Ernst Neufert
ARCHITECTS' DATA Second (International) English Edition
General editor VincentJones Editorial consultant George Atkinson OBE BAArch) RIBA USA editor Wm Dudley Hunt Jr BScBArch FAIA Editor JohnThackara Deputy editor Richard Miles
b Blackwell Science
This document
L
contains
447
pages
© 1980by
Blackwell Science Ltd Editorial Offices: Osney Mead, Oxford 0X2 OEL 25 John Street, London WC1 N 2BL 23 Ainslie Place, Edinburgh EH3 6AJ 350 Main Street, Maiden MA 02148 5018,USA 54 UniversityStreet, Canton Victoria 3053,Australia 10, rue Casimir Delavigne 75006 Paris, France Other Editorial Offices: Blackwell Wissenschafts-Venlag GmbH Kurfurstendamm57 10707 Berlin, Germany Blackwell Science KK MG Koderimacho Building 7—10 Kodenmacho Nihombashi Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104, Japan All rightsreserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designsand Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First English language edition published by Crosby Lockwood Staples 1970 Reprinted 1973, 1975,1977, 1978(twIce) Second (International) English Edition first published in Great Britain 1980by Granada Publishing Ltd Reprinted (with minor amendments)1981 Reprinted 1982, 1984 Reissuedin paperback by Collins Professional and Technical Books 1985 Reprinted by BSP Professional Books 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Reprinted by Blackwell Science 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998 Original German edition published by Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig, Wiesbaden,as Bauentwurfslehre Printed and bound in Great Britain at the Alden Press Limited, Oxford and Northampton The Blackwell Science logo is a trade markof Blackwell Science Ltd, registered at the United Kingdom Trade Marks Registry
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54 University Street Carlton, Victoria 3053 (Orders: Tel: 3 9347 0300 Fax: 393475001) British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Neufert, Ernst, Architect's data.—2nd (international) English ed. 1. Architectural design: Technical data. I. Title II. Jones, Vincent, Ill Thackara, John IV. Miles, Richard 721'.0212 ISBN 0-632-02339-2
V
Contents Flats & apartments
ix
Contributors
x
Acknowledgements
89
xi
Foreword
90 Access
xii
Howto use the book
91
Fire precautions
xiii
Abbreviations
92
Internal planning
94
Point blocks
96
Duplex & triplex sections
BASIC DATA Human scale in architecture
99
3 Drawing sheets
100
6 Drawing practice 9 Proportions Dimensions & space requirements
Privategarages
Gardens 104 Siting & layout
16 Thermal comfort
105 Soil preparation
17 Visual efficiency
& acoustics
19 Access & circulation 20 Roadways/parking 25 Lighting 27
Shared accommodation
103 Enclosures
15 Quality of air
18 Pattern & texture/noise
97 Internal access 98 Stepped houses
2 UseofSlunits
11
Building types
106 Pergolas/paths/equipment 108
Trees/shrubs
109 Water 110 Gardens for disabled/rock gardens/roof gardens! floodlighting
Daylight
111
Garden structures
33 Sunlight
112
Indoor gardens/roof gardens
113
Water lily & fish pools
COMMUNITY
114
Swimming pools
Houses
115
Private indoor pools
117
Domestic sauna
38
Design/organisation/orientation
41
Access
44 Standards & regulations
Education
45 Relationship to otherbuildings 47 Thehouseplan
118
Schools: principles
119
Early school
55 Kitchens
120 Rural schools
61
Bathrooms
121
Middle age range
66 Public rooms
123 Olderagerange
70 Bedrooms
127 Boarding schools
73 Storage 76 Security/privacy
129 Media centres
77 Privateopen space 78 Adaptable houses
134 Colleges: lecture rooms
79 Underground houses 80 Energy saving houses
139 Drawing studios
82 Housing old people 85 Housing disabled
142 Dining rooms
88 Balconies
145 Libraries
130 Furniture
137 Schools ofart, design, drama,music
140 Student hostels
143 Youth hostels
vi
Contents Hospitals 149
Health services structure
150 Modular design 151
Means of escape/fire protection
Restaurants 202 Planning factors 203 Space allowance 204 Table sizes
153 Design/building configurations
205 Snack bars
154 Ward design
206 Drive-in
156 Nurse working rooms
207 Using minimum space: restaurantcars
& self-service
158 Ward design data/geriatric 160 Maternity 161
Paediatric& children
Hotels 208 Types
162 Longstay
209 Flowdiagram
164 Psychiatric centres
210 Plan forms
165 Ward upgrading
211
166 Outpatients
212 Frontof house
168 Accident & emergency
213
169 Radiology
215 Administration
171
216 Guest bedrooms
Operating
Public rooms Kitchens & food stores
173 Intensive care
218 Building services
174 Cardiac surgical/transplant/limb fitting
219 Motels
175 Burns/physical medicine
221
176 Laboratories
224 Public houses
Convention hotels
177 Pharmacy/libraries 178 Non-residentstaffchanging
Office buildings
179 Offices/supply
225 Building type
180 Housekeeping
226 Definition of office areas
181
Community health care
227 Types of officeshell 228 Core
Religion
230 Relationships
182 Churches
231
185 Mosques
232 Services
186 Synagogues
233 lnternalenvironment
187 Crematoria/mortuaries
234 Construction
COMMERCE
235 Space standards 236 Special area requirements
Shops &stores 188 Situation 189 Movement between floors/service details 191
Windows
Means of escape
237 Spaces for meetings 239 Furniture 241
Storage
243 Equipment
192 Fire/boutiques 193 Food shops
Banks
195 Chemist/men'swear/shoes/fashion fabrics
245 General/customer services/drive-in
196 Self-service
247 Examples
197
Supermarkets
198
Hypermarkets
Vehicleservices
199
Shopping centres& precincts
248 Car parks
vii
Contents 251
Multi-storey car parks
253 Petrol stations 255 Bus parks
302 Beef cattle housing 303 Pigs: basic data 305 Pigs: management
257 Rail station passengerdetails
306 Pigs: rearing & fattening 307 Sheep: housing
Airports
308 Sheep: handling/poultry housing
258
Planningsequence
309
259
Runways/taxiways/ferminals
260
Flow & functions
310 Small domestic animals: doves/rabbits/dogs/small poultry houses
261
Baggage handling/aircraftparking
311
262 Catering/aircraft maintenance/airfreight
Poultry: space requirements
Kennels/beehouses/ducks/geese
312 Crop storage: grass/straw/hay/potatoes 313 Crop storage: grain 314
Machinery & implement storage
INDUSTRY Industrial buildings
LEISURE
263 Site selection/site development
Sport 315 Stadia: general design
264 Basicbuilding types/selection strategy 266
Factorybuilding types
269 Warehouses
316 Stadia: sightlines/traffic 317 Stadia: terraces/grandstand
273
Site layout
275
Industrial parks
318 Sport centres 320 Sport halls:use of undivided space
276
Building environment
322 Outdoor: pitches
277
Planning for fire control
324 Outdoor: athletics
278
Environmental compartmentation/workplace design
325 Indoor: pitches
280 Hygiene
326 Indoor: pitches/athletics tracks
282
Loading bays
327 Indoor: athletics training
284
Rail-served buildings
328 Indoor: sports needing own space
285 Workshops 288 Workshop equipment space
329 Swimming: indoorpools 333 Swimming: openair pools
289 Workshop examples 290 Workshop design factors
334 Swimming: divingpool dimensions 335 Swimming: slipperbaths/showers 336 Swimming: pool changing rooms
Laboratories
338 Sauna planning
291
339 Tennis
Classification/planning principles/space requirements
292 Services distribution/disposal systems/storage 293 Special requirements/related spaces/finishes
340 Ski jumping slopes 341
Ski lumping slopes/icerinks
342
Ice rinks/roller skating rinks
Farmbuildings 294 Human welfare/cattle: basicdata
343 Golf
295 Cattle: waste production & disposal
346 Marinas
344 Equitation
296 Cattle: straw-bedded pens/cubicles/calf pens 297 Cattle: calf pens/feeding
Theatres & Cinemas
298 Cattle: feeding/watering/ventilation/handling
348 Theatre regulation/organisation
299 Cattle handling/milking
349 Sight lines 350 Auditorium
301
Cattle: bull pens/dairy cowhousing
viii
Contents 351
Seating
Lighting
352 Stage tower 353 Multiform
398
354 Cinema techniques/seating/multiple auditoria
400
355 Cloakrooms/projection rooms 356 General layout/lighting systems/heating/ventilation/use
Doors &windows
General/building lighting/glare
399 Task lighting/light sources/emergency lighting/outdoor Integration of electric lighting & daylighting
of 16mm 357 Screen & sound systems
401
Doors: dimensions/fire safety/flow capacity/disabled persons
358
402
Doors: industrial types
Drive-in cinemas
403 Windows: coordinatingsizes
Museums
404 Windows: positioning/safety & accessfor cleaning
359
Rooms/general layout
405 Windows: basic types/selection check list/ventilation!
360
Lighting
361
Examples
COMPONENTS asurement 363 Introduction
double glazing
406 Windows: shading devices Corridors stairselevators 407 Walking speeds/corridor capacity/rampsfor disabled! waiting areas
364 Conversion factors
408 Stairs: tread & rise proportions/regulations/fire escape! stairs for disabled
366 Conversion tables
409 Escalatordimensions & traffic capacity/passenger conveyors
Materials 382
Building materials physical characteristics
410 Elevator dimensions 411
Elevator traffic capacity/paternosters
412 Elavators for disabled/planning
Services 383
Distribution
385
Methods of heating
386
Heating systems
392 Ventilation
REFERENCE
393 Thermal insulation
413 Bibliography
395 Sound insulation
429
Index
ix
Contributors ErnstNeufert
Professor Technische Hochschule Darmstadt Ernst Neufert, born in 1900, in 1919 became the first student of architecture at the Bauhaus in Weimar. He left at the end of 1920 for a study tour in southern Europe but before long Gropius called him back as his assistant. In 1924 he became technical director of the Bauhaus officesin Weimar and then manager ofthe Gropiusworkshop during the rebuilding of the Bauhaus in Dessau' and alsotaught in the department ofarchitecture atthe Bauhaus. In 1926 he became professor and director of the department of architectureat the newlyfounded Building Technical College in Weimar and shortly afterwards assistant director of the construction department. In 1930 he moved to Berlin to become head of the department of architecture at Itten, a private school of art, and started to workas a free-lance industrial architect. It was in Berlin that he brought outin 1936 the first edition of Bauentwurfslehre.
Following the war he was co-founder and member of the board of directors of the Bund Deutscher Architekten (Federation of German Architects), was appointed professor at Darmstadf Polytechnic and director ofthe Institute forStandardisation (Institut fur Baunormung)and continued toworkalso as free-lance industrial architect. Professor Neufert has lectured in many cities, suchas Graz, Belgrade, Skople, Thessaloniki, Athens, Istanbul, Beirut, Karachi,Rangoon, Hong Kong, inJapan's major citiesand at Neutrain Los Angelesand FLWright inTaliesin West Arizona.
He is honorary member of the Real Academica de Ciencias y Artes Barcelona and of the Royal Institute of British Architects, honorary professor and doctor at the University of Lima, Peru. He has been awarded the German Merit Cross with star, as well as various other German and foreign honours
Ernst Neufert's other works include Bauordnungslehre (1943) and lndustriebauten (1973).
UK contributors
USA contributors
Peter Ackroyd Dip Arch (Poly)Reg Arch TheSports Council AG Aldersley-Williams MArch(MIT) RIBA Engineering Design Consultants Norman SAllanson Des RCA FSIAD John SBonnington Partnership DerekWArnold ARIBA Nadine Beddington FRIBA FSIAD (assisted by DermotO'Brien FSIAD) Robin G Booth MA MSc Dip Arch RIBA MRTPI John SBonnington Partnership Jan PetrCermák-z-Uhrinova BSc(Hons) TEng(CEI)MIAgrE Scottish Farm Building Investigation Unit J B Collins BSc(Eng) CEng MIEE FCIBS DrFrancis Duffy ARIBA DuffyEley Giffone Worthington JolyonV P Drury MA(Cantab) DipArch RIBA MIMH Jolyon Drury Consultancy Nelson Foley RIBA ChiefArchitect Trust House Forte JA Godfrey ARIBA David Jenkin DuffyEley Giffone Worthington Eva M Jiricna DipI Eng Arch RIBA Louis Soissons Partnership Geraint John DipArch(UCL) RIBA TheSports Council Geoffrey Jones BArch(Lvpl) Olwen C Marlowe ARIBA Dip LD(Dunelm) DipTP(Birm) David LMedd OBEHon DSc ARIBA Department ofEducation & Science Mary B Medd OBE ARIBA Department ofEducation& Science AlanMorgan DipArch RIBA DermotO'Brien FSIAD G J P O'Neill Robert Payne DuffyEleyGiffone Worthington Elizabeth Phillips DipArch RWA ARIBA Dennis Sharp MA AA DipI RIBA Deyan Sudjic BSc DipArch Dr Martin Symes MA Dip Arch(Cantab) AA Planning Dip RIBA Richard E Theakston Dip Arch RIBA JohnSBonnington Partnership PR Tregenza BArch MBdgSc PhD RIBA MCIBS R EVickers DLCCEng MICE British LiftStab Ltd David Whitham MA(Cantab) AA Dipi
Peter Frink BArch MScMFA Principal !rink BeuchatArchitects Walter Hart AlA Architect Wm Dudley HuntJr BSc BArch FAIA Margaret K Hunter BAAlA Architect Edgar H Hunter BABArch AlA Architect Robert T Packard BArch AlA Director AlA Documents/Architectural Graphic Standards Division MimiFord Paul BA BSArch Architect Bradford Perkins SeniorVice President & GeneralManager Perkins & WillArchitects
8
x
Acknowledgements The Editors and the Publishers acknowledge with sincere thanks the kind help and information provided by many individuals and organisationsduringthe preparation of this work. The Publishers have made everyefforttoestablish and properly acknowledge thecopyright owners ofthe drawings and plans used in this book and wishtoapologiseforany unintentional omissions that may have been made. Should any otner acknowledgements be necessary the publishers will be happy todo so whenthe book is reprinted. Theworksof individual architects are acknowledgedthroughout thetext but particular thanks are also due to: HenryDreyfuss Associates forFig. 2 on page 9; TheArchitecturalPress forFig. 1 onpage19and Figs1 and 2onpage22; SunsetBooks for Fig. 4 on page 77; The Architectural Press for Figs 1-9 on page83, Fig. 1 on page 84, and Fig. 5on page86; SunsetBooks for Figs 5 and 6on page 113 and for Figs 6-11 on page 114; Moriyama and Teshima for Fig. 4on page 146; Ahrends Burton and Koralek for Fig. 2 on page 148; Powell Moya and Partners forFig. 3 on page 150; Watkins Gray Woodgate International (UK) forFig. 1 on page 155; R. Seifert and Partnersfor Fig. 5on page 157; The Nuffield Foundationfor Fig. 1 on page 161; Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshalland PartnersforFig. 2onpage 161; George TrewDunn Beckles Willson Bowes for Fig. 1 on page 167; Wilson and Wilson for Fig. 2 on page168; Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshalland PartnersforFig. 2onpage 171; The Oxford Regional HealthAuthority for Fig. 5 onpage172; Donald A. Goldfinch Associates for Fig. 1 on page 175; South East Thames Regional HealthAuthority for Fig. 1 on page 176; The Nuffield Foundationfor Fig. 2 on page 176; MehmetKonuralp for Fig. 3on page 192; Isabe lieHebeyfor Fig. 4 on page 192;
The Architectural Press for Fig. 2 on page 198; The National Playing Fields Association for Fig. 1 on page 322 and Figures on pages 323—4; The Architectural Press for Figs. 1, 4and 5 on page346 and forFigs 2-4, 7 and 8 on page 347; Progressive Architecture for Fig. 3on page 361. The following are reproduced by permission ofthe Building Directorate, Scottish Development Department: Fig. 1 on page82, Figs 10and 11 on page83, Fig. 2 on page84 and Figs 1-4and 6-8 on page86; Fig. 1 on page 148 is reprinted fromArchitectural Record September 1976 © 1976, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved; Fig. 2 onpage155 is reproduced with thepermission of theController of Her Majesty's Stationery Office; Fig. 1 on page 162 is reprinted with permission from the American Health Care Association Journal, Vol. 4, No. 4, July 1978. Copyright © American Health Care Association. All rights reserved; Fig. 3 on page 162 isreproduced courtesy ofArchitects Derek Stowand Partners in association with the Regional Architect, South West Thames Regional Health Authority; Fig. 2onpage164 is reprinted from Architectural Record October 1979 © 1979, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved; Fig. 3 on page 171 is reproduced courtesy of Cullen Lochhead and Brown in association with the Chief Architect of Western Regional Hospital Board, T.D.W. Astorga, Esq., FRIBA; Fig. 1 onpage174 isreprinted fromArchitectural RecordAugust 1977© 1977, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., withall rights reserved; Fig. 4 onpage180 is reprinted fromArchitectural RecordAugust 1977© 1977, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., withall rights reserved; Fig. 1 on page 201 is reprinted fromArchitectural Record June 1978 © 1978, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved; Fig. Son page291 is theZoology Extension, EdinburghUniversity and is reproduced by permission of the Designers, the Architecture Research Unit, University of Edinburgh; Fig. 1 on page 361 is reprinted from Architectural Record June 1977 © 1977, byMcGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved.
xi
Foreword Architects'Datafirst appeared in English in 1970, nearly thirtyfive years after Ernst Neufert published his rules for building design' — Bauentwurfslehre — based on his lectures at the Building Technical Collegein Weimar. He had arranged in one book for convenient reference during design work, data on the spatial needsof man in his home, his work place and his leisure, and on his animals, toolsand belongings. The book clearly meta need: in 1979 the 30th German edition appeared; it has also been published in Spanish (12 editions), Italian(5), French (5),
The sequence of sections has been rearranged. All parts have beenreviewed, revised, brought up to date and in most instances expanded: this edition is twenty-five per cent longer and perhaps seventy-five per cent new in substance. Special attention has been given to new thinking on housing, education, hospitals, industrial construction and farm buildings. The section on sport and leisure has been made far more comprehensive.And throughout the implications of energy conservation, the needs of the elderly and disabled,and defenceagainstfire havebeen stressed.
Portuguese(3), Serbocroat(3), and in Russian, Greek andTurkish; but beforethe present, only one edition in English,which came late on the scene.
As the first internationaledition to be published the book contains several building types which are not common in some countries. Both British and American contributors liked this. In some instances,suchas shopping precincts,more than asingle building is involved; for these the information given is more general. In others, such as underground houses, prolects aswell as finished buildings have been given as examples, although this is the
In the 1960s the book'sinternationalrepute led the Professional Literature Committee of the Royal Institute of British Architects and manyothers to recognise the need for an English language edition; but to convert to imperial measureswas a greatobstacle. Conversion tothemetric system in Britain and the Commonwealth changed this. An English edition becamepossible. It was edited by the late Rudolf Herz who had studied in Berlin and had practised many years as an architect in the United Kingdom. He had no easy task. With so big a book translationalone wasa major undertaking; furthermore much terminology and some practice details had to be modified. At that time, therefore, publishers and editordid not try to bring the whole book up to date;theyconcentrated on getting it out. During the 1970s the need for a new edition thoroughly revised became more pressing: there were new imperatives of energy conservation, economic constraintand changing social needs to affect the design of buildings. More influential still for such a work: the 'information explosion', whose full force will be felt duringthe 1 980s, changing the role of such a design handbook. When he wrote Architects' Data nearly fifty years ago Neutert provided a mixture of abstracted design, principles, hard data and examples. Today there is less need for illustration of construction details. Manufacturers increasingly distribute technical information which can be filed in uniform office systems; and withtelephone lineand videodisplay unit an office can reach vast computerised and regularly revised data banks. To make sense of this mass of information the architect now needs even clearer guidance on the principles and bases of design.
Basis ofthe revision Ouraim, therefore, has been to simplify,
rearrange and modernise. Requirements or advice contained in regulations,standardsand
codes have for the most part been left out: theychange during the life of the book and vary from country to country; moreover for legal and codified data the designer should always look tothe original source. Full references have been given. Informationon construction elements (such as foundation, brickwork, roofs) can easily befoundelsewhere; it has been leftout or reduced to make moreroom for more fundamentalworkon building types.
At the beginning 'Basic data' summarises the essentialsof the
human scale in architecture and at the end 'Components' brings togethersomenew Europeanplanningguidelines forthespaces needed to install, operate and maintain the oftencomplex services now required in buildings; technical aspects of the internal environment; and practical criteria for such components as windows, doors, stairs and elevators.Thoughtheyare not directly applicable in a non-metric context we felt these pages to be of wide interest in their approach to the presentation of such information. In the body of the bookthe measureof whatto leave out, what to put in or to expand has been: does this help the designerin solving heror his problems of spatial needs?
exception.
Units of measurement The International System of Units (SI) is used for all units of measurement. A decision on how to apply the system faces architects and engineers when drawing plans. at what point to switch from the basic mm to the derivative m. There appears to be no ruling by authority on this. In Architects' Data it is solved in two ways. All linear measurements in text are given in millimetresup to 9999, standing as herewithout indicator,and from 10 m upwards they are givenin metres with the indicator m. On theotherhand in the many smalldiagramswhich formoneof the book's most useful elements, four figure dimensions would oftenmake for clutter: wherethereisthisdanger, for dimensions above 999 metres are used without the indicator m. There has to be one exception to this rule. In sportinternational dimensions standardsare given: some of theseare still expressed in 'imperial'or US customaryunits. This sectionthereforepresents an unavoidable mixture.
To meetthe needsof users in the United States of America, who are mostly still using US customary or 'imperial' units, a set of conversion factors and tables is provided —.p364—81 (with a simplified version on p434). In other appropriate instances the graphicscale may be used (see below). Scales Many of the plans and diagrams in the book do not needscales; their purposeis to expressrelationships or situations. In many others the practical needs of the user are best answered by giving dimensions on the drawing. Scales are used only in relation to plans or diagrams of specific buildings or installations and these are shown graphically in metres and feet.
Style This book is not literature; it is a practical manual. The text is telegraphic and predicatory; in this it follows the practice ofErnst Neufert, who wrote in his first edition that his aim had been to 'reduce, schematise, abstractthe elements of design basics so as to make simple imitation difficult and to oblige the user to create form and content out of data'. The size of many of the diagrams makes necessary the use of abbreviations, these are therefore used consistently in all plans and diagrams and in captions, the most common in the text also, the intention being that theyquickly become familiarto the user. Abbreviationsused in the book(—pxiii) are also listed forquickreferenceon p434 which carries the conversion tables and factors. Language is a usual problem in a book intended for users both
xii
Foreword nt
sidesthe Atlantic, to mention othercontinents. Sometimes it is possible to find a neutral alternative expression; at others we have risked annoying everybody occasionally by choosing a word fromone or the other usage: thusthe British have to accept aisle', 'elevator' truck'; North Americans must stomach 'footpath', 'ground floor' for 'first floor' (and 'second' for 'first' . . 'cooker'for 'range' (which has a limited specific meaning in the United Kingdom). Only rarely have we fallen back on using a double expression such as 'trolley (cart)'. NorthAmericanreaders are also asked to accept that British spelling has been used all through. Distantly related is the problem of the rule of the road. Quite a numberof illustrations show access roads, car parking, turning circles and such details. Some have their origin in continental Europe, some in North America, some in the United Kingdom. Rather than try to convertall to one rule we have indicated on each relevantpage whether it refersto elior right handcirculation.
Acknowledgements The contributors in the UK and USA who have made this new edition possible are named —pix. Authors, publishers,architects, institutions and public bodies who have allowed the use of
copyrightsare listed on the pagefollowing. Warmest thanks to all. Planning and execution of the revisions, changes, new concepts and improvements, while a cooperativeeffort, have been entirely the publishers' responsibility. But theworkwould not have been possible without consultant editor George Atkinson, whose experience, technical knowledgeand practicaloutlook have been invaluable, We are indebted also to Wm Dudley Hunt, whose professionalism and expertise, which are the basisof the respect he already enjoys in the USA, have helped enormously in the completion ofthe book. Lastly we salute and thank Patricia Crowe, whose secretarial skills gave us a clear course through the seas of paper, and deputy editorRichard Miles, whostepped in to see things through in the later stages ofthe work. The formidabletask of drawing or revising the manynew or modified figures fell to Sheena Busby MSAAT and the design and layout of the printed page to Tony Leonard, to both of whom our sincerest thanks.
Vincent Jones
John Thackara
How to use the book Arrangement
The contents table —.pv shows the grouping of subjects & sequence ofthe book: frombasicdata for man & his buildings, through man in his community, to buildings for commerce, industry & leisure, to some technical planning data & regulations. It can be used to find the pages referring to a given subject suchas 'shops &stores'. The index —.p429 is a tool for quick reference to a point of detail eg 'access', 'shower', 'wheelchair'.
Thebibliography —.p41 3 isdivided into3 parts: athe mainalphabetical (and numbered) list of publications for further reference, & extracted fromthis ba list of the most important regulations&codesofthe UK & USA, c a list of references under subject headings eg 'airports', 'disabled', 'offices','schools'. Abbreviations used—pxiu are also given on p434 together with conversion tables from metric to USA customary or imperial measures
Units of measurement: Sl—pl, conversion—p364 & p434.
Application
Suppose you have to prepare a scheme for a college of further education. Under 'education' inthe contents there are pagereferences for lecture rooms (134), schools of art (137), student hostels (140), dining rooms (142), libraries (145): these together givesome ofthemain components needed. On studying thesepages you will find cross references (indicated—.) to other sections suchas accoustics (18 395), auditorium (350), cinemas (354), fire escape (44 91), kitchens (213), sanitary units (65), seating systems (351), shared accn (99), sighttines (351 ), space standards(44 48), workshops (288) General information on proportions & human measurements is given —.p9—24, on services, heating, lighting, sound ventilation & such components as elevators, stairs, windows —.p383—4l 2.
Regulations & codes should be studied before starting any design: —.bibliography fora listof the most important.
XIII
Abbreviations Abbreviations used intext and diagrams are listed below,
gal
A
ampere
ar
area
gar GP gu
AC
alternating current accommodation administration architect American National Standards Institute American Society for Testing & Materials average
NB: pluralsarenot used inabbreviations
accn admin arch ANSI ASTM
av
h ha
hb hr HUD hum Hz
B b
base bathr bedr balc bldg bldg reg BOCA BRE
BS(I) Btu
BZ
bed bath basement bathroom bedroom balcony building building regulation Building Officials & Code Administrators Building Research Establishment British Standards (Institution) British thermal unit British zonal classification
in J
joule
°K
degree Kelvin kitchen or thermal conductivty kilogram kilogram-force kilometre
IES
IFLA ISO
k kg km
consult corr CP CSSD
cupboard/USA cabinet degreeCelsius centre to centre/USA on centers candela central general stores children Chartered Institute of Building Services Commission internationalede I'Eclairage(International Commission on Illumination) cooker/USA range classroom cloakroom consultation, consulting (room) corridor code ofpractice central sterile supply depot
d
day or depth
ME
dayr dB DC deg dept DES DF DHSS dia DoE DPC
dayroom decibel directcurrent degree department DepartmentofEducation &Science daylight factor DepartmentofHealth & SocialSecurity diameter Department ofthe Environment damp proofcourse diningroom dressing room domestic service room
mm
c/c Cd
CGS
ch CIBS CIE
ck classr
do
di dre DSR E
el eqp exam °E
fdn FFL FHA fr
ft
illumination electrical equipment examination degree Fahrenheit foundation finished floorlevel/USA elevation Federal Housing Authority fire resistant foot gram
height orhigh hall or hectare (wash) hand basin hour Deptof Housing & UrbanDevelopment humidity hertz InternationalConference ofBuilding Officials Illuminating Engineering Society InternationalFederation ofLibrary Associations InternationalOrganisation for Standardisation (Organisationinternationalede Normalisation) inch
ICBO
kgf
C orcpd
gallon garage general practitioner guestroom
I
Ia lab
au lay lib liv lob lx m
mdr max
mech med
MIT mm rn/s mur
litre, length, long larder laboratory laundry lavatory ortoilet library living room lobby lux metre maid's room (Orau pair) maximum mechanical medical maintenancefactor minimum Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology millimetre metres persecond music room
nur
newton National Fire Protection Association nursery
off oper OS OSHA
office operating Ordnance Survey Occupational Safety & HealthAct
P
passenger, patient, person, pupil parents room/USA master bedroom physical education power take-off pantry
N NFPA
pa
pe
pto ptr R radr RC
reg rh
RHA RIBA
radius radiator reinforced concrete regulation relative humidity Regional Health Authority Royal Institute of British Architects
xiv
Abbreviations s SBCC
sd ser SfB
sho sitr SI
sk St
sto stu
second Southern Building Code Congress scullery servery system ofclassification (building literature) shower sitting room Système international dUnités sink seat store (-age) study
ter
tonne temperature tongued & grooved terrace
UDC UF UK USA
universal decimal classification utilisation factor United Kingdom United States of America
temp
T&G
USHB USPHS uty
United States Hospital Board United States Public Health Service utility room
V
volt
W w
watt width wardrobe/USA closet washroom water closet workroom working plane waiting room (orarea)
wa washr
wc workr wp wr yd yr
0
yard year centre line diameter greater than orequal to equal toor less than
BasicData
1
The human scale in architecture
1
LeonardodaVinci: ruleofproportion
In the past dimensions based on the human body, and on man's daily activities, provided a natural basis forall unitsof measurement.Common units like the inch — twelfth part of the foot, palm, hand, span, cubit — length of the forearm, eli — outstretched arm, yard — pace are directly related to dimensions of the body. Other units (pole, furlong, mile — pound, stone, bushel etc) have theirbasis in human activities.
While trade was largely local and manufacture on a craft basis, local variations in measurements were of limited importance.The growth of science and technology, and the establishment of centralised states, typified in 18th century France, led to a demand for rationalisafion of weights and measures. This the metric system, first adopted in 1790, met. It had ageodetic and decimal base, divorced from human dimensionsand fromthe duodecimal bases of many earlier systems
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the metric system went through several refinements asscientific knowledge about the physical world progressed. Out of these refinementsarose the 'Système International d'Unités'(SI) now almost universallyadopted. Architects' Data isbased onthe use of SI units—.p2 Architectural design remains largely about man and his spatial needs. The aim of Architects'Data is to bring together in convenient form dimensional and spatial planning information relating to most human activities. Thechange to SI which took place in the UK —and many other English-speaking countries — in the 1970s stimulated a fresh look at userrequirements and their dimensional framework. The introductionof SI in the USA during the 1980s will have asimilar effect
2 BasicData
Use of SI units The rationalisedmetric system Système InternationaldUnités (SI) isa
quantity
unit
symbol
length mass time el current
metre kilogram second ampere degreeKelvin candela
m kg
absolutetemp luminousintensity
s
A CK
cd
coherent system, nearly all the quantities needed being derived from only 6 basic and arbitrarily defined units—9(1). note:practicalunit for temp isdegreeCelsius(°C): temp intervalsofKelvin& Celsiusare identical
Basic units
1
name
symbol
orderofmagnitude expression
giga mega kilo hecto deca
G
10
deci centi milli micro nano
k h da d
1000000
1000 100 10 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000001 0.000000001
102 10
c
10 10
m
10
10
2 2 6
10
n
SUPPLEMENTARY& DERIVEDUNITS
1000000000
i0 i0
M
MUltiples & sub-multiples of SI units
2
name
physicalquantity
symbol
newton oule
N
work,energy,quantity
J
powerorenergyflow
watt
W
= kg m2/s3(orJ/s)
pressure,stress
pascal coulomb
Pa C V
of heat rate
el charge el potential el capitance el resistance
volt
frequency magneticflux magneticflux density inductance
luminousflux
farad ohm hertz weber telsa
F
henry
H urn lx
lumen lux
illumination
ft Hz Wb
T
From the 6 basic units others have been derived and mostly given special names —C(3). For use in design ofbldg thesefall into 5 groups: space and time —.(4); mechanics and properties of matter —.(5); heat and energy—C(6); acoustics and sound -(7);and illumination—.(8).El units, already well established, are also reproduced—C(3). Some multiples and sub-multipes of basic units in common use also have special names: litre 103m3 tonne 10 kg hectare 10 m2 Conversion factors & tables —.p364—81. Use of SI units—.Bib135
relation tobasicunits
= kgrn/S2 = kg m7/s2(orNm)
force
To avoid using largeorsmall numbers a set ofprefixes hasbeenagreed for general use in the SI system. These are set out—C(2). In selecting prefixesconsideration should be given toorders of magnitudelikelyto be met with in practical situations. To reduce confusion preference should begiven tomultiples and sub-multiples chosenin steps of1000. Those multiples shown in brackets—.(2)are not recommended.
name
temperature
°K degreeKelvin degreeCelsius CC
energy megajoule2 (heatisonly one torm kiloioule ofenergy) ioule
= kg/rns2(or N/ni2) = As = kg rn2/s3A(orW/A) = A2s4/kg m2 (orAs/V) = kg rn2/s3A2 (orV/A) = cycle/s = kg m2/s2A2(orVs) = kg/s2A(orWb/m2) = kg m2/s2A(Vs/A) = cd sr = cdsr*/rn2(orlrn/rn2)
millijoule megawatt kilowatt watt milliwatt k-value U-value newton/rn2
powerorheat flow rate (energy/time) conductivity transmittance vapourpressure vapourresistance (reciprocal of vapourdiffusion) vapourresistivity (reciprocal ot
* sr sferadianorsolid anglesubtended at centreofunitradius sphereby unit area ofsurface
symbol
Mi kJ
expression 1 °K
(273.15°K) 1000000 J 1000 J
J
1
mJ MW kW W mW
0.001 J
J
1000000W
1000W 1 W 0.001 W
W/mCC W/rn2°C N/m2(1 millibar= 100N/rn2) MN5/g
MNs/ m
vapourdiffusivityor permeability)
DerivedSI units
3
quantity
1
quantity
name
symbol
length
kilometre metre millimetre
km m mm
squarekilometre
km2
area
volume
velocity
hectare squaremetre squarecentimetre
ha
cubic metre litre kilometre/hr metre/second
m2 cm2
theabsoluteorKelvinscaleisusedin science andistheofficialSI scale butforall practical purposesCelsiusisused;
expression
1000rn
lm
2 1 therm
6 Energy,heat &thermalinsulation;technicaldatap16 393—4
0.001 m 1
000000 rn2
frequency
m3
1
m3
soundlevel1
decibel
dB
I
0.001 m3
km/h
0.218m/s
reverberation time2 absorption3
second sabin
T s
rn/s
1
rn/s
1 sound levels recorded usuallyasA-weightedsoundpressure inN/rn2 units: dB(A) 2 reverberation time = 0.16 V/AwhereV is volume of rrn in m3 & Ais totalsoundabsorption unitofabsorption, thesabin, = a x Swherea isthesound absorption coefficientofamaterial, Sitsar
I
mass
tonne
I
l000000g
Structuraldesign
Hz
cm2
expression
5
hertz (cycle/second)
m2
symbol
(force/area)
symbol
1
name
pressureor stress
name
1
quantity
(mass/acceleration)
quantity
10000m2
4 Space&time
force
approximates to 105.5 MJ
kilogram gram milligram
kg g mg
(1 000 kg) 1000g
ig
rAcousfics; technicaldata p18 395—7 quantity
name
symbol
luminousintensity luminousflux (flowof light)
candela lumen
cd
illurninance
lux
lm/m2
0.001 g
1000000 N meganewton MN kilonewton kN 1000N newton N iN (1 lbforce approximates to 4.5 N) Pa 1 N/rn2 Pascal (sometimes expressed as N/mm2)
rn
(lightfallingon surface) luminance
apostilb (light emittedby source) (candela/rn2)
8
Illumination; technicaldata p25—6398—9
cd/rn2
BasicData 3
Drawing sheets LAYOUT& IDENTIFICATION Layout: on every sheetfiling margin, titleand identification panel. Filing margin: at left hand edge 20 wide. Filing punch marks and foldmarks printed as ticksatedges ofsheet(microfilming—.p7).
--
Titlepanel: place in bottom right handcorner of sheet toaid reference when prints tiled or folded —(1)(2). Include: job title; drawing title; scale; date of drawing; job number; SfB and UDC reference if appropriate; name of architect. Panel may also give initialsof person drawing, tracing and checking sheet. USA panels—*(3).
Revision suffix should be changed each time drawing issued after revision; or list each revision as is USA practice. Printed blank title panels or use of stencils, transfers or rubber stamps save timeand labOur,
Information panel: note nature and date of each revision, with architect's initials; start atbottom ofpanel and workupwards Ifgeneral notes included start at top and workdown. Key: on large prolecfs give key diagram showing continuous drawing sheets, with appropriate partblacked inon each relevant drawing. Orientation: showN point on every plan. When practicable all plans should have same orientation, except for site location plan. For this draw N at fop ofsheetto avoid identificationwith official maps Information&title panels in USA a vertical arrangement bhorizontal 3
Al
A2 iniormaiion panei iuiiepanei
0 ('I
a
90
1
I
Typicaltitle panel: vertical
b
—Is
8
180
2 Typicaltitle panel: horizontal
BI
AO
4 Basic Data
Drawing sheets SIZES & FOLDS Standard sizes A0841
xl 189
Al 594 x
841
A2420x A3 297 x A4210x
594 420 297
These sizes all proportional, leading to simple reduction and enlargement: sheets may easily be folded tor filing and despatch. Relatively small sizes should lead to easier handling in drawing office and on site. Keepnumber ofsizesto mm toease binding and reference. Original drawings and contactcopies should each be ofstandard sizes; therefore avoid trimming sheets to less than A sizes.
Folding
Printsmay be folded toA4 size quite easily from any large A size. When prints are to be filed necessary to told in such way that punch holespenetrate only 1 layer. Methods offolding —.( 1)and p5.
I
I
—-. —--———.———.-
A0 841
———-
x 1189 -—
Al 594 x 841
A2
420 x 594
A2
430 x 594
A3
298 x 420 1
Simplefoldingofdrawings
BasicData 5
Drawing sheets SIZES & FOLDS
A0 841
x 1189
:' 105
IN'
//I I'//
/ >!
I I
I I
Al 594 x 841
=
105—
It H> V
A2
0)
20
420 x 594
A3
297 x 420
1
Foldingofdrawingsforfiling
0)
N-
420 x 594
A2
N-
rg
i
BasicData
6
Drawing practice Designer's principal languageis through drawingand draughtsmanship. Drawingsexpress his intentionsclearly.Theyare internationallyreadable. Supplemented by schedules and specifications of materialsand workmanship they enable quantities of materials needed and prices to be estimated, bids to be drawn up, work to be planned by builder and carriedout on construction site. Drawingsare principal meansbywhich designer'sintentions are discussed with clientand authorities.On basis of architect's drawings designs of specialists (eg structural, mech, el engineer) and work of specialist contractors can be planned and coordinated.
parts ofbldg &site
typeof
information
kxation I-i,
substructure
II!-h.-_ superstructure secondary elements
. -thJ-_--
foundation plan
4— finishes
In recent years much attention has been given to use of drawings and theircoordination —up7. Draughtsmanhas availablewide range ofinstruments and tools. Since first English edition of Architects' Data unprecedented developments in reprographic techniques and computer
seMces 111114__ fixtures
4-— Site
graphics.
WORKINGDRAWINGS assembly—1
[ L
(foundation
j
details
4— 4— 4— i— 4— 4—
Working drawings should convey bulk of technical information about bldg project. Builder needs to know 'shape', 'size'and 'location' ofbldg as whole and of all constitutent parts and must be told 'composition' of materials to be used and assembly and fastening methods (—v Bib 075 081). Grids on plans and key reference planes on elevations improve quality of dimensional information on working drawings; when repeated on details they help to locate them in bldg. Composition best dealt with in bills of quantities or specifications. Drawings and schedules should indicate materials used; graphic symbols may be used for this purpose
substructure superstructure secondary elements tinlehes services fixtures site
(—eBib142).
Theset ofdrawings
Two facetsof information used to classify information needed in structuring sets of drawings: first differentiates between location,assembly andcomponent information; second parts ofbldg and site-.-.(1).
substructure superstructure secondary elements firushes services fixtures site
—u(2) defines purposes oflocation,schedule, assembly and component
drawings. Not every type of these drawings will be required for 1 bldg proiect. Some types of drawings and some types of information may be in appropriate circumstances combined. BRE tests favour elemental breakdown of bldg for systematic and convenient arrangement of information. —x(3) shows universal list of elements with codenumbers based on Cl/SfBtable 1 —up8 (—uBib553) (not used in USA).
*there will beadditional drawingsdeafing withproject aswhole Arrangementoftheset
1
iocation
site&externai Works
therewill building be additional iocation drawings deahng with pro(ect as
to identify, locate & dimension the Site & externat works
toidentify, iocate & dimension parts & spaceswithinbldg & ioshow overaii shapes by plan,eievahon
(— —) site,project
to locategrids,datums S key
substructure superstructure
toconvey dimensions forsetting Out togiveotherinformation ofgenerai nature forwhichsmat scale is approriate (eqdoorswings)
ground primary secondary substructure eiements eiemenfs
orsection
reference planes
whole
(3—)
(4—)
togiveiocation & setting-out
(10)
(20)
(30)
cross-references
ioshow cross-references to
(it)
(2t(
(3t)
(4t)
ground
external wails
evternal openings
external
)t2)
(22) internal walls
(42)
(t3(
(23) floors
(32) internat openings (33) floor openings (34) baiustrades
information about 1 eiemerit. or groupofreiated elements
eiement:
tocolectrepetitive information
about elements orproducts which
eiement.
toshow assembiy ofparts of
f
element including shape size ofthoseparts toshow an element at its unction withanother element toshow cross-references to other assembly & component drawings
floorbeds
(t4) )t5) (t6)
(24) stairs, ramps (25)
internal
(43) floor (44) stair
(45) suspended ceiling ceitings (36) (46) (351
2
eiement or sub-elements
toshow shape, dimensions & assembly (&possibly composition) ofcomponent tobe made away frombldg toshow coinponent parts ofan inSitu assemblywhich cannotbe defined adequately onassembly drawing
Typeofdrawing& purpose
(5t)
(6—)
(7—)
(8—)
(9—)
mainly
lived
loose
external elements
(60)
(70)
(80)
(90) external works
(61) el suppiy
(it)
el
(81) (91) circulation circulation
(52) (62) drainage, power waste
(72) seating fixed
(82) seating loose
(92)
(53) liquid supply (54) gases supply
(73) culinary
(83) cutinary
(93)
(64) (74) communications sanitary
(84) sanitary
(94)
(65)
(75) cleaning
(851
(95)
(76) sto screening (77) special activity (78)
(86) (96) sf0 screening
(551
(63) hghting
space coohng
(17) piles
(27) roofs
(37) roof openings
(47) roof
(18)
(28) frames
138)
(48)
(581
3
site
fittings
(66) space transport heating (57) (67) ventitation
(261
foundations component
(5—)
element:
occurin variety torecord cross-references to assembly & component drawings assembty
(2—)
finishes mainly piped (40) (50)
schedules, assembly & component drawings schedute
(1—)
services
156)
Elemental breakdown(from Ct/SfBtable 1)
(68) security, control
cieaning
(87) special activity (88)
(97)
(98)
BasicData 7
Drawing practice WORKINGDRAWINGS(cont) Elementcode (stairs)
Numbering, titling&coding
—(1)shows simple numbering system, (—.BibO8l).Other information, suchas job number, or information relating drawing to particularblock, zoneor rm, best placed inseparate but adjacent block.
Sheetnumber
Titles should be brief but comprehensive. If drawing shows particular feature of element, this should be stated in title, If detail applies at particular location, thistoo should be stated—.(2). Schedules of components, finishes etc can be used as convenient collecting centres for cross-reference.
A(24)2 Assemblydrawings
Preparation oftechnical drawings formicrofilming 1
2
(4)(—.Bib128).
Title
Title
Assembly
Assembly
Stairs
Frame
Halflanding staircase No 3
Beamsongrid lines A & C
Drawings should be on smallest standard sheet size compatible with clarity. Drawing sheets larger than AO' should be avoided. Centring markin form of line should be shown at centre of each of 4 sides at drawing frame —.(3). Since size of copy printed back from microfilm usually different from size oforiginal reference to scale used should bestated on drawing: eg (original scale 1:5).
Titling designation
nominal size nominal
ofsheet
borderw
xl
AU
Al A2
A3 A4
554 x 801 400 x 574
long
297x
277x400
longside
420
210x297
10 10
International papersizes Derivation of ISO A series of paper sizes —.(5).
drawing frame preferred size orientation*
841 189 20 594 x 841 20 420 x 594 10
* To facilitate automated 3
Microfilming increasingly used for storing record drawings Drawing sizes —=(3) and mm character height for capital letters and numbers
Simplenumberingsystem
801 x
and folds—.p45.
1149
Scale ratios Introduction of metric
reduces number of scale ratios compared with USA traditional scales —(6).
horizontal
190x277
vertical
metricscales
traditionalscales
printing on rollstock
(expressed
asratio)
drawingsheetsize
Al, A2& A3
drawing number AU,
&title
dimensions & all other characters
mm
5
AU
3.5
& A4
4=10" 3=10" 2=10"
7
A4
Al, A2, A3
fullsize half full size
character h
11/2'' =
Mm
= 10''
/0=10 Al
AD
B41594
(1:250)
(limiteduse)
1'lO 1:20
[1:32] [1:48] 1:50 [1:60] [1:64] [1:96]
1:100
[1:196]
1=200"
[1:240]
= 10"
[1:384)
1" =400"
(limited use)
[1:8]
1"=lO'O" = 10" 1/16' = 10''
1/32"
(1:25)
1:5
[1:24]
1" = 5'O"
characterh forcapital letters&numerals
nochange nochange
[1:6]
= 10''
1/4''= 10''
1:2
[1:4]
10"
¾" = 10"
is
1:1
[1:2] [1:3]
[1:12] [1:16]
1/2''
note: it is stressed that recommendations in thistable aremm; however, whenlowercaselettersare usedthey should beproportioned sothatbody h approx 0.6 times capital letterh
[1:11
1=10" =
3/4
2.5
10''
[1:120] [1:128] 1:200
[1:480]
1:500
1" =500" 1" =600" ll89B41 geometricderivationof ISO 'A'senes constant ratio ofsides1:
'2 —
successivehalving ofsheet sizes lar ofADsheet 1 m)
1" = 1 chain
A3j 420
297
[1
1=800"
425
[1:600) [1:720] [1:792] [1:960]
1:1000
total:
24
9
1
(2)
5
ISOAseriesofinternationalpapersizes
6
remarks
preferred other
Drawingsheet sizes &framesizes application
Drawing sheets sizes
Metric&traditionalscaleratioscompared
8 BasicData
Drawing practice LEVELS
REFERENCING
General
Levelson section& elevation
Datum
should be prolectedbeyonddrawingwith arrowhead indicating appropriate tine—(1a).
Levels record distance of position above or below defined datum. Properlysurveys refer site elevationstodatumestablishedbygovernment on olticial maps. UK temporary bench mark tTBM) USA site bench mark establishes ptane to which atl other tevets related as positive it above' and negative if below Dimensions given in mm, or in USA rormatiy in ft and tenths of ft. in relation to datum
Levelson plan
On site diawings show existing levels ditterently fromintended levets
Existirrg contours showndotted new contoursin solidlines. Spot elevations ahown
existingleveL x 58.21 row level Ix 60.251 Exact position towhich level apptiesshould be indicated by 'x [root levels should be clearly indicatedon plans
UK Finished Floor Level
FFL
60.25
USA Finshed Floor Elevation FFE
60 25
UK practice usessame method as for tevets on plan except that level
Classification& coding
tn USA practice drawings used to show locations and dimensions ot btdg elements and materials identified in notes bygeneric terminology. Specifications accompanying drawings describe materials and workmanship. Widespread use of standard construction indexing system improved both coordination and reference between drawings and specifications and costestimating and product data StB system of classificationand coding ot btdg componentsand elements (applied in UK as Cl/StB —.Bib553(allows information be coordinated and correlated
By means of SfB information contained within different kinds of documents (eg billsof quantity,drawings, specifications,texts,frade literature) can be coordinated and correlated for max benefit of user. StB is facet system of alpha-numericalsymbols forming 3 tables which may be used individually or in combination to indicate concepts and terms required
Levels on sectior' arid elevation —l1).
These tables list: building elements, components/products, materials;
alsop6(3). FFL 107.0OO
01
lfirsifloor)
FFL 101.0001 G (ground floor)
G-01 mezzanine)
TBM 100.000, FFL datum
FFL 1O4.OO0 V
level
98.000
B-01 (basementl
V
Eachtype ofcomponent orelement shown ondrawing may be identified by appropriate StB notation eg: Ff2 concrete blocks Gf2 concrete lintels aluminium sections Hh4 hardwood sections Hi3 manholes (52) external walls (211 windows (31) doors (32) radiators (56) Notations may be combined eg: external walls, concrete block (21 (Ff2 windows, aluminium (31)Hh4 doors, hardwood (32)Hi3 Keep number and length of component and element notations to mm compatible with rational system of identificationforeach particular ob. Specific component within any range may be identified by suffix giving nominal sizesforlength, width, height: concreteblock Ff2400mmx 100mm x 200mm
- -.- --
i—
elevation9753 U
elevation secondfloor 6096
1L
Alternatively, where principles of modular coordination are applied, such suffix may give nominalsizes forcomponentorelement in multiples of 100mm(M( eg: concrete block Ff2 4M x 1M x 2M
0
C,-,
0-mezzanine
elevation3048 firsto I ground - floor eievaiion 00 'I,), varies groundlevel Igrade)
_____
I-)—.
Nexisting grade
elevarion 386r
b 1
Levelson section& elevation a UK
bUSA
Drawing practice references: —Bibtiography entries061 075081 082 095 127 128 135 142 290 322 448463553621 638
BasicData 9
Proportions MAN: THE UNIVERSALSTANDARD
1
Proportions of humanbody
Bodyand reach characteristicsotpeople of key importance inarchitectural design: fromearly time artists and scientists have been concerned with dimensions and proportions of human body —.(1). In such dimensional systems human body has been measured in terms ofhand, foot, arm or head. Using data from anthropometrical survey one can plot graphsofmeasurements againsttheirfrequency ofoccurrence forming curvedline —.(2). Normal, or bell-shaped, curve obtained when adult standing heights or other measurementswhich depend on bone structure shownon graph. Curve is symmetrical if measurementsof group normally distributed.
People by reason ofage, sex, physique and, possibly, disability show wide range of body and reach dimensions Anthropometry name used for science of measurement of human body and its movements in space. From studies of functional anatomy concept of effective work space has beendeveloped. Architects' Data brings together much of this information. Although for purposes of design usually necessary to use av human dimensions as criteria, should be borne in mind that only half or less of population under consideration may be fully satisfied. In somecircumstances, particularly when designing for young children, elderly or disabled, necessary totake account ofspecial needs, and of variations fromav. In stature adult femalesaverageabout 5% less than adult males and elderly women up to 1O% less.
sIandnlg6
7 78
3SD 76 75
2SD—74 1 SD
___________________ mean medrarc& node
—
mean
68
I SD
6
6€ 65 64
2SD'—
Semicurve
62
3SD—61 60
Q
1 2000 3000 4000 5000 Frequencynumbercr1 maies)
60 7000 8000 9000
Frequencydistributioncurveforstanding h USA males
10000
10 Basic Data
Proportions Systems ofproportions have been used in design byarchitectsthroughout the centuries. Measurementsof classical bldg show basis of geometrical proportion —.(1). '1
One frequently used proportionalrelationshipbasedon goldensection: relationship M:rn in which minor part m is to major part M as this is to sum of both ie:
m:M = M:(Mm)-.(2)
RELATIONTO HUMAN SCALE One architect to develop proportional system for use in design was Le Corbusier. His concept Le Modu/or (Bib445)was first publishedin 1948, though he had been evolvingthe ideaofcombininghuman dimensionsin a mathematicalframework for some time previouslyin an attempt to use in his designs a measure related tothe human scale which was universallyapplicable. System uses Golden Section to mark out divisions of human body —(3)(4). First proposal for Le Modulor was based on mans height of 1 720 (approx 5 ft 9 in), giving with outstretched arm —.(3) overall dimension of2160. Later height of6ffDin (orabout 1 830) was adopted, giving overall dimension of 2260 Based on these last dimensions 2 series, red progression and blue progression, were developed —.(6). Each dimension is proportionally larger, or smaller, than its neighbour giving harmonious progression. Using dimensions from the 2 series a series of rectangulargrids can be formed, basedon Golden Section but related tohuman scale.
1
CornerofDoruc templebased ongoldensection
1
I
1
\
\\
I-
/2
,
M
-
--\----/: / m
\'
4
'1
J j•
4
I
The modular
mA—M—Am-' 2160
5 Greektemplein plan&elevation based,as in—fl),on golden section dimensions inSI units inmm
dimensionsininches roundedto V2"
redprogression
redprogression
952807 588867 363940 224927 139013 85914 53098 32816 20282 12535
7747 4788 2959 1829 1130 698 432 267 165 102 63 39 24 15
9 6
3
Humanproportions
E
V2
Rectanglewith sides correspondingtogoldensection 2
a
6
biue progression 1177735 727880 449855 278025 171829 106196 65633 40563 25069 15494 9576 5918 3658 2260 1 397 863 534 330 204 126
blue progression
306
609
1881,
377
1161/2
44½
233 144 89
27½
55
17
34
10½
21
6½
13
72
4
8
78
48 30 18 11
Explanationsof dimensions&workingofLeCorbusier'smodular
Basic Data
11
Man DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS
co
Body measurements
(I)
—.(1 )—(20) showbody measurementsbasedon Europeandata.—(21 )— (26) show further body measurements based on USA data. School children —.p131—32.
1375
F—750—
—1
—625—-—f
a
a
'— 625
1—300-I
small easychair
for
sewin' I—
—
900—1000
17 I
1250
—1
1V
1500
I
19i
1625
i
201
2000
F—860-—
—710—
24
___
12
Basic Data
Man DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS Mm dimensions and space requirements of human beings in some common situations,basedon European measurements—.also p1 1 13 14
Space requirements between walls (for moving personsadd
h* 13751
4
1
2
i
875
1000 I
4
1150
4
3
1
Q% to w)
—
I
5
1700
--
6
-
I
2250
7
Space requirements of groups
9
8 Closelypacked
Normalspacing
10 Choir
11
12 Withshoulder loads
Waitingqueue
Step measurements
750-
4
750 —4 750
I-
-4
13
14
875
-
Marching
requirementsof variousbodypostures
r
f
875—-I—-- 875 -—-4
1250
4-—--
15
-
625 —4
2000
16 Max/rn
Strolling
=
6persons
0
H—1 125—1
I— 1000—H
17
18
4— 1125 —H
4_ 4—
875 —4
20
19
—1000 —I
4—
26
27
2125
21
b— 875—I
—1000 —4
4—-—- 1750
22
23
24
—---4
Space requirements with stick & umbrella
Spacerequirements for hand luggage
F—800 —4 25
4-—625--t
—4
—875-—1 28
BasicData
13
Man DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS: ACCESS FORWORKON BUILDINGS
min2450
+
—-
Bodyclearance: prone
1
1000 —4--
9
Service access: panel
t -$ rI(I mm
560
to 600
2 Body clearance: crawl
rnin
if00
1250
3
Lj
Bodyclearance: squat
mm
-+--900-+-
angle
0
W
50—55" 1620—1 570 57—60 1500—1450 63—66' 1370—1320 69—72' 1270—1200 74—55" 1150—1050
300
to350
10
4
recommended forangles 50" to 75" handrails required onboth sides ifrisers not left open orit nosidewalls w 500-600with handrails 600mm between sidewalls
Serviceaccess: catwalk
880 900 910 920 950
recommended riser 180—250 tread 75- 150 45 dia max forhandrail
Body clearance: stoop
13 Service access: step ladders
w# 5
Bodyclearance maintenance reachlevels
900 760
1550
stand
el1220
11 Service access. stairs
920
L1_-_600
mm entries for I man 330—450difficult 450—610 fair 61 0—920good
300
inclined
150 vertical
wmin800 1100
650dia 7
(800 square preferable) Service access: crawlway
ft mm
angle R
330 1150 335 1050 340 1000 950 350 850 360 900 850 875° 370 90.00 380 max 800 300
450dia or
Service access: hatch
Proportions references Bibliography entries 075 081 082 445
W
75.0° 78.0° 80.5° 83,0°
optimumrange
square
8
generally suitable forvertical movements75—90 ladder frame should extend900aboveplatform w 380mm. 450 desirable 600 mm between sidewalls 150 toe space
12
Service access. ramps
provide back guardover 6000h 14
Serviceaccess: rung ladders
14 Basic Data
Man WALKINGSPEEDS& FLOW CAPACITY —aIsop407
DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS NB Europeandata (1)—(7); USA (8)(9) Stairs Relation between riser and going for most normal staircases 2R: 1G = riser (not greater than 190, or tor elderly and ambulant disabled not more than 170: external steps 145 preferred) and G = going (not less than 240, orfor elderly and ambulantdisabled not less than 250: external steps 370 preferred). Av walking speeds on stairs lower than in corridors: generally laster down than up but in dense crowd down may be slower. Number of mis-steps increases as size of tread reduced: more accidents going downstairs than up. Design details -.p86(5) 408/3
where R
I—
625
-
Corridors& ramps Normalpaceofmale adult on horizontalplane 1
2
On ramp pace reduced: desirableslope 10%—8%
350—400
Factors affecting walking speeds on level footways (in oroutdoors): purpose ofjourney; age and sex; whether single person or in group: air temp(quicker in cold); floorsurface; whether carrying weight; crowd density: flow pattern. Walking speeds vary within crowd; range between highest and lowest speed can be equal to mean value.
a 3
Tread&riseproportionrule-ofthumb:going + twicerise = 600
4 Ifstairs narroworcurved distanceof walklinefromouterstring 450—400
Limit of free flow conditions in corridors: approx 0.3 P/rn2; higher densities limit individual's ability walkat natural speed and overtake. At density 1.4 P/rn2 (commonly adopted design max) most people will be
walking atless than natural speed and feel some discomfort Short length of slope in level toofway scarcely affects walking speed; 5%). Steeper ramps can reduce similarly for low gradient ramps speed markedly: eg by20% with 10% gradient,40% with 15% gradient. Elderly and disabled (—.p85(2) 87(11)) generally walk more slowly down than up ramp (gradient 8%). Design details —op407.
(
Doors
With heavy trafficspeed offlow through doors depends on type of user (eg old/young, carrying weight) and on density of traffic each side of door. For heavy 2-waytraffic 2 separateopenings desirable. Design details op401 —2.
Elevators
Traffic capacity determined by analysisofflowpattern—op410—12
5 If stairswide &straightdistance ofwalk line fromhandrail550
6
W ofstairsallowing2peopleto
pass
w same
as
stairs 2030
mm
970 5—15
7
W ofstairsallowing3peopleto meet &pass
8
Stairs:USA dimensions
9
Ramp: USA dimensions
Basic Data 15
Man & his buildings Bldg shelter man against unwanted effects of weather, A principal functionof their design is to ensure within bldg environment conducive towell-being and efficiency. Severalphysicalvariablestogether involved in determining whether environment is, or is not, acceptable for 1 or more human activities. There are indices which combine in various ways physical variables which relate to human responses; 3 of these indices relate to: thermal comfort, visual efficiency, acceptable levels of noise—p16 17 18. Quality of air must be acceptable,not containing contaminants whichmay be unpleasantoreven harmful.
constituentgas
% byvolume
nitrogen oxygen
78.08 20.94 0.03 0.95
carbondioxide argon & othergases
Compositionofdryatmosphere
1
source
contaminants
physiological
C02,H20,bodyodour
combustion(fullyburntfuels) combustion(unburntor partially burntfuels) householdactivities tobaccosmoking
C02,H20,S02 C0,CH4, petrolvapour
H70,odours GO, odours, irritants
2 Commoncontaminantsofair
Qualityofair
Fresh air in open country consists largely of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapourand small amounts ofothergases. Amount ofwater vapour in air always changing. Composition ofdry air—(1). Outside air may be polluted by contaminants released from industrial processes, burning of fossil fuelsfor heatingortransportation,dust etc. Indoor air may also be polluted —(2). Rates.at which contaminants produced vary in part according to kinds of activity going on—(3)—(5). Limiting values of common contaminants—(6). Odours, mainly body odourand consequences of tobacco smoking, present special problem: consist oflarge number ofconstituent chemicals in small but variable proportions. Attempts to define and measure odours chemicallyusually unsuccessful.In general tobaccoodour masks body odour. Withnearly all odours effects become rapidly less noticed after few minutes in conthminatedspace. Fresh air supply needed to maintain body odour at satisfactory level depends upon standards of personal hygiene. Different for adults and children —.(7). For tobacco odourconditions, habits and patterns of occupancy vary greatly. Ventilation requirements for offices depend on whether office space small (when may be assumed all occupants smoke) or large open-plan (when on avonly 50% or less will be smokers)—(8).
Air quality may be maintained in 3 ways: by controlling production of a contaminant, venting anyresidue toopenair; bydiluting contaminant by bringing in outdoor airthrough windows,ventilatorsetc;byreplacingused and contaminated airmechanically through system ofairconditioning. For exact conditions check relevant codes and standards.
contaminant
activity
C02(l/s/P) resting
light work moderatework heavywork very heavy work
H20 (water vapour) g/s/P
0.004 0.006—0.013 0.013—0.02 0.02—0.026 0.026—0 032
a
0
30 40
112
a >
40
0. 0.
40
40
to
a
3
Ratesofproduction of physiologicalcontaminants
activity
H20 g/day/household
cooking
3000 1000 1000 500
bathing dish washing clotheswashing
clothesdrying
4
a
5000(automatic dryersto beventedtooutside)
C.
a a
Ratesof productionofwatervapour(H20)fromhousehold activities
C.
0. fuel
a a
contaminant water vapour(H20) SO2 l/s/kW g/hr/kW l/s/kW CO2
naturalgas kerosene lowpressure gas
[co of 5 Rates
0.027 0.034
156 96
— 8.9 x
0.033
130
—
0.8 I/s/cigarettecarbonmonoxide (00)
production
contaminant
methane propane butane acetylene hydrogen petrol(gasoline) 6
occupationdensily m'/P
7
Airsupply rateforodour achildren badults: 1 conditionsregarded as goodby occupants&acceptableto visitors 2intermediate3conditions objectionabletovisitorsbutstill bearablebyoccupants
ofcontaminants bycombustion & smoking
.?
0.5
0.005 0.0005 30 30 30
302 30 0.1
Co2
'
C) C
%
a
limitingconcentration % toxicity
carbondioxide carbonmonoxide sulphurdioxide
10
C.,
2 flammability
—
C
o
120—75.0
—
5.0—15.0 2.0—9.5 15—8.5 2.5—8.2 4.0—7.4 1.4—7.6
Limitingvaluesof commoncontaminants
,.
7bodyodour
\.' \'\
/[
watervapour
\t \ \\ X \
\( \
— tobacco smoke (smalloff)
\J(o(n-plan)
S
E a > 0
8
\
2
I I 4 6 8 floor space/P: my/P
10
12
Ventilationrequirementsforoff: verticaldottedline shows lowerlimitas definedbyUKOffices&Shops&RailwayPremises Act (assuming ceilinghof 2.7m)
16 BasicData
Man & his buildings THERMALCOMFORT Am temp required for thermal comtort depends on occupantsactivity and clothing worn Also depends on speedotairmovement and on hum of air in temperate climates only to a small extentl
0
"or purpose ot specifying comfortable temp 4 levels of activity have been suggested —f t) Also convenient to divide clothing worn into categories according to insulation which it affords, this being specitied in the unit 'do': 1 'do' 0.155 ci" C/W. Exceptforbedctothing modern indoor clothing rarely exceeds insulationvalue 1 do —.(2)
o Eo 0 o IS
ri terms ofcomtort people atfected almost as much by tempolsurfaces which surround them as by that of air. 1 way ot specitying combined affect of air and surface tempis by use of tempof globethermometer - 13) However, if little ditference in rm between globe and air temp (as happens in well insulated rm) air temp may be adequate measure ot thermal conditions
monthly mean outdoor temp 'C
Preferredindoortemp:USAtemprange greater. say —50"— +43C;for interpretation—.text
4
Important to distinguish between ventilationrateswhich affect airquality by diluting contaminants and air movement which may aIled thermal comfort. If air movement in rm exceeds about 0.2 m/s, higher rm temp required to provide equivalenl comfort. In normal temperate environrnenl effect of hum on perceived warmth very slight: but it people very hellosduringvery active work or in very warm environment) high hum will aggravate discomfort Air movement overskin will be beneticial Nb particular level of tempwill be satisfactory for everybody. Not only will dress and degree activity vary, but people differ in requirements.
L'sually adequate maintaintemp within 2 Cofoptimum. While no importoot general ditterence between temp preterred by men or women, yaung or old, there will bedifferences in part due toclothing and in part toactivity Old people usually less active Children ofsecondary school ade require similar temp to adults. but more tolerant ot variations. Younger children even more tolerant and, being more active, prefer lower temp 1 tudor intluencing clothing people wear is prevailing outdoor temp For sedentary activities, carried out by people in their isual clothing, preferred indoor temp generally lie within bands shown — )4). Band A for bldg where heating,orcooling, plant operating: band B toi free running' bldg iewhere no artificialmeans for heating orcooling used; thermostat seftings USA: C (cooling in summer) D winter. shows baseline thermal comfort chartbased on USA data
0 .0 0 .0 a)
(5)
Heating systems --.p385--91 ventilation 392 rateof metabolic heat produced. W/m2bodyar
activity
description
sleeping
bodyrelaxed, lying down, reclining
sitting standing active
reading, typing, clerical work little movement (eg serving at counter) whole bodymoving'walking. bedmaking
40 50—60 65—90 90—130
'typical surfacear01 male bodies 1 8rn',female1 6rn Levelsofactivityusualinbldg
1
insulation value: do1
clothing description nude light normal
naked orlight underwear summer dress trousers & shirt winterdress,skirt & lumper,
3-piecesuit 1
zero 0.3—0 7 0.8—1.2
dlo—O 155m C/W
2 Categoriesof clothingwornindoors
clothing activity sleeping
sitting
standing
active'
nude
31
28
29 27
29 26 23
25
light normal
21
18 13
17
estimates subtedt to degreeofuncertainty
3
Comfortablerm tempinstill air: C in globetemp
drybulb) C)
5
Baselinethermal comfort chartbased on USA data
BasicData 17
Man & his buildings task
design illuminance (lux)
circulation
(foot-candle)
150
13.935
casualworkofshortduration 200' 18.5806 routinework (youngpeople) 3001? 27.8709 routinework eg in ott 5002 46.4515 750? 69 6773 demanding workegindrawing oft fine workegtextileprocessing 1000? 92.9031 1 500:' 139.3546 very fineworkeghandengraving minuteworkeginspectionofveryfineassembly 3500 278 7093
'it area windowlessnext higherlevel recommended 2
where retlectances of surfaces unusually low orerrorsintask have seriousconsequences nexthigherlevel recommended: where taskof shortdurationlowerlevel maybeacceptable 1
Designilluminances forcommontasks'illuminance -.p2526 task
max valueof glare index
demanding routine
16 19
28
demanding
5 2 0.5
routine casual
Mm
&circulation
DFforcertain
Important are quantity of light (illuminance)and glare,also reflectances of surfaces beinglit—.p25—6398.The task,and its relative importance against lighting its background and the whole space, determine Ilumi-
nance. Design illuminances, w mean illuminance over mainfenance cycle of lighting system, forcommon tasks —.(1). Visibility oftaskdepends ondirection ofincident light aswellas quantity Harsh shadows, and glare from bright or very bright light source or its reflection, undesirable. Glare can impair vision. But some shadowing helps perception of textures and shapes.
Daylighting—*p27—32 Windows in bldg have 2 main visual functions: to let light in during
Recommendedmax valuesof glareindex minDF%
Artificial lighting
Surface reflectances and colour of surfaces affect general brightness and distribution of light in rm,
25
task
Visual performance depends on total perception of space: involves quality of lightas well astotal amount. Indices tocoverdifferent aspects of lightinghave been developed. Theydistinguish between artificialand daylighting.
Discomfort glare arises when luminaires and other sources of light too bright in contrast with general background. Degree of discomfort indicated by glare index, recommended max values beingdetermined by task: the more demanding thetask the lower thevalue acceptable—(2)
routineforshortduration 22 casual circulation
VISUAL EFFICIENCY
daylight hours and to enable people to see out—or in. Theypermit entry into a bldg of solar energy direct, by absorption and reradiation by atmosphere, and by reflection fromsunlit surfaces.Windowsalso source of heat loss. Choice of window basic to architectural design - .p4O3—6
As source of illuminationdaylight hasmany pleasantdirectionalqualities. Its quantity varies with outside conditions and is specified in terms of DF; ie ratioof infernalto externaldaylightlevels—.p26—7. For lightingtasks mm DF specified, based on percentages of typical working year that required lask illuminance will beexceeded - l3)
types of task
COLOUR Colour in bldg is both aid to vision and meansbywhich architect creates pleasant, stimulating appearance. Good colouring and good lighting interdependent. Common practice of describing colours byarbitrary namesdeprecated. Several systems for classifying colours. One such, standardised by CIE, based on 3 physical attributes(wavelength, purify, luminance), widelyused in colour lab but less suitable for architectural design than American Munsell system, basedon 'value' (lightness). 'chroma' (saturation ofpigment, or strength(. 'hue'. Munsell 'hue' scale includes 10 major 'hue' regions, each sub-divided —.141(5). Major 'hue' regions denoted by initials, positions in region by numbers eg 7.5RP denotes reddish red-purple hue In UK attribute 'greyness' replacing that of 'value' or lightness. 5 distinct categories used:grey: nearly grey: grey-clear: nearly clear: clear. For use in design of lighting possible to determine fromMunsell value approx equivalent reflection factor independent of hue' or 'chroma' —(6l Hue planes —p18l1).
4 Munsellhue scale stepsinall)
10 namedhue bandswith 10stepsin each (100hue
75PB
501' perfect
N 2 4 6 810121416
white
white
9 8
ii....._ •IU UUI
7 6
UUU
UI• UU
III I
3 2
•
._ II
8 7
.
-
UIUI
•••ii 5 iUUIUIUU 4 UI..... 6
' U.. I
9)5
-
N 2 4 6 810121416 perfect - -
••••••• UIIUI
>3
2
-.
. perfect perfect black N 2 4 68 10121416 black chroma
N
._____ 2 4 6 810121416 chroma
5
Vertical '/2-sectionsthroughMunsellsolid at aparticularyellow(5Yl & particularpurple-bluehue (7.5 PB) withneutral axiscommonto both filled rectanglesindicateapproxscopeof colourpatches in Munsell atlas
6
Munsellvalue
reflection factor%
very light
9—9.5
light middle dark verydark
7—8
5—6
72—84 42—56 20—30
3—4 1—2
6—12 1.5—2
ReflectionfactorequivalentstoMunsell value
18 Basic Data
Man & his buildings PATTERN& TEXTURE Many bldg materials have texturedorcolour-patternedfinishes. Patterns large in scale, with clearly distinguishableelements, allow each element to be related to an individual colour. But if pattern small-scale, only dominant or composite colour stands out. As scale reduced, eg by increasing viewing distance,strong contrastsin colourlose effectiveness. Changes in appearance with distance valued characteristic of such natural materials as marbles, grained timber, multi-coloured brickwork. Subtleties of colour and texture, apparent closeto, give way to overall pattern viewed at middle distance. Atstill greater, become fused into 1 composite colour.
NOISE & ACOUSTICS High levels ofnoise can leadtodamagetohearing. At lower levels noise interferes withverbal communication.At still lower levels noise may be disturbing orannoying. Acoustic design controls intrusive noise and by choiceof materials, dimensions and shapeofauditorium speechand/or music to be enjoyed. Many noise indices available forpredicting noise effects. Formany bldg
I
distancebetween talker &listenerm
1
2 4
normalvoicedB(A)
raisedvoice
57
62 56 50 44
51
45 39
8
note:for telephoneuselevel 0150dB(A) 55 dB(A) LU,, maygive occasional difficulty 2
and environmental situations equivalent continuous sound level (Leq) expressed in dB(A) is adequate predictor. Exposureto high levels on noise results in hazard to hearing. Upper limit of 90dB(A)Leq has been suggested for8-hourworking day.
DiagramofMunsellsolidwith indications of 4hueplanes: —.p17
L
Interference with speech communication from intrusive noise depends ondistance between talkerand listener, and onwhether voicenormalor raised —n(2). Degree of annoyance from intrusive noise depends on number of factors, particularly typeof use and task being carried out—.(3). Sound insulation —np395—7
satisfactory:
SENSITIVITYTOVIBRATION Frequencies of vibrations encountered in bldg lie mostly in range 5—50 Hz. When frequency exceeds approx 20—30 Hz passes into audible range. Ifenergysufficient, /e above thresholdofaudibility ofsound in air, vibration will be heard as sound.
Max intrusivenoiselevelpermittingreliable conversation typeofspace &task
noiselevel
auditoriarequiringvery goodlistening conditions smallaudiforia,conference & lecture rm bedr & forsleepingorresting smalloff,classr& for listeningto radio largeoff commercial premises, restaurants typing pools, lab, machine rm
20_3D 30_352 30—40 40—45 45—50 50—55
dB(A)L
At certain frequencies amplitude small as 1 micron (0.001 mm)can be detected byhuman occupantsthough inaudible.Dependingon frequency and amplitude vibration may be imperceptible or painful —n(4).
maxpeaklevel of intrusivenoise: needforspecialistadvice maxprovidedintrusivenoisefairlysteady higherintrusivenoiselevelsmay beaccepted where thereare high levels of machinery in space
: \ i \ iii__
3 Recommendedmax intrusive noiselevels 4
1
100
a)
68
4 i
I
6 8 —r—r
2
1
4
I
:E N ariperceptibie
s.,
-
..L_L L
\I\
ust cieariy _ percepilbie perceptibk.
—-
10
annoying
..unpieaSant
'
I
i
LJ
.J.
6
r1
8 1
I
4
2
.
."
I
8 6
6 4
JJ 103
arrpiitude _________________________________________________________
4
Humansensitivity:ReiherMeisterscale (verticalvibrations)
BasicData 19
Man & his buildings ACCESS & CIRCULATION Space required around for access and circulation of people, prams, wheelchairs, trolleys(carts) etc. Access to bldg or groups of bldg also for private cars, delivery vans, moving vans, trucks etc. Space may be required forparking, shortor long term. Separatespace may be required for parking orsf0 of2-wheel vehicles: bicycles, mopeds, motor cycles.
Shared surfaces Usualto separate circulation of pedestrians and powered vehicles, but in certain situations (eg shortculs-de-sac giving access to dwellings, car parks) shared surfaces may be adopted. Their design should be based on:
startof shared surface clearly distinguished fromnormal carriagewayby changeintextureor surface orchange in level; number ofvehicles using shared surface should be limited;
design should ensure adequatevisibility butdiscouragevehicle speeds; parking spaces clearly marked; provide clear zone free from parked cars to allow vehicles and pedestrians to circulate comfortably; shared surfaces should beadequately litafter dark.
Footways
To design footways —*(1)—(5) safe, convenient and secure necessary ensurethatthey: provideshortest routes between dwellings and community services; are keptseparate fromheavily trafficked roads; have easiest practicalgradients; are protected from wind and driving rain; are wideenough toavoid needforpedestrianswhen passing to step out intocarriagewayoronplantedareasand, wherenecessary,foroccasional access by emergency vehicles, egambulances. Paths & sidewalks also—.p4385 106
2 Wof800 allowspramsorwheel-
chairstopassthroughnarrowest point; 1 800 allowspassingoneither side ofnarrowestpoint
W of 1 200 allowsprams& wheelchairsto proceed in comfort & pedestriansto passeachother; wideningto 1 800 at entrances to curtilagesallowsall usersto passin 4
comfort
3 Wof 1350 allowsprams&
wheelchairstoproceed& pedestrianstopasseach otherin comfort; wideningto 1800 beyond narrowedpoint allowsall users to passincomfort
5 1 Spaces required forvarious types ofpedestrian movement
At entrancestoprivatedrives or parkingspaceswof800 carried throughat footwaylevelenables prams& wheelchairstoavoidramps & droppedkerbs
-4-
U) C-)
ci
20 BasicData
Man & his buildings ROADWAYS —.USA standards p21
—accessp41—3 Size and geometric characteristicsofvehicles determine dimensions of roadways, lunctons,turning and parking spaces. Special requirements
for bldg serving commerce and industry. Not all types ofvehicles likely to use residential roads. Those which do may not need access to all partsofsite. In addition to private cars 3 types ofvehicle may generally 1
be expected in residentialareas:furniture removalvans; refusecollection vehicles; and fire engines-..(1)—(3)—.p24.
Furnitureremovalvan
Space required forthesevehicles to move and manoeuvredepends on context within which they operate. For major roads national highway authorities lay down max permitted dimensions, axle loads and turning circles. They recommend road widths, sightlines and other characteristics of major urban and rural roads. On residential roads traffic flows light and sometolerancein dimensions acceptable, egtopreserve existing features. Roadwidths narrowerthan 5500acceptable —(4)—(7). 2
Parking provision conditions adequacy ofroad width. Where roadsgive
Refusecollectionvehicle
direct access to dwellings and parking spaces roadways likely to be
used for casual parking. Where this does not happen widths largely determined byconsiderations of movingtraffic. Narrowedsections may be used to discourage parking where there is danger at pedestrian crossing —.(8) (rare in USA). Allowance must be made for increase in width of larger vehicles at bends and fortheirturning and manoeuvreing—(9).
3
NB diagrams on this page apply for left hand circulation; for USA dimensions and reg—p2l250
Fireengine
a
1•
Normallymaxwforresidential traffic5500:allowsallvehicles to passone anotherwith overalltolerananceof500forlargestvehicle 4
4000
5
Carriageway 4800allowswidecar&furnitureremovalvantopasseach otherwithoveralltoleranceof500butistoonarrowtoallowfreemovement of largevehicles
...
r v......
4100
____
___
5500
::X :::.:::.:;:::::::::::::. :•:•:•:•:•:•::•:-:•::•:-:•:•:-:::::S..
6 At4100 carriagewayistoonarrowforlargevansto passvehicles other
than cyclists; carscan passeach otherwith overall toleranceof 500; below thiswcarriagewaytoonarrowto passeach othercomfortably
rr:in 7
i
In
5500 350
W of 3000mm between passingbaysinsingle-track system
2180
_-8
Parkingshouldbediscouragedat pedestrian crossing
1 720
9
Vehicleturningthrough90 afurniturevan b refusevehicle cfire appliance dprivatecar
Basic Data
21
Man and his buildings ROADWAYS In USA roads described as follows:
Limited access freeways: 1 000—1 300vehicles/lane/hr (highspeed) 2000 vehicles/lane/hr (slower speed) Arterial highways: 600—800vehicles/lane/hr (open road) 400—500vehicles/lane/hr (withtrafficsignals, parking intersections)
Design of roads should include estimating trafficflows and impact of development on adjacent roadways. Large vehicle dimensions —*(1)
Garage entrances
—.(2) shows dimensions forentrances toprivate garages and gradients for road to garage ramps. —(3)shows recommended dimensions for entrances to pay garages or carparks. Privategarage—pl00—2.
NB: diagrams on this pageapply to trafficcirculation on right
Collectors: 100—250trips/lane/hr (6206 mm for 2lanes residential)
Private roads: 6706 for2 lanes (5486mm) 3962 for 1 lane (3048mm) Note: city busesrequire 6858 road for right angle turnfromright lane. Narrow roadwithpassing bays—.p20notused in USA: occasionallyon private sites.Single lane provided to remote service area (andturning space). Driveways forprivate houses recommended width 3353. Turninglanes frequently used toprevent back up oftraffic at controlled intersections or forslowing down at exits fromfreeways.
I
w
overhang rear(OR)
2.7 2.6 2.4
3.1
school bus
13.7 12.2 12.04
ambulance
6.5
2.1
paramedicvan
5.5
2.0
hearse
6.5
airport limousine trashtruck UPStruck firetruck
6.9 8.6
2.1 1.9
1.6 1.5 1.6 0.9 1.8 2.5 3.0
vehicle
intercitybus
citybus
1
7.1
9.6
2.4 2.3 2.5
2.0
3.9
Largevehiclesapproxdimensions; exactsizes mayvary
straightin— backout 900 in—backout(1 car)
2
Gar entranceswithgradientsforramps
22 Basic Data
Man & his buildings PARKING
A
A
A___t_
Basisor layout of vehicle parking spaces in parking bay ranges from 1 800 x 4600to 2400 x 6000. Largerbaydimensions usuallyadopted for open air parking, or where high proportion of larger cars and vans likely use. While 900 parking more economical in space requirement (20—22m2/car)450parking (23—26 m2/car)more convenient—*(1)—(3). Vehiclelengths —*p2024251 Vehicle parking spaces for disabled persons should be wider. For semi-ambulant persons bay widths should be increased to 2700 or better2800; forwheelchair users 3000—3100—op85 166(3).
1
Parallel parking
USA parking spaces vary; depending onzoning ordinances—op250.
A
c
B
' A
\ 2
450 parking
A
NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficcirculation onthe left
4600 2200—2300 5500 2400
mnbldg 5800 inopen 6100—6700
B
C
A
__-
D
USA mm 18.3 20.0 preferred
H
0
E
F
inbldg 3000 4600 2300 3260 5000 2800 in open 3390 5500 2400 3890 5500 2800—3000
3 90°parking A
B
inbldg inopen
4600 2300 5500 2400
C
D
E
F 6000 6100—6700
VEHICLETURNINGSPACES a
c
4
Full lockforward: afurniturevan
bcar c refusevehicle dfireappliance
5
Fulllock reverse: afurniturevan
bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance
BasicData 23
Man & his buildings PARKING:VEHICLETURNINGSPACES NB diagramson this pageapply totrafficcirculation on the left
Vehiclelengths —*p2024 a
b
C
d
C
d
1 Hammerhead,Tform: afurniturevan bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance b
a
2
Hammerhead,Vform: afurniturevan
a
3
Forwardside turn: afurniturevan
bcar C refusevehicle dfire appliance b
d
b(c Reverseside turn: afurniturevan
d
bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance
a
4
C
bcar crefusevehicle d fireappliance
24 Basic Data
Man & his buildings ROADVEHICLES
Typicaldimensions 45' 0"intercity bus (USAdimensions) 40' 0"citybus (USA dimensions) 39' 6' schoolbus (USA dimensions)
Iii
E 1-755÷755--I
311
_ ___
1)
'\USA wheel location
—n--fl---
10973
_______ 1
LiLLLdi I
Coachfor49passengers:seating layoutsvaryaccordingto use intended
fm5\
r?*M r
11
4216 18'2" (USA)
11
USA wheel location
2
12-seaterminibus/largevan
'
3
I
C')
Large car
Cl)io
c'J
II-'-
T
16' 11" (USA)
Cl)
Li
'
USA wheel location
4 Carinmiddle range; USAstandard
Cl)
II' 6 Man& his
references.
Minicar
buildings --BibIiography entries 086 256 445 557
5
Small(compact)car
Basic Data 25
Lighting Lighting inside a bldg must fulfil 2 functions: (a)to illuminatethe interior and itscontents; (b) where there issometask, egreading,performing a delicate movement, walking up or down stairs, to illuminate the task appropriately and to appropriate extent so that visual mechanism can function athigh levelof efficiency. When visual tasks might needtobecarried out anywhere ininterior bldg lighting and task lighting may be provided bysame installation.Where tasks always carried out at some fixed location, eg work points on benches or at desks, less energy may be used by providing necessary task illuminance through bench or desk lights, or localised overhead lightingcombined with lower illuminance from general lighting (but not less than 200 lux) to providethesurroundingvisualenvironment—*(1)(2). (Forstandard techniques and design rules —Bib383 387).
A
goodcolourrenderinglamps
appearance
lamptype
warm
deluxewarm
of light
sottone27 deluxenatural
intermediate
U
*FH-J1
emphasised: forhomes, restaurants, hotels goodon allcolours, emphasis on red:forshops, particularly food displays including meat reasonably goodon most colours, subduedeepred:
65
100
foroff, dept stores
goodonall colours: for
graphicA47
60
complieswith BS 950 pt 2 for critical workingraphic
natural
70
arts emphasises yellows:for off,dept stores,shops
northlight,
65
filament lamps
0
cool
Arrangementsof lightsourcesfortask lighting inoff
similartoincandescent light and blendwell withit;yellow
65
kolorite,
trucolor37
fluorescent tubes
70
white,
colour84, plus white
E
efficacy relative to 'white' lamp
colour
display, shops, clinical areasinhospitals, museums
similartonorthskydaylight, emphasises blues: for blending with daylightbut give 'cold' effectexcept at
matching .
general illumination
:
artificial daylight
high illuminance complies withBS 950 pt 1: critical colourmatching
5
B high efficacylamps warm white
warm
100
blue distorted, red
subdued,yellow &green emphasised:
........ 2
Artificiallight
intermediate
white
intermediate
daylight
100 90
forfactories
similar toabove but less 'warm'
red subdued,yellow& greenemphasised: blends acceptably withdaylight
Notes 1 othertypes of lamp are madeforspecial purposes, eg decorative colours:forreprography, horticulture, aquaria, ultravioletradiation; 2circuitefficacyof'white' lamp (ieincludingballast) canbe45—65lmIW dependingonwattage; 3propertiesof lamps change inconsequence ofdevelopmentsby manufacturers who should alwaysbeasked for up-to-dateinformation
DEFINITIONS
Luminousflux: lumen Radiant poweremitted fromsource evaluatedin terms ofitsvisual effect is called luminous flux and measured in lumens. Effectiveness in converting input power (measured in watts) to lumens iscalled the efficacy and expressed in lumen/W. —(3) shows relative efficacy and some differentlamp types.
3
Propertiesoffluorescentlamps givingsubstantially white light
Illuminance:lux
Amount of luminous flux falling on unit area of surface is called illuminance, measured in lux (1 lumen/m2) (symbolE). Illuminancecannotbe directlyappreciated byeye, which seeseffect ofilluminance in making surface ofobject more or less bright according to magnitude of illuminance and reflecting power ofsurface,
ceilings 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5
white emulsion paint on plainplastersurface white emulsion paint on acoustic tile white emulsion painton no-finesconcrete white emulsion paint on wood-woolslab
Reflectance
walls
white emulsion painton plain plastersurface; white
Some surfaces reflect lightdiffusely, eg blotting paper, some with very little spread(specularly), eg mirror. Most decorated rm surfaces reflect nearly diffuselywith greater or less degree ofgloss, so that brightness depends to some extent on relationship between angle of light and angleofviewing.
The higher the reflectances of surfaces in an interior the less the absorption oflight and thelowerthe powertoprovide agiven illuminance. Lightcolouredcurtains drawnoverwindows at night reduce lossof light.
0.8
glazed tiles white asbestos cementsheet;concrete,lightgrey; Portlandcement,smooth 0.3 bricks,fletton 0.25 concrete,lightgrey;Portlandcement,rough (asboard marked) timberpanelling: lightoak,mahogany, gaboon 0.2 timberpanelling: teak, afromosia, medium oak 0.15 brick, blue engineering
Reflecting power expressed as reflectance (symbol p), on a scale on which 1 is max value achieved by perfect reflector, 0 value of perfect absorber and 0.2 reflectance of medium grey. Reflectanceof coloured surface related to visual effect of light reflected. For reflectances of sometypical surfaces—(4).
0.4
floors
0.35 0.25 0.2 0. t
timber:birch, beech, maple timber: oak timber: iroko, kerning quarrytiles: red,heather brown
4 Approx reflectances of typicalbldgfinishes
26 Basic Data
Lighting DEFINITIONS(cont)
Colour: Munsell system—*pl 7—18
Munsell system convenient and commonly used way
of describing
colour of surface in terms of hue (position in colour circle), chroma (paleness or fullness ofcolour) and value. Value correspondsto reflectance, approx given by: reflectance
= value (value — 1) 100
(—Bib1 00)
Luminance:apostilbor candela/rn2
azi
cos46 BZ2 cos3a
BZ3 BZ4 BZ5 BZ6 Bz7 BZ8 BZ9
cos2
cos'5 cos(
1+2cos6
2+cos)
constant
i+sin5
BZ1O sinO
Mathematically physical brightness orluminance (symbol L)ofdiffusing surface isproduct of illuminanceand reflectance,sothat L = EP, and ifE is inlux Lisilluminance inapostilb.Alternative unitis candelapersquare metre(cd/m2) whichisSI unit—p2and equal to,rapostilb. Note: calculation of luminance not needed in routine lighting design asstandardmethods(—48ib383387) prescribeilluminance
andreflectanceseparately.
Maintenance factor (MF) Maintenance factor is proportion (expressed as decimal) ofinitial illuminance towhichilluminancefalls mid-way between cleaningand relamping periods. In design lighting design lumens are used for the lamp, which is av light output through life. MF therefore refers to dirtying of luminaires, rm surfaces and sources only:for interiors and installations maintained in avstate ofcleanliness maybetaken as0.8. Forthosetobe kept in specially clean condition take 0.9; for those which may be allowed tobecome dirtier than avtake 0.7 —nilluminance below.
Utilisationfactor (UF)
Intensitydistributioncurveswith BritishZonal(BZ)classification
1
roomindex 1.0—1.6
Roomindex(RI) 2.5
4.0
direct &semi-directlighting (BZ1—3,25% upward light) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 floorcavityreflectance 2.8 2.4 2.1 2.6 2.3 2.05 2.5 2.2 2.0 E(h)1E8 general diffusedlighting (BZ4—10,
50% upward light)
floorcavity reflectance E(h)/Ee
2
0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 2.3 2.2 1.9 2.2 2.0 1.8 0.1
UFis proportion (expressed asdecimal) ofluminousflux oflight sources whichfalls on horizontal working plane in an interior: depends on shape of lightdistribution fromluminaires, rm index —-nbelow and reflectances of rm surfaces. Light distribution characterised by shape of intensity distribution with respecttoangle invertical plane fromdownwardvertical. These shapes commonly classified in UK by British Zonal System (BZ no); the 10 shapes and their mathematical descriptions are shown —*(1). Most manufacturers now tabulate UF in their catalogues.Failing thistheycan beestimated byreference totables (—sBib449).
0.1 0.2 0.3 2.1 1.9 1.7
Conversionof scalar illuminance to illuminance on horizontal planefor interiorwith light ceilings& walls
RI relates to dimensions of rm: length I, width w, with luminaire height above working plane hm. RI —
lxw
hm(l + w)
ILLUMINANCE—.p25 Where specific visual task exists illuminance is that on plane of task, whether horizontal, vertical or inclined. In places such as foyers and circulation areas 'scalar' illuminance is specified. This is a measure which is independent of direction and is related to illuminance on a horizontal plane inwaywhich takes into account notonly rm shape and luminaire light distribution but, most important,floor reflectance—n(2). Illuminance received fromgiven lighting installation falls during use because there is gradual drop in light output of lamp during its life and luminaire and rm surfaces getdirtier between cleaningperiods. (Shorter these intervals more efficiently el energy is used but more expensive maintenance costbecomes.) Recommendedilluminance (—nBib383) is service' value ieavover period between cleaning; installed illuminance is higher thanthis by the reciprocal ofthe MF. Lighting furtherdetail—-np398—400 Daylighting —*p27—32; sunlight —sp33—7
BasicData 27
Daylight INTRODUCTION
Daylightfactor
Because of varying intensity of daylight in countries with humid and temperate climates inpractice most useful tobase daylightingdesign on concept ofdaylight factor (DF),defined insimple terms as ratio ofindoor illuminance —p26 (formerly known as illurninance value) to outdoor illuminance and given as percentage.(More exact definition—Bib124).
