items will correlate with others 

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E.g. Do you often go to loud and noisy parties? And Do you enjoy spending time with large groups of people?  Clusters of correlated items may be influenced by underlying factors Relatively objective Can only show patterns of co-variation  No explanation of why  Different explanations from different psychologists Some subjectivity  Number, nature of factors

10/16/13 Trait theorists  Cattell o Lab of Personality Assessment (U. of Illinois)

o Extremely prolific  200 articles  15 books o Huge influence on 20th century psychology o Need for taxonomy of traits o Use of factor analysis o Personality structure  Surface traits  Observable behavioral tendencies  Source traits  Underlying structures  Responsible for relationship between surface traits o Cattell‟s 16 personality traits o Behavior: stability vs. variability  People not same all the time  Behavior depends on traits and:  State  Emotion at a particular point in time  E.g. anxiety, fatigue, arousal Role  Social roles one has to play o Influence of setting o Strengths and limitations  Strengths  Systematic approach  Foundation for future trait based research  Development of 16 PF measure  Limitations 

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16 PF not parsimonious Structure based solely on factor analysis  May not cover all of personality

Hans J. Eysenck o Fled to England to escape Nazis o Work influenced by  Factor Analysis  European psychologists (Jung)

 Research on heredity and psychology  Pavlov‟s work on classical conditioning o Founded journal- Personality and Individual Differences  Personality traits  Temperament  Biological foundations o Measures of individual differences  Importance of underlying biology o Personality structure  Superfactors   

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Higher order factors than initial factors Continuous dimensions Initially two:  Introversion-extraversion (sociability, liveliness, excitability)  Neuroticism (anxiety, feelings of guilt, shyness) Used Ancient Greek‟s chart Later added third superfactor 

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Psychoticism o “Abnormal” traits (aggressive, cold, egocentric, antisocial, unsympathetic) More objective measures  Lemon drop test  Lemon juice placed on tongue  Difference in amount of saliva produced  Introverts vs. extraverts: who produced more? Introverts o Biological bases- introversion vs. extraversion  Differences in arousal level in brain  Introverts  Over- aroused by intense environmental stimuli  Extraverts

Less aroused by environmental stimuli  Need more stimulus from environment Necker cube experiment  Extraverts switched viewing of cube more than introverts Research in brain activity  Support for Eysenck‟s ideas Twin studies 

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 Support notion of hereditary influence  Other biological functions o Social context  Introverts  Higher pain sensitivity  More easily fatigued  Performance inhibited by excitement  More careful, slower  Higher school performance Seek solitary jobs Lower need for novelty Intellectual humor Study habits  Quiet, solitary locations Extraverts  Performance enhanced by excitement  Seek jobs that involve working with others  Like diversion from routine    

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Enjoy more explicit, sexual humor Study habits  Library  Frequent study breaks

o Neuroticism  Influence of autonomic nervous system  High neuroticism had overly active autonomic nervous system

o Psychoticism  Much less known compared to others  Genetic influence  Gender  Testosterone o Psychopathology  Psychopathology related to traits (and other biological roots) + environmental factors  Neurotic patients  High neuroticism, low extraversion Criminals, antisocial people  High neuroticism, high extraversion, high psychoticism Limitations to Eysenck‟s theory o Alternate models provide better fit  Influence of impulsivity, anxiety o Lack of consistent support for biological bases o Personality and Individual Differences as isolating factor o Model not comprehensive enough 

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Honesty, reliability, creativity

10/21/13 Five factor model  Need for taxonomy  Individual differences into 5 dimensions o The “big five”  Factor analytic trait approach    

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Supported by research evidence Description vs. explanation Each factor present in everyone Biological basis on factors o Genetic influence o Downplay influence of “nurture” o Causal influence on development Universal raw material of personality

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Research evidence for the “big five” o Three sets of data  1. Traits described in natural, everyday language  Traits selected from dictionary  Big five  Openness- curious, broad interests, creative, original, imaginative o Conventional, down to earth, inartistic  Conscientiousness- organized, reliable, hard working, self disciplined, punctual, neat,

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ambitious  Aimless, unreliable, lazy, careless, negligent Extraversion- sociable, active, talkative, person oriented, affectionate  Reserved, sober, aloof, task oriented, quiet Agreeable- soft hearted, good natured, trusting, helpful, forgiving, gullible  Cynical, rude, suspicious, uncooperative, vengeful Neuroticism- worrying, nervous, emotional, hypochondriac  Calm, relaxed, unemotional, secure

2. Cross-cultural o Search for personality factors in different countries, languages  “Big 3” in Italy  Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness o Research across 11 languages o “Big 3” found across cultures o Biological basis o Uniqueness in expression o Gender differences  Women- neuroticism, agreeableness (more in modern cultures than traditional cultures) . Individuals rate selves o Factor analysis to see which go together Five factors found repeatedly

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o High reliability, high validity o Relative stability throughout adulthood 3. Relationship to other questions o NEO-PI-R  Five factors  Six narrower facets  Format  Self report  Observer report  Relationship with: 

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Eysenck‟s inventories  E&N  P: low agreeableness, low conscientiousness Cattell‟s 16 factors  Temperament

Big five facets o Hierarchical organization  Extraversion  Gregariousness, activity level, assertiveness,

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excitement seeking, positive emotions, warmth  Bill Clinton Agreeableness  Straightforwardness, trust, altruism, modesty, tender mindedness, compliance Conscientiousness  Self-discipline, dutifulness, competence, order, deliberation, achievement striving Neuroticism

Anxiety, self consciousness, depression, vulnerability, impulsiveness, angry hostility  Openness to experience  Fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, ideas, actions, values o Stronger relationship with  School performance  E.g. Anxiety and impulsivity facets of neuroticism 

Job performance and attitudes  Organizational citizenship behaviors Growth and development o Over time, people become less neurotic, extraverted and openness  More agreeable, conscientious Personality in childhood o More complex in childhood o 7 personality factors in children o Instead of extraversion: 

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 Sociability  Activity o Instead of neuroticism:  Fearfulness  Irritability o Merging in adolescence Five factor limitations o Main problems:  1. Link between personality structures and processes

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 Not enough info on processes  No clear link between psychological 2. (Lack of) influence of social factors  Traits said to be unaffected by external factors  Twenge  Changes in US in 20th century o Increase in anxiety, extraversion

10/23/13 A 6th factor  Person A vs. Person B o Person B-honesty  HEXACO model  Research suggests there may be one more factor o Honesty/humility o Truthfulness, sincerity

