EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIOS AND MANAGEMENT-(UDAC)
INNOVATIONS: MEANING, PRINCIPES AND CONDITIONS Meaning of ‘Innovation’:‘Innovation’ ‘Innovation’ is an idea or practice perceived as new by the adopter.
p roduct, approach or an action “Innovation” may refer to any new idea, product, plan. Need for Innovations in Education:There is always room for further improvement or refinement in everything created by man and education is no exception to this in education too, innovations are required to cope up with aspects of human life.(e.g. A graduate in Computer science has to continuously upgrade his knowledge and skill even after getting settle in a job, by undergoing training in oracle, java, visual, c++, Unix, graphics and animation etc).
Meaning of Educational Innovation:“Educational innovation is the tryout of a strategy or approach, developed
after systematic investigation so as to improve the process of education”. education”.
Educational innovation is the process of improving education by adopting newer techniques and strategies (which are so far unknown) in educational objectives, teaching – learning methods and materials, functions and functional relations, curricula as well as organizing new bodies.
INNOVATIONS: MEANING, PRINCIPES AND CONDITIONS Meaning of ‘Innovation’:‘Innovation’ ‘Innovation’ is an idea or practice perceived as new by the adopter.
p roduct, approach or an action “Innovation” may refer to any new idea, product, plan. Need for Innovations in Education:There is always room for further improvement or refinement in everything created by man and education is no exception to this in education too, innovations are required to cope up with aspects of human life.(e.g. A graduate in Computer science has to continuously upgrade his knowledge and skill even after getting settle in a job, by undergoing training in oracle, java, visual, c++, Unix, graphics and animation etc).
Meaning of Educational Innovation:“Educational innovation is the tryout of a strategy or approach, developed
after systematic investigation so as to improve the process of education”. education”.
Educational innovation is the process of improving education by adopting newer techniques and strategies (which are so far unknown) in educational objectives, teaching – learning methods and materials, functions and functional relations, curricula as well as organizing new bodies.
Innovation as a Change Process:Innovation Change in the existing practice another innovation Further change and improvement Following are the steps (Represented by the world IDEAS) that indicate the process how an innovation gets introduced an validated. I Identify the need for a change D Determine one or more practices (innovation) that may satisfy the need E Evaluation of the chosen practice on a trial basis A Activate the findings of the try out, i.e. Adopt or Reject the innovation or Modify and try again S Stimulate continuation of the process of innovation and change
Elements of Change Process:According to Havelock (1973) the change process consists of four elements or components. They are: 1. Resource system 2. Innovation 3. Communication channel 4. Adopter system
Resource System:Hence the generating system and the serving or linking system are together included in there source system. They are curricular knowledge and knowledge of psychology or the behavioral science. He should be equipped with the academic knowledge of innovations and the professional knowledge of change processes and strategies.
Innovation:‘Innovation’ is an idea idea or a practice perceived as new by by the adopter. It is
created or transmitted by the resource system and through communication, which is the medium for its transmission, reaches the adopter system which is the target of organization of change.
Characteristics of Innovations:Carl Rogers (1962) the eminent social psychologist and Shoemaker (1971), have identified five characteristics of innovations which are worth mentioning. They are: 1. Relative Advantage 2. Compatibility 3. Complexit6y 4. Tradability 5. Observability
Communication:Communication refers to conveying information from one person or party to another through some media. It is complex and important. Communication between the resource system and the adopters through different media is so as a result of their social interaction with others who either promote innovations or use them. Communication could be through the written media or oral presentations such as lectures, seminars, symposia, television, films, radio, recordings, mailing, demonstrations, programmed instructions and teaching machines.
Adopter System:It is the target organization or population for whom the innovation is meant. The adopter the innovation and puts into use. Any innovation, emerging from the resource system, through communication reaches the adopter System. In the case of educational innovations the communicative agents are teachers and the adopter system is the schools and the pupils. Several barriers to change are perceivable, The effectiveness of the adopter system and its process for innovations depends on many factors such as Individual characteristics Group characteristics Leadership behavior of the head and The organizational behavior of the institution which form the
characteristics of the target group.