CIE standardovercastsky To provide practical basisfor estimation and measurement of DF in Britain and NW Europe has beenfound convenient to adopt standard overcast sky with sun obscured bycloud. This sky generally known as CIE standard overcast sky and assumed to have uniform luminance —p26(ie physical measure ofbrightness), in azimuthwithzenith lumiRelativeluminancedistribution of CIEstandardovercastskywithav luminancetaken asunity:conventional valueatzenith togive 5000lux illuminanceon horizontal plane—2050 cd/m2:illuminance —.p25 26
1
nance about 3times that near horizon—+(1). Zenith luminancedepends on angular elevation ofsun but conventional value of2050 cd/rn2 was assumed originally, giving unobstructed illuminance of 5000 lux on horizontal plane outdoors.
Variation
in outdoorilluminance over year
Conventional value of 5000lux assumed foroutdoor illuminance from overcast sky usefuldatum for initial calculationsfor daylight adequacy being representative of av conditions over much of day in mid-winter and significant periods in autumn and spring and wet days in summer. Asthis value exceeded forabout 85% oftimegenerally taken ascritical value below which resulting daylight indoors would be considered inadequate. There are instances, however, where necessary to relate indoorilluminance to variationinoutdoorilluminancevalues over specified period, especially in situations where it may be desirable to supplement daylight with artificial light. DF concept particularvalue in this context; for although outdoor illuminance will vary indoor illuminance will change with itand forallpracticalpurposesDF will remainconsistent. Seasonal and daily variations in daylight onhorizontal surface outdoors, averaged foreach month —*(2)(3).
For indicationoftotal working hr/yrforwhich indoor illuminanceexceeds specified values in lux for a range of OF and forpercentage of working hourswhen daylight illuminancein lux exceeds specified values, again fora range of DF,—(4)(5).
AverageDF
Recommendations for adequacy ofdaylight have usuallybeenmade in terms of mm DF. Recent studies have suggested use of av OFas better indication of adequacy of daylight over an interior. For side-lit rm, however, av daylight value on itsown Only general guide and needs to be associated withdiversity index.
3 Illuminanceinluxreceived fromskyonhorizontalsurfaceoutofdoors averagedforeachmonth& plotted against time 2170
1400
1200
0
1000
0
iIIuminafl 100 200
4
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Workinghr/yrforwhich daylightilluminances onworkingplane(wp) exceedspecifiedvaluesat variousDF
luX
5 %ofworkinghrwhendaylightilluminanceonwpexceed specifiedvalues atvariousOF: graphsbasedon 5-dayworkingweek (0900—1700)giving yearlytotal ofapprox2170 hr
Basác Data
28
Daylight INTRODUCTION (cont)
Diversityofdaylight
Diversity of daylight illuminance across rm can be shown as graph on cross section ofrm, slope ofcurve indicatingdegreeofdiversity. Typical gradient of illuminance on centre line of window —s(1). In line with artificial lighting practice diversity ofilluminance can also be expressed numerically asuniformity ratio,egas ratio ofmm toavDF. Thus
2015
a '5
ti
10—
5-
minDF uniformity ratio = av DF
Thegreaterthe diversity, the lower the uniformity ratio. For relatively simplewindow arrangements and for roof light systems index has meritthat itcan showin general sense whether necessary to supplement daylight with artificial light.With complex window arrangements, however, may bepreferabletoexamine distribution ofdaylight in somedetail.
0.5
03
1
Gradientofilluminance oncentreline of window
036
.
.
1278
Distributionof daylight
1
16
1.01
062
7.. 447
1.52
0 72
avOF
.
T
047
48/20 2.4% appox
1278
47
1.52
0.36
16
I 01
-.
045
0.72
047
FT1 0.62
045
-42mfJ
2 Distributionofdaylight over horizontalplane: forclearness
intermediate
valueshave beenomitted
Further refinement in assessingadequacyof daylightin rmis to calculate illuminance for number of points on regular grid. Contours of equal DF can then be drawn: distribution of daylight over working plane can be checked andareas where daylight is deficient be identified. If required av DF can be estimated by simply averaging values on reference grid. Where reference grid is taken right up to boundaries of rm values on boundary lines should be weighted, ie divide corner values by 4 and remaining boundary line values by2before averagingall values—.(2)(3). Comprehensive set of daylighting aids has beenproduced tor UK by BRE; these give simple check between window size and proportional area of working plane within which specific values of DF equalled or exceeded. Aids thus give broad indication of horizontal distribution of daylight in rm—.(4).
CALCULATIONOF DF: GENERAL Methods for predicting daylight Iluminance at design stage range from simpleformulas to sophisticated computer techniques (—Bib076 107 251 368381 397457). Amount of design information required for predicting daylight factors in rm depends on complexity of method of calculation. For initial calculations, where window sizes not yet determined, useful if method of calculation cangive areaofglassrequired to provide particularstandard of daylight.
1.0 0.9
Ii
08 —
-
07
-
0.6
a
0.5
—
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
00
3 DistributionofdaylightonhorizontalplaneshownbycontoursofequalDF
4
j
11
/ I,
/
,/
/ / --,,
—4
/ 2ETI ---
— -.
n
Typicaldaylightingaid
1.0% -
-
i- e —
-
--f-— —4 0%
smalrmsei B .
obstruction wail ra8ect OF %
4
BasicData 29
Daylight CALCULATIONOF OF(cont)
Initial estimates: side-litrm
Netarea of glazing rough measureofamount ofdaylight admitted to rm. As first approximation, assuming side-litrm of normal proportions with no external obstructions and with surfaceshaving avreflectance 0.4, av DF can be taken as equal about 1/2 of percentage ratio ofglass to floor area. Thus windows on 1 side ofrm with total glass areaapprox 20% of floor area will give av DF about 4%. Under same conditions mm DF will be approx 1/2 av value, le2%. Conversely, to obtain av DE of6% in rm with floorarea 12 rn2will require glazing areaof approx 6 x 12 x 5/100 m2or 3.6 m2. For closer estimate of mm DF in typical side-lit rm —n(1)(2). These graphs give mm DF related to rm depths forvarious rm lengths (parallel towindow wall) and window widths,with correctionsfor angle ofexternal obstruction to mid-height ofwindow. Reflectancesof rm surfacestaken as:ceiling 0.7, walls0.5, floor0.15. Mm DF assumed beon centre line of window wall atpoint600fromrear wall. Window widths (strictly window lengths) actual glassarea widths given as% rm length. Formore than 1
a
rmd—'
in mullipiesofwindowhaboveciiiievei)
(eepressed
window widths aggregatedand assumedwindows regularlyspaced along windowwall.(Further details, including bilateral lighting—oBib397.)
Av DFcalculations
CIE methodofdaylightcalculation: typicalgraphapplicableto side-litr1 unilaterallightingwith noexternalobstructions 1
Av DF over horizontal working plane can be calculatedusing formula put forward —eBlb452
085W
CR1+5ft
C
A(1—R)
where w isglassar A is total arof rm surfaces (includingglass) A1 is ar of floor & ofthosepartsofwatls below mid-height of window (excluding window wall)
C is function ofdaylight incident onwindow &varies with sky luminance & angleof external obstructions —.(3) R is av reflectance ofall rm surfaces including windows, expressed as decimal
0
R is av reflectance offloor & lower wallsbelow mid-height of window (excluding window wall) is av reflectance of ceiling & upper walls above mid-height of window (excluding window wall) Where window sizenot known glass area required givestipulated avDF canbeworked out frombasic formula restatedas:
0 0
DFav
085 —--+° A1
rmd—. (in muitipiesofwindow, aboveciii)
2
CIE method ofdaylightcalculation: correctionstoDF forangles of obstruction(tobereadwith—.1) coefficientC angle ofobstruction measuredfromcentre ofwindow (degrees abovehorizontal) No obstruction 100 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80°
31
25 20 14 10 7
5
3 Variationof coefficientc with angle ofobstruction toberead withformula forav OF—.above & IRCformula —.p30
(A(1 —R)
rml
mid
rmh
(m)
(m)
(m)
3.3 3.3 3.3
3.3
6.6 6.6 6.6
4.5 6.6 3.3 4.5 6.6 3.3 4.5 6.6
9.9 9.9 9.9
4.5 6.6 9.9
4.5 4.5 4.5
39 35
+ 5R
window h (m)
avDF
2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4
1.3 1.3 1.3
1.6
2.7 2.7 2.7
window I/mi Iaspercentages 30% 60% 90% 2.8 2.2
4.0
1.2
0.9
1.6
2.2
1.5 1.5 1.5
1.8 1.4 1.0
3.3
5.2 4.0 2.9
1.5 1.5 1.5
2.0 1.5 1.1
3.6 2.8 2.0
5.5 4.3
1.8 1.8 1.8
2.2
4.3
6.1
1.5
3.1
4.5
1.0
2.2
3.1
2.6 1.9
3.1
3.1
Basic assumptions: floor reflectance=0.15,wallreflectance= 0.4, ceiling reflectance=0.7, externalobstruction=20% atmid-hofwindow; no allowancefor dirt on glass but25% correctionfor window frame for3300—
4
6600rm1&15%for9900rml
BasicData
30
Daylight CALCULATIONOF DF (cont)
Pointby point methods: verticalwindowsinside-lit rm
Basic assumption formost point bypoint methods ofdaylight calculatlon adopted in UK is toconsider daylight reaching point in rm as consisting of 3 components: sky component (SC) externally-reflected component (ERC) internally-reflected component (IRC) Howthese3 components operate isshown —v(1). Togive complete DF the 3components are simply addedtogether. Correctionstorother than clearglass, area otwindow obscured by framing and window bars and effectofdirt on glass and rm surfacescanbemadeby applyingcorrection factorsto final figure—vp31(4)(5).
SC & EAC
3componentsofDF: SC + ERC+ IRC= DF
1
ratio HID = hotwindowaboveworkingplane.distance Iron, wkldow 0.1
02040.6 0.8 1.0 12 1.4 1.6 1.8
0 01 0204060708091.0 02 01 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.1 14 1.6 18 1.9 0.301 0307 12 1721 242729 0401 04 10 16 22 ai 32 as 38 0.5 01 05 12 19 26 3.3 38 4.2 46 06 01 06 13 22 30 38 4.4 4.9 53 0.70207 152433424854 58 01
2.0
22
2.4
6 as
10
1.1
1.1
11
a.o
1.1 1.2
as 42
5.0°
12
1.2 1.3
1.2
20 2.1 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 25 31 3.2 3.3 3.4 34 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.7 37 40 4.1 43 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.6 47 4.8 4.9 4.8 50 52 53 54 5.5 57 58 5.9 59 5.6 58 6.0 62 63 64 6.6 67 6.8 6.9 62 64 6.6 6.8 70 7.1 73 74 7.6 77 0.60207 16263645525.863 67 7.0 7.3 75 7.6 7.8 80 8.2 83 64 1.0 0.2 0.8 17273848566.267 7.1 7.4 77 79 81 82 6.5 87 8.8 5.0 12020818294050596571 75 7.9 8.1 64 86 8.7 90 92 94 9.6 1.402 09 1931 43 54 6.4 72 78 6.3 87 91 9.3 96 9810.1 10310510.7 68 1.6 a2 09 1.9 32 45 5.7 6.7 758.2 6.7 91 9.5 9.810010210.610911111.6 1.6 0.2 0920334659 70 7885 9.1 9610010.210510.711.1 114 11.7122
P 0 3
1.9 0.2 102433476.07281 88 2.002 1.02.033476.1 7.38290 2.5021.0 2.1 3.34.662 748492
9.5 9.7 9.9
100 104 10.8 11.1 11311.812.0123126 102 10.711.111.4117122124127130 10.511.011.411.712012612.9133137
3.0 0.21.02.13.44.86.275 85 9.3 10.010.711211712.012.412913.313.7142 4.0 0.2 1.0 2.1 3.4 4.9 63 75 86 9.4 10110.611311812.212.513213.514.014.6 6.002 1.0 34 506376869.5 10210.911411912.312613213614.1 149 0.2 1.0 2.1 34 5.0 6.3 76 86 9.5 103 10.911.511912.312.713313.714.215.0
0 a
at
0
1? 22 3V 394550 5458 6V 6$ 66 6$ 69'
7 72' 74' 76' 79'
80'
For preliminary calculations —v(2) (Bib076). In use table gives data for effective widthofwindow torightor leh ofline (normaltowindow plane) drawn to reference —.(3). SC atany other referencepoint, also effect of external obstruction, can be found by adding or subtracting SC of hypotheticalwindows so that actual window remains.To allowtor reduced luminance of obstructions values of equivalent SC for obscured sections ofwindow aremulitplied by0.8
Other methods of predicting SC and ERCinclude BRE DF protractors, Pilkington dot method, grid methods such asWaldramdiagram.With all theseaids ERCestimated byassuming that proportion of skyobscured by obstruction (as seen trom reference point) has luminance which is somefraction of sky obscured. Unless luminance ot obstruction known usual practice to assume obstruction luminance 'Is av sky luminance. IRC For preliminary estimates mm IRC can beobtained from —.(4)itcertain limitations on size ot rmand reflectancesof rmsurfaces accepted. More comprehensive coverage —vBibO76. Where relatively high accuracy required IRC for side-lit rm can be calculatedusing BRE inter-retlection formula: IRC =
aegis oiobsiruckon
2
Sky componentstable (overcastsky) forverticalglazed windows: shortenedversionderived—oBibO76
0.85W
—
A 1—A (CRi
5Rn,) /o
where W isarofglassinwindow A istotal ar ofceiling walls& floorincluding arofglass R isav reflectance of ceiling, walls including glass & floor, expressedas fraction is av reflectance of floor & those parts ot walls above mid-h of window(excluding window wall) Rcw is av reflectance of ceiling & thoseparts of walls above mid-h of window(excluding window wall) C is coefficient with value dependent on angle of obstruction outside
Ri
window—vp29(3).
AC can be obtained by applying conversion factors related to av reflectance of rm surface: av reflectance conversion factor 0.3 0.75 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.85 Mm
floor reflectance windowar
as%ot
3
Exampleofsimplecase:
=j
=0.7; 0.6 = SCread againstthese ratios 1.5; repeatsection (W2) &add SC,toSC2 to give SCforwholewindow 1.5+ 1.5=3.0; forobstructions treatobscured sectionwindow & x 0.2tocorrectforlowerluminance;angleofobstruction on
&WID; fromdrawingff
=-=
table gives appropriateHIDforobscuredsection
reflectance
toconvertto floor arof 10m2
to convertto to convertto floor arof90m2 avIRC
20 40 60 80
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
1.4 1.2 1.0
1.8 1.4
0.9
1.2
wall
Conversionfactorstoapplyto —v(4)
13
20%
40%
avwafireflectance leociudingwindowl
SCforsectionofwindow(W,) is read —o(2) againstratiosHID
5
10%
offlooror
2 5 7 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
20% 40% 60% 80%
20% 40% 60% 80% 20% 40% 60% 80%
—
—
—
0.1 0.1 0.1
01
02 02
0.2 04 0.2 05 0.3 06
07 08 0.509 0.5 10 0.3 0.4
0.6
1.1
0.1 02 0.2 04 0.3 0.5 0.4 07 0.6 1.0 0.8 1.4 1.0 1.7
01 01 02 02 03 04 05 05
01 01 02 03 02 04 03 06 05 08
06
02 05 06 09 13
1.1 1.7
08 13 20 12 2.0 00 15 24 14 2.3 10 18 28 162.6 06122031 18 2.9 07 13 22 34 19 3.1 08 14 2.3 37
—
01 0.2 02
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.6 05 0.5 0.8 12 0.7 1.1 17 0.0 1.5 23 1.1 1.8 28 05 1.3 21 33 09 1.5 24 38 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
10172742 12
1.9
1.3
at 32
30 46 4.9
4 Mm IRC(Bib076)basedon rmof40m2floorarwith htoceiling 3000& windowon1 side;ceilingreflectanceof0.7assumed and20°angle ofexternal obstruction;correctionscan bemadeforother rmsizes& to convertmm IAC toavIRCbyfactorsin-.o(5)
Basic Data
31
Daylight CALCULATIONOFOF (cont)
M is correction factor fordirt or aging of glazing—*(3) B iscorrection factor forwindow framing, glazing & internalobstructions, eg overhead supports for machinery: where details of framing not known typical value forBis0.75butfigurecould beless infactories with overhead pipework, ducting & structural members1 G is correction factor fortype ofglass other than clear glass g/f isratioof glazing artofloorar
Roof lightsystems
Spacing, as well as size, of roof lights is important consideration for adequate daylighting: in general DF easier topredict thanforside-litrm but samevariables apply, eg area and position of glazing, shape and size of space to be daylighted, reflectance of interior surfaces. Illuminance on horizontal working plane from correctly spaced roof lights nearerto distribution from overhead artificial lighting installations and usuallysufficient to determine av DF.
Coefficient depends on roof light design, shape and size space and reflectances ofceiling, walls and floor.
CIE recommendations (—oBib397) include method forestimating av DF forvarious rooflightsystems atearly stage in design, with graphs forflat
(l-w)h where I = length of rm, w = widthof rmand h = height above working plane to centre of glazing. To ensure fairlyeven spread of daylight spacing/height ratios should be kept withinlimits shown —*(6).
Pointby point methods:roof lightsystems
Where necessary to calculate DF at selected reference points with some precision, eg to test daylight distribution, SC and ERC can be obtained byusing BRE protractors. IRCcanbeestimated by using BRE nomogram Ill—+Bib076.
Useful formula below with associated tables developed by Pilkington Brothers (Bib543) for prediction ofav DF for rooflightsin range of roof types,including shed, sawtooth and monitors. AvDFon horizontal plane: D= 100.c.M.B.G.(g/f)% where c iscoefficient ofutilisation —*(7)(8)
Note: correction factor 8' for largecontinuousinternalobstructions,such asducting, can beworked outon cross section(byproiection)forselectedreferencepoints.
vertical windows
roof lights
reflectance
honzontal
sloping clean eg 0.9 countryar, outer suburbs dirtyeg 0.7 built-upar, lightindustry 0.6—0.5 verydirty eg heavy industry
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5—0.4 0.4—0.3
3
Maintenancefactortobe applied tocalculated DF toallow fordirton glass glazingmaterials
CIE methodof daylightcalculation: typical graph applicableto skylightsinfiat roofs
vertical windows, steeply sloping roof fights
slopEng& flatroof fights
double single glazing glazing
single glazing
1
skhtsin alied roots(20pitthl
glass: 4—6clearor6 polished wired 6roughcast
1.0
0.95 wiredcastorpatlemed 0.9 6selectively 0.85 heat-absorbing (palegreen) 6 body-tinted 0.55 heat-absorbing (bronze)
0.9
1.1
0.85 0.8
1.05 1.0
0.7
0.95
0.5
0.6
corrugated resin-bonded glass fibre reinforcedroofingsheets: — 0.9 moderately diffusing 0.75—0.9 — heavily diffusing
2
4
I
e
10
12
14
4
roomindex
coefficient of utitisation
0.6
.19 .16 .15 .19 .16 .14 .16 .14 .14
0.8
.25 .21 .2 .25 .21 .2 .21 .2 .18
1.0
.3 .26 .25 .29 .26 .24
1.25
.31 .3
0
.25 .24 .21
.27 .31 .29 .26 .27 .26 .24
1.5
.34 .31 .3 .32 .31 .29 .3 .27 .26
2.0
.36 .35 .32 .36 .34 .32 .34 .32 .29
2.5
.39 .38 .35 .38 .36 .34 .35 .32
3.0
.4 .39 .38 .4 .35 .36 .36 .35 .32
4.0
.42 .41 .4 .41 .4 .39 .39 .38 .35
5.0
.44 .42 .41 .42 .41 .4 .4 .39 .36
mt
.49 .42 .49 .48 .48 48 .45 .45 .42
.31
reflectance 0.7
walls
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0 index
0.5
0.3
0
ceiling
room
0.9
coefficient ofutilisation
.19 .16 .13 .19 .16 .13 .16 .13 .13
Correctionfactorstobeappliedto calculate for typicalglazing materials: forprecisedetailsof proprietarymaterialsconsultmanufacturers; for doubleglazinginnerpaneof clear glassis
1.0
.23 .2 .18 .22 .19 .18 .19 .18 .16
1.25
.26 .23 .2 .24 .23 .2 .22 .2 .19
1.5
.27 .24 .22 .26 .24 .22 23 .22 .2
assumed
2.0
.3 .27 .24 .28 .26 .24 .26 .24 .24
2.5
.32 .3 .27 .31 .28 .27 .28 .27 .26
3.0
.34 31 .3 .32 .31 .28 .3 .28 27
4.0
.35 .34 .32 .34 .32 .31 .32 .31 .3
50
.35 .34 .34 .35 .34 .32 .34 .32
inf
.4 .4 .4 .4 .4 .4
0.75—0.9
i
S
=1.5max Hensweeven
dalight
8 ClErecommendsthat monitorwahouldnotbe lessthan S nor more than¾S
6
5
H
Maxspacing of sawtoothrooflights& monitors
asrecommendedfor—n(7)(8)
.31
.39 .39 .38
Coefficientsof utilisation for monitorswith verticalplus slopingglazing
1.0
Correctionfactortobeappliedto DF calculated from—n(1)(2) toallowforavreflectances otherthan 0.2assumedfortables
0.3
.15 .12 .09 .13 .12 .09 .11 .09 .09
correction factor
1.2
0.5
Coefficientsofutilisationforsawtooth roofwith slopingglazing
16 1e%
1.1
0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 03 0.1 0
0.8
CIE methodofdaylightcalculation:typical graph applicableto skylightsinpitchedroofs
0.2 0.3 0.4
0.7
walls
0.6
2
reflectance
ceiling
7
avDF
av
1W
Rm indexas tabulated =
and low-pitchedroofs, sawtooth and monitor roofs, from which av DF can beascertained. Typical curves forskylights inflat and 200pitchroofs reproduced —(1)(2). By means ofassociatedtables corrections can be made for various glass transmittances, for dirt on glass and for av surfacereflectances differing from20% (0.2) reflectance assumed for (3)(4)(5). For —+(1 )(2) av DF can be read directgiven glass ar/floor ar ratios, length of bldg and height ofwallsaboveworking plane.
locality
of interior
32 BasicData
Daylight QUALITYOF DAYLIGHT: GLARE
location
DF is measure of daylight Illumination: subjective aspects also help to
determine essential appearanceand character ofinterior, Ofsubjective lightingphenomena glare isone ofmostimportant. 2 distinctiveaspects of glare recognised: disability glare, which impairs ability of people to see objects against glare source without necessarily causing visual discomfort and discomfort glare, which causes visual discomfortwithout necessarily impairing ability of people to see—.p398. Typical example of disability glare: window at end of corridor or top of staircase makes it difficult to see person or object silhouetted against window. Such cases usually resolved by common sense; little to be gained fromcalculation techniques. Degree ofdiscomfort glarecan beassessednumerically and expressed as limiting glare index. (—oBib367 382). Main controlling parameter luminance of skyasseen through window; above lowvalue of window/ floor area ratio (l—2%)size of window not important. Recent studies indicate, forexample, thatifoneassumessky luminanceof 8900cd/rn2 (exceeded foronlyabout 15% ofworking year) predicted glare indexfor rm not exceeding 4000 in height with av surface relectances of 0.4 would be 26. Forsimilar rm with av reflectancesof0.6glareindex would be24. These figures apply toworst conditions, egsingle window facing observer. Forprogressive reductions in sky luminance predictedglare indices would be reduced; egwith sky luminance of 6400cd/m2 glare index would be reduced by 0.5 units and for sky luminance of 1 600 cd/rn2 by as much as 4 units, bearing in mind that incidence of glare would be increased because of higher proportion ofworking hours for assumed lower sky uminace. Conversely,forrm with higher ceilings (le above 4000)glareindex maywell beincreased by 1—2 units.
As controlling factor is sky luminance, if values assumed for glare indices are greater than recommended values—.(2)someamelioration likely to be required. Practical ameliorative measures include use of translucent curtains or blinds, louvred or slatted blinds, vertical or hori-
zontal fins and high infernalsurfacereflectances—vp406. Othermeasures include placing windows so that immediate surroundings have high luminance, use of windows on more than 1 wall and detailed design of windows and their immediate surrounds so as to reduce contrast with viewofbrightsky.
airport bldg &coach stations receptionar Customs& immigrationha Circulationar, lounges assembly &concert ha foyers, auditoria corr stairs banks counters,typing, accounting,book ar public ar churches body of church
pulpit &lectern ar, chancel&choir altar, communion table
drawing off general general bldg ar entrance ha & reception ar hospitals reception &wr wards
pharmacies libraries reading & referencerm
av DF
mm
%
%
0.6
desks
24
2
counters& desks workingplane
24
2
06 06
2 2
06 06 06
workingplane floor
24
2
desks workingplane
5 2
liv (over V2 depthofrm butwith mm arof distribution7m2) 1 bedr (over¾depthof rm butwith mm arof distribution5.5m2) 0.5 k(over 1/2 depthof rm butwith mm ar of distribution4.5m2) 2 dualpurposerm, eg k/livtobe litto more exacting
0.6
5
1
Recommendedmn DF fordwellingsextracted—.Bib107
Daylightreferences.' —'Bibliography entries 047 059 074 076 107 202 251 252 291 367368 375 380381 382 383 397 452 457 527 528 529 567
23
24
workingplane Idaylightglare index to be calculated tor directionof viewof congregation)
21
on desks on table (level dependson emphasisrequiredl
23 23
5
1.5
5
2
5
25
on boards
21
2
06
working plane
24
2 5
06
workingplane Innermostbedhead 1mm value refersto Innermostbedheadl
24 21 21
5
3
workingplane
21-
5
1.5
on tables ladditionalel lighting will be required) verticalplane
23
workingplane
21
1.5
5
23
5
2
desks
23
5
2.5
desks
23
03
working plane desks
21 21 21 21
1.5
benches working plane
5
3.5
workingplane
21
0.6 2.5
workingplane workingplane benches
24 21
lab
2 5 5
swimming pools pool
5
2
pooi surface (careshould be taken to minimiseglare & reflectionsfrom watersurfacel workingplane
23
workingplane (avoidspecular reflections:limit daylightoninternallylit controlsl
20
surroundingar telephone exchanges (manual) general
2
0.5
requirements
followingreflectancesare assumed, walls0.4, floor 0 15, ceiling0.7
treads
2 2 2
surgeries
DI%
limiting
daylight glare index
5 5 5 5
wr location
positionof measurement
2
shelves (stacksl museums &art galleries general off general typing, business machines,manually operated computers schools &colleges assembly ha classr artrm lab staff rm, commonrm sports ha general surgeries (med & dental)
OF
(furtherdetail—.Bib202 380382 3831
2
Scheduleof DF &glareindices
easels
23
22
23
BasicData 33
Sunlight CRITERIA FORADMISSIONOF SUNLIGHT Standards forUK —BRE (Bib074)
—*(Bibl4l) —*DoE Welsh Office (Bib251 252)
Standards for USA —Ramsey & Sleeper (Bib549) ForUSA latitudes—*p34—6
1
Altitudeofsunin relationtobldg orobserver (lat51.5°)
BlockwithmainaxisrunningN-Shas longshadowscasttosidesofbldg in earlymorning&lateafternooninMar&Sep:smallpermanently shadowed ar toNofblock in midwinter
2
3 Blockwith mainaxisrunning NW-SEshadowpattemvaries between am& pm: relativelysmall permanently shadowedarinmidwinter
soaraftftudeat12OO
inkjn cmsssection
8hr
so'ar altitudeat1200 ________________inMar& Sep 38.5° 151° l2hr 14hr lOhr l6hr
H—
L[__X1 LlOhr
-l2hr
14 hr
•N
4 Tallblock withmain axisrunningE-W (favoured wheremainrmfacingS are required)cangive seriousovershadowing ofgroundto NofbldginMar& Sep:comparativelylargearof site closetobldg receivesnosunlightin
5
Where possibleavoidsiting high bldg withdeeprecesses facing Nas comparativelylargearof groundreceivesnosunlightatallinmidwinter
midwinter S&N
SITING,ORIENTATION&SPACING Nwindow
OF BUILDING Check orientation of facades and spacing of bldg inrelation torequired standardof insolation —4p34—6. Some compromise on ideal orientation of facades will be unavoidable on congested sitesorin areas ofmixed development. —*Energyconservation houses—÷p79—81
INSOLATIONOFOUTDOORSPACES
6 E&Wwindowsreceive horizontalsunraysat
equinox;theirangleofincidence becomessteeper towardssummersolstice; W = shortestdayofyr, T = equinox,S = longestdayofyr SE& SW
7
N windowsreceiveonly littledirectsunlight round summersolstice; Swindowsreceive sunrayswith lowanglesofincidenceinwinter & steep insummer NE& NW
Where possible site largebldg sothat extensive and continuous shadowing of ground round them avoided; otherwise growth ofvegetation will be inhibited. Problemdynamicand seasonal pattern of sunlight and shadow should be examined. For indication of extent ofpossible shadowing from tall bldg during summer and autumn (lat London) —*(2)—(5).
ORIENTATIONOF WINDOWS
8
SE & SWwindowsreceivefairamountof sunshineboth summer&winterby lowdeeplypenetratingsunrays
9 NE& NWwindowsreceivenodirectsunlightin winter buteffectivesunlightinspring&autumn
Orientation, size and shape of individual windows may require checking ondrawings by reference to sun path diagrams to determine sunlight penetration and effectiveness of required sun controls. Forgeneral indicationof effect of various orientations on sunlight penetration at different times of year (UK) —*(6)—(9).
34 BasicData
Sunlight METHODSOF FINDINGSUN EXPOSURES OF BUILDINGS 3ways ofcalculatingposition ofsun relativeto particularplaces,seasons, times ofday: useof models in conjunction with sundial allows visual observation but
usefulness limited byobvious practicallimitations; calculations and tabular projections toafford high degree ofexactness; summer solstice
but graphic projection preferred by most architects since it allows measurement of bothsun and shade.
SUN PATH DIAGRAM
1
() & angle of bearing
Diagramshowsaltitude
(J3)
Sun's position at any date or hour may be determined from sun path diagramwhichcorresponds to latitudeofobservationpoint—*(1 ) showing altitude (a) and angle of bearing ($). Diagramsfor series of N latitudes —(2)—(4) p35(1)—(5). On each diagram altitude angles shown at 100 intervals by concentric circles. Bearing angles shown at 100 intervals by equally spaced radii graduated along outer periphery of diagram. Elliptical curved lines in diagram represent horizontal projections of sun's path, appropriate for 21st day of each month: months labelled in Roman numerals; crossed grid of vertically curved lines, labelled in arabic numerals, indicate hours.
Use ofsun path diagram Example: Columbus Ohio at latitude 40°N on 21 Feb at 1400—*p35(2). Find elliptical curvedlines for Feb (ii) and markwhere itcrosses vertical line of 1400 (2): thesetwo lines intersect as sun's position; read altitude fromconcentric circle: 32°; read bearingangle fromouter circumference: 3503Q
w
Example ofuse ofdiagram forapprox latitude London England—p36.
2
24°Nlatitude
3 28°Nlatitude
4
32°Nlatitude
Basic Data 35
Sunlight SUN PATH DIAGRAM(cont) Further examples of sun path diagrams—.(1 )—(5). For method of using diagrams —*p34.
C/)
C)
ci
1
36°Nlatitude
2 40°Nlatitude
3 44Nlatitude
4 48°Nlatitude
5 52N latitude
36 BasicData
Sunlight USE OF SUN PATH DIAGRAMWITH BUILDING PLAN
C
)
Diagram —(1) shows path of sun on shortest day of year at approx latitude London England (51° 50'N); —(2) shows sun position atdetermining daysofyear;—*(3)—(7) showmethod of finding amounts of sun and shadow on bldg.
insun from0345—1030 = 6/4 hr
5
Shortlyafter 1100atsummersolstice NEelevation in shade; shortly after 1300SE elevationalso inshade;otherelevationsatcorresponding timesin sun
insun from 0954—1800
= 8¼ hr
1
Path ofsunshortestdayofyear (approx 21 Dec)lat510 SON
2
Sun positionatnoonat determiningdaysofyr:distanceof sunfromobserverequalsradius ofsunpath diagramwith dotted path ofsun in plan,which represents planprojectionof correspondinghofsun
insun from1435—1800
=3'/4 hr
6 At equinoxNE elevation in shadeshortlyafter1000,SEelevation shortly after 1500
insunfrom 0900—1545
= 6/4hr
N
elevation
pn
ofsun insun from0815—0900
= 3/4 hr
3 4 To find amounts ofsun&shadowonbldgatcertaintimeofyear &day (eg equInox1100) azimuthangle(19°)isplottedinplan fromcornerofbldgin question;this shows limitofshadowcast inplan;angleofaltitudeofsun
(37.1°)then plottedwherethis line intersects verticalplaneof bldgfurther back; lengthx,found byintersecting line drawn at rightanglestolimit of shadow in planwith plottedangle of altitude, determineshofshadowcast in elevation;plottedtoelevationat distanceafrom internal corner&linkedwith eaves of line ofbldg gives limitofshadowinelevation
7
Atwintersolstice NEelevationreceivessun forbarely1 hr,SEelevationin
shadeafter1500
BasicData 37
Sunlight CALCULATIONOF RADIATION Design implications of sun's altitude and
bearing affected by actual amount of solar energyfalling on exposed surface of bldg. choice of orientation and selection of appropriatetechnical orpassive devices for shading bldg will require thisthird range ofdata. Graphic calculator —(1) (—Bib549) originates in USA therefore uses Btu/ft2/hrunits. Upper halfof diagramcharts energies falling horizontal plane under clear skyconditions. Radiationlines at 25Btu/ft2/hr intervals. Lowerhalfshows amount ofradiation falling on vertical surface. For use calculator would be drawn to same scale and size as sun path diagram —*p34—6. Superimposed on diagram with correct orientation radiation values can be read directly.
PREDICTINGACTUALDURATION OF SUNLIGHT Data on sunlightavailability for any geographical location or climate
should, in general, be sought from nearest meteorological station. Probability of sunlight unobscured by cloud or mist can be read off modified stereographic sunpath diagramknown as'sunlightavailability protractor'—(2) (—Bib074). Total number available hours sunlight obtained by adding small figures between hour lines and multiplying total, inthis instance (latitude 51 .5°N) by 30.4 In example—*(3)bysuperimposing house planon protractortotal hours sunlightlikelyin February seem tobe 1.5 x 30.4 = 45.
1 Radiationcalculator: can be usedat anylatitude & anyorientation; is in same scale &projectionassunpath diagrams—p34—6;transfercalculator diagramtotransparentoverlay&superimposeon sunpathdiagramin desiredorientation:radiationvaluescan bereaddirectly solaraltitudeindegrees
510
IS
2025
303 40455060708090
67 123 166 197 218 235 248 258 266 273 283 289 292 294 Btu/1t2/hr
magnitudeofsolar radiationdependsfirstof allon sun'saltitude:tabulated valuesindicatedirect radiationenergiesreceived under clear atmosphericconditionsatnormalincidence
o Forcomputationof total yearly sunny hours,multiply summatedaveragefigures fromtheprotractor by30.4 (averagedayspermonth)
2
Sunlightavailabilityprotractor
3
Applicationof sunlightavailibilityprotractor (—BibO74)
Sunlightreferences: —Bibliography entries074 141 251 252
38 Habitat
Design ofhouses OF PERIOD & CONVENTION
EXPRESSION
-
Access
Around1500houseor townwas walled in& had heavy gates 1
2 By 1700wall &gate wereonly
3
During 19th centurysecluded housewas built inopensurroundings with low fences
4
6 By 1500therewere heavy doorswith door knocker&barred windowswith bullseyepanes
7
8 In 20th centurycoveredway leadsfromcartoentrancedoor
symbolsthroughwhich glimpsesof gardencouldbeobtained
In 20th centurythere is no enclosure (especially in USA)& housestands unobtrusively in large communalpark
Entrance
5 Around1000log houseshad no windows,lowdoors& highthreshold (lightwas admittedthroughopening inroof)
Ataboutl700doorshad attractivebars,clear glass &a bell pull
(Georgianwiredtemperedplate glass) whichelectroniceyeslides sidewaysat same timeannouncing visitor
Interior
slidingpartition verticallysliding window wall
9 Atabout 1500therewere low heavydoors,cellswith sparse daylighting&floors ofshort,wide boards
10 Around1700widefoldingdoors led intosuitesofrrnwith inlaid flooring
By 1900sliding doorswere fitted betweenrm, with linoleum, sliding windows &draw curtain 11
Plans privy
side entrance
unbarredwindowsofplateglass (temperedinUSA):Venetianblinds or rollershuttersprovideprotection againstsun
wc &
moUntain
cellar
12 In 20th centureymm are flexible, with elworkedslidingwalls& low
street
j__sto ha
F!
bedr ground nT__.ey
wc & washr
first floor
13 Timber(Walser)houseofabout 1500was influencedbyenvironment,methodofconstruction &way
ofliving (eg smallwindows)
maid
ogg
serv dr
garden
ci
In stone houseof 500 walls occupysamearasmisoas to give protectionagainstenemies& cold 14
Between 1500's and present time science, technology and industry have transformed outlooks, forms and, not least, appearance of our society. House nolongerfortress orcrude shelteragainstclimate; it is, orshould be, abeautiful unobstructive framework forourlives—open to nature but protected fromit.
15 Houseof2000will havelight steelsupports&independent non-load bearingcurtainwalling &partitionswhosecomposition providesprotection againstbad weather&affordssound& heatinsulation: openplanning probable,with nodoors between liv ar, drandha Everyone has different concept; but the creative ability ofthe individual dictates how far he is able to transfer his experience into reality and express it through the material at his disposal. Some clients and their architects are still in the 16th century but a few of each have already arrived in the 20th; if the right centuries meet then a happy marriage between clientand architect is assured.
Habitat
39
House organisation SUBDIVISIONOF SPACE, FROM1-ROOMDWELLING TO PALACE
dr
maid
I I
parlour maid
IsEanthr =
cook
ma
Activities taking place in single rm—1-rm dwellings become progressively subdivided in largerhouses until in palace everyactivity has separate rm specially adapted in shape & position. Lines ofsubdivision also indicatespatialrelationship betweenindividualrm, which makesdiagram helpful tool when establishing programme for houses ofall kinds.
40 Habitat
Houses N favourable
7NE
garage
2
lake —or river
Favourable& unfavourable sitesonhillsides
very good 1
N nosunshine coldwinter winds even distributionof daylight
Favourablehousepositions
garage workrm sto Ia wine cellar heating utility
W afternoon
Eearly morning
&evening
sun heatgain in summer; may have coldwinds in winter: double glazing advisable
sunmay have heatgain & glarein
summer: trees desirable
3
Optimalorientationof individual rm
Sbest sideofhouse siteboundary
high sun angle in summer deepsun penetrationinwinter meansforshadingglass advisable
yard
I
lineof bldg
SE ter optimal position
E-W road tine ofbldg
a 2
Z
I
widest possible spacing
N
4
Favourablehouseorientation on E-Wroads
EXTERNALINFLUENCES ON HOUSE PLAN
Siting &orientation
Principles of positioning house on plot illustrated diagramatically—(1). For detached house plot on south side of E-W road most favourable, permitting entrance and services to be placed near roadwhile living rm and bedr lieaway fromroad, face sunand have accessto garden. Arrangements on E-W and N-S roads shown indetail —(3)(4). Houses on hillsides should generally be placed towards higher parts of their plots—*(2). Prevailingwinds foreachsitemust beconsideredin planning forcold and heat protection. Wind effects —p7781. Nslopes —*p46. Orientation also —p33—7
5 Favourablehouseorientation onN-Sroads:plotsonEside preferable
Rules for siting detached houses also apply to dwellings grouped in pairs or in rows. Some of factors considered on following pages, eg problems of access, which are most extreme in terrace (row) houses, apply to an extent todetached houses because ofbenefits, in road and servicecostsand depth ofgarden,which generallyaccrue fromkeeping plotsnarrow.
Safeguarding against obstruction
Where neighbouring plotsalready built on, position and plan ofhouse can be adapted to known surroundings; otherwise possibility of future development must be taken into account. Architect has duty avoid undue obstruction ofdaylight over adjoiningland likelytobe developed forhousing —p33.
Habitat
41
Houses ACCESS
Accesstodwelling 5 basic systems can be distinguished; Houses and footpaths along road with no segregation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic: implies nothrough traffic, no on-street parking—*(1). Road and footpath on opposite sidesof house: implies house design permitting access either side without loss ofprivacy; requires children's play area other than road—*(2). Vehicular access stopped shortof houses: limited by access distance (46 m for most services: 61 m in USA); requires particularly well designed and maintained parking and garaging—(3). Residents'&visitor's parking within boundary ofproperty: noteservice vehicleparkingar 1
Vertical segregation of vehicles and pedestrians: expensive, suits high densityofsteeplysloping sites —(4). Primarily pedestrian access to small groups of houses shared with private cars and light delivery vehicles: requires careful design to enforcelow speeds and restrict useto legitimate access—*(5).
Accessroads
Access roads tohouses can besubdivided into 2 groups —p42. General access roads: accommodate service vehicles, cars and, depending onlayoutsystem, frontage accessoroccasionalvisitor parking. Design to limit speed atjunction with local distributor road. Minor access roads: designed to allow slowspeed vehicle penetration of pedestrian priority area, serveup to 25 houses, speeds kept low by width, alignment, surface textureand visibility provision, possibly hump or chicane at entrance. May be cul-de-sac with turning at end, short loop, or lead to restricted vehicle/pedestrian mixed courtyard.
Garaging the car 3methodsofgaraging orparking carmust also beconsidered; withinor partlywithinhouse, adjoining house, separate from it. First 2 of these will affect house plan—*plOO—1 (—*Bib225).
Design standards
2
Residents'parkingpartlywithinboundaryofproperty & partlycommunal
3
All parkingcommunal
4
Parkingaroffcoveredaccess belowpedestrian deck
National and local standards for zoning and subdivision reg should guide planner. Road widths and construction, footpaths, frontages, density, housing types usually established by codes and/orlocal reg.
5
Accessarsharedbypedestrians&vehicles
I C-
'-4
'-4
42 Habitat
Houses ACCESS
local distributor road general access road
minoraccess road
Roadhierarchywithinhousingar:examplemakes useof sharedpedestrian/vehicle courtsasminoraccessroads
Habitat 43
Houses ACCESS
a-
Primaryaccess
accessto singlehouse
A path reducedto single w to avoid occasionalobstructions
1200
'3000long12mapart
Footpaths should run asdirectly as possibletomajorattractions(schools, shops, bus stops) away from heavy traffic roads. Should be well lit and overlooked (for security), sheltered and avoid steep gradients. Use ramps rather than steps, or ramps as alternative routes where steps necessary. Critical design widthshould allow prams and wheelchairs to passand clear obstructions. Mm 1 800, but on pedestrian traffic routes generally allow 2400 on open ground, 3000between bldg and fences. Footpaths between road or pedestrian traffic route and small groups of houses can be 1 800, 1200for2 houses (USAmm 1 220), 900 forsingle house —(1 )(2). Max distance from road todoor ofhouse, 46 m.
Secondary access Additional footways to serve garden side of houses, garage courts etc
canbe 900—1 000 between fences,600 inopen ground—p47(6) 106(22). Plan todiscourage use asthrough routes.
SERVICES footpath between solid obstructions
2400
obstructionononesideonly, open ground on other
1
Statutory utilities(eggas, water, el, telephone) should besupplied with details of any proposed housing development at early stage in order to agreeserviceroutes between different interests and avoid later adjustment, which can be both time consuming and costly. In UK they will generally prefer to lay their services within public road, as this gives them certain automatic statutory rights of access; but in segregated layouts or those designed with narrow road widths this may prove inconvenient or uneconomic and alternative routes may need to be agreed. Perhapspreferable:rear-of-blockservicestrips, easilyaccessible and surfaced with materialswhich may readily be removedandreinstated.
Television
Master aerials for television signal boosting often require licence or permit.Television cables below ground should bekept mm of300from el supply or lighting cables and well away from telephone cables.
1 800
Pedestrianaccess&trafficroutes
Recommended depth forlaying television cables: 450.
ACCESS FORDISABLED Housing fordisabled —p85—7;internal access —+p86. Spaces needed forwheelchairs —.(3).
1000
p
4a endparkingoverhang
a.
b
50
sideparkingoverhang
500
'—mm 914—' safetybarrier 1525
C
min1525
d
—mm
914__ signposts, traffic signals etc
walls, copings, parkingmeters etc
tamp posts should be sitedat heeloffootpath beyond recommendedclear width
a=minclearw
2
Footpaths:mm clear w
3
Mm
space
I
clear w: aforsinglewheelchairbfor2wheelchairsc1525dia dT-shapedspacefor1800 turn
44 Habitat
Houses STANDARDS& REGULATIONS a mm
space1
least dimension
arft2
luwith Obr
luwith luwith luwith
lbr
2br
3br
na na na na na na
160
160 100 120
170 110 120 80
luwith Obr
luwith
Ir-da Ir-da-sI lr-da-k
na
210
250
na
na
270
Ir-sI
210 100
na 120
Ir dr br(primary)2 br(secondary) total arbr ohr
100
120 na
120 80
80
200
280 80
80
luwith 4br 180 120 120 80 280
116''
80
80"
84" 94" 80"
b combined space
k-da
lbr
minarft2 luwith luwith
2br
3br
luwith 4br
210 na 270 na 120
230
250
na
na
300
330
na
na 160
140
k.
least dimension see note 3
USA mm
2
housing —÷Bib228.) Horizontal controlling dimensions should be, in descending order of preference, asfollows: first: multiples of300 second: multiples of 100 third: multiples of50 upto 300 For house planning tothesedimensions a 300 grid is used. Vertical controlling dimensions more closely defined. Heights of door openings and between floorsdiffer over relatively small ranges. For dimensions forhousing, with preferences for public sector in UK—.(3). Mm rm sizes USA—.(1). Bedrsizes —.70(1 7).
Ceiling heights
In USA FHA says ceiling heights must be such as not to create an unpleasantsensationand nottorestrictphysicallymovementofoccupants and furnishings. Ceiling heights clear under beamsorother obstructions
BUILDINGREGULATIONS Distinct differences in legal intention result in different degrees of controloverhousing design indifferent countries: eg reg in Englandand
Wales limited to securing health and safety of occupants and other users; in Scotland designed to secure health, safety and convenience ofoccupants and public atlarge, imposing mm space andeqpstandards (—nBib233); in USAFHA, HUD reg and state and local codes apply.
misizes aforseparate rm bforcombinedspaces ft
Recommendations forhorizontal and vertical controlling dimensions for housing have beendeveloped in orderto make use of dimensionally coordinated standard components. (Application in UK public sector
-*(2).
Ir
abbreviations: br bedr da diningar dr:diving rm kitchen hying rrnr iu:liningunit na: apphcable 0br iu with no separate bedr ohr otherhabiiable rm 51 sleepingar primarybedrshaH haveatleast1 uninterrupted wailspaceofatleast 10 3mmdimensionsofcombinedrmshall besumofdimensions ofindividualsinglerminvolved exceptforoverlaporcombineduse ofspace
fbi
Controllingdimensions
in
habitablerm ha, bathr luminous ceiling sloping ceilings
7 6 7 0 7 0 7 6at leastfor½ rmwith noportion less than 5' 0''
Most houses built for sale in UK by private builders conform to standards set by National House-Building Council (—vBib5l2); in USA generally conform to FHA standard mm sizes and construction as may be required byfinancing: alsoconsult state and local codes.
basementswithout habitable spaces
6
Fireescape
USA
mm
8
In houses of more than (consult codes).
ceilingheights
2 storeys fire escape must
be considered
Essentially single stairway in suchhouse should be separated fromall rmbyfr construction and self-closing frdoors and leadto hallorpassage giving access tooutside air at ground level. This has effect ofprohibiting open planning on ground or intermediate storeys unless alternative escape routes, eg by balcony to adjoining house, provided fromrm on upperstoreys.
ROOFZONE __________ nohntiton thidrness but lowerbotifiary lobeplacedtogive sa,nefloortoceiiing heightason lower
I I I
I—
LEVEL
2100
Pref}J_ __ 1ipa
lstprefenence250 2ndpreference200 oc300
1000
WiNDOWciLLLEVELS i
[ 0—
FLOORLEVEL—n_
C w
OOR LEVEL (2 dimensionslobe takenfromFFL
3
2—
WINDOWHEADLEVELS 1Stpret 2nd DOORHEADLEVEL
3,,,ivn
UK verticalcontrollingdimensions
200
Habitat
45
Houses RELATIONSHIPTO OTHERBUILDINGS
Daylight& sunlight—*p27—37
Consult relevant reg and codesfor daylighting standards in habitable ml; thesealso provide for protection of residential bldg and undeveloped sites from obstruction of daylight by new development. These provisions normally adopted in England&Walesbyplanningauthority in development control (to some extent mandatoryinScotland).Proposed bldg can betested forboth distancefrom itsown boundary and distance fromother bldg by using permissible height indicators(—Bib251). USA —FHAand city bldg codes. So far as possible rm should receive sunlight at some part of day throughout most of year but this not generally enforced by reg or development control. Angles and direction of sunlight can be established hourly foranytime ofyear at anylatitude:examplesfor at 5105Q N —.p36.Further orientation factors—.p34—6 4046.
Visualprivacy
Manyplanning authorities seekto prevent overlooking of houses from neighbouring houses oracross road (controlledbybldg reg in Scotland). Rule of thumb distance of 18 m often stated but is restrictive and ineffective sincevisibility affected by types of windows involved and
their respective levels and incidence to one another. As with other environmental factors privacy must be considered in relation to competing benefits and in high densitydevelopments it is matter forcareful consideration indesign and layout.
Use ofblindside orsingle-aspect house designs willhelp, egon sloping sites or where footpaths passclose to houses; effective screening of private gardens alsoimpomtant—.(1 )(2). However,privacy should notbe achieved at cost of isolation: ideally degree of screening for visual privacyshould bewithincontrol of residents.
Privacy from noise
Houses built near distributor roads, or main highways best protected from noise nuisance by embankments or other land formation —.(3). Privacy can, however, be improved by use of suitable house plans with rm facing awayfromnoise source (—.Bib240254).
Spread offire
Bldg reg generally restrict distances between houses built of combustible materials, such astimber, shingles orthatch,and their ownplot boundaries; where non-combustible materials used extent of window and door openings in walls close to boundary might be restricted to prevent spread offire to adloiningproperty by radiation.
75dB(A)
\
'/
8OdB(A)
8Sdb(A)
68dB(A)
/
I
unprotectedsite 75dB(A) BOdB(A)
85dB(A) %
\
68dB(A)
I — //
f.__?
siteprotected bysimple solid barrier 75dB(A) BOdB(A)
\ /I
85dB(A)
'
//
68dB(A)
siteprotectedbyplacing road incutting 1
3
Privacysecuredbyuseofsingleaspecthouses
Noise attenuation: shadedarwillbesuitable housetypes
fordevelopmentwith conventional
privategarden road
t
road
publicpath
public path
In JL 2
Privacysecuredbyuseof reverse aspect houses: best orientation E-W
I0
46 Habitat
Houses SITE TOPOGRAPHY
Effect of gradient
Where slopes moderate, choice of plan affected little by gradient; on steeperslopessomeforms of plan can be used to greater advantage than others.Where houses run parallelto contours use of wider frontage houses minimises needfor underbuilding or excavation. Savings thus made can counterbalance usuallyadverse equation between wide frontage and greaterservicing and development costs.Verysteep sites can, however, present opportunities for imaginative use of split-level plans or entryto upper floors—(1). Houses running across contours, especially in terraces (rows), should employ narrow frontage plans, stepping at each house or pair ofhouses.
Northslopes
Split level
1
Northslopes aggravate problems ofmaintainingdensity while providing
adequate sunlight to each house and garden. Simple solution: reverse usual ruleand place each house at lower endof itsplot, with accesson north side but on severe slopes spacing required might be excessive. Solutionthen might be to employ upside-down' section,'placing living rm on upperfloors where they can enjoysun fromsouthand views in each direction —(2). Houses running across contours canbe particularly advantageous on north slopes, sinceno garden needbe immediately overshadowed by houses and all rmwill get sunlight.
i4
Aspect
2
In considering orientation —p4U,access, privacy and effectof gradient there has recurred the concept of aspect, an important characteristic relating house plan toconditions ofits site. 4modelscan bedistinguished —(3); Dual aspect: rm lookout inbothdirections, toaccess and garden sides
'Upsidedown'
Single, blind-side, or controlled aspect: rm other than kitchen and servicemi lookout in 1 direction only—usually garden side Reverse aspect: rm on ground storey and upper storeys look out in opposite directions Open aspect: ideal detached or semi-detached condition where rm can look out in3 or 4 directions withoutconstraint.
-1 3a Dual aspect
3b
Singleaspect
3d
Reverseaspect
1' 3c
Controlledaspect
3e Open aspect
Habitat
47
Houses
+
HOUSE PLAN: INTERNAL INFLUENCES Determining factors
Main internal factors affecting selection of house plan: mode of horizontal circulationwithin house, user requirements, appropriate standards & regulations siteorientation & climate —p334046
HOUSE PLAN:CIRCULATION Circulation within house determined primarily by type of access appropriate toexternal conditionsand layout—.(1):5 modesofhorizontal circulation can bedistinguished;
Throughcirculation
2
Circulationthroughha
3
Circulationthroughha&sb
5
Circulationthroughha &liv
This —(2) provides circulation fromentry to garden side by-passing all living and working areas. Nosecondary accessto garden side needed. Through circulation suitable for all forms of entry and particularly appropriate where entrypossible fromonlyoneside.
Through-storagecirculation
In smallterrace (row) houses through circulationthough desirable can require excessive proportion ofwhole ground-storey area. Modification permitscirculation from entryto garden sidethrough hall and sto —(3). This arrangement suitable forall forms ofentry.
Through-kitchen circulation Provides circulation fromentry to garden side through hall and kitchen —+(4). Appropriate inlayouts which provide secondaryaccesstogarden side;but can beusedwhere thereis none.
Singlecirculation
From point of entrygarden can be reached only by passing through living rm —(5). This type plan should only be used in layouts which provide secondaryaccesstogardenside.Secondaryaccesswill normally be necessary only in mid-terrace houses but layout situationscan arise when sitingof other bldg imposessimilar conditions on end-of-terrace, detached and semi-detached houses.
I
4
Circulation throughha& k
ri4
By-passcirculation
Garden side can be reachedoutside house but within property limits eg by path orthroughgarage—.(6).
house
Throughatrium circulation—*(7)
6 By passcirculation
1
Accesstoproperty afrom bothsides bfromoneside only
7 'Throughatrium'circulationseenin USAsinglefamilydetached house
I
48 Habitat
Houses HOUSE PLAN: STANDARDS& REGULATIONS
User requirements
entrances
Where house not designed for known client, user requirements can most brieflybe summarised in statementof number of rm (not counting kitchen, bathretc) in house and number of people intended to accommodate. From normative standard of 1P/rm higher standards characterised bygreater degree of specialisation—.p39. Such specialisation hasin past time reachedastonishing lengths — one English Victorian country house said to have contained rm for ironing newspapers: nowadays degree ofsub-division associatedwith palace unlikely to be reached. What does happen isthat houses designed or adapted to meet special needs, whether, eg for musician, orchid enthusiast or disabled housewife, are morespecialised, either by planningor by higher level of servicing, in 1 direction This form of specialisation secured by adaptation: will not generally affect process of plan selection setout here.
living ar
5 is there space for required furniture in sensible arrangement? 6 is there sufficient space toseatguests in dining 7 doesliv faceprivate garden?
kitchen
8 is there directaccess, on same level, fromk to diningar? 9 isworksurface adequate, freefrominterruption &
is'work triangle' (sink—cooker—trig/larder)
from compact cross-circulation? 11 has possible useof k byelderly or disabled people been considered? 12 isthere space foradditional eqp, orlarger items, likelyto be used in furniture? 13 has kviewofoutside world—for callers, toddlers' play etc? 10
14 istherespacefor required furniture in sensible arrangements — consider use of singlebeds? 15 can bedr beusedforchild'shomework, entertaining friends
bedr
Userrequirementcheck Iist—*(1)
& hobbies?
In absence ofknown clientplans should betested by list of questions about house that might beasked byuser. In
any suchanalysisall planswill not meetall requirements satisfactorily; it must be for designer to judge which
bathr
16 isbathr convenient for bathing baby? 17 hasuseof bathr byelderlypeople, orinvalids, been considered? 18 is therespace forappropriate bathreqp, hanging towelsetc?
sf0&
19 are refusebin &fuel sto accessible, conveniently placed forcollection & delivery? 20 can bicyclesbetaken outside, pram put garden, & garden refuseremoved, withoutpassing throughliving
priorities should be achieved (—Bib234).
Housing standards
Consult reg. Standards for dwellings in public sector in Britain —.(2) based on Parker Morris Committee's report (—.Bib233). Mandatory only for new bldg by local authorities and housing associations these in practice provide qualityplatform against which new housing can be udged. Although mm floor areas stated for various household sizes emphasis functional rather than quantitive. Am layouts and house plansshould be shown to be able to accommodate furniture and domestic activities that theycan beexpected to contain.
is protection fromweatherprovided at entrances?
1
2 istherespace in haforreceiving visitors? 3 isthereconvenient sto foroutdoorclothing pram? 4 can metersbe read withoutentering living ar? (NBoutside inUSA)
accessibility
1
Userrequirementchecklist N =netspace1 S = generalstospace2
For USA standards consult reg (—.FHA HUD) and state and local codes; mm rm sizes —p44(1).
houses 1 storey
numberof persons(tebed-spaces) per dwelling 1
2
4
5
6
67 4.5
75.5 4.5
84 4.5
82 4.5
94 4.5
92 5 4.5 92.5 4.5 98 4.5
70 3.5
79 3.5
86.5 3.5
72 3.5
82 3.5
92.5 3.5
S
30 3
44.5 4
57 4
N S
72
(mid-terrace)
N S
74.5
4.5 4.5
N S
flats
N S
maisonettes
N S
30 2.5
44.5 3
57 3
85 4.5
108 6.5 108 6.5 112 6.5
108 3.5
(67 if balcaccess)
Net space is ar01 aM fioors in dweiiing measured tounfinished faces, inciudesarof eachfioortaken up bystairways, bypartitions & byanychimney breasts, fiues&heating apphances& arofany externai wc; exciudes floorarofgenerai stospace (SI, dustbinsto, gar, baic, anypart of rmlessthan 1500 high because ofsiopingceilings& anyporch orcoveredwayopen to air; in singieaccess house—.p47 any space withinsto required forpassage from1 sideofhouse to other, taken as 700wide, shaM beprovided in addition toarintable.
Mm
7
m2
N
2 storey (semior end)
3storey
2
3
Generai stospace lobeprovided exciusive of anydustbinsto,fuelstoorpramspacewithin stoar,& risingleaccess house, space within sto requiredfor passage from1 sideofhousetoother; inhouses somestospace may beon upperfioor, separatefrom anylinenstoolWa. but atleast 2.5 ni' shaii be at ground ievei; infiatsandmaisonettes up to 1.5rn' maybe provided outsidedwefing; in some circumstances part of garintegral withoradjoiningdwelling cancounttowards generai stospace —.Bib479 (also gives schedules offurniture to be accommodatedi
arfordwellingstoaccommodate varioushouseholdsizes(UKstandards: USA—.p44)
Habitat
49
Houses SELECTINGPLANS
Classificationofplans
From external and internal determining factors set out in previous pages, basic characteristics ofhouse plan can bestated under following heads: levels: 1, 2, 3 storeys orsplit-level aspect: dual, single, reverse or open—*p46 horizontal circulation: through, through-sto, through-kitchen orsingle, core circulation through atrium —p47 numberofrm and size ofhousehold: stated as eg (4 rm, 5person). Thesecharacteristics provide basisforclassification ofall house plans. To themisadded vertical circulationwhen housesofmore than 1 storey considered.
Plandevelopment
Planselection not initially affected byhousehold size orspecialised user requirements. First three heads of classification (levels, aspect and circulation) narrow choice to number ofplan arrangements at this stage expressed in simplest possible terms —+(1). This example shows how 1-storey house plans basically similar developed to accommodate different household sizes.
ONE-STOREYHOUSES
? HousesatDundeeScotland:variationsinsimplebasicplan Arch Baxter Clark &Paul 1
1-storey house givesgreatest planning freedom, only planning determinants being aspect and horizontal circulation. Consequently both simplest and most luxurious houses often planned on 1 storey —(1)(2)(3)(4)p5O--1. Relationshipbetween kitchen and bathrhorizontal:economies in placing them together but savings in cost may not be great when weighed against userconvenience —*p51 (6).
1:r ih1± 2
'Arcon' prefabricatedhouse ArchArcon
4
Largeprivatehouse ArchBiecker
3 Old person'sbungalow
I C
50 Habitat
Houses PLANS: CLASSIFICATION
1
Houseat WhipsnadeEngland ArchLubetkin&Tecton
10
32
'
20 64
30m 96
3 HouseinBeverlyHills USA Arch ANeutra
2 Singlefamilydetachedhousebuilt round atriumClevelandOhioUSA Arch HirumABlunden
J.
Habitat
51
Houses PLANS:CLASSIFICATION
I C-
(
I
8 lOm
6 1218243011
1
Houseforanartist Arch Rogers
2 Bungalowwith self-containedflat forhouse-keeperorchauffeur
Arch Neufert
iIv 3
L-shapedhousewith day& night wings ArchKossler& Peter
4
HouseinCaliforniaUSAwithterfacings& bathrbetween bedr Arch Donald
d*j 0 I
4 6 8 lOm I I I I 6 12 18 24 308 2
'-4-,
'Iv
jT
L1IeirJ
er
6
II
6
5 Houseforcouplewithoutch: goodrelationship ofter, k &liv Arch Erchmannsdorfer&Kindler
American2-storeyhousewith upperfloor entrance (siteis notflat)
1Pm
[LF
12 18 24 306
6 Housetosleep6 Arch LHilberseimer
N
7
8
ArchE H& M KHunter
52 Habitat
Houses MORE THAN ONE STOREY Newplanning determinants introduced: vertical circulation, relationship between kitchen and bathr, which becomes vertical as well as horizontal, and balancing of ground and upper
storeyaccn.
Verticalcirculation:thestair In all houses of more than 1 storey plan is
influenced by position and design of stair. Stair and its location affectconstructional system to be employed: in repetitive house design most important single standardising component. Stairs differin design (straightflightordog-leg) and in position. These, incombination, impose different planning effects. To provide best circulation aim istoarrive onfirststorey as near as possible to middle of house; best choice of position and typeof stair toachieve this related to plan shape—a(1).
Kitchen& bathr These comprise most heavily serviced part of house;economy in plumbing and water supply systems and problem ofaccommodating bulky soil and waste stack at lower level eased by placingone above the other—.(4)(5).
Ibedri
edr C ____________________
''1
III Dog-legstair hasgreatplanningadvantages& much used intraditionalEnglishhouse;noteinter house how accesstosmall rm& servicescanbe provided at half-landingsaVictorianterhouse Georgianterhouse cGeorgiandetachedhouse 1
b
2 Straightflight at rightanglestohorizontal circulationoftenattractiveinsavingcirculation spacebutdividesplanrigidly:insomeinstances
not disadvantage,particularly inblind-side planning acentralstair throughhouse,single aspectplan b centralstairthroughhouse, dualaspectplan Ccentralstairacrosshouse, dual aspectplan
Balance of ground & upper storey accn In some house types, designed for both small and large households, total area required for bedr and related accn does not balance living, kitchen and other areas usually placed on groundstorey: this because space allotted for commonuse does not increase proportionally to family size, asdo number and sizes ofbedr. Economic design forsmall houses, sayfor3 or 4 persons, employs 1 V4-storey arrangement, basically of 1-storey construction with open roof truss to enable roof space to be used for bedr. Such roof on 1-storey house can also facilitate future extension of small house. —np78.
Opposite problem occurs in 2-storey houses designed formore than 6persons, where house plans can be adapted by providing bedr over pends, linking houses across pedestrian routes
3
Very simple& economicaldesignofterhouse with 'farmhouse'k &bathrongroundfloor
upperstorey
groundstorey
path under pondusedtoturncorner
45
Economyachievedby placing bath over k
6
7
rm
Bedrover pendsmeansofprovidingextra
Habitat 53
Houses MORETHAN ONE STOREY
1 2 2 'throughha' typeplanswithsolidfuel heating&chimney: note —.(2) how widerfrontagewith straightflightstairon perimeter leadsto long uppersto circulation Arch National Building Agency (UK)
4
HouseatHallandSussexEngland Arch Chermayeff
b
3
HousesatMoultonYorkshireEngland: bedrinsulated tromoneanotherby
cpd& staircase; note influence ofstairtypeon upperstoreyplan Arch Butterworth
ground floor
5 SmallSwedishtypewithshonext to kon groundtloor Arch Swedish ArchitectsCooperative
upper floor
Largertype with drnextto k& centrestair Arch W Kraatz 6
7 TerhousesinKlampenborgDenmark: appearance of detachedhousesachieved by staggering ArchAJacoben
I0
54 Habitat
Houses HOUSE PLANS bathr bedr
Plan ranges
By classifications of type outhned—.p47—9, many agencies providing houses,in both public and private sectors, havecompiled sets of related
house designs called plan ranges. Designs comprising plan range have basic constructional features in common, such as staircase type and location, kitchen/bathr relationshipand upperfloor construction. House designs in such range can be varied to meet differing requirements while retaining useful degree of standardisation
(1).
bedr2 bedr3
First storey plan of 3-bedr wide frontage house has been changed to
allow house to be used where controlled aspect —p46required. This possible because critical elements unchanged:ie, inthiscase,plumbing, heating, stair. Use ofsame firststorey plan asofnarrow frontage house, possible, would impose dual aspect conditions on its use in layout.
Combined rooms: natural lighting& ventilation
Unlessseparately lighted and ventilated required area should be based ontotalareaofcombinedspacesprovideddegreeofopenness,relationship
and planning of adjacent space allow adequate natural lighting (—. Bib187). In row-house (ter) plan —.(2)shaded areashould beused in calculating required amounts of natural light and ventilation forcombination dining and living space. Assuming total floor areadining and living rm 41.8m2 mm amount glazed area required would be 41.8 x lO% or 4.18 m2 in living rm exposed wall. Vent sashshould be locatedto providecirculation of air throughout area. Becauseof excessive distance dining areafrom sourceof natural light height ofglazing should be great as possible.
J
bedri
bedr2
r2 bathr
Rangeofhousetypesfor 4& 5 personwide & narrowfrontage houses Arch NBA (Scotland) 1
2
Combinedrm: naturallighting & ventilation
bedr3
Habitat
55
Houses KITCHENS Kitchens best placed towards NE or NW of house and in small houses should ideally overlook entrance, front door and children's play area. Kitchen relates horizontally to front door (or tradesmen's entrance, if separate), diningrm ormeal space, food sto,scullery and laundry areas, refuse sto or disposal, and outside clothes drying and toddlers' play spaces. It relates vertically to bathr, wc and other areas requiringwater supply and drainage. In large houses functions of kitchen can be spread over several rm (eg laundry, utility, pantry, scullery) combined in household wing separated from rest of house to prevent spreadofnoiseand cooking smells —np49(4).
rexck-up
unwrapping washing penling addingwater 1
weighing measuring mining
keeping lood hot, dishing-ap
baking holing hying grilling
stacking washing drying disposal
Sequenceofactivities
Main activities for which kitchen designed: preparation, cooking and serving of meals and cleaning up afterwards. Ancillary activities can include clothes washing, general household mending and cleaning, eating, children's play, studying, hobbies, entertaining and general recreation.
WORKINGSEQUENCE Sequence of activities —o(1) relatesto sequence of fitments, worktop — cooker —worktop—sink—worktop, which is basis ofmodern domestic kitchen planning —.(2): should never be broken byfull-height fitments, doors or passageways.
Worktriangle
Distance user has to walk between sink, cooker and refrigerator or larder critical in kitchen planning. Lines Joiningthese 3 elements form what is known as worktriangle' —o(3). For normal family house combined length of sides of triangle should be between 5500and 6000. Distance between sink and cooker should not exceed 1800; should never becrossedby through circulation.
Sinks Sinks require goodnatural light: best placed underwindow; should not normally be more than 2300 from waste stack or external drain. Sinks should be kept away fromcorners —e(4) and there should be plenty of room tostandin front of draining side, though insmall kitchens washing bowl of double sink may be placed towardscorner-.(5).
2 Sequenceoffitments
00 I
I
Cookers& work tops—*alsop56—8
Cooker should never be placed in front of window but should, where possible, be provided with ventilating hood —e(6). It should not be placed below wall cupboards and gas cooker should be away from doors where draughts might blow out burners. Worktop should be provided on each side; where cooker adjoins corner fitting return of at least400 should be allowed for easy standing and access space. Low level cooker requires space of at least 1200 in front for access —n(6). Adjacent worktops should be at same level as cooker top; ifchange of level required should beatpoint at least 400 fromcooker—o(7).
3 Work triangle(sk —ck — Irig)
4
Singlesk
Split level cookers with separatehob and wall oven increasinglypopular. May be 1 or 2 (stacked) aboveworktop height. No perfect location:if in continuous worktop interrupt workflow; it outside worktriangle extra travel. Opendoor may bedanger tochildren. Space forcasual meals to betaken should beallowed at worktop height in working kitchen, and ideally in working partofdining-kitchen.
Refrigerator Most difficult of kitchen eqp to
place. Important component of work triangle; should adjacent worktop space. Frig door should open away from work area for food access; should not block passageway or hit another doorwhen opening.
5
Doublesk
6
Low-leveloven needsadequate space infront: noteextractorhood over ck
Also—p58—9 hardwood pull-out cutting board (drawer below)
DINING-KITCHENS—p57 Kitchen may be associated with separate but related dining space to become dining-kitchen. Separation can be achieved by arranging itments toprovide degree ofscreening or bychange inlevel offloor finish (undesirable). Dining area should be planned in same way as small diningrm.
I
f
Kitchen may also beenlarged tocontain dining table and chairs, without separation, toform'farmhouse kitchen': more economical in spacethan either separate kitchen and dining rm ordining-kitchen butoffers less flexibility in use.
1
850
7
Changein level
Provideplaceforworking seated,preferablywith pull-out worktophavingdrawer&cutting board above 8
I
ci)
56 Habitat
Houses noof bedr
workcentre
0 mm
1
KITCHENS 2
3
4
Fixtures& work tops
frontages
475 381
610 457
610 813 533 610
813 762
533
533 457
610 762 533 610
762 762
frigspace5 work 1 side1
762 762 381 381
914 914 381 381
914 457
mixingworktop
533 762
914 914
1067
sk'
worktop,eachside
cooker&hobspace236 worktop 1 side4
top
381
Notes. when dishwasher provded610skacceptable where built-in wall oven installed provide 457w worktop alongside cookershall not be located under nor within305ofwindow;wherecpdprovidedabove cooker 762 clearanceshall be providedtobottomofunprotected cpd or61010 bottom ofprotected cpd provide at least229fromedge ofcooker toadlacentcorner cpd and381fromsideollrig toadjacent cornercpd trig space may be 533whenlug provided & door opens withinownw when cooker not provided 762space shall be provided 1
USA standards require kitchen area which provides for efficient food preparation, serving and sto, aswell as utensil sto and cleaning up after meals. Provision of fixtures and workfops —s(1); worktops approx 610 deepand 914 high. Clearance between base cpdfronts in food preparation area mm 1 020 Required worktops may be combined when placed between 2 fixtures: cooker,frlg, sink. Such worktop shall have mm frontage equal to that of largerofworktops being combined. Kitchen sto —up75. —+(2) givesrecommended kitchen sto shelfarea; mm 1/3 required area to be located in base orwall cpd; mm 60% required area to beenclosed by cpd doors.
Kitchenlayouts
—v(3)—(7) showvarious kitchen plans.
Standardsforfixtures&worktops numberofbedr 0
3
2
1
4
m° 2.23 2.79 3.53 4.09 4.65 minshelfar1234 mm drawer ar5 0.37 0.56 0.74 0.93 2.04 wall cpdoverfrig Notes: dishwasher may be counted as037 m2 ofbasecpdsb shall not be counted asrequired shelfar shelf arabove 1880shall be counted as required ar inside corner cpdshall be counted as50% ofshelfar,eacepl where revolving shelves usedactualshelfarmaybe counted drawer arm excess ofrequired armay be counted as shelfarifdrawer atleast 152d
Lshapek
oo LIN
6
'N
'N 'N
A
8F 4
Corr plan k
N,'
StraightwaIIplan k
n
/
n I
0 0
D
,
uT
0 0
..iED °e0 \
-
I L
li
,,/7 Squareplan kwithdining ar
Habitat
57
Houses KITCHENS:EXAMPLES
7163
HH
__
7J rH6
I
1
kwith sewingar & homeoff 1 ptr 2sewing 3cpd 4familydiningoroff 5hob 6sk 7 freezer 8homeofffiles ArchJohn RPeterson
2
3 Gourmetcook's k 1 ptr 2walkintrig 3metal shelves 4choppingblock 5 marbleslab 6sk 7dishwasher S hob 9wallovens 10serving 11 warmingtray 12desk 13 hoodover 14dr Arch Cliff May
4
T rrr
Farmk 1 sk 2dishwasher 3waste 4cuttingboard 5hob 6oven 7cpd over Bfamilydining 9frig/freezer lOdrystoshelves 11 hotwater l2drop downironingboard 13 14dryer-washer 15sk 16 17freezers 18cleaning cpd 19 ventilated food sto 20preserves, coatcpd ArchE H& M K Hunter
Efficientsmall kopensto or closes offfromdr&ter 1 sk 2 dishwasher 3 ck 4 carrouselcpd 5wallcpd 6trig 7chinacpd 82-way fireplace Arch E H & M K Hunter
--- 2642
dr
4115
r liv
1524
-
garden entry
()
r21
H
(0
[21 c'J
Ill
5
12 liv
service entry
1
[iii 110
——
5 Combination k/uty withgreenhouse 1 sk 2hob 3ovens 4bakingcentre 5trig 6chest
freezer 7deskwith booksover 9cpd 10 sewing 11 ironing 12stowall 13lau sk 14washer 15dryer 16greenhousewith sliding glass Arch E H&MK Hunter
6
Homecentre k Lifemagazine house 1 folding doors 2trig 3ovens 4hob 5sk 6dishwasher 7child's trig 8freezer 9washer-dryer 10liftup mixer 11 rotating sto bin 12cpdover 13skylight 14motorisedwoodslat blinds,lowerfromceilingto worktoplevel ArchM K Hunter
7 ksharesfireplacewith liv 1 trig 2 sk 3dishwasher 4ck 5k herb garden 6curtain 7fireplace Scpd Arch EH &M KHunter
I
58 Habitat
Houses KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT — 1 400
,.. _ I
Correcttoespace
2
Good &bad lighting
Hatchbetweenkor ptr&dining arorrm with 2-waysto cpdabove
4
6
7 Self-ventingcooker
3
Space neededforbottomshelf
5 Where noverticalshaft planned,hood&ducttoexternalwall advantageous
Outsidewallexhaustfan
T'j 1 270
__J
9
Standardcooker762wwith low oven
10 Range 1016w with lowoven
11
ovens
12 Singlewalloven
13 Smallcooker533w with low
14 Microwaveoven
15 Grill toaster
Doublewalloven
oven
T
.787h914-_,t
1676
17 Frigwith 0.65 m3 refrigeration & 1.17 m3 freezer
Habitat
59
Houses KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT
--
bhl
Frigwith 0.59 m3 refrigeration &
1
L
2
3
Frig0.25—0.34 m3
0.2m3freezer
Chestfreezer0.14—0.7 m3
7
1-
I 300
4
Uprightfreezer0.31—0.7 m3
6 Metal & plastics platerack
7
10 Juice extractor
11
El slicer
5 Mincers(meatgrinders) a hand bel —13O—
120
!T
T
C— 360
-1 F—180—-1
8
Mixer
9
Blender
Foodmill
I
13 Crockpot
14 Wastemill h
.7
//
.7 300
flute whitewine
/reclwino
//sheny
I/cocktail hqueur
200 160 150 130 120 100
0 95 75 70
Th 15001
12 Coffeemakers
200 260 300 420 480
-360-I
-j-H-I-]-l EH
1-
1000
l-500H
17 Glass orplasticsfood drawers
350 400 460 620 700
'
19 Woodtrays
moat
-8001
1000
A
wallscale
L022o
IH 21
kscales
Pedal-operatedwastebin
TJc\, -
ff I-I-l-l-.
50 80 30
I-
16 Glasses
15
___
18 Boards
60 Habitat
Houses LAUNDRYSPACES b— 1000
1
Hingedironingboard
2
Clothes washing may be done in kitchen, utility rm, bathr (notpopular), back porch, garage or, incombination with wc, in downstairs cloakrm.
-+
Space neededforironingseated
1 400
3 Elironingmachine
Laundry area needs space for washing machine and drier, for storing cleaning materials and, possibly, for storing dirty washing; may also have to accommodate ironing board or ironing machine and working surface for sorting. Although mobile washing machines available most models, automaticmachinesinparticular,bestplumbed inwith permanent connexions towatersupplyand suitablytrapped waste. Where washing machine not used, orin large houses where much hand washing done, sink 500 x 350 x 250deeprequired and second bowl ortub desirable. Tumbler drier —(12) best placed against outside wall to allow direct extraction of water vapour: removablelinttrap required bysome models. Even where tumbler drier provided rack or line needed for drip-dry clothes. In small houses orflats this can befixedabove bath orshower; otherwise should be in ventilated drying cupboard or over trapped draining tray. Open-air dryingpreferred by many and makes nodemands onenergyresources. Open-airdrying space should be easilyaccessible fromlaundry area and preferably in viewfromkitchen —p77.
4 Howthingsused to be
690690
1
V
1 0
0
-I 5 Twintubwashingmachine(not availableinUSA)
6
Automaticwashingmachine
7
Drier stackedonwasher:right handconnexions
8 Toploadedautomaticwashing machine
457
710 860
E c0
r(0
±
9
Combination frontloadwashing machine/drier:backconnexions (pullout)
10 Watersoftener
=
1100
11
Spindrier (notused in USA)
12 Tumbledrier(musthavespace
atrear forventilation)
}
j.
13 Eliron
24
Ironingboard
15
Sleeveboard
16 Sewingmachine
Habitat
61
Houses Best daylight orientation forbathr SE—NW; for ease of installation(gas and waterservices) should be related to other rm requiring services (above or backing on to wc, kitchen, utility rm etc, —.p52: will also minimise noise frompipes); forconvenience should becloseto bedr.
BATHROOMS—p62—5
Internal wc and bathr fairlycommon: may be unavoidablewhere economical use floor area important,especiallyin narrowfrontagehousesor in pointblocks. Ventilation essential and must accord with appropriatereg.
Showeruses less water than bathtub; often considered more efficient because of its continuous flow; provides convenient alternative to full
2
Mm
clearancebetweenb &wall
legs
8
45G-
\withoutlegs letinto
fioor Recommended clearances
1
3
Space requirements for movement(hfrom floor) 1-600
-r
4;; 2O0'
§ 5
wc withflushingvalve orh-level cistern
• 700
600
.
I-
900 -j
J1O 6
For ease of access, bathtubs sometimes partially sunkinto floor with access to trap fromrm below. Where bathtub parallel to wall distance fromcentre of bath to face ofwallmust be450. Where possible space should be available for at least 1 item of bathr furniture, suchas stool or laundry box. Fittings such as towelrails and toiletroll holders should not obstruct activity spaces. Heated towel rails best fixed 750 above floor level, above height of small child's head. Medicine cabinets should be out of reach of children and fitted with safety lock. Exposed pipes should be fixed to allow sufficient wall clearance forcleaning. Windows above baths can be difficult to open or to clean without standing in bath, common cause ofaccidents: may also limit privacy and cause draughts unless well insulated.Windows behind wash basinscan also be difficult to reach; wall abovewash basin best used for mirror or medicine cabinet.
convenience outlets nearwater source; safest locationaspartofsealed light fixture over mirror with remote switching neardoorway.
700
wc underslopingrooforstairway
Showers in wall recesses have shower trays ot enamelled cast iron, glazed fireclay or plastics with waterproof tiled walls or waterproof rendering and steamproof paint upto2000: prefabricated shower units in enamelled sheetsteel, aluminium or plastics also available—.p64 65. Fixed showerarmsshould be mounted at 1 900: otherwise adjustable, hand showerwith flexible hose should be used.
UK practice does not allow el sockets in bathr other than specially designed shaverpoint, which should be out of reach ofbath; enclosed light fittingswith cord-operated switch preferred. USA practice: no el
1-500—-I
4
length where space limited —*p63. Shower outlet may be fitted over bath where suitable wall or partition available at tap end for fixing, orcombined bath tap and shower fitting with flexible hose may be used. For either bath activity space —.(1) shouldbe at tap end unless permanent shower screens fitted.
Single basin swingrail
__.47Q .450 900-1000
900
700
600
700
11
12 Heatedtowel rail
13
14 Multi-pointfitting (hb,b& sho)
enclosedsho
400
7
/
iiii' 8
Bidet—ap63(9)
Sho length
length_projection 5(10
open sho
80
2
250 90
1000
\ 9
Grabrails
10
15
300
62
Habitat
Houses BATHROOMS Equipment
Gas water heaterfittedtohot water cylinder 1
cOqrleni5.
Movable baths of zinc or enameled mild steel suitable only for infrequently used baths, children's bath —p63(2), hip baths —np63(3) and use withoutmain services. Fixedbaths—'p63(4)—(8) usuallyenameled cast iron, pressed steelor plastics with various qualities ofenamel (fullgloss, acid resistantetc) or fireclay. Free-standing baths —p63(5) usually have taps at toot end: sometimes loined towall along 1 sideto avoid water splashing behind bath. Built-inbaths—op63(6) with extended rim attachedto surroundingwalls & overlapping front: access panel necessary in UK. Avon bathsfor use as built-in units p63(4) have integral front panel; drain & overflow carried tooutside instandpipe ortrapped waste (USA). Space-saving baths p63(7)(8) installedwhere space restricted butdo not necessarily savewater; corner baths —.p63(7). Fireclay baths glazed inside and out beautiful and expensive but uneconomic as slowtowarm up; pleasantfor leisurely bathing, however. Footbaths p63(1O) movable or fixed, usually installed in larger public baths; may be fireclay, earthenwareor enamelledcastiron. Showers —op63(11)(12)base may be cast iron or fireclay (terrazo); should preferably be sunk into floor & provided with tile or enameled sheet steelsurround —also p64. Polyban baths —op63(8) Spanish patent: can be used as hip baths, footbaths, bidets or shower (With flexible shower arm); require little space & savewater(not used in USA). Bidet—op63(9)earthenware orfireclay, many variationsindesign; mixer with anti-scalding device —also p61(7). Basins with back skirting for plastered walls —np63(13); for washable walls—.p63(14) many shapes & sizes, sometimes with separatemouthwashbasin oras double basin —.p63(15)(16);mixers for washing with running water, butwasteful. Squat wc —(8) hygienic but uncomfortable; has either flushing cistern orflushing valve. Wc —n(5)—(7) siphonic more efficient butextravagant inwater &prohibited by some water bye-laws. Low level cisterns flush with little noise; flushing valves more noisy—.(5)(6)but use approx halfasmuch water. Water heaters (gas or el) —.(1)—(4). El sf0 heaters —.(2) use cheap night-time el & can be set toheat up at any time during day.
2 Elstoheaterforkorbathr
10, i3i
0—410 230—300'
190—270
conient 5, 10.
3
Gas water heaterforchimneyor outsidewall
4 Gaswater heat forhb
i-'11O-j
5 Wall toiletwith low levelcistern
I
\ioo
/
120
Ii
I
170
6
Toilet withbuilt-in cistern
T
,aper
F,)
L
-h corkmat
x
I
670
plan
7
Eqpforwc
8
Squatwc 960
SW
=!= —
760o 510
II
towel
I'
I
.J
L_Jf
Bathrwallcpd
10
Lockable medicine cpd
11
grab
,—
eieva5onA
9
1
609
1
recess r—l soap
grab
bar recess soap
clothes hook
hght
0
Bathr eqp &fittings aplan b elevations
ill
er
eievation
B
Habitat
63
Houses BATHROOMS
I
Equipment
r-4
w 1500
780_82O50
1600
420
& 1700
I
1800
800
1 Standardmetric bath sizes
2
3
Children'sbath
Parallel-sidedcast iron bath
6
Bath for incorporation as built-in
unit
Hipbath
4
Enamelledcast ironbath
8
Polybanunit
12V
castiron
5
1875
700
700
7
EconomyAmericancorner bath (enameledcast iron)
Shorterbathsrequiremorewater
——1004
1250
-
2
1500
1700
Shower requiresapprox301 water
1875
I
—900-
350— 400
610-680 350-420
1-.
recessfor soap& brush
9
+a
13
10 Footbath(maybeincorporated as built-in unit)
Bidet
a500—700 b400—600 —F-—
castiron, steel.fireclay,
earthenware,terrazzo,plastics
Sho b torincorporation as built-in unit
12
15 Hbwith separate
16 Doublehb
11
Shotray forincorporation as built-in unit
a500—700 b400—600 b
H
Hbwith back skirting
a
b
Hbwithout backskirtingbut incorporatingmixer fitting 14
wash bowl
mouth-
64 Habitat
Houses BATHROOMS
Wc &washrooms Wc with low-level cisterns -700
i
I- 1200
1850
KD
750j *
-4
2
under high-level windows —(1 )—(3); wc with high level cisterns —(4)—(6): where cistern placed against exteriorwall insulate againstfrost.
-
Bathrooms: smallest typeofbath may be recessed into bedr wall —*(7)with shower end screened off with glass partition and
3
remainder curtained.
COL
1400
'
In general doors should be mm 460wide,should openfull90°and open inwards except in accn for elderly, when should open out-
2200
wards.
5
4
6
Hip-b (loosebowlinfold-up steel frame)
Shortb
-,
Bathrooms
7
1
0 + 1.
binbedr,glass sectionat sho
end 4-
8 As (7)with dryingspace
1400
-4
9
91
-
1720
I-
c1]i 11
j°i 4—
2630
hbQ
Wa
b j
hbi)
-
1720
/
15
"
bedr
16
, TI II_I -. hb -
18 Doubleusebathr
L 6400
4—
I bed
-4
ter
I
I—
17 Divided bathr&dre
5004700-4
çciiip OL jo —
—4
14
1jdre
12
7315
—4
20 Dividedbathr&dre between
19 Deluxe bathrldre
bedr
Showers 4-
D 4- 900 -,
900 4
cii 21 1600
t1 -
-,
E1 26
4- 1000 4-800 -4
-
23 Withfold-up hb
22 4-
25
4- 900
2300
-1
24 H
I—
2540
—I
27 StandardAmericanb
T
3657 -4 highwindow
T:
1219sq thagortalb
28 Americansquaretubbathr
Habitat 65
Houses PREFABRICATEDSANITARY UNITS Standard layand bathr fittings mostly fairlycostly and taketime to install. As requirements more or less uniform prefabrication preferable: in particular forterrace houses, maisonette housesand large scale blocks of flats, also for modernisation schemes and prefabricated housing. Prefabricateditemscomprise complete plumbing units—.(1)(3), plumbingwalls—(2), complete elementsstoreyorrm high, with pipe mountings and el leads, also items with accessories, flooring and, usually, ceiling —+(4)—(9)(available without ceiling for old housing). Compact elements of fixed dimensions —(1 Q)(11). Also individual elements with variable
I wcplumbingelements
2
fl\ U/.
Plumbing wall
F—1070—H
plumbingunit
Connexion to 1 -storey central heating system hasproved successful.
2100—1
I
3
ground plan design—*(5)—(9). Construction: mainly sandwichwith wood skeleton and chlpboard,glass aluminium, aluminium, stainless steel, glass fibre reinforced polyester, reinforced concrete floor slabs —n(1O)(11) or new types of plastics. Fittingsand accessories similar materials.Basic essentials: anti-scratch surfacefinish and long service life (no material fatigue). Prefabricated plumbing units mostly for use internally in bldg —.(13)—(16); proper through ventilation therefore necessary: possibly forced ventilation. Suitable forhotels—(14), hospitals,old people's homes—.(13).
4
Plumbingunitonwall
Self-containedwcelements& fittings
+— 1250 —a
75 75 e—600
50
I—
1435—.1
1
I
k
S
I
1
p—1800—
I 2050 ——-----—i
I
5 Self-containedwcelement&
6
She elementwith plumbingshaft
11
As 10butwith shoatside
12 Large unitcomprisingk, washr, heater
fittings
2285—-
I I
I 2240
7
Bathr unitwithwashing
machine
14 Sho elementinhotel
1400-i
I
/1 2875
9
13 wcelement in hospital
r—..1_———
U1
I
8 Bathr unit
Smallbathrunit
—...Qt_
2110
I
I
1530
10 Compactunit
—
I 15 Sho elementinsmall dwelling
16 Prefabricatedbathrwith k partitionwall
66 Habitat
Houses PUBLICROOMS Dining rooms
1-450*—900—4
•F550+4504
Position: breakfast area facing E —.(1 1), dining area facing W —v(1 2) (13)(1 5)(l6); directaccess from hall or corridor not necessary but from kitchenor pantry essential. Space requirement: formerly largest rm dining rm has shrunk to bare essentials: very often utilises corner —v(6), kitchen recess —vp55—7 ante-rm or area in living rm —*(4)—(7). Even in large houses dining rm keptmodest—v(8)(9),sometimes with provisionto combine itwith living rm for special occasions —v(10). Doors in rm corners convenient.
Mm clearancefromwall depends onmethodofserving (withorwithout 1
2
Space requiredbetweenheadof table &sideboard
servant) 4
1700
P—
r 0
24
P
200
x
IF1LII - .-
eg600wand6P=
0.60x 6 = 1040
tii :I11UEB
Outside dining spaces (verandas, terraces): should lie on windprotected sunnyside of house in front of dining or living rm (ie in W Europe with prevailing SW windsshould face E or SE). Since E sun shines at low angle roof can project quite prominently. Mm widthwith bench seatalong 1 wall3000: roof projection 2000sufficient.
1800
-
Sideboardwith drawersathead
to
Diaof round table =
F
oftable
6
Table w. . . 550 to 1100 Seating w/P 550to 700 At head oftableadd . . . 100 to
seat w number ofP 3.14
600
3
Size ofdr . . .
—1
600 —
5 Mm table spaceinrailway dining carwithtip-up seats4; little morespace requiredindiningrecess with loosechairs5 4
ri
H
3000
1—
iLJLP
b
3300
33
—1
flIfl9.