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o Genuineness Findings from 7 languages Relation to type of religious orientation o Intrinsic orientation: truly believe in religious teachings and live life according to religious beliefs  Significantly correlated with honesty-humility, conscientiousness o Extrinsic-personal orientation: focused on what religion can give you (ex: comfort during difficult times)  Significantly correlated with agreeableness, conscientiousness o Extrinsic- social orientation: religiousness based on forming social connections  Not strongly correlated with any Big Five or HEXACO traits

Applications of 5 factor model  Conscientiousness and life expectancy o Sample followed for 70 years o Conscientious children  Significantly longer lives  30% less likely to die each year o Reasons:  Less likely to:  Face violent death  Less likely to smoke  Less likely to drink heavily  More likely to:

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 Exercise regularly  Eat well  Have physicals  Follow medication schedule  Avoid toxins Predicting job performance o Extraversion- Social enterprising (e.g. sales)

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o Openness to experience- artistic, investigative (e.g. filmmaking) o Conscientiousness- various roles  Predicting academic performance  Conscientiousness (higher)  Neuroticism (lower) Personality type and therapy options o High openness to experience  Exploration (free association) o Low openness  Directive  Medication o No one specific therapy for all patients Related trait measures o MMPI  567 True/False questions  General pattern of responding  10 clinical scales  Paranoia, psychasthenia (Ocd), hypomania, social introversion Validity scales

 o 16 PF  16 primary personality traits  Personality profile is created Person-situation controversy  How much consistency do people demonstrate in their behaviors? o Enough consistency to support the notion of traits?  Walter Mischel

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o Behavior varies based on situation o Ability to examine situations and adapt o May explain why people do not always act in accordance with their traits Consistency over time vs. situations o Skepticism about cross-situational consistency Evidence for trait consistency o Seen more within domains across time

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Research on conscientiousness o Measures twice in one semester o Highest for class-related behaviors and lower for other domains

Trait theories evaluation  Scientific observation o Strong foundation of data  Emphasis on:  Statistical analyses of objective personality tests Diversity of subjects  Age, ethnicity, sociocultural factors  Different sources of data  Self reports, observer reports, life data, physiological measures o Limitations  Lack of in-depth methods  Focus on traits, general qualities  Surface characteristics 

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 Not enough focus on individual uniqueness Systematic nature o Cattell  Systematic theorizing about:  Traits, states, roles, motivation  Problem: not enough influence o Eysenck  Relationship between trait and biological factors  Structures (traits) and processes (nervous system)  Problem  Other than extraversion-introversion, not much evidence o McCrae and Costa (5 traits)  No explanations of dynamic processes that influence behavior o Trait theories in general

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Not enough systematic explanation regarding personality

Testability o Testable through objective methods o Many aspects that can be tested Comprehensiveness o Strengths  Incorporations of important individual differences  Factor analysis methods o Limitations  

Focused primarily on taxonomy of traits and influence of traits on behaviors, leading to deficits in other areas Not enough info regarding:  Interaction between conscious and unconscious  Influence of sexuality  Dreams  Relationship between therapist and client  Role of parents  Not enough focus of personality processes 

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 Theories more about structures Not enough focus on individual  Traits across populations  Cannot conclude that identified traits exist in everyone

Applications o Helpful in prediction  Accepted set of traits  Used to predict behaviors o Limitations  Not very useful in clinical setting  No therapy for psychological change

TEST #2 10/30/13

Phineas Gage  Construction foreman o Accident involving explosion o Iron bar shot through his face  Left check, front of brain, top of head o Results  Damage to left frontal lobe  Maintained ability to walk, speak, remember  Changes in:  Disposition, preferences, goals, personality 

Implications:  Frontal brain and personality

Temperament  Individual differences o Mood, emotional response, activity level  Inherited (for the most part)  Biologically based  Early views (from ancient Greeks) Melancholic Phlegmatic Choleric Sanguine- outgoing, sociable th 19 century o Darwin  The Origin of Species  The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals  Emotional expression in humans and other o o o o

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mammals are similar  Contribution to  Study of temperament, evolutionary psychology o Gregor Mendel  Experiments on plant hybrids  Modern genetics on personality development o Ernst Kretschmer

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Physique and character  Pyknic  Plum, rounder body  Extraversion  Athletic  Muscular  Vigorous  Aesthenic  Frail  Introversion

Temperament longitudinal studies o NY Longitudinal study  Over 100 subjects followed from birth to adolescence  Parental reports regarding infants:  Activity level, mood, attention span, persistence  Infant temperament types  Easy  Playful, adaptable  Difficult

o Buss   

 Negative, unadaptable  Slow to warm up  Low reactivity, mild responding and Plomin: 4 Dimensions of temperament Emotionality- arousal in upsetting situations, level of general distress Activity- vigor of movement, fidgety nature Sociability- responsiveness to other people, ease of making friends

 Impulsivity- ability to control behavior, later dropped o Kagan  Neural bases of differences in:  Emotions  Behavioral tendencies  Research  Observe behaviors in lab settings Infants (4 months)

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Presented infants with novel stimuli o Voice of stranger talking o Balloon popping  Results o Low reactivity: calm, laid back o High reactivity: strong negative reactions to novel stimuli Children (4.5, 8 yrs old)  Presented with novel stimuli o Flashing lights, stranger in costume  

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High reactive infants greater fear responses at ages 4.5 & 8 Some changes: role of environment

Temperament profiles  Inhibited temperament (high reactive)- react to novel stimuli with  Restraint, avoidance, distress  More time needed to relax in new situations  More unusual fears  Timid, cautious  Uninhibited temperament (low reactivity)  Likes unfamiliar situations  Responds with laughter, smiling to novelty Temperament in adulthood  Adults categorized as inhibited vs. uninhibited children  Presented with novel stimuli 

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fMRI to note active brain activity (amgydala) Inhibited children have much more active amygdala compared to uninhibited

Evolutionary psychology  Need to belong o Universal need seen across cultures, time

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 Chances for survival, reproduction o Social ostracism  Akin to physical pain  Evolutionary alarm Evolved psychological mechanisms o Help solve problems important to reproductive success  Social behaviors o Domain specific  Fear for certain stimuli  Specific adaptive emotions (jealousy) 

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Participants asked to predict distress from sexual vs. emotional infidelity  60% of male sample: greater distress from sexual infidelity  83% of female sample: greater distress from emotional infidelity Proposed evolutionary explanations  Woman‟s “mate value” o Reproductive capacity

Youth Markers of fertility Chastity  Paternal probability  Man‟s “mate value” o Resources  Earning capacity  Ambition o Causes of jealousy: counterevidence   

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Question format unrealistic Participants asked to rate reaction to:  Sexual infidelity  Not at all upset.... Extremely upset  Emotional infidelity Sex differences no longer present  Both upset more by sexual infidelity