Characteristics of Individuals in the Adopter System:Research studies show that persons who are conservative in their outlook and who haunted by fear of failure resist new practices. Re-education of teacher, in terms of change in their basis philosophy of life, should be undertaken before the school attempts to implement any educational innovative practice. Thus an individual’s social and psychological characteristics are important
determinants of the destiny of any innovative idea or practice.
Group Characteristics:Most of the educational innovations are applicable in group situations only. In cohesive groups, individual members conform to group norms. If an innovation requires deviations from the norm, the group members resist the change. The individual members’ interpersonal relationship, social integration and concern
over the behavior of innovative teachers also prove to be important elements which facilitate the adoption of an innovative idea or practice. Therefore warn social relations and cooperation are necessary between the innovator and the adopters.
Leadership:According to Fiedler (1957) the directive leadership is the most effective if the relation between the leader and the member is either very good or very bad.
Considerate and democratic leadership is found to be effective, in cases of moderate relationship.
Organizational Behavior:HALPIN AND Croft (1963) have identified six types of organizational climate prevailing in schools. They are I.
Open Climate: In schools with open climate all function independently and with interest towards the attainment of the goal set.
II.
Autonomous climate: In this type, activities and programmers generate from the generate from the group and not percolate from the top.
III.
Familial climate: Here without caring for the human concerns will be more
IV.
Controlled climate: Here without caring for the human concerns, task orientedness predominantly prevails.
V.
Closed Climate: In this, the head decides everything unilaterally and implements them ruthlessly. People serving in such organizations show little personal interest and devotion in their work. There may not be significant progress in achieving goals, resulting a kind of stagnation.
Trial Adoption and Testing:Any innovation developed by the creative people in the originating resource system reaches its ultimate destination known as ‘adopters’ through
communicative agents (The communicative measures may take the form of advertisements and business promotion strategies. In the educational field this may be in the form of advice reached out by educational authorities). As a result, the innovation may be accepted on a trial basis and put to test on a small scale (committing a small area or fewer number of adopter units).
Adaptation and Consolidation:Innovations which get through successfully the trial tests may require small alterations here and there, based on the feed back received to get consolidated and adopted fully for large-scale application. For example, to evaluate student achievement the usual practice is, an achievement test will be prepared by the teacher and administered on the students to get the responses of the students recorded.
Characteristics of creative people:Creativity, according to Guilford involves divergent thinking. Many research findings have established the face that creative people have high l.evel of divergent thinking and moderate level of intelligence (which is dominated by convergent thinking) The important characteristics of divergent or creative thinking, according to Guilford are: Sensitivity to problems Ideational Fluency Flexibility in thinking Originality
Intuitive leap Persistence Self confidence Seeking new relationships
Instructional Techniques to Promote Creativity: The best method of developing innovations and bringing changes is to foster creativity in children. Bruner as well as Suchman suggest the use of discovery and inquiry methods in teaching in order to foster creativity among children Wallack and Kogan believe that the game like, relaxed, untimed and evaluative situation is necessary for the fullest expression of creativity..
Conditions for the Emergence of Innovations:The four elements involved in the change process (resources system, inno0vation, communication, adopter system) and their nature have been discussed in 1:05 the basic components in all the four elements are Individuals Institutions Society
Principles of Educational Innovation: Following are the important principles that govern the educational innovations which are to be put into practice:
(i)
Aim
(ii)
Alternative
(iii)
Measurable
(iv)
Competencies
(v)
Advancement
(vi)
Prior Decision
(vii)
Needs
(viii) Learning Environment (ix)
Catering Individual differences
(x)
Growth and Development
Barriers to Educational Innovations:Innovations lead to change and there are barriers or impediments t change in any system, which should be overcome if the institution has to practice the innovation effectively. Barriers may be encountered in any or in all the lelments of the change process viz. Resource system communication and adopter system.