T
DftJij
breakia1I : 6
7 Formore than 5 Paccesstoall
Space-savingarrangementof table withfixed cornerseat& (possibly)small sideboards
I—
3200
seats mustbeallowedfor
H
F-
3300
In Americadiningspaceneark withamplesto cpd&sideboardclose at handoftenconsideredadequate 11
-
12 Diningrecess inliv (withor without curtain)with accesstok, intermediatestage toseparate dr Arch Byrne
-4000
-4
3300-
Trverk
8 Smallestpossibledrfor6P withoutsideboard; doorin corner
9 Smallest possibledrfor6Pwith roundtable & cornercpd (double
Separatedr between k&liv Arch Schwarderer 13
swingdoor to k)
preferable
1 550
-
—F-—
3900
—4—
14 Drbetweenter& liv (sliding foldingdoors allowcombination)
.•.•.
:::....: —
1 500
covering
ter
I
sard
I
ci
UQOUG 7450 dr
],7t-
un
10 Drfor 12 Pwith sideboard&spaceforservants: maybe enlarged into living rm with space-saving arrangement of sliding foldingdoors
ser
15 Dr &livboth openingontoter, ensuringgooddaylight
16 Relationshipofdrto other mi
Habitat 67
Houses Guest& children'srooms
PUBLICROOMS
Livingrooms I- 750
TJ1
h=1100
—4
T 4-600-1
-Uk1øgoo 900
j&h=600 4000
I—
1900
1—
-H
Comfortablelow easychairs besidetable orstandardlamp 1
4750
4—
—1
2 Table in frontoffireplaceoff centreto allowaccesstofire
—I
11 Narrow rm forguestsor2 teenagechildren,with joint work table, separateWa, fold-up beds
12 Similarrmtoll withfold-up beds &built-in cpd butwider:can beseparateworktablesoneither side ofwindow
teatrofley 10001
§
-
3100
4--
3500
4—
Easychairs350 h &table600 h fortaking tea inalcove 3
4500
4—
250
750
4
Seatinggroup withsettee:easy chair 380 h, table 600 h
13 Shortrmwithcpdl500h& fixed beds,primarilyguest rm
3500
+1000
14 Large rmwith bunk bedsin recess,largefreear, & hb& coat hooks neardoor
Sewin9 machine 800/450
I
4—
2000 -J
__
I
1
1 600 F—
3100
4—
—4
5
Seatinggroupwith settee& chairs: chair420 h, table 650h
3400
activity
—4
sitting
2 tea 3
aperitifs, etc
4
smoking
5
conversation
6
dancing
6
Seatingarrangementin liv (may also beused forbreakfast): chair 440 h, table700 h
Musicrooms
7 playing
8
sewing
9 breakfast
10 eating 11
writing
12 reading
7
Incorrectgrand pianooften drawnbyarchitects: long(bass)side isonleft
8
Grandpiano incorrectly placed: openingtowardswallinsteadof rm
13 music 14 indoorsport
internalwall
15
furnitureandeqp
specialised
rm
combined
rm
settee,lowtable,easy chairs teatrolley, sto ofcrockery etc,seating sto ofglasses, sideboard, liqueurtrolley smokers'table, pipe cpd, tobacco sf0, smokers' requirements fire place, comfortable easychairs, small tables parquet orlinoleum dance floor, 2.5—3.5 m2 per couple children'sfurniture, carpeted floor, toy sto table, sewingmachine, linencpd, baskets breakfast artowards E withter, or between bedr dining ar,sideboard desk,chairs, filing, waste-paper basket shelvesorcpd,easy chairs with headrest piano, cpdforother instruments, musiclib table tennis, billiard table, punchball etc
salon ladies rm bar liv
smokingrm lounge ballrm
children'srm utilityrm breakfast rm
dr
dr
stu lib
stu
musicrm games rm
Livingrm uses
Living rm usually multi-purpose; layout and furnishing vary widelywith different uses entailing wide range of possible space requirements
9
Grandpiano wellpositioned in relationtoseatinggroup, wall& circulation,butwindow,heating& externaldoor wouldbeadverse factors
Grandpianoagainstinternal wall,away fromwindow&heating, wellrelatedtoseatinggroup&rm; daylightcomingfrombehindplayer 10
—*(15). Therefore necessary define functions in detail before shape, space for furnishing and movement of users can be planned. For liv tables—(5) allow 650 space per person, for easychairs —*(2)(3)866 and diafor roundtables personsx866
3 14
I
68 Habitat
Houses PUBLICROOMS Seating nearwindows 0
r
1400/8cc
2350-
Work tablescloselyrelatedto
1
window
2
Avoid seatingpeoplewith backs
towindow
3
Diagonalarrangementpreferable to 2&requireslessspace
On built-in setteebelowwide window,however, severalpeople can sitquitecomfortably 4
Seating away fromwindows
5
Bench seatalso satisfactory between2windowsin lightcoloured corner with suitablecarpet
7 Seatingagainstinteriorwallwith viewthrough picturewindow very relaxing,speciallyinfront offrenchdoors
Seatingin middleusually uncomfortablefrom lackof relationshipwith rest ofmi 8
Seating roundfireplace .400
draught
I.
§
1000 2000
V 9
Ingle-nook Arch Leusinger
10 Seatingarrangedtoavoid draughtfromdoortofireplace
Chairswithhigh backs& ears' also protectagainstdraught 11
12 Largergroupsshould follow patternof heatradiation
Seating round workdesks
700
970
13 Colleaguesworkingclosely togethershouldfaceeachother; with largewindows&light-coloured walls,daylightfromright istolerable forwriting
14 Visitorsusuallysitin lightatend
ofdesk,face of interviewer being in shade
a
15 Assistantsmaywork temporarilyonflapat endofdesk
16 Conferencetable unnecessary ifdesktop extensible
17 In small rmvisitorsmaybe
18 As alternativeto17visitormay beseatedbehindhost,who turnson revolving chair:door should bein frontofdesk
Correct arrangement of seating greatly enhances comfort of users.
Relationship of daylight and artificial lighting important —(1)—(8). Give careful consideration togoodcombination of furniture elements, choice of independent heights and colours, well planned free area, correctly hung doors, kind of floor (direction of boarding) —+(7), carpets —(5)(6)(8)(1 2), treatment ofwallsincluding pictures and sitingofwindows, radiators, fireplace and piano —+p67. Seating area, however, will remain focal point ofrm: everythingelse should be subordinatedto it.
seatedagainstinternall wall; small table shouldbeprovided
Habitat
69
Houses PUBLIC ROOMS 6900
I—
Living rm usedfor general daytime activities; serves mainly asfocus of social activities of family round fireplace, tea or coffee table and for evening leisure activities.Orientation best between E, S and W. Windows —np404
—1
Reception rm (salon): in larger houses often used as music rm or consult/waiting rm near entrance. entrance
L.—' seatingar
Conservatory (wintergarden): usuallyfacing S accessible from living ordiningrm. Music room: nexttoliving rm; dimensionsdeterminedbysizeofaudience and type and number of instruments; soft lighting from back or side of players. For acoustical reasons rm shape usually square with wood panelling; position ofpiano —ep67. In largerm sound reflecting surfaces
ress
1-rmdwellingfor2persons,with differentactivitieswellseparated 1
2 Squareliv with seatingarnear window& fold-upbeds
—
sidoboard
Mur& liv,with needleworktable, fireplace,book-shelves Arch Neufert
panelling) toheight ofabout 1 500.
4
Liv/dr cum murwith built-in furniture,suitablefor 10—12persons Arch Neufert
munc cxJ underwindow 6800 H-
4500
I—.
Study: frequently serves asoffice or workrm. Near entrance and living rm with W or E aspect; fitted with desk, bookshelves, filing system, seating area (deepeasychairs, lowtable, cocktail cabinet). Library: N orientation. 1 000 shelftakes approx 30—40 books. Height between shelves250—300,shelfdepth 220—320.Forapprox, 120—150 books1 m2 of wall. Larger volumes, maps, folders etc in lower, deeper shelves. Height oftop shelfapprox 1 700 from floor—+pl 46. Children's rm: away from living rm but easy supervision essential (from household rm) and preferably with access to garden or safe balcony; on sloping sites may be on lower ground to give garden access. Orientation E-W, low cill (guard rails outside), furniture to children'ssizes.Washable wallfinish(such aslinoleum orplastics-covered
7000 books
3
round players with absorbent surfaces behind audience.
1
H
H900-t
reading desk
I—
'O
T
stu
8 bode trolley
-I-
5
Smallmurwith grand& baby grand pianos& seatingar: avoid placing pianoclose toheatingunitor in directsun
-
6
Murforquartets,trios or2grand pianos &audienceof 12(daylight from behindpianists)
3000 -4
4—.
6500
—1
9
Booksto inlong narrowrmwith amplewallspace: reading desk underwindow,small booktrolley near door
'°°°
-1
T
-I-
7
Smallstuwith bookshelves, desk
&seatingar
3000 —
8
Largestu withbookshelves, seatingarinfront of writingdesk
11 Work rmwithwholewallfor bookshelves,sewingmachine (underbookshelves),writingdesk, seatingar, chestofdrawers
10 Smallworkrmwith writingdesk nearwindow,bookshelves&seating ar
70 Habitat
Houses BEDROOMS
Positionof bed Bedmaking requires clear space of at least 400, preferably 700 (USA mm), beside bed. In most small houses, therefore, choice of bed positions restricted by shape and size of bedr; to free as much floor space as possible single beds usuallyplaced along walls and double or twin bedsplaced headto wall. Nevertheless,relation of bed towalls and to rm as a whole can also be important in contributing to feeling of security. While stable, self-reliant person may prefer free-standing bed —(4)lessself-reliantperson mayprefer—.(1)(2)(5) regardlessofamount of space available.
Impression of restfulness depends on wall covering and colour, shape of bed, orientation (head towards N), relation to daylight (looking away from window) and relation to door (looking towards door). Relative position of 2 beds also important because where 2 people sleep in 1 rm differentarrangementsmay bedesirable,especiallywhere headpositions concerned, according to relationship between people —(9)—(12) (16). Also differentarrangementsforcouples,depending on personal preference —(13)—(15).Withseparate beds change of direction may be preferable —.(12)(15)(16). Separate beds for couples now common. Current fashion may also favour water bed, though well to bear inmind that, fully loaded, thismay impose floorload of up to2oreven 3 t.
— >p
J
1 Alongwall
2 Headagainstwall
3 Headnearwall
4
lncentreofrm
5
Cornerofrm
6 Rear wall
7
8
Alcove
9
Friends
10 Sisters
11
14 Twinbeds (2mattresses)
15 Separatebeds
1.5
Recess
Brothers
12 Guests
-
13 Doublebed (single mattress)
16 Bunk beds
a
17 USA bedrsizes(mainbedrmin11.15m2 leastdimension 2845,secondary bedrmm 7.43m leastdimension2438) sizes —.p71
a&bsingle C double d twin; USAbed
Habitat
71
Houses
Th
BEDROOMS Today's reduced flat and house sizes call for most economical use of floor spaceand make built-in cupboards desirable. Best arrangement based uponenclosed wall recesseswith flooring running intocupboard, walls papered or oil painted, and moth-proof doors. Ideal solution: complete cupboard walls between rm—U(7)(11 )(12): sliding, accordion or openout hinged doors. Cupboards on exterior walls must be well insulated and ventilated to avoid condensation —Up74(2); walk-in cupboards/dressing rm also require ventilation —U(13). Cupboards can be located between bedr to reduce sound transmission. w 762 914
0?
a,
c U'
1
bed I in UK vary according to manufacturer; 1 905 is commonsize; othersizes 1880,1981and2133
69
U)
1524 1829
00
Modernbedr fitmentcombining bedhead, bedsidetables, fitted wa & sto spaceabove 2
child'scotsize usually 1 219 long, 610 wide USA mattresssizes king
ao
queen
3-quarter
twin
I
1828
1828
2032
1905
1905
w
1981
1981
1524
1371
990
-1 J
note:add 76toeachdimension forframe
9
Double-depthcpd,single& doubledoors(opened)
USA water bed sizes king
queen
single
I
2133
2133
2133
w
1828
1524
1219
2500
-Iii0001
10 Double-depthcpd(withdouble doors) & cornercpd formedsimply bydoors;walls& floor of rm continuous
Bed, divan& mattresssizes 3260
F-
1—
-I
2000
1500 -IF-1500-11750-4
-II-
2000 H
12 Cpd wallwith walk-incpd & Cpd wallwith walk-incpd between2bedr: linencpdopeningto washrwith sho between 2 bedrthat corr;wall thicknesses varyfrom30 to are about4000deep 100 dependingonmaterialsused 11
Elevationofdoublebunk-bed recess&built-in cpd 3
4
Elevation& sectiontoplan 5 showingeconomicaluse of space
:r
60
F—
3600
—I
I—
3600
500
—.i
,"mirror 13 Walk-in cpdbigenough to serve as dre
5
Bed recessformedby built-in
cpd
6
7
3600
-
Built-in cpdrelatedtopositionof beds
wall withcpd
Cpd acrossfullrmw, with window (above) &mirroronsliding door (below)
FF-
14 Americanexampleofwindow
3600
—l
bedr 11 2001
Linencpd atend of corr,door frame serving2doors 8
15 As14butwith deepcpdonboth sides angledatfrontto avoid obstructingdaylight
16 Loweredceiling &curtainwill combinecpd of 14& 15toformdre
72 Habitat
Houses BEDROOMS Rm sizes determined by bed sizes: beds and wardrobes often built in rm accord with standard bed sizes. Window preferably parallel to bed (for reading and view) so that with desirable E orientation bed will stand N—S —.(2)(5)(8)(9)(13)(15) etc. Doors should open without encroaching on sleeping area —4(2)(8)(9) (12)(14)(16)(18) etc. Comfortable access to whole rm of of paramount importance —4(5)(7)(1 1). —*(1)(4)(6)(1 1) and sizes of small — 3000 1
4000
9—
—.
-4
9
Singlebedr
USA bedr sizes —.p44(1)70 Stu/bedralso —p140(1 )—(5) 4—
4000
I—
—4
2
—I
10
IDL_Ji °1 T
I—
4000
7
—1
5000
4—
I—
—i
11 Doublebedrwithdoubledepth cpd
3
4500
I-
4
5000
5000
—9
Bed-sittingmi
4000
—i
—
—
5
1—
4000
5000
4000
—9
13
4000
—..
23 Main bedrwith pull-outbed
—4
9—
18 Main bedrwith doublebed
12
—l
—
17 Main bedr
i__
I—
4000
6000
—i
24 Main bedrwith dre ar
—-
T
-r
§
8
I
I
19
25
I 8
1100 F
5000
—
6 Bed-sittingrrnwithdouble-depth cpd
a--...--Vi_V]1 —
6000
—
—I
14 Doublebedrwithsleeping
4500
I —4
20
recess
f
5000
7
—1
I—
Bed-sittingrm
21
—T 6 I
4—
8
5000
—.4
Bed-sittingrm withfold-upbed
ed
16 Stu-bedrwithsleepingrecess
22 Main bedr-sittingrm
—4
27 Separatebedrfor husband & wife
—
4—
7000
7000
28 Separatebedrwith walkthroughcpd
—i
Habitat
73
Houses STORAGEIN HOUSES& FLATS Shape and position of sto space as important as its size. Sto should be provided within easy reach of activities to which related and shape should allow max useofwallareaforshelving —s(1). Stogenerally more useful atground level than on upper storeys. Familyhouse willrequire at least5m2ofgeneral sto, ofwhich at leasthalfshould be on ground floor (USA mm 1.23 m2).
General storage
Sto rm require ventilation and those providing part of passageway
Entrance on longside of sto allowsmax useofshelving 1
2
Allowspaceforpassagewayin through' sto
through house should also permitnaturallighting.In suchcasesallowance mustbe madeforloss ofusablespace tocirculationrequirements.—a(2). Garden tools, bicycles etc usually best inexternal stoor,ifwithin house itself,in stowith direct access from outside —*(3).
Hats & coats
Space required in or off entrance hall for hanging hats and coats and storing outdoorfootwear, preferably in wardrobe or with racks to take hangers —+(3). Additional space may be needed for storing working clothes and eqp —(1 1 )(1 2).
Thepram
In family houses space required for pram —sp74(4): should be easyto manoeuvre pram indoorssothat itcanbeused ascot(crib) during dayif required.
25 _____ 3
Meters
Credit metersshould be capable of being read withoutentering living area of house. Arrangements which can be read by inspector from outside —p74(3) available. Prepayment meters should be easy to reach fromfloor level butgasmeters, especially, should beout ofreach of small children. Space forgasmeters —*p386.
biding doors
4
Inlinewa
Walk-in wa
Linen
q 0120
130
I
bI
________ 510 80 35 400 Iao 400 40
Separate sto space should be provided for linen and bedding. At least 0.6 m3 required, fitted with slatted shelves. Must be dry and therefore not entered from bathr or kitchen or sited against outside wall (unless insulated). May be combined with suitably ventilated hot water cylinder cupboard (heater closet) but not with 'combination' water unit as condensation might occur.
Wardrobes 5
6
Hat&coat rack
Umbrellastand
1
Forclothing in particular,ease ofaccess more important than sf0space. Effective depth of built-in cupboard forclotheshanging 600 but deeper cupboards can be more fully utilised byattaching accessories to backs of doors—s(7). As loads not great normal blackboard doors on strong hinges adequate; shelves can be supported by adjustable ladders and brackets. Walk-in cupboards —*p71 (11) take uplittle wallspace, as door of 550 (USA mm 610 preferred 660) will suffice for cupboard of any length; but floor space less efficiently used because of necessary access area. Walk-in cupboards must be ventilated and lighted and may be entered from, and used as access or escape routes between,
r
adjacent rm.
Is!
7
Clothes& linencpdwith doors puttoadditionaluse (fordimensions
8
Dressingchairwith backrestin coat hangershape(copyright: Neufert)
600
ftLLEh.
I
' fd8flselTflO8 —
Internal stoaccessible fromgardenwithoutpassingthroughliving arof house 11
house
house
a
secbone-t
sectiona-b
9Wa
Section c-d
10 Built-inwa
12 Gar sto aside b rear
b
I c)
74 Habitat
Houses STORAGE T
1. I—
1000
600
*
USAel meteronbrickwall
4 550 +350-i
Section
Sechon I—
1500,-".
4 700 P4700
,=.==tJ';= 8 I,6
Built-in doublewa (cheap&
1
2 Walk-in wabetweenbedr
3
5
Externalel metercpd
—.also p71
space-saving)
Pram
1
200
320
240
hangers
I
/
Ac.
280
350
men's hats
1
150 320
women's hats
7
—
-260
350
'0
200
6terrytowels900h
3pairpyjamas handkerctefs
x1,x70 12women's handkerchiefs 110 x 80 x 30
6
Dimensions
ofclothes
stockings
'
10shirts 120
3pairheavy '—'2z./ men'ssocics
x80 x 35
3 bath towels lBOh 6 120
480
/5o
-i 200.,,
300
500
6 handtowels40h
1
20, A
80,
/
Habitat 75
Houses Kitchenstorage 600 "1°
Space required in or nextto kitchen for storing food and cooking eqp. Stoalso needed forgeneral cleaningand laundering eqp and materials. Dry goods should be enclosed and readily accessible from cooker and sink positions. Floor cabinets best used forstoring heavy or infrequently used articles. Wall cabinets economical in space and provide convenient sto for smaller and frequently used items: should be shallow enough to allow full useof worktops below —(i).
1
Larderventilated to outsideairand protectedby flyproof screendesirable even when space for refrigerator and freezer provided: should not contain heating orhotwaterpipes norreceive direct sunlight. Should be provided with well fitting door, preferably with threshold, to discourage
Sectionthroughworktop& sto
vermin.
Freezer need not necessarily be near kitchen: ifplaced inoutside stooi garage must be locked against theft. Should be served by el power outleton independent circuit.
Wine
3 Cloths &towels
4
Space-savingverticalsto of dishes
Wine cellars should be clean, dark, dry, well ventilated (but avoid cold draughts) and in quietposition free from vibration and away fromdirect heat. Whitewines best kept at constant tempbetween 6°—8° C and red winesat between 10°—i 2°C. Bottle sto may be in racks or in unglazed clay drainpipes —*(11).
Fuel storage
Solidfuel requires volume of not less than 1.13 m3forfuel sto. Should beaccessible fromwithin house orfromporch orother shelter. To avoid spread of dust arrange that bags can be tipped from outside without -500-1
LH-I4-
1000
ETh 1-500-4 5
Dish cpdwith drawers
II1 -4
1000
-4
H500-
6 Glass orplasticscontainers
entering house. In makingprovisionforoilstowellbegenerous—*p386—7.Fuel tanksupto 2000I can generally be located adlacent to houseswithout restriction;if enclosed should beseparated from remainderofbldg and provided with catch pit. Fuel inlet point should be positioned within 30 m of place where delivery tanker can conveniently stop. USA: oil tanks often buried if 21001 orover.
Refuse
8
Refuse sf0 should be outside house, easily accessible from kitchen door. Simple, easily cleaned, covered stand required. Carrydistanceto collection vehicle access should notbe more than 46m and ideally less than 25 m.
Q0c
Eggrack for 100eggs (500 x 500) 7
8
hi
Slattedrackforfruit (800 x 420)
13
Lazytongs'rackingtofitavailablecpdspaces(80x BOx 80) 200130 220130 270x 150 30017O
I
180
/ / 210 / 180 180
Carpei
Potatorack
10 Bottlesstored sardinefashion' indeep shelves
Q
300 120
depth300
7
oo
Bottles storedin drainpipes(64 boffles/ri?) 11
sweeperf iloor
pohsher 420 ,
pyramids
1
;/o 320
12 Bottlesstored in overlapping
16 Vacuumcleaners
.'
4
Mop
9
/
4400
40
I ci)
76 Habitat
Houses SECURITY
PRIVACY:PUBLIC& PRIVATE SPACES
External security best served by good lighting and visibility. Access routes and entrances should never be dark or concealed, however romantic thismightappear, and should ifpossible allow sufficient space toavoid unwanted encounter.
Amongmostdifficult problems in housing layout: striking right balance
Avoid dense planting round entrances and ground floor windows (or use prickly shrubs!). In small blocks offlats entrance may becontrolled by entryphones —.(1)(2) but this may be inconvenient where many smallchildren. For single people or working couples someprovision needed fordaytime deliveries.
Forthievesease ofexitas important asease of entry. Professionalmay be willing to break window to secure access but will be unwilling to rely on thisas his means ofexit Allexternal doors should therefore be fitted with deadlocks and openable windows, ifpossible, befitted with window locks. Free detailed advice, based on expert local knowledge, available from all UK police forces through their crime prevention officers.
between need for privacy and need to avoid social isolation. Balance obviously varies according to individual character, temperament and age so no perfectsolution possible but good layout will at leastallow somedegree of individual choice. Designs which opt strongly for either social' or 'private'approach unlikely to satisfy majorityofoccupants. Dwellings opening directly on to busypublic spaces and access decks designed to encourage social contact and neighbourliness may also suffer intolerable intrusion, while screening desgned to provide 'defensible space' may result in roads and footpaths bounded byblank wallsand fences. Eitherapproach likely to lead to feelings of insecurity and dissatisfaction amongst residents. In high density layouts, in particular, user satisfaction likelyto be enhanced, and incidence of vandalism to be reduced, by sub-divison of large anonymous public areas intosmaller spaces related to identifiable groupsofdwellings. For flats,transition between entirely public zone of street and entirely private zone of individual fIat may be by way of both semi-public zone sharedbyall flats inblock (elevator and staircase hall etc, possiblywithsome formof supervised access) and semi-private zone share by 2 or 3 flats withaccess undercontrol ofoccupants —.(3). For houses, public access road may lead to mixed use pedestrian! vehicle court .-.p42, with psychologically restricted entry, related to groupof 20 or so houses and further transition zone provided by front garden toeach individual house. —.alsop77 Gardens—.p103-—14
Bell-push& doormicrophone mustbe in reachof children 1
2 Typicaldimensionsofdoor transmitterwith light button& bells for5floors
k
Iiv/dr 1bedr
:rL fl1dr tcr==ir=i_[I ,jL
bedr bedr
r-I.b1
down±ffh±[ bedr
flfl baI
0
5m 15tt
3
Semi-privateentrancezoneforflats a perspective
b plan
4
HawaiiHousingAuthority;2-storeyunitsover flats,solves 3-storeypublic stair requiredfor3 floor flats agroundlevel bsecond level cthird level Arch Akiyama!Kekoolani
Habitat 77
Houses PRIVATEOPEN SPACE All family
houses require somekind of related open space — whether garden, patio —n(7) or balc—np88 —which is sunny and sheltered from wind. Should ideally be large enough to allow space for clothes drying —s(5)(6), toddler's play,out-door hobbiesand sittingout. Factors affecting location outdoorliving areas—*(3).
I,
Gardens —p1 03—14
Enclosed garden enhances privacy. Walls,hedges and, to lesser extent,
Nface ofhousein shade& immediate foreground overshadowed but longerprospecton to sunlit garden&wallformingsuntrap 1
air20°C; wind 16kph
___________________
air 20°C; wind 16kph
trees can providenatural protection fromnoise, wind and dust. Advantage if private garden can open out of liv, providing out-doorextension oflivingspace: but not necessarilybest placed (UK) onSsideof house sinceenclosed garden toN can provide sunlit view, though will need be deepto be effective because ofovershadowingbyhouse itself—n(1).
Gardenstructures—pll1
Tents and sheds in gardens do not usually rate as bldg in UK: not considered permanent living access when occupied only bydayand not used for trade or business. Distance fromsite boundary orother bldg should not be less than 1 800. Forframes and greenhouses —spi 11.
you feel 20°C
a
60steel rods
a spaced 32apart 6 25steel flat barlj"
x
dia 7
weldedcap76 inside
air20°C;wind 16kph
0 yoeefeel 24°C
b
019pipe
F-
woodseat
9t4
brick laid dryon25 sand
I
hand bevelie
-
benchnut° x ii I angleiron cement compacIeo1OdirodS sub-soil
:- :
Built-inbarbecues aadjustablegrill canberaisedto305abovebrazieron masonrybase bbarbecuefirepitcombination continuous unitwithgarden seat &patio paving:hard-burnedfirebrick liner; ironpins adjusthof grill Design aAKTobin bCMasonWhitney R Burton LittonJrRobertJ 4
Tetlow
Windeffects greatestspan 2400
h
1900
c 425 weight 15kg cord horn
3
Factorsaffectingoutdoorliving arlocations: consultlocalreg
5
Washinglines
7
Patio& deckonwater's edge ArchLawrenceHalprin
6
'Whirligig' clothesdrier
I0 ci)
78
Habitat
Houses
45, 10 ---—-f——lU8'—4-——l0'
-:Th
ADAPTABLEHOUSES
r
Two recent developments in house planning in Britain are intended to extendflexibility in meeting user requirements.
8"——---10B"—-
N
'liv
WalterSegal'shouses
Architect Walter Segal has designed houses using sheet materials in standard panel sizes assembled in timber supporting construction. Column centres 3000—3600 apart give great planning flexibility with acceptable beam depths and accommodate most rm sizes. Bldg are raised above ground, with columns based on concrete pads. Planning readily adaptable and materialscanbe reused —(1)(2).
Extendiblehouse
hILI
Extendible houses intended to permit first-home owners to enlarge their houses as family size increases. Examples illustrated represent 2 approaches, extension of 1-storey house to form patio —(3), and construction of rm in roof—(4).
I
Self-containedextensiontoexisting houseinSussexEngland 1970: externalwallpanelswhite glazedasbestos sheetoutside, 50woodwool slab core,plasterboard&laminateinside:flatroofoverhangs at eaves; imperial dimensionsretainedtoshow howsizesrelatetosheetmaterials, 2' 0' panel w + 2" joint &tolerance ArchW Segal
V
elevahon
before
afterextension
extension
8
21' 6"
6"8'6'8'64
or Inthis Scottishdesignhouseisextendedupwards:nonewfoundations brickworkneeded Arch NationalBuildingAgency Edinburgh 4
2 This largerhouseon slopingsite at Ballycummisk Ireland shows great flexibilityofsystem Arch W Segal
3 These 1-storey 1-bedrhousesat ChathamEnglandcanbe extended to provideupto3bedrbutspacerequired maymeanhigh initialsitecosts Arch
WCook BoroughArchitect
5
Americandesignforlowcost plywood panelhouse; roofpanels&wallsare built inflat position& hoisted ortippedupintoplace agroundfloor bfirst floor Arch E H&M KHunter
Habitat 79
ato dr
entrance
ha
hv
Undergroundhouses Growing concern with safeguardinglandscapefromill effects ofintrusive development engenders greater interest in underground building for housing. Application to domestic house of techniques of construction devised for civil engineering or military proiects: costs involved cut by recentrefinements in bldg technology. Energy conservation further factor tending to favour building underground, ifonly in part. Soil provides good insulation layer, keeping heat in during winter, out insummer —ep8O. Underground housing still experimental. Designers must base predictionsfor such details as number of air changes/hr needed to keep up ventilation levelsfor preventing build-up ofcondensation on empirical calculations: not enough built examples see how different forms of excavated construction behave in practice. In UK bId reg framed before underground housing became likely prospect; official approval thereforedependentonindividual negotiation.
a
F
sectionA
12 18 ii
sieepingpiaiforrn entrance
ter
k
b 1 Hill tophouseFloridaUSA:sitedforpanoramic viewsbutpartlysunkin groundtoreduceinterferencewith naturalcontours;turfedroofshelprest blendin:upperlevelformssinglespace observatory asection bplan Arch WilliamMorgan
3
HolidayhomeJutlandDenmark: partly underground soasinvisiblefrom landwardsidewith viewsseawardthrough2largeglassdomes;underground componentconcreteshell absections c plan ArchClausBonderup
a
b
1
2
3m
98
b HouseinPenninesEngland:toavoidintrusion inaesthetically sensitive areapartly underground,partlyhidden behindearthmounds asection b plan Arch ArthurQuarmby 2
4 Twin beachhouses FloridaUSA: underground soas notto interfere with views ofhouseson landside;built inpairsfromshellscast inGunite, cement mixtureusuallyused forswimming pools; lowerhalvescast firstinto excavatedsand then 100thick rootshellbuilt up oversteelreinforcing rods; claimed costs approx1/2 thoseofequivalent conventional structure thanksto layerofearth mm 560 asection bplan ArchWilliam Morgan
I
80 Habitat
Houses ENERGYSAVINGBY PLANSHAPE
Minimumperimeter house
Reducing exterior wallarea can save energy. In theory dome or sphere ideal configurationbut haveobvious drawbacks:circularplan has smallest perimeterfor given floor area —.(1), Next best alternative: perfectly square plan of 1-storey house; minimises wall and window area and therefore energyIoss—.(2).
Entry locks
Enclosed entries, either within perimeter ofhouse—.(3a)oras appendage —(3b),can reduce energy consumption. Size ofentryshould allow access doorsto openindependently.
Atriums Windows responsible for 1530Yo total heatingenergy loss from house. Strategic placing reduces loss and maximisessolar gain inwinter. When windows face on toatrium this acts as passive solar collector —.p81 (1).
Sun planning
In many climates significant energy saving can be obtained by meansof S-facing windows provided with overhangs,computedtorestrictsummer sun, and Nwallsbuffered bysto areas.Sun trap with wind buffers canbe
make sure no drain or leak into sitearea from surrounding construction suchas parking lots &septic systems identifyground water levels & seasonal variations in level before deciding location of bldg & excavationdepth assure adequate soil percolation for sunken courtyards & atrium areas; consider installing overflow drains
anystructural system can beused, providing designed forproper loads; general rule: 290 kg/rn2 (150 lb/ft2) for grass-covered roofs & 1950 kg/m2 (400 bItt2) where small trees are to be supported; snow &
pedestrian loads must be added wall design generally same as anybelow grade (ground level) construction; but insulation needed between earth & exterior wall of structure, allowing ittostoreheat, avoidingcontinuous loss toearth; best currently available material styrofoam (because of closed cell construction); insulation can be reduced in thickness as depth below grade (ground level) increases when banking (berming) earth against existing walls advisable add cement plaster on metal lath between earth & insulation to prevent roots, insects & rodents from reaching existing walls
very effective in cold climates —.p81 (2).
butyl sheeting good material for waterproofing; also serves as vapour
ENERGYSAVING: EARTH
to control dampness inside use dehumidificationorcirculating air
—alsop79 Check list: gentle S slopesidealfor underground structures: can build into hill & still have benefits of southern exposures avoid low-lying depressions: heavy, cold airwillsettle inthem; increased danger fromfrost & damp
earth pipes (ducts buried in earth) may be used for cooling or for pre-warming outside cold air forwinterfreshairsupply
1
Circularfloor plan
a
o 3
Entry lock:
II
-
barrier
examine all local bldg codes, especially in relation to fireexits&ventilation; increased aircirculation eqp may affect energyuse
studylighting carefully: important for undergroundstructures determine howthis affects interiorcomfort &energy use
2 b
iiii
awithin baddedto(USA) standard practicehouse
1-storeysquarefloor plan
Habitat
81
Houses ENERGYSAVING: VENTILATION Effective passive approach to cooling: capture prevailing breezes and ventilate house naturally —(3). Ideal orientation for this places face throughwhichbreezes are to enter at oblique angle of 200_700 to wind —(4). Instead of allowing wind pass straight through house this creates turbulence which makes for betterventilation. When wind velocity low internal velocity can beincreased by useof wing walls next towindow to create 'mini pressure zones' there. Casement windows or adiustable shutters can achieve same effect. Place windows where ventilation required with cillsat desired cooling height: egin bedr at mattress level. Window heights also—p4O4. Plant evergreens on Nand Wsidesof house to block coldwinterwinds (2).
Use ground shape and any nearby ponds or lakes to improve natural ventilation. On slopingsites (particularlyfacing S) breezes move up hill duringday, down at night. Near bodies of water cooling breezes move fromwaterto land during day, fromland to water at night —.(5). These guidelines may run counter to effective use of orientation to maximise solar gain —p8O. Therefore for any design brief specify whethersolargain ornatural ventilation should have priority. fn general consult local weather bureau foraccurate informafion on solar radiation, solar altitude and bearing, cloud cover, rain and snowfall, direction and strength of prevailing winds. 1 Squareplan with atrium:windowsfaceinwards;atriumcoveredby skylight
2OO 2
I-louseplannedtodealwith climaticconditionsof NW USA: suntrapwith wind buffers Arch FrankLloydWright
rnrnrn 4
Orientationfornaturalventilation
5
Influencesofgroundshape&bodiesof wateron naturalventilation
3
Bldg sitedto accept prevailing breezesdraws airquicklythroughportal, ventilatingcourt&drawingcoolingmoisturefrompoolintoair; massing reduces heatgain & providesevening warmth
82
Habitat
Housing: old people Strong trend against putting old people in homes unless in need of special care and attention; —÷old people's preferences below. Limiting factor can be land values. In USA most low income housing forelderly has been high rise to allow use of expensive land near shops and recreation possibilities. UK standards envisage 2types housing: self-contained for 1 or2 more active old people—(2) grouped flatlets for less active with some communal amenities and services—(1 )(3)p84(2)
a
Old people'spreferences Check listofwhatold people want, based on USAexperience: viewfromliving rmwith 1 window lowenough to see outwhen seated exteriorpersonal territory' leoutdoor area forsitting and social contacts
9
1
? Ô
4m 2ff
b
(porches, gardens) closeto shops informal home-like scale community outdoorarea within easy walk frequentresting places alongwalks securityand fire alarm systems adequate sto kitchen worktopslowerthan usual separate bedr rather than efficiency design choice ofdining inorin community dining rm
Communal amenities Common rm provided for self-contained dwellings may include sitting rm, tvrm, hobbies rmorworkshop. Mm floorspace/P 0.95 m2. Provide near common rm 1 wc and hand basin, tea kitchen or pantry with sink andhot waterheater, space for hatsand coats, cleaningcpdand sto 2 m2.
Forgrouped flatlets providewarden's quarters, emergency alarmsystem —(1) connecting each dwelling with warden's, common rm with 1.9 m2/P and ancillary amenities as for self-contained above, laundry rm, telephone for tenants with adjacent seat, cpd for communal cleaning materials 1 m3. Provide access between all accn by enclosed and heated circulation areas and fordirect goods delivery fromdoor todoor; delivery hatches orgrouped lockers acceptable.
Housingforelderly at CumbemauldScotland has31 cottages, warden's house&commonrm, each cottagehaving wardencallsystemwithtalk-back; meals providedatdaycentre asite layout b2-personcottage ccommon rm/day centrelayout plan Arch RobertWhiteAssociates 1
2
Privateretirementhousewith adjoining unitforvisitingchildrenUSA Arch EH & M KHunter
3 Low budgethousingforelderly FloridaUSA a typical 1-bedrdwelling bsite layout plan Arch C Randolph Wedding
Habitat
83
Housing:old people 1730 reachmax
r r shalt mar 1370
1 435
reachmax
1585 0,
it
ita,
1
Max reachover worktopto shelf
&cpd
reachtoiward on 850worktop
Access: if involves climbing more than 1 storey provide elevator: 2 elevators if more than 4storeys high;access stairs should be enclosed. Stairs —*p86(5)408; ramps—*p87407. Alldwellings should have hail or lobbywithspace forhanging outdoor clothes. Doors —*p401 —2. Doorsto wc and bathr must open outwards and be fittedwith special locks which can beopened fromoutside.
in iO
E
Planningfactors
11
2 Max reachtounobstructed wall cpd
Kitchen; worksequence —ep55. Provide working surfaces both sides sinkand cooker. Max height working surfaces 850; max height shelves 1520 —*(1)(2).Cookers specially adapted for safe use by old people. Mm size trig 0.7 m3 (NB do not site underneath worktop). Mm sto capacity 1.7 m3. Safety precautions—*p84. Heating: space heating living areas capable maintainingmm 21°C; for circulation areas in grouped flatlets mm 15.6°C when outside temp
sd=59
—1°C.
370 WO4(top
sink topmax max850—
hh
table700
L. w'I E+
3 hof worktop workingsurface& reachforwardtofittings
4
h+
h& thigh clearancefortable&
sittingworktop
about rm. Remember indesigning stospace oldpeopletendaccumulate treasured possessions.
Guest rm: preferable provide rmforvisitsfromfamily in self-contained dwellings. For grouped flatlets guest rm may be provided; should be placed closeto communal lay.
bath nm
1) -
El socket outlets: generous provisionof el socket outlets atconvenient positions and levels important; mm (UK) kitchen 4, living area3, bedr 2, hailorlobby 1 bed sitting rm 5. Livingspaces: important provide adequatespace formovement round furniture; consider use of buiit-in units (specially cpd, wa) but take account also of furniture which can afford hand holds when moving
40-50
timberhandrail panelface(itused) mountedunder __________ rail 30mm
Bedrinself-contained dwellings follow standarddesign butnote importanceof room tomoveround; built-in wardrobe desirable. Bed sitting rm sometimes ingrouped flatlets, usual in old people's homes —*(10)(1 1).
Safetyprecautionsfor old people —*p84
6 Section of brimadaptedforeasy gripping
7-
T
255
-
560
5 Aids forgettingin &outofbwith maxhrimfromfloor
'\T
7
rim orwatmountedhandles
hingeabner
4
900 450
*
p
40-Sodia verticalpole
SefH
/
Iourta"—II verticalpote oorannei dram tho
grating
L
seat__
T
Mountingofinclinedrailforwc
WOhhandspray
8
Bathr plansshowinghandingto suit Pwith disabilityofright orleft leg &positionofpolegrip
9
Sho mi plan
—
I
I_—
hb IPd
3600
3600
24OO
T
3000
I. 10 Doublermdimensions&data
11
Singlermdimensions&data
I
-4000
I
84 Habitat
Housing: old people Safetyprecautions
service entrance
Check listof safety precautions based on USA practice: heating system should be designed to avoid burn injury hotwatersystem should hold watertempat43°C orbelow air conditioning should be designed to avoid draughts in sitting or sleepingareas radiant floor heating plus airsystem preferred door bells and alarms should have low pitch: high tones perception deficientin many old people automatic shut-off forall gaseqpto prevent inhalationorexplosion place fire sensor over cooker el cooking preferred forsafety ofoldpeople generousoverall lighting: avoid glareorshadowed areas avoid rough wall surfaces avoid slippery floors; no 'scatter' rugs; wall to wall low pile carpets safest, especially in bedr, butNB strain on heart when vacuum cleaning carpet nothresholds between rm
Bathroom,lavatory
Relationshipsof elements inplanforhomeforold P —
a
Bathr large enough for undressing and dressing, if necessary with helper(especially in homes). Handholds: atleast 1 forgetting in and outofbath —ep83(5); atleast 1 at side of wc pedestal —ep83(7). Consider use of pole —vp83(5). Bath rim should beadapted foreasygripping —vp83(6). Bath: low-sided, flat bottom; length limited so that user cannot be completely immersed: max 1 550. Consider seat atrim height for sitting towashlegsand feet.
Hand basin: rim between 800 and 850high. Shower —*p83(9): compartment well heated with pegs for clothes on dry side, divided from wet side by shower curtain. Floor non-slip and free fromhazards; if smooth with fall todrain, 1:40traywith upstand to step over, not necessary. Provide secure handhold and wall-mounted seat. Water supply thermostatically controlled to give between 35° and 49°C (UK requirement but—lJSAsafety precautionsabove). Adjustable spray outlet on flexible hose which can be clipped on in different positions.
Taps: must be usable by arthritic fingers; tops boldly colour-coded; keep hotandcold in same relationshipthroughout bldg. Wc: seat height 380—p83(7). In 1-P grouped flatlets hand basinshould be provided.
•
tt
10 15 20m 15 30 45
m
2 _______________ 9 12 ft
OLD PEOPLE'SHOMES Main areas residents' rm with related bathr and lay communal rm: egdining, sitting, tv, handicrafts kitchen, service, sto admin, matron, med staff accn, resident and day Relationships —*(1)
4-storey Iayout—v(3) Bedrooms: usually bed sitting rm. Typical layouts single p83(11), double—*p83(10).
Furniture Table heights: dining 700; gap between chair seat and underside of tabletop mm 190 —p83(1 1); occasionaltables in common rm not lower than chairseat height.
2
AmenityhousingforelderlyatSQueensferryScotland: 15cottages arrangedround commongardenshaveexternalalarmbellsbut nowarden service asite layout bhouseplans Arch Marshall, MorisonAssociates
3
Easy chairs: not too low for getting out; low enough to keep feet on floor: 400—430; footstools forthose with short legs; seat depth 410— 470; arm rests 230 above seat. Back high enough to support head (consideradjustable pad) angled at28°to vertical. Gap between under seat and floor for heels to draw backwhen getting up. NB too soft seat padding can put strain on tissues
Layoutplansof homeforelderlyDorset England a ground plan b 1St &2ndfloors C3rd floor
Habitat 85
Housing: disabled Housing forphysically disabledtraditionally in institutionalcentres. Now accepted as preferable provide accn in which disabled can live as members ot general community, with theirfamilies oralone. Particularrequirements tobeborne in mind when designingfor physically disabled divide into those for ambulant disabled wheelchair users
Parking for wheelchair users should preferably be under cover and linked to house. Car port particularly convenient: allows unimpeded access. Cross beam should be supplied to take stirrup grip or hoist. If garage provided should preferably be integral with house and give direct access. In this case floor should be laid to fall of at least 1:100 away fromhouse; inUK relaxationfrom bldg reg requirements necessary to provideflushthreshold.
Houses designed for ambulant disabled need not differgreatly from thosedesigned forgeneral use; detail and fittings principalconcerns.
For wheelchair users particular attention needed to requirements of wheelchair circulation —(1) and to accessibility of fittings from seated position —p86(8). At initial planning stage allow approx 10% more floor area than forsimilar accn in general needs housing —.p87(l)(3)—(5).
*1:1525
Choiceofhousetype
Wheelchair users should preferablybeaccommodatedin 1-storey houses orgroundfloorflats,though upper storey flatmay besuitable on sloping site where level or ramped exit to place of safety can be provided. 2-storey house acceptable if bathr and at least 1 bedr on ground storey but this arrangement not ideal, particularly where disabled member of familyis housewife.
I
Turningarrequiredforwheelchair
Ambulant disabled may be housed in suitable upper floor flats of 2-storey houses; but seriously disabled, even if ambulant, should not be housed above third storey, max height for normal UK fire service rescue ladders. In bldg more than 1 storey whichhouses disabledelevator location and design of critical importance. Lift doors must have 800 clear opening width. In USAcab must be mm 524 x 1 524 with easyto push controls 1 220or less fromfloor and with raised or indented letters beside them —p412. Escape stairs must have treads not less than 250 and risers not more than 175. Provide space within stairway enclosure on each floor for thosewith limited mobility towait for help.
i
Kerbrampsshouldwheneverpossiblemakenaturalextension of alignmentoffootpath 2
x
.1
In 2-storeyhouses:
1 ground floor rm should be available as bedr and wcshould beprovided atgroundstorey level. Straightflightstairdesirable.
Siting & access
Housesfor disabled needto be withinreach of shops, children's play spaces, church, pub,surgery. Access by level or rampedapproach, mm width 1200, max slope 1:12,preferably 1:20. Gradients greater than 1:12 needrest areas 1 200long at9000intervals(inUSArest areasalso if ramp turns); thosein excess of 1:20 at 18 m intervals—p87(l1)407. In USAplatforms at doorways as for footpaths—below.
3
Slottedgratingsshould belaid at rightanglestowheelchairtraffic
Kerbs should be lowered at crossings and driveways to not more than 25 above roadway; USA practice prefers kerb ramps —.(2). Camber shoufd not exceed 1:100. Slotted gratings should always be laid with barsat right angles todirection of wheelchair traffic —.(3). Footpaths —p1 9 43: where gradients exceed 1:20, or where dropto side more than 600, handrails required 950 high extending mm 300 beyondbeginning and end of ramp or ridge. Railswith smooth surface required for all ramps in USA on at least 1 side, 813 above ramp surface and extending 300 beyond beginning and end, with 1830 straight clearanceatbottom. Avoid loose gravel,cobblesorsells, though materials with distinctive texturecan be helpfuf, particularly to blind or partially sighted, in signalling approach toobstruction orchange in level. Provide continuing common surface not interrupted by steps or suddenchanges in level.Blend with levels ofotherpaths orparkingarea laneswhich may cross. At doorways level platform at least 1 524 x 1 524 ifdoorswings out or915 x 1 524 ifdoor swings in, stretching at least 300 each side of
300 mm
4
Openingwindow hazard
5
Footpathwforwheelchair passing
doorway (USA requirement). Main access path to house should be at least1 200 wide and anygarden paths mm 900. Access from front to back garden should preferably by-passhouse —.p47(6), be kept clear of opening windows and similar hazards —*(4) and, in wheelchair housing, provide turning space for chair—(1 )p43(3). Widthneeded for wheelchair passing —.(5).
Hazards:where suchhazards as open manholes and access panels of openexcavations occurprotectby barrier mm 2400fromdanger point and markwith sound and sightwarning devices. Car parking: provide near houseaspossible, preferablywithin boundary of property. Ambulant disabled driver requires parkingspace mm 4800 x 2700, wheelchair user mm 4800 x 3000; USA requirement mm 3660extra on each side. In general car park handicapped should be nearest bldgand clearly marked.Disabled should not needtravel behind parkedcars. Garage space needed forwheelchair user—.(6).
6
Gar spaceforwheelchairuser
(2800wadequateforambulant disabled)
I0
86 Habitat
Housing: disabled Common accessareas In flats builtto accommodatedisabled and in other bldg likelytobe used by them in any numbers at least 1 main entrance and any door giving access to emergency exit orexternal space likely to be used bydisabled
____ 1
occupants must have: level or ramped approach flushthreshold clearwidthmm 775
1800
Elevator mustbe accessible to such entrance.
Withdoubleleafdoorsdesignsothat only 1 needopen
Double leaf doors should be designed so that only 1 leaf need be opened —(1). Automatic sliding doors operated bypressure pad most convenient but expensive. Where revolving doors used normal side hungdoorof suitable widthshould also beprovided.
300 360
r1'
Internalplanning
=1300
maIbask4t...Ij
Forambulantdisabled 900 wide enough forentrancehalls and passages;
500
will also allow enough space foroccasionaluse by wheelchairs.
1500
2
Clearspacebeside doorforease 3 Deliveriesboxbesidefront door, ofaccesstokeyhole;shelfforparcels insideboxdoorlockable mm
900 775
240
J
Stairs
mix 280 preferred370
maxi preferredmax 145 externalsteps
4
Doorsforwheelchairusers shouldbehungwith hingestowards corner
5
Stairsforambulantdisabled& elderly people
y1dr
sj
IYM -'n
3600
casual diningar
2400
Standardklayoutforambulant disabled
6
7 Similar k—s(6)alteredto suit
wheelchairuser: 0oven, H hob,
TStrolley sf0unit B broom cpd, WM washingmachine, A frig, AS rotatingsto unit, Ssk
i
For wheelchair users entrance hail mm 200 wide for depth 1 800, preferably 1 200 throughout. Lobby between 2 sets of doors will need be 1 500 x 1500 clear of obstructions to allow freedom to manoeuvre chair.USA: floor level insidc and outside for 1 524 fromdoorindirection doorswings. Clearspace mm 300 should be provided alongside leadingedgeoffront doorforease ofaccessto keyhole and handle.—x(2):USA 300 each side of door. Shelf 300 x 300 useful both inside and outside to take parcels when opening orclosing door—s(2). Door closures should be suitable for disabled users. Nosharp inclines or abrupt changes oflevel atdoor ciii. If deliveries box provided —*(3) inner door should be lockable. Mat wellsshould be fully recessed —s(2).
All internal doors should have mm
opening 775. Thresholds should be
flush. For wheelchair usersdoors should be hung with hinges toward corner—*(4) or, insmallrm, open out. Lowhanging doorclosures must not obtrude into traffic ways. Floor should be non-slip. Each storey should be on 1 level orconnected by ramp iflevel changes. Stairs & steps —s(5). Avoid abrupt nosing. Handrails813 fromtread at face of riser, 1 extending mm 460 beyond top and bottom step (USA requirement). Ensure adequate lighting without confusing shadows.
Withlow hangingceiling lights orsignsallowfree-standingstairclearances 2133fromfloor. Controls & switches for light, heat, ventilation, windows, curtains, fire alarms and others ofessential use should bewithin reach ofwheelchair user.Identification of switches important, specially for blindor partially sighted. Provideraisedorrecessedlettersornumbersfor rm identification at side of door at suitable height. Knurled handle or knob on doors leading to areas dangerous for blind person. Living areas: additional space needed in wheelchair housing to manoeuvre chair inliving rm, kitchen—s(6)(7), bath—.p87(1 )and atleast 1 bedr—p87(4)(5). Living rm windows should bedesigned allow seated person seeout withoutdifficulty. Baywindow very suitable,especially in wheelchairhousing —ep87(6). Kitchen worktops and shelving adjustable in height —s(8). Knee space beneath fitments particularly important in wheelchair housing —s(8). Cooker should preferably have separate oven and hob. Deep sinks difficultfor mostdisabled people: max depth 150. Bathr & wc should be equipped with basic support and grab rails —*p87(7); seat 400 wide should be provided at head of bath. Hand basins bestset into worktops cantilevered from wall; preferred height for use by ambulant disabled 850, by wheelchair users 750. Mirror, towel rails and shelves 1 016 above floor.
8 a b k worktops&sheMngshouldbeadjustableinh
Wheelchair usersneedenough space round wc pedestalto permit both frontal and lateral approach, with space for assistance if necessary —ap87(8);doorshould swing out. Dispenser and disposal unitsatside of wcnot directlyabove. Bathr ceiling should besoconstructed toallow for fixing hoistortrack ifnecessary. If bathr planned opendirectly offbedr track can be fitted provide directroute between bed, bath and wc.
Soundwarningsignals should beduplicated byvisual for deaf.
Habitat
87
Housing: disabled Internalplanning
I—
Li
2 Withoutwardopeningdoor ambulantdisabled 3 Forwheelchairuser wccompartmentarmust can usenormalwccompartment bebigger
2700
Standardbathrenlargedtoprovidespacefor wheelchairuser 1
4
Single bedrlargeenoughforwheelchairuser 400
1600—1700
'
L
I position I ofceiling
hoo possible
5
Doublebedr forwheelchairuser
6
Baywindow in liv cangive pleasureto wheelchairuser
External detail
45O
35
posihon
ofpole
possible
ofhoist
line
p possiblepositions
ofpole& hoist
H
9
Publictelephonesuitableforhandicapped & children;goodlightingimportant; instructionsin braille & pushbuttondials forblind;volume control onheadset
LIJJE
10
Drinkingfountainforwheelchairuser;should beoperatedbyhandlever;pavedarroundfountain toprevent mud & puddles
plantmaterialsshouldbe located sothatshadowsdo not preventsun frommeltingsnow& iceon ramp surfaces
__________
slot forfeetofmobilehoist ortrolley(cart)
Spaces&fittingsforbathrforwheelchairuser
providemm asof54 lightat atallramp&stair locations
—750—t---l°°—i
rampwvary accordingtodesign
-situations,preferredmm 1-way—9l4minw 2-way—lS3Ominw
hoistoreye-hook
—I
possiblepositionofhoist oreye-hookforstirrupgripetcj shouldextendmm 460
-1fr
maograthenl8.33%
300
8
____
Spaces &fittingsforlayforwheelchairuser
11
Outdoorrampdata:maxgradient1:12—sp407
& beyondtop bottomoframp T1524mm clearspaceatboth top & bottomoframp provideitOhkerbatedgeoframpsurface foruse bysmailwheeledvefridesor wheek*tairsasemergencywheelstops
88
Habitat
Houses BALCONIES
Wind-protectedprojectingbalc
Cornerbalc
1
Balcony desirable extension of living rm, especially forflats. Corner balconies that cannot be overlooked and are protected from wind —e(1) more comfortable than freely projecting balconies which have to beshielded on wind and weather side —n(2). Grouped balconies should be suitably dividedforprivacy. —u(3) orseparated—a(4). Loggias less economic as they createmore exterior wallsurface—u(5). Balconies staggered vertically more difficult to protect fromwind and from being overlooked —n(6); balconiesstaggered in plan well protected and private —.(7)(8). Important considerations include orientation to sun, view, position of neighbouring flatsand bldg and relationshipof living rm, studio, kitchen and (sometimes)bedr. Other factors:appropriatesize, privacy,protection fromstreet noise, shielding from excessive sun, windand rain. Suitable materials forparapets: frosted glass, plastics, asbestoscement, timber slats and steel sheets fixed to supporting structure of solid or tubular steelsections firmly attached to bldg; steel verticals (horizontal can be climbed by children) do not give protection against wind or being overlooked. Draughts created between balcony floors and solid parapets —.(9): betterplace parapet in front of floor—.(1O)or usesolidparapet (nottoo high if 'bath tub' feeling to be avoided) with steelrail at byelaw height, possible room forflowerboxes —.(1 1). Access balconies _-np9O 9697
4
Groupedbalc withseparating sto
partitions
forfurniture
5
6
Staggeredbaic
3 Groupedbalc with projecting
Loggia
I
7
8
BaIcsfaggeredin plan&set at angle
Staggeredbaic
lii
//4,4;
70
100
0
9
Parapetabovebalc floorlevel
10 Parapetin frontof balc floor
Solidparapet
vo
___________ a
11
I
roofgarden
round
0 square
Q rectanguiar
Prefabricated balc designed to be pluggedontoapartmentbldgto define&enhanceexteriorspace Arch Kamriitzer
13 Apartmentblocks at Cross Creek VillagePlayadel ReyUSA have round, square&rectangular balc placedtomodulateopenspace betweenbldg Arch Kamnitzer
12
a
open(summer)
b 14 a largetop-floorapartments atLosAngeles USAhavesimilarbalc to those ofsmallerunits bat apartmentsinHollywood USApenthouse liv includesbalc ar&roofgardenmezzanine Arch Kamnitzer
i_ b
slopedtodeflect sun (summer)
-
partialiyenciosed
_____________
I
intermediate
iotaiiyenclosed (winier)
______ sioped toadmit Sun (Winter)
15 a Flexiblebaic created byusingframe of slidingglass doorsset on perpendicularrunners bhingedglass createsbalc adaptableto seasons Arch Kamnitzer
Habitat 89
Flats & apartments BUILDINGTYPES Thissectiondiscusses bldg divided horizontallytoprovide separateand self-contained dwellings which need not necessarilybeon 1 flooronly. Types can bedistinguished asfollows.
Low-riseor high-rise
In UK accepted max height of entrance door to dwelling normally reached by ramp or stairs 4 storeys from ground level or from main entrance to bldg. Beyond that limit elevator access must be provided: bldg containing such flats called high-rise. In practice low-rise flatted bldg often provided with elevators; in public sector housing these required where more than 2 storeys have to beclimbed to any private entrance door. Such bldg, from3to5storeys, oftencalledmedium-rise.
Pointblock or slab block In point blockall dwellings share single vertical access system —*(1). Vertical access mustalways include stairway; according to height and layout bldg mightalso have 1 ormore elevators and secondaryescape stairs. Slab blockcontinuous bldg in which dwellings reached by 2 or more separate vertical accesssystems —(2).
Maisonettes Separate dwelling in low or high-rise blocks
Upperfloor plan of12-storey pointblockat Battersea London England designed1963:balc provide escaperoutes between flats ArchGeorge Trew & Dunn 1
having rm arranged on more than 1 storey known as maisonettes: have been built in UK in 4-storeyblocks —(3), in slab blocks and in combinationwith flats —u(4). Such arrangements can show savingsoverflatsofsimilar accnbecause common access space less. In USA similar 'skip floor' design halves elevator stops in high rise.
pñvatebale
2
uppertloorplan
Slabblock:9-storeyflatswith balcaccess built1953atPimlico London; in-situ rcconstruction: noteuseofsto Arch Powell &Moya
toinsulate bedrfromstairwell
rt 3rdfloor
a
sedoo
ri
4
2ndfloor gar floor plans
2
3
4
b 3 Maisonettesin4-storeyblocksinhigh-densitydevelopment in London England;levelsonsite permitaccess atsecond-storey h& demand single aspecthouseplan:notescreening ofstair &escape balcatbedrstorey inupper maisonette Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall
4
Housingat RuncomCheshireEnglandon5storeys: sectioncomprises
2 x 2-storeymaisonettes, lowerenteredfromgroundlevel&upperfrom second-storeywalkway,&top-storey flat approached bystairsfromgroundor walkway,connectedby ramps&bridgetomainshopping aroftowncentre Arch J Stirling
I
cr
90 Habitat
Flats & apartments: access TYPESOFACCESS Accesscan beclassified asstairway, balcony orcorridor.
Stairwayaccess
Stairway access, with 2, 3 or 4 flats per landing allows grouping of services and can provide high degree of privacy: standard solution in point blocks. Inslabblocks, however, disadvantageswhere more than 2 flats servedfromeach landing: usually involves back-to-back planning andconsequently some form ofartificial ventilation—(1).
Balcony& corridor access
Balcony and internal corridor access, usuallyemployed in slab blocks, permitsavings in common access space. Exposureto weather obvious disadvantage ofbalconies, particularlyin high rise, and internal planning constrained by potential lackof privacy on balcony side;window design can modify this constraint.Internal corridorsescapeweatherbutintroduce new problems of sound insulation, lighting and ventilation and require higherstandards of management inuse. Open corridors orroof-streets avoid most of these difficulties. In medium rise development open corridors and sheltered balconiesgivingaccesstosmall flats overlarger dwellings can accommodate wide variety of household sizes at high densities. —(2). Balcony and corridor access have been much used in conjunction with split-level flats and maisonettes. Such arrangements —*p9697.
_____
I
a
Bridgeaccess
Forsiteswithsteeporvaried slopes bridge access—÷(3)offers flats with 1 storey at bridge level with 1 or 2 down and up. Stairs and landings covered but notenclosed in all butseverest climates: ifclosed possible byorientation usethemaspassive solar trap.
4
1rm/1P
bedr
2
L
hi 4rm/5P
1
3 x 2-rm flats/landingachievegooddaylighting&cross-ventilation but extralengthofwall hasto beweighedagainst economyof circulation Arch EGutkind
garden
1
b
ground
+U brid1
I
roofstreet
4...1
dr
I-n-I
first
ground a
1
cc
C
2 3 Bridgeaccess asection bplan
Medium-risehousingat highdensity(618 B-space/ha)at LillingtonStreet London England:each familyhouseenteredatgroundlevelthroughprivate garden;smaller maisonettes & flatshaveaccess fromopencorror roof streets' which bridgebetween blocks &areservedbyelevators a siteplan bfloorplans ctypicalsection Arch Darbourne & Darke
Habitat
91
Flats & apartments: access FIRE PRECAUTIONS: PLANNING CRITERIA
layout
conditions
flats & maisonettes enteredfromcorr: no alternativeescape route from each dwelling; a with smoke dispersal iewherecorris ventilated direct to openair b withoutdirectventlationto openairto securesmoke
corrhassmoke outletsat each end, &at intervals not exceeding 60m
Horizontalescape routes
Everystorey containing entrance door to flat or
maisonette should be planned to ensure that fire in any 1 dwelling will notobstruct escape of other occupants frombldg. Problem related to type ofaccess. Permissible travel distances in relation to access and plan arrangement given
as designer'sguide ie planning criteria not code/legal information —(1). In USA national, state and local codes apply;
inspections and approvals usuallyadministered by localauthorityin cooperation withstatedepartments: designers should seekearly review of their proposals.
dispersal
Protectionof stairways
Every stairway serving flat or maisonnettemore than 2 storeys above ground level should be enclosed and separated from remainderofbldg byfr wallsand self-closing frdoors. No dwelling should open directly from such stairway but should be reached through intervening lobby, access balcony orcorridor. Enclosure requirementdoesnot apply tosubsidiary accessstairways serving small groups of dwellings from opencorridors oraccess balconies,subjectto conditons stated in (1)and in p93(l).
1 Traveldistancesinstoreyscontaining flats&maisonettes:table hasnolegal
authority but isdesigner'sguideto escape requirementswithin bldgmorethan 2storeys hwhich containflats or maisonettes, based onvariouscodes® currentlyapplied inUK (1979);itgives maxtravel distancetostorey exit which musteitherbedooropeningdirect to openairatgroundlevelordoortoprotected stairwayasdescribed—.p931.
flats &maisonettes enteredfrom corr:each dwelling hasalternative
storeyhas 1 exitonly with, i everyentrance doornot more than4500 tromstairway approach lob,or ii everyentrance dooropening intoventilated lob & not more than4500fromselfclosing frdoortocorr leading directlyto storeyexit everyprivate entrance door opens intocorr withsmoke
traveldistanceiron, privateentrancedoor to storeyexit
i escape in
1
direction
only: notmorethan 15m ii escape in 2 directions: notmorethan 40 m notmorethan 4500 notmorethan 15 m
i escape in 1 direction
only:notmorethan 40 m
outlets
ii
1 notmorethan 4fIats per storey,&netfloorarof flats above1st storeynotmore
notmorethan4500
2 notmore than 4flats per storey, & netfloor arof flats
not more than 15m
flats & maisonettes enteredfromopen accessbaic
floorofaccess balc
not more than 50m
flats and maisonettes enteredindirectlyfrom openaccess balc by subsidiaryaccessstairway
each flat &maisonette has independent alternative escape route,or subsidiary stairway does not extendmore than 1 storey above orbelowopenaccess balc,&subsidiary stairway servesnoflat at accessbalc level & notmorethan3flats at higherorlowerlevel,&each flat entered& whollycontainedwithin 1 level, & noflat entrance door more than 5000fromhead orfootofsubsidiarystairway, &subsidiary stairway opento accessbalc &permanently ventilated atits head
notmore than 5Gm
escape route
flats enteredfromlob in bldg upto 4storeyswith 1 stairway only
escape in 2directions:
notmorethan 50m
than 380ni
above 1st storey notmore than 720m2, &noprivate entrance doormore than than 4500 fromstoreyexit orfromself-closing frdoor across lob, &everysection lob ventilated to openair
constructed ascompartment floor
92
Habitat
Flats & apartments: internal planning European development Development of flats in Europebetween 1919 and 1939 largely dominated byconcept of mm dwelling. In extremehousingshortagedwellings of small floor area and few internal amenities were used to provide
cooking breakiast
sql
ThHi.
high-density housing in inner-city areas —v(1)(2)(3)(4)(5). More generously planned flats used in surburban situations and for middleclassoccupation —v(6)(7)(8)(9).
J
Standardsforflats & maisonettes
Modern flats not regarded as 'second-best' but should provide accn
similar to houses forequivalent householdsize. Indeed space standards for flats in public sector in UKslightlymore generous than for houses, recognisingdifficulties ofproviding for internalcirculationand fireescape —p91 93.
5 Convertibleflat inday& night use with fold-awaybeds&screens;ar44) m2 Arch C Finger
Ii
6
5-bedrflat insystembldgStora Tuna Sweden ArchYJohnsson
•h
k
iii_:,
4' 7 4&3-mi low-riseflatsatNeubuhlZUrich Switzerland 1931
Arch M E
Haefelieta!
recess
N Igar85e
IN
Viennese2-rmflatofl92Os;4 fiats/landing Arch F Schuster 1
2
SmallGermanflatwithwcon innerwall;living ar28 m' Arch MãrkischeWohnungsbau
J
8
ClassicalGermansuburban flat;4&3-miS aspect flats withgenerous livingar& privatebalc Arch LHilberseirner
bedr
bedr
—1
JE 3 More generous3-mi fiatwithwc &sho
4
9
Moretightlyplannedflats forE-W aspect Arch LHilberseimer
Dutch3-mi flat with intemal bathr: compactplanwith separated service Arch H Leppla
10 5-miflatatHighgate London Englandwith bedropeningfrom internal lob (1936):this arrangement wouldnow needsecondaryescape frombedr Arch B Lubetkin
I -'H PL
1 lift 2 staircase
3 liv 4 loggia
5k
6rm
7 bathr 8 11
Flatsin high-riseblockBalomockScotland Arch SBunton&Associates
rITL
heating &water tank
12 Apartment-sizefloor inblockofflats RouenFrance Arch LodsDepondt BeauclairAlexandre
Habitat 93
Flats & apartments: internalplanning layout
allrmon samelevelas
conditkns
1
entrance door
2
allrm on level above entrance door
number ofescape routes
bedr doors open into entrance ha: no bedr door morethan7SOOfrom entrance door any othercase
bedr doors open into passage athead ofstair: no bedr door morethan 7500fromhead ofprivate stair toentrance door 2 anyother case
1
1 plusalternativeescape roatefromeverybedr withdoor more than 7500fromentrance door
1
1
1 plusalternativeescape routefromeverybedr withdoor more than 7500fromhead of
private stair
anycase
1 plusalternativeescape
bectropenfrominnerlob withfrconstruction&selfclosing doorsasrequiredfor private entrance ha
an alternativeescape route fromeverybedr opening frominner lob
bedron levelabove liv &k;entrance door at
privatestairwayseparated fromupperlobbyIrscreen with self-closing frdoor
1 plusalternative escape
liv level
bedron levelabove liv & entrance door at bedrlevel
privatestairwayseparated fromentrance ha by screen with self-closingfrdoor
1 plusalternative escape
bedron levelbelow
privatestairwayseparated fromlowerlobbyfrscreen with self-closing frdoor
1 plusalternativeescape routefromlower level
no bedr door morethan 7500fromentrance door
1 plusalternativeescape routefromupper level
alternative private stairwayleadsup ordownto alternative escape route
liv & kseparated frombedr
1 plusalternativeescape
open plan maisonette
1
allrmon level below
route fromeverybedr
entrance door
bedrnot opening fromentrance ha or landing passage
k
liv&k;entrance door at liv level
bedron levelbelow
liv&k;entrance door at
fr
Ir
route fromupper level
route fromlower level
route fromlevel whichis not entrance level
with privateentrance ha & stairwayseparatedfrom otherstoreybyfrwall or screen & self-closing fr door
1 plusalternative escape
2 withprivateentrance ha, but stairwaynot separatedas in
1 plusalternativeescape routefrom every enclosed rrnatentrance level not opening into privateentrance ha, &
condition 1
Privacy and fire escape principal determinants of internal planning of flats and maisonettes. Otheruser requirements summarised in Parker Morris standards—*p4448 Bib233.
Privacy—*alsop769698
Privacy bestsecured bystairway access where onlyentrance door and possiblydelivery hatch opento landing. In balcony access, bathr, wc andkitchencanbe placed onaccessside,but note difficulty in providing natural light where high windows are below balcony. Sound insulation presents greater difficulties in flats than inhouses,and privacy best secured by planning. Avoid long separating walls to bedr, and avoid bedrbeneath access balconiesor adjoiningelevators, stairs or refuse chutes. Where possible usecupboards (closets) to increase sound insulation of separatingwalls.
Fireescape
Bedrdoors opening into private entrancehall should wherever possible be nearer toentrance door than living rmorkitchen. Alldoorsother than bathrand wcshould beself-closing and fr;wallsenclosing entrancehall should have ½hr fr. In most other conditions planforalternativeescape routes from bedr above 2storeys. Recommendationsgenerally based on current codes of practice summarised in —n(1) and illustrated — (2)(3)(4). Butnote:always consult appropriatecode.
Services—p383—97
bedrlevel
byself-closing frdoor
DETERMININGFACTORS
route fromeveryenclosed rmatentrance level not opening into privateentrance ha, & alternativeescape route fromstorey which is not entrance level
Attention should be paid to grouping of services and provision of adequate service ducts, especially where bldg incorporate variety of dwelling sizes and plans not repetitive. Standard location and arrangement of bath, wc and kitchen fittings facilitates design of ducts and service stacks. Internal bathr and wc require mechventilation, either individually or by common ducting. Sharedventilation systems require smoke-stopping byfiredampersand stand-by fanstoensure continuous operation.
Checklist forservices in flats water
el drainage (+ rain water drainage) gas(not in high-rise) mech ventilation TV/FM radio aerials TV/radio relay telephones main entrance phone & control
alternative escape route fromeveryrmon atorey which isnot entrance level
anyothertypeof layout
1 plusalternativeescape routefromeverybedr &fromeverylevel which isnotentrance level
Escaperoutesfrom flats&maisonettes: as—.p91(1)thisalso has nolegal authoritybutisdesigner'sguidetoescape requirements relatedtointernal planning,baseduponvariouscodes® currentlyapplied inUK (1979): wherelocaldifferencesexistthey mightbelessonerous, buttableshould alwaysprovideguidetosafe planning 1
3
In largerflatsdistancebetween furthest bedr& entrance doorsshould not exceed7500unlessalternative escape route provided
EPt ec
2
Conventionalsmallflat plan,mostsafelyarranged withliv &kfurthestfrom entrancedoor
4
ienot morethan 1
bedr1
Jindowof
Flatwith innerlob,above2storeys, alwaysrequires alternative escape
provision
I
94 Habitat
Flats & apartments POINT BLOCKS Byingenious planning upto 10flats served by 1 vertical access system in some continentaldesigns. Fireescapereg make suchsolutions difficult in Britain, unless flats very small or unless access balconies used, reducing convenience of point blockarrangement. Some point blocks built in Britain —(1)(2)(3)(4). American and continental examples —p95
upper floor plan 1 Point blockatThamesmeadEngland: 12-storey system-built structure provides4 flats on eachstorey ArchGLCArchitectsDept
1 21/2
a
layout plan
a
b
Vblockshavebeendevelopedinseveral countries, particularlyinlow-rise formswheretheycan bejoinedtogetherwithoutovershadowing: this example,built in1957atCumbemauldScotland, hasarmsat unequalangles, giving greatervarietyoflayoutarrangements &avoidingclosedcourts atypicalupperfloorplan b layout plan ArchCumbernauld Development Corporation 3
water tanks carriedonliftshaft
—
flatson 17 storeys
2elevatorsstop
alternate storey
Tir
tJF caTny main entrance level
b
2
Point Royal BracknellEngland: one offew Britishpointblockswithmore than 4flats/storey;Split hexagonal plan logicallyaccommodates 6flats & minimisescirculationspace &escapedistances;carspace foreach flatunder circularpodium aupperfloor plan bsection Arch ArupAssociates
Low pointblocks or stubblocks',withelevators, canprovidesuitable housingforeldertypeople, asinthis London England 3-storeyblockof shelteredhousing—.p82 Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall 4
Habitat
95
Flats & apartments POINT BLOCKS liv (bedrl
Some American and continental examples, most meetBritish reg.
of whichwould
not
Flats in point blocks generally small, with kitchen and bathr planned as standard unit and often with artificial lighting and ventilation. Point blocks can be planned as 2 blocks of flats connected by vertical access core.This twin plan arrangement improves daylight and sunlight to larger number offlats —(4).
Americanapartments; smallserviceflats surrounding 16-storey circulationcore Arch R C Reamer 1
0 I
4 12
8 I
24
12
I
36
16m 0
4811
12
2
Swedishpointblock:fire precautions relyon containing fire inflat whereit originates& preventing smoke penetration bydoubledoorsat flatentrance; escapehatches provided in balcfloors: accepted thatstairway &access landingsmightnotbeusablewhilefire being fought
0
I
4
8
I
4
8
12
12
24
36
24
l6rn
12
I
I
4811
36
4 Twin plan: 10flats/floor,escapestairwellprotected buttraveldistances wouldbetoogreatfor UKreg ArchMUller-Rehm, Siegmann
16m I 4811
0
4
I
12
3 5flats/landingBerlinGermany: flats haveno corrbutlargeloggias: liv acts ascirculationar Arch AAalto
5
8 I
24
12 36
16m I 4811
Yblockon Siemenshousing estateMunich Germany Arch Freymuth
I
cr
96 Habitat
Flats & apartments DUPLEX& TRIPLEXSECTIONS Designs for split level flats and rnaisonettes, with access balcony, deck or corridor every second (duplex) or third (triplex) storey, have beendeveloped over many years. While some design problems solved, egvisualprivacy,cross ventilation, others increased, such as sound insulation. —.alsop97(l)t4)
plan at corr level
Duplex:Russian type verysmallflat with limitedsleepingarbutmore spacious liv: accessbalcserves2storeys; wcoftentrance lob ArchM IGinsberg 1
,1
a
C:
2
Tnplex: earlyFrenchtype; lob opensfromaccess baicwithstairsupor down Arch Pingusson
access
k!kkkk
access balc
balc),)
5ra = 5rm,liv above 4rb = 4rm,liv below
I
iiv4rb
j
___ liv 5th
bedr
be1r
I iiv5rb
3 Split levelflats withbalcaccess: entrance, dining ar&kat entrance level, liv 1/2 storey up,bedr
½ down
Arch Hirsch
escape balc
b —
luggage sto, etc
ffloset
'above'
'deck level'
below'
escape balc
section
section
4 Triplex:Mareschal
system, withaccessbalceverythirdstorey, Cambridge USA;separateentranceswith private Stairstorlargerflats:allflatshavecross ventilation Arch Koch-Kennedy
5 Wide accessbaic or deck' housing RobinHoodLaneLondon England: 1/2 baypartitionscanbearranged to permitwidevariation ofdwellingsizes: Stairs &blacked-inwallsmustberegarded aspermanent structure; noteescape balc at bedrlevels Arch A &P Smithson
Habitat 97
Flats & apartments INTERNALACCESS
bedr
1je. 9
F
baic
- JkI;1: 1
tS'lilc
sectionthroughstaircase
planotconleseia—b
planandercorrc—d
planone,cone—i
1
Split levelflats servedfrorn internal correvery thirdstorey: allflats have cross-ventilation —'also p96 Arch Neufert
2
Accessbycentrestairway;each landing serves2 flats:again allflats cross-ventilated
Arch Neufert
rwa5 EIIIL1
I
?• k
—
t
N
-
sections
3
Narrow-frontage flats Marseilles France through extendedthrough verydeepblockwith pnvate balcon each facade: doubleh liv allowsun &daylight penetration,access bywide internal coneverythirdstorey Arch LeCorbusier C
section
4
Centrecorrshortwell lit& ventilated, givingaccess to 1-rrn flatsatcorrlevel& 3-rrnflats by shortstairwaysup or down Arch vanden Broek
98 Habitat
Stepped housing Steep slopesinvite stepped form of construction. Rake (storeyheight toterrace depth) must relateto slope: canbe80_400. Mm terracedepth of 3200 facing S will secure privacy while providing full sunlight and view. Gardentroughs at front ofterrace provide someadvantagesof private garden and prevent overlooking —(1). Other arrangements giving increased privacy
Gardentroughspreventoverlooking ofter:necessary trough depthx = a(ha— ht) hc a=depth ofter ha = eyeh hc= storeyh hI =troughh 1
2 Teroverhangforextraprivacy
3
In 2-storeyunits upperfloor overhangs
Advantages of stepped housing, with privacy and viewat high densities, leadto use in special conditions,even on level sites in bldg oftriangular or slopingsection: can be in combination with different bldg use —(9) or in single aspect situation, to enjoy sea view or exclude motorwayor railway noise—(8).
5 L-shapedflats with protected patios
4
Staggeredfloor plans
9
Section throughconference centre Designed byEGisel
6 Hillsidehousing ArchStucky& MenIi
7
Steppedhouseson levelsite ArchFreySchrdderSchmidt 4p maisonette 2P flat 2Pflat
Housingat AlexandraRoadLondon England: alldwellingsenjoysaspect &railwaynoiseexcluded ArchBoroughArchitect London Borough of 8
Camden
Habitat
99
Shared housing Needs of 1-person households normally very much like those of 2large singleflat
mediumsingle flat
small singleflat
1
person. In certain circumstances, however, single people may prefer share. May be provided in formof flats orhouses, usuallyforbetween 4 and 8people, containing 1-bed/sitting rm, bathrand farmhousekitchen orseparate living/dining rm and working kitchen. Houses or flats used for sharing require more parking space than normal housing (at least 1 space/bedspace). Large private garden unlikely to be required though some out-door sitting out space should be provided. Generous provision should be made for sto of bulky objects, sporting gear etc. Particularly advantageous if meters can be read fromoutside —*p74(3) and ifsomeformof external delivery boxcanbe provided for use when occupants out atwork—(5).
HousingforsinglepeopleLeicesterEngland: typicalfloorplan ArchDoE
firstfloor
2
Variantofpartof—(1) whichprovideslargesharedflat for4people insteadoflarge,medium&small singleflats
groundfloor
4 2Victorianterhousesadapted forsharing
ArchYork (England)
UniversityDesignUnit
1\e4
280
.
-v
C,)
5 siteplan
3
Bed-sittingaccnwith kcommon rminsmall4 personhouses: notewc separatefrombathr Arch ManningClamp& Partners
Externaldeliverybox
Housing references: —*Bibliographyreferences 037 038 044047 092 179 227228 233234
235236237238240242245246247248263264299300302363 372458464467511 512519521548558573574624631637650
I0
100 Habitat
Houses PRIVATEGARAGES Size
Avoid under-dimensioning garages. Clearance between car and side walls should be mm 200—300 with margin in front mm 500. For getting out allow at least door width between carand wall or between cars and never less than 700. For car cleaning,wallsor other cars should be mm 1 200 away. 0
100,5
0.5 1;0 1.5 2;0 2.5
o
3
6
3;0354.04;55;055m 9
12
l
15
Typicalvehicleelevations
Garage should becloseto houseentrance, though not necessarilyfront door, with easy access; actual distance from house will vary with size and number of vehicles. On steep slopes with houses above road, garage can be sitedatstreet level (maxdriveway gradient6%) butmust be protected against ground water —.(6). Where house is close to boundary garagecan be setatangle orcombined with next-doorgarage Access driveway should either beconsolidated over its whole width or have concrete wheel-runs —o(9). An apron infrontof garageshould be concreted full-width, 5000—6000 long and drained forcarwashing and to provide occasional off-street parking for another car. Garage floor should be raised 30—50 above washing areaand slope towards it.
DJH rt__ L
Siting garages
Integral garage—eplOl(1)(2)
2.0 2.5
2 Planviews of typicalvehicles dimensions no L B
T
1
1 T
2 3 4 5 6
I a
3.0
2.0
40 50
6.0
70 80
O
I—
L
H
-1
2
2J
h
16
2,2T2.4
3.0 3.0 3.5
2.4125 2.4 3.0128 3.0
40
p]j8
67
4.2
6.1
34
2.2124
2.4
30
F
o=regular
7
lb
2.5
USAsizes
I
H Tentrance
—
I23 y=
20 20
compact
—I
H
-
3
4
5
H
6
J_
5
J-
I I b
Houseonslope,garageon road below 6
Usualsiting
1
Standardgarages ainelevation bplansizesfor: 1 motor cyclewith side-car2—4 cars5&6vans&trucks; usualmaterials forthesedismountable garagesasbestoscementorsteelsheets,flat orcorrugated, &timber 3
7
Boundaryin close proximityto house,sogarageat angle
8
Combinedgarageswhere distancefromboundarynot stipulated
I— 1000—1500
J 4
Garage in plan—.(3)
I—
-
I—
—4 I—
-4
4—
2000 600 —4
__________
9
Accessdrivewaywheelruns
—1 4—
600
-
__________
Habitat 101
Houses PRIVATEGARAGES
Incorporatedwithin house
Garages have been placed in basement,sometimes under conservatory orsimilarannex to house —(1). Should be avoided if possible; should not be used in areas whichhave freezing weather: access slope not morethan20% —(4). Driving up steepramp with motor stillcoldshortens engine life, is noisy and can be difficult. Garage therefore better placed at ground level, driveway having slightfalltowards road. On sloping sites groundflooror terrace may be raised sufficiently to allow basement garage at road level. Direct access to garage fromentrance hall or lobby via self-closing fr door usually permissible: threshold must be 100 mm above garage floor. Otherwise access to garage can be provided under common canopy with entrance door to house. Garage should beaway fromliving rmand bedr, accessiblefromkitchen and side or service entrance. Car washing and driveway should be screened by shrubs and bushes, which will also muffle noise.
I9
Carports —.pl 02(6)
Doors—*pl02(7)—(10)
4115H
—I
1
Garage in basement, various arrangements: wofgarage doors& ramp = 1000;garagedimensions 2800 x 5500—3500x6500
car -4-
2ndstorey
Up-and-over doorsor rollershutters now usual: can be operated by el motors with remote control switch or by electronic devices, provide additional head-room for motorcaravans and similar vehicles. Slidingfolding doors require additional width. Hinged doors opening outwards can be blocked by snow. When used should have provisionforfastening in openposition. Folding doors also —*p402 Windows and el lightshould be near carengine, with switches atgarage doorand any other entrance; spark protected socket outlet, well clear of floor, desirable. Heating best situated in front of or under engine, keeping garage above 5°C. Water tap with hose attachment should be near door, in easy reach of washing area, with hose-reel mounted nearby. Garage should be ventilated near floorlevel.
Internalfinishes 1ststorey
Walls can be fair-faced brick or blockwork, painted, or tiled. Floors usually cement screed, but oil stains hard to remove. Asphalt tiles dissolved byoil; best flooring material oil-proof ceramic tiles. Fortyres, standing on hardwood timber inserts orwoodblock isbest ifcan be kept free from oil. Garage should have floor gulley, and floor should be 150—200 above ground level outside.
groundstorey
2 3-storeyhousewith integral gar:canbesiteddirectlybehind pavementas gar & centralporchprovideprivacy; access togardenthroughuty
I
In basementgar,whereunavoidable, slopenotmore than20%
3 2-storeyterhousewith attachedgarinfront, screeningsemi-private entrancecourt:generallymoreeconomical (&attractive)than 3-storeyhouse withintegralgarage—.(2) but implies lowerdensity'
I 'I
102 Habitat
Houses PRIVATEGARAGES:BUILDINGREGULATIONS Small garages Fordomestic garages in EnglandWales—uBib65O Small garage definedasonewhich hasfloorarea not more than 40 m2. Such bldg subjecttospecial rules (El5) Where small garage combined with small open carport rules of E19 mustalsobe studied.
Sing'egar(for a b—spi 00(3))
2
Doublegar
measurements —.p100
0
'
250
Detached bldg consisting of small garage,orsmall open carportorboth should be regarded as PG 1 bldg for purposesof Part E (E18). Detached small garagewhichis 2000ormore away from anyboundary must have roof covering complying with El5 (roofs) but need not conform toany other reg in Part E (E16). Detached smallgarage within 2000 of boundary must have roof complying with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of boundary must be externally non-combustible. All its internal wall surfaces must beclass spread of flame (El8). Detached small garagewithin 2000ofhouse musthave roofcomplying with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of house must be externally non-combustible. All internalwallsurfaces ofgaragemustbe class spread of flame. However, if house wall is itself externally non-combustible and has 1/2 hr frand no unprotected areas within the 2000 distance greater than 0.1 m2or nearerto oneanother than 1 500 requirements on non-combustibility and flame spread do not apply to garage walls(E18). Requirements on class flame spread in E18 (3)(4) do not apply to exposed surface of frame member forming partofwall. Small garage attached toorforming partof housemust have rooftoEl7. If there isfloor overgarage floor must have fr ofat least 1/2 hr. Any wall between house and garage must have at least 1/2 hr fr. Any opening in thatwall between house and garage must have threshold at least 100 above level ofgaragefloorand befitted with self-closing frdoor(1/2 hrfr) to El 1. In all other respects suchgarage must comply with relevant requirements of Part E (El8).
petrtrap
0
i_I__i_I
J•:
1U-f 10004—
±—
C
— 400
—•I
a
1_1.1_1
—H
I—
3 Gar with work bench, 1 car, motor cyclewith sidecar&bicycles
I__I
F_
I_I.!.! —I
5000—6000
4 Gar with washingar
0
Garage references.—eBibliographyentries 225 276 348 435 636 650
7
Overheaddoor(flyover)
8
Overheaddoor (foldaway)
Doublegarusedtoextend1-storeyhousetoscreen patio; lowdensity solution
5
a
6
=
orr acn
b
Examplesof Americancarports wellrelatedtoentrance a Arch-team Gropius bArch HSeidler
9
Overheaddoor,sectional (flyovertrader)
10
Rollershutter
Habitat
103
Gardens ENCLOSURES
12
Simplechain-linkfencing:iron postswith wire mesh 1
x 75
1
mt square
1 250
expanded
J.
3
Battengate (from inside)
Wire nettinggatewith bracing
4
hexagonal
100x 19 boards 125x 100setin concrete
undulating
Wire netting:usualsize40—55
13 115brickwall (half brick)with supportingpiers
14
Close-boardedfence
\
600-800
uptx2h00
groned
concreteorstone
,-.
5 Wrought-ironrailing rectangular
6
Framed,lodged,braced& boardedgates 15
Angle-ironrailing
section
•ø10 1800
16 Hedge with link-mesh infill
—
1 1120
.1.
7
Wrought-ironrailingof 10—15 sections& bars
8
Wrought-irongate between concreteorstone posts
100x100 125 x 19 railsnailed aftemativelytoboth sidesofpost
17 Horizontalboarded(ranchtype)fence
-1
x
150 75 mainpost
Most timbers used for fencing require some form of protective
4270
87 1< 38
treatment. Particularly important timberposts treatedagainst decay below ground and at least 200 above ground. Concrete plinth helps prolong life of most timber fences.
x
87 38 prickpost pointedfordriving
I
Lt
9
Timberpost& rail (4rail)
Design offence and materialsused in itsconstruction should harmonise with surroundings. Showbest side (fair face) of boundary fence outwards with posts visible from within site. On sloping ground fence should follow contours. Extend protective fences against animals 100—200 below ground, especially where hedge planted —(16).Hedges —ep104.
10 Fenceofforestbattens(topof battensweathered)
18 Wire-boundwoodfencing availableinrolls
Where termites present inground very desirable use pressuretreated or termite resistant wood egcedar.
104 Habitat
Gardens SITING& LAYOUT
protection fromnoise& dust: NE(winter) espaliertrait
pStreet
NIw ter fl
_Q,2lJuo
was
•i protection twall lawn from wind (insummer) shadyar boundarywall
-
Suitableplantingforhousewalls
according to orientation
Dec
2
Suitablelayout forsmallgarden protectedfrornwind with vegetablesnearkentrance
manure strawberries
teiII,eS_r
car wash 9W sandpit
side - entr
Layout
Plan landscape simultaneously with design of house so that levels of drives, terracesand entrances are coordinated. Where space permits provide turningarea forvehicles and rrtechanisedeqp. Study position ofsunand prevailingwinds andavoid frostpockets when siting planting areas —n(6). Plant treesand hedges to give protection fromcold N and E winds. Vegetable production: allow 55—75 rn2/Pon best soil available.
Humus or sandy loam better than heavier loam, clay or loose sand. Conserve topsoil excavated from areas of paving or building for use
fruitbushes
elsewhere —api05.
water grass
•N
garden
4
Layoutforsmall sitetogive largest possiblevegetablegarden
!
slopeswarmest during May and Sept SW slopeswarmest Oct—Apr SE slopes warmest Jun —Oct Orientation —ap40 7781
Soil
•
swwig
3
N
waterbasin fruittrees
—
ter
Aspect of ground and its angle of slope —v(6)plOS have important bearing on amount ofsun radiation it receives at different seasons: S
positionofsun 1
Siting
Orientation& relation
ofrm&tertogarden crop plaidpoorneattosbdue toshade& rootcompetition
*— shelter belt
-
I
relatively
J.
Enclosuresforgardens
Walls: brick or stone (use type which blends with materials used to construct house). Fences: wood or metal (match surroundings)—api 03. Hedges —a(7)(10): clipped foliage (formal) orflowering (informal). Allow sufficient space for ultimatewidth ofhedge when established, 450—1 200. To producethickhedgestagger plants thus:
Windbreaks
Planting of shelter belts has marked effect on soil temp, giving considerable increase in crop production—(5).
increasedcropyield
5 Effectofshelterbeltoncrop production
coldairbufids op invalley& createsfrost
—
plantlower-growingplants on higher partofslope good
B
good
Effect ofslope &exposureonestablishment of plants
§ -1-
6OO-12t
stonesbuiltup in diminishingomjrses
Jc
eon
thin sodsplaced betweenindivdsarl
Hedge innorthernGermany
9
grasseventually growsoverStones giving appearance ofturfhedge
Stoneusedinconstructionofturf hedge
7
Hedgeh
hawthornhedge
L600— stones
8
bad
10 Turf hedge
il
Jf.
waler channel
Habitat
Gardens SOIL PREPARATION
Topsoil
Top layer of soil must be preserved: provides growing medium for plants.
underground
___________________________ I
Soil compaction
lopsoil malerial unlenor malenal
7
On bldg sites storetopsoil in temporary spoil heaps —e(1). Keep free from weeds. If stored over long period use green manuring. Turn over heapat least onceayear. Spread topsoilafter completion ofearth moving. Allow 600—1 000depth for planting trees, 500 for climbers and wall plants, 300 for shrub beds, 150 forgrassed areas.
Fill on gentleslopes
Topsoilspoilheap
105
5OO
Soil used as fill for hard landscapedareas should be spread in layers 300—400 deepand well compacted—e(3) (notall soilssuitable forthis).
Materials of different character should be deposited and compacted separately.
Banks Buildingup inlayers
4 Cohesivematerialin corewith slight stepping
T/.177777'
8
Deadwattle
prevent sliding of fill material —(4). Angle of slope should beconsideredin relationto maintenanceoperations required and topand bottomofbank gently rounded off. Providedrainage at bothtop and bottom of bank sothatsoilonly receivesmoisture falling on its surface. Max gradient for mowing grass 1:3, forplanting 1:2 (or 1: 1 where no maintenance required). Turf laid on banks should be secured with wooden pegs —*(5). On slopes steeper than 1: 1 turfs should bethickerand laid stepped—(6). Use wattle for steep banks where difficult establish plant growth. Distinguish between dead wattle —+(7) and live —e(8). In using live subsequent planting ofshrubs necessary aswillow actsonlyas pioneer. On very steep slopes useretainingwalls—epi06(19)—(20). Crib structures —.(9)and grass-concrete construction—+(10) may also be used.