Evolutionary theory and the big five  Goldberg: Lexical hypothesis o “OCEAN” from desire to categorize important behaviors o Value of recognizing people who are  Responsive, dependable (vs. unreliable)  Agreeable (vs. disagreeable)  Emotionally stable (vs. unstable) o Consistent focus on certain traits Trait terms in lexicon  Sex differences in the big five o Big five traits in men and women across 55 nations  More and less developed, egalitarian o Findings  Women higher on: neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness  Male-female differences greater in:  More developed countries, more egalitarian countries Evolutionary theory 

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Strengths o Explanation for:  Behaviors  Social structures  Culture Limitations o Humans not bound by evolutionary influences o Not enough focus on environment

11/4/13 Genetics  Behavioral genetics o Influence on genes on:  Cognitive ability, personality, interests o Interaction between genes and environment o Cognitive ability

Most inherited Males in Denmark  Correlations for full siblings  Reared apart: .47  Reared together: .52  Correlations for adoptive siblings  Reared together: .02  Strong influence of environment in children o Specific mental abilities  Evidence for less influence of heredity for:  

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Verbal ability, spatial ability, perceptual speed, memory

o Interests  Occupational interests  Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional  Somewhat weaker genetic influence and stronger environmental influence compared to personality o Gene- Environment interactions 

Shared vs. non-shared environments  Shared environment  Shared by siblings in the same family  Non-shared environments  Unique experiences not shared by members in the same family  Differential treatment from parents  Which is more important in personality development? Non-shared  

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Indications that non-shared environmental influences much stronger than shared Variance explained  Genetic factors 40%  Non-shared environments 35%  Shared environments 5% Does not mean within family experiences unimportant

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 Focus on experience of individual Environmental effects  Significant differential treatment of siblings o Much of this due to genetic characteristics of child  Again, importance of unique experiences of child o Phenomenological experience rather than objective events  Difficulty in measurement

o Measurement error Three nature-nurture interactions  1. Environment affects individuals differently based on genetic makeup (passive)  E.g. conscientious vs. lazy child and intelligent parents  2. People with certain genetic makeup bring forth different responses from environment (evocative)  E.g. “difficult” baby may cause different reactions in parent compared to “easy” baby  3. People choose, create different environments based on genetic makeup  E.g. extravert‟s choice of hobbies, friends compared to introvert‟s Research methods  3 main research methods in genetics  1. Selective breeding studies o Animals with desired trait mated Create separate strain  Study behavior  Manipulate environmental experiences  Separate genetic vs. environmental influences on behavior 2. Twin studies 

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o Monozygotic (MZ0 vs. Dizygotic (DZ) twins  MZ twins genetically identical  DZ twins share 50% of genes o Genetic influence  High: MZ twins more similar than DZ twins  Low: MZ and DZ twins similar o MZ twins reared apart  Evidence of genetic influence MZ twins raised together not more similar with regard to personality traits 3. Adoption studies o Individual raised by adoptive parents o Genetic influence  Biological siblings 

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Neuroscience o Influence of  Specific parts of the brain  Neurotransmitters  Hormones o Hemispheric dominance  Depressed people: decreased left brain activity  Inhibited children: greater activity in right hemisphere  Uninhibited children: greater activity in left hemisphere o Role of neurotransmitter Dopamine  “Feel good” chemical  Associated with pleasure  Cocaine as imitation  Serotonin  SSRIs and depression o Neurotransmitters and emotionality  Model of emotionality 

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1. Negative emotionality  High NE individuals o Higher levels of negative emotions o Environment seen as:  Threatening, problematic, distressing o Report feelings of:  Fear, sadness, anger, guilt, disgust  Low NE individuals o Calm, emotionally stable, selfsatisfied  Neurobiology o Low levels of serotonin in high NE  Depression, anxiety, OCD behaviors, negative view of environment 2. Positive Emotionality  High PE individuals

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o Higher levels of positive emotions, sociable, energetic, cheerful, enthusiastic o Report feelings of  Joy, interest, attentiveness, excitement, pride Low PE individuals o Reserved, low energy, low confidence Neurobiology

o Association with dopamine o Relationship to left hemispheric dominance 3. Disinhibition vs. Constraint  Manner of regulating emotions  High DvC individuals o Impulsive, reckless, focus on feelings in the moment

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 Aggression, drug use o Possible relationship with testosterone  Competitiveness, aggression Neurotransmitters and love o High dopamine, low levels of serotonin, high levels of aggression o In love but rejected  Recently rejected participants  fMRI to study brain activity

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o Behaviors  Lower grades, lower job performance ratings, higher alcohol drug consumption o Night owls Low DvC individuals o Careful, more focused on future, avoid risk, morning people Neurobiology o Association with serotonin

 Picture of rejecter  Fillers Activation in brain regions associated with:  Craving, emotion regulation, addiction Greater understanding of irrational, obsessive behaviors Decrease in activation with time

Plasticity o Changes in biology o Monkey leaders and serotonin- serotonin levels change when become a leader (higher levels) o Aggression and testosterone  Lower testosterone levels after:  Losing at sports, being fan of losing team

11/6/13 Antecedents of behaviorism  Darwin

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o Link between animals and humans  Rise of animal psychology George Romanes o Introspection by analogy (using what we know about our thinking to infer behavior or what animals are thinking) o Comparative psychology C. Lloyd Morgan o Morgan‟s Canon o Limit introspection by analogy to mammals o Comparative psychology closer to experimental science Edward L. Thorndike o Influenced by Morgan o Cats in puzzle-boxes  Reward for escape  Trial and error for effective behaviors  These animals don‟t have insight  Rules out reasoning  Interested in learning and adaptive advantages  Law of effect

 Law of reinforcement  Instrumental learning Behaviorism: View of the person  Analogous to machine o Mechanisms to be studied  Determinism o Contrast to free will Behaviorism: View of personality  Causal influence of environment on individual

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o No interest in internal factors o Focus on environment‟s impact Understanding of people built on lab research o People o Animals Environmental determinism o Human behavior guided by laws  Behavior causes by environmental factors

 Comparable to rock thrown in air o Individuals‟ thoughts, feelings all caused by environment  Selection of major  Selection of classes  Beginning, ending relationships Research methods  Environmental manipulation o Manipulate individual variables  Influence on behavior o Study only observable factors

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 Contrast to other theories  Behaviorists: other theories too speculative, unscientific Simple systems strategy o Simpler system than area of research o Reasons:  Complexity of environment  Unethical to conduct certain tests  E.g. airplane‟s reaction to certain elements  E.g. drug testing 