Barriers in the Resource System:The educational system in India is highly centralized and as such the role of the resource systems can hardly be over emphasized. The resource systems in education agencies refer to the offices of the Director of Education. Secondary, Higher Secondary and Matriculation Boards, State Text Book Societies, State Institutes of Education and others.
Barriers due to the Nature of the Innovation:Sometimes the very nature of an innovation proves to be a barrier ion introducing it in the educational practice. Some of the major to the one existing at present. (i)
Lack of Utility
(ii)
Lack in Scientific Nature
(iii)
Lack in Validity
(iv)
Complexity
(v)
Tribility
(vi)
Observability
Barriers in Communication:Communication between the systems and within the system needs to be looked into. The first one refers to communication between resource system and the school and between the different resource organizations. Between the systems, communication has three dimensions, namely, direction, frequency, and media. Regarding media usually the officials such as DEOs communicate in written or oral media. For Communicating innovations oral media such as seminars, symposia, demonstrations etc.
Barriers in the Adopter System:Barriers to change in the adopter system should be studied in relation to the organizational climate of the schools and the innovation management procedures followed. The social organization of the schools is the structural pattern of social its human aspect that the reference to the administrative and
professional background of the school. Form the studies pertaining to the principals: teacher, students, and organizational climate it is found that particular types of social organization facilitates the adoption of innovative practices and certain other types hinder the same.
Suggestions for the Promotion of Innovativeness among Students:The suggestions by Torrance (1962) for teacher – behavior designed to promote creativity and innovativeness in students are worth practicing. These valuable suggestions might be implemented in schools. They are as follows: Value creative thinking Make children more sensitive to environmental stimuli Encourage manipulation of objects and ideas Teach how to test each idea systematically Develop tolerance of new ideas Beware of forcing a set pattern Develop a creative classroom atmosphere Teach children to value their creative thinking Teach skills for avoiding peer sanction Give information about the creative process Dispel the sense of awe of masterpieces Encourage self-initiated learning. Create ‘thorns in the flesh’ Create necessity for creative thinking Provide for active and quiet periods
Make available resources for working out ideas
The kind of teacher who might be likely to stifile creativity is the one who is highly authoritarian, lacking initiative and class control. Other inhibitors of creativity, according to Hallman are listed below:1. Pressure to conform 2. Authoritarian attitudes an environment 3. Rigid teacher personality 4. Ridicule and sarcasm 5. Over emphasis on evaluation 6. Excessive quest for certainty 7. Hostility towards divergent personalities 8. Over emphasis on success 9. Intolerance of play attitudes Whereas Torrance has given suggestions regarding creativity facilitators, Hallman has listed what the teacher should not do, if he is interested in developing pupil creativity and hence innovativeness.
Suggestions for Developing Innovativeness among Teacher:The role of teacher is very significant in introducing and implementing innovative educational practices to ensure sustained qualitative improvement in education. If innovations are to flourish in education teachers themselves are to be innovative, for which the following measures suggested will be helpful
(i) Periodical in-service training should be provided for teachers to impart knowledge about the recent innovations that are attempted in education and enhance their motivation and self-confidence (ii) Innovative teachers who serve with devotion should be identified and rewarded with career advancement and increased remuneration.
(iii)
Teacher should be encouraged to report and publish the
innovative practices tried in their schools.
INNOVATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS IN SCHOOLS:De-Schooling Society:-
Among the reformers of education, there are those who would reform teaching practices and curriculum, some would favors the “free school movement” and still others would exploit the media to bring about a worldwide
class room. Launching a tirade against the existing undesirable practice in education. Ivan lllich and the like forcefully pleaded in the conference held at CIDOC in Mexico in 1947 for ‘de -schooling’ the society. Twenty -five persons form
fourteen countries, having discussed the problems of lifelong education under the leadership of lllich in the Centre for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC) at Mexico said, interalia, in their manifesto, “When we live, we learn; Learning, is a
function of living. People are learning all the time, all their lives. No one’s learning is superior to anyone else’s just different.