Binding withsteppedturt
7
To prevent soil movement fill along slopes should be placed in layers. Form cuts in existingground surface to create serrated profile to retain fill material —u(2). On higher banks ground profile should be stepped to
Live wattle
selplantsbetweenbeams atlopofwall sothaIthey cascadeoverface
soiltype
weight kg/rn3
angle of repose (degrees)
loose &dry loose& naturally moist loose& saturated withwater consolidated &dry consolidated & naturally moist loose& dry (av forlight soil) loose& naturally moist loose& saturated with water (av formedsoil) consolidated &dry consolidated & naturally moist mediumcoarse&dry mediumcoarse& wet
1400 1 600 1 800
45
he ernbankrnienl beanis
slopeof
earth
groundlevel
loam
Cribstructure g ravel
sand
brokenstone,wet cia
1
900
27—30
42 37
1 500
40—45
1 550
45
2000
20—25
1 800
40
1 850
70
800 2000
dry
1 800
30—45 25—30 35—40
fine& dry fine,naturally moist fine &saturated withwater coarse&dry
1600
30—35
1 800
2000
40 25
1900—2000
35
2000—2200
30—40
1 600
40—50 20—25
.
loose& dry loose& verymoist solid & naturally moist(heavier soil)
drysand & rubble 11
1 700
35—40
Weights&anglesofreposefor different kindsofsoil
1
2000 2500 1400
70
35
I
106 Habitat
Gardens PERGOLAS,PATHS,STEPS& RETAINING WALLS Retaining walls
Concrete construction cheaper than stone walling. Good form work detailing essential obtain pleasingappearance.Dry stone wallingsuitable for retaining earth up to 2000high. Brickbacking necessary for higher walls-(1 9)(20).
Paths
Widthof ramped paths 1 220—1350;length 6000—9000. 1: 12 gradient necessary foreasy negotiation bywheelchairs. For short pedestrian ramps 1:7 acceptable—vp85. Ifstepped, max height ofstep
is 125—e(11)—(13).
Paths also—*p1943
Steps Insulationoftimberagainstrot
Climbersupport
1
Tread width not less than 300. Risers 90—150 high —e(1 4)(15)(17)(18). Detailof finish to end of steps important, especially where set in grass bank.
monolithoi graniteor basait
I
16 Walkingmore comfortable ifpath longitudinally concave:
agood, riseofstepsconcave bbad, rise convex
3
Tt:
4
Pergolaofmonolithstone (commonin Italy &Ticino)
Pergolaonbrickpier
18 Stepsof naturalorworked
17 Steps withflagstones
stone
70-80
flY
6 Cobbles:expensive
,; •..
but durable
hli,ng
—soil brokenstone
drainage
••
625
-t.e2 :1 19 Concreteretainingwall (w base 1/3 h)
8
Pavedpath bedded
& raised(easier keep clean)
Pavedpath flush (preventsobstruction oflawn mower) 9
10
20
Drywalling (specialdrainage
notnecessary)
Th
of slabs
Spacing = length ofstride:
114
thickness 30
=8386
sideview
19
end view
21
Turf &concretepayersfordrives, fire route round bldg, bank
iIli 14 Stepswith post supports
15 Stepswith flagstone&support blocks
22
p3004
eoo
path
wheelbarrow path
Dimensions of paths
j!l 2004
1,004400I 3004
orgarden
doubieflagstone path
9OO—1
access path
107 Habitat
Gardens: equipment 03000
350 x400 290 x490 410 x700 300 x800
2500
1150T
1200
800I
01000-1150
200
1
-5501
2
Metal foot scraper
3
Gardenchair&table(iffolding:
top600x 1000, l00thickwhen
Sunshade
r
700
1800 1500
folded)
400—,
610
i 85o)
J
tolded1B5th Gardenchairs
tOIded80th(
4
2000
5
6
Deckchair
Hammock
8 Charcoal&gas portable barbecue
9
11
Gardencarts &wheelbarrow
12 Lawntnmmer
Seedspreader
13 Walkingsprinkler
14 Lawnsprinklers
C
Ii'°j 15
Riding tractor
16
18 Reelmower
Leafcollector
) 20 Sprayer
19 Garden tools
21
Hose reels
22 Motortiller
1000-1100 2
(240)
2
1800—2000
'420 23 Tennisracket
24 Toboggan,skis
25 Tricycle
I
26 Bicycle
108 Habitat
Gardens TREES,SHRUBS
Trainedfruit
-1
300-500 1200
P
I
wire
canes
T
2250
600
•eseaber
2
Pipe espalierframe
1
3
Framefordoubleespalier
4
Woodespalierfence
Wall espalier
I-41
T
T
ffrff[; 1-5004-500-
5
1-600-1
6
Uprightcordon
7
Doublecordon
Palmettecordon6& 8branch
8
Chandeliercordon
Tree planting
—espaherwire
1270strap& 400 spacersecuredtotop ot stake&tree stem
tree securedwith wire threadedthrough n43ber hoseto protect
4
-ì
prevailing wind
5000
—I
9 Horizontalcordon twit, treeshape, stock
crowned varieties planting interval
standard apple appleon strong EMstock
bait
10 Heavystandard
11
On exposedsite
12 Normalsituation
appleon weak EMstock standard pear bush pear on pear stock bush pear on quince pear spindleon quince
prevailingw*id
—8
atandardcherry 1/2 standard cherry on Pmahaleb standard bitter cherry 1/2 standard cherry on Pmahaleb standard & bushplum
13 Onexposed hillside
14 Toformclose
15 Fruitbushes
group
bush apricot standard walnut
hazelnutbush
Shrubplanting clay lodredintotop 80-150
replaceescavatedsoil with town:25%
spreadout rootsaway fromwall
maId, 500
removeanyrubble toensuretree
breakup sod: incorporatepeat & grit
16 inpoorsoil
peachbush standard apricot
ircoryodeecompost
17
Insandysoil
drainage
18 Against wall
gooseberry, red & white currant black currant gooseberry & currant cordon raspberry & upright blackberry rambling blackberry annual strawberry cultivation perennial strawberry cultivation
inhouse garden &small-
enclosedsite
10 x 10
6x 6 5x5 Sx
3.5x3.5
8*5 6x6
4.5*4.5
4*4
plant/ha 100 277—400 400—816 156 277 494
planting
8v 8 x 4x4
plant/ha 156
''
400—625
x 3*3 7*7
625—1120
2.5*2.5
1120*1600
5x5
204
3x3
625—1120
10*10
100
6*6 6x6
277 277
5*5 7x7 5*5 5*5
400
4 v4
204—400
5x5
400
400
4*4
625
7
204—277
5
400
6*6 6x 6
8*8 5*5
156
5 x5
400
2.5 x 2.5
4x 4 70—100 Sx 8 3*3 625 2x2 2000—2500 2* 1.5 2 *2.5 1600
1.5
4444
1
2*0.5
10000
2 *05
2 *4
12*12
4*4 2x 2.5 2v 2
* 1.5
277—400
* 1.5
1250
2 >i 4
0.3*0.3
160000— 111 111
0.3
0.8 *0.3
66666— 41666
* 0.5 *0.3
0.25 0.25
625 1120 2500—3333 2000 6666 10000
*
0.25 0.25 160000—
* 0.3 05 * 03 0.6* 0.3
111111 66666— 41666
19 Plantingdistances:affectedbysoil&moistureconditions, manuring, strengthofstock,variety& pruning, consequently greateror lessvariation from 'coefficients'possible;EM = EMailing
Habitat 109
Gardens WATERSUPPLY rotaryspnnklerwith
diaup to 12.0
Water essential for plant growth. If no mains (municipal) supply available trial holes should bedug to ascertain presence of water in soil.
sprinklingcircles musi overtap
sprinklerforbeds (arcovereddepends on pressure(
reservoirfor handoperation
•
Shallowwells Sunk directly into water-bearing strata. Yieldlikelyto fall off in dry weather.
0
hand
u4
Topreventcontaminationriskwell
should be at least 10 m (15 m USA) fromanyseptictank orsewer
well
1
2
Hand-operatedpumpdrawsup
El-operatedpumpfeedswaterto pressurevesseluntil switchcuts out atapprox4atm; aftersome lossof water pumpstarts upagain at 2atm
to7000d,pumpsupto 30m h;
output/mm 40—801: forgreaterd largerpumpsneededwith suitably built deep-seatedsuctionvalves
3 Perrot' typesunkensprinkler: dug intolawn ¢rallyoperated;
coverage8000—10000 at 1.5—3.5 atm; capacity/hr0.5—1.0 m3/valve
Reservoirs foamor clay
flowerpot ofclayoroak
main and constructed with water-
tight lining(steining). Wells may be operated by hand —*(1)orelpump—v(2).Well house mustbe insulated, protected from frost and adequately ventilated if below ground. Recommended size: 2100 x 1500approx. Switch and fuse box sited above ground level.
Reservoirs
4
Small pools may be constructed invariety ofways, depending upon site conditions and economics —v (4)—(8).
5
Waterproofing withclay, for wateringonly (notsuitablefor paddlingpools):thickclay covered with layers of soil &gravel
Inexpensive gardenreservoir, incorporatingfelt, sheetingor continuoussealingwith 3—4layers ofhessianstuck withbitumen;in caseofimpermeablesub-soil pan should bewateredtodiminish pressureonseal
•.J
\.:.3iayers,,?
6
Reservoirwithclay asseal,lined withstones:suitableforflowerponds
rendenng15thick
rentorc
L •te
Overflowshould be incorporated —(1O)—(12); make provision for emptying by either submersible el pump orsiphoning —a(1 2). Bottom of poolshould be sloped tooutlet ifemptying tobe complete. Pool edges need concealing. Paving flags or coping more suitable for formal shaped pools — (7)—(12), and grass—v(4)(5), marsh plants orrocks forinformallayouts, accordingto ultimateeffect desired.
consolclatedfoam
Paddlingpools 7
8 Swimmingp001ofreinforced
Reservoirwith brickbuilt banks
concretewithdamp-proofrendering ormembrane;poolshould be emptiedinwintertoavoidfrost damage;also —vpl14
9
Marsh&water plant reservoir, showingvariedcombinationof differentplants: notsuitableforhard water;also—npl 13
Waterlily &fishpools
—p113
Emptying
Irrigation
vent opening
it
Recommended depth for children foradults; for 200—400,800—1000 swimming pools —api 14.
removable
air ::::: overflow
:::::. outlet
10 Overflow&outletwith plugs
Overflow&outlet pipe combined 11
12 Floatingel pump;further emptyingbysimplesiphoning
Simplest form consists of series of channels flooded with water —a(13). Drains needed to remove surpluswater—a(13)—(16). Overhead watering bymeans of line or rotary sprinklers more efficient. Rate at which water delivered should be sufficient for soil absorption withoutforming puddles on surface.
Drainage —
1n
--
—
—
::
contour lines
drain fascine
conuiexion
ofirrigation
pipewith thannel
13 Drainageplan
14 Open ditchwith wattle
15 Coveredwattle
ditchwith sand bottom
16 Coveredditchwith flagstones&rubble
I
110
Habitat
Gardens Gardensfordisabled
Heightof raised bed suitable forwheelchair user 600 (must have knee space underneath —v(3)); for ambulant disabled approx 860 —v(4): varies according to individual heightand physicalstate. Forsome elderly and handicapped outdoor gardening difficult; indoor garden can be designedsuit special needs—v(2)p112. Restrict widthof beds to 1200sothat workeasily carried outfromeither side to cover whole area; comfortable total reach forward 750—965. Surround bed with hard paving—v(1). Important provide convenient supplies (eg water), sb and controls whichmake lifting and stooping unnecessary; rolling cart ortrolleycan eliminate muchlifting and carrying.
Roofgardensalso —p112 Provide background of screens, walls etcto protect plants fromeffects ofhighwinds. Tofacilitate drainagefinished surfaceofsupporting roofstructureshould be laid tofalls—v(5).
Rockgardens
Undulating site with SE or SWaspect ideal. Simulate life-size outcrop (not mountain range in miniature) linked by irregular-shaped areas of stonechippings, alpine lawn orgrass. When placing rocks first select 1 or2 specimens, mm 500 kg, for key positions. Build up nucleus of rocks 250—500 kg round them. Place smallerrocks 150—200 kg towards perimeter—v(6)(7).
Floodlit landscape features To highlight foliage floodlights mounted on lower branchesof tree and
lightbeam projected upwards through foliage —v(9). Iflight-source canbeconcealed floodlights maybepositioned atbase of tree and beam projected verticallytoilluminatefull heightoftree—v(8b). Light source placed somedistance away fromtree where foliage used as illuminated background and details unseen —u(8a). Sculpture may require only singlefloodlight butisenhancedbysubdued lightingin surrounding areato give impression of reflected light. individualrockslaid lifting singhtiybackwardsto aiiowrainwater totnckla overplants rocksgroupedtogethermust havetheirstratarunningin direction&observe sarne naturalmarkings
Raisedgardenfordisabledgardener—+(3)
1
a
[
1220
584
stainless
drawers
[
stainlesssteel planttos
r1[5t°JJ
b
51
window
roll-outbini
I
'I
2590
vent
stratamusttoiiow that occurnngin quarrybed
--
—
Positioningofrocks& method ofbedding
6
t3 —
—
spread25 dia drippingsalter
no manureortertiliserlobe incorporatedintopsoil
planting
7
coarseshingle
-
4..
—50—ltodna formationlevellaidtofails totacilrtatedrainage
.
Construction of bed
ofrockgarden
2
Stand-upgardenplan a &elevation hand,roll-out bin forfetchingsupplies
bwith water, supplies,eqp closeat
rocksliabletotopple itsettooshallow
a —..
wheretheretsan obstruction,eg stream. ffoodftghtpositionedsome 'Uistariceaway
-. —
——
b
8 afloodlit landscape feature blightsourcebelowtree b
oos
.
on
.
lowerbranchestoproject beamoflightupwards
positionedat pointwherecascadestnkes water &hewn projected upwardssothatftcatches eachdropletofwater
-
4
Raisedplantingbed for wheelchairuser 3
trees ____________
Stand-upgardensection
shrubs
1= glassftbrequill
9 a
alightsourcelocatedwithintree bfloodlighting waterfall
•. /
•1
600 peat
25 _______________ gravel 5
t
topsOit
.t ________
150
254
Roofgardenconstruction
Pest1 gravel
grass
io
peatLi1 1
ifI
b
t light
beaniof light positionedparallel todirectionofwater projected jet
.
.
toosoni
jet
——
gravel
10 afloodlitfountain bunderwater floodlighting
submerged
beamdirected
hilydownwards
into pooi
Habitat
111
Gardens
:
T
ii
1200-1800.
1
Smalltent in 2sections
2
Largertent in8sectionswith2 end sheets
4 aFree-standingworkcentreasdecorativescreen bworkcentreattached togarorhousewall, closedwith hingedglazed panel; sto bins underpotting
3
Housetent
5
Open shed
6
Open shed withroof &toolsto containingprivy
bench
"S
r.
—
for ___sc--dOor weather
-.
protection
/\canopy
onokung
5000
3750 3750
7 Similar to 6butwithsolid separatetoolsto & parapetsto
Enclosedshedtosleep 1
GARDEN STRUCTURES
9 Enclosedshed to sleep3,with separatecookingspace
Not usually rated as bldg or considered as permanent living accn unless continually occupied or
providespace
used for business purposes.
fflhing
N l50 30011
Compost sto
12
Should not be sited nearer than 1 800 to site boundary or bldg on same site, unless boat-house structure and waterway boundary. USA:check setback requirements in local zoning ordnance.
a'
'80/80
10 Peat privy(dry)
Tents & sheds
1000 1500 1000 2000
Frame
Barbecues —p77 107(8) Glasshouses & frames Specifyglasshouses according to type and width. Lengthadapted tosuit conditions. RoofridgesitedN-S.Framesface S.
4)built fromground level and often transferred to another plot aftercropping. Other typesmay be seton dwarf wall. Glass usually680g. Heavierweight 906gorplastics sometimes used. Dutch-light—÷(1
13 Smallgreenhouse
14 Dutchlights
15
Hothouse againstwall
Temp ofunheatedglasshousesand frames 5—7°C, heated 12—15°C. Ventilation essential. Specify adequate numberofvents. Hot or cold bed frame lights—*(12) may be setonsliding tracks, completely removable orraisedforventilation.
112 Habitat
Gardens INDOORGARDENS Indoor gardens lend adjacent rm spacious feeling: plants freshen air, add hum, provide hobby, educate children. Ideal orientation in most climates for most plants StoSE. Nto NEdaylight should beaugmented by special plant lights. W sun difficult control. Plan artifical lighting not only for plants' welfare but in relation adjoining rm. Studies showcool whitefluorescents provide many characteristicsneeded byplants: also availablespecialised plant lights with greater rangebenefits. Idealheating and coolingforplants verylowvelocity airsystem: othersystems can be adapted.
ROOFGARDENS-p88 Consider shade from nearby bldg, wind and smog when choosing location and plantsfor roof garden. Weight ofsoil factor in roof garden design (0.03 m3av soil equals 36kg).Ifquestion of structuralstrengthof roofconsider hydroponic gardening using lightweightholding medium suchasperlite orvermiculite. Desirablesetplants inplanters orhanging baskets ratherthanbedsforease ofplant replacementaswellasweight considerations. Planters may beofwood, pottery or reinforced plastics. Shade tolerantplants could include fuchsias, begonias, hardy ferns, impatiens, azaleas.Smog tolerant plants include ivy, oleander, azaleas, ginkgo, camellia, privet. Wind tolerant plants: holly, ivy, boxwood, euonymus (should be started as small plants tobuildup resistance).
Corr gardenplan
1
13 type condensationgutter window stool
/
glassH
slatefloor
cill
asbestos board
38sawedwoodcap sect,00s
1152c/c radiation
_J9re
(L.
gardenconstructed
?t:z c3r" 28ã :
150stepOsrrs
withstaved5Qx lOOsides
I
\
if
gods 1—SlOradius—--f
50
50 topsoil groundlevel
brokenbrick 50
20 plywood
5
concrete wall
914 \ vermiculite& gravel
Entrygardensection
hold,,,g
mediums
\ galvan isedwashtub asphaltcoaledins,de 305clay potwith fitting stainlessfood strainer forpeastone
8
Methodofcontainerisedhydroponicgardening
2 Sectionthroughcorrgarden
Li flnr
fixed glass
p I..-grill
slate So
Icopper
6 Entry gardenplan
step carpet liv
3
infloor overradr
Add-ongardenplan liv
fixed glass
•
•
-
\
4
.
framing insulati 50 x 150 CIII 100 concretesIab,, 255 concrete p 100 gravel wall 50 concreteblock compactedearth
Add-ongardensection
7
Roofdeckoutdoorrm; roof surfaceprotectedfrom foot damage bypreservativestreatedwood floor; design usestypicalapartmenthouse penthouseaspartofplan ArchEH &M KHunter
Habitat 113
Gardens WATER LILY, FISHPOOLS
-. 1 liiterplate 2 liitertray 36pipefittings 4 pumpfittings 5 underwaterpump . 6 6ppefltfings 7 hosetowaterlajl , 8 cablewith groundwire H hoseconnexiontopump
G fiitermat&gravel I
—-— —
,-.,_h,
7
0
86
water lev 355
Can be formal or natural in shape. Pre-fabricated pools usually glass fibre or other plastics. Built-inpools reinforced concrete, using rather dry concrete mix 127—152 thick, placed in wooden form or shaped excavation in firm soil linedwith vinylplastics before pouring concrete. Pools must be sitedfor max sun, high enough ensure ground water not enterpool in heavy rain, near watersupply ifnoautomatic supply. Depth waternot less than 355 sothatwaterlilies may be planted in boxes for ease of removal. Provide overflow pipe, removable fordraining.
3 H
2 1
Filtersysteminstalledin pre-fabricated glassfibre pool
II
I 111)'ImII tog sir wa
ovens
dEan
4 Natural' poolwith waterfall
5
Smallpool &outdoordiningar next k Arch Stedman&Williams
2
Garden arlargelydevotedto fish & lily pool
boiteo.t
spilipan todeck
_i
chemical
characteristics
chlorine gas lowers pH
sterilisingagent: formof chlorinewhich canbefed into waterin continuousdoses, inexpensivebut highlyacid &toxic: needs specialhandling,automaticfeeder. constantalkalineadjustment
sodium hypochlorite raises pH
sterilisingagent: popularchlorineformwith high chlorine content; dispersesquickly when addedto waterwith no residueto makewater harder;inexpensivebut needs carefulhandlingavoid splash,damageto clothes;tends deterioratestoredtoolong; needsfrequentpH adjustment;dispersesfast in sunlight
calcium hypochlorite raises pH
sterilisingagent: effectivealgaekiller, speciallyfor treatingclinging algae;inexpensive;storeswell;but dissolves slowly,leavingresidueunlessplacedin basket orbag inwater; can causecloudiness& builds uphardnessinwater
iso-cyanurates noeffect onpH
sterilisingagents: dissolvecompletely,giving consistent, highresidual; need less acidcompensation than other forms; easy to use but costmorebecause mustbeusedwith conditioner;needspecial kitfor periodic check of conditionlevel
bromine lowers pH
sterilisingagent: canbeused insemi-automatic distributionsystem but is expensive,corrosive,toxic, difficult handle;less effectivethan chlorine
iodine lowerspH
sterilisingagent: stable,odour-freebutless activethan bromine;does not causepHfluctuation;easyto use but expensive;can turnwater green;difficult test for residual; lesseffectivethan chlorine
sodium bicarbonate raises pH
correctsalkalinity: recommendedformakingextensive adjustmentsin alkalinity;long lasting;easyuse; inexpensivebut slower actingthan sodium carbonate
sodium carbonate (soda ash) raises pH
correctspH: effective,quick acting, storeswell; inexpensivebuthas relativelyshort life inwater;must bepre-mixed
sodium bisulphate lowers pH
correctsPH: generallyconsideredbest ofdryacids; easier store than liquids; good forsmallpools needing small quanfitiesbut has to be pre-mixedand needs careful handling
muriatic acid lowers pH
regulatespH&alkalinity:readilyavailable;mostpopular pHadjuster;stores well;needsnopre-mixing but canbe very damagingto pool ifnot used properly;needs careful handlingprevent splashon user; smallamounts can cause significantpHchange
'13flow iine
frompump
%4 d13m wiremost,
.1
3
-
.-.•
_____________________________
'.. -:.. l9drainiine'< - '
Plumbing& pumpingsystems
•. -
6
Guidetocommonpoolchemicals
I
114
Habitat
Gardenswimmingpools Siting
Protected from wind, close to rest rm (for use on cool days), withinviewof kitchen (children in sight) and living rm (foroperationofautomatic gate) ie within field of vision. No deciduous treesorshrubs bypool to avoid leavesdropping: provide means of preventing grass etc from falling intowater; possibly raisedcoping (design decision).
2250(
smallest1 .bnepool (2swimmingstrokes, —4250—I 1/1.2P( medium-sizepool(3-4 strokes. smallest size 2/4-5P). permittingstartdivehornend
2
Layoutdiagram
1
Poolsizes
Size
3
Depth
ofwater
Width 2250. Length ofswimming strokeapprox 1 500plusbody lengtn: 4strokes = 8000length. Depth of water to chin height, of mother not children. Difference between height of pool and water level —v(3) depends on skimming method adopted.
Shape
Simple as possible for reasons of cost and water circulation (—abelow: maintenance). Rectangular but with ladder or steps in corner. Circular pool shapealso economicalwith welded steelplateconstruction.
Constructionmethods
Foil pool basin (foil = sealed outersurface) on
Layoutoftechnical installationsforfullyequipped swimmingpool
Deckatlevel of pavingconcealsfiltereqp &heaterbelow DesignArmstrong&Sharfman 6
exhaust prpes
skimmer
prevailing wind
sluice
-auxiliaryfloor S1JCbOfl pump/outflow
supporting structure of masonry, concrete or steel (including above ground) or in excavated pit. Basinsmade of polyesterorglassfibre reinforced plastics, rarely erected on site, normally prefabricated; in general not self-supporting, backfilling of lean concrete necessary. Waterproof concrete basins (on-site concrete double shells, cement-gun concrete single shells, prefabricated concrete components). Surface liningof pool usually ceramic mosaic, less often coated (chlorinated rubber or dyed cement)or cemented plastics sheeting.
Pool maintenance
Usually kept clean by means of recirculation system —*(4): surface circulation —v(5), with surface water kept clean by effective surface skimmersor preferably sluices. Types offilter:
feed:nozzles abovepipes below
gravel or sand (bottom filters, some with scavenger blower), diatomaceousearth (surface filter), plastics foam.
5 Simple longitudinalflow with suctionpipes
7
Perimeterfenceatpropertylineprovides safety&background for plant materials,shelter
Additional algae control by means ofchemicals (chlorine, chlorine-free alginic agents, copper sulphate). Common pool chemicals —spi 13(6). Water cleaning also—vp337
concretedeck
Heating By counter-current device or continuous-flow heater in boilerorsolarcollecting system. This
prolongs bathing seasonfor moderateadditional outlay. In some places system using thermal heateconomical.
plantingbed
50 deepscupper
8
Scupperkeepschlorinatedwater outof plantingbeds
Section showingwater dfor6100 x 12.2 poolwith springboard
9
suIt-priming punlp&rrloto-
returnline
lioej vacuum
titting
inlets steps
mainsuction line maindrain,
5fli
____________
frnertine) /
10 Plumbingsystemfor sand orpressure
diatomaceousearthfilter with linesfrommain drain, skimmer&vacuumconvergingon1 point (notevalves)before entering pump&filter
deependfitting
flfler
IIconcreteslab/ hlter heatrn
valve__________________ 1vacUUm returnline
heater
With skimfilter all linesdrainintoskimmer; water filteredthen drawnintopumpforreturn topool: pump& motorusuallyplaced within 15.0of pool 11
Preferably not onlythrough fencing off pool but by providing pool coverorself-operating alarm signal system (triggered offbywave formation).
Protectionagainstfreezing
pump&matOr unit on slab
va&iurn
Safetymeasures forchildren
With rigid pools by insertion of edge beams, heating or anti-frost outflow system. Do not emptyinwinter. Open air pools also —vp333
Habitat
115
Private indoor pools water
I
I
70—j-
temp
reiativeairh
a
%t
reiativeair hum 60%
I 70%
temp inuse 2WCI26Cair2RC 3Ci 28'C
R R R itiö4 R iti
Ii
-•-
M 2191 193 143
50
—,
67
2
0
M 2941269 218 1631 143
20_LI
M 378' 353
10-b0+10+20
M 395 3391 320 temp difference.4Kwater/airnottobe maintainedtorany lengthoftime
+30+40 air &watertemp
—10
Evaporationlimitincoveredpool; topline: Poolinoperation,bottom line: instate of rest; example: water tempto = 27°C,evaporation limit: in use36mbar (=30°C184% hum), resting28 mbar(=30°C/65% hum) 1
311 36 2471 227 811 89
66 302 123
2
Specificvolumeofevaporation in covered pool(g/m3h)instateof rest (A) &with max use(M)
Standard
I
Watertemp26—27°, airtemp30—31 °/60—70% relativehum;maxairflow 0.25mIs; waterevaporation 16gIm3hr(stateofrest)tomax 204 g/m3hr with pool inuse. Main problem airhum: water evaporates from pool until
cD
evaporation limit reached —+(1)(2). In state of rest evaporation stops even in low temp range, as saturated 'boundary layer' of water vapour remains overpool: pool should therefore not be 'blown at'with ventilation air. Expensive dehumidify pool house byventilation (though essential, below); with hum at level ofup to70°even small thermal bridge can cause structural damage inveryshorttime.
Construction Most common formfully insulated hanger-type bldg suitable for winter use (Km max 0.73); less frequent form, uninsulated 'summer' pool house (can also be ofkindwhichcan be dismantled). Semi-retractable roof and othersliding parts make possible openpool house during fine weather, so can be used as open-air pool (all weather pool); however, this causes problems overthermal bridges. size—+(4); as part ofpool house, in annexes if necessary: wc, sho, spacefor mm 2 deckchairs. Width of pool surround depends on wall surfacearea (heightofsplashing—u(6)); accessiblepassage round pool belowfloor level control leaks,full provision forleads and air ducts. Mm
i—2 —l 500
Location Incorrelation with: agarden (ideal 'covered pool'open-air)and shallow
___I
6counter-current
system
4 Smallestsize pool surround
400 1250
I- t5O
§ §
heavysplashing
torwindowcleaning
1+—
8000 ——-4 625
1000
Standarddimensionsofcovered pool
5
6
2000
Distancefrompoint of origin
circulatingair 1
suspended
2
3
4
pool
:u5t
ceihng
I
feet-washing troughs: b master bedr (withpabathr perhaps to beused for showering); cliving rm: allocate 10 m2 ofplant rmfor boiler. Auxiliary areas forrest, galley, bar, massage,keep-fitapparatus,sauna —epi 17, hot whirlpool (massageat40°C).
Equipment
Mech eqp and installations: water treatment with filter plant, steriliser dosing system, splash water trap (approx 3 m3), water softner(from) waterhardness 7°dH), athlete's foot spray (particularly iffloorcarpeted round pool); ventilation system with either fresh air or secondary air —*(7) with ducts in ceiling and in floor, or simple ventilation box and extractor (air flow not too fast, otherwise risk of draught); heating by radiators, convector heaters or warm-air heating, combined with airconditioning, possibly solar collector system. Underfloor heating as extracomfort: only practicable with floor insulation k greater than 0.7 and surfacetempless than 29°C. Energy saving bymeans ofheat pump (cost depends onthat ofcurrent) or heat recovery heat-exchangerinair-conditioningplant, or bycovering pool (rollerblindor covering stage), or by raising airtemp in between use (temp regulation byaquastat). Effective saving of30% total heating requirement.
Other installation and eqp: starting block, underwater light (as safety element), reverse current installation, chute, solarium; diving boards require appropriate pool depth, and height of pool house. Sound protection (sound-absorbent roof, noise-dampingwith air-conditioningplant (white sound), protection against structure-borne sound in pool basin itself).
Technical specifications In principle only corrosion-proof
materials: pot-galvanised (hot dip) steel, corrosion-proof aluminium, no plaster, timber open-pore glazed. Heatinsulation km, max 0.73 kcal/m2hr k.
mixing reguiator pump
—l
1 mixingchamber
3 heat exchanger
7
Bottom-topventilationwith mech plant forwindowheating
rçr circulatingair
hash air
topool
Layoutforheatingplant
chamber
exchanger
condenser water
2 airintake 4 airextractor
Layoutofventilationplant
standardi
standard
Iexhaust Ilair
w
122 177
244 323 330 427 533
regulator
I3 mixing heat
9
8
2 airintake 4 aireutractor
10 Airstructurewithaircompressor, pliantmulti-layeredcanopy&airlock 1 stress-reliefdesign 2cablesystem 3skylight topviewshowing doublecable system 4anchorsystem 5lightingsystem 6 HVACsystems 7 inflation systems 8airlock 9revolving doors 10emergency doors 11 transparent plasticswindows
mm
12.2
177
244 323 330 33.0 1280
max
hal centre
550 61 800 88 1100 100 1450 122 1620 12.2 2620 15.2 2620 20.0
116 Habitat
Private indoor pools Poolbasinsmainly reinforced concrete, in separatelayers. Expansion
iointsnot necessary with lengths under12 m. Important: ground-water equalising valveessential to prevent damagetobasin. Lining: ceramic, glass mosaic orpaint onsingle layer ofwaterproofconcrete orpolyester, pvc film mm 1.5 thick assealing. Include in design skimmer orpreferably overflowgully,bottominlet, counter-current system, underwater floodlight, and build in with sealing flanges. Plastics pool basins, because of below level floor access surround, only possible in exceptional circumstances orwithspecial structural reinforcement.
Floorlining:ceramic material orstone (must slope forwatertorun oft):
recently also water permeablecarpet(so savingneedfor sound-absorbent covering). Provide forkeeping outwaterfromunderneath liningand for sprays against athlete's foot. Floor heating pleasant addition but not essential.
Walls: surface lining material must be damp-resistant and unaffected
bysplashing.
Airconditioning essential. Hotelswimming pools: basinof60m2normally sufficient.Exceptions:
irregular periodsof use, wintersports hotels. Important: generous rest area, deck chairs, holiday atmosphere, bar, keep-fit apparatus,sauna, direct communication between hotel rm and pool bldg (elevator or separate staircase); not many changing cubicles needed but clothes lockerswith samelocks ashotelbedr.
Bath attendant usually required. Extension of use throughout summer bymeans ofadditionalopen-air pooland connectingchannelforswimmers (sun bathing lawns). 1
Poolrooted over with alurniniurn framedacrylic plastIcs dome
Indoor pools also —p329—32;changing rm —÷p335—6
mm
recommend
arratio
25 mardeckar(ratio) ir (arofpool)
2.0 0
15 10 0.5
I
0
93
1á6 279 372 465 558 6O arofpool in')
73 86 99
ld2t) 1 15
4 Ratio ofdeckspacetopoolarea forindoor&outdoorpools
2
Woodframedpool enclosure with hatcentrefordiving
5 Layoutforcovered pool
3 asupportingframeworkofdoublemetal archesspans18—36 m risingto 7.4—12.3 m; pliantmulti-layeredcanopyprovidestension-stressed structure b squaredomed structurewithsupportingframework of4 metal1/2-arch
sections arranged6.0—25.0 rn/side;canopyoftension-stressed pliantmuttilayeredmembrane
Habitat 117
Saunas Sauna more than body bath: formany also method ofmental cleansing. In Finland 1 sauna/6 P; used 1/week.
Bathing process: alternate applicationof hot and coldair, sweating in dry hot air, hot clean gusts of water vapour at 5—7 minute intervals by pouring on 1/4 Iwater. Can besupplementedwfth intermediateapplication of cold water, followed by massageand rest. Construction: usually blocks ortimber: good heat insulationnecessary for enclosingwalls since heat difference between inside and outside canoftenbe more than 1000in winter.
1300
Saunawith lobby1,changingrrn2,bathr3,benches 4—op338(4—7),water tank 5, bathstove 6 1
Bathing area small as possible, 16 m2 2500 high. Dark wooden liningtoreduceheatradiation onceiling and walls orsolid woodenwalls of softwood,except forstove area. Plankbeds of lattice (air circulation) atvarious heights forcomfortable sitting and lying, topbed approx 1 000 below ceiling. Plank beds demountable forcleaning, floors of gripping material, no wood frames.
Smokesauna: layeredstones heated tohigh tempbywood fire, smoke beingsparingly drawn offthrough opendoor. When stones glowing fire removed, remaining smoke driven off by waterand door closed. After short time sauna 'ripe' for bathing. Good smell of smoked wood and reliable vapour quality. 50% traditional Finnishsaunasbuiltthisway. Fumigating sauna:after heating with smoke removal, 'heated inwards' when stove bricks heated to about 500°C. Combustible gases burn out completely withoutcausing soot. Stove doors then closed even if still flames ingrate. Temp quickly risesby 10—20°C. Lastcarbon fogremoved before bathing by quickly opening door etcand ladle ofwatersplashed over stones.
2
Saunawith lobbybetweenbathr1—6,& changing mi7
Chimney sauna: brickstove clad in jacket of stone ortin sheet which guides smoke and gases to chimney. Heating by tire door to bathr or lobby. When stones hotfiredoor closed and upperairflap instove jacket openedwhen required to let out hotairor pour water on stones. City sauna: with special el heater; heat regulation ofel heated stones with pressbutton. Tenip: at ceiling 95°Cdropping by 60°Cdown tofloor. Relativehumidity: 5% or10% at90°or80°C: 100—120°C also possible ifsufficiently low airhum.Sweat thenevaporates immediately. Shower orwaterrm: where possible separated forinitial washing and watercooling, 11/2—twice sizeof sauna area, withoutwood if possible. Hip bath worthwhile 1000x 1000, 1100deep. Air bath: for breathing in cool freshair to balance hot air, cooling of body. Protect against peeping. Shower, spray and cold water basin desirable. If noopenairbath possible, then wellventilated area.
Changing: openrm orcabins, twice as many asvisitors at peak times (public sauna) —p338. Rest rm: rest benches functional area.
3
Largersaunawithlobby1,changingmi2, bathrplatform3, withstove4,& massagemiwithwater boiler5 massagebench6, water basin7
_______________________________________________________ Saunawith bathr 1, massage&washr2, changingrrn3, veranda 4, wood sto 5, cpd 6, bath stove 7, waterboiler8, &watersupply9
4
for half guests in sauna area, remote from
Massagerm: allow for30 persons, 2 massagepoints (public sauna). Detailsconstruction & eqp public sauna—+p338
Garden references: .—oBibliography entries 002 021 032066 087 155 161166167 171 263
264320376410411 430 431 466482550562 563
Z
118 Community
Schools PRINCIPLES ——
Since each countryhas its own tradition of school provision, governed byeducationaland economiccircumstances,notpossiblegive universally
applicable data forschool design. Informationgiven largely derived from experience in England and Wales, but presented so faras possible in terms ofwidelyapplicable principles. These apply both to new schools and toadaptationofexisting ones, to industrialand totraditionalmethods ofconstruction.
water climbing steps seats
4frotectiorr
protection
In last generation school planning hasevolved in response tochanging teaching methods and school organisation. Curricula have become increasingly diversified to meet needs of individual pupils; whole educational process more active and interrelated between its many aspects. Classrm and independent special subject rm no longer sole ingredients school design, particularly for younger and middle age ranges.
Ageranges forwhich schoolsdesigned vary widely indifferentcountries: compulsory schooling may start at5,6or7years,and end at12upto 16 years, with correspondingly different interpretations of pre-school, primaryand secondary stages. These can usefully be studied in 3 age ranges: younger, approx 3—8years; middle, approx 8—13 years; older,
approx13—18 years.
Regulations I
For UK DES reg (—vBib2l3) lay down mm standardsfor playing fields,
Planningingredients: underfives 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
tablework:eq usingmateiisls& ob$ctanotmakingmuchmess ring:eqbaneplay,camping,shops, hospitals music:eqeaploringsoundsindledusty,singing&dancingtogether messy:eq usingclay,water,sand quietwork:eq lookingatbooks, writing,resting.storyteting moving:eq climbing,swinging,p.inpng, rolling construction:eq buildingwithblocks,small& largescale, undertakings such as engines,boats,houses
[F5I
unila0 screen:
itablework eqtableslorsitling' andstandinground localsto&display
2
acting
le
eaplsy[J. tr
frolleYtey traycart
-
5 quiet eq benchseats easycltair
-'
v?s
-
:t
fJscmen she8 n— bench
boaea eq screens local 'properties'clothestrolley
3 music indhoduals
large trolls'1'
&smellgroups
e'Ling wcekaurtscea-'
to b1
tables
work
fightbenches sk easels local sto sand/watertrolley
2
benchC
genemL-,.10 service
localsto
ri
48
bert,
'
-
bin
bed
n
Schoolfurniture—vpl 19130—3 Boarding schools—+pl 27—8
YOUNGERAGE RANGE: NURSERYLEVEL For pupils of pre-school age, in nursery schools and kindergartens, learning process combines work and play. For main ingredients ot planning, bothforindoorsand outdoors (which should beconnected by covered areas to provide shade and shelter) —v(1).
6 movingclimbing
rostra
eq display
lowdisplayshelves lowcpd booktroeey
sites, sanitaryfittings and prescribeprovisionofsuitableaccnforchanging rm, do, lavatories, meals, med, staff. Reg are supplemented byadvisory publications. In USA referto state and local codes.
ct5jlow
nO rostm cpd
°bo
Cfl\ stacking trolleys sand/cubes waler trolley
0
eq clearspace hieght suspensionfront ceiling
1r
L.,
—
iF
'
8
7
7 construction eqlocallowsto rostra&cubes bldgblocks
3
-t
toveranda
Activityzones: youngerchildren
lose
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
sandpit high low ladder
house stO
cupressus
mound
10 swing 11
12 13 14 15
3 Nurseryunitonsite ofassociatedprimaryschool,built in 1972for60th from3—5years with2qualifiedteachers&3assistants: 30fulltime, 30 morningsonly,30aftemoons(iegoonroll);play ar,carpeted/tiled, opento verandaleadingtowalled playcourtwithviewsoutbutenclosed forsafety
shoe frame
weepingash pots roses
t6
boat 17 coveredar 18 roses 19 up
20
cotoneaster
21 tltorn 22 radioetc
23sk
24 tym 25 pets 26 roses 27 tlaps 28 waler 29 screen 30 logs
31 20P 32 raisedarsto under
33 paints 34 send 35 tolding
house
36 send 37 38 39 40
tlaps 20P books rootlight 41 staff 42 torsythia 43 mbbish
44 45 46 47 48 49 50
shed piano milk coats display hatch
St sty 52 med 53 music 54 tOPhandicapped 55 56 57
my
willow birds
Community
j
ingredientsof localcentres
Schools NURSERYLEVEL Workandplayofveryyoung children can be divided roughly intoabout 7 categories —(2). Indoors definition of zones mainly byarrangement of furniture, but appropriate surfaces important eg for messy work (clay, water etc) and for quiet work. Height also important for moving and climbing. Pre-school accnmay be found as unit of school —e(3) or as
sharedar outdoors
schoolsite i
L schoolbldg
schoolneighbourhood
horsebase
119
separate nursery school —t.(4).
EARLYSCHOOL In earliest years of compulsory school definition of spaces probably
reliesmoreon architecturalplanning: can beconsidered in3categories:
F
00000
L—
7'i1
parhcularbays
I
general work ar
garden
[_c:?
y
grass
ar
LJ
B
hardplayar
enclosed
— EE
I
-
Ohht&
coveredwork ar
adventure&discovery
ingredients of localcentres, shared areasindoors,sharedareasoutdoors. Design ofoutside as place forworkand play continues important —+(1). Working groupsvary considerablyin size and may change fromhour to hour as pattern ofworkchanges. Ingredients of 'local centres' can beassembled into centres ofvarying sizes and types according size and age range of school —e(2): homebase, space forallpupils forwhom 1 teacher responsibletobetogether, not necessarily attables and chairs; enclosed rmforquietconcentration or noisyactivitysuchas music-making; particular bays where special eqp, egsink or cooker, can be installed and independent projects can be pursued with continuity bysmall groups; general workarea, uncommitted space in which furniture can be arranged respond different needs; covered workarea, toextend rangeofworkbyprovidingsheltered transition between inside and outside. Change fromstandard classr planning to planning in terms of centres can be seen in adaptationofolderschool —e(3)(4) and onedesigned on new principles —api20(1 ab).
Youngerage rangear01work
[H
IHiI
E
ULEJT II
UL;1! FE1
L[1I1
1
Hj
rEl
r1JflLEJflLfl
HjII1 orginplan1931
23
2 Diagrammaticexamplesoflocal centreseach for2teachersworking incollaboration:Hhomebase, P particularbay,Ggeneralwork, Eenclosedrm, Vcoveredworkar
45678
classr
boys
0
5m
0
1
2
homebase
smallgroup rm Sb
3 cot 4 bin blocks 6 up 7 costs 8 plants 9 cpd 10 books 5
11
racks
12 sto 13 vinylfloor 14 trays
23 24
15 16
25 26 27 28 29 30
rostra SI
t7 homebase2.
smallgrouprm
18 19
20
shelves ck sand
2t birisunder 22 bookdisplay
pe store displayon corrugated
31
5
10
15 20 m
16 32, 48
168 1
girls
plants displayshelves picture models rug recordplayer& cabinet recordplxyer& speaker
32
pampasgrass 33 displayof bottlesetc 34 climbingIrarne 35 displayof gardentools& 36 37 38 39 40
plants piano
64
ft
3 Conversionin 1976of 1931 schoolbuilt tostandard classrplanning; as reorganisedthere are 3centresfor60P&teachers,with corrfurnishedas additionalwork,reference&displayspace; ha&drshownhatchedareshared byall,nursery unitadded
drums xylophone
screen
Detailof centreBfrom (3); furniture&fixtureshavebeenarranged give adaptedbldg greaterflexiblity 4
120 Community
Schools in primary schooldesign —*(2):inclusion of nursery unitas integral part of design yetwith degree ofindependence; contribution of money (and
RURALSCHOOLS
therefore space) fromsources outside education service (here about 1/3 of total cost) so as to offer wider social service, both forschool and for adultcommunity, than could be provided independently.
Modemisationofruralschools hasreceivedwidespreadattentionbecause manyofsmallest have fallen behind standards oftheirnewer suburban counterparts, being economically hard to sustain. For2 general trends
—'Bib2l5 AREAS NET
8560Cm2 3.56m2/Pat24OP 4.53rn2/Pat189P 163.62rn2 3—Syr 2.73m2fPat60 p WORKING 612.66m2(72%otnet area) 2.55rn2/Pat24OP 5—7yr 324rn2/Pat189P 5—7yr
3—Syr
key 1 centre C 2 mc 3 cia 4 base2 5 6 7 8 9 10
it 12 13 14 15 16 17
stO
k ha base3 basel head
books stall cafe
centreB narsery LIlY
centreA
140.0Cm2
230rn2/Pat6CR
analysisofar teathrig
72.3% —.. Ia2.55 m2/Pat240P
teacttingsto
1.9
Psto&aan
5.7
k
7.4
amiki ersetc circulation totalar
10
F
301t
6.9
1
42 100.0%
5 sk 5 sb 7 do
key
16 is3.56rn2/Pat24OP
a
2 3 4
aeranda practical
8 9
wc
10
base
k
grouprm
11 12 13 14
court ha
lb
books cate stall
16
sty
16 17 18 19 20
birchtrees homebase2 homebase1 ptr meetingrm parm toplaygarden cherrytrees las & sho
head
I a Diagram b planofinfants & nursery schoolopenedin 1979for240 P 5—7years with nurseryunitfor60; 3 centres, A& Beachforupto70 Pwith2 teachers,Cforupto 100 Pwith3teachers; hatchedarsharedby allPof5—7
9
key 1
2 In aWelshcountrydisrict5schoolswithinradiusabout2.51cm,withtotal newschoolforl2ochof3—11years,with enrolment99P,replacedl9l6byl 2local centreseachforupto50 P&2teachers&nurseryunit; outside:
pre-schoolgarden,play ar,footballpitch& illuminated hard-surfaced games arforyouthclubs &adults
2 3 4 5 6
mc& cia homebase3 harnebase4 ha
aerasda tanksseer sb
t
torn
9
3015 7
8 9
sb
sk sharedrm
10 cleresiory 11
12 13 14 15
toplayground ramp bins
k med
2t
22 23 24
lo
Community
121
Schools MIDDLEAGERANGE In middle age range, as curriculum becomes more diversified, workin
local centres increasinglysupplemented byworkinofher spacesshared by everyone, indoors and outdoors, where scopeof workcan develop and deepen—v(1). Designs forsuchdivision ofworkshown by2 schools —*(2)(3)(4),each of which has centres grouped round common areas (hatched).
64.6%
P H H
-
H H
i
v
HI FJJ 10
H/E
fllV"I
cj
100.0% 1e4.07m'/Pat400P
[
paved
6 1
,graaaplayar
supplementary
by flahared by4centrea
8m
Lcentmj A
6.
court
.,i
24 ft
I
,j1'arsharedby
.c
jfickn14j .
centresA&B
I
planotcenste 17574rn2 1 79m2/Pat loop
tA
'In
1
i r'
nh
JIJt
bane3
ba
baae2
Middleage rangeschoolwith4centres& arofcommonuse (hafched); more detailedplan of centrearisshown
drama&pe teaching teachingsIn dining
P
HH4
[
// <
hardplayar
,
t 1[Jfl rurelscience
ODC)C'
badstudies
Diagramofarofworkrormiddleage range schools
Palo& san admin circulation totalar analysisofar ar/P(at420P) 5.8n91
atm2
.
b5OW1is I
'It 24
[ U]
schoolnieghbourttood
•!
ft
red.
Es
_6 l2,l8
supplementary
crafts& science
sapplementary manic
H homebsae P particolarbay 0 generalworkar E oaedmt v coveredwodran
5OOlb1d
tlP3Pm 326496
c
hollersetc circulation total ares
achoolsite
L
'ii
keyplan centred
centre
0
..,.
re2.63m2/Pet400P
admun
sharedar outdoors
sharedar indoors
local centre
teaching teachingsIn Palo&san
netar-j worldngar totalar 2438 n,2( t3tOm2 shared year 1 cettr netar . workingar
I
s—
studioworlrehop
3 4 Diagramoforganisation&furnishedplan of schoolfor420 Pof9—13yearsopenedwith 4 centresforapprox105P, supervised by3teachers (otherteachersbeing also involvedintheir work)
122
Community
Schools MIDDLEAGE RANGE Local centresnotalways planned asdetined spaces. Another practiceis toprovideflexibility bymeans ofuniform spacesub-divisible byscreens and panels, rather than variety of spaces fordifferent kinds ofworkand grouping of pupils. These 2 approaches, to flexibility and to variety, represent2 distinct trends in current school planning. —e(i) shows shared working areas designed intermsofrmforspecific subiects (as in conventional secondary school) and therefore do not imply integrated curriculum as implied in shared areas described —xp121(3)(4). —n(2) shows middle range associated with olderrange schooling insecondary school enlarged to comprehensive —eblock plan. 'Lowerschool' and 'upper school' share some areas such as pe, large scale music and drama, and dining.
blockplan extensionforlowerschool
0
30
60
9Gm
98
187
2955
analysis star
ar/P(of360P( 762m2
0 shared work
4.18w2 5315% oftotal tolalar
10
20
3Cm
32
66
986
/'t'/ shared wow
ar
workingar
totalar 2972 In2 159Gm2
42—43% shared 241 m2med— &dental
totalar
j
workingar
_ Lj27 23
IfLa_J _l t—--''?(
h5_
26 )-?. fi-t 0
6
12m
19
3911
plant
2 stageupperpart 3 gymspperpart 4 centre 120p7—9year
282.12m2,235 m2/P, 20P6—7year434t -n2. 2.17 m2/P
5 hlms 6 studentcoanol rm 7 510 8 lib 9 sIx 10 panels
11
12 13 14
do & wc11—13 year centre 120P9—11 year 28058 m2. 2.34 m'/P do & wc7—9year
lb clo&wc6—7year clo&wcg—llyear changing& shu stage tO gym 19 k 20 humecralts 21 wuod/metal/cluy 16 17
22 23 24 2b 26 27 28 29 30
r
L
med dental admin wsrkrm staff
—
:
E
mssic mum entrance
28
books resources
—
—
—
/—
1k30
29
29
32
head
secretary off 32 meetingrm 33 sb & uheltnr 31
Norwegianschoolwith3localcentressub-dividedfordifferentacttvities by screens& panels 1
Existing secondaryschool In NottlnghamshlreEngland extended in 1971 to becomecomprehensivebyadding'lowerschool'(block plan)designedwith4 centres(key plan)&sharedworkar; dining, pe & other arge school activities sharedwith 'upperschool' 2
'- -
i_i-c
N 1
.
-
23
0
science crafts centre 120P2ndyear centre9oP2ndyear tope, dining& upper school e med 7 head 8 qsietrm 1
2 3 4 ft
9 centrel2oPlstyear ID cenlrn9oPlstyear
3
6
9
9
19
29
it12
dr
swimmingpool 13 sk 14 ck
lb 16 17 18 19 20 21
homecrahs workshcrpcrahu
projects prep sb
biology gids
12w 39h 22 23 24 28 26 27
boys projectsincentre greenhouse court staff ueranda 28 lrsiieysIcarlul 29 sb bays 30 bookcases 31 qsietrm 32 audio-xisaalaids
Community 123
Schools OLDER AGE RANGE Designing for older age range more complex and less certain: educational policies at thisstage increasinglyaffected by political attitudes, exam policies and demands ot higher education and of adult society generally. Because of large numbers in schools and diversity and choices within curriculum, social organisation has to be considered more specifically within complicated pattern of time-tabling and accn. —n(1) attempts bring into focus 3 essential elements: numbers, work and socialorganisation, taking asexample 1 specific enrolment of 1 035 pupils aged 11—18 years, with annual entry of 180 pupils and 135 students of 16—18 staying on after mm school leaving age. Characteristic principle affecfing planning ot schools for this olderage range: work areas likely to be shared byall or most pupils, who move from 1 partof school to anofher according to their particularcourses of work. Number of subjects and relative provision madeforeach depend
on objectives of individual schools: some have predominance of academic provision, othersof provision for scientific and engineering work, and so on. But many schools hope achieve certain balance, with wide range ofchoices—.x(2): usually common curriculum in loweryears; preparation for examinations in middle years; diversification into many differentcourses inlast few. —x(3) presents organisation of3schools, with 7years age span horizontally, and numbers, work and social organisation vertically. Different stages also reflected in social organisation:in examples 1 and 3 some accn for workand forsocial bases exclusively forfirst and second year pupils; someplanned mainly for third toseventh yearpupils; and some (eg library)tobeshared by wholeschool. In example2 (largest enrolment) organisation, and consequently planning, divides school into3separate entities, except for workshop crafts and pe for whichaccnshared by everyone.
workar shared by all
examples:grouping ofworkar associationxl cioselyreiatedsubjects
religiouseducation history geography
art&crafts
maths sciences
hornecralts
workshopcrafts
lib
diversilying curricuia
languages homecrafts music
engiish reiigious education ianguages sociuistudies
drama music religious education
drama
english
1 530P11—l8yrs
workshopcrafts
subiectsgroupedin centresotmixedinterest
sciences
arts &crafts
science art& crafts homecrafts books& study
pa
science art&crafts
maths
sports gym
theatre drama enghnll music art& crafts
maths
subjects grouped & modified in many differentways
1
2
Older age range: schoolorganisation years
= 360P
ti—l3yr -
1
ining
—J— reteduc history geography
MOP 13—16yr
I
I
=lOOP 16—18yr
Ssociaibases 1 dining
= =
commonSn snacks
1
numbers
-J
sociai
history geography lib
engiish homecratts
iariguages
sciences
ii
Ill
workshopcrafts
maths I
music
dining
567 1
sociaibase dining
560P
15—.lByr
I sociaibase dining I
numbers
-J
social
-J
F
languages homecrafts
21
music drama
4
english sciences
5
maths arilcrafts
ll
720P
5socialbases dining I
I
617 240P 16—l8yr
13—lSyr
maths articralt workshop crafts
ye
sorsal
II
'
music enghsh
english sciences
numbers
ii—
study iariguages enghsh
repeal wc
-J
dub
reieduc history maths geography history
draTia
repeat
pie
3 Older range: examples ofschoolorgartisation
socialbasel
geography
drama
example1
480P 11—13yr
history
I
1 OOP11—l8yr
1 400P 11—lByr
IJ 2 i__-L4 mleduc
geography Sb
art& crafts maths
sociai base
= 720P 13—l5yr
engiish ianguages booksS study
economics reiigious educatrsr commerce books&study
years
history
WI
english
720P 11—l3yr
socialstudies
Olderage: rangeofchoices
rei educ
study
reteduc
years
books& study
study
'
study
211
drama art&crafts
workshop sciences
crafts maths
wCrk 1
hornecrafts sciences artJcraftu
lib& pubhC Sb PC
2000P 11—l8yi example2
1440P11—l8yr example3
124 Community
Schools OLDER AGE RANGE —.(1 )(2) illustrate diagrammaticgrouping ofsubjects in centres ofmixed interests —p123(2)(3).
15-18 yrclub(1st) k,Sr. youth (ground) -
drama,music english art& craft
csf'
hb & admun(ground)
adminstaff, teachers centre(1 science homeeconorniuca art& craft tawerschool )11—l3yr)
5t)i11
[]
english& languages )grcund) humanites (1st) ha &pe
physics, maths&
Li
WdmShO)
crafts
0 2040 60 80 m (1
3 9
6
1
61126 ft
9 m 27
ft
MixedcentreforhumanitiesinBerkshireEnglandcomprehensive schoolfor2l2Pof13—18years,designedto provideworkingarfor allPinthis groupforhistory, geography, religion &philosophy, economic&socialsciences; alsoprovisionforsome to workonEnglish,mathematics & commercial subjects 1
orchestrami mur mur 6practicerm
0
3
6
9
18
2'7
sf0 sharedlistening stu
13.0 13.37
327
2 CentreinsameBerkshireEngland schoolformusic,drama, art&lightcrafts, needlework &associated studiesin English,with practicerm,listeningbooths&otherarforindividual work;designed forabout158Pto workthereat1 time &for80of16—18years to have social basethere
Community
125
Schools may retain sense ofidentityin largecommunity. —(i)(2) showsolution with school in 8 independent blocks, 7 of which (Ic excluding largest, namely sports hall) planned as street community'. These, with 1 and 2 floors, linked byagated wall and by sharing similar bldg materials but retain independence byshape, size and detail.
OLDER AGE RANGE
to this problem
1 aim in design of most schoolsforolderage range mitigate institutional
influences
of size by finding ways in whichindividual and small group
1\
4%J geog$
-ra
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I
/
cIass/'5g
.c'bUs\ parking
visual •
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,Iaudio/
hardplayc. pitch
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30 60 90 120 m 90180270360 ft
-
social
sportsha hardplay pitch
'?% c;/
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-
.
tSetTDndart
fZ7 fi1/
/ 'ami
analysisofar
spodsha
teaching 65.2% teachingsto 5.8 34 dining k Psto&san 7.5 6.2 admin
ie7.2m/pal6OOP
23
heating
1.3
circulation 6.3 totalar 100.0%
chemistry
-mar sem'tutor
thology
languages
social
ssocia)/ classr
do
void
jd
/ 9 30
16
f0
27
36 m
maths
I
/
90 1205
1 &2 High schoolinLancashire Englandopened1978for600 Pfrom 11—16years: designedbygrouping subjectstolessenpressureofsize on individual& smallgroup
126 Community
Schools SYSTEMBUILDING analysisofar teaching 63.0% sf0 2.9 33 airing k 27
teing
Psto&san
7.1
athrin 6.1 circufation 12.9 totalar 1000%
or 9_ ft
ie7.9 ma/Patggp
120
—xBib200
REGIONALINSTITUTIONS
—13
I22 4-
design/scienCe 11
'—' 30
tower school 540P 11—l3yr
28 —
J
2
1
l39
JI
I
85
Industrialsystems used buildmany schools: best offer sufficientflexibility in both plan and section meeteducational needsalltypesschools, with qualitythat rates them first class permanent bldg. —s(1)(2) show school huilt using such system (CLASP), also used —upl2O(1)(2).Financial contribution from non-educational sources made possible extended provision forsportavailable both toschool andtocommunity —epi 20(2).
.,,,,,,,,,
37
Increasing diversity educational needs in 16—19 year age range encourages development separateinstitutions serve several schools in region.Some sited in association with 11—16 yearschool; somewith college of further education —.y(3); some independent. At St Austell England —v(3) provision ofpeavailable in nearby borough sports centre. 6th form college and nearby college of further education share some teaching accn for linked courses. Generous provision for individual study both in library and elsewhere; this, together with small rm for seminars and tutorial work, of considerable importance for this age group.
TTs I_-._l
L_.musichal5balwo 0 5 1015m
01530458
.
j38
J
key 1
sports,pe school&
2 3 4 5 6
community theatre admin
fib design! science liberal
studies
7 music
school
sto 12 activities space 13 up 14 squash 15 sportsha 16 gyro, 11
badminton
17 18 19 20
meters el lau
fuel
8 lowerschool 21 boilers 9 warden 22 foyer
10 teachers centre
23 changing 24 yard
25 k 26 off 27 pottery 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
39 40
optics preparation
41 seminar
42 lectures engineenng 43 stu crafts 44 classr kiln 45 history head 46 practical scalpture 47 lounge prolects 48 gallery 49 dr forge metal 50 needlework wood
advanced
science 38 general science
51 fabrics
52 social 53 void 54 homecrafts
55 technical 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
drawing med
mothercare textiles painting printing languages
english houserrn
do
65 staff 66 careers
adenn 10.6%
drcutafion kdchen 12.2% 05%
P less,coats,-.
67 libwork rm 68 geography
ajEn°ar n
21
28
ng
234
8 1415
21
30
9
6
12m
20
40ff
3
St AustellEngland6thformcollege,opened 1973for460 P 16—19years, hasdept forhumanities(including drama),music,science& mathematics, socialstudies,&art&designcentre,allrelatedto ha,dramastudio, lib&social centre key privatestu gallery 3 4
5
1 2 In this NottinghamshireEnglandschoolbuiltonanindustrial system lowerschool(blockplanonly) isfor540Pof11—13years,mainschoolopened 1973for990 Pof13—18years;centralcoreforadmin,dining, theatre, libleads to3main 2-floor blocks; arts, crafts&sciences (design/science separate 1-floor bldg)
lib careers seminar social
studies 6 geography 7 geology 8 9 10 11 12
history
control restrm deputyhead gallery
13 prolection 14 privatestu 15 religious 16 17 18 19
20 21
22 23 24
25 26 27 education 28 ha 29 off 30 head 31 headseminar 32 33 dept balance rm 34 lab 35 work rio 36 staff common 37 tel rm 38
wc computer divisionrm preparation
chemistry mathematics
boilers designoff timber art&design do el seminaroff english
39 40
tutorials humanities
41 languages 42 seminars& headsof dept
43 forge 44 studio 45 wOod 46 textiles 47 metal 48 pottery 49 science prolects
50 51 52 53 54
lecturerm ha
drarnastudio optics science preparation
55 biology 56 physics 57
students
socialar 58 music 59 tutor 60 k
Community
127
Boarding schools Size varies from50 to over 1 000 boarding pupils. Proportionof day to boarding pupilsalso varies; many schools take only boarders.Few new boarding schools built recently but many extended, with new uses found forexistingbldg.Asschool will be home' for two-thirds year aim for homely and relaxing ambience, allowing pupils develop own personalities and community spirit.
SITE LAYOUT Requirementsdiffer according to various factors: size of school, age groups to be provided for, integration or separation of living quarters fromother school bldg, location,climate,inclusionof day pupils,education programme to beprovided. Design easy, quickaccess between bldg (in hostile climates protected); living, dining, recreationalareasclose together. In larger schoolsseparate living quarters preferred, with communal dining. Integratedaccn more suited to small schoolswith niulti-use rm. Urban sites generally call for higher densities and multi-storey bldg, sharing amenities with community and using town services. On ruralsite school usually has to be self-sufficient, onlyclassr and living quarters being multi-storey. Boarding schoolswith many daypupils have living quarters integrated with other bldg. Larger schools require and canafford more and better provision for recreation, hobbies and cultural pursuits.
6m2, preferably9m2; USA mm 8.4 m2,preferred
10.2 m2. Beds should not be arranged in tiers. Sto for each pupil's personal belongings and clothes beside each bed. Spaces to be adequately ventilated. Stu/bedr—*p140.
Sanitary To bedispersed throughout bldg, accessible fromsleeping quarters. 1 sho orbuGP(50%baths) 1 hb/3 Pup to 60pupils then 1 hb/4 Pfornext 40 and 1 hb/each further 5: space 1 m2/P 1
wc/5 P
Ifday pupils'lay nearby requirements may be reduced. USA:fordetails referapplicable codes and standards.
Sick rooms
In small schoolsplaced near matron next togeneral sleeping quarters. In large schools can be in separate bldg with doctors and nurses quarters and dental suite. Provide separately forboysand girls.1 sick rm/20 P. Allow 7.4 ma/bed with 1 800 between any 2 beds. Provide adequate rm ventilation. Provide adequate separate sanitary accn for sick rm; separate isolation rm where pupils exceed 40; sufficient accn for nursing staff. USA: for details refer applicablecodes and standards.
Staff
ACCOMMODATION Sleeping
Preferable face E; separate rm for each sex over age 8; preferred same age groupto each dormitory. Open dormitory more usual in preparatory and juniorschools (not in 5 m for first 2 beds, 4.2 m2 each USA), uncommon in senior. additional bed; 900 between beds. 6—12 beds normal but up to20 can be accepted. Dormitory cubicles each to have window 5 m.
a
Separatebedroom
Degree of supervision of pupils by staff depends on system adopted. Many schools divide pupils into houses, each with resident house master (often married), junior teacher(s) and matron; ancillary staff sometimes also accommodated.Some staff live inseparate quarters. Married teachers need living rm and bedr each 18 m2, 3—4 smaller rm and kitchen each 11 m2, larder, wc, bathr, sto. Total each approx 80 m2. Larger areas normal in USA. Junior teachers needstudy 12 m2 neartodayrmspace, bedr 10m2near topupils' sleeping accn, preferably bathr and sto.
b
894
el
I
staff
C)jl c
c)
(81 0.1
9
I
CarmelCollegeWallingfordEngland:120pupilsaged13—18,integrated accnagroundfloor plan,
bsite plan
hockey
hockeypitch
____ _____ ,—-----
9
120m
iàooooo
it
Arch HancockHawkes
N
128 Community
Boarding schools 9
ACCOMMODATION(cont) Day room
2,5 50 7,5100
8
160240 320
than 2.3 m2/P, preferably 4.5 m2. Should consist of common rm, library—spi29, hobbies rm, quiet rm, games rm, radioand tv rm.
Provide
Dining
Centralised dining normal: 1, 2 or 3 sittings, depending on school policy. Space can be sub-divided to be more intimate and to Identify groups of pupils. In small schools spacecan be used forschoolassembly, concerts, drama productions. Allow 1 m2/P and adequate airspace.
Kitchen
Allow0.5 m2/P withcafeteria servery, unitserveries forgroupsofpupils or mobile serveries totables.
b
Ancillary
Adequate sto for pupils' luggage, bedding, clothes and eqp; laundry, ironing rm, airing rm, sewing rm.
Recreation
Depends on size of school and nearnessto sports grounds, baths etc. Provide access to grassed areas for ball games, swimming pool, gymnasium, running track etc; suitable space and eqp for drama, art, music, films,lectures, crafts, religious worship.
Services
Provide adequate and suitable air space and heat orcool and ventilate according to climate. Services may be centralised or individual to bldg —vp383—97.
'--
a
4;
.j
b
stu
I domiitOry bedr
1/ !
m
ft
RiverThames
servorboarding
matron bedr
dr
stu bedr
stu'
I
bedr head
H
I
prefect stu Stu bedr I dormitory
C junior boarders
senerrboarders
UULI HEJ
CharterhouseSchoolGodalming England: separateaccnfor462 pupilsin7houseseachwith house master& familylivingin asite plan bdining block (7drround centralk) Chouseground &firstfloor plans d housesection; 1 dr 2wash-up 3k 4lob 5lay 6off 7gas meters 8bins 9 refrigeration 10saladpreparation 11 lift 12 potwash l3staffdr l4sto l5pooI l6towerblock l7house7 l8house6 19 housemaster'sk 20housemaster'sdr 21 housemaster'sliv 22 housemaster'sstu 23lift 24 servicear 25stairwell 26commonrm 27 monitors'common rm 28 entrance ha 29hobbies rm 30bedr 31 bathr 32 liv 33k 34bedr 35tearm 36 bootrm 37gamesrm 38gar 39boys' lay 40 hobbiesrm 41 ter 42 day nursery 43 bedr 44stu/bedr 45bedr 46 press 47elevator 48stairwell 49flat roof 50washr 51 washr Arch SirGilesScottSon & Partner
E J]IU1I11ffl _________________
servery
IJiliLJJEI
1
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boys
k
r-'-1 LstodrylJ _i_ sto meati &hshl
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goods
peparason
1m iiiiIOJt--' ]fltuckshop l men
staff
coveredway
staffrm
staff
itchenstaffI
2 StPaulsSchool London England: 700pupils,60junior& 122senior boardingpupilsin separateaccn aaxonometricview bseniorboarding housefirstfloor plan cdining/kblock plan: 500seatsserve 1200 2-courselunchesin3-queuecafeteriasystem Arch Fielden &Mawson
Community
129
Schools MEDIA CENTRES —•
Lb 1
r]rno7LI
-[arts 1
=
{1
industrial -I
at
Growth in useof instructional materialsotherthan thoseoftraditional lib coupledwith new emphasis on individual study has promoted concept of media or resource centre. Such aids as microfilm, audio cassettes and film needviewing rm and study carrels wired for special technical eqp.Addedto libservicespace needs become larger; staffing and work areas needed give effective support forclassr teaching needs. Student use suggests variety working and study options. Mutli-purpose spaces equippedwith movable or stacking chairs. Such centres include many of following: chairsof several types, including cushions or carpet risers tables carrels, manywired foreqp—.p177(3) staffdesks &chairs special furniture: circulationdesk, files, stocabinets,display, photocopy reading, browsing, listening, viewing openaccess materials & stacks smallgroup listening & viewing conference areas groupworkprojects & instruction admin &workspace
=
sociIr I -r l—sciene F
•ii:i::Jti I==/' 0011 I— zjooo ___ I
I
,J1_,
•
eqpsto
maintenance & repair dark rm professional collection forteaching staff magazine & newspaper sto including microfilm In larger schoolsystems radioand tvstudios and computerisedlearning resources may be included in centre. In some systems material may be distributed toseveral schools from 1 audio-visual sto centre.
N 1
Sincesuchcentres designed inresponse studentinput, localcommunity needs and state guidelines variety of solutions found. Typical plan
Middle schoolWestfieldUSAwith mediacentre Arch McGuire &Shook
relationships toteaching areas indicated—(1 )—(3).
Corp
T
.
—
.
E
kindergarten I
0 6
12m
20 40ft
§ .
I
.
.
-1
P I : T' ____r 1
ii
.
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I
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multi-purpose . .
.
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r
L
min— . I
servlce
chdd cJU .1 = 1 L] i
4 #
speech
dr .
-I iangJa I
.
.
.
.
activity
media centre
k
ElementaryschoolTampaFloridaUSA:mediacentrenearlanguagedept Arch Rowe HolmesAssociates
3
1
Elementaryschoolon2floorsNeolaIowaUSAhasresourcecentreateachlevel ArchDanaLarsonRoubal& Associates
I
FH*
TEE
130
Community
Schools somefeatureswhichlimit useoftables
FURNITURE
proportionoftop
Generalfactors
preventsneat grouping
railpresents sdtingplace — atendoftable
Furniture governed bytype otteaching torwhich provided and bysize ot pupils. In recentyears learning and teaching involved greater variety ot group sizes and wider range ot activities. More mobility in schools and closerassociation ot book workand practicalwork; both theseattect design and distribution ot turniture. —*(1) shows common features whichinhibit flexible useoftables and featureswhich encourageefficient grouping and versatile use. Where tables required strictly for formal reading and writing work—v(2) gives relevant data; but increasingly these proportions giving way to double square shown for grouping purposes —v(1). Modern UK furniture range will consist of sitting and standing height working surfaces in closeassociation and of many forms of mobile sto and display. (—nBlbl97207 208).
rç
bevellededges preventflatbutt
5t0& legframe restrictsflsrigto 1sideoftable
spacingoflegs lessdianw ofchair
sanefeatureswfticfiallow maxuse oftables
—n
clearance for
2chaim
II
betweenlegs
'\,,clearancefor tchair
ü
II
betweenlegs
In USAtypical worksurface heights foreducational usevary from560— 790, although lower tables used for very young. Recommended work depth variesfrom330 for youngest children to 460 for 15 year olds or older. Width ofwork area varies from530 for youngest children to 760 for 15 yearoldsorolder—e(3).
sane eaarnples oftablegroups
e
1rrD
trapezoidal
3basicshapes
dimensionedto groupfor generalwork
n
\2iY
Ihil
Sto underworksurface not recommended unless atsideofknee space orworksurface increased indepth. Toespace mm 610 torolderchildren, who needvarying work heights depending on task: typing tables 670, work tables 735, sewing tables 790. Work height for handicapped in wheelchairs mustbe adaptedtotheir needs—up86. Standing worksurfaces for school age children should vary from520— 915atage 15. Older childrenmayfind range 860—965 desirabledepending on height and task to be done. Sinks set lower, high counters higher
EJEIJ
(1015—1120).
conddionsintioingtrials
desirable J
sodc 100%
1Th4 1067
single double esercise
%
120
*514
610 trapezoidal
100%
610 610*610* 1220
book
satisfied
762 ii 1524
sizet
260—520
squaretable
rectangular tables
'ff0'
55:
t
14
I
15241530
hail round
table
'60
120
tablefr 560.565,610,635,660, 675,740& 762 availablewith adlustable legsrange 56010762in 25 increments
100% tOO% single double
%
300 300/520
satished
" size
dc
'
130
100%
100% double
cingle
480
of:
subiects
"7 yr
size2
'65'
3 USAtable sizes a
2 3
m
mean
stature shoulder
'jj 10 L L2. 7 6
1280
...JfIt......J
%satished
340—580
size 3
'65'
$erf
130
D
100% 100% single double 620 380-640
b %
satistied
size 4
140
r70
-
100% 100% single double 620—
420—700
2 UKtable plansizes
%
satisfied
bze 5
USAchairs &desks astacker bdoubleentrystudy ctabletarmchair dliftlidtable &chair eclassrunit fdeskwith chair gclassrtypingtable 4
Iidesk jstudy carrels
Community
131
Schools FURNITURE
Staturedata & distribution offurniture sizes
Mobilityofpupilsin schools and high degree to whichworkingaccn shared make increasingly
impracticalassign chair and table tosingle pupil. Furnitureshared bymany:each chairand related tablesize must therefore be designed suitmax stature range rather than for individual pupils. This in principle means simultaneous satisfaction of 7 fitting criteria shown —'(1), with clearance between top ofchair seat and underside of table top.
A B C D
E
Though stodecreasinglyprovidedatwork place, if sited at any sifting working plane adequate leg room can only be ensuredifzonesindicated for ISOsizes 1—5—s(2) free fromobstruction.
F
3
UK view is that distribution of furniture should be basedon pupils' stature ratherthan onpupils' ages—'(3). Conversion ofstature to agefor UK school population in 1971 —'Bib207. Revised
British standard specifications forpupils' chairs
shod feetflat onfloor clearancebetween backoflegs& front edge of seat nopress at frontofseat between seating surface & thighs clearancebetween thigh &undersideof table forfreedom of movement elbows approxlevel withtabletop whenupperarmvertical firmsupportforbackinlumber region &below shoulderblades adequateclearance betweenback rest&seat to ensurefree movement of buttocks
G
A
P adoptmanysitting posturesbutassessmentofgood fitis simultaneoussatisfactionof above 7criteria 1
Fitof Pto chair &table: UKdata
and tables (—'Bib134) comply with ISO stan-
dards (—'Bib407),sizes ofwhich havetherefore beenshown.
size 1
size2
ISO standards do notapply in USA: viewheld thatstudentsizesvary somuch1 rm may need more than 1 chair/table height. Dimensions based on USA research (—vBibS49)—v(4).
IT cv
IIHS Jr.
HS
4th
2nd
tow reach legh reach eye reach distreach radite level
ages ldgh reach A 2085 15 1915 1765 1880 12 1705 1545 1645 9 1510 1345 1505
7
a
anceco
E
815
1440 1374 1313
660 610 570
1215 1160
665
735 685 635
705 630 560
665 620 565
1320 1250 1185
600 555 510
1100 1040 890
605 555 510
600 550 485
1175 1120 1040
535 495 435
975 925 880
550
1080 1015 960
500 445 395
890 850 815
970 915 865
430 385 345
815 770 720
730
1370
545 510
1245 1330 1210 1085
485 500 485 425
495 445 480 435 390
KOG
5
upto ages
hat
hH
work topJ
work
ahe9
15
760
915
480
685
795
420
9 7 5
1675 1485 1320 1220 1090
635
695
380
585
635
485
ages
seat h
seatto back-
back-
restO
resthP
405 370
150
175
445
145
160
420
9
325
135
140
355
7
290
130
330
5
265
130 120
125
305
12
15 12
hO
N
hb
dK
-
table
hL
F
370
355
570
330
445
250
into
armrestseatw spacing A
mm
380 370 330 305 280
size 3
seat IM
550 590 525 480
0
sizes
1108
340 300
300 400
2
Mm
3
StaturesofUKschoolpopulation
4
USAdimensionsrelevanttoschooltumiture;HS=high school KDA = Kindergarten
leg clearancezones:UKdata
275
basic tablew
5 760 710 610 610 535
armrest
I
132 Community
Schools FURNITURE
max reach(for96%ofagerange)
3—5 yr
Dimensional data: sizesof pupils &
stature
teve
1155
eye sittinghi eye lend 885
\ 68O
()j77s so
Dimensional data derived fromanthropometric survey of UK school age populatIon in 1971 by Furniture Industry Research Association—n(1) Sittingplanes those proposed in ISO Standard (—rBib4O7). Figures refer to ISO stzes 1—5.
1825
780
610
iso size I
155o—fI
165 145
standing working
1245
size
furniture
poptiteus
taneJ
I 10—t2yr
etbowS
5-8yr
max reach((or96%ofagerange)
iso
size
ethowS
180
an 150 size
2
manreach(for96% ofagerange)
8—10 yr
elbow h
s iso195 155
maxreach)for96% ofagerange) stature I eyeievet—, t 525
9—11 yr
ii
425---*1 440 eye tenet
-isittingh 1025
I 11 135
't005 so size 3
elbowI 210
l-
l60 mze_
410±
an
poptiteus —
Ii 14511245 1850_
750J standing
wing plane
UK dimensionsforpupils'furniture
max reach(for96%ofagerange)
133
Community
Schools FURNITURE
Storageofpupils' belongings
Inschoolsforyounger children with less movement about school trays and individual con-
tainers at workplace suitable. Coats and small bags can be hungon pegslocally. But greatermovement of pupils in middle and olderage ranges encourages widespread use ofvarious kindsof bags in which books can be carried from1 place ofworkto another.Central provision of lockers therefore of decreasing value sincetheir dimensions and their location likelyto beinconvenient. Provisionofpegs and racks forbags associatedwitheach workspace becoming more convenient and more secure. Forthisdimensionaldata given—(1)(2) relevant. Data prepared by Furniture Industry Research Association as part of survey of sto of pupils' personal belongings. In USA lockers —*(3) still standard for older children, ifonlyfor security. In-rm stoprovided for children up to 12 years old. Basket racks also used —n(4). Schools references —+Bibliography entries134 191192193194195
196197198199200201 202203204205207 208209210211 212213214215265267275 314446451 476 484 526530 575581 607652
_
w 1 1—l6yeazs 150
20, 250 34,.350450450
h
50 150.20, 250
weigft(kg)
20,250
w
16—18yealx 1
350
distitution otbagtype
li
230—610
II
230or305
II
305—460
40,450
weight(kg)
Size,weight&distributionofpupils'bags
3 USA lockers a1-tier b3-tier c6-tier dcombinationunits max 1605 = 5 305baskets max x230baskets
x 14806 min965=3x305baskets
m1n740= 3x23obasketj 23000 330
305
ioderbasket
mld calllengthcoats (forcoats hungfromhoodsallowance of200-300 shouldbe made)
2
Lengthsofpupils' coats
basketrack
only5%ofcoatswill be longerthan shown
4
Basketrack;canbesinglerow(d305—335) or back-to-back
134 Community
Colleges I2
key concourse cocr
3 courtyard 4 lecturetheatre 1 5 projectionrm 6 plantrm 7 etevator 8 lecturetheatre2 9 soundproduction&
vision 10 upperstudio 11 lecturetheatre3 12 lecturetheatre4
LECTURE ROOMS& THEATRES Utilisaflon oflecturerm and theatres traditionally lowin relationtospace
requirements and capital cost; therefore consider designing flexibility to accommodate various functions. Such spaces could suit lectures, stage productions, demonstrations and cinema. Large theatre could be divisible toaccommodatedifferent audience sizes; similarly,with retractable seating system —spi 35, largelecture rm can be convertedintoassembly hall orgymnasium.Number andextentofsuchactivitieswillalso determine needforadjoining ancillary spaces suchas preparationrm, proiector rm, workshops, changing rm, studios and sto.
Ifpolicytohirelecture theatre tooutside organisations during vacations I Lecture hacomplexpre-clinicalsciences bldg Southampton University England Arch John SBonningtonPartnership
consider improved space standards and environmental conditions to satisfy more sophisticated requirements of business world. Mm
ar/P: 0.46 m2 (based on moveable seats, armless 450 centre to
centre)
0.6 m2 (fixed seats witharmsat500 centre to centre)
Basic shape
Shape of lecture theatre becomes more important as size and volume increase. Square flexible but fan shape preferred for larger theatres whereplan formrelates to adequate sightlines foraudio-visual presentations, cinema etc —vp136. Consider rear projection —v(3); tv data pl36(l)—(3). Small capacity lecture rm up to approx 80 persons quite satisfactory with flat floor: larger halls require either rampedfloor (max 1: 10) orstepped floor,dependent uponachievingadequate sightlines. Uniform change of eye level should beachieved ateach seat row, mm being60and median 125. Theatre auditorium —vp35O
a
;c:::-
g. L
b
2
Physicslecturetheatrewithdoublewallingtoreducesound&vibration TechnicalUniversityDarmstadt Germany aplan bsection
Rearprojectionofimages forlectureha: notsoclearasfrontprojectionforlargehabutmoreconvenientfor lecturer &allowshigherlight level inhafornote-taking
3
Community
135
Colleges LECTUREROOMS: SEATING
SEATINGARRANGEMENTS
Seating types
Relate to function of hail ortheatre:
Categories: individual chairs capable of being linked together in rows, stacked and stored away, with or without arms,with orwithout writing tablets fixedseating ofvarious degrees ofcomfort with orwithout tip-up seats, with orwithoutarms—(1)—(3) retractableseating systems capableoffolding down onto tiered staging (which usually includes aisles), whole arrangement being retractable and storedin relatively small area flat auditorium floor capableof being used for otherpurposes —*(4). Flexible seating —p351
Lecture: audience should be able to see and hear lecturer. Where
Seating mm dimensions Backto backdistance between rows ofseats (withtip-up seats)
Width ofseats, linked, without arms Width ofseats with arms Unobstructed vertical space between seats
750 460 500 300
chalkboard or screens needed desirable viewing requirements affect seating plan. Increasing trend towards audience participation: implies students should be close as possible to lecturer. Can be achieved by U-shaped seating arrangementwhich reduces numberofrowsrequired and also givesaving in total area.
Cinema: criteria forgoodviewing: max horizontal viewing angle max vertical viewing angle critical angle of projector max viewing distance mm viewing distance
30°
35° 12°
6 x wof screen 2 x wofscreen
Demonstration:will usually require steeply raked floortoensure good viewing totop ofdemonstration benches. Relativecos ofsuch auditoria with heavily serviced demonstration benches, preparation rm and like should be compared with costs of normal lecture rm equipped with closedcircuit tv—*p136(1)—(3). Seating canbe set round demonstration area insemi-circular formation ifno requirement for chalkboardsorscreens, as with anatomydemonstration theatres. Sightlines —*pl36349 Cinemas —p354—8
840 min—f
In
25Oi1
2
5
Sectionthroughorthodox lecture theatre
hof screen
Fixed seatingwithtip-up seats& writing shelf
6w
6 Preferredviewingdistancesforcinemaprojection
3
Fixedseatingwith tip-upseats& retractable shelving
4
Basicprincipleofrectractable seating
7 Lecturetheatrewithdemonstration table (surgical clinic)
136 Community
Colleges LECTURE ROOMS: FIREREGULATIONS Design of lecture rm ortheatre must conform tosafety reg, in particular fire and means ofescape. Number ofseats permissible inanyrow—.(4) dependent uponcleardistance apart of rows (back to backdimension
a
mm
seatway (measured between perpendiculars) E
A), resultantclearsection (dimensionEmeasuredbetweenperpendiculars) anddistance ofseats fromgangway (0 = w ofseat).
300 330 360 390 420
In turn clearwidthof gangwaysand number within hall must be related to numberof persons to be accommodated.
max distanceof
max number of 500 wide seats/row
seat from gangway (500seats) F
gangway gangway both sides 1 side
3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
7 8 9
14 16
18 20 22
10 11
ACOUSTICS—*pl 8395—7 Just as Important hear distinctly as see clearly; lecture hall must be
tE
acoustically isolated from other noise sources.
No internal acoustic treatment should benecessary forrmless than300 m2 butas size and volume increasesshapeof hallbecomes increasingly important. Design of ceiling as reflector of sound from original source important factor in achieving even distribution throughout hall. Design of wall surfaces and finishes alsoimportant consideration ineitherreflecting or absorbing sound according to theirrelationship to stage ordais.
sizeof tvtube
seat row spacing
425 475 520 570 595
1
900
1 300
1 550
650 675
425 450
850
562 575 620
350 375 462 475 520
875 962
hoftv imagein relationtosizeoftube &seat rowspacing
size of Ivtube
seatrow spacing
425
475 520
570 595
900
1 300
1 550
1650 1700 2125 2150 2400
1250 1300 1625 1650 1825
1125 1150 1459 1475 1625
d
2
Mm
viewing distancefromtvtube
I I
I
/,
,,
—
/,
,/
\ ——
numberofP accommodatedon each tierorfloor 200 300 400
S.
—
,..
500
av24m2
\
750
1000
—— —
Shape& squarefrontageofviewing arfor520 receiver
mm
number
ofexits1 2 2 2 2 3 4
mm
w
10502
1200 1350 1500 1500 1500
1 plus 1 additional exit of not lessthan 1 500 for each extra250 P orpartthereof 2wouldnot normallyapplyto exit corrorstaircases serving auditoriumof theatre
t
' 3
4 a distanceofseatsfromgangways bplanofseating withoutarms Cseatingwith backs& arms dpartofauditorium
5
Exit requirements
Community
137
Colleges SCHOOLSOFART, DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC Scope and intensity ofstudy in specialistart, design and drama subjects vary from college to college. Facultieslikely include selection of: drawing &painting: fine art ceramics sculpture industrial design: engineering furniture & interiordesign theatre & television design graphics & related visual arts including photography silver&jewelry textile design both print &weave stained glass drama music
key 1 scuplture
2 artgaflery 3 groupmusic 4 pool 5 office 6 toye 7 painting
8&9 music 10 worlshop 11 greenrrn 12513 chorus 14 stagelift 15 dressingrm 16 sculpturestudio 17 switchm, 18 bars 19 do
Schedule ofaccn foreachwillgenerally include design studio, workand practice rm, technical workshops and admin off. Communal lecture theatre or assembly hall usable also as exhibition centre oftenrequired but display areas for both 2 and 3 dimensional work should also be provided throughout college.
20&21 toilets 22 storear
Designstudios
GardnerCentreforthe ArtsUniversityofSussex England ArchJohn S BonningtonPartnership, formerly SirBasilSpenceBonnington&Collins 1
Should be next to appropriateworkrorworkshop; consider exclusion of noiseand dust. Stospace forplan sheets,wardrobes orclotheslockers, referencebooksand models should be included together with eqp for copying drawings and documents, although suchmay be certtralised. Goodlightingessential, both naturaland artificial. Drawing studios —p139
Fine art studios passage
assistance
Studiosfor painting and sculpture require largeareas; must have good natural daylight with high level windows, equal floor area, with N orE aspect.
to at least 25—33%Of
Rooflights may provide ancillary light; all windows should be fitted with someform ofdaylight control. All surfaces should bedurable and easy to clean.
Workshops
I—
4000—5000
Siting will depend on type of work being done. Light workallied with graphics, silverand jewelry, photography and fashion may beplaced on higherfloor;metal,woodand plastics workshops where largemachines maybe installed best sitedon ground orbasement level.
—i
2 Tiersinlifestudio:seat ar/student0.65 m2
Good workshop layout must conformtoworkflow and safety-+p1 38(1 )(2). Provideamplespace round machinesandforgangwaystoallownecessary movement without incursion on work space. Non-slip floor finishes should bespecified; workshop technician should beable survey whole area frompartially glazed off.
1•
If each studentprovided with sets of toolsspace for individual lockers needed in workshop area.
I—
Workshop eqp spaces —*p288
Practicerooms
900—1200 1000—1300
May be for individual study or group practice. Should be well insulated against passage ofsound fromone to another.
Stores
Methods of storing wide range of goods and materials needed support each activity should be closely studied, asshould areas required house completed works before exhibition ordisposal. All sto should be sited next to appropriate workshop; consider proper conditions of heat and humidity where these may be detrimental to materials being stored if not held within reasonable limits, eg timber, clay, plaster. Special racking needed for paintings and large canvasses; timberand timber-based board materials, plastics sheets, metal sections, rolls of textiles,glassand paper. Allsuchsto will require element of control and security.
Ancillary accommodation
Will include offforteaching staff, common rm, lay andpossibly showers.
5 Sequenceofoperations: claymodelling &pottery
138 Community
Colleges SCHOOLSOF ART,DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC brazinghearth sk bench
'wall
n122n 1370P]
-a
915—
-y
1830
bench ______
benchl
[
ELi
metallathe
LI
drill
:'ifl U
sb
I-Fit1
forge grinder
41220111
1220
[5 soldering bench
L
I
+ fromdrawing rm
cpd
fools circular saw
{J
#jj-j [1 ['.
U woodlathe
eqp chalkboard&display
4
1 370
9
4
19 32
2pm
64ft
Layoutforcombinedwood&metalshop
eqp _________
Clearancesforlayoutof metalshops
1
metalwork
translucentrootedar
woodwork
0
rindstone
3
6
lafhefftfl arleft blank
o ggcm2 £ operating position
41-run out
2
Workingspacesround woodwork machinery
Fi 3
I
2134
/
painting studio
3
Variousforms of sto racking
5 Arts centrelayoutforcollege
drawing rm
9
12m
Community 139
Colleges DRAWINGSTUDIOS
Reterence may not be confined to intormation contained on drawings; ottenneedhave comprehensive set reference books or manualsclose at hand for draughtsman: may be housed communally or at each work station.
Space requirements related totype of drawing and allied work, itany, to be undertaken —(1).
Further category of drawing studio that allied to workshops where tull-sized setting-out drawings (USAshop drawings) (or workshop'rods') prepared. Usually allied to construction industry, in particular joinery shops; such drawings prepared on rolls of paper set down at long benches. Draughtsmen workstanding up at drafting surtace which is horizontal and 900 fromFFL. Original drawingsstored in roll form rather than sheet asin other studios, torwhich housing maybeeither horizontal (plan chests with drawers) orvertical (plan file cabinets). Layout ofany studio therefore conditioned bytypeofworkbeing undertaken and type ofsupervision required. In all studios good lighting essential,both daylight and artiticial;windows should have N to Easpect. Ifthis notpossible windows should be fitted with blinds to screen directsunlight and prevent glare. Ancillary areas may include printing and reprographiceqp; this may be housed in studio or, it sophisticated or large scale, sited in separate area. Archive sf0 tor original drawings which may have to be kept tor indefinite period should be properly conditioned tor sf0 of paper and housings must be fire and flood proot. Present trend increased use of computerprocesses tor production of working drawings; use at such eqp may influence spatial requirements offuturedrawing studios.
Work station sizes in part conditioned by eqp needed to accommodate drawing format to be adopted. Except in USA most offices committedto 'A' series of international paper sizes: smaller formats obtained by halving larger dimensions in each instance—*p3—5. For most industrial, engineering and design consultants drawing requirements can be accommodated by AD format; drawing boards and drafting machines sizedaccordingly. Simplest form of work station: drawing board, eqp trolley (cart) and draughtsman's stool; where dratting workrequiresreterence contained on other drawings either reference tables or vertical screens may be used carry this information. Screens have advantage of keeping floor area needed tomm butat expense ofcontrolled supervision. Reterence tables, which may also provide plan chest drawing sf0 below work surface, either to side ofdraughstmanin parallelwith drawingboard orat right angles to it. Further possibility available with 'back reference' where reference table also support for drawing board behind. Where drafting function only part ofjob requirement and adminworkalso to be done reference area may double as off deskor, if space allows, desk may formadditional element within workstation.
t.