E.g. experiments on addiction

Theories of learning  Pavlov‟s Classical conditioning/Skinner‟s Operant conditioning o 2 Complementary theories  Foundation of behaviorism o Mid-20th century: predominant school of thought  John Watson o Founder of behaviorism  Research with animals  Classes in neurology, physiology  Philosophy then psychology o Examined how rats travel through mazes  Explored the significance of the kinesthetic sense o “Behaviorist manifesto”  Call for:  New methodology, new topic of study  End focus on:

Immediate conscious experience, selfobservation, internal perception, introspection  “The time seems to have come when psychology must discard all reference to consciousness”  Watson‟s psychology begins with:  Organisms‟ adjustment to environment  Certain stimuli certain responses o Little Albert Experiment  Report on conditioned emotional reactions in Little Albert 

Conclusion  Fears as conditioned emotional reactions  NOT from unconscious or other areas o Watson- most famous American psychologist of 20th century  Forced to resign from scandal  Went on to career in advertising and business Ivan Pavlov o Studied digestive system, salivary responses of dogs  Placed food powder in mouth, measured resulting 

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salivation  After several trials, dogs began to salivate in response to:  Sight of food dish  Approach of researcher o Classical conditioning  Unconditioned stimulus elicits unconditioned response  During conditioning  Neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned 

 

stimulus to elicit conditioned response Generalization  Reponses to similar stimuli  E.g. salivation to other noises Discrimination  Animal learns which CS lead to UCS Extinction

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CS presented without UCS animal no longer responds to CS

11/11/13 Behaviorism  Psychopathology o Explained in terms of learned response patterns  Individuals not sick or diseased o Failure to learn proper responses

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 Behavioral deficit  E.g. social inadequacies o Learning of maladaptive responses Conditioned emotional reactions o Little Albert  Combination of white rat+ loud noise  Rat fear  Conditioned emotional reaction  Generalization of fear o Watson and Rayner- fears as conditioned emotional reactions  Contrast to psychodynamic explanations o Psychopathology and treatment  Psychopathology not internal  Abnormal behavior from maladaptive environments  Treatments  Provide new environment  Learn different, more adaptive behaviors  Want to extinguish (unlearn) abnormal anxiety 

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Effectiveness for:  Phobias  OCD  PTSD Systematic desensitization  Relaxation training: remain calm through regulation of breathing, bodily sensations  Go through fear hierarchy

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o Feared situations from least to most fearful  Disconnect association between hierarchical levels and fear through new connection Flooding  Prolonged exposure to feared object or situation OCD  Exposure and response prevention: have thoughts without performing compulsive rituals

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PTSD  Prolonged exposure through imagining o Weaken link between actual trauma and things that cause anxiety

Skinner and operant conditioning  Interest in building things  Initially waned to become a writer  

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Became interested in Pavlov‟s, Watson‟s work Harvard o Animal behavior  Explanation based on environment Personality structure o Behavior as result of environment  Change in situation Change in behavior o No need for stable personality structure  Non-scientific Skinner‟s behaviorism o Learning in animals o Skinner boxes o Rejected the notion of intervening variables o Operant conditioning  Contrast to Pavlov: stimulus- response  Instead, consequence- behavior  Focused on:

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Positive and negative reinforcement  Positive- give something pleasurable likelihood of behavior being repeated goes up  Negative- take away something unpleasurable likelihood of behavior being repeated goes up Positive and negative punishment  Positive- give something unpleasurable likelihood of behavior being repeated goes

down  Negative- take away something pleasurable likelihood of behavior being repeated goes down Focused on:  Shaping  Acquisition  Extinction  Schedules of reinforcement

o Skinner as inventor  WWII: Project Pigeon  1940‟s: Baby tender  1950‟s: Teaching machine o Growth and development  Increasing number of responses learned from reinforcement experiences  Parents should pay attention to which behaviors are reinforced  

 Most effective: reinforce good behavior No reference to specific stages Behavior change  Token economy  Desirable behaviors rewarded  Rewards exchanged for desired goods  Used in schools, hospitals  Evidence for short-term effectiveness

Behaviorism: evaluation  1. Scientific observations o Strengths  Systematic research major part of behaviorism  Information not based on speculation  Limitations  Limited database  Information primarily from animals  Humans have capabilities not shared with animals o Language o Reason about past o Plan for future Overlooked phenomenological issues

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 2. Systematic nature o Strengths  Extremely systematic  Various phenomena explained through one system  Behaviors in response to reinforcement  Learning of responses  Response persistence o Limitations  Not enough information about other areas  Internal processes 3. Testability o Testable in lab o More difficult in real world 4. Comprehensiveness o Extremely comprehensive o Skinner (1953)  Behaviorist principles applied to:  Analysis of individual, group behavior  Government, laws  Psychotherapy  Economic  Education

 

Culture

5. Applications o Not enough information regarding differences between people, animals o However, many application seen today  Token economy  Variable reinforcement schedules

11/13/13 George Kelly  Early work in Kansas public schools  Examination of teachers‟ referrals o Construct systems/ interpretation of environment o E.g. teacher‟s complaint that student is lazy  Kelly observed  Behaviors of child  Teacher‟s perception/ interpretation  No absolute truth o “Reality” can be reconstructed Kelly‟s Personality theory  “Truth” vs. Utility o Search for “truth” o Kelly‟s view- utility  Tools for prediction  Different theories as different viewpoints  Constructive alternativism 

 No one “correct” theory Kelly‟s beliefs o Too much emphasis on measurement  No traits within people that need to be measured  Role of psychologists as statisticians  Statisticians vs. experts on mind  Role of clinical methods  Emphasis on important issues

  

Understand people Work on problems

View of person o Person as a scientist  Constructs used to predict events  Whether or not we will succeed at certain goals  What might help us achieve these goals  Theory development/ hypothesis testing  Weigh evidence from the past  People focused on future People actively  Think about environment  Think about selves and others  Can alter theories to make new predictions  Change point of view  Modify assumptions Kelly: fundamental corollary o A person‟s thoughts, feelings, behaviors and actions are psychologically affected by the ways in which they anticipate 

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events  A person lives his life by expecting what comes next and the only information we have about what comes next comes from the constructs we create for ourselves Personal constructs o Categories to help us make sense of world  Individual categories  Difference in  Types of categories  When certain categories used  E.g. mother who fusses over child  “Attentive”  “Overbearing”  Understanding of individual o Built from previous experiences o Used to gain new knowledge o Interpretation of environment