Concept of ‘De -schooling’: The concept of ‘de -schooling’ is based on three facts:
(i) ‘Education’ and ‘Schooling’ do not mean the same; they are quite different. (ii) Organized schooling and compulsory education are the stumbling blocks to true education (iii)
Basically, children have the inquisitiveness to know
‘what’, ‘how’, and ‘where’ of things around them. Hence they
can learn what they like, from the different resources in the society (which Ivan lll ich named as ‘facility centers’). Argument Advanced for ‘De -schooling Society:-
(i)
Illich has propoundedhis views against formal schooling in his wellknown book de-Schooling Society. He raised his voice against compulsory schooling in which curriculum is obligatory and certificate oriented.
(ii)
Curriculum caters neither the needs of the students nor that of the society
(iii)
Students learn passively; true knowledge, curiosity to investigate, creativity and social awareness are not developed in student
(iv)
Schools today have become agents for the sale of uniform (dress), shoes, text-books and note-books, and students are compelled to buy them from their schools.
Two important ideas put forth by Ivan Illich:Ivan Illich advanced two important suggestions to liberate the students from the clutches of the teachers and authoritarian schools. They are: (i)
Schools are to be abolished
(ii)
The learner should be free to learn what he likes, rather than what is useful to spmebody else. Learning resources existing outside the school are to be developed further to serve as “facility centres for student instruction” and
exploited fully to impart practical knowledge.
The Alternative to Schooling Suggested by Ivan Illich:1. In every village, ‘Educational Resource Centres’ are to be opened throwing access to all without any regard for age and gender difference. 2. Mass media like television, radio, newspapers, journals and periodicals should be made available in the “Educational resource centres”.
3. People in similar age group should visit these resource centres and share their knowledge and expertise 4. People of similar interests should form “ Learning Groups” to pursue the learning in the field of their interest. 5. There resource centres should have adequate library facilities.
Strategies to Make use of the ‘Learning – Resources’: Travel Apprenticeship Social Service Non-formal Study Self-experience
Criticisms against ‘De -schooling’ : According to Arthur Pearl instead of giving goats, logic and strategies,
Ivan Illich, has given metaohor Though the concept of de-schooling suggested many strategic
niceties, yet they are not practical and helpful to all particularly to the backward and poor rural children The institutional school, has not, of course, been relevant to
producing a ‘desirable world’. That is why it must be reformed and
reoriented rather than destroyed. It is not wise to burn the house to kill the rates in it.
Community Schools:Background of the Emergence of Community Schools:Public school system in America had been a target for criticism, for a long time. Significant among the criticisms is that it affects the interests of poor children. Educational experts, who condemned this trend in edu cation,
recommended of ‘open classrooms’. As this suggestion did not work well, some of
the parents, teachers and students started their own schools, as Dennison and these friends did. Concept of ‘Community Schools’:-
In America, community schools emerged as an off shoot of ‘Free School Movement’ and served as an alternative to public school system. Students’
learning and community activities took place simultaneously in community schools designed their curriculum to fulfill the needs of the local community and through that attempted to accelerate community development.
Salient Features of Community Schools: Education for community development Education that promises immediate job-placement for students Short-term courses/ part-time courses Parents, teacher and students jointly plan the course content
Types of Community Schools:‘Community Schools’ could be organized on the following 4 types: Schools that offer instruction in the main occupation of the
local community; different aspects of the vocation form the course content Develop the social skills and competency in students so as to
equip them to solve social problems of the community with the cooperation of the elders.
Organize schools so as to reflect all the prevalent practices and
values of the society in a small scale Organize schools so as to undertake various kinds of
educational extension work in the society in the field of Adult education, Non-formal education, agriculture, health and nutrition, environmental awareness etc., Community schools promote the community awareness and social concern among the pupils; expand the scope for self-employment.
Non-Graded Schools:Non-graded schools refer to newer forms of curricular and instructional organization, so as to ensure continuous and cumulative growth of children, particularly at the primary level of education. In this approach each child, according to its maturity and needs is admitted into a suitable group wherein every one through self-learning master the different levels of education. Here the assumption is that all children of same physical age may not be able to do the same work in the same way within the give time period.