920 1 —-. 300
,92O 300÷
460k
920
90 1300 1300 1300
1
-t
i---
_______
1300
utihsation4.2 m2/P
F
utiiiisation5.01 m2/P
utilisation6.03m2/P
utilisation5.01 m2/P
utihsation6.03 m2/P
I13001300
¶
screenwith pin board
ji*atLofl42m/P
—
1300
———'————
9
)300300q1300
920
1
920
I utilisation5
1
m2/P
-1 300
______ ---.
90
1300
920V ¶
-
L
F
...
.:
reference table under drawing board
18
j__
——J
300 920
920 utilisation 4.23 m2/P
90__________ utiisation 5.9 m2/P
trolley drawingboard -
LI
utiiisation
3.45rn/P
reference table chair
1
Variousplanningarrangements
I 210 1 750
2 Drawingsbestkept intrcabinets
3
Steelchest forplans
4
Drawingtable: standardsizes 1000 x 1500&1250x 2000;h 2050(USA941 x 1092—1067x 2390; h 940)
Typicalsmall photocopying machineused in drawingofffor reproducingplans 5
140 Community
Colleges Hostel (USA dormitories) bldg usuallyfinanced by universityorcollege fromown funds, government grants orloans,openmarket loans: annual income raised has to cover interest, amortisation, running and main-
STUDENT HOSTELS: PLANNING FACTORS
L_Ii I
Singlestu/bedrwithhb: 10m2
2
Singlestu/bedr: longershape providesmore economicaluse of space
4
4
2700
3 Single stu/bedrwithouthb
4
2-studentunit, also usedfor conferences 1 B 2desk 3wa4 bathr
tenance costs. Some governments make grants to subsidise annual income. This canbe supplementedbylettingforconferences,educational courses, holidayvisitors.In somecountries educationalestablishments and studentunions have formed businesses provide off bldg for letting sothat income can subsidise hostels. Size ofhostel rmand amenities to be provided therefore depend on usesbldg can be puttoand on annual income obtained. Single students generally need accn for 30—33 week/year. Married usually for 50—52 weeks. Accnshould caterfor children outside play spaceand be placed near shopping and social services and amenities. Trend to house students in range of accn for all categories; many students prefer small independent units sharing some variety ofaccnto institutional residential communities. Forsocial and admin reasons first year students usually placed in halls of residence with staff rm, area kitchen, laundry and ironing rm, toilets, sto etc, meals being taken in dining centre. Dining rm—.p142 Halls with shared diningand social services normally planned as large number of study bedr with central bathr and small kitchen: may also be rm orflatforstaff member provide supervision. In recent residential bldg provision made forstudents prepare and take allmeals independently in ownsocial groups. Smallgroupsupto4 students needbeself-selected; groupof6—8socially largeenough divide intosub-groups without being too big share cooking eqp successfully; 12ormore donotformcohesive group: shared kitchen with dining rm used forother activities could lead toproblems. Conference use requires mm washbasin in each rm with goodaccess car parking, lecture and dining rm: alternative accn forfew students in residence during vacations and sto for possessions needed. Independent housing or hostel units favoured by final year and postgraduate; can be in purpose-built groups, located in urban community orconverted houses. Shared accn also —p99
ACCOMMODATIONREQUIREMENTS
5 Doublestu/bedr 1 divanB 2curtain 3deskwith drawerunit 4easychair 5 heatingconvector 6book shelfover 7table with bookshelves8built-in wa
ji
liR' stu/bedr
7
dOue siu/bedr hb
Typicalcompositeaccess(corr accesssimilarbutcontinuous betweenstaircase):noteposition ofdr/kar& sharedwashr&toilet
6
1-bed/studyspace 9—15 m2; 2-bed/study space 13—19 m2 (unpopular with UK students; liked in USA); self-catering unittotal area 16—20 m2: areas may be slightly reduced in family' flats to allow more room for Typicalstaircaseaccess
stul Stu/ SIU/ stui Stu/Stu/
dJ '
rbedrbedr s,o wcCpd skrbedrbjbedr ________ stu/ FtL?rrT bedr
Irr-'
ty
lI1-ILll WCW sk sho
stul bedr
JfstuI stu/Istu/ siu/sStU/ ebedrbedbedr drbedbedr 8 Corr access round service core;e = elevator
amenity space. Rm to befurnished with bed/divan, deskand chair, shelves and hanging for clothes 0.8—1 m2, open adlustable shelving and pin board, easy chair, small table, bedside table, mirror, bin, rm lightand desk/bed lamp, 2 power points, rm heater, carpet, dense curtains/blinds. If wash basin included providetowel rail, mirror, cupboard or shelf, shaver point. Rm showersand wc sometimes included on individual orshared basis. Some rm should be larger toprovide forentertainingand meetings. Provide proportion of rmsuitable forphysically handicapped. Married student accn should comply with normal housing space standards —p4448: somewill have families Provide background heating supplemented by rm heater controlled by occupant. Ensure goodsound insulation, especially round service pipes. Shared accn —.p99
Sanitary
wc/6 students; 1 bath/6students, or 1 shower/12 students (preferably 50% baths); 1 washbasin/3 students if not provided in rm. Space standard 1.2—1.6 m2 USA:checkapplicable codesand standardsforthese details. Prefabricated sanitary units—.p65 Hot waterheating local or centralised. 1
r 10 Typicalamenityar
i
-r
Community
141
Colleges STUDENTHOSTELS:ACCOMMODATION (cont)
Amenityspace
Dining kitchens not intended forCull meal service with utility space allow 1.2—1.6 m2/student.WithCull meal service allow 1.7—2 m2/student (less for more than 6 students). Where hostel close to other university bldg and communal service used, dining kitchen may be only shared social space. Cooking and dining areas should be separated with dining rm located where all students pass it. Newaccnmore likely provide self-catering. Eqpself-catering shared by 6: cooker and refrigerator, single bowl double-drainer sink, 2000— 3000 worktop with cupboards under and over (include individual food lockers), refuse with capacity 1 day's use. Provide eqp for washing, drying and ironing for each groupof rm. NB: above not normal practice in USA. Residences on campus use communal amenities; where accn some distance fromother university bldg allow withinhostel m2/student: large common rm lib/reading rm indoorgames hobby rm
0.9—1.2 0.4—1.8 0.2—0.4 0.2—0.4
Within theseareas also coffee bar/shop, ante-rm/coffee lounge, place for debates and society meetings, television, music practice, lay for visitors asappropriate in accordancewith local reg.
Offices Large residences away from campus need some off with approx areas (m2): warden/supervisor 20, secretary/archives 20, management committee/consult mi 30, housekeeper* 9, cleaner's changing rm* 9 porter* (next toentrance) 9, students' union 20.
* also needed when residence on campus.
Staff
03
6m
9 18 ft
I
StudentresidenceGuildford England asecond,first&groundfloor plansoftypical unit bsectionsAA&BB croofplanofcourt Arch RobertMaguire& Keith Murray __________________________________________________________
Design tosuitsingle, married and marriedwith familycategories. Some accnwithin residence provides supervision. Separateaccnin housesor flats most economical. Wardenneeds (m2)67—93; single academicstaff and housekeeper each 56—67; single supervisory staff 46—56; single domestic staff asfor students.
Ancillary
Allow baggage sto 0.3 m2/student. Provide adequate central sto for household and cleaning eqp, linen, furniture and refuse; on each floor sto for cleaners and eqp with sink and watersupply. Provide laundry chuteif appropriate. Circulation areas and ducts account for 2—5.7 m2/student. Ensure passages adequate for trolleys (carts) and carrying suitcases. Provide entrance hall supervised by porter with space for notices, telephone kiosks and milk and mail delivery. Bell system orloudspeaker willserve to transmit messages inconjunction with sometelephone points.
Finishes Materials should be durable, hard and needlittle maintenance.
Layout&building form
036m 9 18 ft
2
HaIlofresidencenextcampus Southampton England typicalfloor plan ArchJ SBonningtonPartnership a
Single row arrangement: widthof bldg 5500, rm 3500, corridor 1500; doublerow arrangement: width 10 m, 2 rm each 3500, corridor 2000; triple row arrangement: width14000,2rm each 3500,2 corridors each 1 500 with artificially lit and ventilated centre blockforwashr etc.Typeof access available: bystairs to rm, by stairs and shortcorridors, bystairs to central corridors. Adequate means ofescape in case of fire must be provided —*p44 91. With 4 floorsand more elevators required: more economical build up to3storeys. Car parking: mm ratio 1 space/3 students; sto for bicycles and motor cyclesalso. Site footpaths away fromground floor windows and maintainprivacy.
2 WJ_LLJL'.U
IFTTrTTTTrf.-4 b
010, ______Om 326496 ft __________________________________________________________
3 QuincyHouseHarvardUniversityUSAprovidesintegrated
communalservices asecondfloorplan 1 singlebedr 24-man duplex suiteliv, bedraboveorbelow 3tutorliv 4stu 5bedr b firstfloorplan 1 k 2servery 3dr 4janitor 54-bedrsuites 6liv 7bedr 8listening rm 9workr 10 3-bedrunit 11 reading nn cground floorplan 1 lowerlob 2grillrrn 3seniorcommons4juniorcommons 5tutorialcentre 6superintendent 7service&gar 8entrance lob 9 house off 10tutor suite 11 guest suite ArchShepleyBulfinchRichardson &Abbot
142
Community
Colleges REFECTORIES/DININGHALLS Can be provided in separate bldg within hostel (dormitory), within community activities bldg or as separate bldg. Space requirements depend on type ofservice(self-service fromcounter, self-service from disheson table,waiter service) and seating arrangement but generally allow 1.2 m2/student, allowing for number ofsittings. Longtables with benches —(1) preferable (not USA) to small with chairs: cheaper, durable, space-saving, easyclean and clear. Width ofseat 600; width oftable600—(preferably)700. Space for cross passages: (500 x 1050/3 seats = 0.18 m2); add extraspace forside passagesand space in front of servery (service) and entrance. Benches should stand 80—100away fromthis table;need be only300 wide and 400—450high (easy tostepover). Benches nearwall 400 wide, including 120 distancefromwalltogive access.More convenient enterfrom side but thismeans 4 students on wall bench.
For more elaborate furnishing —(2); where chairs and more comfortable tablesdesireddimensions are: widthofseat 650; widthoftable 700—800.Space required (access frombehind —hatched portion): 650 x 1150 = 0.75 m2. Share of cross passages (550 x 1150)/3 = 0.21 m2. Floor area/student with appropriate extra space as above: 1.1—1.2m2.
Ifspacealongwallbehind chairs used asmain passagewidthincreased
to
800.
Tables with seats at either end —(3) uneconomical, spoil communal feeling and equality among students. Space needed fortables in corners (—hatching): 5900 x 2550)/12 = 1.25 m2. Space/student required
Seating also —p202—4; snack bars —p205 206 Circulation ofdiners should be1-wayonly: can beachieved bycorrect disposition oftablesand sitingof columns atcorners oftables toavoid waste ofseating space —*(4).
Kitchen, servery(service) and stoarea between 40—50%of refectory; food preparation 20% ofkitchen. Servery areaforcafeteria service upto 20% kitchen area. Desirable design on 1 level with convenient stores delivery:avoid staircases and elevators if possible. Kitchen should be big enough for work in uninterrupted sequence withoutopposing traffic flows fromstotoservery. Stoatstart of circulation followed by food preparation tables, sinks and eqp including area for pastry making, thence to cookers, ovens and boilers, then to warm cupboards and servery. Provide pot-wash nearto cooking area. Off for chief chef should be positioned to provide supervision of stores and deliverypoints and alsowhole kitchen area. Crockery should bestored in serveryarea and after use go by trolleys (carts), dishwashers and drying cabinets backtoservery. Good ventilating system required to draw air from dining areas and kitchen and avoiding flow ofairfromkitchen to dining area. Restaurant kitchens —'p213--.Bib217 Sanitary (USA: check applicable codesand standards):depending on location and proximity to other bldg should be provided next to dining rm; if alreadyavailable nearby suggested provision: 1 wc/100 males, plus 1/250 males, 1 urinal/25 males; 2 wc/100female plus 1/100; 1
washbasin/50P. Finishes: materials should be durable and require little maintenance.
4501 40O1
________
ILl ?It' L______J
[TT ________
I
30)1
3600 1
with allpassages and appropriate extraspace asabove: 1.2—1 .3 m2.
;ood
Colleges references; —Bibliographyentries039040041 063096097113114147168176 200217226261 377413437441 446472476485526556569581 612629630652
2400—f
Longtableswith freestandingbenches 500
12300 -
l5ool u5
2
Longtableswith chairs 450 150—200,.
Jo[
3650 •..
450 ,-..___t
50200o70 .1
3
Tablewith chairsatend
goodarrangement of supportswithout loss of space fordining halls 4400—4600
4 Space savingarrangementof supports
5
Integratedrefectory services St Catherine CollegeCambridgeEngland ArchArrte Jacobsen
Community 143
Youth hostels Oftenconversions ofexisting bldg both because ofshortage ofmoney and because often in aesthetically sensitive surroundings; therefore Youth Hostels Association (YHA) reluctant lay down definitive plans for
arm2
place
Comment
typical hostels. Nevertheless specifications and requirements particular and detailed, specially sincetightening offire reg —a(1). In UK DES has also requirements for hostels forwhich itprovides funds: more onerous on questions ofspace.
entrance hall off/reception/shop
14
drying rm
14
Bed spaces
luggage rm
14
3.1 m2 floor ar/Pin dormitories 1 wc/1O bed spaces 1 hb/6 bed spaces 1 b orsho/20bedspaces
common rm dining rm member's k warden's k
For purpose ofcomputing floorarea DES disallows any partoffloorover whichceilings less than 2100high.
11
18.5—23
46.5 16 16—23
9.3
Ia Wash-up
11
wardenssitr
14
YHA has lower standards, depending on grade of hostel: simple or standard. Simple (need not have resident warden) mm 2.04 m2/bed space; standard (must have resident warden living within curtilage of hostel at all times when open to members) for dormitories mm 2.32 m2/bed space, recommended 2.78m2.Asdouble bunksnormally used thismeans6.31 m2/bunk if DES standardsto be met.
bedr Warden,s wardens2nd bedr warden's 3rd bedr 7.5 wardens bathr 3.25 dormitories 158—167 wc washing accn
Dormitories
YHA, ruling body for hostels in England and Wales (Scottish YHA has similarstandards), lays down allhostels must haveseparatedormitories formenandwomen, with separate access. Layoutofdormitories should be suchthatcan beusedbyeither sexasbookings demand: meansthat either sex must be able to reach appropriate lavatory. Most compact solution blockof intercommunicating rm with appropriate door locked between sexes. YHAaimstoswitch to arrangementin many continental hostels with4-beddormitories,with sanitaryaccnreachedfrom common corridor, motel style. DES pressing for degree of privacy in washing arrangements for women, satisfied by arranging washbasins in own cubicle with curtain at entrance.
1
airing cpd blanket sto cycle sto
3.75 28
with bench & shoe rack hatchto entranceha, reasonablyclose to warden'sk preferablyaccessiblefromentranceha withoutpassingthrough principalrm: with racks orhangersheated ifcombinedwith drying rm, laundries& wc 14—1 8.5 m2 each
or0.7—0.9 m2/P with directaccess aspossibleto dr ifpossible with hatch&door combined fordirect serviceto dr: skinkpreferred to separatesd; accessto dustbtns each
with 1 or2 sk; tablespace fordirty crockery; easy accessfromdr; if possiblereasonableaccess to warden's kforreturn of crockery layout ofthese will depend usually upon balanceof convenience,privacy, as ect ,e3.16/P forhosfellersnotlessthan 5,forwarden1 foreach sex 1 washrmwith b(separated bypartitions)orsho, 1 footbath,basins to DES standards forwarden's use warmed forabout30cycles, preferablyin racks: 1 machine/305
note: floor arintendedasrtiin desirablebutinalterationsmuchwill depend on existing bldg
YHA scheduleofaccnfor50-B hostel
1
Hosteller'samenities
As hostels closed during day arriving members need luggage rm to leave gear withouthaving access to rest of hostel; may be combined with drying rm, where hostellers take off outer clothing before booking in at reception desk. Toallowto cookown meals members' kitchen provided inall hostels, in addition to kitchen of wardenwhowill also cookforhostellers. Members' kitchens have combined double cooking rings and burners and grill units, fuelled bypropane gaswhere mains services notavailable.Locker space also required, and also washing up space, in addition to that intended forthosehostellers whotake warden's meals who are required towashup.
dustbins
solidtuel
cycles
r wardens
blanket
dryingrm Ihotwater boilerl
bathr
L
.1
,
wadens bedr
a
,
drysto
reception
ofl&shop
2
Imen s
- wardens k
I
dOnniitorylleSl
I
mess waslrn,
I common/
-
dui,
dormitoryliesi
,
I wardens
worishop
'
entranceha
11
Warden'squarters
Hostels with more than 40beds usuallyadministeredbymarriedcouples, possibly with children whowill needliving quarters. Largest hostels will have assistant wardens, provided with own sitting rm, staff dining rm, kitchens and recreation rm.
Sb
gar&
lightingplant & tuei
it .
ro'
'
doflTiitorylieS)
womens membersk
I wash-up
Schematiclayoutfor 1-storeyyouth hostel
In larger hostels chief warden's quarters should be in form of selfcontained house orflat, with 3 bedr, bathr, kitchen, dining rm and sitting rm. In these circumstances hostellers' accn should never be over or underwarden's.
Fire safety
YHA increasingly concerned with applicationofmore stringent standards of fire safetyto both new and existing hostels. Sources of danger have beenidentified asprimarily: interference with stoves orheaters,particularly indrying rm; el orgas faults; smoking; misuse ofcooking stoves in members' kitchens. Provisionof meansofescape inoldbldg difficult. Fr required for protected staircases difficult provide in bldg with timber floors. In smaller hostels, akin to domestic houses, distancestravelled on fire escape routes not normally long enough to contravene reg. Generally 18 m traveldistancetoplace ofsafety considered max where floors timber, or 30 m where non-combustible. Mm of 2 staircases normally required, in such positions that no person on anyfloor has to go furtherthan max travel distance to reach staircasesorotherpoint of accessto place ofsafety.
3 YouthhostelconvertedfromexistinghousebyYHA: a ground floor b 1st floor
J
144 Community
Youth hostels GERMANSTANDARDS Small hostelwithdormitory 30—50 beds Standard size40—i 00beds Large 100—250beds Very large 250—600beds Optimum 120—180 beds,with 400 upper limit. Relate number ot beds to av numbervisitors; design sleeping lager to cope with peak holiday demand.
a
Siting: open, sheltered from wind, main rm facing SE,S. Spacerequirement: forstandard hostel: indormitory 2.2—2.8 m2/bed; for 2-tier bunks 1 8—2.0 m2; 1—2 large rm with 20—30 beds, orsmaller with 4—12 beds; 8-bedrm much valued. Also rm forsick and accidents
d
1—2 beds.
Av occupation approx 40% girls 6O% boys; sexes either on separate floorsor segregated by partitions: some rm arrangedto meetdifferent balance upto 50/50.Av rm height 2800, not less than 2500. Dormitoryfloorarea 1.5 m2/bed. Plankbeds: single tier 1.2—1.5 m2/bed, 2-tier 1.1 m2/bed. Common rm 1.0—i.5 m2/bed. Meeting/discussion rm sound-proofed and located away fromotherday rm. Wallspreferred wood lined, with rucksack stands and tip-up benches.
8600 — 3800 —f- -——t T
__________
______
3800
—
r..s—..-. __________ ______
______ ______ ________
\v C,
ot o. 0 10
I —
F—
4750
5000
crockery washed by users Larder next kitchen, long narrow and cool
—I
—H
0 C,
f00 00 — 2800
J 0 U,
—4
Typicalsleepingrm; mm ar between skirtings,4-bed 16 m2 (1 bed 4m'), 8-bed 16m2(1 bed 2 m2), 10-bed30m2 (1 bed3m2), 20-bed30m2 (1 bed 1.5m2);inlargedormitories32 beds32.7m'(1 bed 1.02m2) 2
Kitchens: Both visitors' and warden's kitchens nearentrance,preferably with light from2 sides. Visitors' kitchen fitted for self-catering; in smaller hostels can be in common rm, otherwise separated, also apart from warden's kitchen. Generous provision of cooking eqp; 100-I boiler and sk. Rambler's kitchen big enough for group eat and also sit in winter. Warden's kitchen: glass door or window allows supervision of coming and going; food hatch tocommon rm. Equippeddouble sk, lowslop sk, 600 deep dresser under windows, lockable draw for money, power pointsfor kitchen appliances; if gas-fitted, low rings for large pans. Sk and crockery cupboards next food hatch and apart frommain kitchen:
Warden's quarters: mm 3 rm each approx 16 m2 including kitchen, whichmay beon same floor or separate, in which case onground floor nextto reception and with sitting rm, upstairs being 1—2bedr next girls' sectionand bathr. Assistants 7 m2/P Entrance sheltered from wind or with porch; convenient approach, sheltercanopy, easyforwarden watch over. Focusofhostel hall and day rm, divided into noisy (workrm, table tennis, games, dancing), normal (common rm, dining rm), quiet (writing, reading, discussion, office, sleeping):noise control by separation ondifferent floors. Washrooms: area 0.35—0.4 m2/bed; 1 washbasin/4—6beds; 1 footbath/15 beds, 1 shower/20—40beds. Showers can be in basement, betternext bedr. Ground floorwashr for arrivals. Lavatories: 0.3—0.35 m2/bed; 1 wc/i urinal/8—iO boys; 1 wc/6—8 girls: lower proportion in larger hostels Laundry ifpossible related bathr, showers and heating; in large hostels machines and spin driers. Ancillaryrooms: sto for packs, bicycles, sports gear; drying rm; shoe cleaning; utility rmforhostel eqp, first-aid box; dark rm in larger hostels; warden'sworkshop. Construction: suiting environment; resistant rough treatment; stone and timbermainly, mm plaster. 3
Large hostel inGermany ArchLauterbach
Community
145
Libraries INTRODUCTION
allocation
percentageof total ar
Essential that close rapport be established between librarian and architect; for largest schemes libraryconsultant should beemployed.
adultlending
27 (up to 40 in small units)
Types
Community: primarily lending books to adults and children and with general reference section. Current trend in UK towards larger central libraries with branch satellites; rural areasoftenserved by mobile units. Specialised: primarily used for reference,with small loan section. Nationaluniversity: used forreferenceand research;continuallygrowing collections. See alsoschoolmedia centres —*pl29, hospital libraries—*pl77. Increasing literacy and leisure timeplus information explosion' make it important to plan for max flexibility and for future expansion. New techniques arechanging methods ofcontrol/indexing/retrieval.
PATTERN
3 main elements, materials, readers, staff, are related in varying ways
depending on organisation policy: eg community, school and hospital libraries require predominantly 'open access', ie readers have direct access to books; catalogue a necessaryadjunct.At times largenumbers of people circulate among spread-out shelving unitsand are attractedto browse. Larger libraries including universities and colleges concentrate sto in 'open stack' and put readingspacesnearbyratherthan amongstshelving. Formal arrangement ofthisoften used in USA. Alternative 'closed acess'allows no contactbetween readersand books except through staff via catalogue. This method used for major sto in national, largecity and county referencecollections, forrare and valuable booksand as 'back-up'sto in any library: 'closed stack'. Specialised/large libraries may have separate subject dept each with enquiryservice; catalogue should remain centralised unless computer based. Reference and loan section catalogues may bedivided.
reference children circulation/ services! ancillaries
20 13 (maxar 150m2) 40 (about halfforstaff rm)
in small librarieschildren's % arshould increase & reference decrease
Adult lending population served
3000 5000 10000
20000 40000 60000 60000 80000 100000
total vol
4000 4000 6000 12000 24000 24000 36000 44000 50000
floorarin m2 100 100 100 180
360 360 540 660 750
open access accn; 15 m2/
l000vol(butminar 100 m2);includes local circulation, catalogues,staff counters, informalseats tor browsing at 1/1000 population,some display eqp
Children Floor ar 75—100 m2 for populations up to 10000, and 100—105 m2 for 10000to 20000people. Basis as for adults (seeabove); but does not include space for study/talks/storyhours'. Separate entrance sometimesprovided:but control becomes difficult.
Reference Allow 10 m2!1000 vol as less need for generous circulation. 1 study space of2.32 m2/1000population,with somedegree ofprivacytoavoid distraction; these figures willcoveranystaff desks required. None of the adult, children or reference figures include provision for periodicals, sf0 ofaudio-visual materials.
SPACE STANDARDS Appreciable differences to be found among national and international authorities. Following generally basedon IFLA standards:
Communitylibraries population served
allowance per 1 000 population
'10000 to 20000
42 m2total floorar
20000to 35000 35000to 65000 65000to 100000 over 100000
1
39 35 31
28
Figuresbasedonsurveys, butcan beuseful check; include all general but not indirect services (meeting rrn, lecture&exhibition spacesl
2 Relationships
Smallbranch lib,WorcesterEngland, 98m2 5500 vol ArchTLewis
146 Community
Libraries ENTRANCE
vision. Function: to register new readers, issue and receive loan books, deal with reservations and fines. In small librariesalsohandles reader's enquiries—(1 )—(3).
P4,,
'I
<'1'I ,,'
TuII
CONTROLAREA Close to or within sightof bldg entrance, and with space to absorb congestion at peak hours, but located toallow max visibility for super-
out
returned
Community libraries should clearly declare bldg function, and be welcoming. Lobby should reduce entryof noise/draughts. Provide visual stimulation here. Adequate control needed to prevent high losses of booksetc throughexit: some have had to use turnstiles or electronic detectors. Remember needs of disabled people (ramps/elevator! escalator —.p85—7 407 408 412). Should lead to control/guide area —*below, with display en route.
I
I
1'ir, Small lib, staffof1; snag: cross circulation 1
I
returned boOks
GUIDE AREA
Islandcontrol,1 staff at off-peak; snag: separationfromotherstaffar 2
out
I
Card index/book sheaves/computerprint-out books, located near control orenquiry, en route toalldeptserved, also closetocatalogueworkarea. If card index, allow say 12 m2 covering 36000vol.
)1r1
//
TJ
ENQUIRYDESK
'
II
I
I I
(i__i
Near catalogue guide and bibliographies.Can help to share supervision with control.
MATERIALS
3
Large lib,canadjoinotherstaff work ar; snag: mm 2staff alltimes
Books are, and will continue to be, primary material.Space may also be required for: newspapersand periodicals,discs, tapes and musicscores, microfilms, maps and pictures; there may be more to add in future: flexibility of layout necessary.
Shelvingunits
Most widely usedtype is metal shelving, individually adjustable, single sided (along walls) and double sided (island). Unit height 2000 (loan area), 1 500 (children's area), 2300 (bookstack areas). Shelf depth
200—300 (children's books), 200 (fiction, literature, history, politics, economics, law), 300 (scientific, technical,med). Width of unit generally 900 in UK and USA. Main routes in open access' areas 1 800 clear width, and minorroutes 1 200.
Bookstacks
Optimum length ofshelving 6 units(5400) to max 8 units(7200) but 4 units(3600)whereaccessible onlyfrom1 end. Centres ofislands where openstack' are 1 280—1 520 (gives about 164 vol/rn2); where 'closed stack' centres are 1 060—1 280 (gives 200—215 vol/rn2). Choice between these limits depends on selection of shelf depthsand aisle widths. Derivations from stack centre figures will give choice of economic structural grid dimensions atcentres of5400,6000,6850,7310,7620, 7750and 8350. Sub-divisions ofthesefigures will relate-windows,roof lights, fixedelements, ventilation and lighting. Optimum column sizes should be contained within 450 x 450 less finishes and tolerances, clear ceiling height approx 2400. Load-bearing stackunits nolonger favoured. Multi-floor 'closed stacks' inhibit flexibility and require book hoistwith staff captive on each floor. Large area stackmore flexible; max horizontal distancefrombookshelf toexit or book elevator approx 33m: may need mech conveyors. Variation for 'closed stack' sto: compact moveable shelving, of which most common is 'right angle roller' type. Saves 5O% of floor space compared with static unitsbut expensiveand creates extrafloorloading. Space saving of 40% if aisles in static shelving were reduced from900 to 550 wide. Consider dividing into fr compartments of about 450 m2. Use tempor smoke detectors, not sprinkler system (causesmore damagethan fire).
Reading/study
Work table of 900 x 600/reader who should sit facing low screen possiblywith built-in light. Student should have 2.32 m2 (which includes circulation space), screened on 3 sides(open carrel); research worker
4
MetropolitanTorontolib, largestpublicinCanada,housesover 1.25 million books, one thirdondisplay; spaceforover800readersto studymostly in arwith some naturallight key services 1 information 2gailery 3 synthesis 4eritendedhoursreading 5metroinformation 6newspapers7snacics 8rneeflng 9sto 10 audiovisualservices 11 generalreference& information centre l2circuiation 13 himstack l4graphics lsbibhographicaicentre16 senidEng&receiving
3.0m2 ormore screened on 4 sides (enclosed carrel).Aimgivesufficient privacy for mental concentration yet open enough to know if space occupied and not misused. Lockable cupboardswhere books reserved there for periods.
In community librariestrend away from formal reading rmtowards small scattered alcoves and nooks. In university libraries either large reading rm separated from books stacks or, more commonly in UK, reading areas round perimeter of stack areas, with further seatingwithin stacks.
Community
147
Libraries WORKAREAS Unpacking and despatch, accessions and cataloguing, binding and repairs, photocopying and typing Offices Staff rest rm, lockers, lavatories Mobile lending service: weather protected off loading,vehicle garaging, sto for book stock
ANCILLARIES Studyrmfor reference materials Typing/photocpy rm Projection for slides, cine film, microfilm Exhibition space, chairsf0, rm forgroup meetings Theatre (film, lecture, music)
Junioractivityareas, groupprojects, story telling Cloakrooms Lavatories (locate toavoid use by general public) Telephones
FLEXIBILITY Larger the library greater the need for freedom of futurechange with interchangeability of major stack areas, reading areas, staffareas. Fixed elements (lavatories,staircases,major services etc) should begrouped. Best if floors can carry stack loadinganywhere. Consider future expansion and possible effect on primary bldg. Partitionsshould beremovable. In medium and small community libraries some flexibility desirable (avoid built-in' fittings); but designer should beware lack of acoustic separation and loss of identify forareas of different function and mood. Consider changes oflevel.
FINISHES& SERVICES Carpet general floor areas except stack and work areas; carpet or resilient flooring staff side of control; carpet all steps and stairs in quiet areas; sound absorbent ceilings toallareas. Palecolour floor in stack to reflectlight tobookson lowest shelves. Book spines highly decorative: forwallsand columns consider naturalwood/fabric/quiet paint colours. Underfloor coil orducted warm air heating; at least3airchanges/hr. For older books and manuscripts hum controlled to 55%. In reading areas give temp of 20—22°C,USA: 18°C winter 26°C summer; but lending dept can belowerasmost people wear outdoor clothes (add local heat in controland otherworkareas).
In larger bldg
provide air conditioning at outset; or at least plan for futureinstallation, especiallyforrare orvaluable collections (contents of libraries often cost more than bldg itself). Air conditioning standard in USA.Avoidentryofdirectsunlight; minimise solar heatgain (unlesscan be used for heating). Lighting by fluorescent tubesgenerally butadditional tungsten lighting to indicate changes of function/environment and to add sparkle and interest. Emergency lighting also required —Bib1 12. Artificial lighting en lux—°p225: control/enquiry600lx, reading tables400 Ix in lending, but 600 lx in reference, book stacks 100 Ix on vertical surfaces, cataloguing and workrrn 400 Ix.
Shelfunitsin lending areas needspecial measures:consider illuminated canopy projecting about 500 from top of unit with sockets served by underfloor ductdistribution. Mm DF—p1 727—9 10% with reflectanceof 80% (wallsand ceilings)and 30% (floors and furniture). 1
Citybranchlib, DurhamEngland,496 m2 17000vol ArchA W Gelson
2
Universitylib en USA Arch Curtis& Davis
148
Community
Libraries EXAMPLES
a
r key 1 entrance 2 cIa 3 wc 4 elevator 5 photocopy 6 catalogue 7 issuedesk 8 carrels 9 seminars 10 reference inquiries 11 courtyard 12 cataloguing 13 subject inquiries 14 off 15 librarian 16 deputy librsrian 17 despatch 18 machine rrn 19 stsffrm 20 bookstacks 21 escape fromfloor above 22 escape stair
if I
p.
ft,,
=
ct
4+4P
==
23void
ite
13
—42
jfl
1sLllhI1LJ ...HTr\.l
0
10
20
30 m
do
ro
don
PolytechniclibPortsmouth England provides sto formorethan 320000 volumes&3000currentjournalsonopenaccesswith reading accnfor500 students asecond floor bfirstfloor cgroundfloor Arch AhrendsBurton & Koralek 2
NathanMarshPuseylibCambridgeMassachusetts USA, an undergroundsub-dMsionwhichaddsover8000m2 to HarvardCollege lib, appearsfromoutsideasslantinggrass-covered embankment; lawn, trees, shrubsgrowinstone-rimmedearthplatform whichformsroof alevel 1 blevel 2 clevel3 ArchHughStubbins &Associates 1
Libraries references —*Bibliographyentries 065 073314 323 353 399 437 455471 472 474 476622625641 652
Community
149
Hospitals HEALTH SERVICESSTRUCTURE Role and relationship to clientof architect in designing for health care services affected by nationaldifferences in healthcare structure: wholly state organised, provided by private resources or organisations or community, or mixed.
In UK, though some hospitals, homes and clinics practice) still private, by far greater part, forming
(and local family bulk of medicoarchitectural practice, now crown property administered by National Health Service (NHS). Under direction Dept ofHealth & Social Service (DHSS) or Scottish Home & Health Deptservice organised into 3tiers; regional, area and healthdistricts. Broad planning,design and construction new bldg falls to regional authorities (RHA: in Scotland area health boards) while health districts (HD) serving 100000—500000population have immediate control individual hospitals, clinics and health centres (HC). NHS in England to be restructured 1982to only 2 tiers: existing RHAs and new DistrictHealth Authorities (DHA). Traditionally in USA health care industry much more varied with health services provided by private, educationaland religious sources, community, state and federal bodies. More recently position modified by National Health Planning & Resources Development Act 1974 which greatly increased influence of federal agencies, providing for national guidelines for health planning and for setting up in each state Health Service Areas and Health System Agencies: asresult architects's client more likelybe state agency than individualinstitution.
Despitethesedifferences, and with variations of emphasis, structure of health services inindustrialcountries essentiallysimilar. Majorelements: Ambulant patient care: exemplified by group practice or medical officebldg, local orcommunity clinics, health centres (HC), forming first contact between medical care and patient.
Small hospitals: range from10—15 beds (UK 'cottage hospitals') upto 100beds,offering basic inpatient services. In UKmost private hospitals fall within this class. Community hospitals (UK District General Hospitals(DGH)): mediumsizedto largewith 200—600 inpatientbeds and most orallmajordiagnostic
In USA broad range of material, less organised, available. Sources: Robert Wood Johnson Foundation(Princeton NJ), sponsors studies on ambulatory care; Assistant Secretary for Health, Dept of Health & Human Services (WashingtonDC) for enquiries on all aspects ofhealth services planning; Kellog Foundation (Battle Creek Mich); American Hospital Association (Chicago Ill) has extensive reference services; National Technical Information Services (Springfield Va).
PLANNING& DESIGN Hospitals an amalgam of components, some simple, some extremely
complex: each has time scale whichcovers useful design life, iebefore it needs eithermajor alterationsorreplacement. Bycarefulplanning and design components with similar characteristicscan begrouped together so as to be adjacent to both thosethey serveand thosewith similar structural and service characteristicsand lifespans.
Largeor medium hospital complex includes not only patient accnand medical/technical installations but large admin section —p179—80, electro-mech plant and engineeringservices, laboratoriesand pharmacy —p1 76 177, library p177, industrial installations for food services and laundry—p180, supply, service and disposal (sometimes in separate complex), lecturehalls, staff hostels and restaurants,carparks. Hospital essentiallydivided into2 main units: inpatientcare and outpatient care; further essential units; diagnosis and treatment, admin; frequent additional unit: education and research. In early planning relationship between thesesignificant; diagnosis and treatment appearsas linking function—(1)(2). Ideally these would all occuron 1 plane; however muchsite and other organisational factors impose multi-storey design easeof lateral movement remains prime consideration. Before designer puts pen to paperbrief must be prepared explaining operational policies ofhospital, with description ofactivities tobecarried out and resources required to do this efficiently. Successful design relies on effective and detailed brief: preparation must be joint venture between hospital usersand architect with hisdesign team.
and treatment specialties. Also provide some teaching for med, nursingand para-medstaff.Also providespecialistsupport forHC—4p181.
Tertiary or teaching hospitals: usually have 600—1 000 beds, house not only all basic services but sophisticated specialties. Most provide
teaching formed students, nursingand para-medstaffand post-graduate training and research.
Longstay: for elderly, chronically sick, children, psychiatric patients and some otherspecial purposes p158 162—3 164.
In relation to all these, continuing change of emphasis; general trend now shorter stay in hospitals, increase in specialist dept and services, greaterstress on outpatienttreatmentandambulantcare,anddevelopment ofsuchlocal services as health centres and clinics. In manydeveloping countries pattern and orderofpriority different, with greater stress on provisionoflocal unitsforessentialpreventivemedicine campaigns and techniques.
Building regulations
Whereas in UK nationalbldg reg apply tonewand upgraded healthbldg inUSAfederal, state and local codesand standardsmust beconsulted.
1
Hospitalsectors: diagram of relationships
INFORMATIONSOURCES In UK DHSS provides design information on specific areas, services and eqp: published as DesignGuides; BuildingNotes (HBN), Equipment Notes (HEN) and Technical Memoranda (HTM); tendency now to provide more comprehensive and detailed information on Activity Data Sheets (ADB). Known as 'Red Pack', as yet incomplete, ADB sheets contained in 8 volumes divided into categories: 'A' describe activity space and list eqp required, together with appropriate physical and environmental standards; 'B' contain diagrams of individual pieces of eqp. 'A' sheets offer choice: decision rests with planningteam. Sheets not computerised, have tobe collated manually. Other material is available fromsuch sources as King EdwardVII Fund for Hospitals in London, Nuffield Foundation, and SHHD and Central Services Agency (CSA); former Scottish Hospital Centre (SHC) produced small practical information sheets based on full-sized mockups of hospital rm. RHA, Welsh Technical Service and DHSS(NI) also produce guidance material.
2 Hospitalsectorsdiagramimposed onoutlineofNewYorkUSA Hospital: d&t = diagnosis&treatment
150 Community
Hospita/s MODULARDESIGN
•SS...
Both in USA and UK pressure to contain costs encourages use of modular systems design —(1 )—(4). DHHS in UK sponsored range of standard designs for whole hospital:
'Harness'method
Range of dept based on common design module of 15 m selected as required to meetoperational needs and grouped in correctfunctional relationship to Harnesszone'of communicationsand services.
'Nucleus'
Evolved from Harness, Nucleus provides initial 300-bed serviced unit withinphased development. Typical harness'developmentplanforDGH
1
'Best buy'
Standard hospital design providing complete packagefor600-bed DGH.
TIME SCALES FORHOSPITALPLANNING Multi-professional project teams make lengthy briefing, feasibility and sketchdesign stages inevitable; inception of project tocommissioning can take 10—20 years: as resultmany new hospitals considered by users outdated. To shorten pre-contract stage as much as possible architect should produce carefully preparedtime-scale networks and have theseagreed byteam before workstarted. Once bldg handed over users should be given complete commissioning manual containing description of how bldg intended be used. Instructions should be given for use and maintenance; where possible full manufacturers' information should be included. Manual should be compiled asworkproceeds; this cando much toaccelerateprogramme and reducecriticisms made by users.
2 a& bTypicalDGH:York England DistrictHospital 800-B
Arch Uewellyn-DaviesWeeksForestier-Walker &Bor +YRHA
rn LJJJ 1
El
ground floor
phase 1 (nucleus)
754
16
6
3
Typical'nucleus' DGH:MaidstoneEnglandDistrictHospital Arch Powell,Moya &partners+ SETRHA
2 3: 1 main entrance 2 industrial residentstaff 6geriatricdayP 7 physical med 8psychiatric dayP 9mortuary 10k 11 residences12 parking l3wards l4acbi,in 15x-ray 16outpatients 17operatingtheatres 18isolation Key to 1
3 A & E 4 pharmacy5 non-
4 aDiagramof 16modularunitswithairducts&el/mechserviceshafts for ArmstrongHospital Kittaning PaUSA b 1 modular unitwith el/rnechservice shaft
Community
6 sub-compartments
exit
I 750m2 I
I I
0
Ii
ff1
II
750m2 I 0
1
Hospitals MEANS OF ESCAPE, FIRE PROTECTION, HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
exit
750m2
I
II
Compartments&sub-compartments
ments; system makes possiblemovepatientsshortdistances,ifnecessary in beds,to section sealed offbyfire door from smoke orfire in adjoining section.
f
-
'
Most bldg reg contain clauses on mm allowable distances between adjacent bldg and type ofconstruction acceptable to resist fire for given periodsoftime; some statedistances andconditions forescaperoutes.
Up to 2 hours needed evacuate 600 patients from 2-storey, 4 hours from 11-storey bldg: exhausting exercise for rescuers. All health bldg whichcontain high proportionof bedfast,disabledand confused patients should below rise, preferably withpatients restrictedto ground and first floors. High rise bldg should be confined to sites where no other solution possible. Because of theirspecial problems health bldg in UK nowhave own more stringent fire safety measuresbasedonfrcompart-
2 compartments 1
151
protected route
32m
1
32m
=
,-= =-, dual direction
0
—
single direction
s— d in
m L64 ——
Design guidance on size offire compartments and sub-compartments, togetherwith max acceptable lengthsofescaperoutes in wards, operatingtheatres, lab etc,canbefound inofficial literature(—Bib216218219). As general guidefollowing apply:
Are compartments—.(1)(2)(3)(4) UK reg (USA —p152): 1-storey bldg must notexceed 3000 m2 Multi-storey bldg mustnot exceed 2000m2 Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 64 m Horizontal distance in single direction to exit must not exceed 15 m Travel distance within escape stairway must not exceed 45 m along going
Pposition
Firesub-compartments (patient areas) 2
l
wards 3 m others 1 m
I
handrail
3
Floor area must not exceed 750m2 Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 32 m Horizontal distance tosingle directional exit must notexceed 15 m Max occupancy 40patients
Traveldistancesforwards
T
Hazardous materials Some eqp and substances used in examining, diagnosing and treating patients radioactive, explosive or highly inflammable.Take everycare checkthatwhere thesesubstances used design,construction, detailing and service installationscomply with specific statutes and reg.
doors to openin
Onfiresafelyandhazardousmaterialsconsult official publications andhealth authority concernedbefore makingany decisions.
j 950mm1
j
'1 95omin'T'
protectedlo tostoreys above18m
Escapestair dimensions
45m max travel
'
.
-- --
726
4
1
i
Verticaltravel distanceon escapestairs
dl:fordouble carbanks
•Ild2:forsinglecarbank
Belevators dl = 5/2—3 x liftcardepth d2=3/2 x lift car depth
6
forO—25P
for26—60P too Lfor61_2o0P
800
-
Bed elevators&P elevators
sao Jfor2oi+P& perlOOP Tdoloors
—
5
Size ofescapedoors
u jI
!
Pelevators
d3 =determinedbytrafficpeak
I 7
2670 cardeptti
Bedelevator:detail
I
'I' 1'
dlord2
152
Community
Hospita/s MEANS OF ESCAPE (cont) Typical USA requirements given —(1)—(4). For each design project necessary consult details of relevant state and local codes.
Traveldistancetoexits *these distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldg codes &canfrequentlybe 1
lengthenedin bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishingsystems
2 Corrwalls:corrshall beseparatedfromallotherarbypartitionswhich shall extendfull Ii fromfloortounderside ofrooforfloor slab above;vision panels incorrwallspermittedwithwire glass:sizeofpanels limited unless wholebldg protectedbyautomaticextinguishingsystem; interiorstud partitionsmust befirestoppedtopreventfirespreadboth horizontally & vertically
4
Subdivisionoffloors:floorsusedforsleepingortreatmentofmorethan50 patientsmust besub-dMdedbysmokepartitions andshall bedividedinto compartmentsnotmorethan2090m2 inar;maxIorwofcompartments 45.7 m*; corr doorsinsmokepartititions shallbeoppositeswinging pair;doorsshall havewire glass vision panels; ductswhich penetrate smokebarriersshall mustbefirestoppedto preventfirespreadbothhorizontally&vertically have dampers *these distancesorarmayvary indifferent bldg codes; traveldistancescan frequentlybelengthened in bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishing systems
—corrmust provide
access to at least 2 exits
largerrm morethan 92m2* require 2exits
notmore than 9000*
3 Arrangementofexits:allpatientsleepingrmshallhaveexit doorleading directlytoexit corrwhich shallbeat least2440 win hospitals;rmlargerthan 93 shall haveat least2remoteexits; exitcorrshall leadtoatleast2
m
exits;deadend corrshall notexceed9000 *approved these distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldgcodes; traveldistancescan frequentlybelengthenedinbldg equippedwithautomaticfire extinguishing systems
5 Typesoffire detectorsaphotoelectricrespond tovisiblesmoke,workon obstructionprinciple(risingsmoke tendsobscurelightbeam&soundsalarm)
bthermalrespond toheat energy cinfra-redrespond toflame dionisation respondtoinvisiblecombustion products
Community
153
Hospitals DESIGN/BUILDINGCONFIGURATIONS -.
ii;)
heating&cooling
Ideal hospital design combines clear and simple traffic configuration with ability expand bed units and service base in future, growth and change withinhospital structure being continuous. Beds do not always increase in same ratio as service programmes but each must contain masterplan ofdirection. Bldg donotoccupymajorpart hospitalgrounds; parking (1 I/2_2car/B)and multiple entrycreate larger land use.
;7
Broadlyhospital bldg made up of2parts: base and bedconfigurations.
Baseconcepts
Base services fall into 2 categories: ancillary services orientated to patient care and service dept suchas sto, laundry,dietary, housekeeping. These 2elements canbecombined in 1 basestructureorbeindependent. Different fire-rated enclosures may determine approach.
Bed concepts
Design should meet nursing concept of optimum organisation and staffing. B/staffing team usually 20—30 patients. Mix of private and semi-private rm also contributes to bed design. Mm USA Health Dept standards alsohave controlling effect. Specialty and intensive care units have lower bed ratio; long term may containmore than 30 beds. Modular nature of bed design may conflict with structure of base. Concept of using long span trusses as mech-el route between hospital floorshas developed. Question of additional initial cost as against life of bldg flexibility mustbe considered foreach project. By USA standards correct ratio beds to base for community hospital approx37—46m2/B fornursing unitsand 46—56 m2/B forbase. Teaching hospital may range up to 140 m2/B, with university programmes and children'shospitals high as 185 m2/B.
datprncessirig
.i auxiiiary
N
0 100 200ft 30 6o m
personneil
"'-'J LI \J (I..
nursingunits diagnostic& treatmentservices (includingciincs,etc)
[J [j
admit,& pubiican supportservices
Relationshipsbetweenmajordept at proposedmedicalcentreTucson USA Arch Perkins& Will 1
0
7 14 21 28m 25 50 75 lOOft
2
Master planTempleUniversityHospital PhiladelphiaUSA Arch Perkins&Will
3
Relationshipsbetweenpatientcare &support services&betweenbldg &site
154 Community
Hospitals WARD DESIGN: GENERAL Outlooks on ward sizes subjectrapid change. Main recent trend away fromclassical ward types(eg 'Nightingale': 12-Bopenward withnurses desk at 1 end; 'Rigs': 24-B with nursing rm outside ward, beds set in clusters); preference nowfor2—4 B. Despite this strong preference still controversial: very small wards giveprivacy and in theory more personal attention but can also be lonely, less often visited; ie society and staff supervision possibly better in larger ward. Patients need audio and visual privacy during med visits. Background noise and bed curtains provide some in large ward but lights disturb at night; small wards peaceful for resting patient butdo notprovide audio-privacy. In USAmostcodesnow give max 4-B/rmand design standards usually followed maintain mixof2-Band 1-B. In UK small rm also common; but wardsmay consist ofmixofdifferent size rm—acute wards below. Avstayinhospital foracute med orsurgery hasfallen, eg: major surgery 10—12 days, minor2—3 days, max 6 weeks (mainly orthopedic). Wards forthesepurposes therefore designed formax efficiencyofstaffworking. Forphysically and mentally handicappedand elderly —'longstay' —ward design moredomestic and social —pl58 162 163. Key problem ofdesign for efficient ward system: relationship of nurse workingrmtopatientrm.Basic concept—3(1).
WARD DESIGN:ACUTE Acute wards contain 24—30 beds; where possible should be linked togetherto form admin unit of 2 or 4 wards, whichalso enables such serviceasdayareas,doctors rm, disposal rm, stoetcbeshared between 2 wards; but check against fire reg before design decision made. Possible breakdown of bed areasfor28-bed mixed sex wards include:
3 x 8-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm 4 x 6-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm
2x 12-Brm+4x1-Brm Mostacutemed and surgical wards can be mixed-sex, argumentbeing
that itincreases bed occupancy. 1-B wards needed maintainoccupancy atmax of85% orabove: 1-Balso required for patientsliable toinfection, orto infect others, thoseseriously ill or dying and thoselikelyto disturb
others. Mixed-sex ward may not be acceptable to all users: check before designing onthis basis. Walking distance: keep walking distancesshortas possible for nurses and ambulant patient. Maxdistance frombed towc12mand fromnurse workingrmto furthest bedapprox 20 m. Observation: continuous observation of patient by staff essential part of nursingcare:during day achieved mainly in course ofwalking from 1 duty to another, at nightfromnurses station.Good design aim: 50% of beds to be visiblefrom nurses station. Patients gain confidence from seeing staff at work, dead-leg wards not popular forthis reason; if staff have no duty perform less likelyvisit ward. Control: patients, particularlychildren, adolescents and confused, need to be controlled; dayr must not be too isolated from rest of ward. Mixed-sexwards have own control problems. Staff need to control visitorsandcheckthat theydo not overtire patients. Noise: problem in large open areas; telephones and other eland mech eqp can be noisier than acceptable. Design for40—45 dB by day and 35—40dB at night inmulti-B wards; 1-B wards should be35—40 dBatall times. Courtyard designs can create problems of noise fromadjacent windowstodifferent rm. Daylight &glarewindows —p4O3—6 should notcause glare—p32 398 in bedfastpatients' eyes; beds should be parallelto windows unless brise-soleil, external or between-glass blinds or similar devices fitted. Windows design important:confused patientsmay try getout; allopening lightsshould have device restricting accessible opening to 100. Ventilation: mech ventilation often noisyand unsatisfactory, full airconditioning expensive install and run. Normal sites away from air or trafficnoiseshould relyonnatural ventilation; 3 beds deepfromwindow max before mech ventilation required. Central work rm require mech ventilation and sufferfromheat build-up insummer. Nurse call systems, closed circuit television (CCTV): Devices of various gradesofsophistication; all liable to abuseorfailure. Seriously ill patients cannot operate call systems therefore unwise rely on these rather than personal observation; acceptable asauxiliary system.
ACUTEWARD: SUGGESTED AREAS 1-Brm
I® r• •
I_
option nursing sub-station
A control access&egress to unit B access&visualobsefvationtoP
C Convenientaccesstosupport activities 1
Diagramofnursing/Prmrelationship
I
:•
B
lOOm2
multi-Bbay (per B) dayr (perB)
9.3—10.0 m2 0.75m2
lockersetc (per B)
0.5—1.0 m2
nurse station clean utility dirtyutility& sluice
10.2—18.0 m2 14.0—16.0 m2
treatmentrm
14.0—16.0 m2
assisted bathr sistersrm doctorsrm bathr washing & sho compartment wc with handrinse basin
10.25—12.0 m2 7.0—9.0 m2 7.0—9.0m2
ptr ward k
flowerbay cleaner
sto (inclargeeqp) interview rm & overnightstay circulation ar
4.0—10.0m2
7.0m2
2.75 m2 2.0—3.0m2 4.0—6.0m2 20.0 m2 2.0—2.5m2 5.0—8.0m2 12.0—20.0m2
excluding wc& sho depending on amount of day space provided in wards orasseparateday space: separate 10.0 m2 extra space forlockers etc depending on position ofdrug, linenbaysetc ifseparatear = 9 +
7m
m
depending onsto provided
forambulant patients forambulant P max for wheelchair P beverage &snack point only for ward k service mm
may be shared with another ward
10.0—12.0 m2
25%—40%
depends onward layout
Community
155
Hospitals BASICWARD TYPES
Linearward—(1)
In past wardsdesigned on linear form: large single space, 20—30 beds supported by nurse working rm at one end, sluices and wc at other, quite often largework table middle of ward. Main ward or wards and majority of spaces naturally lit and ventilated. Observation of patients good; patients had little or nochance offeeling neglected. Background noise problem butto someextent this gave greater privacy than in4-or 6-Bwards. Since 1950's different shapes have been used (also modifications oflinearasat Guy's HospitalLondon).
Deep wardor race track—(2)
1
Guy's HospitalLondon typicalwardfloor,2 x 27 B ArchWatkinsGray
International centre
Design concept developed in late 1950's, complete contrast to linear: patients share nothing larger than 4-bed ward. Observation goodso long asenough nurses tomove round ward. Racetrack design prevents dead-legs where patients could feel neglected. Background noise reduced but as resultaudio-privacy for consultations not so goodas in largelinear. Wards placed on outside walls, naturally litand ventilated; nurse working rm form central core, need artificial light and mech ventilation.
Courtyardplan—(3)(4)
Courtyard plan (harness, nucleus —pi50) attempts reduce internal working rm and providegoodpatient observation. Success of this type depends on amount ofdaylight available and degree ofprivacy obtainable. All wardshave somedaylight but some mech ventilation may be necessary.
Falkirk ward;experimental, resulting fromstudiescarriedout bySHHD; built mid-i950's,2 x 30B; first& second floors 2
4 Typical 'nucleus'ward,2 x 28B
0
5
10
15
15
30
45
20m 60 ft
-v
hr
14
11
H
I L1J2
___ iEJ L Sm
9
20ft 5 Typical nursingfloor (48-B)AnneArundelGeneralHospital Annapolis USA Arch Metcalf&Associates 10
3
Typical'harness'ward; 72-Bunitwith 3staffbases 1 wc 2sho 34-B 4 5-B 5b 6treatment 7basecleanutility 8dirtyutility 9sister 101-B 11 day/dining 12 3-B
l3sto 14visitors 15supplies
156 Community
Hospita/s NURSEWORKINGROOMS p156—7 show layout, dimensions and eqp required for main nurse working rm in standard ward. Variationsin size and shape ofrm may be dictated byward plan, butworkpattern and critical clearworking spaces round beds and othereqpshould be maintained.
800mm
7200 (6-BI T
4800 (4-B)
I
for4-Bwaid
1 4-or6-B ward, 8.4m2&8m2/B: optimumprivacy,eachP having wallon one side; Bparalleltowindowto reduceglare;curtainsgive eachBvisual privacybutcentreBhasless;max 3-B depthbeforeartificiallighting& ventilationrequired
I4
Dirtyutilityrm, 14m°,equippedfordisposablebedpans: ifnon-disposable used washerreplaces destructor,nodisposable sto needed 1 rackfor bedpancradles 2slop sk&drainer 3bedpandestructor 4spacefor disposablebedpan box 5disposal bag 6hbunit 7spacefordisposable bedpan &urinal boxes 8spacefordisposal bags 9wastedisposalbag 10urinetest cabinet 11 sk&worktop,cpd under 12sanichair
dangerous drugs
a
[thj
slidingdoor external
LJ-
Dbctier
:f::f:f:.:.J Dtha 1
ce
=
1
observation
externalwet
railfor
1-BwardssuitableforPliabletoinfection ortoinfectothers: a13m2with sho &wc, also suitableforotherPneedingspecialattention 12.34m2 with we, orcouldbewithoutweforbedfastPdying, needing specialattentionor likelytodisturbothers;NB 1-Bwardsforsenouslyillmustbeclosetonurses
b
Sb
with drainers paper
towels disposalbin
T-
L:I •
3 .—,
b
1
window
J
el
:
T;ine poene
MJ'3
5400
5 Cleanutilityorpreparationrm, 24.3m2; small dressing trolleys(carts)
2560 T
replacetraditionalfixedworktops,considered superfluous;linenstoredon adjustableshelving&toppedupto agreed level; no linentrolleyrequiredfor clean linen
c,,l
3
Id1!
positionofdisposalaradjoining
Iii
3200
station
E[i I I 450x450
L
2
i
depenserwithdrawer towel
& scheduin
Smallward pantry,5.5m:forbeverages & snacks only
6
Medicinetrolley (cart)chainedto
wallwhennotin use
Community 157
Hospitals NURSEWORKINGROOMS
2x900 leaves
rnanoeuvnngfrom straighf corrthroughdoorway
1
Doors&screensinwardcorr
r -
-L I
I
-i
.
I_ solidorgiazed panelsifrequired
sohdorglazed
panelsifrequired
t
——
jIeoo j
I
700
900
2=
500
4
Mm
corrwfor manoeuvring B
-
T
900
double-leaf
single-leaf
2 Standarddoor sizes forhospitals: wherehigh/lowB used standard 2050 doorsIi enoughtoallowthroughBwith balkan beams;mm doorwfor wheelchair800, preferred900
clock nursecall indicalor
fire alarmbell
Princess Grace Hospital London
Small 136-bed hospital for private patients, majority from overseas. Visiting consultants and surgeons diagnose and treat patients; permanently employed nursesand support staff.Added needtoattractpatients by providing 1-B wards of domestic character and comfortable proportions (17 m2)with integral bathr, but as with NHS hospitals, prime importance to design best possible environment for diagnosing and treating patients.
9
3
Fittingsinward corr
5
5
P 3b
1
5
m
6Toft
PrincessGraceHospital22-Bwardunit: privatehospital Arch RSeifert
& Partners
158 Community
Hospitals 2 types;forassessment ofelderly, for long term care. For assessment patients normally housed in adaptation of standard acute ward withinDGH, because accesstofulldiagnostic and treatment
DATA FOR DESIGNINGWARDS:GERIATRIC
services needed.
For long-term patients (assessed and found to be in needoflong-term care) aim to provide homely environment in which basic nursing care can take place;emphasis on earlyambulationand rehabilitation—vpl 62. Oftenin separate bldg on hospital campus, within easyreach ofdiagnostic and treatmentservices.
curtainrail curtainon3 sidesofbed
ht
Dedhead
1700
In UK shortage ofgeriatric beds partially overcome byupgrading some wards inolderhospitals (upgradingwards—vpl 65). Fordetailsofgeriatric
bedhead
bectiesdunit
thermometer
oo
14801
1000min
—
med gas outlets
-
bathrandwc—vp163.
1300
Bboilers 700h
v——i
I
ingsFunc I B
2x200 w
4-500-
1A
ti 95Owide
1?
200
01.I
1650
dotheshooh B
—B
Phclst980X880
2050+550forbedstripper
shelf
a
1
1100 towefraji
Multi-Bward: eqp & fittingsinBar
D 1500
.hb c--i_papertoweldispenser
suapdispenser
4
grabriel
-
100
geriatricb
——
685
•
j:
230clearanceundertap
C
Ba hr
1300 I I I
854
clotheshook
865 i7tlsforchildrenor
1300LT#J__ —
—-
duct 190v60
:
—
papersack
——
—
1100 adjustable light
Staff hb unit inwards, nurseworkingaretc shed
bedpanred unnetestcanet
1111111
3
-i
med
x330 bedpanwasher
gases2400
'T
1650
diet
l
1800
1200
droppedfrontsuitableforwtteelchanP
5 Shoar
7
x-rayviewer noticeboard
6 receiver
notetakuigdesk 300
4lousIooe
80 x300 1
1300
IllOOforseated 1000 viewer
Dirtyulilityar
6 Pwa unit (notstandard)
7 Nursesstation
syringedispenser
B Cleanutilityorpreparationar(dda= Dangerous
Drugs Acts)
I
grabrid
I1
nursecalletc 1
1549
Community
159
Hospitals DATA FOR DESIGNINGWARDS(cont) 580
350..
typicalbedside lockers 3
KingsFundB:2080x910x380—810h
high/low B withpull-Outbedstripper
/
I _______
IL
'.
'4
t
4 Orthopedicfractureframe: B maybemovedthroughdoors
x558+230space overbedtableforhigh/low B
completewith frame
Clinimaticdisposablebedpandestructor: dryweight110 kgmax capacity 1351
Childrenscot: 1 370 x 760 x 610 + 69ohsides
5
drip stand attachment
DHSSstandard controlled drug cpd 1
Typicalward eqp
6
7
Typicalincubator
Bassinetteforinfants
2 Geriatricassessment ward (upgradedNightingaleward);one problemofelderlyistoremain continent:exampleshowshow walking distancefromfurthestB reducedfrom30m to8m &dayarfor rehabilitation,dining &quiet pursuitsprovided;B reduced from 28to22&wc increasedfrom4to8; dayar2.252P 11-B2multiB rm 3disposal 5b (freestanding) 6preparationrm 7hb 8sluice 9wc 10k 11 staff clo/wc&hb 12 specialbathr/cleansingar
l4eqpsto l5dayar l6quietar 17dining ar 18 nursesstation 19 DSR 22linen sto 23wheelchair sto 24sanichairsto 26sister 27staff rm 29 switchgear! calorifiersetc 31 Pclothingsto 33 lecturerm 38sho 39special couch 42doctor 44stainless steel skwith layingshelf 45lalptr 46free-standingbidet/wc
10
3
20 60
3Dm
90ft
160
Community
Hospitals MATERNITY
DV1F
Units normally attached to DGH or community hospital. Allow 0.5 B/ 1 000 total population; 75bedscater for2700deliveries/year, 100 beds for 3600 and 125 for 4500. Maternity clinics include ante-natal, postnatal, baby follow-up and family planning. Most units require normal backup for reception, admin, including records, and provision for education. In USAtrend toset delivery suitealongside surgery suiteor
L
risi I
Combinedfirststage&deliveryrm, 14.46m2 1 caps&masks 2baby cot 3tray 4trolley(cart) 5singlebowlstand 6scrub—uphb 7sack&stand 8heatingpanel 9obstetricB 10chair 11 slidingdoor 12writingshelf 13 bedsidelocker 14 timeelapseclock 15oxygen suction, child 16sto rack 17dispensers 18curtain 19 coathook 20spotlight21 drip poleon wallhook 22wallthermometer 23clock 24observationpanel 25sphygniomanometer 26oxygensuction, mother 27bedhead panel 28cup& flask 29overbedtray 30towel rail 31 footstool 32 analgesia trolley 33 overbedlight 1
integrate with it. Deliverysuite includes: theatre, abnormal and normal delivery rm and assessment area. For 125 beds allow 17 normal first stage delivery rm, 10 observation beds, 4 abnormal delivery rm and 1 operating theatre. Obstetric theatre suite: theatre (28 m2)with full mech ventilation, hum and coolingcontrol and antistatic flooring, oxygen and nitrous oxide and 2 vacuum points for mother, vacuum and oxygen for baby; scruband gowningareas (9.5 ml, anaesthetic rm (16.5 m2),recovery bedsfor 2 patients (25 ml and clean utility (8.5 ml. All delivery rm require pleasant daylit environment with privacy (blinds to windows), good lighting for suturing, sound attenuation, anti-static precautions, med gas, oxygen and vacuum outlets, and mech ventilation with hum and cooling installations. Abnormal delivery rm (24 m2 plus scrubarea 1 .5 m2). Normal delivery rm (15 ml: 2 of these should be quiet with blackout eqp. Combined first stage/delivery rm —+(1) enables patient stay in 1 place throughout labour, herfirstmove being topost-natalward afternormal recovery period: provide 1 oftheserm to 5 post-natalbeds. Assessment area: 20% beds should be in 1-bedwards (13 m2)with oxygen outletat bedhead, remaining 80% in multi-bed bays (9.5 m2/ bed) with oxygen outletto each pair of beds. Ancillary accn: sto, milk kitchen (14 ml and flyingsquad sto (7.5 ml — whichmay be in accident &emergency dept(A&E).
30-cotspecial care baby unit (SCBU) attached tothis number ofbeds requires 22 multi-cot bays (4 m2/cot), 7 single-cot rm (5.5 ml and 1 special-cot rm ((7.5 ml; 20 cots considered mm size for viable unit. Entrance to SCBU must include gowning and handwash areas for visitors, and changing accn for staff: female, 11—14 m2 male 7.5 m2. Bedsitting rm for mothers with sho and wc—(2).
25
L1716
Mother&child rm, 16.32m2 1 wa 2visitorchair 3window(curtainsor blind) 4mother's bedlamp 5cantilevertable 6drawerunitunder 7mother'sB8curtaintrack gchild'scot looverbedceilinglight 11 twin socketoutlet 12oxygen&suction 13locker 14childchair 15toybox 16wastesack 17hb 18toweldispenser 19towel rail 20shelves 21 wc 22baby bath 23mirror 24glazedpanel (withblindorcurtains) 25sliding door 26sho 2
1365m2
w__ _____
2671712
21
9 9
18
16
1
96
9
10
20
64
30 96
4pm 1286
3 Obstetricdept Easthourne EnglandDGH: Adelivery suite Bmatemityward 1 wr 2seminar 3staff changing: afemale bmale 4dayr 5first stage rm 6multi-purpose 7wc 8b 9 lab 10 abnormaldelivery 11 trolley(cart) &wheelchairs 12 ovemightstay 13dirty utility l4exam l5ptr l6doctor 17 nursesstation 18chargenurse 19 cleansupply 20anaesthetic510 21 dirtyutility 22transferar 234-B 241-B 256-cot 26assistedb 27dirtylinen 286incubators29k 30 centralmilk k 31 demonstration 32 obstetrictutor 33nurseadmin 34 reception 35sb 36mobile x-ray 37 1-B toxaemia Arch SETRHA
Community
161
Hospitals PAEDIATRIC& CHILDRENSWARDS o
1
20-Bchildrensward Arch NuffleldFoundation
3 6 9 12 ,1 ,1rn 9 18 27 36 ft
division forarchitectural
studies
3
Diagnosiscentreforschoolagechildren,convertedfromoutmodedarof olderhospitalinJerseyCityUSA; existingcourtyard used asplay rrn & receptionar;sequenceofrmprovidesboth range ofhealthtests&educational programme Arch HillierGroup
a
WestMiddlesexHospital
b
2 West MiddlesexHospital England apaediatric/infantsward bpaediatric/children'sward A4-B/4-cot ward Al 4-B —staff B 1-B/i-cot ward Cwash/wc Dbathr Enursesstation Fcleanutility Gtreatmentrm H dirty utility/sluice Idisposallift Jptr Ktrolley(cart)bay Lsto M 2-B/mother& babyrm Ml clinicalmi—staff Nsistersrm 0doctorsrm Pconsult rm 0secretariesoff A playground P1 milkk 01 mothers si R1 relativesrm Sstaffdo clinicalrm Uelevators Vpaternosterelevators & stairs Wplay ar Xcleanersrm Yclassr Zadmission rm Arch Robert
I
MatthewJohnson-Marshall
Both wards—(2a,b) adaptedfrom standard,partof5-storey high system bldg. Paediatric/children's ward—(2b)contains2 x 4-Bwards, 6 x 1-B wards, 2 with wc and bath attached, and 3 x 2-B wards which can be used eitherfor mother and child orfor2 patients. Classr forchildren in hospital for several weeks but fit enough attend classes, eg child with brokenlimb.Away fromward, areawith adjacenttoysto where boisterous childrenencouraged play. Protected openair play area also provided. Paediatric/infants' ward —+(2a) has 8 x 1-cotwards each fitted with babybath and 4mother and baby rmeach capableoftaking full-size bed and child's bed ifnecessary. Playspace provided togetherwith protected open air area. Milk kitchen provides for heated baby feeds and baby bottlewashing: dailythroughput 240 x 0.25 I milk, of which two-thirds kept under refrigeration; extrasto required to keep milk over public holidayperiods.
162
Community
Hospita/s LONG STAYWARDS Long staywards forelderly and infirm mustbesited near publictransport for easyvisitingby relatives, often elderly themselves: need accessto diagnostic and treatment services, sowherever possible should be built on samedevelopment as DGH (community hospital) or be grouped togetherto beable tosupport own services. Patients could easilybecome institutionalised in wrong environment:
Mentally handicapped often also physically handicapped may also be noisy, aggressive, overactive and selfdestructive. Particularlyimportant that furnishings besoft, spongeable and durable forthese patients, and that ceilings have sound absorbent finish.
Importantprovide variety ofspaces for social meetings betweenpatients andvisitorsandbetween patients, and forsmall group chats orgames or largergroupactivities (corralcoves, small separate rm). Dining arrangements also important forproviding social and domestic atmosphere.
1
accent on self-help and rehabilitationin setting aslikehome environment as possible withoutimpairing quality of nursing care. Patients require sleeping areas whichcan identify as own, and must have ready access to personal belongings. Wc and washing places must be near to both sleeping and dayareas. Design ofdayareas should allow patientsfollow therapeutic routine enabling themcare for themselves and if possible return home to receive necessary community care either atday centre orbydomiciliary visits.
Clear marking
of rm, corr, elevators essential;
colour coding helps
Psychiatric wards —p164
Longstay patients highlydependenton staffin cases of emergency: vital fire escaperoutes be easily identified, fire stopdoors have automatic doorclosersconnectedalarmsystem and fabrics andfinishesfr.
Elevatorlevel coding system usingcolours& numbers;helpfultoP with sensorydefects; raisednumeralsaid near-sightedorblind
Nowfew completely bedfast patients needing bedpans and bed baths during day: majority will be taken to wc and bathr even if incapable of
attending tothemselves —*pl63(2)—(7). Becauseincontinenceprevalent extrawc required aidtraining (maxdistance fromfurthest bed orcorner ofday area: 10m). Where space limited omit treatment rmand replace by cleansing rm with bath or wc each with thermostatically controlled sho handset —*pl63(2). Wc,sluices and cleansingrmmust have efficient mech extractventilation. Small utility rm with washing machine and clothesdrier needed forpatients' clothes. Provide extrasto space for wheelchairs, walking aids and sanichairs, and for greatersupply of linen, incontinence pads and, where used, disposable bedpans and urinals.Cpdalso requiredforpatients' suitcases and clothesnot in current use, and foroccupationaltherapy eqp.
All floorfinishesshould be soft, non-slip and washable: plastics flooring with welded joints suitable for wc, bathr and all nurse working areas. Carpetsmay be used in wards and dayr where number of incontinent patients limited. Patients can be confused and if allowed go outside more easilycontrolled in courtyards than in open hospital grounds. All doors wide enough for wheelchairs —*p86; fire stop doors should be held in openposition byautomatic fail-safe devices foreasymovement of patients in wheelchairs or using walking aids. Termgeriatric —p158 generally used to describe those over 65 years who developseveral med problems at once and who may also suffer impaired mobility and be incontinent.
2
3 GenatricDay Hospital WaltononThamesEngland: 35 Ponbasisof5-day week;includesPassessment, med,para-rned,nursingprocedures, occupational&physiotherapy, traininginaids fordisabled&domestic routines 1 mainentrance 2reception 3do 4 interview 5speech, dentist, optician, 6 hair,chiropodist 7 sto 8off 9 individual therapy; physiotherapy
4 HostelaccnforP returning to hospital forrehabilitation courses(amputees &other physicallyhandicappedP) 1 group dayr 2fireescape stair 3 bathr 4sh 5wc 6wheelchairbay 7ptr 8sto 9doctorsrm 10sister
duties 10grouptherapy;physical exercisesar 11 occupational therapy dr l2court l3dr l4dr&wr l5wr 16k&servery l7dailylMngunitbedr 18rest 19b 20assistedb 21 treatment22dirtyutility 23 consult/exam 24staff rest 25boilers&tanks Arch Derek Stow& Partners
Mentallyhandicappedunit,planoftypical villa,CraigPhadngHospital InvernessScotland 1 sister 2visitors 3 Pdo 4sto 5domestic service rm 66-B 74-B 81-B 9wc l0bathr 11 staffwc l2preparation l3linen l4uty l5disposal l6hobbies l7dutyrm 18TV lgdayspace 2Odr 21k
4ft 11 dr 12duty mi 13nursesstation 14 preparation 15treatmentrm
16assistedbathr 17dirtyutility rm 18sluice rm 19staffwc 20wr 21 reception 22off 23porter 24 domestic servicerm 251-B 26 large 1-B 274-B
Community
163
Hospitals: long stay LIBERTONHOSPITAL—*(1) Geriatric hospital in grounds of existing hospital; has both in and day
patients with total 184 beds mainly in 24-B units. Day patients can be examined in 1 of 2 consult/exam rm and have midday meal in dr; share physiotherapy, occupationaltherapy, dental and hairdressing services withinpatients. Wards contain dining areaand 3 separatedayspaces, 1 forexercising and 2 for sitting in.
Wardblock
50
4-storeyward block: 3 floors48 beds each, 1 of40 beds on first floor used for hemiplegic patients. 48-B floorsdivided into 2 x 24 nursing units, each comprising 3 x 6-B bays, 1 x 4-B bay, 2 x 1-B. Bedside fittings include nurse call, radio and tvcontrols, bed light and curtains. Each 24-Bunithas2 bathr, 4wc,clean preparationrm, dirty disposal rm, shares exercise/drfor ambulant patients, and 2 small dayr. Each floor
I!:J!iJ H-i
83Vij
56
entrance
has ward kitchen, med officer's rm and sister's rm.
j• 0
Groundfloor Entrance hall with reception counter and general waiting area. Lift hall with nursingand admin offices, hairdressing rm, porter and shop.
a
63
5
10
1
b
16 32
-
6J 66 15
2am
I 48 64 1
It
LibertonHospitalScotland afirstfloor geriatricinpatients bgroundfloor geriatricday P 49commonrm 50physiotherapy 51 dentist 52chiropody 53MD clinic 54therapist 55almoner 56wr 57hairdressing 58 darkrm 59consult/exam 60seminarinterview rm 61 medstaff 62lounge 63canteen 64dining ar 65servery 66trolley(cart)wash 67potwash 69cold sto 70reception 71 porter 72admin &nursingstaff 73generaloff 74shop 82bathr 83occuptional therapy 84wardar 85treatment 86exercise& dayr 87doctor 88sluice 1
Occupational and physiotherapy, med social worker, dentist and chiropodist share patient waiting area. Day patients and dr for midday meals served from kitchen which also provides staff meals in small canteen. Consult/exam rm separatedfromtherapeutic/social areas.
EQUIPMENT cutacle partition
imperviouswall tinish
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Incontinentbathr &wc,8.6m2+ 7m2; may beplannedasseparateunits; requiredinwardscaringforelderly& handicapped wherepolicyofearly ambulationcoupledwith needto extendnursingcaretonon-bedfast P; bothb &wcequippedwith low-pressureshohandsetto easeproblem ofcleaning incontinentP; goodventilationrequired:allowfor6airchanges/hr at peak times 2
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Assistedwc afornonwheelchairP requiring assistance of 2nurses b forwheelchairP requiringassistanceof 2nurses
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2170
6
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Fibreglasssittingb: dryweight52kg; avb 1251
4—1800---4250
1710
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880
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164 Community
Hospitals PSYCHIATRICCENTRES
a
Present trend away fromisolated sitesforpsychiatrichospitals in favour ofplaces allowing easy accessfordaypatientsand visitors and enabling inpatients maintainclosetieswith theircommunity. Community involvement often encouraged in USA both by making appropriate parts of centre available to public, eg gymnasium, children's play rm or craft studio, andby incorporating suchamenitiesasartgallery or public lib. Association with med centredesirable but important psychologically psychiatric centre maintain own identity and character. Environment contributes essentially to therapeutic process. Centre should be noninstitutionalaspossible consistentwith type of patient,need forsecurity, protection from self-injury and vandalism; range from 'open door' to forensicinstitution for criminally insane. Great size to be avoided; patients should be grouped into units(max 30 P), smallenough facilitate development of community spirit(atmospherenearercollege dormitory than hospital). Where climate allows common practice provide residential units inform ofcottages in landscapedgrounds. Evenwhere restricted site imposes compact bldg formessential individual units be identifiableasseparate entities.
Bedrshould afford opportunity retreat and privacy: if 2-B, plan so that each patient hasclearly defined individual area.
b
Conversely design and furnishing of public areas should encourage sociability, supplementingformal treatmentwith therapeuticallybeneficial, informal patient/patient and patient/staffmeetings. Placenurse/security stations so that staff engaged in routine activities can observe patients casually. Unobstructive nature of suchsurveillance important psychologically in alleviating persecution complex. Hierarchical arrangement of staff and patients in group therapy rm inhibitspatient involvement. Square orcircular seating space affording mm distraction, with circular seatingarrangement, probably ideal. Mentally disturbed persons commonly showsymptoms disorientation with regard to time and space. Views and contacts with outdoors and living plants aid patient's comprehension oftime and season; directand clearlydefinedcirculation patterns, supported by such aidsas graphics and colour coding, inculcate sense of security. Colour playsimportant role in therapeutic process: egyellowand orange help dispel lethargy amonggeriatric patients.
Hospitalpsychiatricunits
Similarconsiderations apply psychiatric unitswithin general hospitals. Since patients generally ambulatory,day rm and therapeutic activity rm assumespecial significance. Although exigencies of hospital planning
seldom allow direct access outdoorareasatgroundlevel from psychiatric unit sunnyoutdoor roofterrace should formintegral part, particularlyfor geriatric patients.
2
1
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2
CapitalDistrictPsychiatricCenterAlbanyNewYork USAaccommodates
400inpatientsin 16residentialunitseachofwhichalso serves25day
patients:upper of2superimposed unitsset backfromlowercreatesoutdoor terwhile lowerhasdirect accessto landscapedsite;treatment,educational, recreational,admin,research &servicedept housedin4-storeychevronshaped structure,joined toresidential unitsbysky-lighted,brick-paved, indoormall which hascolourfulbanners, informal seating groups,beauty& barbershop, chapel, music&gamesrm, laundromat; planat mall level 1 geriatric unit 2adult unit 3pediatricunits 4psychiatric outpatientclinics 5consult 6volunteers 7dining 8admissions9medrecords 10emergencyclinics 11 business 12free-standingcolour-codedstairsin mall each serve4residential units,supplemented byelevatorsfor handicapped ArchToddWheeler& Perkins &Will Partnership.
Hospitalformentallydisturbedpatientsfounded 1844in Providence RI USA, whichhasbeenupgradedandexpanded, stands inbeautifulgroundsby Seekonkriver afirstlevel bsecond level cthird level key 1 lob 2admin 3admission&testing 4emergency 5med records 6activitytherapy 7dayhospital 8 interiorcourtyard 9inpatientunits 10food services&cafeteria 11 existing 12intensivetreatmentunit 13interiorgardenbelow 14professional off 15 diagnostic/treatment Arch HillierGroup 2
Community 165
Hospitals WARD UPGRADING Although wards have always been designed for care of sick those built before 1940were often intended forbedfastpatients.Sincethen advance in technical nursing has allowed quicker throughput of patients most of whom fully ambulant for 2/3 of stay; thus demand increased for nurse working rmand patient dayareas, washing and sanitary services. Older wards, structurally sound but ill equipped for present day standards, therefore suitable for upgrading, particularly those with useful lifeof at least 15 years. Moreover, taking factors below into account, can be worthconsidering upgrading bldg scheduled tolast only 5 years.
existing
900900
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9
no
Factors Number of patients to be cared for under sub-standard conditions if
ward not upgraded, eq28-bed ward with 80% occupancy and 5-day av stay has throughput of approx 1 600 P/yr and 8100in 5 years Number of nurses to be trained in sub-standard accn, eq28-bed ward with 6 students on duty during day and 2 at night for 6-weekperiod equals 70students/year or350 in 5years Proximifyto ancillary supporting accn Change of usefromacute folong stay wards Amount of money available
3
existing Reallocation &divisionofspaces, noextension to existingward:existing 29-B, upgraded25-B 2small sanitary annexeadded:existing 29-B, upgraded28-B 3corr& groupof nurseworkingrm&wcadded:existing 26-B, upgraded30-B 4extension addedtolongwallof ward: existing 31-B, upgraded28-B 52wardsjoined withcoreotnurseworkingrrn:existing 29-B each, upgraded52-Btotal
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Key to ward plans C orC'd —cpd Con—consultrm D—dutyrm Disp— disposalrca Dr—doctorsrm DR—dayr DSR—domestic servicerm E or Equ —eqpsto flflowerrm I—incinerator k—kitchen L—linensto Lab— laboratory&testcm NS—nursesstation OP—outpatientswr PC—Pclothes lockers Prep—preparationrm Rec—receptionist S—sisterscm Sec— SI —sluice St —sto Staff—staffwc T—treatmentan t—trolley secretary (cart)tx—telephone V—verandah W —waitingarforvisitors
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166 Community
Hospitals
0
Standarddhnics
special clinics
ante-natal generai med generalsurgery fracture dermatology Orthopaedrc gynaecology psychiatric
opiliahiokigy ant dental
radioragnosbc endoscopymi chiropody
mainwaiting reonrds
operatingtheatresuite
aadsimetry aççrbance sri forprosthetics receptionarof
physiotherapy
reception
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diagnosis&V'treatment plasterrm
ENTRANCESFOR NON-AMBULANT CASUALTIES & OUTPATIENTS All patient entrances must be suitable for those disabled or in wheel-
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laboratories
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Ward at
malioperatingtheatres
OUTPATIENTS
I Relationshipofclinics to other hospitalfunctions beacon+aerial_______
clearancebr drivingander
clearincefor reversingunder
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2 Ambulancecritical dimensions,
3 Carparkingspacefor awheelchair P bambulantdisabledP
standardLondon England ambulance:turning circle14.17m, turning clearancecircle 15.25m barriersdowntotal length
hospitalstreet
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shelteredparkingdesirable
hospitalstreet actuator
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required
After consultation patients may be sent directly or by appointment for furtherdiagnosis and/ortreatment to unitswithin OPD, eg plaster rm, physiotherapy, operating theatre or endoscopy rm. Endoscopy rm — p167(2) requires accnavailable forpatients under sedation and perhaps ante-rm forpre-medicationand holding(NBfibre-opticcoldlightsources must not be used in conjunction with inflammable anaestheticgases). Units may servewhole hospital;theatres and ancillary rmmay be partof
sFediafo
Clinics which can use standard accn: general med, general surgery, dermatology, gynaecology, paediatrics, ante-natal, fracture, orthopaedic, psychiatry. Clinics which require special accn: opthalmology, ear, nose & throat, dental. Clinics should have own reception pointand waiting area 36 m2 (based on 1.4 m2/P).
I
j
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canopy
Outpatients dept (OPD) provide consultation, investigation, diagnosis and treatmentfor patients who require little or no recovery services afterwards and are not admitted toacutewards. Most patients referred attend session at specific clinic byappointment: receiveinitial diagnosis and treatment, eg injections. Sessions approx 3 hr long (10per week) and held 0900—1 200 & 1400—1 700. Each doctor may use either 2 combinedconsult/exam rmor1 consult with adjacent exam rm—n(5)(7) p168(3) during 1 session. Am useapprox 9sessions/week: formula for numberof rm required: rmsessions/week = number of rm
main hospital theatre suite.
:1I
ssnJMMMM10
chair —*p86and must provide dirt control zone. Doors to A& E—÷pl 68 must allow accident trolleys —*pl66(11) easy entry. In A & E and to lesser extent OPD standard practice to provide automatic opening doors—*(4). Although thesecan beexpensive and unreliableusefulness outweighs disadvantages in areas where wheeled access required. Two main types:both actuated bypressure mats orelectronic devices. Some manufacturerssupplyoutwardopening swing operatedmechanism tooverridenormal operation inemergency. Design area between 2 sets of doors to take trolley pushed by staff member, without obstructionfrom door swings etc (2700 clear), Integrate 3 dirt controlzonesinto design. Provide canopy or recess doorway to shelterdoors. If ambulance required to back up to door allow 3200 to underside of canopy—(2).
canopy
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canopy
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4 AutomaticdoorstoP entranceslayouts: Aforsetof900swingdoors with safetybarrierbetweeneachdirectionoftrafficflow; Bforset of sliding doors with parkingspace fordoorsinopenposition:max recommended size foreach leaf900 C3cleaningzonesfordirtcontrol:externalzone should haveopengrid typemattingsuitableforwheelchairuser,intermediate, mattingwithbuilt-in scraperaction, inner,non-slipdustcontrolmatting 13
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6 OPD FalkirkScotlandRoyal Infirmary 1 wr 2porter 3trolleys 4prams 5hearingaid 6wc 7consult 8do 9staff 10sto 11 audio 12treatment 13 preparation 14disposal 15CSSDsto 16eqpsto 17optician 18eye 19workr 20 dental 21 off 22dark mi 23orthoptist24ECG 25studio 26technician Arch Wilson&Wilson& Scottish Development Dept
wall a
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13
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5 Exam&treatmentrm 10.4m2, forambulantorwheelchairP 1 sliding door 2wastesack 3toweldispenser 4sk 5trolley 6dispenserwithdrawer 7sheMng 8writingsurface 9swivelstool lox-rayviewer 11 wheeledcouch
fl®
16
l2chair l3examlamp l4twin 13-amppoint
15emergencycallbutton 16light switch 17x-rayfilm rack 18coat hooks
7 Combinedconsult/examrm, 15.48m2 1 chair 2couch 3 scales 4steps 5hooks 6couch-cover dispenser 7 disposal 8exam lamp 9wpb 10desk 11 hb 12worktop, sto under 13eqptrolley(cart) 14curtain 15sphygomanorneter bracket 16writingshelf
2
14
Community
167
Hospitals:out patients 5
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16
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Wheelchairlay, 2.56 m2 —'162
Ante-natalclinicAberdeenScotland MaternityHospital 1 prams
1
key 1 basinwith shelf 2papertowels 3waste 4wc 5toiletpaper 6mirror 7 hook(s) 8sk 9gulley 10P trolley
2children 3Pwc 4sister 5exam 6lecturerm&mothercraft7tutor 8study rm 9consult 10staffwcfemale 11 lecturerm 12do 13elevators 14work ar 15staff wcmale 16typists 17healthvisitor 18nurse 19 reception 20urinetesting 21 waitingar Arch George Trew Dunn& Partners
LL.
wallB
11 6
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(cart) 11 hose point 12disposal 13 sack holders 14trolley 15stapler
14
wallC
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Cleansingrm, 13.4m2
(3)(5)—(8) room layoutssuitable other depts &wards
1700
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2 Endoscopyrm—.pl66, 17.28m2 1 sk 2worktop 3wallcpdforfibre optics 4trolley(cart) 5anaesthetic trolley 6stool 7intravenousdripstand 8 linenholder 9kick-aboutbucket 10 adjustable lamp 11 writingsurface
12
9
with drawers 12surgeonsbasin 13warninglight 14shelfwithlight 1510w pressuresuction 16 highpressuresuction 17triplex-rayviewer 18 pin board 19telephone 20coat hook 21 shelvesforpresettrays 22towel dispenser 23cpd 24drawers 25shelving 26alimentarytrolley 27 bin 28Ptrolley 29DDAcpd hooksbrmachinetools cleaningmachines
dryerI(( )LJLJU buckets undersk
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Plasterremovalrm,22.3 m2servesOPD&A&E
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Domesticservicerrn, 7.5m2
4
213
Suction unit
10 Plasterapplicationrm, 33.5 m2, servesOPD& A& E notsuitablefor general anaesthesiabecausemorethan 1 Pspace key 1 oven ontrolley 2doublex-rayviewer 3sto shelves 4plinth 5 chair 6plaster-sawmounting 7clotheshook& mirror 8trolley 9curtain lOsk& drainerwith plastertrap 11 steps 12ceiling hook 13 plastercastdisposal 14waste 15sk&drainer 16plasterdust extractor 17wallhook(s)
§IrH -.i"L 1400
2150
5 Clinette& urinetestrm, 2.7m2 + 6.45m2 1 urinespecimenscollector 2 reagentstore 3worktop, sto under 4 slophopper&drainer 5disposal 6 basin 7hatch 8shelf 9handrinse
11
Tiltingaccidenttrolley
168 Community
Hospita/s ACCIDENT& EMERGENCY Accident & emergency dept(A&E) provide 24-hr365-day/year service for accidents and med emergencies occurring in home, at work, at sports ortravelling. Patientsnormallytakento DGH(community hospital) with A&E resources. Deptprovides resuscitation, reception and first stageexam; patients can then be discharged, sent to another part of hospital for further investigation and treatment, admitted as inpatients, orsentbyambulance to hospital containing regional specialty,eg burns unit, neurosurgery —p173--5. Patients dead on arrival taken to small rm near entrance before beingremoved to hospital mortuary. For dept close to potential sources of accidents (airports, motorways) extra provision for resuscitation needed. A&E need to be on good access roads with drive-in entrances for ambulances, sheltered fromwind and rain by covered ways and battle walls. Entrances should have 2 sets of automatic fail-safe doors to prevent draughts, with enough space to manoeuver stretchers and trolleys—4p166(4). Deptmust havedirectaccess forpatients on trolleys to all parts of hospital, particularly radiology .—pl69 170, plaster rm —*pl67(9)(lO), surgical (OPD) —pl7l 172 and short stay wards. Resuscitation rm must befullyequipped with med gases andbe close to entrances. Doctors, often on duty for long periods, require comfortable duty rm. Relativesofpatients needaccessto publictelephone. Interview rm required by doctors for interviewing relatives and by police for interviewing witnesses. Generous sto required for stretchers, blankets and trolleys. Forbenefit of patients,relativesand escorts, whomay bein severe state ofshock, allwaiting spaces as wellas clinicalareas should be heated tomm 21°C.
Full snackbar can be provided ifshared byOPD —*pl66. Patientswho return for further dressings or treatment given appointments outside morning and evening rush hour for casualties so can use same accn. Exam and treatment rm preferable to cubicles for patients requiring audioand visualprivacy (can undress and be seen in comfort); casualty doctorwill worksetof rm. Cubicles suitable for small cuts and abrasions which do not require patient to undress. Separate provision may be requested for cleansing patients and dealing with infected wounds. Peak periodsfor both A&E and Casualty dept invariablycoincide with weekends and public holidays: essential that sufficient stores and nursing eqp be available either by providing extra sf0 at point-of-use or by giving staff access tocentral sto during holidays and off-peak periods.