Cognitive processes  Categorization  Attributions  Predictions  Bring order to environment o Individual predicts events by noticing patterns o Necessary elements  Similarity pole  Contrast pole  E.g. kind/cruel construct 

o Need similarity/ contrast comparison  Cannot fully understand individual‟s construct without both  E.g. “respectful”  Need individual‟s views of “respectful actions” = “disrespectful actions” for full understanding  Provides information regarding individual‟s idea of construct  E.g. supportive- cold vs. supportive- unreliable 

o Used to interpret events in environment + anticipate future Construct systems and applications o Construct systems  Core constructs  Integral to functioning  E.g. religious beliefs  “Sinful/ holy”  Peripheral constructs  Less important Can be changed without affecting individual‟s core structure  E.g. views regarding art o “Creative/ uncreative” Hierarchical organization  Differences in breadth, inclusiveness Superordinate constructs  Broadest 

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 Most inclusive  E.g. nice/ not nice  Subordinate constructs  More narrow  More specific  E.g. good math student/ poor math student o Failure to communicate between  Clinical health professionals  Hospital managers  Due to different background experiences, training, language  Clinician, managers asked to describe  Culture  “Ideal clinician” and “ideal manager”  Discussions between clinicians and managers  Reveal constructs regarding common values  Similarities in constructs  Increased communication o Personality assessment 

Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test  Two steps  Role Title List o Names of people who fulfill different roles (20-30) o “Elements”  Construct elicitation o 3 people selected o How are two of them alike? Different

from the third?  Learn about test taker based on categorization  E.g. “shy/outgoing” construct  How individual views/interprets important individuals o Personality process  Activity directed toward more accurate predictions of future events

Experiences individual notices similarities, contrast construct development  Constructs used to predict future events  Tested repeatedly  Modified, developed with experience  Desire for validation of construct system o Psychopathology  Maintenance of poorly functioning construct system  People stick with construct system to avoid  Anxiety 

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 Current construct system not applicable  Threat  Feeling that imminent change in core construct(s) is about to occur Treatment  Focus on changing personal construct system  Improve predictions through better constructs  Some constructs replaced, some added,  

some dropped Goal: help client create more efficient construct system Personality sketch  New person for client to “try out”  Aid in expansion of construct system  Client becomes new person o Behaviors o Thoughts 

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o Communication with others New person different from client o Catalyst for changes in construct system o Safe way to try out new personality Goal: client reconstructs self o Experimentation with constructs o Changes in constructs

o Construct system that makes more accurate predictions 

Culture o Symbols  US- eagle, flag  Baruch- bearcat  NYC- taxi, empire state, MTA, statue of liberty o Rituals  US- pledge of allegiance o Beliefs/assumptions 

US- freedom

TEST #3 11/20/13 Focus of Social-Cognitive theory  1. Cognitive processes as main focus  2. Influence of social environment on cognitive development Critique of previous theories  Psychoanalysis o Too much emphasis on unconscious  Conscious processes more important o Too much focus on early childhood  Individuals can continue to develop  Trait theory o Average personality tendencies not personality  Variability also informative 

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Evolutionary psychology o Cannot explain changes over time  E.g. Current presence of women in the workplace Behaviorism o Too much emphasis on external rewards/ punishments  Individuals have some control  Importance of thinking capabilities  Human agency

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Learned behavior without reward/ punishments

Albert Bandura  Learning theory  Rigorous experimental testing  Familial influences on aggression in children  Focus on “self processes” o Goal o Self- evaluation o Beliefs about one‟s own abilities 

Influence on personal agency o Includes social factors  E.g. SES Walter Mischel  1965 Peace Corps project o Global trait measures: poor predictor of performance o Skepticism regarding trait theory, psychoanalysis  1968 Personality and Assessment o Challenged psychoanalysis, trait theory o Person- situation controversy- which is more important? View of the person  Three essential qualities of people o 1. Reason using language o 2. Thoughts about present, past and future o 3. Self-reflection  Fundamental aspects of personality  Focus on:

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o Individuals‟ ability to overcome environmental influences o Control over animalistic impulses Humans as: o Active, aware, problem solving, benefit from experiences, mental capabilities Not just about habits, traits, environment, genes

View of science of personality

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 

Reliance on advances in o Developmental, social, cognitive psychology o Neuroscience o Other areas of science Emphasis on individuals Focus on practical applications o Need tools to benefit humankind

Personality Structure  Components (Cognitive Affective Units) o 1. Competencies and skills  Individual differences based on differing abilities to perform certain types of behaviors  E.g. extraverts  E.g. conscientious people  Problem solving  Different ways to analyze problems  Behavioral skills to execute solutions  Two types of knowledge Declarative- facts that individual knows and is aware of  Procedural- performance, unable to describe precisely Implications  Context specificity  Different situations call upon different competencies, skills  Contrast to trait theories 

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Psychological change  Competency acquisition possible o 2. Beliefs and expectancies  Beliefs regarding what world is like + expectations about what may happen in the future  Expectations about  Other people  Potential rewards/ punishments 

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 Self Contrast to behaviorism  Behavior caused by reinforcements, punishments from environment Social cognitive theory  People‟s expectations about potential rewards, punishments  Focus on expectations  Explanations for why different people behave differently in same environment Perceived self efficacy  Beliefs regarding abilities to perform certain actions (in the present and future)  Self efficacy is Not  Self esteem o Overall, “global” evaluation of worth  Outcome expectations o Can know likely outcome of behaviors but not feel capable of performing

 



them  E.g. chemical engineering major Greater influence of self efficacy on behaviors Self efficacy and behaviors  High self efficacy o Try difficult tasks o Maintain effort o Calm during performance o Organize thoughts analytically, coherently  Low self efficacy o Not attempt activities o Give up easily o Exhibit anxiety during performance o Rattled in thoughts Potential negative impact  Self efficacy and self doubt

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o Less motivation Vancouver and Kendall o Measures  Self-efficacy (anticipated grade)  Planned and actual resource allocation (study time)  Performance (grades) o Results  Within persons: higher self efficacy associated with: Less planned and actual study time  Lower performance o Discrepancies from goals and resource allocation o Implications for self efficacy training 

o 3. Goals  Aim of behaviors  Individuals

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 Imagine future  Set goals  Direct behaviors to help achieve goals Goals  Guide priorities  Help individuals decide between situations  Guide organization of behaviors  Organized hierarchically  Flexible

Proximal vs. Distal goals  Proximate goal- closer in time o E.g. good grades on quizzes o E.g. losing 1 lb. this week  Distal goals- far in the future o E.g. getting into good grad school o E.g. losing 50 lbs. in 6 months o 4. Evaluative standards 

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Standard  Criteria for judging whether person, thing, or event is good vs. bad Evaluative standards about self  Internalized personal standards used to rate behaviors  E.g. term paper Judgments regarding “moral” vs. “immoral” behaviors  Moral disengagement  Temporarily “disengaging” from moral

standards in certain situations Nature of personality structures o Not “things” in people‟s minds o Ways of thinking that interact to form personality o Personality too complex to be described by scores  Individuals have many different goals, beliefs, standards, skills  Change across time