Navodaya Schools:In our efforts to fulfill the constitutional obligation of providing ‘Education for all’, we should lose sight of our higher ideal ‘Excellence in Education’. The National Policy of Education 1986 advocated that the
potentials of highly talented students particularly those potentials of highly
talented students particularly those belonging to the rural capacity to pay for education, by establishing ‘Navodaya Schools’ one at each district across
the country. Objectives of Navodaya Schools:These Navodaya Vidyalaysis as integral part of the NPE have the following specific objective: To serve as centre’s of excellence and pace-setter institutions
for school education. To provide quality education to the hitherto deprived talented
children To ensure qualitative improvement in school education n
through innovative practices. To ensure accountability for all in developing a model school
system To implement the three-language formula by ensuring that all
children attain a reasonable competence To formulate/improve upon the curriculum and methodology
through experimentation by providing complete freedom to the teacher To strengthen and further the principles enshrined in the
constitution-democracy, socialism and secularism through community living.
To develop a uniform common school system throughout the
country with the objective of developing and maintaining a national standard at par with international standard.
Sainik Schools:Emergence of Sainik School in India:Sainik schools are of special type. In a way, these could be categorized along with the public schools in Europe. In our country, during the British rule, public schools were started in hill stations like shimla, Dehradhun, Moussori, Nainital etc., to cater to the educational needs of the rich and the ruling class. The schools offered education from the Nursery to High school level and presented pupils for the ‘Senior Cambridge Certificate’. Schools started for the children of the
British Army officers as well as King George schools (which were later came to be known as Sainik Schools) Sanawar and Lawrence Schools all belong to the same type. Functioning of Sainik Schools:Sainik schools function primary to develop the special talents of children, promote the skills in modern warfare and the spirit to protect security of our nation among the pupils. In Sainik schools apart from the regular school curriculum, training in warfare, trekking and mountaineering, swimming and horse-riding are
imparted. Those who pass out of Sainik schools are eligible to join degree courses in ‘Military Colleges’. Those who are trained in Sainik schools and
military colleges choose their careers in the Armed Forces. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (S.S.A):The English equivalence of S.S.A is “The Education for Al;l Movement”, which is sometimes referred to as ‘each one teach one’. It is a
flagship propgramme of India, language during the Nineth Five Year Plan (1997-2002), for the achievement of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) in a time bound manner, as mandated by the 86
th
amendment to the constitution of India, making free and compulsory education to children of ages 6 to 14 (estimated to be 205 millions in 2011 A.D) a fundamental right Aims of S.S.A: To achieve the goal of universalisation of elementary education
of satisfactory quality by 2010. To bridge social, regional and gender gaps, with the active
participation of the community in the management of schools. Objectives of S.S.A: Admit all children in school, Education Guarantee Centre
of Alternate School by 2003
All children complete five years of primary schooling by
2007 All children complete eight years of schooling by 2010 Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with
emphasis on education for life Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage
by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010 Universal retention by 2010
Operational Strategy: Open new schools in those habitations which do not haven
schooling facilities Provide maintenance grants for upkeep of the school Provide additional teachers in existing schools with inadequate
teacher strength Strengthen the academic supports structure at cluster, block and
district level. Ensure quality of elementary education including life skills Bestow special focus on girl’s education and children with
special needs Provide the basic knowledge in computer education to brige the
digital divide. Virtual Schools / Web-based Schools:-
A virtual schools or cyber school describes an institution that teaches courses entirely or primarily through online methods. Though there are tens of thousands of commercial and non-accredited courses available online, the term “virtual schools” is generally reserved for accredited
schools that teach a full-time (or nearly full-time) course of instruction designed to lead to a degree. History of Virtual Schools:Many of today’s Virual Schools are descendants of correspondence schools. Sometimes referred to as “distance learning”, correspondence schools offered students an alternative to the traditional brick and mortar buildings within a schoolhouse. These schools utilized the building service for student-teacher interaction, or used two way radio transmissions, sometimes with pre-recorded televising broadcasts. Students were expected to study their learning material independently and, in some cases, meet with a proctor to be tested. Modern virtual schools provide similar alternatives to students with a more ubiquitous and, often, interactive approach. Salient Features of Virtual Schools: All student services like admission, curriculum transaction,
evaluation, grading etc. Are conducted through inter technology.