11
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A& E FalkirkScotland Royal Infirmary 1 ambulance2ambulantP 3prams 4eqp 5trolleys 6treatment 7interview 8sister 9duty 10wc 2
11
totheatres 12disposal 13 preparation 14to sharedx-ray
16exam 17resuscitation 18reception 19plaster 20sto Arch Wilson& Wilson
Patients come withoutappointment and may have to wait sometime before being examined and treated; provide generous waiting space, with beverage point and at least 4 wc, 2 suitable for wheelchair users p167(6). 9
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——J
CASUALTYDEPARTMENT Casualty dept provide 24-hr365-day/year service forcasual attenders and patientsreferred byGPfor immediate examinationand treatment; generally linked to A&E; can share some nurse working rm and staff services. But combined only for convenience: specific functions very different. Patients arrive on foot or by car, usually accompanied by relativeorescort.Casualtydept should haveseparateentrance,preferably with double setofautomatic fail-safe doors —pl66(4).
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Exam &treatmentrm orbay, 10.15m2, designedto allowfortrolley exchangesystem;P onemergencytrolleycan takeplaceoftrolleyinrm 1 sliding door 2wastesack 3towel dispenser 4sk 5trolley (cart) 6dispenserwithdrawer 7shelving 8writingsurface 9swivelstool 10x-ray viewer 11 emergency trolley 12 chair 13trolley 14exam lamp 15twin 13-amppoint 16emergencycallswitch 17light switch 18x-rayfilm rack 19coat hooks
j A&EEastboumeEnglandOGH 1 ambulanceentrance 2casualty entrance 3trolleys,wheelchairs4porter 5flying squad 6trolleys 7staft do 8rest rm 9 1-B 10nursesstation 11 cleansupply 12dutydoctor 1
l3cleaner l4reception l5doctorsstation 26chargenurse l7wc 18assistedb 196-B 20interview 21 dirtyutility 22resuscitation ar 23 disposalrm 24k 25surgeonschanging 26sto 27dayr 28pchanging male 29Pchangingfemale 30doctor 31 nurseadmin 32 housekeeper 33anaestheticmi 34 minoroperating 35crutchsto 36plastermi 37ear,nose &throat (ENT), eyes, noisychildren 38 septictreatment 39trealmentar 40fracture&orthopaedic clinic 41 waiting 42clinic reception43P lay 44 appliance fitting 45canopyover Arch SETRHA
4
Resuscitation rm, 24.36m2 1worktop 2suctionunit 3 stool 4trolley (cart) 5surgeonssk 6linensack 7wastesack 8worktopwith sk 9writing surface,shelvesover 10mobilex-ray 11 anaesthetictrolley 12drip stand 13oxygensuctiongas
Community
169
Hospitals RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS —p170 X-ray or radiology has 3 major sub-divisions:
diagnostic, which may
include ultra-sonics, fluoroscopy etc; radiation; nuclear medicine. Depending onadmin patternoronphysical/functional relationshipswith otherdept thesemay bearranged contiguously orseparately.
Diagnosticradiology
Provides internal images of patient either on film (radiography) or on cathode ray tube(CR1—fluoroscopy). Must beprovided foroutpatients and inpatients both forroutine examinationsand foremergencies. Dept therefore has relationship to OPD, medical, intensive careand surgical units. Separation ofinpatient, typically ontrolley, stretcher orwheelchair,from outpatient in street clothes and often bloody, should be maintainedlong as possible, certainly through entrance, reception and waiting: if dept largeenough alsothrough radiographic procedureand exit. Arrange x-ray procedure rm sothatpatient's travel path does not cross that of radiology technician until they meet in procedure rm. Easy trolley/stretcheraccesstox-raytable essential.Plan dept sothattechnician traveltime kept mm particularly between rm and filmprocessing.
Diagramofrelationships between radiology &other deptinrepresentative USAhospital 1
Simplex-rays tolocate fracturesorposition ofcathetertake lessthan 10 minutes; more complex or intermittent procedures involving barium swallowsor radio-opaque injections may take up to 3 hr to complete while patientwaits in or near dept. Design forfollowing requirements: separate rm for ultrasonography and for thermography; bench with drinking water, bottle-trapped sink with sto cpd over exclusively for bariumpreparations and wcfor patients whohave had barium enemas both next to 2 x-ray rm; rm and viewing bay to process and check accuracy offilms (normallycompletedwithin 15minutesof being taken): automatic plumbed-in processors needspecial drainage; forward waiting area on basis of 1.3 m2/P plus 1.02 for relative or escort; extra screenedspace for 2 patients' trolleys; 2 wc suitable for patient in wheelchairs —+pl 67(6). Each x-ray rm must be screened from other parts of bldg either by barium plaster orbylead sheeting, both very dense heavy materials.All glazingshould be in lead glass. X-ray eqp heavy and requires ceiling heights between 3100 and 4000, extra moveable structural beams suspended fromceiling will be required. Design floorsand ceilings to takeextraheavyloads. Entrancedoors tox-rayrmshould be 1 400wide in 2 leaves 900 + 500. In addition to above mentioned areas support spaces for film sorting, film reading by radiologistsandfiling necessary,also spacesfortranscribing reports, sto foreqp and supplies, admin off and oftenconference rm.
2 EasthoumeEngland DGHx-raydept 1 lavage&disposal 2wc 3sto 4cleansupply 5 recovery 6x-rayrrnspecial 7x-raymibarium 8 bed holding 9waiting lox-raymigeneral purpose 11 dark rm 12sorting& viewing 13x-raymiA& E 14cleaner 15 reporting rm 16film sto
X-raybeam carriesinherentdangertoliving cells: propershielding of all procedure rmessentIal; must bedesigned and supervised by raditlonspecialist. In UK complywIth Code of Practice for Protection ofPersonsexposedtolonisingRadiation.
17disposal 18superintendentradiographer 19staffrm
Eg
131211
I
1312 11 13
1100
1
[ [a
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p 7200
1700
4
Radiodiagnosticmi/changingcubicles, 28.8 m2 1 transformer2eqp trolley 3 chestx-ray 4steps 5buckytable 6safety screen 7controlunit 8cassettehatch 9 clock 10stounit 11 bench seat 12shelf&mirror
13hooks
5000
3
Diagnosticx-raymidesignedbyAmericanHealthFacilities/Medical PlanningAssociatesMalibuUSA 1 dispenserunit 2step-onwaste receptacle 3surgical/instrument dressing cabinet 4apron &gloverack 5to daylightprocessingar 6intercom 7leadglass vision panel 8partition 2100 h 9x-raycontrolunit 10ceilingtube mount 11 generator 12tube carriage 133-size film dispenser 14 radiographic tablewithtomographic attachment 15fluorescentlight fixtureswallmounted 16footstool with handrail 17 side chair 18warninglight 19tolay 20 mirror 21 corr
3500 closed
I
*15004
5
I
open
5 Viewing&processing rm,open&closedlayouts 1 tanks&water nstallation 2cassettehatch(from radiodiagnostic rm) 3 darkrm 4processor 5sorting&viewing
170 Community
Hospita/s RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS (cont)
Radiationtherapy
Technique whereby radiation used reduce or eliminate carcinogenic cells: generated either bynatural source suchasradioactivecobalt orby man-made as in linear accelerator. Because of massive quantities of radiation used extremely heavy shielding required contain it: so heavy thatsomereg require thisdeptbe placed atground level. Whole unit constructed ofdense concrete:walls, ceiling,floor pitthickest (approx 1 200) within 3600arc ofeqp, remainderapprox 600. Design all steelwork, conduit, piping to prevent radiationleakage.Viewing porthole double-skinned with highly corrosive fluid infill (zincbromide solution); door locks controlled fromconsole in adjoining rm. Procedure rmwiththeir shielding mazes must be largeenough accommodate eqp plus access forpatienton stretcher/trolley.Spaces required forpatient receptionand waiting, examination,treatmentplanning,mould making forshielding needed for patient during treatment, off and work spaceforstaff. Offand lab space also needed forphysicist forcalibration and radiation safetyofeqp. Patients taken into rm containing eqp and so positioned that all 3 sources of radiation converge on diseased partof body; attendant then retiresto control rm fromwhich patient can beobserved through heavy lead glass porthole or by tv. Procedure can be very frightening for patient: ventilation, temp and general environment control of utmost importance. Pastoral photomural or fresco on wallsand ceiling within viewofpatient during treatment,together with falsewindow with pastoral view' opposite entrance, will help alleviate fears.
Nuclearmedicine
2
Buckytable: rm h required with floor/ceilingtubestand mm 3000max 4000
Diagnostic procedure involving ingestion by or injection into patient of radioactive materials whichthen traced by scanning eqp. Am used for scanning require some shielding; must be large enough accommodate eqp, patient on stretcher/trolley, console and technician. In contrast to diagnostic ortherapy procedure rm level ofradiationlowenough allow 2 or more patients scanned simultaneouslyin same space. Support spaces include reception and waiting, off, sto, well shielded 'hotlab' beside procedure rmfor sto and preparationof radioactive materials.
CATscanning
Relatively new method of non-invasive imaging of internal organs; although diagnosticprocedure,often in separatesuitewith own procedure rm, control rm, computer eqp space and support areas.
NB new diagnostic procedures continually developed; design shouldallowaddition of mi/services when needed.
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CobattunitforradiotherapyPembury England ArchSEThamesRHR
5 X-ray film cabinet;willhold
approx 10000envelopes(360 kg), 26000 x-ray films(1040 kg):total floor loading1 728 kg/rn2
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Standardx-rayfilm very heavy (155 kg/rnrun): max unsupported w ofshelf900; eachradiodiagnostic rm producesapprox625envelopes/ month
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Typical cyclotron
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Transformer:weight380 kg
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Radiodiagnostic controlunit
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Hospitals OPERATINGTHEATRES Surgical and delivery suites increasingly considered centresto which patients broughtforprocedures too complex for handling in physician's off ortreatment area. Unlike traditionalsuite with different rmfordifferent services (eg, ENT, orthopedic) suites now collection of multi-purpose rm. In largeinstitutions more than 1 suitelikelybe provided, based on usage: short (1—3 hr) procedures, such as ambulatory, frequently separated from general, av length (2—4 hr) and very long (6—8 hr) procedures. Delivery suites,formerly completelyseparatedfrom surgical, todaycommonly alongside orintegrated. Typicalfloor ofsurgical&specialservicesbldg Massachusetts General HospitalUSA Arch PerryDeanStahl&Rogers 1
Designelements
Consider patient flow: entrance, control, holding pre-anaesthesia, operating, recovery. Consider staff: control, clean-up. Consider eqp, particularlyinstrumentsand other goodswhich must besterilisedbetween each use: done locally (within suite) or centrally (for hospital)? Let volumes guide. Consider sharing: like types ofprocedure rmcanshare supplies, cleaning etc. Consider testing functions: 'quick' lab tests, x-rayetc: howwill theybe done?
Space needs
Space suites need per inpatient bed varies greatly, depending on whether ambulatory surgery offered, whether hospital has teaching programmeand other suchfactors: generally28—46 m2foreachoperating theatre.Space forcirculation,nursingand medicalstaffand non-functional bldg elements such as air-conditioning eqp usually high ratio in this setting, perhaps 80% above individual rm needs. Ifreprocessinggoods donewithinsuite 28—37 m2/operating theatre or delivery rm must be added. Locker rm, showers and rest rm for staff should be provided based on numberstaff expected.
Circulation Crucial to design of high technology operating and delivery suites; 2
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Cleanliness Also critical in operating/delivery suite. All materials,surfaces, joints etc must be easilycleanable and durable for repeated washings: sealed joints to prevent infection. Anti-static materials should be used where patients likelybe connected anaestheticmachines. Check requirements with technical literature.
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3 Stobliill opertheatresuite:8standardtheatres withclean&dirtycorr 1 consultanaesthetistoff 2anaesthetistsecretary's off 3dutyanaesthetist 4studentlecturerm 5wc 6malechanging 7femalechanging 8 9cleaner 10 workshop 11 theatresuperintendent 12receptionarporter l3dirty utility l4transfer l5cleanutility l6recoveryar l7darkrm 18 nursesrestrm 19 surgeonsrest rm 20techniciansrest rm 21 teak 22eqpsto 23theatresister 24 lab 25endoscopy 26calorifiers 27 refrigeration plant 28preparationrm 29opertheatre 30exit lob 31 anaestheticrm 32scrub-upar 33monitorrm 34plastermi 35plaster sto 36disposalbay 37disposallob 38elgear 39med gases 40 stairto air-conditioningplant 41 TSSU 42staff restrm Arch Cullen Lochhead & Brown
basictypes: single corridorand double corridor or 'racetrack'. Single has 1 corridorleading to all operating/delivery rm, used for patients, staff and eqp: sterility maintained in each user of corridor and within theatreitself; each rm preceded by scrub-up ar and has provision for sterilisation withinitorbetween 2 rm. 'Racetrack'arranges rmin 'circular' fashion with outside corridor orrm for staff and eqp, presumed sterile; locker rm 'bridge' corridors; staff and eqp leave with patient; staff 'bridged'backthrough locker rm and showers. Corridor forPtrolleys 2: 45mw; others1.5mw.
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Vedestasystemmodularoper theatreusesbasicstandard octagonalto formseriesofunitsforuseinnew hospitalsorforupgrading; 10sizes available,arfrom23.22m2 —436 m2 1 domesticstaffchange 2disposal 3sluice 4inspection/sto 5generators/batteries6air-conditioning 7emergencycorr 8theatre 9sterilemi 10P in 11 Pout 12surgeons nursesorderlies in 13surgeonsnursesorderliesout 14sterilesupply 15soiled instruments/disposal 16cleanedinstruments 17access to services 18 sterilesupply 19 anaesthetic rm 20exit 21 gowning 22scrub-up 23med gas 24instrument sto 25nursestaffrm 26surgeon staff rm 27 orderliesstaff rm 28recovery 29mobile eqp 30transfer 31 sister 32change—NBservicingoflightingeqp completed outside theatre
172 Community
Hospita/s OPERATINGTHEATRES(cont)
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OpertheatresuitesNinewellsHospital Dundee Scotland, designedfor teaching servicecorr 2opertheatre 3x-ray 4TSSIJ 5accesscor 6femalesurgeons 7malesurgeons 9 nurses 10students 11 anaesthetic dept l2surgeonsrest l3sto l4nursesrest l5nurseworkrm l6lecture rm 17junior staff 18 recoveryward 19receptionward 20seniorstaff Arch RobertMatthewJohnsonMarshall 1
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panel 2gas&el servicepanel 3anaesthetiststable 4monitor 5anaesthetistsstool 6anaesthesiagas machine 7x-rayfilm illuminatorsexplosion proof 8kickbucket gsurgeonsstool 10deep canily surgicalilluminator 11 eleciro-surgical and l2doubtebasin 13 mayostand 14 singlepanel lsmobdetvcamera& recorder 16 ceiling
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5 Nut!ield OrthopaedicCentreOxford England: 1 conventional theatre, 2 clean-airglassenclosures'withfilteredair&special suitswith airintake& exhaustforstaff 1 ramp 2 1-B intensive care ar 3barriernursing 4cleaner 5ste 6cleanutility 7dirtyutility 8nursesstation 9fireexit 106-B intensive care 11office 12seminar/restrm 13staff 14lockerrm 15visitors 16from wards 17waiting 18B park 19changingrm asurgeons borderties c nurses 20 rest rm anurses borderlies csurgeons21 theatresister
22 plasterrm 23transferzone 24orderliesbay 25linen 26monitor eqp station 27 operdept 28exit bay 29anaesthetic rm 30opertheatre 31 gown/scrub-up 32forwardholding 33 switchrm 34sterilisers 35 batteryrm 36servicear 37med gas 38plant rm 39loadingdock 40 issu 41 preparation42scrub-up 43operrm 44disposalbay 45dark rm 46 mobilex-ray
gas& elservice
17 instrumenttable 18 casecart/trolley 18 aub-stedlisation 20 con 21 scrub-up ar OesignAxnencan HealthFacililies/ MedicalPlanning Associates
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3 Anaestheticrrn,exit mi,scrub-uprm, sterilesto: eloutletpointsin anaesthetic&exit tobesparkless&hoseproof, insterilesto&exit hoseproof only 1 sterilemi 2oper theatre 3table 4B 5 hb 6sterilesto 7scrub-up rm 8anaestheticmi 9anaesthetictrolley 10anaesthetic machine llservicepoints l2exitrm l3gowning
Opertheatre,36.10m2; alleloutletpointsinanaesthetic rm&theatreto be sparkless&hoseproof 1 controlpanel 2dressingtrolley/cart 3 instrument trolley 4basinstand 5table 6kickbasin 7stool 8swab stand 9anaestheticmachine 10anaesthetic trolley
position: willtilt inboth directions; also designedtake variousattachments; small wheelsused putvery high rolling loadsonfloor weightapprox230 kg, mm h approx700, maxh approx1 040
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Hospitals:special units INTENSIVECARE Hospitalscontain 2 basictypesbed accn: 'hotel' for patientsnotneeding continuous directvisual supervision or life-sustainingeqp; 'critical' (UK intensive) for patients whose survival depends on constant attention and/or complex life-support eqp. Proportion of critical to hotel and of numberoftypesof special care units increasing. Special unitsincludecardiac, spinal injury, burn,transplant, respiratory, neurosurgical, limb fitting, physical medicine. Usuallyformpartoflarger hospitals (regional specialties in UK);verylarge hospitals may have all ofthem.
Design considerations
Will patientbeconscious,requireprivacy,toilet,constantnursingattention? Will location or configuration of unit help or hinder patient's recovery? Can staff see all patientseasily?Is ratiopatients/staffstation appropriate? Can staff get help quickly? Can they reach services (medications, uty etc) and support (lab testsetc) quicklyand easily? Can they examine patient easily? What about infection control? Can specialeqp be brought quickly bedside in emergency? Can monitors, pumps, screens be
easilyread bystaff?Can eqpbe stored handilywhen not in use? Bed unit basicspace module: numberbeds related to unit, decided by usage or projected usage: 6—7 usual max. Unit must be sized for bed (larger and larger as new features added orstructured), eqp (respirators, pumps, monitors),people(manyasneeded duringresuscitation): common today11—15 m2/unit. Access fromentrance to bed unitand between critical. Spaces required include: nurse/physician for supervising monitors, charting, consult; support formedication station,uty; special use,egtreatment, procedure, x-ray, based on patient plus staff/eqp 11—15 m2; amenitiessuchas rest rm, locker, wc.
Keepdistance from control station or viewpoint to patient small so that eqp can be read and patient actually seen. Bed unitmay be enclosed in rm (eg coronary care, where patient conscious, or where infection control or separation patient fromnoise necessary)or open (egfor max visibility and quickaccess where patient unconscious). Staff changing arrangementssimilar those foroperatingtheatres;visitors if allowed, may be required change shoes, wear gowns and masks.
910203Gm 3264966
N Punit intensivecare pavilionLongIslandJewish-HillsideMedicalCare CenterUSA 1
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Masterplan Temple UniversityHospital Philadelphia USAshowing relationshipbetweenspecialtyunits Arch Perkins & Will
NEUROSURGERY Because oflengthofeach operationand itsexactingnatureneurosurgery units rely heavily on support services. Ratio of population to beds
1:100000. 2 theatres shown —(3) serve 60beds. Theatresegg-shaped
to promote smooth flow fully conditioned air (21 changes/hr). Heatfiltered theatre lamps set in ceiling and 1 wall. Monitoring eqp and viewinggallery in mezzanine with viewing ports in domed ceiling. Each theatre equipped with5-panel x-rayviewing box, oxygen, nitrous oxide,
suction, nitrogen for pneumatic tools, electro-encephalograph (EEC) connexions, and CC1Vfortransmission ofencephalographrecordings. Anti-staticflooring and flashproof el outlets required. X-ray rm attached to theatres heavilyequipped for cranialand spinalradiography.Separate lab forelectro-encephalographyand specialeye exam.Supportmeasures includephysiotherapy with hydrotherapy pool. Wards attached to neurologicaltheatres: mixed sex20beds (4 x 4-B, 4 x 1-B). Early ambulation of patients in need ofobservation reflected in size of day and sun rm; patients encouraged to have visitors who can help return normal life by using theseand adjacentflowerbay.
SPINAL INJURY Care foryoung people, who suffer fromparalysisasresult ofaccidents,
eg motorcycle. Require 100%care: nearlyalways doubly incontinent; because of shockto system can beaggressivetowardsstaff and visitors.
Occupational therapy, physiotherapy and study form vital part of rehabilitation. Patients may take months recover; care can be divided into 3 stages: patients bedfast: can only be moved for bathing and treatmentin horizontal position; patients spend partofwaking hours in wheelchair: therefore more mobile (after this stage some patients go home and return forstage 3); patients begin move round on crutches or with walking aids. Stages 1 and 2 require 20—24 beds, stage 3 28—32 beds. Provide approx 20% beds in 1-Bwards and remainderin 4- or6-B. Beds wider than normal(1 000); allow mm bed centres of 3500. Provisionof nurse working rm similar to that for physical/mental handicapped units, —*pl 62—163.
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NeurosurgicalopertheatresWesternGeneralHospital Edinburgh Scotland elevator 7med staff 12k 17domestic service 19eqpsto 21 sterilisingannexe 25stafftoilets 26wr 29secretaries 30staff conferencemi 31 plasterrm 32eyerm 33dept/theatresister 34 EEG 35x-rayrm 36dark/work rm 37theatreha 38scrub-upar 39changing rm 40anaestheticrni 41 opertheatres 42 preparation rrn 43scientific observation 44stairtoviewing gallery 45stairtotheatreEEG 55engineeringplant
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Community
Hospitals: special units CARDIACSURGICAL
of care: intensive therapy and intermediate care. Patients vulnerable infection: 2out of6018 beds should be in isolated bayswith full height walls. Patients most vulnerable at immediate post-operative stagewhen intransit and not attached to electricallyoperated ventilators or monitors. Intensive care units must therefore be close to operating theatres. 2 stages
Example illustrated —*(2) also shows area to be upgradedascoronary care unit. Requires bio-chemistry lab; some research and staff areas can be shared. Provide for relatives overnight stay close to but not in unit.
TRANSPLANT
Relationshipbetweencardiacsurgeryunit,intensivecare,coronarycare, nursing rm at St VincentMedicalCenterLosAngeles USA Arch Daniel MannJohnson&Mendenhall 1
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LIMB FITTINGCENTRE Considered advisable hold clinics in DGH (community hospital) save patients, oftenelderly and diabetic, from having travel long distances. All patients require rehabilitation for everyday living; walking training should be provided for, either in centre orwithin wheelchair distance. If centreprovides early post-operative walking training hostel type beds may be required in or closeto it. Patientscometo centre for consult, assessment,stumpcastingand limb fitting,and retumforstumpdressings, limb adjustments and walking training. Provide workshops for making limbs: if modular limbs mainly assembly process. Cosmetic covers made on vacuum-forming machines fromhighly inflammable material; special sto required for this and for paint. Forworkshops and sf0 areas referto factory legislation.
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For replacing damaged or diseased organs (usually kidneys) by direct transplant fromdonor: needpaired operating theatres, one for donor, one recipient. Patients nursed in 1-B wards in carefully controlled environment (liable both toinfection and to infect others). When donors not available kidneys may be obtained fromcold storebank (may hold othersurgical spares required fortransplant surgery suchasskin, eyes, bonemarrow, boneand blood).
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rm 10staff/seminarrm 11 medsocialworker 12walkway 13entryP/staff/ ambulance 14entryplant/largematerials 15entrygoods/materials 16wait 17workshop 18 sto service ArchEPhillips
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10from OPD 11 windowwall 12longmirror 13walkingrails 14 plaster chair 15 Pwheelchair 16sk 17hb 18desk 19chair 20couch ArchE Phillips
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Hospitals:special units BURN UNITS
PHYSICALMEDICINE
Seriouslyburntpatients arrive byambulance; nursed onspecial beds in
Provides med,domestic and oftenindustrial rehabilitationtofit patients, either return workor for active domestic life. Provide for inpatients as well as outpatients: mm population forviable unit150000. Accn related to type of population to be served; activities include physiotherapy, remedial gymnastics, hydrotherapy, occupationaltherapy, heavy and light workshops, consult and clinical resources, together withprovision for speech therapists, disablement resettlement officers and social workers. Because most attenders disabled accn should be on ground floorwith carparkingcloseby (3000 wide baysallow disabledmanoeuvre wheelchair fromcar)—p166(3). Specialprovision children uptoage 10, usually within children's ward. Some patients attend for half or whole day, othersfor 1 session/day; may be need for hostel accn for those who have totravellong distance.
carefully controlled environment. Patients liable to infections which prevent acceptance of skin grafts. Each has 1-bed ward with scrub-up and gowning lobby for staff and wc and hb for patient. Visitors not allowed enterward:viewpatientthrough fixedobservation window. Unit hasown theatre suite fortreatment and skin grafting.
Gymnasium should be 10 x 20 x 7.6 m h (forball games) withbay 1 500 deepoff one side forstacking apparatus,and changing rm and wc(1.5 m2/P). Physiotherapy also involves individual treatment cubicles, walking and otherexerciseareas,waxtreatment rm(highfire risk) and splint rm,withoffices,interview rmand linensto. Partoftreatmentarea should have suspended below ceiling, at approx 2000above floor, reinforced metal grid forconnectingslings and pulleys necessarytosupport patient's paralysed limb during treatment ortraining. Hydrotherapy pool —*(3) requires changing accn with clothes lockers and sho, including 1 for wheelchair users, recovery areas with couch (1 700 x 2200deep), utility area fordrying costumes and gowns, and possiblywashing machine and drier. Provide apparatus bayfor floats, cradles etc. 0 I
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Bums unitQueenVictoriaHospital EGrinstead England 1 wr 21-B with wc 3nursesstation 4cleanutility 5k 6 sto 7weighing rm 8 clinical lab 9doctoroff 10visitorswc 11 sistersoff 13visitorsha&corr 14relativesrrn & wc 15 ambulancebay 16resuscitation 17assessment 18admission rm 19 staffdo 20surgeonsscrub 21 anaesthetic rm 22 opertheatre 23sluice 24treatmentrm 25theatrecorr 26nursingcorr 27rest rm 28dirty utility 29med gases 30airlock 31 disposalcorr 32interviewrm 33entrancetoplant rmunder 34courtyard Arch DonaldGoldfinch& 1
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Deptofphysicalmed SouthernGeneralHospital Govan Scotland 1 plant rm 2heavyworkshop 3timbersto 4 lightworkshop 5eqp sto 6duty rm 7utility rm 8finishedarticlessto 9bathr 10bedr 11 k 12senior occupationaltherapist 13femalestaffchanging 14 malestaffchanging 15hydrotherapypool 16gymsto 17apparatusgym 18Pchanging 19activetreatmentrm 20apparatussto 21 preparationbay 22linensto 23 paraffinwax rm 24femalestudentschanging 25femalestaffchanging 26male studentschanging 27studentscommonrm 28staffrm 29 passive treatmentmale 30passivetreatmentfemale 31 interview rm 32 reception/ records 33waitingspace 34 trolley(cart)/wheelchair bay 35consultmi 36med officer 37principal'soff 38uppergym 39 tank ml Arch Keppie Henderson&Partners
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Physiotherapy&rehabilitation, 51.6m2 1 coathooks 3wall bars 4hb 5wheelchair 6papertoweldispenser 7benchseat 11 disposal bin 13fixedbicycle 15parallelbars 16exercise steps 17mobile mirror 18 mat 19clock 20adjustableshelving 21 wall hooks 22stool 23trolley (cart)/matsto box
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Hospita/s PATHOLOGYLABORATORY, POSTMORTEM ROOMS Pathogens classified in UK in 4 categories: A, B, B2 and C Category A extremelyhazardous: includes lassa feverand smallpox. Specimens assoon asidentified must besealed intospecialcontainers and sentto regional lab assigned forpurpose. Category Bincludebrucella spp, hepatitisB, m tuberculosis: all workon thesemust becarried outin exhaustprotective cabinets.Lab should not be less than 18 m2, must have lockable door with glazed observation panel and also contain handbasin with bi-flow wrist operative taps, papertoweldispenser and bin near door. Other eqp includes frig, deep freeze,stofordisposable gloves, tissues, encasingjars etc, rowofpegs near door forprotective clothing. Discardedspecimens must besentfor autoclaving. Waste drainage frommostoftheseareasrequired to be in separate runs. Categories B2and C donot requirespecial accnbutadvisabledesign all lab tocategory B standard. Provision forchanging vital tosafety ofstaff: each lab mustcontainpegs forlab coats and each unitmust store6setsprotective clothing including bootsforeach staff member. Discarded clothing must be put in receptaclé for autoclaving. Each workr, off and reception area must have handbasin near exit. Staff lockers for outer clothing and personal belongingsmust bein separate cloakroom. Staff visiting wards mustwear separate lab coats forthisand thesemust bestored away fromlab. Iftea
and snacks notavailable nearby, rest rmwhere thesecan be mademust be provided. Reception area must have bench with impervious disinfection proof finish and handbasin set as in lab (above), with racks for delivered specimens and steforspare racksetc. Specificarea,notwithin reception orlab, must be provided for patients sent to give blood samples.
Note: pathology lab must not be designed withoutreferenceto pathologist incharge.
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x 600tables associatedwith 150 x 2400movable servicespine: services& drainhaveflexibleconnexionsto ceiling &floor points c Edinburgh', 24.5 rn2 providesfreebenches& fixedservicespinessupplied fromverticalducts: givesgreaterflexibilityoflayout Arch Nuffield Foundation, Lab Investigation Unit, EdinburghUniversityARU 1200.005 150 —
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electrophoresis8ante-natal 9grouping 10pathologist 11 manual & special 12sto 13packing 14centrifuge 15blood bank 16 reception 17wc 18wr 19exam 20 clerical 21 chieftechnicianoff 22sterilising 23outfItpreparationrm 24stacking 25mechsection 26balance rm 27chromatography&toxicology 28 chemical sto 29disposal 30workshop 31 microbiology lab 32mediapreparation 33printrm 34darkrm35studio 36records 37med photographer 38wc afemale bmale 39staff rrn 4ofluorescentmicroscopy 41 coldrm 42hotrm43 histologysto 44pathologist off 45serology lab 46cytology lab 47Specinien cutting 48histology lab 49 staining§ions 50pathologygassto 51 recovery&wr 52wash-up Arch SETRHA
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Mortuary&post mortem rm: locate loading baywherenotvisiblefrom main P orvisitorar;viewing rm notclinicalincharacter;hospitalchapel sometimesusedforthis purpose; goodventilation needed topostmortem as infectedspecimenshandled 8
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Community
Hospitals PHARMACY
T345666 :
PharmacyEastboumeEngland DGH 1 staffentrance 2 issue ar 3dispensary 4wash-upar 5bulkpreparation ar 6 dangerous drugs& poisonssto 7bulk sto 8chargeable empties 9inflammable liquids 10incinerator 11 goodsentrance 12do afemale b male 13 asepticrm 14sterilepreparationrm 15qualitycontrol 16sterilising mi 17staffrm 18deputypharmacist 19chiefpharmacist20general off 21 reception lob Arch SETRHA 1
LIBRARY 2typesof hospital lib, professionalformed and nursing staff, lending for
patients; libraries also—api 29 145—8. Professional normally attached educational areas; medand nursing lib traditionally separate. Both requirebookstacks (16 books/rn) with space for browsing, work tables and, if requested, study carrels —a(3) and securitybarriers at entrance and exit. Area140 m2for general hospital with post-graduate med training and similar space for nurse training school lib. Hospital without these activities will require approx 46 m2 for each profession. Patients' lib will serveboth ambulantand bedfast and openfor limited periodsduring day. 600-bed hospital may have 5000booksinarea 65 m2. Provide bookstacks (26 books/rn), chairs and tables usable by elderly and disabled —a(4)(5). Bedfast patients served at bedside from book trolley (cart) —a(6). Adjustable shelving needed take large print books. Permissible floor loading in theseareas should be checked as bookscan weigh up to 30 kg/rn run of5 shelf stacks. All ib need small workr(10m2)and book sf0with shelving (5m.
Many large hospitals manufacturepharmaceuticalsaswell asdispensing them. Some hospitals serve satellite hospitals, health centres, clinics and individual outpatients: check policies before starting design. Because goods delivered can be bulky and heavy main loading dock should beused;but because can beinflammable,explosive, corrosive, fragile, require special environmentforsto: if (UK) DangerousDrug Act (DDA) drugs, poisons, or other poisons liable to misuse, must be delivered tospecially designed protected areawith accessforauthorised persons only; ODA drugs must be transported in locked containersat all times.
Stoareas should providefloorsto forlargeitems, adjustableshelving for smaller items (300 for normal, 100 for small). Inflammable sto may contain items fromother dept: must be isolated from main bldg (refer to current legislation controlling design and use). Cool sto fordrugs must be kept remote from any heat source, including sun; thesesto often within security sto: should be internal with controlled access (refer current legislation for design and use). Bulk sto: divide into liquid and dry powder areas; allow for storing heavy items on floor; pallet and fork-lift systems suitable for some items; allow ample room for manoeuvring fork-lift. Preparation areas include large floor-mounted mixers and steamheated pans for manufacture; small lab may be required for quality control. Required also: machine to reduce items to unit packs; sterile area to prepare and package material for autoclaving, which requires inspection, labellingand sf0areas.Installautoclaves(largefloormounted machines) againstwallsso can be maintainedfromoutside sterile area. Stillsformanufacturing distilled water requirepiped connexion tosterile preparation area. All sterile areas require special dust-free finishes complywithstringent requirements of med inspectorate.Wash-up area requiressink, washing eqp, drying cabinets and shelving for clean and returned containers.
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wfreefohair users
3
Studycarrel,providedformed&nursingstaff; alsosuitableforPstudying
forexam
T' ;:! 10
iLLIAL1 2000 4 General lib: recommended mm spacebetweenbookstacks
5 General lib: informallayoutof table &chairs allowsforwheelchairs 1000
-t
Dispensing and messenger service areawith ante-rm foremptiesshould have counter and security sto forpharmacy boxes awaiting distribution. Hospitals which dispense toindividualoutpatientsneed separatecounter and waiting area forthis.
450
rurr tjiI Ii 1'
iij
•1 • P
III!I tII!I
II
liii!:
6 2x3u68201
oxygenmanitoid
213i
Lib trolley (cart)fortaking round wards
5amp spareoxygen switchfuse cyiinders
heavy tab
manitoid
2spareNO .,,u a
m
cylinders
200diacyhnders at255C/conmanifold at230c/consparesracks
controlunit
b
2 a Manifoldrmforsmall hospital bcombinedmanifold&sto rm;gases
normallysto:oxygen,nitrousoxide, nitrous oxide/oxygen,compressed air— mustnotbeput withhydrogenoracetylene;sto must beon ground level for accessfordeliveryvehiclesfromopenair, notfromcor; singlestorey, noncombustible,1 hrfrmm, 2brickwallsorequivalent; sto normally takes manifolds&racksforsparecylinders; typicalautomatic manifold with2duty& 2reservecylinders:1630 x 6lodeep:1 extracylindereachsidegives5lo extraI;2 x manifold—3600
.con,mons
1.__
ganges
0 102030m 32 64966
7
LayoutofteachingcentreKnightCampusUniversityofRhode Island USA
178 Community
Hospita/s avnumberofstaff on duty atany 1 time approx 20% oftotal employed. If
NON-RESIDENTSTAFFCHANGING
hoursworked bypart-time staff reduced, egto 30 hr/week, percentages of staff on dutyslightlylower.
As proportion of part-time staff tofull-timeincreases percentageoftotal staff on dutyatany1 time tendsto decrease. In allinstancesestimate of staffonduty
%oftotalstaff
full-timestaffonly 1 full-time: 2 part-time 1 full-time: 4 part-time 1 full-time: 10 part-time
19 18 17.5 17
12lX0
basis ofallocation
i locker300 x 550 x 1800
ii locker200 x 550 x 1 800
b
d
S N
0.43
I
0.5
I
T
I
I
&
LJ_L_IL
mirror
brushup
ar
-6olockers
Changingrm aforcompletechangeusinghanging basketsforclo sto—n(2),ar/P 0.48 m2, ar/Pwith personallocker0.55 m2; bforstaffrequired tochangedowntounderclothes; locker300 x 500 x 1800; 1 changingspace:8sto lockers; cforstaffrequiredtoremove outdoorclothing;locker200 x 550 x 1 800; 1 changingspace:5sto lockers
I
25.92
6150
4500
II
I
0.41
III [liii!!
--
5
Layoutfor150 personallockers nearuser's work station
tEIIL
I
.
F
I
I
! I
I
u
-
6 Bulk sto for384 sets cleanunfiform
EJI
ILII] L. LIIIII ILIII LIII
IIIJ
I'
LIII
23.23 4
3 Ancillaryaccnprovidedonpeakusefigures (peakuseby36staff)
S
II!IHThHHIHI
NI
2sho
Lockerforstaffrequiredto changedowntounderclothes egnurses
l2dlangU)gspaces _J__1__L_J
4
0.55 0.34
2592
9
I
brusliup
a
0.48
chemical disposal bin
comfortable seating & lowtables
mirrors
C
0.84 0.63
femalestaff 3 wcwith hb 2separatehb 2sho
informalarrangement of
tlIiiiLliLt
IiIIIIIIIIIIiiiI11111 Mliii II11111111 liii[11111 11111111 I
arrii
waitingar (peakuse by20 staff)
I
I-
acnn provided
2wcwith hb 3urinals 5separate hb
ii.
0.72
Spacerequiredbyeachemployeeforstoring & changingclothes:only immediatecirculationar included;entrances&maincorrvalyaccording to location &numberof staffinvolved
malestaff
}
II Ii.i41j.UIIL]tft LLLL[IIIIJ
II
2
1
1
liii III
II I
111111 11111111
IlJ
0.81
ia withsmall permanently
allocated lockersadjacent hangingbasketsallocated on permanentbasis:sto ofbaskets behindcounter,changing separateoradjacent i singletierhangingbaskets ii 2-tire hangingbaskets hanging basketsallocated on temporarybasis:sf0 of baskets behindcounter,changing separateoradjacent i singletier hanging basket ia with small permanently allocated lockersadjoining ii 2-tier hanging baskets ha with small permanently allocated lockersadjacent
liii
12000
b lockersallocated ontemporary basis,changing&sto combined
i locker300 x 550 x 1800
.4ljlockers.-
I.
a lockersallocated onpermanent basis,changing&sto combined
c
.'i_i_L_L1
U)
approxtotal
--
bench
S
Max percentageofstaffonduty at any 1 time
1
-
IliIIiIi[iIWiiIHI]]iiIiilIiW
3600
7 Bulk sto forsupply&disposalbagsfrom au:
10—12disposalbagscater approx300staff/week
10 Lockerforstaff requiredto removeoutdoorclothingonly
obstruction oflockerdoors byseatedperson
8
lockerdoors
Clearancesforlockers
Smallpersonallockersnear user's workstation 11
clearancesmustallowfor
12 Hangingbasket:loadedweighs about8kg
Community
179
Hospitals codeno
spaces
totalar
OFFICES
65
1
65
11
1
11
As in other industries and services demand for admin space grows alarmingly. Can bethought ofashaving2components,1 which processes
untar
space
m2
business off; clerks business off: manager staff lockers staff lounge credit/collections oft creditmanager credit/collections; off accounting off: comptroller accounting off; secretary accounting off; accountants accounting off; payroll accounting/audit; conference cashier; office
1
2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9
10 11
12
3
1
3
7 9 7
1 1
9
11
1
7 9 9 15 9
1
7
3
28
1
9 15 9
information and 1 which usesit. Processors: such deptasmedrecords, data processing, accounting; users: suchdeptashospital admin, med staff, financial control.Admissions combine both. Space requirement for each component different: for processing dept factors:volumeand typeof information and eqp used orprojected tobe used:inputchanging rapidly asdata processing advances;foruser dept peopledetermine spaces. Individual office spaces similar commercial offices —3235—8. People formprime design consideration:adminworkersgenerally spend alldayattheirposts; pleasantenvironmentaccordinglyimportant. Patient and med staff interface crucial. Privacy of interviews,particularly about thingsmedand/orfinancial must be considered. Typical space allocationsfor hospital offices in USA —e(1).
7 7
1
11
1 1
netarfotal
181 90 271
grossing factor (50%) grossartotal
Offspaceallocations
1
goods
+
receiving &shipping perishables special items
lambulant P care surgery! divisions IP dept delivery I emergency
todIetary to maintenance orpharmacy
central general sto
,1\
+ bulkfoods todietary
*
from
US
deptH
to requisitioning dept to alldept admin
eqp
to
rinted form
,,
Supply
receiving & ismantlina
(c'1 linen
to alldepl
supplies neweqP
centralsterile
CGS
tolau
linens
.
3
leaning allitems ssembling packs sterilising toring distributing
CSSDfunctionalrelationships
volatile liquids0 pharmacy separatesf0 I
2
CGSallocations number ofBserved
commodity
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Sf0Sr dry provisions coldsto provisions staff uniforms Pclothing cleaning materials hardware&crockery bedding & linen printing & stationery dressings (excCSSD) CSSD dressings med&surgical sundries disposables disposablebedpans &urinals es-localauthority items
total sto ar non-Sb ar basic totalar recommended total
stoar
90 25
125 35
45 5 20 25 15 95
65 10 25 35 20 130
45 20
145 50 80
190 70 105 15 40 55 35 195
215 85 120
25 155
170 60 95 10 40 50 30 175
270
45 60 40 220
245 95 140 15 50 70 45 245
60 25
70 30
80 35
85 35
95 40
105 40
115 45
125
60 50
75 65
95 85
110
125 110
145
95
130
160 145
180 160
195 180
60
75
100
110
130
155
175
185
210
65 620 370
105
125
140
160
180
200
835 1030 1185 1330 1525 1710 1895 390 425 465 475 490 520 555 990 1225 1455 1650 1805 2015 2230 2450
90
215 2085 565 2650
1050 1310 1560 1770 1940 2170 2400 2640
2860
10
35 45
15
105 155 20 55 75 55
275
295 120 170 20 60 85 60 300
50
4
DHI-1Sguide to planning centralsf0:requiredsto ar in m2 withworkingh between6000 &6500&sto upto5palletsh permanent use bedpans &urinals
SUPPLY STORES& DISPOSAL Nearly all goods, except sometimes pharmaceuticals and oftenfood, received and disposed centrally. UK daily av weight goods handled in 600 B hospital 3000 kg, waste produced 1 200 kg. Considerations relating to central general stores (CGS). Function: receiving sto, distribution of goods, supplies and movable eqp; inventory control. Main planning options: useofdisposables orreusables?Systems for materials handling, conveying and transport; remote sto possibilities. Key space: service courtforvehicles, sizedforseparateaccessto bldg entrypointsforvarious types service traffic—e(2). Receiving dockwith levellers. Warehouse: special/secure stoareas. Main design issues: separation of incoming goods from outgoing material(supplies,eqp,perishables,trash,refuse,soiledgoods); separate receiptand handling offoodstuffs; internally segregatedstoand control ofgoods (central supply sto(CSS), pharmacy,engineering); special sf0 requirements: med gases, volatile liquids. Items classified as fragile, or needing light, moisture or dust control, needspecial arrangements. Items withhigh security risk (eg radioactive material, dangerous drugs, inflammable gases, volatile material) must be stored in accordance with legislation and reg. Guide to UK areas required —(4). Sto areas at point-of-use must allow for extraspace required during public holidayperiodswhen portering staff not available.Usual holiday (UK):72-hrperiod 4or5times/year—*(5). Conveying methods vary fromhand-pushed trolleys (carts) toautomatic conveyor systems; UK experiencesuggestsautomatedsystem, needing trainedmaintenanceengineers, cannot be justified onsavings expected in labour costs: suchsystems vulnerable to mech failure or industrial action.
CENTRALSTERILESUPPLY Whathappens: centralised receipt, cleaning, packing,sterilisation, sto and distribution ofreusable supplies (UKcentral sterilised supplydepot (CSSD)). Special sterileprocessing of goods used inpatient care dept, particularly surgery, obstetrics, emergency. Functional relationships
Main planning options: closeness of relationship to other materials handling functions: CGS, Iau against traditional ties to certain users:
surgery, obstetrics. Means of conveyance for sterile goods (dedicated orgeneral usesystems). Key spaces: decontamination, sterile processing preparation, stoand issue. Main design issues: strictseparationofdirt and cleanworkareas, use ofsteriliserbank to formseparation; location ofsterilisation function for surgical instruments. loadw
cen clearw
1200 1100
1400 1300 1100 1000
900 750 600 450 300
24hr 48hr 72hr
90) 800 600
+
5Storequirementsatpoint-of-useover72-hrholidayperiodfordisposable &permanentuse items: disposableitemsincrease spacerequired
6 wofload carriedrelatedtowof corronsf0 ar
7
Reach&space requirements for avwomancollectingsto
180 Community
Hospita/s HOUSEKEEPING What happens:regular,thorough cleaningallparts hospitalwith special emphasis on infection control in patient care areas and with respect related materials flow; refuse disposal. Option: linen handling. Relationships diagram—v(1).
Main planning options: determine effecton workload ofcleanliness standard desired, extent ofair-conditioning/airfiltration,ease ofcleaning and maintaining interiorfinishes. Manual or mech means ofconveying trash(eg pneumatic tube system)? Manner and meansoftrashdisposal (—±lau/linen services). Key spaces: housekeeping materials sto (ie maids/janitors cpd, eqp sto); stafftraining area/admin. Main design issues: size and distribution of cpd; centralisation of eqp/materials sto.
LAUNDRY/LINENSERVICE What happens: dirty linen collected at points of use, conveyed to
centralised sorting stations; washed,extracted, dried, mended, ironed, stored. Clean linen distributed user dept according quantity and time schedules, Ifoutside commercialserviceused linencounted andweighed when sentand received; dirtycollection and clean distribution functions remain unaffected.
Main planning options:linen load: operating policies on linen use depend upondisposalsagainstreusables—epi 79(5).Dirty linen collection
DIETARYSERVICES Most space-consuming ofall service elements. What happens:meal service toseveralhospital populations:inpatients,
staff, ambulant patients, visitors. Procurement, diet planning, food preparation, distribution to inpatients by transport means, others by serving line and diningrm; dishwashing and cleaningof dirty returns.
Main planning options: form ofdistribution: bulk transportfromcentral kitchentolocal stations in patient unitsagainstcentralised tray make-up Key spaces: central kitchen: receiving and sto, preparation, cooking, dish-washing, scullery, waste, trash and garbage disposal. Dining (for staff, visitors, ambulant patients); service line, table seating; local distribution stations; nursing floor kitchens or pantries.
Maindesign issues:meansofdistribution of inpatient meals.—uFunctional
relationships food services—v(3). In UKtrend towards tray service fromkitchen asopposed bulksupplies to ward—v(5): patients can choose menu day before. Food may travel several km before reaching destination: insulated trays and plates on heated carts/trolleys essential. Diet kitchen provides both med and ethnicdiets. Machinery noise and vibration can be disturbing, particularly potato peelers, food mixers and central wash-up machinery.All ventilatorsand grilles removable and washable. Floors and walls: impervious easy clean finish; floorsnon-slip; floordrains must have grease traps.
system: handlingand accumulation at points of use, meansofconveyance to sortingstation, infection control, volume of cart/trolley traffic, overall cleanliness. Clean linen distribution: cart/trolley system to user dept, sf0system in units. Inventorycontrol: preventingwasteful use,excessive wear, lossfrompilfering. Key spaces: dirty collection and holding: hamper packing,chutes and vestibules. Lau: area, shape and height forefficient handlingof material and for employee comfort. Clean linen distribution and sto: cart/trolley parking, shelf-cabinet sf0.
Main designissues: degree of decentralisationin bed unitsof nurse workareas and supplies/linen sto. Pneumaticsystem expense against general cleanliness in patientunits and corridors.Functionalrelationships
9 ..—.-—------.mainflowsofsb & food staff foodhom dayiarder
2crockerywashed 3centraiwash-up 4diningcrockerysin Sserviceeiovator towards 6eqpsto 7cartJtroiiey8diningservery 9staffdr 10conveyorDeft 11 wardservery l2barderraii l3dietk l4dietoff l5ia l6refusesto l7stuilrm l8sio lgteabar20chefoff 21 cio afemate bmaie 22 maink 23vegetabiepreparation24 vegetabiesin 25day ia 26 dry goodssto 27 plantrm 28fish preparation29 mealpreparation30 pastrypreparation 31 pot wash 32domesticsupervisor 33 corr 34 meatfresh 35 caienngofficer 36 ramp Arch Oxford 1 scrapingbench
At-IA
5
2
Lau/linenservicerelationships
Kitchen area Wycombe DGHEngland,serves650meals/sitting; individualfood platesprepared forPon conveyor belt;tilledtray takenby trolley to wardsby lift; usedtrays& crockery washedcentrally
4 Housekeepingrelationships Hennepincounty food preparation service
typIcalgaflery
3
Foodservicerelationships
cartreceiving
HennepinCountyMedical CenterMinneapolisUSAhas automateddeliveryservices includingmonorail-styletrack& chain conveyornetworkwith moving lockers&containersforcarrying files, allkinds ofmaterials,medicine &food,deliveredfrom separate food preparationbldg Arch Medical FacilitiesAssociates—General
Community
181
Hospitals 5
10
15
30
O
15
4
20 25m oh 75ft
ClydebankScotlandHC groundfloorwith wingsforlocal healthauthority, hospitalservices&GP,some amenities being shared 1 consult 2 interview 3 disposal 4waiting 5drugs 6wc 7treatment 8 lob 9test 10typist 11 sterilesto 12sto 13telephone 14switchboard 15secretary 16records&reception 17 entrance 18play centre 1
COMMUNITYHEALTHCARE Community health care inUK, alongside general practitioner (GP), now principally provided by health centre (HO). In USA 'free-standing' ambulatory unitsfall into several categories, in addition to physician's office, generally with twofold aim providing preventative medicine and making available health care atlower cost than involved in full hospital treatment. Each such unit starts with programme worked out meet marketneeds within service area, community or region. Various types unit include Health MaintenanceOrganization (HMO), founded some 40 years ago asalternative insuranceprogrammeforindustrialworkers, primary care centres in rural areas tor emergency exam and treatment (include pre-hospital beds), community healthand social centres usually founded by local or regional government. Each of these may contain some, all or more services than UK HC. Larger ones often attached hospitals. HC primary activities: consult, exam and minor treatment backed by med records, reception, waiting and sto areas. Basic amenities must include: pram and carparking, wcforpatientsand staff, changingareas, rest rm with kitchenette forstaff. Secondary activities forlargeHC may include diagnostic and treatment services — physiotherapy, chiropody, dentistry, radio diagnosis and pharmacy — and health clinics for education and assessment, off for health visitors,domiciliary nurses, social workers etc. Viable size for HC consulting resources for not less than 6 GP, but as vital to place HO near population served may be smaller and less well equippedin rural areas.
On basis 1 GP has approx 2500 patients, centre for 6 GP will serve population
of 15000 and for 12 GP 30000. Assume health visitor can
coverapprox3500 and district nurse 2500people. Sitesmust be near public transport routes; access fromroads and car parks must be designed for wheelchair—p19 43 166 and pram users.
lp
9 15
3b
15m
455
2 CrieffScotlandHC 1 consult 2dirtyuty 3urinetest 4wr 5healthvisitor 6telephone 7k 8staff 9boiler 10disposal 11 do 12toilets 13reception 14 treatment 15entrance
Entrancesshould be protected from rain and prevailing winds and have covered and well supervised pram park.Allow forprotecteddisposalarea forwaste: check with local authorityor health authorityhow tobecollected. Large centres may requireseparatestaff and service entrance; patients entrance may need canopyhigh enough take ambulance—p166(2).HO groundsshould beattractivebutsimply landscaped formm maintenance. Manyrm in HO serve same purpose as equivalent rm in OPD: same layoutcan be used with minor adaptations. Main difference: HO do not deal with suchlarge numbers of patients; nor do they deal with acute med and surgical cases needing sophisticated diagnosticand treatment eqp. Rm which can easily be adapted for HO are set out —+p166—7; most importantare: wheelchairwcp167(6),disposalrm, p167(8),dinette & urine test rm, p167(5), ambulance dimensions, p166(2), automatic doors, p166(4), disabled patients car parking, pl66(3).
Waiting
Provide general waiting area. Small forward waiting areas required for each group of consult rm. Assuming appointmentsystem, allow 7.0 n? waiting areaforeach suite. Seatingshould becomfortableand informal. 3200
3
Dentalsuite,2-man practice; dentalchair(165—200 kg),dentalunit (51 kg) needfirm fixingtofloor;services required: water,waste,gas, el, compressedair 1 hb 2couch 3curtain 4armchairs 5recoveryrm 6steriliser 7aspirator 8sk 9disposal 10dental chair 11 smalldental surgery 12worktop 13dentaleqpcabinet 14operating lamp 15cartltrolley 16 anaestheticcart/trolley 17desk 18largedentalsurgery 19 gasoutlet 20benchwith benchpin 21 wastehole bin below 22dustextract 23duckboard 24 dentalworkshop 25filing 26 DDAcpd 27dentalunit
Med records
Med records in 2 sizes: standard 175 x 125, new A4 in folders 310 x 240. Sto may bein shelves, filing cabinetsorrotaryfilingunits. Including access these methods require floor space 1 .5—2.0 m2/1000 records. Shelves cheap butoffer nosecurity; cabinetsexpensive butsecure and adaptable;rotary notsecureand expensive.Allow for increaseinnumbers
of records.
Dental clinic —(3) Dental clinicfor2-man practice consists of 2 surgeries (1 large enough for principal surgery), recovery rm with couch and basin for postanaesthesia patients, dental workshop and waiting area plus normal central records and reception area. Allow 9.5 m2 waiting area for 2 surgeries. Surgeries should have NEaspect if daylight needed buttrend towardstheatre-type operating lamps and more mobile eqp. Obscured glazingrequired for windows.
Chiropodyroom—(4)
Should be on ground floor oraccessible by elevator.
4
Hospital references: —*Bibliographyentries 013014017020022023024025054 218219 220262 294 296 303 315 336 337 341 349354 362 419 420 421 478 Chiropodyrm,11.0m2
525547551 559560576577578647
182
Commerce
Churches celebrant's chair highaltar communion CflOi,tl sidealtar
hafor orchestra vestry
sacristyflC
sacnsty
dom i_tp1p1t I
pulpit
&
hafor
baptistryIf' 4N towers
altar
communicant
choir
t
sarcophagus
DesignforBerlinerDom (Lutheran)GermanyArchSchinkel 1
2 Typical Roman Catholicchurch layout
entrance font
ladychapel
—i
high with lantern over
pressionaI door
4
St Paul Bow Common (Anglican) LondonEnglandArch R Maguire
and Russian), Reformed,RomanCatholic,separationbetween Orthodox and Roman dating fromearliest history of Christianity, break between Reformed and RomanCatholic from 16th century. In Roman Catholic churches emphasis now placed onmass in common tongue; altar usually raised. Reformed order of service depends on whether 'high', 'low' or 'free'. Some likeness between forms of Roman Catholic, High Anglican and High Presbyterian (Scotland and USA). Free followCalvinist and Lutheran origins with emphasis on preaching and communion carried out round 'Lord's Table', usuallycentrallyplaced with nearbypulpiteither behind table orto left hand side. Baptists need large heated water tank usually under removable floor for inititiation by total immersion. Fonts used almost universally for initiation into main groups and dedication into others. Many newer religious sects have
idiosyncratic requirements related to special forms and musical performances. In USA Protestantchurches have approx70million members, Roman Catholic 50million, Orthodox4million. Churches throughout world now have strong community concern; planning often relates to weekday uses; keyword flexibility. Ancillary accn, according to programme, may incorporate, eg coffee rrn, counselling rm, meeting rm, radio station. Car parking must be taken into account. Centralised planpopular;but ritualistic, processionaland oblong forms also used. However, importance ofpriest, pastororleader should not belost; liturgical functions carried outbyindividualchurches of great importance in design. More recently new factors have emerged, among them security of church property, adequate acoustic design (for music and voice) and provision fordisabled.
high
sacristy communicants
altar sacristy
wc
9
side tar
congregationa chapel
font
pul
GENERALARRANGEMENT Main divisions ofChristian churches today: Orthodox (principallyGreek
erPU2 5 Circular Protestant church
Roman Catholicchurch Cologne-RietilGermany Arch D Bôhm 6
0
EssenGermanyArch Bartning
'Iss,y -
—
communion — —
pulpit. pulpit
•
UI
II
Lrr
sacrlstry-
7
CorpusChnsti(RomanCatholic) churchAachenGermany Arch A Schwarz
"-i'
—altar
stage
chapel
J
10 OrthodoxchurchofSt SavaMcKeesport USA ArchPekruhn wc
k(tea)
8 Church&parishha(Reformed) 1-lanweilerGermany Arch R Kruger
¶ii --4—
-
2
--f---FllI—i11 —
9 Notre Damedu Raincy(RomanCatholic)ParisFranceArch A Perret key 1 sanctuary 2nave 3pulpit 4baptislry 5secondaryaltars 6confessional
11 StMichaelHatfieldHyde (Anglican) WelwynGarden City England Arch Clarke HallScorer& Bright key 1 entrance 2chapel 3vestly 4pulpit&lectern 5baptistry 6altarwith
baldachino
Community 183
Churches seatw= 500-550 hathook — eso
INTERIORS,FURNISHINGS
a = 850—950 b = 50—140
a = 800—900
Seating
Seatw= 500—550
In some churches provision for worshippers to kneel not necessary —(1); inotherssimple hassock or kneeler incorporated in bench—(2). Most important measurement for benches with kneelers: distance of outside edgeof kneeler, when foldeddown, fromperpendiculardropped fromarm rest: approx 175—200.
I
350
i50fJt 160
Area/seat required: withoutkneeling rail 0.4—0.5 m2—(1); with kneeling rail0.43—0.52m2—(2).
_________________
heating
I
2
Seatingwithout kneerail
Aisles
Seatingwith knee rail
Dimensions —*(3)—(6). Cold radiation from external walls makes side aisles advantageous. Centralaisle useful for processionalentryand exit in larger churches. In UK aisle should be provided for every 8—10 persons length of bench (benches more than 10 persons long need aisle ateach end— in USA more than 7persons). Including aisles allow 0.63—1.0 m2/P. For standing allow 0.25—0.35m2; on crowded occasionswall space and rear aisles may be used. Width of exitdoors and stairs should complywithregforplaces ofassembly—*p401.
_____ T'
_________
I2__ T
J._________
4
5
Pulpit
_____
Requirements vary from church to church —(7)(8)(10). Usually raised with steps; but growing practice also place on level of sanctuary or raised 1 step. In RomanCatholicchurches pulpit nowlikelybe replaced by2 ambos or reading desks, 1 ateach side. In 'free' churches pulpit of central importance. In all churches essential preacher be visible to whole congregation.
6
Altars—(9)
_________ _____ __________________________________________________________ 3—6 Aisle ___________________________ __________________________
Roman Catholic and some Anglican churches have sacrament houseor tabernacle (small decorated cupboardwith lockabledoors, bolteddown and immovable: —*cataloguesof church furnishers): may be in side chapel oron plinth behind main altar,some2000away. Separate side chapel sometimes desired.
pulpit)
4t lectern
altar
Sacristy
Font
pulpit
font
centrelineof aisle _________________________ 7 Pulpit&attarinsame axis
centre lineofaisle
_________________________ Pulpitsidewaystoaltar
8
—
9
Altar tableforsmall reformed churches
In Reformed churches altar usually placed close rear wall; may have passage at back. Many Roman Catholic and someAnglican churches now have altar in centre ofsanctuary: priest orcelebrant stands behind to face congregation forpurpose of worship.
Used for baptism; often symbolically placed in or near entry of church, though in Protestant churches in USA sometimes placed conveniently for baptism to formpartof main service. May be 1 or2 steps lower than, and separate from, main body of church (baptistry —p182(2)(9)(1 1)), with room for up to 30 people to stand during baptism. For Baptist churches immersion tank—p182.
Confessional boxes
Best placed in aisles: separate compartments for priestand penitent —*(13).Construction mustbesound proof.
10 Pulpit(microphoneshave
madesoundingboardunnecessary)
550
550 11
Lectern
12
Font
13
Confessional box
550
184 Community
Churches GALLERIES,ORGAN Galleries
viewovershoulder
&head
Increase seating capacity for same area; also improve acoustics if suitable distance from pulpit: common in Reformed churches. Have tiered seating so that congregation at back may see and hear better. Convenient positions: opposite altar wall (for organ and choir) or sidewaysopposite pulpit. Height of gallery determined by necessary free sightofcongregation beneath itin relationto altar and pulpit. Stairs and exits from galleries must comply with reg for assembly halls. RequirementlP 0.7—1.0 m2inclusive ofgangways—(1).
viewover shoulder 100—140
Galleryseatingtiered,riserswith lighting:must be possibleseealtar oratleastpulpit over headsof occupantsofsecondrowinfront 1
Choir galleries
2
Smallorgan (Walckertype)with 15stopsforchurchha&smaller churches
1300—1600
Infrontoforgan —*(5) have 100—150 high steps (increasingfronttorear)
and are 1 000—1 200wide.Ifdesirable choiron loose chairs arranged in semi-circle infrontofconductor; if necessaryorgan console canalsobe in front ofconductor with orchestra seats built upbehind toachieve unity between organ, orchestra and choir. Next to conductor's desk and organ console largecupboard for musicsheets; outsidegallery suitable cloakrm forchoirmembers.
Organs
3 Chamberorgan (Walcker-Jahn) with about275 pipesforha
organ
I
4
Organwith manualclosedby rollershutter
I:
/
\
\\Lorganist I steps (Or choir V,organconsole conductor 120h orchestra 5 Organ &choir: organconsolein frontofconductor,organdivided
'.W
organist
stepsforchoir rgan 120 h harmonium conductor console
6
Organ& choirwith harnionium & organ placedtoeach side, otherwiseas5
7
SectionthroughVuoksenniskachurchImatraFinland withgallery& organ Arch Aalto
1J ft
8
Each voice needs width of 2000—3000 and 250 depth. Each voice weighs 200kg therefore 10-stoporgan needsarea (if 3000—4000)hof10 (3 x 250) = 7.5 and weighs 10 x 200 = 2000kg,therefore approx 300 kg/m2. But organ specialists ask for 750 kg/m2. Height determined by length of pipes. Largest: 32 ftopenvoicepipe 11 m high with sounding board; is passed through several storeys or may be bent. Determining factor: 8ftpipe, 3000high with sounding board. Therefore storey height for smaller churches may be 3000—4000, for larger churches 4000—5000. Organ may be divided —*(5). Bellows best in separate rm if possible. Organ builder should be consulted at planning stage, also regarding appearanceofvisual pipes.
m
main organbellows I music do'— I sheets
j±4rgan
:j:
Specialist should be called in for organ installation (acoustic specialist also important). Size oforgan (number of voices and stops) notsimply relative to sizeof church asvolume variable, butgenerally: smaller churches 200—300m3/voice medium churches 300—400m3/voice largerchurches 400—500m3/voice
Romancatholicparishchurchwith organ &choirgalleryat Wend Arch Schwarz
In USAorgansoftenelectronic.
Community
185
Mosques m,hr6b wall
::;::::: :
i
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•
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awt
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,4::::::::
entrance
1 Simple mosquearrangement: Tlemcen Mosqueofal-Mansur
2
Friday MosqueIsfahan: 8th—I 7th centuriesAD
1303—1306 AD
-
-
I..
'
-
court
1•I..i
I.. m
______
32 64 tt
gateways
3
Mosqueof az-ZãhirBaybars: 1266—9 AD
4
Mosque&courtSehzade MehmetIstanbul: 16th centuryArch Sinãn
•
5 dorne53mh mrhrab
Holy mosque at Mecca, most holy sanctuary of Islam, to which all mosques should preferably face (arrows in illustrations),houses ka'bah. Ka'bah stands inhugecourtyard surrounded byarcaded precinct which formspattern for many subsequent examples. However, mosques vary extensivey throughout Islam from square village hall types to great historical examples in Egypt, Syria, Spain, Iran, Turkeyand India. Few purpose builtexamples in W: many sects, with varying needs, adapt or rent existingbldg for Friday prayers and for the twoid celebrations,for Islamic newyearand end of Ramadan.
3 main types oftraditional mosque: early open plan, usuallyto befound
arcades, colonnades and courtyards incorporating areas of water — most important for ablutions but also for cooling. These elements often used symbolically in designs and heavily ornamented or planned as landscape features round mosques. Main architectural feature mihrab basic to allmosques: setinwallfacingMecca (k/b/a wall),oftenemphasised bywindows orby dome above. Monumentalgrandeur ofmosque came largely through need to enclose activities in harsher northern climates but also related to advances in vault construction in 11th and 12th centuries AD; thus domed mihrab area was enlarged by single vault prayer hall or 4 vaultiwansor //wans arranged symmetrically around court. Tendency usethispatternwithopenorclosed courts according to climate.
Minaret 'Call to prayer' toweroften attached to mosque: name derives from 'lighthouse'. After introduction of loudspeakers little used for calling. Types varyfromnoneto cylindrical needle minarets inglazed tile with 1
I-+4 0 lOm
Early mosques characterised by wide and shallow shape —÷(1 )(2) to enable ranked formation ofbelievers face mihrab wall.(Mihrab itself is niche resembling door: highly decorated featurein laterexamples.)
in desertregions; central court, patterned after Mohammed's house at Medina; opencourt, with 4vaulted halls (iwans) 1 oneach side ofcourt. Mosque bldg have followed climatic needs for shade through use of
domedarc,vermihrb
.•...
Mosque place of prayer forMuslims: not necessarilybldg. Term derives from masjid, meaning prostration. Prayer as community act not mentioned in Quran but derives from prophet Mohammed's Friday communal meetings. Friday sermon (khutba) set piece, made fromtop of stairs (minbar), oftenincorporated as feature.
Suleymaniyecomplexincluding mosque Istanbul; covers6000Cm2 & includesnumerousancillarybldg Arch Sinän
high gallery, common in Iran; typewith 2—3 galleriescapped with wood conesand based on polygonal plan in Turkey; often 2—6 minarets per mosque in somecountries, depending on size.
Segregation
Male worshippers only in most mosques although gallery for women oftenfound. Some sects, eg Ishmailis,fully integrated.
Ablutions
Requirement ofthefaith; modern western examples—e(7) include these with other toiletarrangements in partof bldg nextto nearby congregation hall.
Planning Because of ranked formation allow 680—1 250/standing P incongrega-
tion hall. Carpets and other floor coverings required as faithful are barefoot: sto space forshoesrequired. Axial layout common butopen courtyard forprayers useless inWclimates.
Decoration Accepted generallyshould be non-representational although notdecreed. This rigidly observed tradition, however, allows free use of calligraphic devices from Quran which forms valuablecounterpart to plain surfaces and basic architectural forms.
b,ns
sunke garden
0
5 10 15
21)
•244
makkarl rn
It
Londoncentralmosque agroundfloor b lowergroundfloor Arch Gibberd& Partners 6
_____________________
186
Community
Synagogues No formal architectural precedent forsynagogues (literally 'assembly); tend to followarchitectural styleof country in which built. Dual function ofplace ofworship and of social orcommunity meetings tendsdemand complex of bldg. 3 divisions of Jewry all require space for prayers; conservative and reform Jews use choir and organ butorthodox Jews donot use instrumental music. Liturgical furniture consists of: ark, focal pointgenerally at E containing scrolls; paroches, curtain-typecovering; candelabrumtoright;pulpit for rabbi and cantor. Furniture mounted on berna, raised platform at centre (orthodox) orendof hail (conservative,reform).
I
: 12
Second commandment proscribes 'making of graven images, so ornamentation floral or geometric.
-
9
.
0
2
3b
3pm
do
3 Beth Israel Synagogue&schoolOmahaUSA:seats650 insanctuary & extra 800in congregational assemblyha;courtyardprovides additional multiuseflexibility 1 congregational h 2synagogue 3rostrum 4stage 5k 6sto &uty 7foyer Bcantor 9rabbi 100ff 11 chapel l2court l3classrrn Arch Kivett&Myers
12
.7Ii
76 9 8 L6
2
9
1
1
0
5 45
Om
.3
don
4
14'
ic 1
0 KTISynagogueNewYork:accommodates upto 1000;noteflexiblespace forsocial andlor religioususe 1 socialha 2sanctuary 3k 4entrancefoyer Arch PhilipJohnson 1
2
JewishCentreWestOrangeUSA:allweeksocial, religious&educational use; chapelseats250—350; multi-purposerm upto750onhighholy days Arch David BrodyJuster&Wisnuewski
21
4
23 10 20
p 4 5 mft
odo9o1o
TempleBethElUSA:normalseating1000canbeextendedto 1600;bldg includesprovisionforreligiouseducation, lib& dramaticpresentations 1 temple 2retiringrm 3chair sto 4classr 5supply&mimeograph rm 6off 7coveredentrance 8vestibule 9lob lotemplegarden 11 pool 12chapel 13socialha 14socialgarden 15ante-mi 16rabbioff 17women 18men 19 lib 20stage 21 k 22 dressing rm 23driveway Arch Percival Goodman
5 Planofmain floor ParkSynagogue&community centreCleveland USA Arch Erich Mendelsohn
Community 187
Mortuariesand crematoria MORTUARIES 1 3l0—, 350
Dead kept in cellsseparated by partitions (usually sheetmetal, sometimes plants) —v(3). In larger mortuariesgangwayforbearers separated from visitor's —(3b), from which relatives may see dead through airtight glass panes before funeral service. Protruding piers between cells preventinconvenience to different groupsof mourners —s(3b). Usual dimensionsof cells:
450—600
780—900
,
Urn &coffin
1
2200x 3500
750—1100
2500 x 3750 3000 x 3500
2
I C'J
i
visitors
bearers
.1
:. visitors
I
CJ
huH
LLIL!LLIL a
:.
I
I
2°to 12°C; if it fell below mm figure frost could expand corpses. This temp range maintained by central heating, air conditioning and, specially in summer, ventilation. Floorsmutbeimpervious, smooth and easyto cleanse; walls best lime washed (frequent renewal advisable). Larger mortuaries also need rm for guard and bearers 15—26 m2 inclusive oftoilets and lavatories.Stand for hearses also needed.
Tempin mortuary:
wneededbybearers
...
1 bearers 8 visitors
Mm
In city morturaries special rm may be set aside for unidentified bodies with sto for their clothing, next to which locate post-mortem rm and surgery—s(6).
bearers
(::..:.:::.i
250O
CREMATORIA Furnace room
3
Mortuarylayouts
[acnn wreaths
T wreaths
j,_,Ob,,j proiestani priest
rails
catholic priest
coffin
chapel
— Plan ofinstallationwithfurnace belowchapel 4
—
5
Furnacerm behindchapelwith interveninglob
Should beeitheron lowerfloorwith liftforcoffins —n(4)orbehindchapel, separated from it by lobby —v(5)(6). Horizontal transport with handoperated winches easiest, hydraulic lifts being necessary for vertical movement. Lobby door orfloor trap designed to shut slowly as coffin disappears through opening. In furnace rm coffin taken from transport carriage and transferred to chamotte grating infurnace. Cremation performed byspecial coke, elor gas-fired furnace consuming 45 kW per cremation. Height of 2-storey furnace 4300. Cremation completely dust freeand odourless by means of900—1 000°C dry air; no flames reachdeceased. Furnacepre-heated for2—3hrand cremation itself lasts 1—1 1/4 hrafter which ashesgathered in iron boxforsto in urn. Cremation supervised through peep-holes.
Chapel
Cremation installations should ifpossible lie atrear ofcemetery chapel, whichserves all denominations. Sizeof chapel varies: must be at least 100 seats and 100standing places; also 1—2rm forrelatives(which may be addedto chapel rm) and such ancillary rm as may prove necessary
Administration
Conveniently close by chapel should be admin rm: 1 for director, 2—3 offices,coffin sto, flats forcemetery keeper and boilermanetc; nursery can be located nearby, with greenhouse —+pl 11, rm for gardener and landscape architect, worker's rm, stoforeqp and seeds, and toilets.
Urns & gravestones
Oftenlimitedin size by cemetery reg —(1); wall niches in columbaria usually 380—400wide and deep, and 500—600 high.
I
drive
6
Layoutofmortuarywithcrematorium andancillarymiforlargecemetery
Religious buildings references —Bibliography entries 005 070 072 160 184 311 312478579 620
188 Commerce
Shops & stores SITUATION each floor stockrm controller/buyer
Prominent sites in population centres served by convenient public and private transport. Carparking standards in UK, 3.5—5.25 car spaces per lOOm2grossretail area(3—4changesday). In USA max 150 cars/acre.
Access admindirectors personel accounts advertising
1
Pedestrians, vehicles and delivery traffic should be kept separate; shopping centre best restricted to pedestrians, short connexions (covered to protectfromsun and rain) linking parking area and shops. Bus stops or underground railwaystations may be adjacenttoshopping centrewith direct access. Max distance between shopper's car orbus stop or station and principal shops should be 201 m and should be withininnerdistribution road system.
taffaccn
canteen lockers training rest rm lecture rm medical care
Plananalysisofrm& routesofcustomers &goods
Spaceallocation—*(l)
Large stores may have lecture and demonstration rm, restaurants, cafes, kindergartens, banks, post office, travel agencies, cinema and garden area.Small shops often grouped in shoppingcentre —*pl 99—201. Design begins with allocating space to units, conforming to tire and other reg, followed by subdivision into sales areas, internal service areas, jointservices etc.
Sales areas Should be immediately above one another and asnear entranceflooras possible. Basement betterfor selling than additional upper storey, so stock rm and staff rm best located on upper storeys, with offices on highestfloor.
Storeyheights 2
Free standingmodularsheMng units makeupmajorpartoffurniture in modemestablishments
mainpassage
For largeunits, 4000—5000;forsmall units, 3000dependenton services (UK practice). Unnecessary floor to floor heights deter customers and are tiring to staff. Shop units do not rely on natural lightbut on artificial lightingwith mechventilation.
Structuralgrid
i200N mainpassage
EBEB1 § E
3
Aisles Recommended mm aisle width: 1 980, subsidiary aisles 990. Counter heights generally 920. Systemmodulesvary accordingto type ofshelving and bracketing used.
3 J13 —.
Column dimensions and centres determine lay-out of fittings. Recommended structural grid: large units, between 7300and 9000width on frontage and 9150depth; small unitsbetween 5300and 6000width on frontage, 18to 36m depth front to back.
mainpassage
20i-
40 +266 420-1
Ft I
Functionaldisplaystandsfor differenttypes of merchandisewith units running betweenequalcolumn centres
f144
. 100
4 Arrangementof furnitureunits
5
Sectionthroughshopsalesfloor withaislewwhichhaveprovedpractical inuseforpersonalservice
14 T LJ1 II 110
LI; flH _____ 11I1 - 20
—iii 41
j
Commerce 189
Shops & stores
k::m;
cable
duct
L
MOVEMENTBETWEEN FLOORS
groundfloor salesar
fl
Number and widths of staircases —xp408 Bib5Ol 628 and exits prescribed by reg. In UK number of staircases relatedto travel distances, widths of staircasesand exits relatedtooccupancy,eg UK practice calculates loadas follows: ordinary consumer goods 1.9 m2 gross floor area/P; specialised shops 7 m2grossfloorarea/P.
11
1rl.dispiay diy9w4 trmii
upperfloor
window basement
Separateexitsfrom basement& upperfloors instair well 1
2 Emergencystairsin multi-storey bldg
r 3
4
Unimpededexit fromstairs
5°5 122 N
-.. 30.5
Max distancefromenclosed inUK
staircase
iii 41111111111111111111
lllllllllllll
IIIII
5 Back-to-backarrangement of elevators
6
Combination of elevators & escalators
-
Ancillaryrm onmezzanine level
Should be in groupsvisible fromentrance; in large stores in centre of bldg not more than 50 m fromanypart ofsales floor.May be arrangedin groupsback to back or incombination with escalators —x(5)(6).
Escalators—*p409
Essential when mm of approx 2000 P/hr must be transported; should run in successive series (return flights) toall sales floors, both directions. Best placed in centreof floorvisible from all entrances: pitch 30In UK may need tobeenclosed tocomply with fire reg;normally open in USA. Refreshment rm oftenon top floor with kitchen and hoist tosto.
2200
7
Elevators—xp4l 0—2
In USAelevators onlyused forcarrying goods; notcommon in new dept stores: nearly all have escalator bands, parallelorscissor.
2200
.1
Different reg governmulti-storey stores and shops, and 1-storey small shops. Except for 1-storeyunits UK reg require shop bldg to be divided into compartments notexceeding 7080m3—xtire reg. This prevents use of very largestaircases, makes use of escalators difficult and restricts features suchas open wellsbetween more than 2floors—n( 1)—(4), In USA determine total occupancy, consult national and local codes: bldg classified by use and fire ratings; open floor areas subject to sprinkler systems, fire curtains, specified exits etc. Most customers use escalators; elevators availableforexpress service. Numbers of customers to be transported fromground floor estimated fromdensity x storey area x number of storeys (8O% on escalators, 20% elevators); this figure must be divided by capacity of transport chosen to give number of elevators and escalators required.
Ancillary rm
8 Goods deliveryinparkingbays
Wc,telephone booths, staff cloakrmand lavatoriescommonly placed on mezzanine floor —u(7); oftenplaced in basement in USA, alsobargains —(10).
Goodsdelivery
NocTNNJNJ sales
5000
luxurygoods
NfNJNJNJNJ
salesservice 5000
clothes
2500
fast sellinglines
5000
bargains
---I9
Separated from customer circulation, frequently in goods yard or by delivery ramps. Delivery may be made to goods sto connected to general sf0, perhaps with automatic conveyors. If delivery difficult in busy street, parking bays recommended —u(8). Circulation through receiving rm, sto rm etc, to selling positions —r(10). Refuse and waste has to be handled from dept back to despatch through waste disposal
dailynecessities. restaurant,demonstrations
2500
Intermediate stockrm floors
which take floor structure (in USA stockdeliveredfromgroundfloor or
area.
10
Favourablearrangementof goodsforefficientsellingon sales floor
basement)
backwardsliding downward withhatch frombasement sliding
II>
11
—F-
3000
—4—
Singledisplaywindow
3000 —
[:i
1 12
4—
1
°°.
I
1000 -4 i—
L__J
t6o0 i.—
12 Continuousdisplaywindow with movablecpdunits
1000 —
5000
-
•.
'iHT!
services cpd
—.—
—4
5000
13 Accessfrom behindcolumns
I .........
—-4
14
.- s
accessgangway
5000
Withaccessgangway
cpd
—4—-
190 Commerce
Shops & stores --
SERVICEDETAILS 5000
—-1
Back-upstock
Either on 1 floor,preferably top salesfloor,or on each floor in separate backstock rm areaoron low mezzanine floors—pl89(9). 2000
Goodstransport
hoist, chute, roller conveyor, conveyor belt, ramp conveyor, spiral chute, fork-lift,palleted trolley.
By trolley (cart), goods 500500
—
I—
3400
Displaywindowextendedby havingshop entrancebehindit & staircaseto upperfloors set back: internalw of shopmm 2600 1
500
5650
Displaywindows—(1)—(8)
—
2
Very deepshopsoftenpermit extensivedisplaywindows, impressiveeven ifshopitself quite small
=
Separate fromcustomers,ifnecessaryinconjunctionwith goodsdelivery; own stairs to cloakr, whichshould be 0.4—0.5 m2/P.Staff rm preferably on top floor.
Shouldbeatmm rate of1 for25females, 1 forevery 25 males upto 100 and 1 for every40thereafter; however, ratio of 1:15 recommended,with washbasins prorata. Staff should beprovided with drinking water, rest rm, lockerrm, drying arrangementsforoutdoor clothes, control oftemp, ventilation and lighting, seating (UKreg).
2300 6250
] —-
---H
Building regulations
6001er
tI3500
Staff entrance
Staff wc
-H
--
Interchangeable fitments usual in dept stores. In designing window spaceimportant give easyaccess to display, with mm loss of display spaceat back—p1 89(13)191(1 )—(4).
3000 —i--- 3000
—
3
Deepshops mayhavewide vestibuleswith displaywindowsat anglestoentrance,attracting customersawayfromstreettraffic
4
5 Fornarrowfrontagerecess entrancetoprovidelargerdisplay area&anglesofviewthroughoffsets
6 Byslantingentirewindowar&
Centraldoorssuitableforshops 6000—6200wide; countersmay beinstalledonboth sides;shouldbe cash!wrapneardoor
havingdoorsinsameline, ideaof(5) isdevelopedtoitslogicalconclusion
Consultreg on construction, eqp and finishes ofshopsand stores. In UK: openings inwall must beof appropriatefrconstruction and comply with appropriate bldg reg. Division floorsmust be of approved fr construction with all vertical communication between floorscut off. Floor heights usually governed bygeneral bldg height limits laid down byreg. Sales areas should be mm 3000 high.
B Properlyplacedfittingsallow customerstomove fromentranceto sales counter,cashdesk,issuing counter&exit withoutreverse circulation
9 Noseparationbetween customer&sales staff:wholermat disposalofcustomer(self-service)
i4 dispay'ndow
7 Automaticinstallation foropening&closingdoors(1-leafdoorwith 2-way passage,entrance&exit coupled):aphoto-elcell &light barrier; b contactmat
/
10 Shopforindividual consult, fitting tables,egfortryingon spectaclesin optician
11
Flowershop with largewindow
&display ar: rearofshopfor arrangingflowers
Commerce 191
LJ narrow deep frontage window dressing ar
______ max windowat frontage
j
narrow flat frontage
[XI
Shops & stores
iDJ wide frontage
yj wide frontage
SERVICE DETAILS
Stock & despatch rooms
Sto and workshops to be separated from sales areas by fr walls and floors(UK reg), thesetobe treated as separate sto areasand to comply with restrictions on compartment size.
Entrance&exits
Inbldg ofover 1 500 m2usable floor areaallyards should have entrances entranceto separate offover
____________island showcase max display
door access __________________
[din Li El maxcustomeraccess withshowcases
Shopfront layoutvariations: deepwindowplanssuitableforfashion, furnitureetc,shallowforjewellery,books,stationeryetc 1
and exits sited as far apart as possible. Entrances and passages: mm heightand widthclearance 3700on level ground—WK reg: access for fire appliances. Turning circleforappliance 17 m. Roadsto take laden weightof 10.1 t. Distance of any point from entrance max 25 m. On ground floor exitsand main aisles for customerstobe 1070wide forfirst 200 people, additional 152 foreach additional 30 people. Where 2 exits required each opening tobe wide enough for full number ofoccupants. Exit doorsto openoutwards: nosliding doors —Bib1 17 601. Amounts and type ofglazing controlled by reg.
Stairs—*p408
Preferably on outside walls with direct exit to open air or through entrance hall etc (UK reg). From each part of upper floor mm 2 stairs, withindistance of 30.5 m. Rm in vicinity of 1 staircase only must be no furtherawaythan 15m. Width for first 200 people 1070; additional 152 for each additional 30 people. Rise/going 125—250 mm (UK reg). Stairs to basements enter directfromopenairorseparated fromstairsto other floors by lobbies.
shallowest natural Iighy.
beam 'a' from(2)
L..E 2 Insufficientday orartificial
lightingreflectslighterbldgopposite orviewer
3
Reflection
reduced
substantially ifstronglightstrikes backon display aboveeyelevel of viewer
All rmforstaff and customers must haveemergency lighting independent ofmain lighting. Forcirculationareas, stairs,exits etcspecialemergencylitdirection signs.
WINDOWS Shopwindow'simpact determines itsvalue. Almost useless: dazzling, reflecting panes, deepdarkwindows near bright pavements: goods for sale can only beseen with effort —(1 )(2). Shopwindows now rely forimpact on artificial light. Sun blinds necessary to protect goods on all aspects except N facing. Fascia totake sign:integral to shop front and relativeto sun blind.
Cold
Condensation and ice on frosty windows can be avoided for windows connected with shop bywarm aircirculationoverwholearea,if necessary by ventilator; forenclosed casesventilation slotsin shop frontwindows required. Provision may beneeded forfreshair intake intoslip through louvres or mechintake over shop window or overdoors.
4
Typicalshop frontcomponents
I
:•::•::::•:•:-:•:•::•:•:•:•:::•:.:-.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:•:
WIOdOWS
above stock cpd
I
F
'
a 0
worlishopfor small alterations
chang
T1T{][ 5 Bldg with side wing&backyard (typicallayoutofrentedaccninGerman cities) suitableforshops:goodsforpassingtradeongroundfloor,on upper floorworkshopsforalteration,fittingrm, stock rmetc; in basementdo,wc& ancillaryrmforstaff a groundfloor bupperfloor
b
192 Commerce
Shops & stores Fire
-ii!— a
1
solid
glass
I
very good
Ip
Impactsiting: amaxfrontage&display;
excellent
Special fire precaution installations:smoke detectors,automatic warning systems, sprinklers. Compartment size —p189 can be doubled where sprinklers supplied.
Temperature & ventilation 16°C mm after first hour ofoccupancy (UK requirement). Ventilation by extract/intake tans orair-conditioning in larger units. Necessarydesign for heat build-up from artificial lighting and occupancy loading.
bgoodimpact; ceffectsofsiting
Shoplayout
Aswith display shop itselfshould be easy to take in at glance. Space for customerand sales staff depends on commodity and number of customers; aim atsmooth quick procedure.Big store organisationsdevelop systemplanning to suittheirparticular requirements.
Locationof shops
Varies according to type of business: determined by custom, eg convenience shopping and consumer durables.Trade of smaller unitswill be affected by location of deptstores, variety stores and supermarkets which act as magnets. These larger units should be sited to draw shoppers past as many shops as possible. Shops should besituated for max impact related to trade potential and should be seen fromas many angles as possible. Shape offrontage, shop sign (integral component) and protection from weather should draw customers. Corner shops 30% more valuable than shops in row. Each type of shop has its individual shop window shape (shoe shopsneeddifferent displaysfrom butchers and jewellers). Deptstores usually have flat frontages. Sizesof window vary with local conditions even in new bldg. Size and design ofdisplay windows and height ofstall-riser related to goods displayed, eg jewellery orfurniture —p191(4).
Boutiques Examples of 2 different concepts —n(3)(4)
groundfloor
first floor
2 Typicalshop layout (fish, fruit & vegetable sb)
key 1 entrance 2 cashdesk
key
1 entrance toboutigue 2 entrancehatoapartments 3 displayplatforms 4 bItingml 5 sb cabins
3 showcase 4 dispiay cubes 5 ciothesracks 6 dispiay shelves 7 charrgingrm 8 mirror 9 stokiosks
ek
7 wc 8 cash counter
3
Boutique Istanbul Turkey: exampleoftroglodyticillusionist interior; reflectingceiling makeshappeargreater,visitorleft guessing aboutshop's extent Arch Mehmet Konuralp
4
BoutiqueChampsElysee Paris France: reflecting glass sets goodsoff againstcomplexbackground; artificiallightingdirectseyetomost rewarding points Arch IsabelleHebey
Commerce 193
Shops & stores BREAD & CAKE SHOPS—(1)—(4)
I- staff
tlcursto
I-.
SS
breadsto
ftn bakery
Circulationfor bakery: shopwellventilated, possiblewith steamextractor 1
if
2 Plan of small bakery: breadsto withgood connexiontobakery,shop &despatch
Generation ago small bakeriesproducedapprox 85% of household requirements of bread and pastries,factory bakeries remaining15%: these percentages now more or less transposed in UK. Sales in personal service shops mainly over counter, which may containrefrigerateddisplay. Freshly bakedgoodsrequiregood aircirculation.
FRUIT & VEGETABLESHOPS—*(6)—(9) Fresh vegetables should be stored cool butnot refrigerated: potatoes indark rm, carrots & root vegetables in sand, fruit in dark rm at temp 1—5°C & 85—95%hum. Deepfreezersfordeep frozensupplies. Walls tiled or washable. Sale often from delivery containers (baskets, crates, boxes) —e(7)(8). Dirt traps below sto racks —s(8). Fruit & vegetable shops usefully combined with flower shops.
woodengrille
zinctrough
3
Salescounterwith screen:bread compartments—u(4) vary with loafsize
4 Shelf arrangement:breadonslatted shelves
S.
(air circulation)withtins belowto catchflour
t
staff
c>
IlltlllllM I aration prep- I cellar intake —
1 spices
\
_l 5
Circulationforgreengrocery: smallstockas mostgoodsdelivereddaily
6
8
9
Counterwith standsforboxes&wire baskets, drip pan &dirttrap
490(
I
I
H
55d
I
Planoffruit &vegetableshop: rmwith machinesfor cutting &preparingvegetables
7
Typicalboxesforfruit &vegetables
Pavementsales fromtrolleys(carts) or in frontof shopwith attractive display
194 Commerce
Shops & stores FISHMONGERS —(1 )—(3)
=:
r'
intake;
os coldi
Fish need cool sto (often marble) for display, cold rm for overnight sto and deep freeze cabinets in shop for deep frozen products. Smoked fish must be stored quite dry in contrast tofreshfish.
peparation
sto
_______ ______
Shop must be well equipped with ventilation devices. Wallsand floors washable. New UK reg mayrequire glazed shop fronts.
_____________
u1T
Arrangements forreceiving largedeliveriesand forrefusedisposal. Ifdesired, aquarium for eye appeal—÷(2).
't,=z-_
——-7
1
Circulationforfishmonger
2
Seafood specialtyshopwithoutallied sales
BUTCHERS—(6)—(10) Work procedure:
1 delivery, 2 cutting up, 3 manufacturing, 4 refrigeration, 5 selling. Preferably on 1 level, if possible with rail and wheel carriagesaspig halves and beef quarters heavy: 75—100 kg. Manufacture and cold rm 1.5—2 times size ofshop. Walls: tiles, mosaic etc, washable.
cr']
intake.__]— —[game
[:sta1_ _________
chiihngrm —f _________
F: prsparasorsJ_
—i deepfreeze.]
f 3
Fish counterwith coolingcompartment &drain
4
Table tops: marble, glass, ceramic.
Circulationforpoultry& gameshop
GAME&POULTRY—.(4) Often together with fish. Similarin requirements. Workr with plucking machineand game scraper. Poultryabsorbs smells so must bestoredseparatelyfrom fish in shopand cold rm Table tops and walls washable: marble, tiles, mosaic, plastics. Spacious refrigerated compartment or show cases.
6
Counterwith marbleortilefacing
5 Butchers counterwith chopping block
7
Stairs
deplay
tocellar
Ij co"
meat counter
8
Circulationforbutcher's
9
__jII
1
pickling
Hooks & railsforhangingmeat
[9
n,achines
______ _____
oithngup
J_
— - — -- —
J
worI
Large butcher'sshop
wdesececepassage
10 Counter in butchers shop—.also (5)
Commerce
195
Shops & stores CHEMIST—(1) Frequently self-service except for prescription counter. Will include other merchandise, egphotographic eqp, cosmetics.Mm requirements for accn and fitments usually laid down in special chemists' manuals. Dispensary (with reg-type double-locked cupboards for poisons and narcotics) subdivided according to activities. Prescription counter and customers' section ofshopprovided with seats forwaiting.
Dispensary ofparamount importance;must allow undisturbedworkwith goodview over drug shelves; must be well ventilated with tr ceilings, acid-resistant table tops and floor coveringsand washablewall surfaces. Ancillary rm and workrm ? twicesize ot dispensary.Med supply basement must not be connected with other basement rm; spirits, ether, phosphorus etcmustbe kept in secure recessesorin cellars with steel doors.