11/25/13 Personality Process  Addressed in 2 ways o 1. General theoretical principles  Reciprocal determinism  Bandura  Cause and effect  3 factors involved in behavior

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 Individual  Behavior  Environment Mutual influence between 3 forces (reciprocal determinants) Conversation with person you find attractive  Behaviors  Influence of environment

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 Influence of personality structure  Too simplistic to say behavior stems from solely internal (psychodynamic, trait theories) or external (behaviorism) forces  Reciprocal interactions of behaviors, environment and personality characteristics Cognitive- affective personality system (CAPS)  Personality as system  3 features  1. Cognitive and emotional variables and

 

complex interactions between them o Goals, competencies and skills, expectancies, evaluative standards and reactions  2. Situational features specific aspects of personality system activated  3. Therefore, people‟s behavior will differ from one situation to another Personality system as a whole system If... then... Profile Analysis  Individual‟s behavior observed in various situations o Measure systematic differences  If... then...  Children observed at summer camp o Responses to various situations  Teasing by peer  Praise from adult  Punishment from adult o Results  Evidence of distinctive, stable personality profiles  Different reactions to different situations o Different profiles based on individual‟s behaviors in specific situations

 Behavioral signatures o Captures more info regarding unique patterns than global measures  2 people with identical global anxiety score o 2. Key psychological functions  1. Attainment of new knowledge, skills  Observational learning  Learning from observing model o Bandura, Internal mental representations  Basic skills  Acceptable vs. unacceptable o More complex than just imitation or mimicry o Influence of reality tv  Issues- gossiping as normal part of relationships between girls 78% of viewers agreed, vs/

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54%  Difficulty of trusting other girls 63% of viewers vs. 50% of nonviewers  Respect though meanness 37% of viewers vs. 25% Acquisitions vs. Performance o Acquisition  Learning (with or without reinforcers)  Does not necessarily lead to behavior o Performance  More dependent on reinforcement, punishment

o Bandura- three groups of children watched model aggress against Bobo doll  Group 1 Model‟s aggressive behavior was rewarded with candy, praise  Group 2 Model‟s aggressive behavior was punished with reproach  Group 3 Model‟s aggressive 

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behavior had no consequence Children taken to room full of toys  Stage 1- No incentive condition (children left alone in room with toys, including Bobo doll)  Stage 2- Incentive Vicarious learning

Learning responses by observing model‟s  Rewards, punishments, reactions (phobias) o Use of acquired knowledge and skills o Focus on thinking processes  Personal expectations  Goals o Self-regulation 

Guidance od behavior toward goals o Involvement of personality structures  Setting goals  Evaluating behavior against standards  Self-efficacy  Emphasis on foresight 

Anticipation of satisfaction vs. dissatisfaction when goal is met vs. not met  Individuals as proactive  Set own standards, goals 2. Controlling action, emotion  Self control and delay of gratification  Need to do/ complete something o Importance of  Goals 

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 Standards for performance  Self-efficacy o Need to step or prevent behavior for some future outcome  Delay of gratification Cognitive processes used to control impulses Mischel o Marshmallow test o Factors influencing task performance  Cognitive strategies to distract from rewards  Think of marshmallows as non-food object  Mental image of reward as photos o Focus on cognitive representations, NOT actual rewards

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Contrast to behaviorism o Capacity for self-control o Same rewards, with different cognitive representations Delay of gratification- implications o Preschoolers delay of gratification scores compared to cognitive skills and social competence in adolescence

Parental ratings of cognitive, self control skills  SAT scores o Positive correlation between measures of delay and cognitive, social abilities Motivations and self-regulation 

 12/2/13 Benefit of goals 

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Performance generally higher with goal (vs. no goals) o Children and sit-ups o Sales o Archery o Weight loss Importance of types of goals o Difficulty  Increases effort and persistence o Specificity 

Increases attention and planning  Person works with focus and energy

Types of goals  Mastery vs. performance goals o Group project  Desire to learn about  Research designs  Data analysis techniques  Implications of research  Desire to  Demonstrate intelligence, competence  Avoid embarrassment  Make good impression o Mastery goal orientation  Develop competence, mastery  Find better ways to perform tasks

o Performance goal orientation  Concerned about competence compared to others  Performance approach vs. avoid  Performance-approach: demonstrate competence  Performance-avoid: avoid demonstration of incompetence o Causes  Implicit theories regarding human attributes  Theories regarding changeable nature of attributes  Entity theory 

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Abilities seen as fixed, so activities= chance to demonstrate ability  More likely to set performance goals  “Helpless” motivational pattern Incremental theory  Abilities as changeable, so activities= chance to increase ability  More likely to set mastery goals  “Mastery” motivational pattern

o Implications/Outcomes  Goal orientation and outcome  Mastery goal orientation  “I want to learn as much as possible from this class”  Higher levels of intrinsic motivation o “I think this class is interesting” o “I‟m enjoying this class very much”  No association with graded performance 

Performance goal orientation  Performance-approach o “It is important to me to do better than the other students” o No association with intrinsic motivation o Positive relationship with graded performance

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Performance-avoid o “I often think to myself, „What if I do badly in this class?‟” o Lower intrinsic motivation o Lower graded performance

Goals: feedback and standards  Goal setting increased performance ONLY with feedback o Information regarding progress  Need for goals+ feedback 

Emotional meaningfulness of goals+ feedback o Goal attainment, positive feedback  Satisfaction  Sense of competence  More difficult goals o Goal failure, negative feedback  Dissatisfaction  Awareness of discrepancy  Greater effort

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Standards of evaluation o Desire A in class, but think B- is best you can get  How do you feel?  Anxious and tense?  Depressed and disappointed? o Same goals evaluated with different standards  Getting “A” as either ideal or responsibility  Different standards different emotions o Self-discrepancy  

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Negative emotions from discrepancy between actual self vs. personal standard Discrepancy between actual vs. ideal self (related to promotion focus)  Sad, dejected, disappointed Discrepancy between actual vs. ought self (related to prevention focus)  Anxious, agitated, worried

Goal pursuit- regulatory focus  Achieving “A” for class  “A” as ideal o Approach ideal through  Going to library to study  Reading, learning more about material  “A” as responsibility o Avoid failing at responsibility by:  Attending every class  Not doing other things that may distract from this 

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responsibility Regulatory focus- ways in which individuals pursue goals o Promotion focus- sensitive to presence/absence of positive outcomes  Rewards, accomplishments  Approach as strategic means  Move toward ideals  Higher motivation, performance when potential benefits/ rewards highlighted o Prevention focus- sensitive to presence/absence of negative outcomes  Punishment, failure  Avoidance as strategic means  Avoid at failing at responsibility  Higher motivation, performance when potential losses highlighted Measuring regulatory focus o Promotion focus    