All announcement and details of information about available
facilities are providing through bulletin board in the website. Class sizes range widely with anywhere from 25 students to as
many as 200 students in each class section Instructional models range from independent self paces courses
to semester based, teacher facilitated courses. Most courses will provide electronic materials free of cost, but
other requires some shopping on the student’s part. Text books are not required but can be used as an aid for
coursework. With appropriate statically data and recorded documents quality
control is maintained Advantages and Disadvantages of Virtual Schools:Advantages: Cyber school economizes time and cost, as the students
does not require to travel to real classroom to learn Online learning creates the opportunity for integrating
digital media into the curriculum in an interactive format making teaching and learning more student – centered Regular full time students, distance education students,
and in fact any one learning through cyber schools need not go in search of libraries to gather needed information
Disadvantages: A person must be self motivated to learn as learning cannot
be enforced via internet in asynchronous model. For the synchronous model, : lack of socialization” is often
quoted; but recent anecdotal evidence from one live cyber school indicated that, while socialization may be different, it is not lacking Floating University:‘Floating University’ is an innovation in higher education. It presents a
contrast to or traditional universities functioning form fixed centers (campus) and may be considered as an extension of the concept of ‘Mobile School’. The innovative aspect if education here is that students learn
formally on board the ship during their voyage to ports in different countries and informally through direct social contacts of people in the port cities during their short stay on landing. Institute Shipboard Education in collaboration with Colerado University developed the first floating university called ‘Shipboard University’, 461 students belonging to, different colleges and universities of
USA set out on voyage for education in the ship nam ed ‘S.S. Universe”. INNOVATIONS IN EVALUTION:Measurement and Evaluation:-
th
Till the first half of the 20 Century, the term ‘Educational Measurement’ is more appropriate only in the cases of concrete objects. For
example we can accurately measure the area of a land, volume of water, weight of a body, length and breadth of piece of cloth, time spent in event etc. When quantitative measurements obtained objectively by the use of tests or other kinds of tools are combined with qualitative assessments made, judging the value or worth of a thing becomes possible. This value judgment is called ‘evaluation’.
Evaluation = Quantitative measurement + Qualitative assessment Thus evolution could be defined as an act or process that allows one to make a judgment about the desirability or value of a measure. Education and Evaluation:Definition of Educational Evaluation:“Evaluation is a systematic, continuous process of demining The extent to which specified educational objectives,
previously identified and defined, are attained; The effffectiveness of the learning experiences provided in
the classroom and How well the goals of education have been accomplished.”
Important features of Educational Evaluation:Form the definition of educational evaluation; we derive its important features as follow: It is systematic process It is a continuous process; it goes hand in hand with the
teaching-learning process It emphasizes the broad personality changes and major
objectives of an educational programme It assumes that educational objectives have been
previously been identified and define. A comprehensive evaluation involves the use of many
tool and techniques It attempts to determine the congruence between
performance and objectives It helps to determine the adequacy and
appropriateness of the learning experiences provided, to achieve the defined objectives. Aim / Importance of Educational Evaluation: Through educational evaluation it is possible to assess
academic achievement of students in every school subject
Every student is enabled to compare his present
performance with his own past performance and readjust his learning style Evaluation helps in classifying students as high, moderate
and low achievers. Guidance programs and counseling services could be
arranged to the needy pupils, identified through evolution, students could be helped to understand the defects and deficiencies in their learning techniques and undertake remedial measures. Evaluation helps the teacher to know the effectiveness of
his teaching method so that necessary changes could be incorporated, if need be Evaluation becomes a basis for research if wide differences
are noticed in achievements of students in his class. Role and Functions of Educational Evaluation:Evaluation is an indispensable part of the education system and performs the following functions: Students’ attainment forms a basis also for indirect
evaluation of teacher.