Planofchemistshop
1
adiustable chair
Night dispensary may serve as office in daytime; alternatively night counter may be provided in recess with illuminated sign and night bell.
services
MENSWEAR& FASHIONSHOPS—*(4) For self-selection clothes displayed in free stands or wall racks; for personal service in glass-fronted and hanging cabinets with special
curtain
3 2 Space-savingarrangement
round servicecore in hairdresser
Standardshampoounitwith backwash for beautyparlours&
displays. Arrangement must be flexible, with movableeqp and fitting rm 1500 x 2000.
hairdressers
SHOE SHOPS—i.(7)--(9)
aJIllhJftEIfl
bfl2V
Medium size shop, personal service: 8000—16000pairs; polish, stockings, socks, tights also available. Allow 1 footrest/2 seats, 1 stool/2 footrests for salesassistanfs —*(9). Carpeting desirable; low level and wall mirrors should be provided. More convenient ifstockand sales on same floor. Forward open sfock or hidden stock at rear. Adequate forward open stockpreferable for quickservice but selt-service shops followgeneral pattern, with specialdisplay racking.
FASHIONFABRICS—*(5)(6) 4
Organisationof atailor'sshop
5 Arrangementsforstoofcloth:
ashelfsame waslotbale bobliquestaggeredsystem(for
shop) c pairedshelves,eachof bale w
Often sold in conjunction with ready-to-wear clothes, lingerie, fashion accessories, wovengoods, haberdashery.Merchandise required to be attractively arrangedwith lighting toshowtrue colours—np25 398. Shelves not higher than 2200 so that they may be reached without steps; optimum height 500—1 500. Surfaces smooth so that material slides easily and does not catch. Counters for standing customers 850—950high, forseated customers 550—700; counter width700—850. Forready-to-wear clothesdept provide changingcubicles 1100 x 1150 and fitting rm—*(10)(11).
36O—i
Jt
a
6 Displaycounterwith shelfabove for materials men
330 180
110
women 300 160 100 children 300 160
9
90
Combinedfoot-rest&assistant'sseat
r4-r-—1 473—-664-
_ JLNLli
NH
I—i 473—1—864-J---1
7
Organisationofshoeshop
8 Shoe shop
10 Typicalfitting rm
L—1 524—1
11
Betterdressesfitting mi
196 Commerce
Shops & stores SELF-SERVICE customer
lEle
Self-service stores mostly forfood shops, drug stores and increasingly for other types of convenience goods. Staff mainly for advice, assistance, checking out, replenishing, possibly for quick service ofmeat and
preparation rm coldsto delivery waste stock goods lift
dairy foods. All goods prepacked and clearly displayed and ticketed (exceptsometimes fresh foods).
Proportion ofancillary accn mayvary between 60% sales 40'/ ancillary and 48% sales52% ancillary.Width of aisles 2200—2500. Entrancevia basket stands ortrolleys(carts); exit via checkout points. Replenishing byassistants. Wall shelving up to reaching height (top shelf 1 650, bottom shelf300 above floor level) .—(8)(9). Free-standing sales display suitable —*(4). Checkout points —(5)(6) laid outto suit frontage ofunitwith counter top forpurchases, cashregister, wrapping space with paperbags, spacefor parking basket ortrolley. Surveillance point essential.
staff restrm staff toilets &do unpacking
.-Hoff
1
i
Circulationforself-serviceshops
in
flout
out
2
Number of checkout points varies with unit scale and is related to turnover/m2, as controlled bytrading policy —4(2)(3). For each 100 m2 shop area: 50—100 baskets and 10 trolleys (carts). For each 200 m2 shop area: 50—200 baskets and 30 trolleys (carts).
flOut
o
out
Typicalself-serviceshoplayoutsshowingcheckout pointsrelatedto frontagew
basket stand
—
____
display counter display cash rack ister
r
___
I
sndardw
1600-1
0 N
j1 800—H
baslcetsheff
1194 6001 1194 600p 1194 991 991 500 991
T 0 N
C.,
checkouts
—
Planofcash deskwithmm dimensions
—minw
6
checkouts
7 Stackablebasket&trolley(cart)
customers basket packingar shopfront
3
pelmet with ticketing & lighting
Layoutofcheckoutpointsshowingdimensions
—900-1 400—
ventilation'
—
dirttraP\ 1-600--I
4
Salesdisplaywithstacking compartments&concealedlighting
Sectionthroughsmallcashdesk 4—864
Wall shelvesforbottles
I—
9 Wall shelvesforfruit,vegetables & unpackedgoods I—762——---l
I 10 Self-selectionunit: Ivaries; specialmerchandiseneedsspecial inserts
12 Free-standinghangingrack; hangingrack 11525 11
Backfixturewith shelvesonly
13 Millinerytable
Commerce 197
Shops & stores SUPERMARKETS:EXAMPLES
[
30
sto ar
oilheating
1
2 air-conditioning plant 3 airshaft 4 refrigerating plant 5 coldstofats 6 deepfreezing 7 coldsto meat 8 minced meat 9 ante-mi
10 meat 11 coldmeats 12 fish 13 deepfreeze 14 coffee 15 fats
1
16 vegetables 17 twit 18 checkout 19 flowers
I 15I15I1516I16j16j17I
20 trolleys (carts)
[;1
21 wr 22 changing rm,women 23 changing ml, men 24 wcwomen 25 wcmen 26 fruit&vegetablepreparation 27 fruit&vegetablecooling 28 empties 29 bottle reception 30 heatingoiltank
C
171
____ 20[ 1
13
111111
customer self-servicear
1IIiIIIIIlIl !!lh1!IIIIII1III
rwtEJ
Germansupermarket Arch PeterNeufert
—— -
4800
55.12
2 Swisssupermarket
0 O
II
c)
=0
II
II
0 0
II II II
I
II
260
4800
3 Cross-sectionof(2)
groundfloor
carpark
II II II
ii
_____ II
4800
I
4800 —4 4
Siteplan of (2)
t
4800
198 Commerce
Shops & stores HYPERMARKETS Basically single volume transfer shed, grossarea 10000—50000m2: 1 trader under 1 roof, using self-service methods to sell max range of convenience and durable merchandise at low prices; goods delivered directfrom manufacturersto largeon-site warehousing areas.
upper partof durables warehouse
Location Out oftown on perimeter of city, townor district centre. Mm catchment area 80000 population; 25 minutes driving time out of town; 10—15 minutes frominnerzone:siting related to road patterntoallow this.
Carparking
roofover
5.25 cars/100 m2 gross area (av shopping trip 1 hour). Provision for trolley (cart) collecting. Separate provision for service vehicles and refusecollection (perhaps with incineration or compaction). Discount petrol and tyre service forcustomers only.
Planning Up to 50% gross
area for warehousing, cold sto, food preparation, offices and staff. Main sales on1 floor,mezzaninecould houserestaurant, hairdressing, offices, toilets, staff accn and some warehousing. Staff numbers related to sales area: say 3 staff to 350 m2 sales, with shift working.
Warehousing
& ancillary accn
mezzanine
Stowill be open 24hr/dayforrestocking outofhours,cleaning,servicing etc. Deliveries and restocking using mech aids, eg forklift transfer in
warehouse to palleted trucks forrestocking shelves; warehouse racking may be high (groceries) orlow (textiles). Large food preparation areas needed forfreshfoods, butchery,baking, preferablyvisiblebycustomers.
Sales area Self-service principles apply generally—p196. Aisles must bedesigned for palleted trucks, with 1 800—3500between racking.
Construction
For flexibility wide spans and max column spacing (say 8 m x 12 m). Firstfloor must be designed for heavy loading if used forwarehousing. Compartmentation of warehouse areas essential: controlling factor in design may be insurance requirements. Waivers may be needed to allow max opensalesarea.
Service Air-conditioning, high intensity artificial lighting, throughout. Cold sto refrigerator. Services —vp383—97 Floors must be hard wear, easily cleaned tiles.
Fireregulations
Consultreg. Subject todistance ofbldg fromboundary, frand compartmentregdo notapply inUKto 1-storey hypermarkets: meansofescape provisions mustbe approvedbylocal authority.In2-storey areasnormal compartmentation reg do apply, subject to possible relaxation by appropriate authority. Sprinkler essential.
groundfloor I
Diagrammaticplanoftypical hypermarket
181.5
key 1
battery,caraccessories
I
adm&oftover
—1
softdñnks.winesetc 2 groceries 3 pharmacy & cosmetics 4 dairy 5 fruit &vegetables 6 children'sclothing 7 clothing 8 householdgoods 9 fancygoods
10 shoes 11 elgoods 12 fumiture 13 fire-fighting& sprinkler installation 14 etsub-station 15 butchery preparation 16 cookedmeats 17 fruit& vegetablepreparation 18 balieraapastryshop 19 changingnn 20 lay 21 boutique 22 aftersales service 23 furriiturerepairworkaliop
2 Layoutoftypicalhypermarketwithapprox20000m2 selling space
Commerce 199
Shopping centres & precincts Increasing trend in Europe and USA during 1970s plan large retail complexes in innercity areas. Despite their large size restricted space forms primary design factor. High site rentsoftenmeanthesecomplexes incorporate office space; also sometimes residential flats and condominiums but less frequently. Aswith convention hotels —p221—3 large internal spaces allow separation of interior circulationof public fromthat of service and store personnel. Traffic patterns which maximise retail display and access to retail unitsgenerally mechanism by which high
rent unitslet.
2
Bullock'sSouthCoastPlazaCostaMesaCaliforniaUSA a second floor bfirstfloor c groundfloor Arch WeltonBecket&Associates
200 Commerce
Shopping centres& precincts EXAMPLES
a
: liii
II
•
I
marshft7d&cO
b
tlLlord&taylor —.
Lk
:::::: -
________
•
-
____________
T
tmh18co
2 Water TowerPlaceChicagoUSA agroundfloor bmezzanine floor cfirstfloor dsecondfloor Consultarch WarrenPlatnerAssociates Arch LoeblSchlossman Bennett& Dart
*
lord &taylor
_________________
Commerce
201
Shopping precincts & centres EXAMPLES
b
a
C
d streetlevel
1 CiticorpCenterNewYorkUSA asection btypical mid-risetowerfloor cconcourselevel dstreetlevel Arch Hugh Stubbins
Shops aridstores: —Bibliography entries 116 117306340341369 374 450477552 601
202 Commerce
Restaurants
1
PLANNINGFACTORS wall 200
ei
S
a
waD
0
900
4.
2300
U
4o I I
a
50
-S.
squaretables:diagonallayout local density0.92
squaretables,squarelayout localdensity1.4
circulartables:diagonallayout local density0.82
+—36s0---$-500 2350M I
_____
4j
largeboothinrecess local density0.86 itseating10 people orl.1itnnly2peoplesitonbenchseat
banquetteboothseating localdensity0.8
counterservice localdensity1.26 dimensionsA& Bincreasedwhere2 waitersemployed
Layoutarrangements
1
4diners 750
Restaurants should be planned sothat variety otseating arrangements can be achieved, eg tables tor2 and 4 and placing together oftables to provide 6, 8 and 10 places. Consider also banquette or booth seating —u(3)(6); but theseshould be supplemented by normal tables to give flexibility. —*(1) shows typical table and counter layouts and local densities. Columns best situated near group of tables or at corners ot table. Provideacoustic lobby toservice doors between restaurantand kitchen. Accessforguests should beplanned sothat notconfusedwithservice.
it 1person
2diners
+700+
+450+900 +
tt+
2persons
Ttaso 2
guide: : 1 waiter/waitress per 12—16 covers restricted menu : 1 waiter/waitress per8—12 covers typical menu a Ia carte &deluxe : 1 waiter/waitress per4—8covers
Aislew
+
3
1650-1900
1
Typical banquetteseating
I
I
DLI
H
111
DO DO 28seals
22m2
DODD
Service aisles —'(2) not less than 900—1 350 if to be used by both trolleys(carts) and guests. Waiterstations should be located so as not to disturb guests: number will vary according to standard of service but following may be used as
fl
_
Ambience an important tactor in restaurant design: decoration, lighting should be integral part. Large regular spaces should be broken up into smaller more intimate areas, if necessary by means of screens of various heights or decorative features. Changes of level not usually favoured by caterers butacceptable providing they make positive contribution to design, donot involve morethan 2or3steps and main partof restaurant on same level as kitchen. Where changes of level occur seating areas should be protected bybalustrades.Cash deskmay beat entrance or by service doors or within kitchen area depending on cashing system operated bymanagement. Provide head waiter stand in a Ia carte or de luxe restaurants. Hard wearing floor service in area around service doors. Traditional and specialty restaurants frequently have aperitif bar associated with them tor waiting customers and drinks before meal. Such bar should be planned sothatheadwaiter cantake orders and call forward customers whentablesready. Dance floor in restaurant: allow 1.0—3.5 m2/couple.
D
k::::::1[yffffIi
5600
layoutforpartof restaurant: local densityexcludingmaincirculation & wafterstations& serviceareas 4
Mm
5 'Staadtler'table to seat4:with flapsextendedseats6
6
Banquetteseatingbooth:table must bemovedtogainaccessortop may bemovable
Commerce 203
Restaurants SPACEALLOWANCES (EXCLUDINGCOOKINGAREAS)
Snack barservice
Usually restricted tolightmeals, served atcounter ortaken bycustomer to table. Food normally cooked withincounter area but back-up preparation, wash-up and sto required. 1.50—2.20 m2IP including counter and cooking.
Cafeservice 0.83 m2/P: limitedmenu, usually family type of business, designed on traditional lines with kitchen separate from dining rm. Food may be collected bywaitress fromsmall service counter orhatch tokitchen.
Self-servicecafeteria 1.4—1.7 m2/P, long self-set-vicecounter, provide good circulationspace. Space for clearing trolleys (carts) required. Self-service counters —p206(2). 0
1
2
3 4rn
Coffeeshopservice—*(3)
1'2ft
1
1.2—1.4 m2/P, usually waitress service, oftenfromforward cooking area withcounterwhichmay be decorativelyscreened. Main preparationand wash-up at rear. Counter servicesometimes included.
Specialtyrestaurant
Traditionalrestaurant: 110 seats
Space requirements vary widely. Display cooking, grill, dance floor, special decor effects may be required. Bar may be included within restaurant.
Traditionalrestaurant—(1)
1.3—1.9 m2/P according to type of business. Should have space for display table, flambé work, generous seatingand spacing oftables.
Carvingtablerestaurant—*(2)
1.6 m2/P including space for carving table. Display table with hot and cold positions for self-service of Joints, vegetables and sweets. Preparation, cooking and wash-up donein main kitchen.
01 I 2
2345678 I
I
I
12
servioe
I
1'S
Restaurantseating124with self-servicecarvingtable
W =waiterstation
012345678 I
I
12
I
I
I
15 18 21 24
rn
ii
I
I
rn
iI 1 24 ft
204 Commerce
Restaurants Table sizes vary according to typeofrestaurant; mm forcafeterias etc:2 persons 600 x 600, 4 persons 600 x 1100. Diagrams show tables for goodstandard of restaurant.
TABLE SIZES
r
110, preferably
150—200
600, preferably
65O750
I I-— 380—f-—--
800
—f-- 450 —+—
—!--—
550
850
-H—
—i——
750
—H
lottable/P
I
T knee h600
man
woman
4
4
II
00
2
II 1Jj
waiter
6
for
TiI- 1450
ii
P
12
8
iU\JU -
-
6
2050
—
—
8
ci[
2700
H
I35°
- :2500j
-1
avdia of circular
3300 12
10
5
dining tables for
16
U
'000 0000 .n0,0Ip
\IIU
average Iof tables with chairs at eitherend
getting
eating
sitting down
14
12
10
P
Commerce 205
Restaurants SNACKBARS
1 250
C.)
Barstool
1
service — F.
2 Bar stools:normaldistance
diners --4-1300--
fl4500-4-i
+ 2100
500
rT2 1r'
I --I--
4
I
_.I
.C.
service diners normal — 2700 1300 -I 30 stoolh -7501- 1200 -f.75Q.4
500
r1
od
mediumh
Wt.:.Tui
,- hstool
High densityarrangementwithsmall tables
T
0 _____________ 00 _________ 700
T
r
Cli
Typical U format with 12 seats mm length 600/P = 7200. This length may beserved by 1 waiterifmeals pre-cooked; ifmeals and drinks have to beprepared atcounter further1—2waiters necessary—(7)(8)(9).
Areas required
Per seat 1480—2150 Ratio ofservicearea to total area25—50% Netkitchenarea 15—25%
24.0
-fX1
Kitchen& wash-up
se;ice!
shi
Preferably at same level as restaurant,kitchen area divided into: servery area ofcooking, frying, grilling and preparationofsoups and vegetables cold buffet (meat, salads, fruits, fish,sweets and desserts) wash-up area —*Bib2l 7
ShortU-formatcounters I—.
customers. Counters with stools less economical ofspace than closely spaced tables but ensure speedy service and quickturnover. Avsitting time20minutes: 3 occupants/hr compared with perhaps 1/hrin normal restaurant.
Format
C
LongU-formatcounter
J
Refrigeratedshowcase
Situation In centres of cities where accn expensive must be max turnover of
°9P229P!JjJ
lllll'..
6
5 Widertableswith more space
15.0
7
3 Mediumh bar stool
Other requirements 20.0
—4
IT
service
ar
U) C\J
Toilets for customers, staff toilets, staff cloakrm, small office, food sto including refrigerator and deep freeze, liquor sf0, boiler rm, airconditioning plant if required. For scale of sanitary fittings —*reg. Public cloakrm not normally required forthistype of restaurant,hdtand coat stands or coat rack on wall sufficient. In large snack bars separate entrance and exitsdesirable. Cashier near exit.
CC)
C'J.
tray slide
rail
50 *—750 +
9
PairedU-formatcounters
10
1150
Self-servicecafeteriaservice
750
206 Commerce
Restaurants Drive-in restaurants supply food and drinks
DRIVE-IN& SELF-SERVICERESTAURANTS
direct to cars so that guests may eat without leaving vehicles. For access and serving pro-
3 6 9
O
16
vide canopies and covered ways; dining hall should be separate, with parking space close to drive-inservice. 1 waiter can serve 6cars.
12 15 18 21m
7 36 45
4
ft
Self-service advantageous for snack barsand to overcome staff shortages. Smooth-running system (entrance-trays-counter-cashier-dr-exit) more important than comfortable atmosphere because diner's stay much shorter than in ordinary restaurant.
1
Drive-in restaurantCalifornia ArchLauter
1
backfittings& hatchesfran,k
I / / // il 'i , IIi.i111
9
:1
J J•1• U.U1.
I
fl
trayslide
=Sat 9.0—11.0
2
Typicalself-servicecounter toserverangeof 2/3 choicesto80/90customersin 10minutes
22
J 1
21
1icf1,c
fiat
13 ter 14 restaurant
2 coldsto 3 day sto 4chel
5 wash-up 6 bakery 7 meat preparations 8 sk 9 coldbuffet
l5ha
9
16 newspapers 17 beerbar 18 maincold5*0 19 deepfreezerm 20 chiP no
6 12 15 18 21 18 27 36 45 4 3 1
2 trays coldbuffet 3 beverages 4 hotmeals
10 hotmeatpreparation 21 preparatiOn 22 wodishop 11 wafter'sgangway 12 café 23garbagebins 24 carport
S cheese& desserts 6 cashier 7 refrigerator 8 beverages(cpd)
2
9
iCe
10 hotcpd 11 streetsalescounter
3
Self-servicerestaurantParis ArchPrunier
Restaurant references —*Bibliography entries 016 043 045 049 096
4
Restaurantonmainhighway:restrm &layon lowerfloor,wheretheycanalsoserve motel Arch Neufert
097147153156176217226243282319341 439441 442477583
Commerce207
Restaurantcars: using minimum space 10.7
—1
UUF
I
LJf1c1DflcTTj1flLtJflODr1L1flflcIjoflc1___)I 1
Tram restaurantcarofRhinelandRailCompany 1.49
550-'- 950
3
550—480'-
480
70
Space needed for dining services in long-distance trams and motor coaches —s(1)(2) modest compared with train dining cars—s(9). DimensioningofGerman dining cars result ofmany years experience; present systemafter numerous design changes. Diagonallyplaced tables tried out in recent years found unsatisfactory and not illustrated here. Kitchen arrangementsrepresentmax useofavailablespace; this applies both to width of doors and service hatches and to refrigeration units, whichare exceptionally large—(8). All disheshave to be washed up in kitchen between 2 meal services (main and snack lunch). Service in dining car made easier because number ofcustomers limited to number ofplaces—s(8).
+
-1550
3100
-I-
+ 1651) ±
3430
1327
H
I
Detailsof1; diningtablesonly halfaswideasinrestaurantcars:noserving pantry; kitchenlocated almost in middle of vehiclewherespringingmost effectiveto lessenjolting
9
3
4
SectionA-A—u(8)
-
Groundplan of Germanrestaurant car—.(6)(1O)
4
Section B-B—.(8)
biing b 1485
615
Cf)d
hratirig
air-conditioning
1740
0
1015
1600°
for railwaystaff
corr
fulng
e[] tcpd
conductorsseat
5
6
SectionC-C-.(8)
Transversesection—u(1O)
12 Sleepingcargroundplandetail —u(13)
7
Section D-D—*(B)
1650
1—
ksy 1 provisions
2 ck 3 switctrcpd 4 refuse bins
5 trig
9 sideboard
-
13 warrningcpd
6 staffconipartment 14 deepfreezer 10 trig 7 foldingseat 11 preparation 15 k 8 door 12 sk 16 sk 8 Ground planofkitcheninGerman restaurant car: section(3)—(5)(7)
tr
15 'Comet' articulatedtrain double compartment
13 Crosssection—.(12)
208 Commerce
Hotels C)
2
Location is one of most important factors for commercial success. Depending on market orientationhotels should generallybe conspicuous and sitednear main road ormotorway intersections,airports,commercial and business centres or resorts.
CD
Site
C)
Following points should be considered: height and plot ratio requirements, ease of access, adequacy forparking either on ground or within bldg, viewsand aspect, relationshipto adloining bldg, levels.
0 2 CD
conventionhotelwith largeconference rm, night club,shopping citycentrehotel motorhotel resorthotel low-mediumtariff hotelwith private bathr but mm catering hostels: singlerm & mm service
Types
Marketorientation will dictate type of hotel. Construction of new hotels of less than 70—80 bedrhardly viable unless they can be run on family
m2/mi gross
type
1
55—65 45—55 35—45 40—55 20—30 18—20
Grossar/miforvarioushoteltypes
basis.
Citycentre: includeluxury, convention and citytourist hotels. Charac-
section
tensed by high plotratio, high riseconstruction,frequently largefunction accn, inclusion of shops—.p222or offices —*p223 in development to improve viability. Motor hotels: cater mainly for people en route by car or motoring locally, therefore sited at important road junctions and on outskirts of cities. Land cheaper therefore sites fairly large allowing large car park and low or medium rise construction. Generally contain all usual hotel services but on modest scale. No rm service.
residential bedr corr,elevators, stairs service ar
Airporthotels: similar planningto motor hotels butcatering specifically for airtravellers therefore require all night receptionand possibly some
totalresidential public &servicear: frontofhouse lob &circulationincluding P
international companies.
reception,do, reservations off,
nightcatering. Sometimes have convention services forconvenienceof
intake at weekly orfortnightly intervals. Restaurantshould accommodate all guest. at 1 sitting. Require spacious lounges, games rm, bars, possiblyalso swimming pool, beachand sports installations.Conference rm can also be included encourage off-season business.
Motels: .—p219220 Convention hotels: —*p221 —3 Condominium:development involvingjoint ownershipwhere individual owner has full benefit of rm, suite, villaforown useorletting butshares costscommon to whole development which may include all usual hotel
24 3.2 0.6
26.5 9.3 0.7
27.8
36.5
0.4 0.3
0.5 0.4
1.1
coffeeshop bar 1 includingcounter, sto bar2includingcounter, sto lounge toilets functionrm pre-functionar furnituresto privatedining/meetingrm
0.6 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.4
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3
1.1
1.3
—
0.5 0.2 0.9 0.2
0.1
0.4
—
stO
workshops& maintenance Iau, linensto etc staffcanteen,lockers,toilets
8.2
7.8
3.8 0.9 0.8 0.3
2.5 0.9
1.0
1.1
0.3 0.8
0.5
0.4 0.7
offfor personnel,
accounts, control,housekeeper etc circulation,serviceelevators etc total backof house
separation of guestand service areas: no cross circulation; distinction between frontand backofhouse
tobare mm of reception,office, breakfastrm, bar and supportingservices.
m2/rm
switchboard, luggage admin restaurant
k&ksto
Diagram—p209 shows typical relationshipofpartsofmedium size hotel. Points ofprinciple tonoteare:
serviceand finishes; de luxe hotels have larger service areas, more service elevatorsetc; ineconomy hotelsthese areasreduced,sometimes
m2/rm
totalfrontofhouse public &servicear:backofhouse
Functionalrelationships
Space allocation& standards —.(1)guidetogrossar/rmfor varioustypes of hotel. (2) shows space allocation for 2 typical contrasting hotels: figures assume mosteconomical layout. Quality of hotel mainly dependent on
500bedr citycentrehotel
1.8
shops
services.
all catering outlets ifpossible beon same level askitchens: ifnot, main restaurant directlyrelated to kitchen; other restaurantsand banqueting rm should have service rm connected by elevators and stairs main kitchenwhere bulkcooking is undertaken organisation ofbackof house such that staff and goods are separatefar as possible and control can be maintainedoverboth.
b
200 bedr motorhotel
1.6
elevators
Resort hotels: at seaside or mountainresorts orspas. Usually planned to cater for package holidays with reception arrangements for large
a
total
boiler houses,plant rm &car parking excluded
2
Space allocations
0.9 7.9
7.0
43.5
51.7
Commerce 209
Hotels
service entrance
guest entrance
Flowdiagramoftypicalhotel
210 Commerce
Hotels or variations of these arrangements would
have
to be
PLAN FORMS
combinations adopted.
Bedroomaccommodation
A Compact
arrangements:
bedrblockoverwide spans. B Bedrblockadjacent topublic rm block: considered to beeconomical because optimum structure and services can bedesigned foreach part. Suitable formotorhotel development on large site. C Open layout with public rm and service blockcompletely separate from bedr which may be in groups scattered about large site. Suitable for motel and resort type hotels where plenty of land available and
As bedr formsgreater proportionofhotel constructionkeytoeconomical design largely in layout of bedr block. —*(1) shows some possible Double-loaded block (A) capable of development into L U courtyard plan; requires only2stairs; considered most economical layout. Double-loaded Tshaped block(B)capablebeingdeveloped intocross; also economical but 3stairs required. Single-loaded block (C) capableof being developed into L U or courtyard plan: not economical solution but may be desirable, perhaps combined with A take advantage of site conditions; ifdeveloped form centrecourtyard can beused provide atrium effect. Square block (D) with central core containing all vertical services, maids' rooms etc, compact and useful for small sites where tower development may be required. Y plan (E) requires 3 staircases and has more complicated structure than straight blocks; structural system may cause problems in public areas. Triarc(F) similar to E but more space taken up by circulation; concave curveresults in bedr wideratbathr end providing opportunity forlarger bathr and dressing area. Circular (G) requires careful handlingavoid awkward and inward facing rm; notcapable ofextension. Circular with centralcore (H), similarto D; also requirescareful handling avoid awkward rm. Convex curves inGand H result in bedr narrower at bathr end, causing cramped space forbathr.
development of bedr block superimposed on podium. Suitable forhigh risedevelopmenton city site. Problemsarise frombedr services having topassthrough public rmand fromprobableneed carry
landscape conditions dictate.
VERTICALCIRCULATION Hotels of more than 2 storeys should be provided with passenger and service elevators (—(3) —p41O—2). Except in small hotels all elevators should be duplicated provide efficient service and standby in case of breakdownor repair. Numberand speedofelevatorswill depend on height and populationof bldg and for largeinstallations should bebasedontraffic studyby specialist. Service hoists ordumb waiters notadvised owing need have 1 person each end: bettermake service elevators largeenough take trolley(cart) plus personnel. If possible plan all elevators in 1 bank or towerwith service elevators opening to kitchen area and passenger elevators opening directly to guestlobby. Separatebaggage elevators not required except in de luxe hotels; but may be desirable to have 1 elevator available for manual controliflargeamount baggagehandled. In high bldg much depends on qualityand speed of elevator services as regards both guest elevators and serviceelevators: not wiseto skimp this aspect. In addition goods elevators may berequired inbackareas: should be of large capacity and of sturdy, easily cleanedconstruction.
Relationshipofbedroom blockto publicroomareas Many ways in which bedr block mayberelatedtopublic rm and circulation but can be illustrated by 3basic arrangementsshown —.(2). Likely that
A
B
1:
service
circulation & services A
J
L
guests
service
-.1
C B
servKe c .vemflcal circulation
bedr
Dsemvice 1
Plan formsforbedraccn
2
Relationship of bedrtopublicmi
3
Typical verticalcirculationcore for500bedr
hotel
Commerce 211
Hotels PUBLICROOMS Restaurants
In medium and large hotelscommon to provide more than 1 restaurant give customer choice menu and price. Cheaper restaurant usually coffee shop or cafeteria: more expensive a Ia carte. Large hotels may have additional specialist restaurants.In certainsituations,eg citycentre hotels, cheaper restaurantmay beaccessiblefromboth hotel and street
to attract non-residential business.
Seating capacitiesrestaurantsvary accordingsize hotel, amount potential outside business, location in relation other restaurants, duration stay guests, amount breakfast rm service to be provided. In resortand other suitable locations provision should be made serve meals in open air either by extension of 1 restaurant or by separate service. FurtherdetaIls—up202—7;kitchens—vp213
Bars Cocktail or aperitif bar (if required) should be planned as comfortable
others. Service of drinks, tea and coffee should be provided from dispense orfrommain kitchen. Separateresidents lounges notnormally required.
Recreation rooms Card rm, table tennis, billiard rm etc should be considered for resort hotels.
Functionrooms
Multi-purpose rm for meetings, banquets, balls, parties, exhibitions valuable asset. Design considerations include: separate access if rm large; divisible by movable partitions; separate access for guests and servicedesirable; audio-visual eqptobeprovided. Large span required precludes this rm being planned beneath bedr block except on costly city sites. Space allowances: i.i—1.3m2/P banquet style seating 0.9—1.1 m2/P meetings: table groups theatre style seating 0.5—0.6 rn2/P
intermediary waiting area between hotel lobby and main restaurant;
Other requirementsforfunctionrm: ante-rm, preferably approx 1/3rdarea offunction rm, with dispense bar
Main bar will provide chiefdrink service of hotel. May have external entrance to encourage non-resident business. Fairly long bar counter supported by bar sto with ice making machine and bottle cooler should be provided: section may berequired for service ofsimple meals.
furniture store0.5 m2/seat easily accessible fromfunction rm
servicemay be by waiter: long bar counter may not berequired.
Possible otherbars: rooftop,pooi side,beach, club areas.
cloakrm and toilets (depending on proximity of hotel toilets): provision of wc and urinals as for public areas—vp212 unless music and dancing licence required, in which case should be as for concert halls, theatres etc —vBib36i 604.
All bars capable of being shut securelyduring non-opening hourseither bygrill or shutterat bar counter orbyclosing rm. Former has advantage rm can be used aslounge when bar closed. Should be possible service
Movable partitions should be full height and fold completely away into pockets. AvdB reductionof45—50 sould be achievedthrough partitions and between function rmand kitchen.
bars without passingthrough publicrm. Barsshould comply with licensing laws. Space allowance forbars excluding counter: cocktail lounge (comfortable) 1.8—2.0 m2/P general bar (some standing &on stools) 1.3—i.7m2/P
In large function rm consider separate access for heavy exhibits. Allow 510 kg/m2 floor loading.
Meetingrooms
In addition some meeting rm, preferably associatedwith main function rm, may be required. May vary in size; should all be capable being serviced fromeither main kitchen orpantry.
Lounges
Reasonable provision should be made for people waiting and relaxing either in relation to lobby or circulation areas or to revenue-earning areas suchas bars. More lounge space required in resort hotels than
Fireprecautions
Alternativeexitroutes must beprovidedforall publicrm. Travel distances toexits,flameresistance ofmaterials,fire and smoke resistantcompartmentationmust be in accordancewith regulations —up216408. service
elevator
ptr elevator S
freight elevator
Ia
banquetrm
600seats —
L_
I
Spacerequiredforbanqueting for37allowing forservice
-
2
a Si
Space requiredin dr for14 allowing for service:2.0m2/cover
,— a
E
l4
royal
bar
bar
pre-functionlob
do
1600 people
I
I
a
a
n
-.—.t-
-
—-
vest
• o
II
I
r---1
Banquetingseating at tablesfor 10: typical arrangements forlarge banquets:1.2 m2/cover 3
4
5
10
15
20m
r: r :
0
0
=a
0
___ vestibule
1
royal salon
I
standing
E
banquetfoyer
8500
Idre stairto
I__________________ t5 30 45 605 of suite forlargehotel Example banquet
vestibule
S a
projection booth
212 Commerce
Hotels FRONT OF HOUSE Entrance Arrange drive-insocars can pull off road and with space forwaiting cars
and taxis: waitingspace for coachessometimes needed. Providecanopy. In exposed positions provide draught lobby or revolving doors (require pass doors for fire escape and baggage). Where traffic heavy with guests carrying own bags automatic doors. Separate door to baggage rm in high class hotels. Special provision for baggage handling for hotelsexpecting people in largegroups.
Receptionarea
Reception desk —v(1) near and visible from entrance with porter, receptionist, cashier close by. In largehotels separatedeskfor porter (mainly supervising baggagehandling).
Hall porter's desk
Lengthof counter arranged so porter can go freely into entrance hall. Depending on size of hotel should be fitted with alphabeticalguestlist,
Reception& porter'sdeskfor400-bedr hotel: receptionists, porters, cashiersnotnormallyseated,therefore worktop heightforstanding 1
backelevationofdesk
message waiting indicator, working shelf, drawers. Site key rack —x(3) with slots for keys and letters corresponding with number of bedr in easyreach receptionists. Am behind forshorttermstosmall items, post box and slot.
Receptionist'sdesk—v(1) Fitted with sloping rack not visible by guests for rm states (usually manual card system but may beelectronic in largehotels), worktop and countertop for guests registration,section at normal height forclerical work, shelving, cupboards. Provide alphabetical list. Behind reception desk reservations office with direct access for receptionists: should have wall space forcharts and telex(ifany). Cashier'sdesk—v(2)
In small-medium size hotels may be partreception desk. In largehotels normally partitioned-off section ofmain reception deskwith small office at rear for chief cashier. Desk office for: 1 or 2 cash registers, bill tray spaces alongside registers,lockablecashdrawers, shelvesand drawers, guestsafe deposit boxes—n(4),deposit boxes for staff floats,telephone meterdisplay board, airtube system terminal ifrequired, safe.
Telephone switchboard—(2)
Often placed near reception counter so receptionists can operate at off-peaktimes. Otherwise in separate rm, possibly with hatch to public lobby and public telephones nearby. Fire alarm panel: at reception deskorsomeotherpointwhere all night attendance. Typical counter lengths fordifferent sizes hotel: counter length noofrm 50 3000 100 4500 200 7500 400 10.5
Hotellobby
Consider supplying in or nearlobby: housetelephone, publictelephones, television security monitors, clocks and calendars, news teleprinters, information desk, travel agents, airline and car hire desks, kiosks and shops, lounge and waitingareas,guest secretarialand businessservices, public toilets.
2 key
Typicalcashdeskfor400-bedrhotel 1
safetydepositboxes
2 key & messagerack 3 rmstatusrack 4 roiaryaiphabeticaiindex 5 currencyinformation 6 cash register 7 cashier 8 reception 9 concierge
10 switchboard 11 frontoff manager 12 fihng 13 telephoneswitches 14 ielephonemeters 15 tapestry& decorativeclock 16 pagingrecievercharger 17 flreaiarmpanei 18 reservabonsoff 19 safe 20 chief cashier 21 clock 22 advancereservationsrack 23 tapedmusic& pagingeqp riomiai teieptione fs servicestationteiephone d drawer cd cash drawer shelf cpd
—
t
4
Typicalbankofsafety depositboxes: varioussizes should be provided
Cloakroom&toilets In small—mediumhotels where noteconomicalemploycloakrmattendant space may provided for coats and bags under eye of porter or receptionist. Otherwise provide cloakrm formain lobby, restaurants,function rm: sited discreetly, if possible together for ease of supervision. Plan cloakrm for large function rm so asensure easyflow and quickissue of coats. Provide recessed area atleast1200in front ofcounters to avoid encroachment on main circulation. Counter lengths: generally 1 000/ 100 P. Publictoilets:number ofwc, urinals,wash basins usuallydetermined by local reg. Forwomen'stoilets vanity top, mirrors, good lighting. 1 wcfor eachsex fordisabled persons.
swilcfl
reservations Cf0 & bags
key rack
panei
U telephone
work Fm cash top rack register &work top
5 Typical frontofffor120-bedrhotel
Commerce 213
Hotels KITCHENS& FOOD STORES Should be planned on one level ifpossibleto serve allcatering outlets. If
not possible main kitchen should be on level with main restaurantwith preparation and stoon differentlevel. Foreconomy 1 wash-up desirable. Banqueting and any otherfood service area not next to kitchen should belinked byservice elevators (preferablynothoists) and stairs and have own forward service eqp. Kitchen, cold rm and food sto area should be planned to be locked offfromstaff when not in use. In large hotels food and drink sto should be under control ofstoreman. Approxspace allowances forkitchen planning including food sto, cold rm, wash-up,chef'soffice: main restaurant kitchen area 1.4m2 x no of covers 0.2 m2 x no ofcovers banquet kitchen &servicearea coffee shopkitchen 0.3 m2 x no ofcovers separate independent coffee shop0.45 m2 x no ofcovers Increase or reduce theseallowancesaccording whether fully traditional orconvenience foodoperation envisaged.
1
Allowapprox500/c extraforstaff toilets, changing rm, canteen and other sto (see below).
k&food sto flowdiagram
Specification notes for kitchen areas: floors non-slip tiles, draining to gulleys with wide radius coved skirtings; sloping floors to have gradient not more than 1:20. Recessed area at restaurant doors for ribbed rubber matting or other non-slip cleanable material. Plinths re-
L=1L1
+—--+
1350k
surface. Corners protected. False ceilings offr tiles with access panels to inspection covers, fire dampers etc. Openable windows to have fly
convenientfor heavyItems
max reach
f....
quired for some eqp. Grease traps outside kitchen if possible. Gas, waterand plumbing supplies to be run towithin 1 000ofappliance: final connexion by specialist. Walls in kitchen tiled up to 1 800. In sto walls fairfaced or plastered and painted. Dwarf walls tiled with inclined top screens. Where mech make-up air provided windows non-openable except forcleaning. Doors to havevision panels and metal kick platesor automaticopening devices.
.
Main cooking eqp should be eitherin island or againstwall with extract canopies extending about 250over. Extractvelocity usually 7.7 to 10.2 m/s. Should preferably have vertical sidesextending to ceiling. Height tounderside 2150.
1•5o
2
Mm
spacesbetweeneqptoallow
forcirculation
convenientfor heavyitems
Limitinghforsto shelving
3
-t6Th---
8O
I A
cleanlinenracks B table
C
0
4
A
C
B
tubs extractor
D washer E table
5
t
0
D
A tumbler
C
dryers washers
Non-ironIau for120 bedrhotel
Sizesof kitchen sto will depend on type of hotel, location,frequency of deliveries, type of food, ie whether convenience food. Cold rm temp: deepfreeze—20°C, chill rm2to 3°C.
max reach
press& board shakeOuttable H four rollironer J soiledlinenur I foldingtable F G
La ufor200 bedr hotel
Other stores Furniture sto with adjacent workshop, paint shop etc: 0.2—0.3 depending on amount in house maintenance
m2/rm
Cleaning materials: 0.2—0.4m2/rm Glass, silver, china: 0.1 m2/rm Liquor:0.2 m2/rm, divided into areasforbeer and mineral bottles, kegs, redwines14—16°C, whitewine 10—12°C and spirits Empties: closetoloading dock
Refuse:planning will depend on method ofsto and collectionsiebinsor compactor. Allow space for vehicle backup to receptacles. Providefor washing down refusearea, bins etc. In warm climatesprovide refrigerated refusesto.
Linen: area depends on type of hotel. Typically 0.4m2/rm: may be less if inhouse laundry provided. Shelves at least 600 wide open lathed. Allowspace forsorting and worktable for repairs. All above areas for 200 bedr hotels, do not necessarily increase or reducepro rata according to number of bedr.
crockerycpd
Laundry
For 200 bedr hotel space ofapprox 140 m2 required excluding linen sto, steam boiler, chemicals sto, office. Ifnon-iron linen used space can be reduced to 40—59 m2. Ventilation ratio should be 15—20 air changes/hr with separate extraction for steameqp and dry cleaning.
Servicebay communication
6
Standswithopenshelvesfor goods
7
Waiter's servery& sk
Should be arranged in such way that incoming goods can be kept separate fromoutgoing refuse and preferably with separateentrance for staff all undersupervision ofcontrol office. Vehicles back upto loading dock. Providewashdown, weighing scales,staff clock-in. Allow sufficient heightand turningspace for large vehicles. Columns and corners to be protected fromdamage byvehicles.
214 Commerce
Hotels KITCHENS& STORES
meals/day
2 Totalstorequirementsforconventional kbasedon numberofmeals prepared/day
staffar wash-up Sr serveryar
cookin9ar
preparationar
25
stoar
55 meals/day
1
Kitchenlayout of largeroadsiderestaurantCaliforniaUSA
3 Arrequiredforsto k,servery&staffarusingconventional methodsoffood preparation
4 Exampleofktoserve4restaurants: coffeeshop 120covers; mainrestaurant100covers; specialtyrestaurant 100 covers;staffdr80covers; mainfood sto inbasement, alsoservice&ktofunctionrm
Commerce 215
Hotels ADMINISTRATION hotels office accn may be limited to general office behind reception desk, manager's office and chef's or control office at rear. Larger hotelswill require all or some offollowing: At front of house associated with reception: reservations office, front office manager, chiefcashier, sales manager,secretary. General admin (preferably nearreceptionbutcanbeelsewhere): general manager, 2 or 3 assistant managers, secretanes, chief accountant, accounts' dept,duplicating rm, archives.
In small
At back of house: control office at service bay, storeman, personnel office,secretary and clerk, waiting rm, chief engineer, security officer, chef (within kitchen), housekeeper, training rm. Space allowance for offices (UK): 0.3—0.4 m2/rm orin accordancewith statute(Bib346347).
Staffaccommodation
In large hotels provide staff canteen for approx 1/3rd staff with own kitchen. Canteen should beaccessiblewithout staff havingtogothrough kitchen. Senior staff diningrm may be required. In small hotels senior staffmay use restaurantand junior staffdining rm may be supplied from main Kitchen. Provisionofstafftoilets—Bib341480. 1 full height locker for each member of staff should be provided: space allowance0.36m2/P excluding bench space: 1/2 height lockersmay be used for certain grades of staff. Assume equal number male and female staff unless otherwise informed.
Lockers:
Staff sleeping accn depends on location and management policy. Manager's flatmay be required.
Technicalareas
Maintenance engineer's workshop and sf0 required adjacent plant rm. May include, according to size of hotel, furniture sto, engineering eqp sto,carpenters shop, paint shop, printingdept. Allunder chiefengineer's eye. Accessfor replacement of heavy plant to be allowed for. Space also required forel sub-station and switch rm.
1
Servicear&staff accnforlargehotel
Exampleofadminoffforlargehotel: except forfrontdesk,reservations& cashierthese may also besitedelsewhere, egonmezzanine 2
216 Commerce
Hotels GUEST BEDROOMS
Bedroomcorridors& stairs
Bedroom sizes —(1) In medium tariff hotels 2-B rm typically approx 15—17 m2. High tariff hotelsmay have rm upto28 m2, excluding lobby and bathr butincluding
Corridorsnot over-long; may be 1 200—2000wide according type of hotel. Corridorflowcapacity—vp407. Wherewidth lessthan 2000consider modulating corridor by recessing bedr doors. Ceiling void often used to house engineering services: heighttoceiling notless than 2250. Direction signsand numbering of doors to be clear and well lit. Protect corners from damage. El socket outlets at 12 m intervals. Provide emergency lighting. Carpet floor for quietness. Space forshoecleaning machines, drink dispensers and ice machines may be required in corridors or lobbies.
sitting area. American sizebed: twin990 x 1 900;double 1 370 x 2030; queen size 1520 x 2100; king size 1830wide. Most hotelorganisations buildbedrsized totake twin or double beds in order provide flexbiIity and avoid built-in obsolescence as standards raised in future. Some rm may have fold-away beds so that they may also be usedassitting rm or small meeting rm—.(2).Murphy beds fold verticalclosedwith wall panel.
Fireprecautions—(4)
Follow national and local fire codes.
Floor to ceiling height 2500 (mm 2300)with lower ceiling of2000over entryto allow for mechanical services. Except at resort hotels balconies not usually favoured because ofcostand maintenanceproblems.
Doors to bedr tobeself-closing with mm halfhourfr. Partitionsseparating guest rm from corridors to have 1 hour resistance unless automatic sprinklers installed. Mm fire ratings for separation of exits such as staircases normally: bldg up to 3 storeys 1 hour, 4 storeys or more 2 hours.
by hoteliers
Proportion of rm (approx 20%)with communicatingdoors. Should be2 doors, preferably with rubberor neoprene gaskets to reduce sound transference. Sound transmission between bedr and between bedr and corridors should beminimised bydBreductionof45—50. Where external noise fromheavytraffic oraircraft provide double glazing for reduction 40—42avdB.
In UK self-closing smoke stop doors should be provided every 18 m in corridors and at all exit staircases. Max travel distances to exit stairs shown in diagram. Linings to corridors and stairsshould have class Aor B rating forsurface flamespread.
All exit stairs must be at least 1 050 wide, be of fr construction in fire
protected enclosure having 2 hour rating. Access must be through vestibulefittedwithself-closing doors at least 1000wide. Lockeddoors should beprovided with panic boltsorbreak glass system.
For greaterprivacy and sound insulation additionaldoor may be placed between entrylobbyand bedr.
Privatebathrooms
Bathr normally contain wc, washbasin orvanity unit with mirror over, bath with shower. Insomedeluxe hotels and in most SEuropean and S American hotelsbidetnecessary. Showers in placeofbaths savelittle in cost or space, therefore not often provided. Shower compartment in addition to bath sometimes provided in de luxe hotels, as also separate orscreened off wc.
Floor service
Bathr should be carefullyplanned in relationto plumbing and ventilation ducts. Theseshould be located in relation structure and ease ofaccess formaintenance.
clean linen racks and rubbish sacks. Depending on class of hotel and rm servicesystempantry may alsobe required: should contain shelves for setting out breakfasttrays, sinks and worktop, refrigerator, ice maker, boiler, toaster, space for trolleys. There are arguments for and against linenand rubbish chutes. Need should bechecked with operator. Every floorshould also have sto space for cots, extra beds and spare tv sets.
Numberof rm perfloorshould ideally be related to number of rmwhich can beserviced by 1 maid: willdepend on class of hotel, productivity of staff and size ofrm, butwill comewithin the rangeof 12—18 rmpermaid. Maids' rm should becentrallylocated and close to serviceelevators.These should contain space forservicetrolleys(carts),soiled linen hampers,
Following additional features should be included: glazed tiling round bath tub (at least), grab handles for bath shower and bath, shower curtain and rail, soap tray, removable bath panel foraccess toplumbing, shower, mixervalve preferably thermostatically controlled, adequate towel racks in accordance withclass ofhotel, good shelfspace if vanity top not provided, el shaver connexion, bath mat and non-slip surface to bath/shower, toilet roll holder, clothes hooks. Other items to be considered: tissue dispenser, bottleopener, hook for shoe duster, waste basket, sanitary bin, stool. Good lighting over mirroressential.
1
bed size
rm ar
x 2000 1500x2000 1000 x 2000
8.75 m2
1 000
single bed double bed twin beds
accesspanels
12.5m2
13.5m2
Basic mm rrnsizes (excluding lob &bathr)
[!61
In hotels where maids cannot get from bedr to staff toilets without passing throughpublicrm, eginmotorhotels and motels, provision may be madeforstafftoilets andchangingrmIn bedrblock.
biT corr
corr
access
144
328
42h
3 single
double
access
Typicalarrangementsof bathr&ducts: access panels toductsshouldbet/2 hrfr; ductsshould have firestopsbetweenfloors;sizesvary with heightofbldg; 'a'isbestforaccesstoductbut b & 'c' providemorespaceforvanitytop maxtam
trolleys(Carts) under worktop
L_] serviceelevatorlob
spaceforrabbisf
tray& china
sacks
sk
shelves over
-
desk/work
boiler ..._—..——
I
ptr
II
I
hampers
LJL IL
toaster
cleanerssk soiled linen
±
trig
maidstrolley cart)park
maxl8m
5 Typicalservicearfor50—60 mi/floor; note: aprovisionofptrdependsonclassofhotel
and rm servicearrangements in k blocal linensb orcpdmay berequireddependingon method of control cfloorsto forbeds,cots notshown
ij1ffli 1Jbedr b
sometimes communicating toiletonly doors
2 a basicbed requirements barrangement of
sittingrrnbetweenbedrprovidesmaxflexibilityfor suites;suitescanalso beformedat corners ofbldg orwherestandardisationofstructuralgrid not possible;luxurysuitesmayalso beplannedas penthouseorvillasin grounds
maa allowabletraveldistancefrom
4 stage 2escape;no furtherthan 18m
dimensionshouldexceedSm 3 inmuftl-rrttsuites anyassocIated privatecorrshouldnot eaceed 7.5m inlength
5 dead endportionofany escapecon
mostremotecornerofrmtodoorway 2 inmulti-rn,suitesno singlecross-ire
4
Fire:max traveldistances
allowedfromexitdoorofmito entranceofprotectedroute should
notexceed7.6m
Commerce
217
Hotels GUESTBEDROOMS
1
Guest bedrdiagrams
Diagrams —(1 )(2) showconfigurations for bedr and bathr. Most new hotelsplanned with private bathr attached to bedr; examples without private bathr therefore not included.
a Typical twin bedr in common use: 3600 rm width optimum for economy/comfort; wardrobe in lobby b Similarbut reduced in depth for single or double bed
c
Narrow frontage scheme againstbathr
d Width of rm increased allow possibility of dressing area & walk-in closet e Bathr placed between bedr allow one bathr have natural light Layout provides for separate wc compartment with bidet if required; angled window can be applied to any of theseschemes & allows for extrasitting area &directional view g Luxury bedr withvanity unitseparated frombathr h Staggering wardrobes in partition wall can savespace
-rubbish
4 Chambermaid'strolley(cart) C
2 adressingtable unit bnighttable &bedhead with wallhungtelephoneto leave table clear:table maybesplayedtoalloweasymovement of bed ccombineddressingtable, luggagerack&tvunit; may becantilevered for ease ofcleaningbutifsomustbefirmly anchored totakePsitting;upstand should beprovidedatbackof fitmenttopreventdirtmarksonwall;luggage rackmaybereplacedbyteamakingunit; lights shouldbeplaced toilluminate worktop& both sidesofface evenly
3 Typicalcombinedunitwa: where hangingspaceonly allow 500 rail/P; some luxuryhotelshavewalk-in closets&dressingrm
5
Linen trolley (cart)with removal fabric
218 Commerce
Hotels BUILDINGSERVICES —(1) shows salient features of bldg services design (—p383—97)
but
following additional points should be noted:
Emergency electrical supply
Centralheating Ifair-conditioning (normal USA) not adopted bedr should be heated by
radiators with individual controls designed for quickresponse. Public rm, particularly restaurants, should be provided with controlled mech ventilation tobalance kitchen extract. Bars should have extract fans.
Certain essential services must be maintained in event of failure of mains supply. Generator willbe required maintainfollowing: fire exit and emergency lights, approx 20% of public area lighting, cold rm and refrigerators, fire pumps, cash registers, fire alarm indicator systems, telephone communications, sumpand sewage pumps.
Bathroomventilation
Firealarm systems
Lighting
Following essential: manualbreak-glass contacts and automatic smoke or heat detectors with audible warning throughout bldg; automatic recessed hose reelsthroughout, hoses to becapableof reaching every bedr; external fire hydrants; portable fire extinguishers at strategic locations; asbestos blankets in kitchen; fire dampers.
Airconditioning
Central system generally preferred to individual rm units. Should be capable of being controlled by guests in bedr. Public areas must be zonecontrolledto copewith peak loads and foreconomy when certain areas not in use. Good maintenanceaccess toallunitsessential.
Generally extract system should be ducted tofans on roofwith individual bathr connected to main riser by shuntducts to minimise sound transmission between bathr.
Bedr lighting systems to be arranged so that at least 1 main light switched from door and bedhead. More elaborate switching arrangements maybeadopted according totype ofhotel. Fluorescentlighting in bathr to be of quick start' type. Each bedr or pair of bedr to have consumerunitwith isolating switches. Corridor lighting should be time switched sothat sections canbeturned offatcertainperiodsforeconomy. Public rm should be switched in zones and special consideration given to decorative effects. Main switches should be located where public cannotreach them.
Shaversockets Thereshould be dual voltage (single voltage USA) shaver sockets in all private bathr and male public toilets.
I 114 coldwater sto 140 I/guest
screen plant onroofmust be well insulated
bathr extracts
•separate flues foreach boiler
zone forservices
airhandling plant sited to minimise nuisance
1000 zone for
o
3 9
6 18
I9
27
12m I
LEEJ— sto
3611
boilers: at least2 each capable of 2/3 total heating load water softener probably required
I
Section showingsalientfeaturesof bldg services design for hotel
Commerce
219
Motels Location
6250
On major highways, often near largetoxins,
excursion centres and holiday resorts, and convenient for supplies (water, el, gas, fresh foodand laundry). Restaurant, petrol and garage services need not be connected to motel but should be available nearby. Self-service restaurant —p205 206. Sited so thatpassing headlights do not sweep bldg: avoid hilly terrain because of noise of vehicles braking and changing gear.
Approach
Take into consideration stopping distance of cars: 100 kph— 150m. Entrance: leads to reception (short stop), then to parking area (carport or garage) near as possible to rm. Exit through reception (control and return of keys).
Size Unitopen to 1 side only;3different layouts Arch Polivnick 1
Motels generally 1-storeyand spreadout since land relatively cheap.
2
Unitwith daylightfrom 2sides (difficultto control) Arch Roberto
If run by couple withouthelp10—i2unitspracticable; 1 helper required for every additional 10 rm. If affected by seasons,divide motel intosmaller groupsof 4—8rm with stop-cocks forwater, el, gas etc. Single bldg cost more than terrace housing.
If trucksto be excluded construct low canopy over passage atreception.
3
Carportsbetweengroupsof3or 6units Arch Duncan
4
Unitswith coveredcarportsas3but in fours ArchTibbals-Gramley-Masson
b
5
Layoutofmotel withparkingarforeach block&restaurantas independentestablishment ArchFried
3
6
2
1!D
2D
410
18 m
6ft
Motorhotel RevereMassachusetts USA aunitsinblocksof 12with accesstoparkingatendeach bldg bcatering &adminbldg provides for entertaining,dining,conferring Arch Salsberg &Le Blanc 6
220 Commerce
Motels Staggeredlayoutofresidential unitswith reception&caretaker's flat Arch Williams 1
2 2 doublermwith lob(forcold
Provide large central rm for all guests, with recesses for writingand reading, card tables, radio, television, souvenir shopsetc.
season)and cabin (forch)whichcan beused separatelyorwitheitherrm
Telephone boxes should have provision for sitting and writing, and have maps, directories etc available as mostly used for long-distance calls.
Roomsize
forcity hotel:approx 4000 x 4000 upto 5000 x 5000,withbathrand ifnecessary Large than
kitchenette, even if only 1 bed.
Provide inter-communicating doors between
unitssothat suites may beformed.
Since90% guests stay only 1 night cupboards and chests unnecessary: provide large coat racks on wall instead, where belongings hang visibly,soless likelytobeleft behind.
Ancillary rooms 1 centrallysituated linenrm with 5 sets linen/B (1 being used, 3in sto, 1 in laundry). Cleaner's
rm accomodates trolley (cart) with compart-
ments forclean and dirty linen, soap, bath salts,
toiletpaper, vacuum cleaner, broom,floorpolish etc.
If possible direct access from rm to car park.
Efficient drainage ofapproaches, parkingareas and paths, as guests enter rm straight from outside. Entrancewith b/wc, betweencarpark& guest rmforsoundinsulation Arch Hombostel 3
4
Staggeredlayoutwith approach from 1 side only Arch Thompson
Play areas some distance away to avoid disturbingresting guests.
restaurant
resdeflta units
approachfroni fillingstation hrhway
Layoutof3 with restaurant Arch Hornbostel
6
Establishment withefficiententrance &exit control
Commerce 221
Convention hotels m2
595 280 restaurant
parlour&cafe
400 185
370
200
175 93 520
185 75 375
520 390
ballrm
425
185
space
foyerspace
Planning and design concept which absorbed large proportion of hotel investment in USA during 1970s, often as part of efforts regenerate innercity areas. Basic characteristic:large amount ofspaceavailable for convention business activities such as meetings, exhibitions,seminars. Conventions entail dense traffic:400-rmhotel can have population 800 ormoreat height ofconvention orconference.
occupancy
meeting
banquet
800 600
400
3750
5785
5.40
758 7148
4660
Flexibility
300 2900 880 3580
740
5390
meetingrm:
00 P
of space
essential —v(1)(2). Spaces for eating capable of
beingserved independentlyatall times butkitchens should utilise same
70
7930 parking)
central supplies (eg water,gas, drainage). Staff servicing guests orworking behind public spaces should notcross or impedepublic areas —v(2). In addition to segregation of personnel, main public and meeting areas require large outside halls for security, check-in by conference organisers, provision of coffee, literature and exhibition stalls etc. Large numbers involved make necessarycontrol oftraffic inand between main convention spaces. Use of atrium as unifying design concept —p223(1) groups ballrm, meeting rm, exhibition spaces, shops, bars, restaurantson 4 levels. Service functions ofoffices, laundry,sto, loading thus contiguous with space they serve but out of sight; segregation of vehiclesalso obtained. Conferences and conventions generate need for bedr with space and eqp for daytime business meetings. Small kitchen, tables, easy chairs, adequate lighting required —vp222(ld). (Rm thus equipped termed suites insomehotel chains.)
58 520 432 1010
employee employee telephone lockers dr
a linen
lau
I)
LL.,...
I
I
L
I
'
above
•!.
banquet
meetings
d
:
:
ptr
;i1ç.
foyer
ballrm I
StO\
1sto
b
entrance
PhoenixofAtlantaHotelUSA abreakdownof publicar(totalof2058 guestrm) b mainlob floor c lowerlob floor Arch AlanLapidus key imainlob 2loblounge 3regetration4admin6shops&agencies 1
7checkrrn 8restaurant 9coffee shop
10 news stand 11 bar/cocktail lounge I2discotheque l4grandballrm l7meetingrrn 2Oreceivingk 21 maink 22k 25rrn service 31 rnech 34 snackbar 35main entrance 36convention foyer 37 reception & control 38 openlightwell 40 convention entrance
0 6
12 1,8 24 m
o 40 t0 ao ft
Smallconventionhotel(400rm) asecondfloor bmainfloor:showing segregationofhotel &convention business vehicletraffic& tightcontrolof service& personneltraffic inside 2
222 Commerce
Convention hotels EXAMPLES
9
a
6
12m
20
40 ft
summitrestaurant hoteiguestfloors
ofttower C iuflior balirmIeve ballrTn
veI
-podiumbael _—otttower Wnmediate level Streetlevel
I,
--.,---
a 01.53m 5 lOft Hyatt RegencyHotelHoustonTexasUSA bfirstfloor ctypicalguest rmfloor dexamplesofbedr suitesshowingprovision of meetingspace;note possibleuseof dividingwalls to createsmallerrm Arch JVIII 1
a lob floor
2
RenaissanceCenterDetroitUSA:convention center & 1400 mi hotelwith 2650m2 ha, 13 restaurants,offspace, commercial retail space &rentableflats(orcondominium) asection b streetlevel plan ArchJohn Portman
d
9
9 9
12m
10 20 30 40ft
Commerce 223
Convention hotels EXAMPLES
E Jcrc. ? r pool°°
:
___PIaZa__1 fastfood'
r
restaurant
ew
IL 036912
dr
U'.• /5\ I:
I
bac I bei<' ow
b
m
10203040ft
b
9
121824m
204b600 ft
2
BonaventureHotelLosAngelesUSA:atriumdesign incorporating 4cylindricaltowers¢ral tower a retailfloor blobfloor ArchJohn Portman
Hyatt HotelBostonUSA:atriumdesign with addedfeatureoforientation over riverproviding viewfrom publicspaces&guestrm aground floor btypical guest rmfloor ArchJohn Portman 1
Hotel references: —Bibliography entries 001 011 043 049 050 147 176217223226243 255 272 273 274 319 324 341 346 347 363 377 439440 441 442 477
480583645
224 Commerce
Public houses English pubsfamous associal institutionsthroughout world; very difficult create afresh. Being increasingly copied as special attractions in large European and Americantowns. (Evenprefab pubs availableforexport.) Few moderndesigns have satisfactorilycaught right atmosphere; many originals have been brutally altered, often first to so-called modern design, then back again to spurious Edwardian. Constant feature of successful pubs seems to be breaking up of space into small intimate rm whichnevertheless retain feeling of bustle all round. Traditionalway dothis centralservery with bars radiatinground. Good pub hassomething oftheatre about it: good taste should be used sparingly; brashness and vulgarityhave place in interior fittings.
Regulations
b
Apartfromstatutes, for purposeof firesafety UK pubs mainly controlled underliquorlicensing law. Applicants opening pub must apply to local magistrates for licence. Must also notify fire authority,whichhas power inspectpremises on questions of adequacy offire separation, between such areas as kitchens and bars, and means of escape. Fire authority inspectorhas power objectgranting oflicence ifdissatisfied. For pubs catering for less than 50 people 1 exit generally considered enough when pub 1 -storey. Elaborateformula,takes into accounttravel distances, door widths and numbers of people, to calculate number of exits needed for pubs serving more than 50people.
Unless pubs employ more than 20 little affected by (UK) Shops & OfficesAct; but ifpartsof larger structures full rigour ofbldg reg apply; could dictate, eg, provision of sprinklers at base of multi-storey block. Finishes on wallsand ceilings also controlled by reg to prevent flame spread. Lord HighAdmiralLondon England: entirely modern pubwhichrecreates atmosphereoftraditionalEnglishdesign,containedwithinlargescale housingscheme;bars separated, varyingindesign &comfort: aground floor bsection Arch Darbourne & Drake 1
Amenities
Scale, siting, quality, cleanliness of lavatories most important aspect of successful pub; can be decisive in keeping or losing customers; particularly important when renovating old pubs.
Most pubs nowalsoprovide some snack bar service thoughnot usually with stooPs —p205; provisionof heatingand cooking eqp suitablefor bar counterimportant. Quick restaurant service for lunch time trade now common in town pubs, necessitating some kitchen and food preparation area.
Do not forgetprovision for pub games, generally darts, dominoes but somehighly Pocalised. For modern cellar techniques and installationsconsult clientand/or (in UK) Brewers' Society.
2
Groundfloor plan TheFanciersNorthampton England; bright&breezy workingmen's club;colourfuluseofmaterials, stripedglass panels & curvedcorners Arch Roscoe MilnePartnership
first floor plan
1st floor plan Foxhillsgolfclub Chertsey England Arch BuildingDesignAssociates 3
b
4
MarkhamArms ChelseaEngland; sympathetic conversion of existing Victorianpub; originalbowfrontremains;addition hasbeentackedonat back; geometryof bow repeatedin built-in seating; a ground floor b section Arch RoderickGradidge
Commerce 225
Office buildings BUILDINGTYPE Office bldg either custom builtto meet particularsetof requirements or speculatively toattract largest possible range oftenants.This distinction has led towidedifferences in bldgform. In theory should be no difference at all because same fundamental principle applies to all office design: organisations change far more rapidly than bldg. Distinction managed bydistinguishing between design for4scales oftime: Shell last at least50 years: must be designed to meetwide variety of organisational needs —.(1).
visual and acoustic separation and decoration now frequently achieved by furniture. Second, becoming increasingly difficult distinguish office function from allied activities such aslab, industrialprocesses,education
Services become obsolete as office technology changes and must be replaced at least every15 years —.(2). Scenery: fitting out of office interiors to meetprecise organisational needs; sceneryneedlast onlyso long aslease, usually5—7years—o(3). Sets: positioning and repositioning scenery elements such as desks, chairs, screensand partitions to meet immediateorganisationalneeds perhaps evenevery3 or 4 months—*(4). 2 fundamental developments in office bldg in recentyears. First, significance oflong termshell diminishing as shorttermscenery,particularly
primarily involves handling information and making decisions based upon information. This definition hides enormous variations in size of officeorganisations, office technology and styles of management.
furniture, absorbs more and more functions. Carrying services,
1
OFFICE FUNCTION Most employees in advanced economies workin offices. Office work
Range includes multi-nationals which employ thousands of people in only 1 of many bldg to 1-man enterprises. Much office worksedentary but offices also include spaces for machinery, canteens, meetings, filing, libraries and other ancillary activities whichcantake up 1/3 ofspace needed byorganisation—e(6). Office organisations changing rapidly and in every respect. Extreme care should be taken toavoid building obsolescence into new bldg.
iHi
Shell
r-
1'
1'
1'
1'
-I
2 Shell &services
asconstructed
5
after15years
after45years
after30 years
Relativecost comparisonof shell, services & scenery over 45years
anciIiay
workplace
3 Scenery
primary
circulation,coreetc
I
I
1
I_j
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
4
6 Comparisonofspace requirements in4bldgshowingvarious Sets
relationshipsofworkplace/ancillary needs
I
226 Commerce
Office buildings DEFINITIONSOF OFFICE AREAS—(1)
a a
Efficiency of office bldg usually measured in terms of ratio of usable office area to grossarea of bldg. Real estate definitions vary but basic unitsalways same:
(a
—
ead,oftfloor thicknessofexternalwalls columns staircases lifts lax ducts
•• •S •• S S •S
plantrm circulationwithincore publiccorr privatecorr internal walls required for bldgpurposes—not influenced S byspacease— internal walls tenant's own subdivision floor recephon
oft space/deskar
wtelddg bldgplantrm bldg reception coveredparking sf0forwholebuilding eginbasement
*t
•S • ••
•• S •• S ••
ia5 fl,e
, B
S
S S
S
I• S
option
S S S
5
S S S S
•S
•
•S S
Workplace area (oruseablearea): spacesin which possible forpeople to workatdesks;includes secondary circulation, Primarycirculation: circulationessential toprovide accessand means ofescape to workplace areas, Special areas: space which cannot be used for office workers but is dedicated to particularfunction, egarchives, restaurant. Core:space needed forsupport of bldg, eglifts, stairs, ducts, lavatories, Gross outside area (GOA): —a(2a)(2b) sum of all constituent office areas including core,structure and perimeter walls,
Netusable area(NUA): —x(2c)(2d) what remains when core,structure
S
•S •
S
•• S iienclosed) (if • S • S
optionifsingleletting subjecttoseparaterentalcalculation
,-
,5d
enclosed)
S S S
S
S S
*
•*
t
t
*
•
*
Upartiallyincluded S whollyincluded
Definitions of termsusedtodescribeofficear:precisedefinition sometimesdifficultbecause of differentusages, variations in bldgdesign (eg slab ¢recore), differencebetween letting floors,partsof floors& wholebldg 1
and perimeterwalls subtracted fromGOA. Core in multi-storey office bldg should occupy no more than 20% of GOA—4(2e). Obviouslysmallercore more efficientbldg—xp228—9. Primary circulation usually takes up between 10 and 15% of net usable area. Special areas vary enormously depending uponfunction ofoffice organisation —v(3). NB in multi-tenantedbldg primary circulationsometimes excluded from 'rentable' area. Special areas should be convertible to workplace area. Not all work place areaequallyvaluable. Common design faults—x(4)whichresult in insufficient use ofspace: columns too closeto perimeter walls wasteful modules dominant columns fixingprimary circulation routes space ofwrong depth provision of services onlyat perimeter
2 a forplanningpurposesgrossfloor aristotalof bldg measuredfrom outside edgeofexterior walls b forcost purposesgrossfloor artotalof bldg measuredfrom insideexternalwalls C NIJA:UKpracticeexcludesallcorr between tenancies d NUA:USApracticeexcludesonly circulationincore e bldgcore:example has major& minorcore
a
DE. C
in
-0
L±L
d
wasteful module
e
intrusionot structureintowork place badlypositioned radiators
IJ
/I7\
pesmeterserocesonly wastedspacearoundcolamns
,1 oft toodeep
/
,.--——'
\
"—....—
/
-'
11wrongdepth space—
'.\ difticubto
adover
( —pnmaty
3
Analysisof space usein4 projects showingvaryingspace requirements
4
circulat: fixed bycolamns
Commondesign faults
\\ entranceto/
Commerce
227
Office buildings Positions of primary circulation: fixed? does it serveto 1 side or 2 (single ordoubleloadedcorridors)?
TYPESOF OFFICESHELL
3 factors determineshape offloorofofficebldg —s(1): Depth of space: depth of any work place area measured
Position of core: placed centrally, orat 1 end, ordetached. between
perimeter orcoreand primary circulation.
11111111111110
for3—5open plan workplaces
II
11
3 major bands ofofficespace depths can beidentified —*(2): narrow, 4000—6000: suitable for single office rm or for 2—3 open plan workplaces medium, 6000—8000: suitable forenclosures larger than single rm or
oflspace
cellular open structured
deep, 8000 + : more than 5openplanworkplaces deep These depths can be combined in various ways and together with position of core and circulation generate wide range of office shell configurations —*(3).
CELLULARISATION
1
Greatest test of office bldg capacity to accomodate various kinds of organisation: degree to which can be divided upintormofvarious sizes. Not all organisations require large number of small rm and not all can use high proportion ofopenplan space successfully. In life of organisation demand forcellular and openspaces will fluctuate. Consequently capacity of office bldg shell to provide range of rm arrangements must be measured. Should be remembered that small rm not just required for individual office but increasingly for other functions, eg noisy or confidential machines such asterminal printers ortelexes. Capacitycan be measured by number of rm of various sizes which can be provided in given shell —s(4): this can be matched with demands of typical organ isations for rmofvarious sizes _a(5).
Determinantsof shape shallowspace 4000-6000 X2000)
/)
I-Ii = integralcore
shell
rne&urnd6000-8 000
detachedcore
I
1K2000
\/ I \'__/I IN_JI /
() \
(
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(-
,iN
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deepspace6000+
/
/__
\\
-
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\ (/
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0
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rn
X2000
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______
0
\_/ 4 Shell array
2 Spaced
o indivkiualenclosed
rrn
O groupsharedenclosedrm
0 open
shallowspace
lOO%fl 100%
mediumspace
Ill Ill
III
11111111111
I
67%
67%
::
33%
33%
100%
deepspace
Ill I
f111
3
5 Capacityof3shells, showing max amounts of individual Spaced
and differentways of organisingspace
cellulansation
228 Commerce
Officebuildings CORE Office bldgcore—.(1)(2) p229(l )(4) must providetor: Elevators: number and size depend upon population ot bldg, number of floors, and required waitingtime. Elevatorsshould begrouped sothat availability ofanyelevator in bank on anyfloorcan be easily observed. In tall bldg elevatorsusuallygroupedtoserve 10ormore tloors—.p410—12 Ducts: vertical ducts required forheating, telephone,electrics, drainage andwatersupply; alsoin air-conditioned bldg forairmovement. Provide on generous scale, particularly for increasingly important electrics and telecommunications, In large multi-storied air-conditioned bldg allow for. vertical air movement el
©
telecommunications & telephone drainage watersupply Services p383—97 Lavatories:Proportion men and women on each floor may change: desirable that male and female wc be adjacent so that replanning possible using sameducts—(3). Cleaners' cupboards: oneach floorof multi-storey office bldg provide cleaners' cupboard (mm 2m2)containing sto and slop-hopper.
Stairs: width of stairs determined by reg on means of escape and in particularby numbersofstaffto be providedfor—.p407—9
©
AmericanExpress BankingCorporation London England Arch DuffyEleyGuffone 1
Worthington
SW ElectricityBoardBristolEngland Arch SWEB PropertySection 2
ii
nals male
9
female
3 Groupinglavatoryprovision toallowfor changingproportionsofmen&women
Commerce 229
Office buildings CORES: EXAMPLES
DobsonHouseKillingworth NewTown England Arch Faulkner-Brown Hendy NatkinsonStonor 1
2
Deptof Environment LondonEngland Arch PropertyServicesAgency
/
/
/
\ /)
3 GreaterLondonCouncilislandblockLondon England Arch GLC ArchitectsDept
4
EuropaHouseStockportEngland Arch John Caytten&Partners
230 Commerce
Office buildings
/7/77/"C I,
_
RELATIONSHIPS Office bldg can be designed provide best relationship between parts of organisation;travel distancesboth horizontaland verticalcan be reduced; visual links between component parts can magnify sense of close relationship. Other bldg forms can be used toachieve preciseopposite: max autonomy of component parts—(1).
INTERFACEWITH OUTSIDEWORLD
1
Ideally office bldg, whether speculative or custom built for 1 user, designed with 1 entrance so that contact with outside world controlled for security, to present unitedface to visitors, and tomake finding one's way inside bldg obvious as possible —+(2). However, different policy which allows for more than 1 entrance can be adopted if organisation does not value security so highly and wants to allow tree access to several internal functions —(3). Another condition when major user wants sublet space. Proportion of sublet space may change: could cause severe design problems.Third problem:when officebldg designed to be lettoverylargenumber ofsmall users and easypublic accesstoall partsof bldg becomes a malor objective.
Connexions
2 3 Organisation'sinterfacewithoutsideworldreflectedinhow approached& degreeofpenetration allowed topublic
/
4
Typesofaccess:depending on typeoforganisation, boundary shown betweenvisitor&companyar may fade &2spacesbecome1
Commerce
231
Office buildings MEANS OF ESCAPE Means of escape important determinant ofoffice bldg shell.In bldg over 2 storey travel distance from any point on office floor to escape stair strictly regulated (30 m). Alternative means of escape on each floor usually demanded. Design ofaccessfrombldg tostreet controlled. Reg also affect scenery planning: eg rm may not openoff rm. Each space must have direct access to means of escape —*p(1)—(3) —p91 — Bib346 347.
1
Altemativeescaperouteswith limitedtraveldistancemustbeavailable fromfiretoprotectedzone
2
Traveldistancefrom anypointonground&firstfloor to protected zone mustnotexceed30.5 m
3
In some bldgover 18.3 m hsomestaircasesshould beconstructedas fire-fightingstaircases,withsmokeoutlets, vents& frself-closing doors
232 Commerce
Office buildings OFFICE SERVICES Demand for services in offices increasing. Each work place must be next to outlets for power and telephone. Coaxial cable access for
1
Perimeterservicing
2
Floor grid
3
False floor servicing
4
False ceiling servicing
terminals frequently required: with increasing automation and telecommunications will become common seeworkstations with 6 oreven 8wiresofvarious kinds. Already some organisations provide 1 terminal for every 2 work stations. Precise need for connexions cannot be predicted: essential provide grid to whicheach workstation can have easy access without dangerous, trailing wires. Such grid can be provided infollowing ways: distribution at perimeter and through partitions distribution throughfloor grid (usually 1 800—2000centres) distribution throughfalsefloors(height should be 50—500) distribution fromceiling (NBproblem with safety) distribution throughfin walls (points at desktop height)
5
f
Distributionthrough inwalls
Commerce 233
Office buildings INTERNALENVIRONMENT
A
Quality of internal environment become major consideration: rising energycostsmainly responsible, leadingto reconsidering design of:
C medium, 14 m deep, mech ventilated D deep, 50 m deep, mech ventilated
ventilation (natural— mechanical—air-conditioned) lighting (highgeneral levels—tasklighting) heating (single source — optionalsource) —.(1)tor difference in energy use before and atter energy crisis (c1974). Environmental system should allow for:
Adaptability: servicing systems may beexpected tohave liteotapprox 15years. System should be adaptableto varying degrees ofcellularisation and screening asoccupant changes possible changes in tuel sources changing expectations and standards
Control:individuals may be able control their immediate environment according to nature of work: providing some control over lighting and ventilation can help. Acceptable level ot lighting and ventilation in 1 location must not create glare or draughts in another. Solution must recognise no 2 people equally comfortablein single environment.
Management& maintenance: environmentalsystems shouldbesimple, maintenance tree, easyto change. Depending on size, bldg manager! supervisorwill probably be needed, ideally appointedduring construction and betore commissioning Economicfuelconsumption:flexibilityto adaptto alternativeeconomic tuel sourcesin future. —.(2) for comparison of energy use in 4 generic bldg:
shallow, l2mdeep,naturallyventilated
B shallow, 12 m deep, mech ventilated
Each bldg form has same gross floor area, construction and amoint of glazing, with vertical dimensions adjustedto suit each. Requirements for heating each plan form shown separately. Can be seen that relatively little difference in energy consumed with respect to variations in form, increased energy going into lighting as depth of space increases, compensatingtor reduction ot energy tor mech plant because of more compact shapeof bldg. Each plan formtested tor2different overall lighting levels: 400 lux, 700 lux. Can be seen lighting and fanpower canaccount for approx 70% of energyconsumed.
If prime oblective conserve energy attention must be paid to reducing artificial lighting requirements by: providing mm overall lighting level of 400 luxforoffice work reducing lighting further and introducing task lighting making greatest useof naturaldaylight and providing localisedswitching Fanenergyusemay be reduced byattention to design ofmech systems and byusing low pressures and velocities for distribution of air. Any economic environmental system must be designed for specitic bldg toensureenergy usage kept low aspossible. However, first2 questions any user must ask are: whatoffice plan formis required? does this form orits location make air-conditioning necessary?
beforeenergy crisis
0 0 N-
high overall illumination levels (1000 lux) mm task lighting complexcentralised control mm externalglazing heat recovery highthermalcapcity excessheatsto singleenergysource deepplanbldg afterenergycrisis loweroverall illumination
E
levels task lighting moreindividual control moreexternal glazing heatrecovery lowerthermal capacity excess heatsto possibility ot additional energysources variety of bldg torms
Changingenergyusebefore& afterenergycrisis 1
Em
a
NB 10.76Ix = 1 foot-candle
2
Energyuse in4 genericbldg
0 0
0 0 N-
ii
234 Commerce
Office buildings OFFICE CONSTRUCTION
3 critical constructional elements affect office layout: partitions, ceiling, window module. 2 basic choices: complete modular integration and its opposite, avoiding precise modules—.(1).
Test of any office planning: how well range of small rm sizes can be accommodated. Small rm usually found in following approx sizes: 15 m2, 20 m2, 25 m2, 30 m2 (smallest size USA: 7.4 m2). Single rm depth should not exceed 6000 otherwise unusable space created towards backofeach rrn. Acceptable rm proportions should not exceed ratio of 1:1.5. Thusif strictmodular grid thought necessary, 1 500mm feasible grid —(2)(USA 1220—1524).
Ceiling grid can affect single rm design in similar way. Single most critical dimension: standard size 2400; USA 1 220, 1 830, 2440).
of fluorescent
tubes (1 200, 1 800,
Wide variety of possible types of ceiling: lightfittingssetin ceiling diagonal patterns movable fittings waffle grids largecoffers
All can be made compatible withplanning small rm. Discipline of ceiling grid relaxed when task lighting used because fewer lights needed in ceiling. 1.2mgrid
5m
whole bldg grid: structure services ceiling partitions
30m2
24m2
.5 m grid
5m
18m2
12m2
___________
22.5m2
30m2
15m2
modular Integration
1.8 m grid
_______________ _______
noceiling grid perimeter or floorservices
5m
36m2
27m2
18m2
partitions can fitagainst
walls&ceiling as required within solid wallzones
1
2.4mgnd
_____________
Non-modular&modularintegration 5m
24m2
36m2
12m2
2
Rangeof rmsizes at constant5000depthwith variouswindowgrid modules
I1HHH 3 Nogrid, smoothfinish,exposed concreteslab ordirect finish ceiling,surfacemountedlight fittings
6
2-waygridded suspendedceilingwith recessedlight fittings
IIHIIHHHI 4 Nogrid, smoothfinish,suspended ceiling,
5 Lineargrid, drysuspendedceiling, continuous
7
8
surface mountedlight fittings
2-way small structuralwafflegrid
1-directionaliecessed light fittings
Largecoffer/baygrid
Commerce 235
Office buildings SPACESTANDARDS workplaceare
Am sizes determined by space standards which allocate area
knownanciiiary
(egcomputer)
popsiatron
and enclosure todifferent levels ofstaff. Manycompanies usesuch standards
10%aiiowanceforanciiiary
but widevariation in: numberof levels ofstaff at which level enclosure required
nettasabie
allocation ofspace to levels
Thesefactors, and even greater degree of variation in ancillary needs, make extremely difficultpredict amount of space/head whichshould be
+primarycircuiation
used to calculate roughly amount of space needed to accommodate given number ofstaff. Certainly 10 m2NUA!head very low; 25 m2/head high. Any figure in between could be relevant to given organisation.
nettrentabie
1
UK statutory mm of workplacearea excluding anyancillary approx 4 m. (No statutory mm USA.)
+aiiowanceforcore,stairs,Uty,corr,iobetc gross
CALCULATINGSPACEREQUIREMENTS Office area requirements calculated in 2parallelways: people space (le individual space standard x numbers)+ allowancefor immediateancillary + factor(usually15%) forprimarycirculation; non-people space, eg machine rm, libraries, which depend more on eqp than on staff numbersfortheir area should be calculatedby informed estimatesbasedonexistinggood practice or comparable examples: again factor must beaddedfor primarycirculation.
Methodofcalculating spacerequirements forwholebldg; adjustments should be madeforsharedcommon spacesinmulti-tenanted bldg 3
a' + daie
a E
department
comments
.L °
a
+
a
aworkplace 1 manager 2perSonai assistant
CALCULATINGRELATIONSHIPS
3secretary 4 5 6
To prepare stacking plans te relating 1 department to another in an existing bldg. or even to work out configuration of new office bldg. interconnexions between parts of organisationcan be studied by more
totai workpiace bancillary 1 tiieS
2iib 3
or less detailed surveys of communications.
totalancifary totairequirement
4 Exampletabulation sheetusedforrecording existingspacerequirements &future predictions
5
Stackingplan example
HE.
2
Comparativespace standards in4 companies
6
Interrelationships
236 Commerce
Office buildings ventilation
loading
servicing
access
* * * * * *
* * * * *
* * * * *
* ** ** *
computer
lib
meeting presentation
k
restaurant 1
Requirementsofspecialar
11111
receç,on
II IUIThU tIIIIII
SPECIALAREAS Offices contain largenumber of special areaswhich may need: ventilation(orair-conditioning)—p392 superior floorloading to beplaced away fromwindows incentre ofbldg special servicing even toextent ot suspended floors greater height than normal office dimensions special access topublic or goods
cnmssoeares resteroi p41Øfl;.
companies
board1
UU
recephOn
desk
1Bn1
data
+
O 2
Examplesshowingdifferentstyles of reception
3
identical controlted
environment
Computerrot
Commerce 237
Office buildings SPACES FOR MEETINGS also —p238 typeofspace
number ofP
typical space required
type ofuse
provision ofeqp
shortdiscussions brieting
1 2visitor's chairs atwork station
location
perP provision atworkplace meeting atdesk
2—3
m2
2 0—275
subordinates, personal interviews
or
C 0 meeting ur
1.5—2.5
C
cOo 0
working discussions with members otntsff or visitors
conference table &chuirn; related eqp pinboard, chalk board
working sessions between members within group otpersonnel from outside involvedwith some prolect. may last severalhr
conference table & chairs withsome screening from surrounding workstations; related eqp: tipchartn, pin up space, chalkboard; provision otpermanent notice board orchart board foruseotgroup
tocuted ingrouparudtucent toprimary circulation, to limitdisturbance of individuals
interviewing personnel or salesrepresentatives; discussions withmembers olpublic shortperiods of use up to ¾ hr
aural & visual privacy required
clone to mum entrance & deptwith malor usage; may require waiting uradtacent ifused frequently
slides, overheadprolector, flipcharts,dimmer lightn, good ventilation; sto for drinks, audio-visualeqp
ease ofaccess toatt dept easily serviced with refreshments; access for outside visitors without going through workar; costs arclone by
vending machines,stand-up counters, lowtables & easy chairs; diuplayboard; screeningfromworkar
adlscent todo, wc &rest rm; equally accessible to allpersonnel on each floor
provision forgroupof workplaces meeting ur
6—6
t 5—2.5
provision foraltmembers of staff interview rm
2—3
t.5—2 0
8—t2
t.5—20
meetings withoutside visitors orinternatpolicy making & planning meetings 2—3 hrmeetings
12—t8
225—4.0
primarily used brrefreshment breaks, but may also be urwhere general notices, scheduling channetc can be displayed;may become importantpoint forenchange ofinformation & ideas;aned throughout dayforutortperiods infrequent meetings: involvement ofallstaff formal board meetings; signing ofcontracts; managementmeetings; business lunches & entertaining: 2—3 hr meetings
rm
k 0UU0 cu rent ar
assembly ar
100—150
bourdrm
16—24
1 5—2.0
conference rm
15—20
t 5—2.0
lecture rm
50—100
1= I
OL ITJD DUO
K°°00
1
I
04
located in screened urif in planned open off environment
presentation; working discussions with outside visitors
large conferences, presentations, lectures & training sessions
Typesof meetingplaces,characteristics & requirements
formal layout; audio-visual eqp:good ventilstion essential; telephone eetension; space & eqpfor stenographer
audio-visualeqp; dimmer lights&black out; uto for eqp & furniture, allow satficient spacefor alternative layouts closed circuit tvsystem, control rmfor prolector, lighting, curluins,tv& audio systems, stospace forfurniture display systems
may use cafeteris or recreation npsce anterm (forrefreshments & leaving coats) attached; easyaccess forretreshmentn: 2visits
easyaccess forvisitors
adlacent ar foraudience to assemble beforemeeting; several entrances
238 Commerce
Office buildings SPACES FOR MEETINGS
space allocation expressed
supportspaces
also —.p237
avof all
av of off I av of
off
using 'Kew' furniture
other general' off
drawing off
%
%
%
%
3 4 5 2
3 4
4 6 6 2 4
— —
meetingsi5aces sto refreshment/rest
do generalservices Percentage of space allocated in
1
openplan offformeetingaras percentageof total net ar
as% of total netar
3 2
7
7
circulation
18
total supportspaces
31
15 34
av of
2 2
19
8 15
29
31
headquarters accn for engineering organisation Ipopulat ion 1 2001 manufacluring admin organisalion populat ion400) headquarters accnfor clerical organisalion Ipopulation 1400) consultancy organisafion )populafion80)
2
Meetingarprovisionfordifferent typesoforganisation
1 per 1200
1 per 1200
1 per60
1 per200
none
none
1 per 15
1 per 10
office stall
office staff
office Stall
1 per40 oflicestall
1
per 12 office staff
1 per 80 1 per 45 office staff office staff
none
1 per18 officestaff
1 per 26 office stall
1 per400 1 per55' office stall officestall
1 per 280 office stall
1 per230' officeslaff
1 per 1 400 officestaff
none
I per 16 officeslaff
1 per 20 office slut)
none
none
1 per80
none
none
officestaff
clficestaff
none
office slatf
oiliceStat) officestaff
office staff
apporlioned toseparale companieson each floor
informal situation probabledifference in status between parties
.9
.9•
3
involved interview orbriefwith subordinate
48m
4.0.formal interview —2.7rn-4
!
-.-—3m-— —3m-—i- j—3m----4-
1
4-245m+ T±
UU I
E
in)
U L_J4
L
J
i!
I
L
L
UU
-it 'E
L
J4-
•
I
• 1 LJ L1 I
I
•l •
-it
I UflU
I
IE
lU L]U
• aijI
1_____j
1'4'
•l—l
II l,IaIl f •I I
U...
. IUI!UlI:
•
I
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-+-
U______
U
l
• III $fl ,
•na UI II
lSII•l lUll1
•UIa
I
I I
I
I •i U U
I L
SLJUII •
L
•
J$_
E
Ut
I
L
U
-J
•
________ • ______
• U... ______ 7,2m
• 1
•.1II•m
UIIUIE a
Uf
I
•I I. .1
..
I
• U I_____ • • ______•lI -L__UUa I I
• •
-t-f••'U • U • •••••••... .1 •
1
1+
I
E
Meetingtable space requirements
5
J L!Jt
L
4—31ni—-j I
.
1
-4—3.1 m—4-
4—3.lm--4
I)
I
lll '. I
•
I
&4 &2J. • .•
: •••• 1'T
1
3.1m
4-31m -- IU .IE •flUIE I. IU
l
4—3.5m--—4-
+-365m-+
a.
•
-t
•
-1-4-
. L _il
'U..
I
-1+ If a Ill rajit: 0• iuOu II • iE1u1 I • -4-2 2m-4
3
lecture i'm 100—150P
seating arrangement & condition informal situation with both parties working on equal basis
1
2
t per 120
1 per 280 office staff
1 per80
conference i'm 22—28P
meeting irs meeting rm 12-16P 16—20P
meeting rrn ounge/ meeting atat meeting ar workplace restar serving group 6—BP ofworkplaces
•• •• •• •
.•
•U
U
•
UU•U• UUUU
U
o
U
Commerce
239
Office buildings OFFICE FURNITURE Once simply element in workstationsforclerical staff and managers office furniture has become more specific and also means of controlling use ofspace, eg: screens to separate linking unitsto allow workplaces to be ganged in various ways services carried byfurniture use ofvertical surfaces for sto use ofsto tosub-divide fin walls 1
Typicalclericalworkstation
3
Supervisor'sworkstation
4
2
These developments have beenbasis formany proprietary furniture systems. Many types of layout possible but principal controlling factor density. Densities in openoffice planning at 8 m2lhead, 12 m2 and 16 m2—.p240(3)—(5) give someidea of range of possibilities.
Secretarialworkstation
6
Gangedworkstations:screened (carrel)
7
Free standing enclosed
Gangedworkstations:open
5
Free standing furniture
240 Commerce
Office buildings OFFICE FURNITURE
1
Furnitureused to controlspace: finwalls
2
Furniture usedtocarry services
3
Officelayout8rr/head
4
Officelayout12 rri/head
5 Office layout 16r1/head
Commerce 241
Office buildings STORAGE Filing cabinets still predominant method of storing office paper: but manyother possibilities, including suspended and lateral filing, which can be considerably more efficient in space use—*(1). Microfilm—p7 can be used to reduce bulk of paper held in offices: may not always be acceptable substitute because of:
rft
complexity ofinformation stored frequency of retrieval
hanging files
cost
legal requirements to keep original copy
Drawer type filing cabinet still predominant type of sto unit but not always mostefficient in space use —(3).