I often think about the person I would ideally like to be in the future I often imagine myself experiencing good things that I hope will happen to me I frequently imagine how I will achieve my hopes and aspirations I often think about the person I would ideally like to be in the future

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o Prevention focus  In general, I am focused on preventing negative events in my life  I am anxious that I will fall short of my responsibilities and obligations  I frequently think about how I can prevent failures in my life  My major goal in school right now is to avoid becoming an academic failure Goal pursuit: getting started o Goals  Problems form lack of planning  Role of implementation intentions  Plans to overcome possible problems  Getting started, persisting, finishing  Protection from failure  Implementation intentions  Plan for goal striving  When where and for how long Connection between behavior and situation Can lead to automatic performance Advance planning of when and where  Self-examinations  Eating healthy  Taking vitamins Persisting  Problematic circumstances  Distractions   

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 Interruptions Solutions  Goal shielding o “Forgetting” other goals  Self-regulatory “muscle” o Exercise o Rest and replenishment  Implementation intentions

o Plan for ignoring/dealing with distractions o Re-engagement after interruption  Letter writing o Importance of goal+ implementation intentions 12/4/13 Cognitive Personality variables  Variables

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o Competencies and skills o Individual‟s beliefs and expectancies regarding self, environment o Aims and goal o Evaluative standards Important characteristics o Socially acquired o Enduring How do we interpret and make sense of everything? o Incoming information from environment o Aspects of self

Schemas  Problem: too much information o Content on slides o My voice o Noises from outside the classroom o What people around you are doing

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o What you did last night o What you have to do after class o What you‟re missing on TV Knowledge structures to help organize information o Make sense of incoming stimuli o Guide, organize information processing o Information about  Person

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Object Event (scripts)

Scripts o Participants asked to assemble first date scripts  Man arrives  Woman greets man at door  Woman introduces him to parents or roommate  Discuss plans and make small task  They go to a movie  They get something to eat or drink  Man takes woman home  In interested, he remarks about a future date  They kiss o People with more dating experience arranged them faster

Schemas  Aid our memory  Provide clarity in ambiguous situations  Helps us make predictions about the world  Office Stuff Schema o Good memory for:  Items consistent with schema  Desk  Chair o Poor memory for:  Infrequent items consistent with schema  Bulletin board o False memory for things:  Frequent items consistent with schema but absent  

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Books

Memory errors o “Typical” offices o “Typical” restaurant visits o “Typical” kitchens o “Kind” friend Self-schemas o Generalized informational structure about self

Guide, organize information processing in new situations Different content for different people Desire for consistency Self-confirming biases  Schemas consistent information receives biased:  Attention  Memory  Judgment regarding veracity o Multiple self-schemas  Different views based on different situations o o o o

o Self-enhancement bias  Tendency to see self positively  E.g. bad grade on exam  Desire to keep positive self-image  Preference for positive feedback  Overestimation of skills, abilities  Comparison to “lesser” others o Self-verification  Desire to see self as consistent  

Seek information to confirm self-concept  E.g. extravert Applies to negative self-schemas  E.g. depressed individuals

Clinical applications  Common assumptions across different approaches o Cognitions feelings, behaviors o Cognitions specific to situations o Psychopathology from distorted cognitions about self, others,

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environment o Maladaptive cognitions problematic feeling, behaviors maladaptive cognitions o Therapy involves determining and fixing maladaptive cognitions o Unconscious less important Maladaptive cognitions

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o Arbitrary inference- negative inferences without proper evidence “Bob walked past me in the hallway without saying hi so he must hate me” o Overgeneralization- drawing conclusion about self from one negative event “I didn‟t do well in my stat class so I‟m a bad student” Magnification and minimization- overemphasize important of negatives, underemphasize important of positive Self-efficacy o Perceived inefficacy  Threatening situations anxiety  Rewarding situations depression o Depressed individuals  Excessively high standards  Failure to live up to standards  Low self-efficacy  Self blame  Even lower self-efficacy o Health 

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Influence of self-efficacy beliefs on health  Impact on health-related behaviors  Impact on physiological functioning  Protection against stress  Strengthening of immune system Stress and coping  Stress dependent on cognitions about self, environment  Occurs when individual views circumstances as:

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 Taxing  Beyond resources  Problematic to well-being Two-staged appraisal  Primary appraisal: whether or not threat exists  Secondary appraisal: whether or not threat can be overcome

o Evaluation of resources  Coping mechanisms  Problem-focused coping o Change features of situation  Emotion-focused coping o Change reactions, emotions  E.g. social support, meditation o Academic self-efficacy and outcomes  Measures of:  Academic self-efficacy  

 

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  High 

Optimism Challenge-threat  Level of demand pressure  Level of coping ability, available resources  Challenge= resources are more than demands  Threat= demands are more than resources Academic performance Stress Health Adjustment self-efficacy associated with Seeing academic demands as more of a challenge than threat  Because demands seen as more of a challenge (rather than a threat) o Lower levels of stress  Fewer health problems and

better adjustment o High academic expectations  Better academic performance High optimism associated with:  Self-efficacy academic demands seen as more of a challenge higher academic expectations better academic performance

 o Increasing  Four    

Challenge threat evaluations less stress fewer health problems and better adjustment self-efficacy factors affecting self-efficacy Direct mastery Modeled mastery Verbal encouragement Reactions to physiological experiences

12/9/13 Outcomes: expectancies and beliefs  Perceived control o Judgment regarding perceived control over  Achieving desirable outcomes  Preventing negative outcomes o Strong personal control beliefs link between behaviors and outcomes o Weak control beliefs behaviors unrelated to outcomes 

Learned helplessness o Outcomes  Controllable vs. uncontrollable o Helplessness from expectation that behaviors  Will not increase positive outcomes  Will not decrease negative outcomes o Animals  Dogs  Phase 1 

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Group 1 o Randomly received shock and inescapable  Group 2 o Randomly received escapable shock  Group 3 o No shocks (control group) Phase 2

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Inescapable shock in phase 1, received escapable shocked failed to escape from shock  Escapable shock in phase 1 quickly learned to escape shock by jumping over barrier  Control quickly learned to escape shock o Situation in which organism feels it has no control over environment, future  Learned helplessness  Apathy  Give up o Humans  Parallel findings in humans  Presentation of irritating noise  Inescapable noise  Escapable noise  No noise Social cognitive theory applications 