Evaluation techniques could be perfected by carrying out
researches on test construction, administration, interpretation and grading. The findings obtained in evaluation form the basis for
bringing about changes in the curriculum so as to make it more relevant and purposeful. It is useful as a good tool for assessing the student’s
progress in learning and observing his overall development. On the basis of such assessments, individualized instruction may be adopted whenever necessary. Innovations in Evaluation Introduced in Tamilnadu:Tamilnadu in the forefront in modernizing the education system and introduced several welcome changes which are noted below:
i)
New Type Tests Reliability of a test indicates the indicates the consistency of test scores, with no inter-examiner and inter-examiner variations. Whoever values the answer scripts, more or less the same test scores should result with little variations. Objectivity refers to the possibility of having only one answer for any give test item which eliminates the discretion of the examiner in scoring the responses,. In other words,
objectivity means the elimination of score’s bias in evaluating testees’ responses.
ii)
Multiple Question Papers For Public Examinations when thousands of students appear for an examination, multiple question papers are recommended. For each subject several sets of question papers are set by experts for the prescribed syllabus in the same pattern with test items of comparable difficulty. It there are four sets, they will be marked as A, B, C, D and they will be given in that order for candidates in every row.
iii)
Central Valuation System In the traditional system of examination, answer scripts are usually dispatched by registered post to the residences of the examiners for valuation. This practice led to enormous delay and interference by influential people and also corrupt practices. Form 1968 onwards. Tamilnadu had introduced Central valuation system for S.S.L.C. Public Examination. Now this system is followed for +2 and Degree Examinations also.
Revaluation and Retotaling Candidates have been given the right to apply within two weeks from the date of publication of results, for revaluation of their answered scripts or retotaling of the marks awarded in a particular subject to the Director / Controller of Examinations by paying the prescribed fees. iv)
Conducting Improvement Examinations This system enables the failed students (failed in three or less number of subjects only) to reapers for the examinations to be held before the reopening of schools and colleges in the failed subjects alone, without waiting for the examinations in the next semester or year.
New Techniques of Evaluation Some newer techniques have come into practice now of which the following are the important ones; Continuous Evaluation Continuous Evaluation refers to the practice of evaluating student’s skills and proficiency periodically throughout the course and maintaining a record of the cumulative progress achieved. It is highly unjustified to base on his/her performance in a single examination of three hours at the end of the course
completion, ignoring the track record of his progress during the course. Self – Evaluation Students could be encouraged to evaluate themselves their own answer scripts by comparing them with the scouring keys/ model answers provided. Self-evaluation could prove to be more reliable for performance tests. Question Bank Experts in each subject discipline are requested to prepare test items covering the entire syllabus meant for a course at a given level of examination, conforming tom the guidelines provided. The test items so prepared are then examined in an open session and those approved with necessary modifications if any, are put into the question bank. Open-book Examination:In some examinations, students may be given the freedom to consult the books and write answers for the questions in then examination. In Government Departmental Tests, government employees are allowed to consult the prescribed books and manuals for answering questions related to basic rules and regulations, financial sanctions and approvals etc. Some model questions that conform to the require ments of open-book system of examination are given as follows:
1. Compare the preaching of Buddha and Mahaveera on ‘Nonviolence’.
2. What are the differences between the language style in Tamil between ‘Sangam-literature’ and “devotional literature’?
3. List the population, literacy rate and financial allocation for education in different states in India 4. Point out the important aspects in which constitutions of India and Sri Lanka differ.
Grading System:In educational institutions, answer scripts are valued and the scores are expressed as percentages, Parents and students believe that marks accurately measure one’s proficiency. One who scored 59% is considered to
be less proficient than one who has a score of 60%. But it is not realized that this state may get reversed in a revaluation. It is more apt to express one’s proficiency as a grade representing a
particular range of marks. For example, it may be taken to mean that A = 80% and above B = Above 60% but below 80% C = 40% and above but below 60% F = Less than 40%
Instead of letter grades, numerical points could also be given as shown below, to indicate the grade of proficiency. Very Good = 4 Points Good
= 3 Points
Average
= 2 Points
Below Average (Improvements required) = 1 Points Evaluation of Teacher If the teacher fails to perform his duties well, he is guilty of wasting the precious time of his students and also will be considered responsible for pulling back the progress of his students. An ideal teacher inspires; good teacher explains; an average repeats; a poor teacher tells. Teacher could be evaluated mainly by the following three methods: Self-evaluation Peer evaluation Student-evaluation
Self-Evaluation by Teachers Every teacher should cultivate the virtue of objectively evaluating his strengths and weaknesses. This enables him to expand his good qualities and eliminate those which interfere with his work in becoming a good and effective teacher.
A model rating scale for self-evaluation of teachers is as follows: S.No Aspect being rated
Rating Points given 0
1
Preparation for Teaching
2
Use of teaching-aids
3
Explaining / Describing
4
Questioning
5
Motivating
6
Review / Recapitulating
7
Special attention for Slow learners
1
2
3
4
8
Providing suitable Assignments
9
Cordial relations with students
10
Classroom Management
11
Punctuality
12
Dignified Behavior
13
Clean Appearance
14
Sense of humor
15
Please Voice
16
Skill in Narration
17
Adopting Innovative instructional techniques
18
Enthusiastic Participation in Co-curricular Activities
19
Language Fluency
20
Contact with Parents of Pupils
Peer Evaluation:A teacher could get his ‘teaching Effectiveness’ assessed either by his
colleagues in the same department or by other fellow teachers working in the same institution. Many teachers are sensitive about peer evaluation, despite the fact that it will yield better perception about his overall performance. A specimen rating scale for peer evaluation is given below: S.No
Aspect of Assessment
Evaluation Rating Requires improvem ent
1
Depth of knowledge in the subject
2
Teaching competence
3
Classroom Management
4
Language Fluency
5
Handling of apparatus / Using instructional aids
6
Interest in Teaching
7
Questioning Skill / Test Preparation
8
Concern for Student’s Welfare
9
Dignified Behavior and Conduct
10
Dedication to duty
Fair
Satis factory
Good
Very good
Student Evaluation of Teacher The saying that “the students are the best judges of teacher’ is a blunt truth. But many a time the teacher’s ego does not allow for being judge by
his own students. Further to undertake evaluation, one should have adequate educational background and experience, mental maturity, etc. Therefore there may not be any objection for student evaluation of teachers, at the postgraduate level of education. At model rating scale for student evaluation of teachers is given below: S.No
Aspect of Assessment
Evaluation Rating Very good
Good
Fair
Inadeq
Very
uate
Inadequ ate
1
Appearance
2
Sociability
3
Use of Teaching aids and Instructional techniques followed
4
Narration of Stories, and episodes
5
Skill in explaining with examples
6
Explaining Skill
7
Clarifying Students’ doubts
8
Delivering Instruction at even pace
9
Promptly returning back students’ evaluated assignments
10
Conducting Demonstrations
National Testing Service:Establishment of National Testing Service (NTS) was one of the recommendations of National Policy of Education (1986). An organization to prepare a series of good test papers was needed and Mysore was selected as the most suitable place and the task was entrusted to the Institute of Indian Languages, which had prior experience in standardization of tests. Objectives of National Testing Service:The major objectives of National testing Service are: To prepare for all the seven stages of general education, concept
based continuous and developing syllabus for Indian languages. To design norms and models to implement them To create a centre level technology to develop a national level
standardization for languages tests To facilitate comparative study of the languages in the region. To award certificated of accreditation to language courses and
institutions that offer them To conduct tests, as a beginning, to students of Std XII and
undergraduate courses in language subjects To delink degrees from jobs, gradually