Beck o o o

and depression Former psychoanalyst Best known for treatment of depression Difficulties from  Automatic thought  Dysfunctional assumptions  Negative self-statements o Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)  0 I do not feel sad  1 I feel sad  2 I am sad all the time and can‟t snap out of it o Depression  Cognitive triad  Negative views about  Self  World  Future

o Explanatory style  Relatively stable trait  Manner in which bad (and good) events are explained  Optimistic vs. pessimistic explanatory style  Optimistic  Bad events seen as o External o Unstable o Limited in certain areas o More likely to be controllable in the

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future  Credit for successes  Delusional to an extent, but beneficial Pessimistic  Bad events as o Internal o Stable o Pervasive  More likely to be uncontrollable in the future

 Give up in the face of failure  Negative outcomes Psychotherapy: therapeutic change o Identify, correct distorted cognitions  E.g. arbitrary inference, magnification and minimization  Teach patient to  Pay attention to automatic thoughts  Recognize the impact of these thoughts on feelings and behaviors Try to find evidence for and against these cognitions  Try to replace maladaptive cognitions with more realistic interpretations  Also used for other issues  E.g. anxiety, marital problems o Change process  Acquire new ways of thinking, behaving 

Generalizing new patterns Acquisition through  Modeling  Watching models demonstrating behaviors  Guided mastery  Performs behaviors with guidance from therapist o Other psychopathology  Subjects with snake phobia  1st group- Watch therapist model behaviors, then  

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perform behaviors themselves  2nd group- Watch therapist model behaviors  3rd group- control, no snake Behavioral avoidance test Results  Highest degree of change, increases in selfefficacy when subjects perform behavior  Higher self-efficacy associated with greater likelihood of performing task

Social cognitive Evaluation  1. Basis in Scientific observation o Strong database of scientific evidence  Lab studies  Correlational studies  Longitudinal studies  Clinical studies  Diverse range of participants  Various research methods

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 Self-reports  Parental, peer ratings  Observations 2. Systematic nature o Not as systematic as other theories  No overarching structure to tie together all elements o Does not provide simple, comprehensive description of “whole person”

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 Contrast to trait theories 3. Testability o Highly testable o Clearly defined constructs o Measurement tools o Experimental methods 4. Comprehensiveness o Extremely comprehensive o Address issues such as  Motivation  Development  Self-concept  Self-control  Behavioral change  Skills and competences o Limitations  Not enough focus on  Biological forces  Interaction between temperament and social 

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experience Other concepts such as alienation, existential concerns about death

5. Applications o Applied to various social problems o 2 reasons  No separation between “basic” and “clinical” research  Books written to guide other psychologists who used knowledge to advance applications

12/11/13 “Flip side” of biological basis Focus on influence of  Interpersonal relationships o Strength of influence o Two-way nature of relationships  Reciprocal influence

Variables to consider  Personality characteristics lead to harmful vs. helpful behaviors  Personality characteristics that lead to positive vs. negative interpretations of behaviors  Impact on relationship outcomes  Satisfaction  Happiness o Rejection sensitivity  Manner of thinking about relationships 

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Expectation of rejection  Rumination, anxiety Influence on behaviors  During conflict  After conflict Self-fulfilling prophecy Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire  Participants presented with potential requests  Ask boyfriend to move in with you

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 Ask someone out on a date  Ask a friend to do you a big favor Rate  Likelihood of rejection  Anxiety if rejected High rejection sensitivity  High likelihood of rejection  High anxiety Impact of reject sensitivity  

Time 1: Participants given Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire Time 2: Participants who had started relationship after Time 1 o Asked to interpret ambiguous situations  E.g. boyfriend spends less time with you

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Results o Higher rejection sensitivity related to greater likelihood of inferring hostile intent Rejection Sensitivity  Long term influence on relationships  Women high in rejection sensitivity  Lower perceived accepting behaviors (after conflict) o “My partner made me feel wanted” 

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Higher perceived partner withdrawal (after conflict) o “My partner was inattentive and unresponsive toward me”  More negative behaviors (during conflict) o Put downs o Hostile voice tone o Denying responsibility for problem HRS women‟s partners    

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Higher dissatisfaction (after conflict) More thoughts of ending relationship (after conflict) More angry (after conflict) HRS women: anxiously expecting rejection behave in negative ways during conflict rejecting response from partner (elicited and perceived) HRS and breakup o Higher for both HRS men and HRS women Potential explanation for HRS women‟s behaviors o Self-verification bias: motivation to maintain consistency

Behave in ways to elicit responses in line with expectations o Overreaction to threat of rejection  Hostility from anger, pain, hopelessness o Analysis of cognitive processes when recalling events  Attention and outcomes  Rejection situation 

Hot focus: think about emotions  Cool focus: think about more neutral aspects Results:  Hot focus: anger, hostility  Cool focus: less angry Different attentional focus different psychological 

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experiences  Perhaps decreased “overreaction” Transference  Based in psychoanalytic theory o Transference in therapy  Current social-cognitive approach  Two facts about individuals‟ interpretations of people and events o 1. Thoughts and expectations about a person guided by o 

Meet o o

preexisting knowledge 2. Stored knowledge used to interpret event when knowledge overlaps with information in the situation being interpreted someone new who is similar to someone you know E.g. looks, mannerisms, hobbies Informational overlap knowledge about an individual in your past activated

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o Activated knowledge can influence thoughts and feelings toward new individual  E.g. assumption that new individual has other person‟s qualities Influence on: o Memory o Emotional reactions o Desires for relationships Contextual considerations o Influence of general personality characteristics not as

important as context-specific cognitions, reactions  Problems o E.g. job interview o Other examples? Personality development  Causes and effects o Lower class neighborhoods and psychological distress  E.g. anxiety, depression o Difficult to interpret

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 Psychological distress Lower SES  Lower SES psychological distress Dunedin Study o Data from 1000 people livng in Dunedin, NZ o Followed them for 30 years o Key findings  SES anxiety  Children from low SES anxious adolescents  Adolescents with lower education anxious adults 

Antisocial behaviors lower SES  Influence of academic failure

Persons in cultures  Two strategies o Personality..... and culture  Personality psychologist begins with ideas about human nature  Based in Western cultural norms

Supported by research findings in Western participants  Asks whether idea is supported by research in other cultures  Focus on generalizability Limitations  Lack of information in variables not prevalent in Western cultures  E.g. karma  Culture as secondary 

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Initial “culture-free” notion from psychologist o Assumption that this is possible o Adapted to account for cultural differences  Culture seen as supplementary o Culture and personality  Culture and personality both central to study of human nature Individuals develop through interactions with culture Implications  Cultures created by people  People created cultures  No culture0free personality, no person-free culture  Cultural psychology  Are there universal traits? 

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Does it matter?

8/28/2013 5:32:00 AM

8/28/2013 5:32:00 AM