Spacerequirements
box files: ledgers onshelves
Deeper the cabinets, wider the passage required between them. High shelves not easily serviced: time saved because access easier to vertical sto. Hanging files utilise wall area87% more efficiently than box files —*p242(1). Filesmay have betransportedby conveyor;desks in filing rm should have shelves for sorting; provision ofsmall tables and chairs on castors for convenience ofclerks desirable. Registry (document entry) should be centrally situated. Since clear height of 2100 only required, 3 storeys of registry could be fitted into equivalent of 2 normal office storeys. Dryrm essential. Deep registries more economical. Provide writing on reference surfaces next tostacks. Trolleys may be needed for moving files. Moveable registries make possible 20%greater utilisationofspaceby doing awaywith intermediate passages—*p242(3)(4). Layoutsnotstandardisedbutadaptedtodifferent needs, such as archives, lib, sto. Paperstovery heavy; can createacute floor loading problems.
shelves hanging
planhanging
Space required and capacity of 3 types of filing system compared —*(3)(4).USA dimensions filing cabinets, lockers, sto cabinets—*(5)(6) p242(6).
900'
480'
1
65;
Filing
600
4
3O0'
500
7Q()
Comparisonofcapacityoffiling systems
a
ii,,,
,rlIIIIrIIup,,Ili,ln,
b
P!II!I!fl!!!
iI,j(I 1
c
,
i,,i
TI
d I,,,J,,
i,,,,
5 USAstandardclearances forfilingcabinets apassage drawersclosed only bpassagedrawersopen ccabinetsfaceto face passage drawers closedonly d cabinetsfaceto facepassagedrawersopen 3100 3100
2
Ff M44Tht
Exampleofrelationships with registryin insurance firm
deskh counterh extrah standardh
4-drawerfiling lateral filing open cabinet theoretical capacity (linearm) 2.4 2.0 capacity in use (linearm) capacity/unitar (linearrn/rn2) 2.7
cabinet
shelving unit
plan
4.5 4.5 5.5
5.4 5.4 6.0
:::::::::: :::.::.::::t
3 Comparisonof space requirements of filing systems
-
i
drawers extended
/
plan
Er o.j__ rj.r:::::: ::::::::::
-71 1-+—686-'l--660.4-6864-71 762
6
FilingcabinetdimensionsUSA
1-
762
t
242 Commerce
Office buildings STORAGE
3rowsoffiles
6rowsoftiles
;ii 1i41f
—1T——-r——T-T I i1Lt;;Ii11 11
11T1Tm—T—i
[.
0 Wall space comparison betweensuspended& boxfiles ofsamecapacity 1
4
Movableregistry(document entry) vertical &suspended tilingin folders, pigeonholes65/78/200
flatfilingin
library filingin loose-leaf index in rollbinder on open front cpd shelves 35/200 40/125/220
10000tiles
Continuous cpd/cabinet floorarmcI operalion but exclside passages
approx 2mm thickwithout holders, approx 25 sheets
11
5
T
ml UH L
—
II
I
I
II
II
=
2
1
lockers
plan
2
[
I
=
1300
a
Largedocumentchest: section& plan
3
EJ EJ U
officespace saved
3
Comparisonof space required formovable &ordinary registry
2
3
524 1830
762 914 1067
305
229 to 610
229 to 457
305 381
305 to 533
305 381
305 381
1
— H
W —
D —
1
:.::::.:.:.::.:ID
UUU
U U UUEIIEJ
36m2
lockerdimensions
-
plan
ir 1
825m
5.92 rn-
twi
w
rri HI
(0
2.4 m
-
Proportionof gangwayspace totiling cabinetspace
w
Co
11 Ow
7.25 ni
cabinetdimensions
stocabinets
6
gl4maxfor 1 drawer
H W D C
Locker&sto cabinetdimensionsUSA
762 1067 1676 1981 457 610 914 457 559 610 457 max tor2drawers
Commerce 243
Office buildings OFFICE EQUIPMENT Office eqp increasing rapidly in complexity and scope as information technology develops. Use of office automation growing rapidly and expected be single most important use of information technology in longterm.
power telephone supply connexions
eltypewriter
telex word processor copier terminal telecopier micro-computer
microfilmviewer telephone vendingmachine video/tv monitor 1
. . . . . . e . . .
heat
noise water
extract
. . . .
e
. . . . . . . .
supply
.
. . . . . . . . .
5 Telex
.
h = 500
w= 500 d= 600
Basic requirementsofofficeeqp incurrentuse
6
Microfilmviewer
h = 1200
w= 1700
2 Elgolfball typewriter
d=
680
h=350 w=600 d = 450 7
3
Large(15 collator)copier
Smallphotocopier
h = 125
w =550
d = 375
4
Telecopier
8
Wordprocessorwith hardcopyonly;visual display unit(VDU)commonly used in addition
244 Commerce
Office buildings OFFICE EQUIPMENT(cont)
distribution frame
I
I
I
I rectifier unit
N
4
Small(4line) telephoneswitchboard
battery
h maintenance workbench
1,
1
I"
4000
Privateautomaticbranchexchange(PABX) rmrequirements
5
Mediumsized telephoneswitchboard (20 linesPABX)
h = 950
w=600 d = 360
2
Terminals
Small vending machine
h= 1850 w= 780
d=
650
printerh= 150+w = 400÷d= 380-I-
7
3
Large treestandingvendingmachine
Microcomputer
Office buildings references —*Bibliographyentries 069 177178222241 249 257 259260 341 346347363 364 366 374 389 429 465 479480540 541 542 545 554 564 565 566 570 580 592 601 614
Commerce 245
Banks
ecu
"
bankingha eflirance
partition
commussionaire
securitiesdept
bankingha
(
writingdesk
deposiiboxes
desk. iedger clerk
I
cashcounier
2
Customer'sroutesin major Europeanbanks 1
siairstostrongrm
'---
partitinri
ieadin9tosirOng en
4$]iob
Routestostrongrm
Different design requirements according to whether private bank with primarily mercantile interests, major bank, savings bank, mortgage bank; but ingeneral banks places where money paid in orwithdrawn by customers. Procedures needbe transactedquickly, securely, simply as possible. Mech conveyance and similar systems notnecessary orworth while except for really large institutions. Route followed by customer: from street outside through lobby into banking hall, sometimes fitted withbench seats or chairs forwaiting and writing desks forcustomers, andvarious positions forpaying in, drawing out, security, savings and (in Europe) giro transactions,or 'uniqueue' Desks for accounts and book-keeping (check on state of drawer's account) usually behind cash counter—.(1).
Other offices serving customers, eg manager, credit dept, auditing dept, usually next to banking hall with separate ante-rm, or on upper floor—.(3). Route to deposit boxes (often in basement): frombanking hall through partition into passage, usually past securities dept and safe custody deptdown stairs to protective grille in front of lobby leadingtostrong rm, where customers' deposit boxes and strong rm door; sizes ofboxes: for
stafisideentrance
lpersonl000xl500uptol500xl500,for2persons2000xl500 Larger institutions normally have separate bank strong rm next to customers' strong rm, while safe custody dept has offices in front of entrance to this, with separate staircaseto banking hall or special cash elevators —.(3). Basement reached by separatestaircasecomprises cloakrm,sto space. heating plant, plant for operating elevators and pneumatic despatch tubes, elecfromech communications eqp and so on, as well as registry and elevator for documents. In mortgage banks must be possible for all mortgage business be completed conveniently onground floor.
3
Relationshipsofrm inbig bank
—.
a directors
— —
world savings
\
[
u
un
parkinglot
i,/
'z
Li
LIII
0
machine rm
L
clock tower
0
I
10 20 30m
326498 ft
sf0
[
'I
b 9
\,
',
? è
' 12
6 18
24ff
bankingrmN couporbooths
I
_entrance conference teller counter
C
1entobelow
4
WorldSavings& LoanAssociation SantaCruzUSA; main banking rm extendsupwardsthrough2 storeys litby skylights &clerestorywindows asite plan b groundfloor cfirstfloor Arch EsherickHomseyDodge &Davis
p
5
TannersNationalBankWoburn USA:conversion of originallysquare rectangularbldg byadditionof2 corners enclosing respectively staircase& off a lowerlevel b main level Arch Architectural Resources
246 Commerce
Banks Strong rm doors and armoured doors pivot gently on
steel hinges
withoutdropping; canwithstand anyattackand fitted with unpierceable, indestructible steel plates, with fire-proof and non-melting reinforcing,
with additionalfireproof, non-melting and unpierceablecompound casting. Total thickness approx 270—300. No keyhole: elaborate locking device (eg miracle lock, remote-control lock) and el-operated alarm system, whichsounds atslightest vibration ofdoor. Cashier positions —(2)—(6) nowadaysin Europe usually completely 250 thick. protected with bullet-proof reinforced glass, 4 panes Similar protection oversunken drawers. Alarm system operated byfoot or knee.Underneath counter normally standardtype steel cabinets. Exceptions still exist,particularly in USA, in bankswishing foster informal
'non-authoritarian' image. In USA many banks still retainteller positions either behind grilleoreven open.
1
Strong rmwith innerdaytimedoor Customers
Customers
EJ ET1
bankstaft
rufL
lo
bankstaff
(0
3 As—(2)with desks
2 Parallelcounter arrangement
r(01-r
Intercommunications system now more usually by means of televisioninstead ofby pneumatictubes, belt conveyors etc. Drive-in banks: to save time customers do not go into bank butdrive up to cash point—(8). No parking problems: cash points can be incorporated in bank bldg —(10)(11), separate islands —.(12)(13),orbelow pavement level, with shaft by kerb containing reflecting mirror, loudspeaker and cashconveyance device —.(9). Each cash point can serve up to 250 customers/day. (Eachtransactiontakes approx 60 seconds.) Not all banking transactions can be at drive-upcashier's desk: even where this system operates normal banking ha also needed for lengthierbusiness. NB diagrams this page apply totrafficcirculation on right
10
II
5OO
4
Sawtoothcounter arrangement with desksatsides
ii
f!
çi
Ei;i
ci
T_
10 Drive-upcashpoints
H-L 5
Germancashdesksas in big Berlin banks
6
Swedishtype cashdesk 11
microphone
a-b
bullet
12.0
.1
--L]1--i-{ ::
Cash points incorporated inbankbldg
28.0
8.0
I
7
Drive-upcash point,noparking
12 Twin cashpointsasislandto easetraffic
8 Drive-upcashpoint inkiosk
9
Cash point belowpavement with shaft forcustomerservice 3parkingplacesneededfor uninterrupted&smoothservice (Snorkelbank)
13 Cash points as—(7)(8)forthroughtraffic
Commerce 247
Banks EXAMPLES
9
1.5 a
3m
loft
Bancocli NapolibranchNewYork USA;interiorplan conversion of1070m ground flooroffspace in offtower block Arch SkidmoreOwings& Merrill 1
key
1 conference 2reception 3lob 4elevator 5toilet 6lunch rm 7do 8lockers 9refuse
10 planting bed 11 tellercounter 12 strong rm 13 safedeposit desk&booths 14chequewriter
l5fountain l6newaccountslldistrict
manager 18coveredentrance
6m 5101520tt
b 2 WorldSavings&LoanAssociatesSantaAna USA afirstfloor bgroundfloor ArchKamnitzerCotton Vreeland
a m
10 20ft
4
unid
Albany SavingsBank: smallbranchbank NewYork USA agroundfloor b firstfloor Arch Feibes&Schmitt
3 FederalReserveBankBostonUSA, arrangementof aexecutiveoff32ndfloor bexecutivedining &meetingrm 31stfloor Arch Hugh Stubbins
Banks references: —*Bibliograhpyentries 007 249 254 374 477
248 Commerce
Vehicle services CAR PARKS
0
a c,J
I
With growth in motor transport separation of moving and stationary trafficessential. Results of traffic research suggest different parking layouts on basis of local conditions:
Population: desirable parking area in mid-town = 0.5_lob of population ofwhole built-uparea.
2
Parkinglane alongside footway
c'i+
Parkinglane eitherside road
divide
Number of cars: 1 parking space on towncentre for every 5—8 cars kept in built-uparea. Visitingtraffic:parking space for 7—9% of vehicles regularvisitors to town centre.
-
Parking space needed (including drive in) 20—25 m2/car.
Parking areas within roadway limits
Kerb space requirementsfor longitudinal parking—a(1)—(3)(7)(8).
LL 4 Double parkinglane down
3 Parkinglane downmiddle of roadway
middleofroadway
Parking lanes: oblique or right angle parking lanes for various road widths —a(4)(5)(6). Parked vehicles must not restrict visionof moving vehiclesatcorners; therefore gap betweenendofparking lane and bldg line 6000; 10000 preferred —a(1)—(4). Avoid rightangle parking (dangerous for passing traffic). Safety strips 500 wide recommended between parking lanes and moving traffic.
---------*
± 00
roadway
+ 0.05
parkinglane
+ 0.16
footway
-
3.0
o5r
roadway
NB diagrams on this page apply to trafficdrivingon right:data based on Germanpractice
2.32.3'
relationto streetedge
5.0
parking bays footway
edge of premises
5
43cars/i00m
9
Parkinglanesformotorcars
Rightangledalignment a 3.5 3.0
\\\\N
Ipumps
footway
6
Obliquealignment
—
14 cars/i00m 7.0
7.0
——
1DL 7
-- 5.0 --
5.0
-
LDLcD
- 4.75 -l--- 4.75-
I :içf
Segregatedapproach& departure
L
10cars + 9spaces
Ii
-
500 — 5.5 —'
59.5 500 5.5 ——
5.5
-
1—
500
IT!! r1 11111111 [1 1
s—
L b
H
footway
Enclosedparkingspaces a neighbourhood garage barrangement for narrowsite c road at anglegiveseconomical useofspace fordifferentcar sizes, savesapprox 10% floor ar 10
8
lit 1111111111
Settingdown: continuousapproach &departure (eg theatres, taxis)
Commerce 249
Vehicle services CAR PARKS USAstandards —op250
Off streetparking
In permanent car parks, lanes and baysshould be clearly marked with safetystrips for pedestrians —(10)(13). Enclosed parking spaces also —*p248(10).
Spacerequirements —(8)—(15)
Space/car withdriving lanes but without main access and exit:
±
7.5
44—
10.0 1
7.5
800
14
44-
5.5 -s- 7.5 1-5,5-44
800
600
2
45°parkingforbuses
1
3
Truckwith trailer
Smallbuses
90° parking approx20m2 45° parking approx23 m2: usuallypreferred forease of parking.
Parking bays—(8)—(10)
Space/car (medium—large) 5000x 1 800. Forcarparkslargerthan 800 m2 provide20% baysfor larger cars (6000 x 2100) if park attended. Provision for motor cycles, bicycles,disabledaccordingto localrequirements. 4.0
Truck & bus parking
Fixed bay sizes advisable because vehicle size varies greatly. For truckswith trailers provide for parking without reversing —.(1)—(6). For articulated lorries reversing usual. — 12.0
4
-4-———-
12.0
±
5 300 parkingfortrucks withtrailers
16 0—22.0 -4- 15.0—20.0
7
+ i
—4--
12.0
NB diagrams on this page apply to traffic driving on right: data based onGerman practice
—4
90°parkingfortrucks
4—15.5-—.4
oc:
6.0 -'4- 6.0 -,
I
— —
— 12.0
—4
90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers
35.0 -'o 6.0 145.04-5.0
For long distance traffic provide yards at town approacheswith driver accn, workshops, filling stations etc.
—1
90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers
4-150—20.0
6
—4—
20.0
i
T2.3
—
12.3
I I
—
4— 125 —t— 8,25 —° soo 500 500 4435,4- 8.0 —443.544—6.0 —4
1— 12.5 —'
soc soo
45,0-ir-4.5ii- 5.04
44,5443,544-
8.0
500500 —443,544-4,51
'
.° 3.0 ,0
—
:—
'44
—
-carsize
¶
jjj_
parking
I
-
bay
b
a
8
90°parkingformedium& small cars a &verysmall cars b 390 '
500 500 soo sco 13.54'--10.25—143.544-—10.25-—143.5°-6.0 -II
9
Wider baysfornarrowdriving lanes
500
43.544-- 8.0
26.5 soo 500 —443544—-
500
8.0 —44354
10 45°parking
11
45°parkingforcarsa, vansb
_____ 21.5 2.5
45
2.5
M
2.5
12 45° parkingfor largecars,
13 45° parkingformediumcars,
reversing
reversing
14 450 drive-throughparkingfor 15 45°drive-throughparkingfor mediumtosmall cars(no reversing) largecars (no reversing)
250 Commerce
Vehicle services PARKING:USA STANDARDS
public road
a
[
—
lL1_L'[I II H-H I III 2.43
dayparkeruse
standarduse & Lse
2.74
3.05
Ill!II
—(2)givesUSArecommended (—aBib513) parkinglayouts, stall widths and parking dimensions for 2 most typical car sizes. Recommended smallcar dimensions be used only in car parks designed forsmall cars orwith entrance controls which admit onlysmall cars; putting small cars into standard car layout not recommended: standard dimensions will take all normal passenger vehicles. Withlarge car dimensions parking easier, quicker: recommended for elderly, high turnover, luxury. With parking angle 600 or less may be necessary increase bay width by 75—162to give room for users walking toand from parked cars. Always consultlocal zoning reg.
3.35
I
I
Turning dimensions
I
I
of private with public roads. 'U' drive --a(3) illustrates procedure for designating any drive configuration given vehicle's dimensions —vp2l(1) and turning radii. Tangent (T) dimensions approx mm only: may vary with driver's ability and speed. —v(1) shows USA dimensions at intersection
I
luxury elderly supermarket& camperuse
Ihandicappeduse
nunrequirements=1 or2/100stallsorasspecifiedbylocal,state,ortedemallaw;place convenienttodestination
Roadways —vp2l
NB: diagrams onthis page apply totrafficcirculation on right
b
doubleloadedwail to
sungle loaded
waNtowafi (with burquers)
dqubleloadedwall toltiwfttlsawtooth concretekerbi
wali(withounhinuous concretekemb)
C
l
0$bayor edgeo$walk
doubleloaded
ittoltiortt towalk
edgei
dangle of park SW
2743
w 450 1
2 3 4
2896
1
2 3 4
9.75 15.03 14.12 13.61
50°
550
600
9.98 10.36 10.77 15.54 14.88 14.17
9.75
9.96
14.99 14.33 13.61
15.39 14.68 13.97
16.2 15.65 14.94 10.36 15.8 15.19 14.48
16.91 16.41
15.7 10.67 16.31
15.7 15.19
65°
70°
75°
80°
85°
900
11.43 17.63 17.07 16.46 11.23 16.87 16.43 16.0
12.09 18.29 17.88 17.37 11.84 17.68 17.37 16.99
12.8 18.85 18.59 18.19 12.65 18.44 18.19 17.9
13.51 19.61
14.07 19.74 19.66 19.56 14.02 19.66 19.58 19.46
14.63 20.12 20.12 20.12 14.63 20.09 20.09 20.09
19.2 18.9 13.31 19.1
18.9 18.74
NOTE' IIangles greaterthan70°have aisle w for2-way travel
2 Parking a recommended stallw b layouts Cparking dimensions vehicle
R
Ri
T
small car compactcar
6.05 6.55 6.83 7.01 16.76 16.3 13.26
3.28 3.61 3.84 3.84 10.06
3.7 3.05 4.57 3.3 4.57 3.4 4.57 3.66 9.14 6.86
10.1
9.14 9.1 4 7.62
standard car largecar
intercitybus* citybus school bus ambulance
9.14
7.92 5.72
D
6.86 5.92 4.04
C 0.15 0.18 0.2 0.23 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
* headroom= 4.62 Lb
small F
A B Ra Rb La Lb
15.52 46.71° 273.42°
9.75
large 26.59 35.58°
251.15°
11.58 7.95
30.48 15.24 18.8
55.27
66.8
NOTE Rvaiues brvehicles intended to usethesecuis-desacshould not exceedRb.
3 a'U'drive diagram withtable ofturningdimensions bcul-de-sacwithtable ofdimensions& angles; largevehiclel—np21(1)
Commerce 251
Vehicle services:multi-storeycar parks DESIGN GEOMETRY 'Standard designcar'—*(l)
UK 95% of all new vehicle registrations: USA large car dimensions column 2:
A
5500 2030
G
4750 1800 1700 500 2900 900 1100
H J
13000 14000
6550 7010
K
100
w
B
h
C
dooropening clearance
D E F
wheel base (worst cases)
turningcircle (dia) kerb wall ground clearance
1630
3250 890 1350
1
220
Recommended parking dimensions (90° layout) —*(2) stall I stall w standard shortstay long stay disabled persons roadway w 1-way 2-way standard bmw headroom (mm clearance)
1
L
5500
2400
2750 2600 2750 3050
2300 2500
3000 N
6000 6950 15500 2050
P
Recommended rampdesign upto 1 500rise
Standardcardesign'
4750
M
2130
in 7 USA: ramp1< 19.8 m in 10 max slope 1 in 7
1
morethan 1 500rise used forparking
9150 10700 20100
1
in2O
1
> 19.8 m ramp I
max slope 1 in9 L
N
L
:1
gradients, max, on helical ramps: upto 3000rise morethan 3000 rise
in 10 in 12
1 1
w, mm, straight ramp, noturning: between kerbs clearance, kerb to structure
w, mm, curved ramp, turningtraffic: 1-way 2-way central kerb, 2-way
3000
4000
300
75
3650
5200 9150 150
7000 500
turningcircle, outerkerb radius: recommended
12000
mm
clearance kerb, to structure 2
Recommendedparkingdimensions
9000
6600 6600
600
46O
Useofangled parking layout—.(3)
parking angle bin w mm 900 15500 80° 15400 70° 15300 45° 13700
av ar/vehicle USA rn2
m2
24.0 25.0 27.0 34.0
27.0 27.9 28.0 35.3
Most efficient parking angle 90°; lesser parking angles not normally used in UK.
CAR PARK ARRANGEMENT
2 parallel bins normally used provide circulation arrangement with 1-
way trafficflowshaving upwardand downward routes separated;makes possible best traffic capacity. Dynamic capacity reduced if2-waytraffic flows or mixedupwards and downwards circulation used. Cul-de-sac driveways undesirable: should not exceed 6stalls in length. Economy achieved byusing longestpracticable bin lengths. Downward route should be shortexpedite exit; upwards route devised give best possible search pattern for vacant stalls.
3
Typicalcarpark arrangement(NBlefthandcirculation)
252 Commerce
Vehicle services: multi-storey car parks Barriercapacity 2 barrier typesavailable:rising arm orrising kerb,having recommended
DESIGNGEOMETRY(cont)
Split level layout—*(1)
capacities:
Arrangement widely adopted.
2 bins soarranged thatadjacent parking levels separatedbyhalfstorey height.
Shortinterconnecting ramps used between levels.
Warped slab layout—x(2)
entrybarrier exitbarrier groupA groupB
400vehicles/hr 250vehicles/hr 400vehicles/hr
LIGHTING
Parking levelsconstructed with uninterrupted horizontal external edge: steady transition of gradientsconstructedgiveinternal interconnexionof parking levels. Compared with splitlevel layout need forramps ateither endof bldg eliminated, gradients reduced.
Parking ramplayout—*(3)
Parking level constructed as long ramp: has significant effect on elevational appearance; to keep to acceptablegradients long bldg required. When necessary exit can be speeded up by adopting external helical ramp.
Flat slab layout—*(4) External ramp usedto interconnect level parking areas.
Mean serviceillumination forpublic should be (Ix): parking areas driveways ramps roof entrance & exit
20 50 70 20 150
FIRE PROTECTION& SAFETY USA: check applicable codes and standards.
Structuralfire resistance
Construction of non-combustible materials with structural fr 1 hr. In specified restricted circumstances requirement for structural fr may be waived for bldg less than 15.2 m high.
VEHICLECONTROL
Feecollection GroupAdriverpayment:
Means of escape
All parking spaces within 45.7 m of escape stairway having
fixedor variable charge payedon exit
Adequate alternative meansof escape.
GroupBpedestrian payment: fixedor variable charge by purchaseoftokenorticket
hr fr.
Fireprecautions
Adequate fire brigade access, dry rising main, fire points plus any specificrequirements of local fireofficer.
season ticket pay & display ticket
highwater372.5
a
1
221 2.21 ___________________ 2.2!
iowwater37O.55
_____________________
2 emergencyexit
3
NB right handcirculation
4
FIatslablayout
5
Underlake carpark Geneva Switzerland
asection b siteplan c plan offirstfloor
DesignCZschokke
Commerce 253
Vehicle services:petrol stations Self-service station nowdominating influence on design,as result partly of high labour costs, partly of availability of new electronic pumping systems with memories for storing pump information at control counter. In UK self-service basis adopted by oil company petrol station networks: approx 75% of petrol sold in UK through self-service. Practice spreading rapidly in continental Europe. Proportion lower in USA but growing; motorway and inter-state stations increasingly self-service operations. Whether self-service or mannedpetrol stations usuallynow include shops or selling areas exposing customers to wide range of goods as they pay forpetrol.
DESIGN& LAYOUT Basic principles same whether forselforattended service.
Preliminary Tradingarea: detail study will establish needfor site. Road pattern: whether single, dual or three lane roadway will determineease of entryinto site. Traffic flow: number of vehicles passing site per hour per day to be established.
Vehicle roadspeed:will influence frequency of customers visiting site. From these factors estimate number of vehicles/hr/day calling at site and ofexpected peak periods forwhich site will have toprovide.
Basic
Initialcommunication:visibility; pole signvisible atleast 300 m before siteentrance —*p254(2).
1
Typical startinggate' layout allows2 carsto enteratsametime
Visibility:pricesign readable 100 mbefore siteentrance. In and out: easysteering on to site and space for cars to line up while waiting for place at pump; easy steering away from pump with no blocking ofexit and goodvisibility fordriving out onto road —*p254(3). Site traffic: 1-way flowonlyon site. Pumps: thinkin terms offilling positions —(1)(2)p254(4): consider filling at peak periods, usually 2/day, morning and evening; note that car is at pump site before starting filling for 4.5 minutes, and actual filling for 1.5minutes; memory system atcontrol counter imperativeto allow forquickrelease
ofpump;
capacity of1-hosepump with allgrades offuelavailableapprox 3201/hr. Pre-payment:consider whether volume of cars at peak periods or at night warrant money acceptor or card acceptor unitsto relieve control counter operator.
Shop: commonly 20—40 m2depending on retailing activity envisaged. Control counterareaadditional 4.5m2: sited to supervise refuelling area and shop activity. Air, water: site away from pumps with adequate parking spaces according to size ofstation.
Other services: should be kept separate from petrol filling area, eg dervfilling, carwash, sale of liquefied petrol gases. NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdriving onleft
2 Typicalechelonlayoutsuitsnarrowersite
254 Commerce
Vehicle services:petrol stations SITE ESSENTIALS
8000
Accommodation:shop and control counter,office,toilet(s), sto, perhaps staffarea—p253(1 )(2). Petrol sto: underground steeltanks cased in sulphate-resisting concrete 1:2:4 mix. Consult local codeforthickness ofconcrete surround. Tanksizes (UK) vary 13000—360001,in 45601 increments. Discharging must Supplytanker: easyroute todischarge pad on site. not obstruct cars. In case of emergency tankers should be able drive directfromsite. Lighting required for night deliveries. Canopy: required to coverallfilling positions with approx 3500projection beyond pumps on both sides: height above filling area 3850. On lightingfor night time retailingconsultcodes; in UKzone2type (vapour proof) if fittedtocanopy ceiling; zone 1 type (flame proof) if fitted within 750ofpumpsightglass; USA requirements similar. Levels: avoid variation ri level beyond 1:80 on filling area and tanker discharging pad.
Hioo1-8ooo Forecourtlayoutofpumpsiteswith preferred dimensions
Drainage: consultcodes; in UK from all areas within 4250 of petrol source (ie pumps, tanks) ventsto be taken to 3-chamber petrol interceptorbefore processing to main foulsewer. Site size: dependent on number of filling points and future marketing needs; preferred sizes—(4)p253(l)(2). NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdrivingon left
site
I
boundary,1
•l3000---imin
—
—'7/
sight ilne
I.
50
40—70mph road
min6l.0-
outa
40—70 mphroad
2
Areasofvision: I mainpole 2canopyfaciasigns 3secondarysigns NBhigherroad speedsreducemotorist'sangleof vision
3
I.—mln61
Entry&exit sightlines
4
Typicalfoursquarelayoutsuits deepersite
Commerce 255
1— 12 0 —4—-—--- 200 —-
-' 1
i—1I}[]
Li
32.0/trucktrain
ii
FORMSOFPLATFORM
— 12.0 —1
r1T3Ji5500
110
Vehicle services: bus stations
1....
-
Buses increasingly taking over from trains, demand ever increasing attention in relation urban traffic. Need take corners especially wide: turning spread needs special watchfulness—*p256(1). Bus parks large and small an essential partof traffic planning. Forms of platform—*(1)— (18). Bus stops should be under cover —+(19)(20). Consult bus companies ondimensions. Town centre squares should be designed or adapted serve as bus stationsaccording natureofrequirements—np256(1O)—(12).
1
wayin
Parkingarlayout parallel to directionofarrival 500
i8
500
scratchkerb linemarker
350k
8000
F0
'
8000
8000
r,s
5000
500
End ramps and convenient boarding steps of300—400—e(1O)—(11) and forloading baggage tofloor level. Service rm needed in connexion with bus stations —np256(1O)—(14). Provide space for temporary car parking —ep256(9). Keep in mind possibilitiesofextension—ep256(8).
NB diagrams on this page apply to driving on the right (German data)
500
2
Parkingplacesofvehicleswith trailersorcoaches
3 Obliquely(45)todirectionof arrivalforcoaches
----l
I
>
ri
-
I
36.0
12 Platformalignmentwith passinglane
500
14.0
3.6
parking
—IL_______
L
--4
24.0—36.0—
10 14
13 Withoutpassinglane Rightanglestodirection ofarrival
forcoaches
14 Obliqueplatformalignment
5 Forvehicleswith trailersor coaches
8.0
/
3500
4
/
3030
2 3500
4Otn]40[1
-28.0 —F-16.0---4
6
Obliquelyiodirectionofarrival
7
Platformalignmentparallelwith directionofarrival
-- 1_
16 Departureatright
15 Longplatforms with passinglanes
angles;arrivalat obliqueangle
17 Departureat obliqueangle
-3030: 1.5j 0 24.0
i6.5 65— r20
ri'iiith 1111111
1.51
jJ-
-
14.0
Longplatformat45todirection ofarrival
8
.
0"\ggage\
9
At right anglesto direction of arrival
18 Positionatrightanglesto directionofarrival
'
iii Lii
±0.0
J
glasswindscreen
2250
,sathkt
5400, _________
55°
+300—400 3000
10 Standardverticalinterlocking layout (USA)
11
Radiallayoutproviding more rm
infront (USA)
19 Shelterforunilateralloading platform
!1EE 4000—
20 Forloadingboth sides
—
256 Commerce
Vehicle services: bus stations TRAFFIC ORGANISATION NB diagramson this page applytotraffic drivingonthe right (German data) —30.0—————
"-
-
reintorcedl— ,R1=7.0 surtace (
Ku) rein-
•
3,5 1
60f
42,0
/,
2Ttñ
a=7.5 3.5 4.0
'7.0
Roadwideningatrightangletum
6
2
3
Turningcircuit
4
Smallturn-round
Platformoutside turningloop
station
Semicircular
platformiype
platformoutside loopwith noP crossingover
withoutpassing writrpasiving lane
relationtolineofarrival paralle
at4&
at90
lane
relationioline otamnal
32
leachparhisgplace)rrr)
b
o
b
roadway 24
plattorsiw)m)
3
3
Semicircular
platforminsideloop accessibleonly by crossingroad
no ofloadingporrts a coacses
2
2
2
2—3
1
1
1
1—2
2—3 1—2
2—3 1—2
138
170
189 293
296
313
bvehicleswith trailers arviplatform& arrival
fl
vehicles withtrailers
8
ni
12
tU
3.5
35
35
warrivalspur irs)
4.0
80
8.0
r
a
ar
weachparking place(ml arwith roadwayirs2) avehiclewdhtrailer bcoach
24
a
a a
22
§ 3b 14
35 14
parking
spar (m2)
a coaches
24
12
a
parking ophors
e 24 36— 36— 36— 60 60 60 3 35— as— 30— 40 4.0 4.0
24
plattormllrnl
7
5Platfomiinsideturningloop
276 340 378 439 444 470
Space requirementsforplatform ar
176 68
135
178 89
182 140
91
9 Space requirementsforparkingplaces town
rightofway
centre
sales605k
V 0
-A-
11121314151
6
-'-'it
'•-,,ftV'
®.;r-i mainroad
1
=supervisors
2= restrm
1 drivers wc 2rusrringrepairs 3petrolstation 4eqp
5supervisor 6maltcollection& deliverypoint
3 = petrolstation
10 Largetransitstationwith parkingar
Large transitstationwith separate departure &arrivalplatforms
11
1
departurePentrance
2 amealP esit 3 vestrbule 4 baggagedespatck 5 arrival Pentrance 6 baggagein arrival 7 departurePexit 8 baggageoff 9 baggage deposa
mainroad
10 managersoff 11 off 12 intormatron &airtidrets 13 an
Groundfloor KLM busstation Arch Brook&Bakerna 13
1
fromparking
12 Transitstationwith separatearrival &departure platformspositioned obliquely,parkingarinseparatelocation
wcrnes
2 wcwomen 3 nursery 4 do 5k 6 canteenstaff 7 drivers'rm 8 metercpdsto 9 registry 10 pumps
14 BasementKLM
Commerce 257
Rail stations PASSENGERDETAILS
HiH 2200
Tempbooking hall 12°C 1/5 surface area
Daylighting
-
1100
'
60O
H
1 to 4 Space taken upby people
Ticketofffrom 1 500 x 2000upwards Typeofsurface: rough, hard sintered clay orgranitictiles Walling up to 1 750 high with impact-resistant lining: tiles, hard plaster, boards Baggage deposit: doors for baggagetrucks 1 900—2300wide: alldoors preferably steel to withstand heaviest demands. Opening at deposit counterupto 1 200high; sliding window or protected bygrille. Baggage despatch cabin 2000 x 2250 Arrangements for storing bicycles verysimple and space saving: hung up neatly by front wheel —(12)(13) Easy to hang up if first raised on rear wheel, then liftedup with knee behind saddle
fN f/I iooc
iooo-4 —1000+1000-4-1000-4-
6
Cabintrunk
1
30 I
turntable
850nomiat h train
14 Bookingoffsection—.(16)
scheduta
7
At train schedulestand
8
Luggagetruck
15
Baggageoffsection—.(17)
dmphragm
lT \j
__
3750
1500
10 Baggagestand
1500
11
-—
16 SectionA-A 1350
T
I— 1100+
H
1500 3700
Bicyclestands
r1
17
Section B-B
—1
Baggagerack
500500i
530
T
11
1
100 530
ticketmachine
* T
±1
100—I
H
j
tt
1-600 -600-
Abreaststaggered
1
18 aStraightbarrier boblique barrier Vehicle seivicesreferences: —aBibliography entries 086 225 276308348424435513555567
636650
258 Commerce
Airports -airport boundary approachlight system
Primefunctionprovidepassenger airtransport. During short history has had respond tremendous growth and technological change. Should be plannedand developedprogressively meetchanges and newdemands —(1).
future
,_/runway crash/tire structural expansion rescue serviceroad
PRELIMINARYWORK Planning and design of airport should evolve according to sequence: preliminary study; examine indetail whatexists and identifyconstraints physical: land boundaries,topography, geology access: airside and landside environment: noise, pollution, landscaping resources: finance, labour, materials assess economic, demographic characteristics of population: gauge impact onairport; forecast traffic demands 5—10 and 20 yearsin future, showing annual and day, peak month, peak hr trafficforpassenger boardingandaircraft movements—(4)(5) developmaster plan forwhole airport develop plans for each component airside/ landside:
cross overtaxiway serviceroad runway
Airport layoutfor parallel runwaysystem
1
airside: runways,taxiways —*(3) landside:
runLay
140.0
216.0
152.0
237.7
259.0
Passengerterminal& aprondistancesfromrunway centreline forvarious bldgh; 1:7 = imaginary surfacecannotbe penetratedbystationaryobjects(aircraft atgates)orfixedobjects(bldg) 2
passenger terminal with apron (1)(2) —*p260(1) ground transport air freightterminal with apron —*p262(3) aircraftmaintenance with apron —p262(l) aircraftcatering —*p262(2) other components: car rental, hotel, motel, offices surface access:road systems,fixedguideways Reg standards,
394395396.
single apron taxilane spacing forDC-10/L-1O111B767 118.9withlimited B-747 positions spacing forall B-747 positions 131.0
290.0—305.0
combinationpier/satellite dual apron taxilanes 8-747positions at satellite
note dimensions will vary for each airport
3
1
Runways&taxiways 2000 3.6
O
H
phaseIll
284
1600 .514CC
phasel visitors
IfTfJ[fJTIf
.I-
0.7
yr
4
0
•
'\
,-
/'
'%
2OC. hr 020406081012141618202224
5
Planning&projectdesignschedule: start planning4yrinadvance forecastupdate: 1 start design &working drawings 2revise3defer
'
passengers
total
5
Derivepatternav/day peakmonthdepartingP and visitorsfromsurveys;preparesimilargraphs forarrivingPand visitors,groundtraffic etc: major data fordetermining sizeofbuildingar
mm
criteria —8ib391 392 393
Commerce 259
Airports AIRSIDE ________________
:— ±:::
_________________
ill b
+-.—.--.—.—-.4 ______
______ _______
._.!1L_÷
:"7
Runwayconfigurations(airportboundaries notshown) acloselyplaced parallelrunwaysforsmalltomediumvolumes: parallel access road system limitsexpansion bintersectingrunwaysformediumtolargevolumes: terminalexpansionlimitedwithintriangularar cparallel runwayswith simultaneousaircraftoperating1 280m spacingforlargevolumes: expansion capabilitiesalong axis (crossovertaxiwaysnotshown) 1
Runways&taxiways—*(1) Length ofrunway depends on prevailingweather, topography, altitude,
temp, environmental restrictions, aircraft type and weight expected operate fromairport.
Orientation of runway in direction of prevailing wind. Modern aircraft canusually land and take offwith crosswind upto20knots. Light aircraft seriously affected by wind: if airport to be heavily used by this type additional runway may bejustified. Utilisation: aim should be for airport be usable by all aircraft for mm 97% oftime. Single runway can handle up to 50 movement/hr (1 movement = 1 landing ortake off), depending on mix ofaircraft, when operating under instrument flightrules(IFR).2 parallelrunways 1 310 m apart canaccept upto 70aircraft movements(USA reg) under IFR. Number ofmovements higher undervisual flight rules (VFR). Where large and small aircraft operate to same airport specific separations required in air, atlanding, take
off and
taxiing because trailing vortices from large aircraft will
reducecapacity.
Taxiwaysystems should bedesigned allow aircraft clear runway soon
as possible and provide shortest route betweeen runway and parking
______
ILinner taxiway
r—i I
lane
:
aprons.
Layout & design of runways and taxiways: essential consultexpert
advice.
I _<. ___j_ar&tParkmn -I_-satellite
LANDSIDE Passenger terminalconcepts
--
——— ___________
-- _________
--
-
— _______________ sateilite &terminal
—serviceroad
_________—concourse connecting
I — _____________________________
—
terminal units terminal
ierminairoadsystem
2
Aircraftgate configuration and way aircraft gates connected with one anotherand with main terminal dominantfeatures ofterminal concepts, of which 4 can be distinguished. Concepts nearly always occur in variations andcombinations. SateIlite—(2):aircraft parked in cluster surroundingstructureconnected with main terminal bypassengercorridor orconcoursepositioned below, on orabove ground level. Satellite structure cantake severalgeometrical shapes.
Satellite
—-- —-.
-— -
—]
"—inner taxiway ———aircraft manoeuvnnglane
—
)_j)._
I
J_L_.
aprontaxilane aircraftparkinglimit line concoursepier
.44
+1 + -
——-concourseconnectingunits ____________
terminal
_________________________
Pier—(3): aircraft parked in line ateitherside of structure. Passenger corridororconcourse attached to main terminal. (In both theseconcepts passengerticket,inbound andoutboundbaggage handling usuallyceritralisedin mainterminalbutvariationsand exceptions occur.)
Linear—(4):aircraftparked in single line at structure,passengercorridor
connecting functional elements ofterminal. Formerlywith aircraftparked in line on apron functions centralised in small terminal. In past 10—15 yearslinearconcept developed provide passenger handling functions and ground transport forindividualaircraftpositions.In sucharrangement terminal functions decentralised.
Transporter—*(5):aircraft positions placed at distance fromterminal; passengers carried byvehicles betweenterminal and aircraft. Passenger handling centralised in main terminal.
—-—terminalroadsystem
3
Pier
— -. —.- —--— -- —-- ,taxiwayoraircraft
—---—---—
4+ I
innertaxiway -
manoeuvring lane
C_aircraftparkinglimitline
l—aircratt manoeuvringlane I
L_aircraftparking
I—flightline
—groundhandling
I
L_light line terminal 1
1
-
CODO
—terminal roadsystem
00
transporters(busesetc)
—'--terminai terminal
road system
4
Linear
5
Transporter
260 Commerce
Airports FLOW& FUNCTIONS Flow of aircraft, passengers, baggage and vehicles can be shown in compositeandsingle diagrams, used toidentifysequence of functions for preparation of schemes in plan and cross section —*(1). Series of diagrams can be developed asgraphic model to identify effect ofchange in events, testdifferentarrangement offunctions orsub-functions. Flowinterminal complex takes place in 3major areas: apron: area between runway/taxiway system and terminal; serves aircraft flow toand fromgates and flow ofaircraft ground handling eqp. terminal: area between aircraftgate positions and vehicularkerb; serves flow of passengers and baggage.
ground transport:area located between terminal and points ofaccess at airport boundaries; serves 2 flows, ie passenger vehicles, service vehicles.
Flow of passengers & baggage
Both domestic and international can be divided into 3 categories each requiring sequence of operations as below (based on USA practice): outward (originating) passengersarrive atterminal byground transport forwhichmajor operations: kerbside baggage check in for passengerswithtickets —n(2) ticketprocessing at counters with baggage check-in —(2)(3a) outbound baggage —n(3b) security check—*(2) passport control forinternational flights ticketcontrol ataircraft gates; passenger waiting rm—*(4) aircraft boarding stairs, loading bridge etc—*p261 (4)
inward(terminating) and transfer passengersarrive at terminal by aircraft; major operations:
aircraftdisembarking (stairs, loading bridge etc) immigration control (international) customs control (international) baggage claim ground transport
transferpassengersfrom1 flightto another; inter-line from1 airline to anotheror intra-line on same airline; baggagehandled byairline except for passengers transferring from international to domestic flight who
must claim baggage and pass through immigration and customs
inspection. Outward and inward passenger traffic generates visitor traffic. Visitor/P ratios vary byairport;need be establishedas partofquantifyingpassenger flowduringpre-determined times ofday. Transfer passengers seldom metbypeople at point oftransfer. Through passengers continuing on same aircraft domestically rarely disembark except, eg, occasionally fortelephone calls.
Secondaryflow—p262
Airfreightflow between freight terminal and aircraftpassenger terminal/ apron.
Mailflow between mail depot and passenger terminal/apron. Catering flowbetween catering serviceand passengerterminal/apron. Fuel flow between fuel depot and passenger terminal aircraft apron: takes place increasingly by pipeline (hydrant fuelling), eliminating large fuel trucksand requiring onlyhydrant pump vehicles on apron. 19 8—22.9
tL
é98
tr
co
79855-6.1t DG
minute telephones Clast Dbaggagedrop
sign;tobagclaimterminal& groundtransportation
4 Pwr at aircraftgates,capacityfor200 seat
aircraft,80% loadfactor,boarding10—15minutes before scheduleddeparturetime:grossar 180m2 excludingfirestairs,net150 m2
—b ———,
2 Schem ticdiagramofdepartureleveloflarge terminal: 1 countercheck-in ()security check
a
Diagramof2levelterminal asecondlevel 1 carparking, kerbsidebaggage check,ticket lob 2 securitycheck 3Pwrwithticket andbaggageprocessing capability 4parkingatgate positions bgroundlevel 1 carparking 5outwardsbaggage make-up 6baggageclaim 7off,groundhandling 3
Airportflow diagramsbasedon USA procedures adeparture barrival: brokenboxes indicate internationaltrafficfunctions 1
b
operation
Commerce
261
Airports Baggage handling jirculation
rn
a
•
U
baggage trolleys canbearranged perpendicularor parallel to belt
2. circulation
2
_____________
7 - 52-6.
7.9
Baggagemake-up/outward(outbound) —.p360(3b)
Aircraft parking
1 Baggageclaim/inward(inbound)—p26O(3b) ___________ ________
9.1
ground level
gatecheck
3
Terminals
iL —
Aircraftparking
I
ticket lob
parkinggroundlevel
kerb
L.concourse
Lbaggageclaim
boarding landing
outward
baggage
a
DC-b
structural gar
b
4
I
L
claim ar
space for ground transport systems present & future
Terminalcrosssections asmall 1-level
blarge2-level : aircraft& boarding deviceshownperpendicular toconcourse
DC-9
262 Commerce
Airports SECONDARYSERVICES
UHIIIHIIIIIIHIIIIU carparking flIHIIIH HHIIIHIIfl _________
1lIlIIIIIIIIIIlIiJ
flIIIIIHIHIHIIIHIn
=-.—-—.
—.—
ticp
-—.—
—_ —_
150
—i-i:
runway
1
Aircraftmaintenance
2
Cateringbldg
FREIGHT Freight carried byairline operating
both passenger & airfreightaircraft consistsmainly ofinbound & outbound flow —v(3). Freight also transferred from 1 aircraft to another. Handling takes place inside & outside bldg. Procedure varies; to large degree depends on type & volume of freight handled: size, percent loose, percent containerised; type ofaircraft in use: single deck, double deck, side door loading, nose loading, tailloading, combinations. Such factors influence degree of mechanisation required. —v(3) shows 1 B-747position, nose-in, push-out, side door loading by trailers, & 1 B-707position, side door loading mechanised.
trailer& staging
ernployeeT] parking I
preferably+ acrossroad
3=
arfor future freight
expansion4 trucks/cars
dmery/PICk-Updocks
4—
each
a lane
0 =0=
0
0=0
=00
0 == 0 0
ry'TrT
3
dockhapproa 1170 clearS vanes 4.22 Smallterminals 544—610 largeterminals clearhvanes
Airfreight
Airportsreferences: —vBibliographyentries 048 067 165 186341 370 391 392 393 394 395 396653
Outbound flow —a(3) 1 loose freightdelivered at truck docks & processed through bldg; 2 containers delivered at truck dock', processed & loaded outside bldg by mech systems; 3 percentage of all freightcarriedon passenger aircraft (as high as 70%) & dispatched from freight terminal by truck,cart ortrolleytoair passenger terminal to be loaded at gate position.
Industry
263
Industrial buildings SITE SELECTION
DEVELOPMENTOPTIONS
Assess area requirements fromclient'sbrief forfactory orwarehouse, including: expansion potential parking: visitors, employees, trucks external sto area landscaping road, railway orbarge access Checknational and local legislation,zoning ordinancesand codes for: permitted sitedensities useofpublic utilities suchas (forprocess and personnel consumption) water, power, gas, effluentdisposal accesson public and private roads foremployees, goods vehicles and trucks
Rehabilitate existing site/bldg Infill + rehabilitate (including in townsites) Newbldg on existing site (including phased redevelopment) Newbldg on newsite Each will be defined by: Zoningordinances, reg USA Suitability of site size/shape; boundaries Suitability of bldg size/type/shape (as briefed) Geology Topography Public utilities Statutory permissions Access forindustrial vehicles and workpeople's cars Rail or water access Airport proximity to site Labour resources ofarea Finance: development costs or subsidies, operating costs including taxes/tax relief, loan interests
Assess environmental impact of heavy industry, light manufacturing andwarehousing onsurrounding community; in USA fileenvironmental impact statement withauthority. Consider: noise:machinery and vehicles (particularly at night) vibration light (external circulation, marshalling,shipping and sf0areas at night) fumeand dust pollution effluentintowaterways orground water hazards of possible explosion orradiation exposure
Investigate assistance for development finance from central government (Assisted Development Areas in UK) and local authorities, city development corporations (State Development Commissions USA) etc.
SITE DEVELOPMENT
Building plot ratio & sitecoverage
Plot ratio of 1: 1 should be regarded as max on all sites inclusive of industrial and ancillary office bldg. Site coverage should not exceed 75% of site at ground level. Likely that site coverage ofapprox 50—60% can be achieved. Site area forplot ratio calculationpurposes excludes anypart of adjoining streets (except where theseto be closed).
Car&truckparking
Typical car parking requirements for industrial accn (check local standards): UK USA m2 spaces 4 a total employees on max shift x 85% lessthan 92.9 lessthan 232.26 5 (15%absent x percent whoarrive by lessthan 371.61 6 car) dividedby avcar occupancy = lessthan 510.96 7 parking spaces required b 1 space forevery2 employeesduring lessthan 656.32 8 shift of max employment & 1 foreach lessthan 789.67 9 truckto be stopped simultaneoulsy lessthan 929.92 10 lessthan 1 021.92 11 lessthan 1114.83 12 Lorry parking requirements will depend on needsofparticularusers and local reg.
— stage 2
F'
Li
factory
V//47/I
-_J :_
Locatefactories&warehousesonsite to allow expansion, preferably in2 directions:considervehicleaccessduringphased expansion 1
'Nursery'unitdevelopmentsshould alsoallowforexpansion butwith urbaninfill sitesthis may haveto beatexpense ofyard ar 2
264 Industry
Industrial buildings BASICBUILDINGTYPESELECTION
AREAS FORSOME INDUSTRIALOCCUPANCIES
Factoriesand warehouse bldg types only economicallyand operationally interchangeable where structural frame has column spans that will not conflict with spacing of pallet racking, clear height permitting use of modern mech handling eqp, roof structure that can accept loading of production and environmental services. This normally only economic forsmallscale bldg orwhere companyhasmixed stoand manufacturing useson site likelyto change.
For feasibility studies before detailed brief (program) from user these areas can be used asapproximatebldg areas.
Keyfactors in buildingtypeselection
Factories —p266—8: operationalflexibility for rapidresponseto changingproductiondemands: clearheight column spacing,roofand floorloading,roofconstruction for services routing fortype of manufacturingprocess involved energy and environmental control: natural or artificial light; environmental needs of/from process: good working conditions forlabour durabilityand firecontrol: selectionofmaterialsforstructureand envelope related to fire riskand anycorrosive effects fromprocess resale potential promotional value for user company Warehouses —p269—72: structure commensurate with sto demands: structuralspans tosuit rack spacing and height and floor strengthto allow more than 1 arrangement energy and environmental control: to keep stored products in good condition: insulation and cooling in somecases, ventilation in others; good working conditions for labour (eg avoiding loadingdocks tacing into prevailing wind) fire control:compartmentationtominimise fire spreadassessed against hindrance to stoand handling and cost ofsprinklers
Selection strategy Single ormulti-storey development
modern production and stotechniques make full use of bldg cubewith inherent multi-level characteristics multi-storey development (or conversion) can be efficient for lightand high technology industry, particularly where landcostlyin urban areas: consider personnel circulation and escape, national and local reg, fire control, goodscirculation and process, services routing and trucks and private vehicle access and parking, particularly in dense developments consider cost and environment impact
a
4 —
.7,7,,r,/7,,,///z,//'
Manufacturingindustries
Av 28 m2/P; range 22—33(33m2/P under 664.5 m2) anodising sheetmetal work polishing furniture manufacture shop fitting manufacture clothing textile (made up)
Distributivetrades av8Om2/P builders merchants timbersupply books & magazines machine spares electrical goods & spares antiques/furntiture upholstery/textile
Average area/worker clothing research & development electrical components & assembly surgical instruments/appliances, scientific instruments miscellaneous manufacture(eqplastics products, musical instruments) leatherwork metal goods, cutlery, jewellery, forging, small tools made uptextiles (egbags) packaging, stationery, printing pottery& glassblowing motorrepairs, reprographic services joinery, furnishing upholstery, shop fitting, timbergoods
m2 11
13 17.5
19.25 23.5 24.0 24.25 28.75 32.5 36.75 45.5 46.75
Typicalarea distribution production sto off amenities
0
60—70% (decreasesas size increases) 20% & less (increasesassize increases) 10—15% (increasesassize decreases) 5—9% (increasesassizeincreases)
Distribution
I4i
o b
0
00 00
builders engineering contractors (eqmachine tool movers) appliance repairs instrument repairs reprographic services printers machine tool repairs
Manufacturing
00 o
15 m2!P (smallest) to30 m2 medium size
el repairs
Includes circulation space
—ir4-01
Serviceindustries
Key: 1 verticalservicesrisers 2goods elevator 3access&escapestairs(check local reg formaxdistances) 4 plantar
Multi-storeydevelopmentor conversioncanprovideefficient accnforlight &hightechnology industry,particularlywhere differencesbetween production, lab &adminhardtodefine:example shows potentiallydivisiblespace 1
sf0
off
80% + 10—20% (greater need in some types ofdistribution)
amenities 0—5%
Industry 265
Industrial buildings 0
0
i:
:
0
:[:
:
0
Building shape inplan. Selection ofplan shapeis function of: demands of production or sf0 system
C')
climate, size, shape, topographyand geology ofsite location ofutilities expansion potential ofprocess in relation to site _-*p273(l)(2)
p4 ground level
p
SELECTIONSTRATEGY
•____
Some production processes can demand long, narrow bldg: intensive line production methods, eqmetal rolling, papermanufacture factories using overhead gantry cranes, eq heavy engineering high-bay automated warehouses: function ofeqpmovement efficiency multi-storey development, flatted workshops for natural light and ventilation Majority ofother industrialusescan beefficiently installed in rectangular plan with proportions 1:1—1:4, typically 1:2/2:3. Modern mass production methods capitalise on mech handling techniques no longer literally interpreting line production'.
-
production
Increasing demand forbldg which will notrestrict location ofproduction, stoand admintoclearly definedareas, butwhich permit rapidreallocation withinbldg envelope. Structural bay sizes suited to process and location of access equal shape in importance.
level
IDENTIFICATIONOF BUILDING REQUIREMENT
N1N.
2
I
I
I I
I I
——
Key: 1 groundlevel: goodsin,despafch,parking 2 production level 3 intermediate process plantlevel 4principal environmentalplantlevel 1 Mulfi-storeyfactorieseconomic forprocess-based industries (eq food, pharmaceuticals,tobacco)wheregravitycanbeusedinprocess andenergy beconservedbycompactplanning
Factories: should be designed to serve variety of useswithin their life: frequent problem inefficient factory stock through structural obsolescence — insufficient services support capacity of roof structure, insufficient headroom, shortspans. should not be considered merely as weather-proof envelopes round production process. Formand dispositionoftheir structurefundamentally influences essential freedom to optimise production layout and route services equally freely to serve that or any future production layouts withoutdemanding long periods ofdown time foralteration. Selection of structure is key factor in providing efficient and flexible operation. There is range of structural types that have proved efficient and adaptable. Buttechnological innovation mayadd to these types, eq stressed skin construction requiring only minimal frame support for envelope. Assess roof structure for: servicecarrying ability in each direction and easyaccess for relocation abilityto accept point loads and flexible location for materials handling eqp, eq overhead hoists, conveyors natural lighting: consider glareand insolation/heat loss durability and maintenance: performancein fire and need forcleaning/ repainting, particularly in clean areas Industrial bldg designed to be closely matched to initial process or layout can prove as inflexible and costly tooperate inlong termasthose designed to minimise capital cost (to exclusion of consideration of operating costs and operational flexibility).
2 Mass production does not usually demandlong narrowbldg, ie formal-
isationof flow diagram:typicallyprocess is loopedbetween common vehicle access& sf0 zone
a
±
4
[Z1 [Thi
Key: 1 offar 2labar 3amenity
Z2
:::7:.
7
I
I L±_L1 !H! JW L J
ar 4 production ar 5testing & inspection 6wet servicecore 7expansion
3
r
In light & hightechnologyindustry production research &adminarare becomingless & lessdistinct: deptwillneedtoexpandorcontractfreely
--'-i- _o--
4
Factorystructuresmusthavespanswideenoughinbothdirections to allow user optimiseproduction layout: traditional batchproduction linesof similarmachines,a, may needtobereorganisedintointegrated cell' to exploitmodernmech handling techniques, b
266 Industry
Industrial buildings FACTORYBUILDING TYPES Separate bldg types can be identified as most efficient in meeting operational demands ofcertain methods of production. Spans, type of structure, clear height, roof and floor loadings function ofhow product manufactured or stored rather than what product is. Industrial bldg should be designed to serve broad range of useswithinthat general production sector.
Basictypesto be identified are:
Lightduty
2
Impliessmall scale (also —p285—90workshops). Industrialbldg where operational demands of production or sto process place few demands on structural frame or floor. Interchangeable between light production and distribution duties. Typically up to 1 860 m2. Light metal work, packaging, clothing, consumer durable repairs, small printers. Distribution of el goods, builders' components, sub-depots for local retail distribution.
Mediumduty
Principally batch production orsto duties where process and supporting services implysomedemands on design of bldg structure, shape and floor, allowing potential flexibility of production and sto layout. Sto and production bldg types not interchangeableunless roofstructuredesigned with production services support capacity.
—
Light dutyindustrialbldg mainlyforsto purposes:portalframedstructure typically4.5mtoeaves;spans mm 9m,typical12m;roofloading0.35kN/m2 (no hoisting);floor loading 16kN/m2
3 Mainly light production: trussedframe;eavesh &spansas—.(2); roof structuralloading(services)0.5kN/m2(up to 2thoistloadsdistributed! structuralbay)
4
Typicalprocessflowdiagramfortraditionalbatch production organis.tion,
eg engineering
components
ru L . .-i -
-
n. .-
,
V
5 Typicalprocessflow diagram forhigh technology industry, eg electronics material 1
Lifi
Mediumduty industrial bldg: 6.5m preferred eaves h(toallow mezzanine),mm 5.5m;spanstypically12m x 18m; roofstructuralloading: to accept point loads2 monorailhoistlbayorupto5 tsuspendedcraneloads distributedover bay; floor loading 25kN/m2forstackedsto
t
Industry 267
Industrial buildings FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont)
C
(I)
Heavyduty
Designed to accept large scale batch or mass production systems, which have intensive demands for overhead productionand environmental service and materials handling, and dense floor layoutswith some heavy production machinery and inter-process sf0 areas. May need high bldg to exploit multi-revel ability of materials-handling eqp. In heavy engineering sector somespecial types to exploit heavy lift overhead gantry cranes.
1 Heavy duty industrial bldg: 7m mm general purposeeaves h, 9m forracked, sto &overhead handlingsystems a; 12m forbulkprocessing
plant b;spanstypically 12 m x 18 m butcan be lessforheavyroofloadings(9m x 12m)orgreater forlighterloads(20 m); roofstructural loading: 5 pointloads& lOt beamloadsdistributedoverbay; heavierloadsneedgantrycranes&additional structure; floor loading:15—30kN/m2withsome specialbases forheavymachinetools
possibleparallel sub-assemWy process
may be multiple subassembly stages
2
Typicalprocessflow diagram fortraditional massproductionline: modern developments tend tosplit assemblyfunctionsoffline into teams
268 Industry
Industrialbuildings FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont) structuraltype
Hightechnology
2
1
Demanding high quality process and/or personnel environment. Small
hght duty
S CST S S
in roof zone; can also be requirement for under floor servicing. High content of bulk handling; powders, liquids, gases. Interchangeability
mediumduty
S
or large scale: similar design demands. Provisionfor intensive services between production, lab and admin areas: rapid change demand with technological innovation and volatile markets.
0
possibleseparate secatdary processsto
secondaryprocess(maybeondifferentsite)
STRUCTURALSELECTION Check nationaland local (state) reg forconstruction and performancein fire relating to required occupancy andwith client's insurancecompany: thiswill affect materials choice —sp277.
SERVICINGSTANDARDS; STATUTORY REQU IREMENTS Forgeneral servicing standards in industrial bldg —up383—397.
•
S
S
S
S
S
heavyduty
S
S
O(b)cS
S
S
hightechnidogy
S S
CS
smallscale
S CST
generalpurpose
S
• CS
•S
S CS
.S
3 appropnatestnicture appropriateslnicturein notedcaseonly
A
aluminium
C
concrete
S
steel
T
timber
a
multi-divisiblespaces
b
withoverheadgantry cranesonly
C
widespans on irregularsite
S (a)AS
S)c)AS
S
AS
S CST
• •• CS
6
5
S AS
0(b)CS
C
largeplant, 10—15kN/m2forhighlabouruseassembly
4
S AS
S
1 Typicalprocessflow diagram forprocess-based industry, eg petroctientical,rubber
2 High technologyindustrial bldg: mayrequire undercroft for bulkprocess access& servicesrouting; 7m preferred mm eaveshover process plant a&forpalletisedsto b; 4mmm forhightechnology assembly environment C;roof structura'loadingsupto 1.2 kN/m2, distributed,forservices, hoistloads upto5tdistributedperbayforplantremoval; floor loadings 15—20kN/m2 for
3 CST
S
termerhate
.
•
4
S CS S(c)AS
Factorystructuraltypes
Structuraltypes: asingleaxis solid beam,long span purlins b singleaxiscastellabeam,long spanpurlins:forservicerouting cportalframe forusewhereservice loadingminimalorgantrycraneage: typical pitch6°, rooflightsbuilt into pitchorridge d flat orcambered truss, 1 or2axes emonitorroof, evenlydistributedlight,singleaxis spaceframe: forverywide spans; wherecolumnscannotbeat equal spacing;wherehighdegreeof servicingfreedomrequired
Industry
269
Industrial buildings WAREHOUSES Warehouse bldg selection depends on scale and type ofsto operation. Different methods of sto unit loads imply various levels of efficiency in filling bldg volume and accessibility to load. Equally these decisions affectselection of mech handling eqp —vp278(4)(5). Warehousing operation usually involves bulk sto and order selection functions. Thesetendhave dissimilarstoand materialshandlingdemands except when small scale installations: typically high dense sto for bulk stockto exploithandling techniques with lower 'active stock' areas for orderpicking. Typical proportion divides warehouse: 1/3 high bayarea, 2/3 lower area for order picking and assembly and loading bay zones —v(1), ie can combine 2 of bldg types described below. Because of densityof stock bulk sto area may not needto expand so rapidly as processing zones.
Key: ahigh bay palietsb efficientmechhandling blow bayar:Order picking&load assembly cloadingbay
I
Typicalproportionsofhigh& lowbayarfordistribution warehouse
WAREHOUSEBUILDING TYPES
I,
I? L
U
I
_in1 U
check-of1/ sort
[
check-off! sod
[
bulkstock
I
activestock! orderpicking
[
U
[er
Small scale —vp266lightdutyfactory and —vp268(3) entries 1 & 2.
General purpose
Forfork-lift,reach truckand narrow aisle stackeroperation. Bldg acts as weather-proof envelope to sto operation. Importantthat spans, height, floorstrengthallow forflexible installationofsto methods —ep272 types 3—6, 7a & 8a; also—ep266 medium dutyfactory types and —*p272(1 0).
Intermediate high bay
Independent bldg structure for intermediate height narrow aisle sto systems. Up to 14 m bldg height (12 m sto height). Allows variationsin sto layout and possibility of other later uses; also —p267 heavy duty factory.
U assembly
U
k-outloadirigi despatch
2
Typicalstoflow diagram: repository, componentsb foradjoiningproduction process
3
Typicalsto flow diagram: egcold sto,steel stockholding repository,
4 Generalpurposewarehouse,typicallyfor7500 stackh: 8000to eaves; spans 12—18m; floor loading25kN/m2mm NBconsideralsoflat roof
5
Intermediatehigh baywarehouse, typically14mto eaves:spans 11.1—20.5 m depending onaislewand pallet size; floor loadings50 kN/m2 distributedloads
ci c C,)
270 Industry
Industrialbuildings WAREHOUSES
High bay
-.p271(1l—13)
Integral rack structure: for sto heights to 30 m to exploit automated handling techniques —o(2). Economic land cost high, labour cost high, expansion potential limited. Sto rackingforms bldg structure, with root and wall cladding attached to it. Very strong floor and foundations required so poor ground can preclude concept.
S r
supphersgoods
U
3
Wheresf0arlimited&throughputspeednottoppriorityintense useof volumecanbemadewith mobile racking; double-sidedrackingmounted on rail-bornecarriers: racksnestfacetoface, only 1 aisleopeningat time; imposeshighfloor loadings
f
+ +
1-
-1-—
4
Blockstacking3—4palletsh: aislemoves through stackto providefirst-in, first-out rotation; aislewrelatedto type of fork-liftused—'p271 1 Typicalsto flow diagramfordistribution warehouse, eg retailfood distribution
f
ii iii Hi
ii IIi[IIHU
a
7zzfr2 a' lii I
1(
1:
[Cflbfl
5 Forbulkpalletstoin long aislesstockshouldbearranged innotional arso
[—snj
that fastestthroughputstock closest toassemblyar: noterackorientation at 900to assemblyzone —
BB'1
__s 2b —
—
.
p p7
—
2 High baywarehouse, bldgstructure
•
[3 _
.
0 0 0
—
integral with palletracking; h 30m; floor loadingscan bemorethan 60kN/m2distributed
loadassently
6 Fororderpickingdiversestockrackingarranged parallelwith load
assemblyzone with rackardevotedto stockwithvariousthroughputspeeds, fastest nearestassemblyzone: reduces slowmoving pickingmachinery blockingmovementofothers
Industry
271
Industrial buildings WAREHOUSES
C
Fork-lift dimensions
In design for best use of sto space note interaction between aisle spaces and fork-liftdimensions: decision on stacking may decide size and make of fork-lift, choice of fork-lift may decide stacking. Relevant details for somefork-lifttypes and pallet sizes —(1 )—(6).
/ type offork-lift
Counter-balanceforkliftcapacity 3000kg: stackingaisle90°with 1220 squarepallet3670; intersecting aisle (dotted) 2000;Iwithoutpallet3150, w1100 1
counter-balanced fork-lift:load capacity 2500kgat 610 load centre I withoutpallet wwithout pallet h: mastlowered weightwithoutload wheel loadsladen1: front(drive) rear(steer) 90°stackingaisle (1 200 pallet) turn-out aisle (1 200 pallet) (dotted)—(1)
/'\l_____ ./ \-
/ / //
1
/•/
dimensions weight kg
3246 1118 2286 4500 6000 750
3480 2000
fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheelcontact ar, available from
trade literature
4
Counter-balancedfork-liftdimenskns&weights: palletsizesUSA 1220
x 1220, 1220 x 1 830; somepalletshavesides1220h typeoffork-lift
dimensions
weight
kg extendingmastreachfork-lift:loadcapacity 2040kgat 610 load centre Iwithoutpallet wwithoutpallet h: mast lowered weightwithoutload wheel loadsladen1: front (mast extended) rear(mastextended 90°stacking aisle(1200 pallet) turn-out aisle(1200 pallet) (dotted)—.(2)
2 Reachfork-liftcapacity1 500kg, palletcarriedwithin wheelbase;stacking aisle 90°with 1 220 squarepallet2400;intersecting aisle (dotted) 1 900; Iwithoutpallet 1 600, w 990
1
1 930
990
2667 2722 4282 481
2362 1 905
fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheelcontactar,
available fromtrade literature
5 Extendingmastreachfork-liftdimensions&weights type offork-lift
dimensions
weight
kg poweredP-controlled palletfork-lift:load capacity 1815kg Iwithout pallet w withoutpallet h: mastlowered wwithout load wheelloads 90°stacking aisle (1200 pallet) turn-out aisle (1200 pallet) (dotted) —(3)
/ \ 3
PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-lift: stackingaisle90°with 1220square pallet1 750; intersecting aisle(dotted)1 500;Iwithoutpallet1 820,w787
6
1 854
762 notapplicable notapplicable 1 752 1
498
PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-liftdimensions&weight
372
(I)
272 Industry
Industrialbuildings WAREHOUSES
Storageefficiencywith varioushandling methods
Takingtypical stacking areas 33m x 33 m, volume efficiencyassessment includes 1 repositioning aisleat end of rack runs; pallet size: 1200x 1000 x 200 tall—*(1 )—(9); figures in column 2of (10) relate to numbers ofpicture captions. USA pallet sizes —*(11) and p27l(4). Fork-liftinblockstack:3SOOaisle;3600stackh (4.5m bldgh dotted) 1
LE
±E
E
E
Fork-liftin palletracking: 3500aisle;7500 stack h 2
3
Reachfork-liftinblock stack: 2600aisle;3600 stack h (4500 bldg h dotted)
4
Reachfork-liftin palletracking: 2600aisle;
j uflu
7500stackh
F_______________________
5
9
Reachfork-liftindrive-inracking, drivesinto stack betweenframes:7500stack h
typeof sto
eqp
access sto increase stack pallets volume h stored efficiency overfork-lift equivalent
%
Reachfork-liftindoubledeepracking, has extendingfork attachment: 2600aisle 6
Automatedfixedpath stackercrane: 1 400 aisle; 24 m stackh; integralrackstructure
fork-lift: bldg h Smto undersideofstructure
2 beam pallet
reachfork-lift: bldg h8m to undersideof structure
narrowaisle stacker:
1452 1 200
24 20
poor 100
3 blockstack2 4 beam pallet
3
1 584
28
poor
9
racking Sdrive-in racking 6doubledeep racking 7a beam pallet racking3 beampallet racking4 8a double deep racking3
5 5
1400
35 58
100
17
2400
blockstack1 racking
lb
7
Narrowaisle stacker,movesparallel with rack:
astackh7soo bstackhdottedlo.5m
%
3 5
1
laat out 5
2400
49
50
5
1800
46
100
50
7
2520
46
46
110
5
2400
59
50
7
3360
60
50
32
100
8bdoubledeep racking4
automatedhigh bay stacker 9beampallet crane,rail guided:bldg racking ft 24 m toundersideof roofstructure(can be
istin
15 5400
30m+)
'volumeefficiencyincreases iflowerbldg used (4500 mm) 2 volume efficiencyincreases iflowerbldg used bldg fttounderside roofstructure 8000 bldg hto underside of roof
8
Narrowaislestackerin doubledeepracking, l600aisle: astackh7soo bstackhdotted 10.5 m
structure11 m
assectionof longeraisle: typically 100m+
10 Stoefficiencywith various handling methods
Whenusingpallets1220 x 1 830(frequent inUSA)preferred aislew3600;4270run of rack accommodates3pallets1220 x 1220or2 pallets1220 x 1 830 11
Industry
273
Industrial buildings key: 1 off 2goods inwards 3rackedbulkpallet sto 4order pickingar 5order &despatchassemblyar 6repackaging& processingar 7expansion
SITE LAYOUT Site layout for factories and warehouses determined by: shape and size ofbldg expansion potential services running through site, eg gas mains, powercables topography: affecting accessforheavy vehicles andbuilding economics (cut and fill) energy conservation: exposure to prevailing and storm winds ground conditions and drainage, eg avoiding pilingor potential flood areas surrounding neighbourhood: keeping noisy external plant and loading baysfromresidential area vehicle (road and rail) manoeuvring and marshalling area in relation to loading bays —p282—3.
Economics
1
Option 1: lowrise 'conventional'sto; minimalsite works
Comparing alternative site layouts will usually resultin trade-offbetween conflicting factors. Exampleshows alternativesforsiting distribution warehouse: important cost factor involves expansion potential and linked mech handling eqp investment decision First option —+(1) minimises excavation by exploiting fall of land to provide raised loading dockat infeed: distribution vehicles were to be side loaded fromground level. But goods inwardsloading bay would face prevailing wind, energycost, and circulationround site required, needing relocation in event ofexpansion. Secondoption—(2)accepts some excavation forraised dock: in leeand exploits fallof site to sink part of high bay stacking area for less environmental intrusion and increased handling efficiency. Revised axis of bulk sf0 area allows much increased expansion potential without affecting operation of existing installation.This combined with improved sto and handling economics more than offset any increase in capital costof construction.
Planning grids
2
Option2:narrowaisle highbaysto:trade-off= costofsiteworksagainst increasedoperational flexibility& lowerenergyloss
To coordinate building's structure,services and circulation in formulating siting and expansion strategy and to integratetheseelements during bldg design, discipline their disposition by employing planning grid.
3 Tocoordinatestructure,services& movement
indevelopmentstrategyworktomastergrid;note 3-dimensionalimplications
274 Industry
Industrial buildings LAYOUTOF MULTIPLEUNITDEVELOPMENTS & ESTATES Small scale nursery' and 'seedbed' units: meetneedto integrategroup of units into existing urban or rural community. Illustrations —(1)(2) show small 'seedbed'group combined with landscaped open space and 'nursery'unitswith expansion capacitywith grouped goods access. Speculative developments forrental: built in variousforms ofterrace to
allow flexible space allocation. Note: sufficientheavy goods vehicle manoeuvring and parking area (see also loading bays)
car parking for workpeople and visitors (check local standards) off and amenity accn: either integral within volume of bldg (where site area restricted) or as attached block (where developer requires max rental fromproduction/sto area) mixture ofsizesofunit in estatecan beachieved byvariable location of cross walls in terrace or by providing 2 or more groups of bldg of increasing size: decision depends on scale Trade mart concept may be used to revitalise urban areas: divisible space undercommon roofallowing high degree of planning flexibility.
// //// 41V
3
key: 1 yard 2 public
12 39
24rn
785
—i:
wt
key: 1 goods vehicle parking/loading 2cross
open space
routes 3atrium pedestrian route 4retail use 5service use 6craft use 7lightproduction
'Nursery'& 'seedbed'industrial unitscanbe integrated intorural community,bringreliefto crowded innercity 1
9
'Trade mart' typedevelopment, attractiveinnercitypossibility mixinglight industrial,craft & retailuserstostimulate workingcommunity: common envelopeprovidesmulti-divisiblespace 3
key: 1 'nursery' units; rental 2mediumsized divisibleunits: rental 3largerdivisibleunits: rental 4purpose-built units(lease-back) 5yard/loadingar 6carparking(grouped) 7 landscapedopen space
tOrn
14 ft
2
Typicalmixed useindustrial estate with rangeof unitsizes forrentaleachhavingexpansionoptions(by extendingintoadjoiningunit):openspace & grouped, shieldedparking& yardsforeachproperty;landscaping improveswhatcan tooeasily bedesolateenvironment
Industry
Industrial
275
buildings ci
INDUSTRIALPARKS
C')
railroad spur
sewagetreatment plant
'
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-
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—:-
2
)
//
"\
—'-
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t
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hillwaterS
diversion channel & lakeoutlet
Siteplan EarthCityindustrial parkSt LouisUSA:developmentinflood plain of Missouririver necessitated systemofdrainage lakes&diversion channel,with leveebetweenEarthCity&river
IndustrialAirparkSpiritWestSt LouisUSAhasaccessfromairportto individual sites in park through taxiwayeasement& also fromChicago-Rock Island railroad 3
276 Industry
Industrial buildings BUILDINGENVIRONMENT Rising energy and labour costs make bldg environment increasingly important contributor to operating costs and productivity. Factors to be considered in providing goodconditions atworkplace include: dust and fumeextraction ventilation in hotweather heating in cold weather natural and artificial lighting noise control
As rough guide 5 I/sIP: conventional air change rate of 1—1.5 air changes/hr may resultin more than 50 times this requirement,wasting much energy.
Heating
19°C 16°C 13°C
light requirementIx
engineeringmachineshops manualwork benchwork carefulbenchwork precisionwork
200 300 500 1 000
engineeringinspection&testing mediumdetail fine detail minutedetail sheet metal benchwork stamping,pressing spot welding,general precisionwelds assembly mediumdetail small detail very finedetail storesissue counter
Ventilation
sedentary work active (bench) work very active work
place
66°F 59°F 57°F
For many companies with processes involving heat, energy can be
recovered and waste heat transferred to contribute to work place requirements: considerable cost savings possible. Warehouses with refrigerated orchilled areas can also benefit, heat being recovered from the chiller's compressors to warm areas where people work.
paint shops paintdips
Heating and ventilation demandsalso function ofstandardof insulation and quantity of glazing provided. In UK factory and warehouse bldg mustbeinsulated to0.7 W/m2 °C, with single glazing limited to 20% of roof area and 15% of wall area. These areas still high for energy conservation: 1O%ofwalland roofareausuallyconsidered appropriate.
warehousing loading bays palletpicking order pickingsmallitems packingstations
Natural lighting Demand for natural roof lighting influences selection of roof structure.
1
1
Escaping noise also troublesome outside bldg: place external plant awayfrom direct lines with surrounding users; screen and suppress source.
300 500 1 000 150 200 300 500
maxexposuretime hr
102 105 108 111
Noisecontrol
Reduce noisebefore reaches workplace byabsorption (walls, roofsand pendant absorbers) and/or bymodifying backgroundnoise. Reduce noise effectbyisolating workers in noise reducing enclosures.
500 1 0001 1 5001 300
Artificiallighting:typicalrequirements
85 87 90 93 96 99
—.p398—400;—*(1)
Reduce vibration at source by mounting machineryon resilient pads or special foundations.
10001
also needstask lighting
soundpressurelevel dBA
Artificial lighting
Reduce noise at source bydesign ofeqp, screening and enclosure.
750 500 500
spraying colourmatching
Compared with the insulated roofwithoutanyopenings 20% permitted glazing will increase both heat loss by4 times and ventilation demand through insolation: in highly serviced environmentsuncomfortableglare canresultfrompipe runs crossing bright roof lights.Outdoor illuminance varies from 5000—25000 lux fromovercast to sunshine conditions in temperate climates: therefore 3% DF will provide equivalent of 150— 750 lux at work place; 10% roofglazing will result in av DF about 5%. Flank glazing must alsobe carefullydesigned toavoid glare, particularly athigh level. Natural lighting inwarehousescan bepositivedisadvantage, sunlight raising tempand causing package fade.
Noisemajor pollution and limit on working efficiency: noise damageto hearing, humansensitivity tovibration —p18; max levels inworkplace
500 1 000 1 500
24 16
8 4 2 1
minutes 30 15 71/2 33/4
continuouslevelsover 85dBA should be avoided 2
Maxexposuretonoise
Industry 277
Industrial buildings PLANNINGFORFIRECONTROL
BUILDINGREGULATIONS
Designing factory orwarehouse to meet potentialfire hazard involves: measures to limit spread of fire within and outside bldg by compartmentation, detection devices, sprinklers and choice of materials for structure and cladding providing readily accessible and identifiable means of escape with alternative route in everysituation providing ventilation in roof to reduce heat and smoke build-up to prevent fire 'leap-frogging' underroof cladding and enablefire service rapidly vent smoke: typically 1 vent per structural bay, with curtains of non-inflammable material forming smoke reservoirs in roof space extinguishing fire or at leastcontrolling seat of fire until brigade can extinguish it, by means of sprinklers, high expansion foam or gas drenching Firedesign decisions involve consultation with: user: compartmentation may significantly affect layout of process or warehouse fire chief/officer: local reg and practice, particularly on fire appliance access, water supply and means ofescape user's insurance company: predominant influence on fire control in USA. Insurance company can demand compartmentationon basis of calculated maximum forseeable loss' (MFL fire wall). Reduced compartmentation can be negotiated against designing roof structure of greater fr and installation of sprinkler system. Insurance companies usually allow 50% premium reduction for sprinkler system.
UK bldg reg relating to compartmentation for fire control and cubic capacity of bldg, covering eg rules for measurement, periods of fr for elements ofstructure —Bib116590592593594601. In USA areas, construction types, egress or exits, compartmentation and all matters concerning fire safety and fire control are regulated by bldg code administered by city or municipal inspection dept (—*Bib027 505 509 510). Matters concerning fire insurance ratings of hazard and bldg covered
bystandards ofNational Board of FireUnderwriters.
Statutorycontrols
On national or state basis. In UK controls affect max cubic capacity of compartments for single and multi-storey bldg and fr of elements of structure forfactory and warehouse bldg of certainfloorareas.
Warehouses Warehouses with pallet rackingcan provide particularfire hazard,aisles acting as flues. Reg forinstallationofsprinklers,accountingforfrequency ofoutletand flowratesbasedon degreeof hazardforstored material. In USA apply rules from National Fire Protection Assocation and client's insurer. In UK Fire Officers' Committee Rules forAutomatic Sprinkler Installations should beadhered to.
Site planning
Control offire spread canalsoaffect location offactory orwarehouseon site, particularly in relation toadjoining users. This can affect bldg costs as there are rulesset down formaterials and frof walls when adjoining otherproperty at particulardistance. ForUK—unprotectedarea requirements in Bldg Reg ES (Bib592); for USA —*state bldg codes and requirements of American Insurance Association (Bib026); in general codesprovide fire safety for people and underwriters protect bldg.
IIIII
Factorieswithoutsmoke ventscan become rapidlysmoke-filledwith fire spreading under roof 1
surface
Withvents& smoke reservoirsfirecan be quicklycontained&controlled 2
:3 C')
278 Industry
Industrial buildings V ,P
ENVIRONMENTALCOMPARTMENTATION
V
V
Compartmentation, so long as compatible with handling and services demandsof production and sto process, can be used reduce both energy loss and certain hostile environments, such as fumes, heat, noise and dust, aswell as limiting fire spread.
Hot, dirty processes can be grouped to exploit energy and material recoverytechniques. Proportion ofarea/volume of factory affected by processwill indicate strategy; high proportion of area affected, group processes into compartment;low proportion,enclose separateelements of processwith local extraction and controls. Alternative increasingly attractive with high energy cost: segregate those whoworkin production area into environmental enclosure, exploiting automation, and only
-11* 1
minimally temper malority ofarea. Parallel with warehouses: automate main stosection, limiting environmentalcontrols tozonesofhigh labour use fororderpicking and assembly.
In unitsconstructedspeculativelyforrentingoff& amenity accnprovided
in stripforflexiblespaceallocation
WORK PLACEDESIGN Design ofworkplace fundamentalto achievinghigh levels ofproductivity: alsoinfluences labour relationsand absenteeism.Work placecombines:
Ergonomics
Work people's relationship to machinery and work actions to reduce fatigue and increase safety.
Mechanical handling
From most basic, low cost handling devices, scissor lifts, hoists and counterbalanced manipulators,whichcan revolutionise manualwork, to accumulating conveyors, automatically routing mobile work stations and robotassembly machines.
Work organisation
Grouping people for certain tasks. Traditional isolation of machine operatorsand line assemblyorganisationunder reviewin severalcountries in Europeand in USA; team organisationcanoffer greatercommunication and production flexibility.
Environment
2
Environmentalfactorscanbeconsidered forpurpose designedfactories: with noisy &dirty processesoff andamenityaccncan besegregatedfrom productionzone
Positive demands: temp suited to activity—USA: AmericanSocietyof Heating,Refrigeration & Air-conditioning Engineers (BibO3l), UK: Institution of Heating & VentilatingEngineers (Bib164) airflowand air cleanliness lighting: backgroundand task —p398—4OO Defence against: glare noise vibration harmful gaseous or dust products: explosions
key: 1 lightmaterial:low usage,infrequentoperation 2frequenthighlevel controls orlightpositioning 3 convenientcontrolzone: standingmanipulation 4seated control zone: light& medium-heavylocation 5infrequentzone of heavy material
3
Manualwork& sto involvesomecriticaldimensions: mostcommon working &manipulativezone is in2—4band
IQDL
II
4
II
Hli
Li2
II
Simplehandlingaids suchasscissorliftcanimproveworkingconditions& productivity
5 Counter-balancedmanipulatorcanenableoperatorplaceheavy loads accurately
Industry
279
Industrialbuildings WORK PLACEDESIGN Amenity
Washing, changing, wc and smoke/rest provision related to workplace. Location and scale depend onworkorganisation—.(4): traditional line production will require centralised services accessibleto numbers of people team organisationimpliesamenityaccnclose byorlocaltoteamoperating area; with changes in production organisation depending on manufacturing methods and volume, both are likely to change with increasing frequency.
key:a1000 b2400 c800
1 Typicalmanualorder picking frompallets&shelf,replenished by reach truck; simultaneouspickingfromeach sideforhighthroughputinstallation
key:a 1000 b1800
2
Slowerthroughputpickingoperation with 1-waytrolley access: replenishedby narrowaislestackerorfrombehind rack
uiu a b
c a
key:a800 b75 c150 dllOO e250
3
Typicalrack& shelfhforfloorlevelorder picking
4
Wet services,washing& rest ar: a small divisibleunitsas stripalong boundary bmed & largesizefactorybldgwith 2possiblezonesforplacing wet services,eitherallowing freelocationineachzoneorgroupingintoflexibly positionedbutdistinctwet serviceunits,egforteamaccess cforlargescale factoriesanotheroptionisislandwet serviceand amenity ar; advantages: singleundergroundservicesrun &accessibility fromall sides
c0)
280
Industry
Industrial buildings HYGIENE ,'
1•••• unnals
washtrough
—i ii,
Washing general
UK law requires that adequate and suitable facilities for washing, conveniently accessible,beprovided and maintainedforuse of employed persons in allfactories. Where nospecialorderofficial recommendation not less than 1 washbasin/20P doing clean work, 1/lOP doing dirty work, 1 /5P handling poisonous substances. Provisionofwashbasins—vBib6O8
Lavatories
UK factory laws do not specify numbers of lavatories: provision considered 'suitable and sufficient' foroffices, shopsand railwaysequally relevant for factories—vBib346 347 604.
Lockers 1
2
Layoutofdo, washr, drinfood
Changingmiwith strict separation ofclean&dirtyclothes
productsfirm
Changing areas
ocher sizes
IhwdI I
Forclean trades 1 locker/P must beprovided; fordirty 1 double locker/P to keep workand street clothing separate. Mm
I
changing area0.5 m2/P
Ambulance rooms Specificationforambulancerm:
11750130013001 11850130013001I 118501 3501 500
Floor space not less than 9.29 m2 with natural light and ventilation. Should contain: glazed sink with hot and cold running water, table with smooth surface, means of sterilising instruments, adequate supplyof suitable dressings, bandagesand splints, couch, stretcher, separate rm for male and female, qualified nurse always available.
I timber 120001 400 I 500I 12000140015301
vents
3 2-tier rowoflockersformultiple shift firm: orlower lockerforwork clothesupperforstreetclothes
shell —
4
Doublerowofventilated clothes lockers:benchesinfront
*
1120
towelholder
5 Hbwith tapsand adequate dimensions;washingtroughs narrower(up to 940 deep)
6
Washfountain(Bradleysystem): 25% saving in spacecompared with rowsofbasins;waterconsumption 10P/15—391: water pressure atmosphere
7 Continuousbasin: Rottersystem
Fountainonwallwithdrinking jet, controlledbylever 8
o• 11
Sho cubicleswithclotheshooks outside
iri 9
Seriessho eachfor4P
10 Continuousshoalongwallswithfootsho
12 Sho cubicleswith clotheshooks inside
Industry
281
Industrial buildings SANITARYINSTALLATIONS
;7N
ID
iD 7
__ D
—125—"———1.55—i
___________
i— 1.5 —"-—1.15—-,
LDH h
Singlerowclosetsdoorsopening outwards(above),inwards(below) 1
—1.25
H is......
\N
h ZN
D
Sanitary installationsaccording to German standardgiven here. 1 tloor outlet with smell trap per closet and 1 tap connexion with 1 socket spanner and hose union. Cleaner's sink. Floor surface non-slip, water resistant, easyclean. Walls washableupto2000high. Floorand wallssealedagainstmoisture. Rm temp mm 15°C. Wc partitionsto ceiling height; space outside well ventilated; 1 washbasinand handdrierper 5wc.Where soap dispensers titted 1/2 basins. Mm 1 mirror for2—3 basins.
—t
1.5—44———1.55
Iii
Singerow closetswith urinal on oppositewall 2
7N {D7K 7i\
: r
h l.25
2.05—
500+— 1.1 —t-600-
:* 1
ZNT
—1.5—it-——125—i
3
Singlerowclosetswith bowl urinals opposite
4
h5004900
F500+S1Xii
12 Changingarwith hanger
Changingarwith simplehook tittings:unattended 11
fittings:unattended
Doublerowclosets iockerswdh benches
locker
bend,
HHHH
locker
L
11 350 1
Lit '—
Al
wwstodssickngunder
ftj H±H
5 Washrwithhb
6
Washrwithtrough
13
Mm
1.0
slo4ffl DH[IIE E±1:d
i—9-H
450s-ô--r--6OO-i—6OO-i
—5Xi—4
[I] HI U 1.0
t—500—4
1.3
r IL 1.0
—900-i
I
I
i—900—4
1.0
[Istool I—
9—
dimensionsforchanging rm
_—105 —500 4 'a >2,05 Al
7 Washrwith tootbaths
8 Washrwith foot-trough
1.05
14 Depositdo, singlelayout with pegs, duallayout with hangers do): attended
I closedsho wrlti
—1.05—4550: changingcubicle
__Ff14 1.05— 1.5 —±1.05*1.05°--1.1-' 3.6 — -°2.15 -H
9
Gullydrainage,individual drainagetorhalf-opensho compartment
10 Bath cubiclewith changing alcove:mm dimensionstorsho& bath units
720-800-'
15 Vendingmachines
(theatre
a C C',
282.Industry
Industrial buildings LOADINGBAYS Link between production or sto process and distribution system. Much effort toreduce production costs can bewasted throughdelayed vehicle turn-round and increased manning if loadingarea notcarefullydesigned.
Decisionsin loadingbayplanning
Raised orgroundlevel dock?Generally, forend-loading containersand box bodies vehicles, as in retail distribution, raised; for side-loading curtain sided and flat bed vehicles, ground level. Separate loading baysforincoming and despatch —v(1): separate bays, together with vehicle marshallingareas, where manufacturing system involves differentcharacteristics between raw materials and finished products, with raw materials calling for side handling at ground level and palletised for despatch needing end loading. Similarly for large distri-
bution warehouse: bulk loads of single product delivered, mixed loads oforders despatched indistributors' ownvehicles; here segregationfor traffic management and materials flow in warehouse, particularly as vehicle handling peaks may coincide. Number ofloading bays, spacing and layout: loading bays must never be considered in isolation; mustbe related to circulation and check-off area behind them. Decision on numbers question ofthroughput patterns and availablearea next todockfor load preparation. Clearly ifvehiclescan behandledfasterwith pre-assembled loads, less loading docks required than for slower turn-round with material being assembled as loadingoperation continues. loading bay spacing and layout influenced by depth of manoeuvring area available and depth of load accumulation space behind dock. Choice of which should have more spacemust be basedon assessment of individual throughput demand.
It
o 10203040 m I I 3366 99132 ft
inwards:suppliers'bulk key: a loads bhighbay bulkstockpaflelsto Cpalletbreakdown& repacleng er dorder selection& loadassembly edespatch loadingbay: users'disbibutionvehicle fl-way trafficflow glongtermtruck ar parking& users'maintenance
ods
2 Manywarehousescanusedockforincoming & despatch goods; in factories sharing type of loadingbay maynotbepossiblebutgoodsvehicle manoeuvringarcanbe common 1 Large retaildistributioncentrewith separate goodsinwards&despatch loadingbays
key:
longwheelbasengbichassistruck a2.8m b3.9m c4.7m d5.5m e5.lm f4.6m g26.8tntsmingcircle
4smmninparfdng:3mcentres
3
_-"n
reinendloading:3,3 mcentres 35 mpreferredmm spacing:3.8 mCentres 33mnabsolutemmnal3.8mcentres
4
5
3omdat5timcentres
6
I
15marticulatetruck a4.7m b5.7m c7.3m d8.3m efl.8m t7.8n1 g27miunmingcircleat 900fulllock
23 m(75 6 neverless than20nidepthevenifspacinggreaterthan tOrn
I 20
25
30
35
40
45n1
ntis distancefromface ofloadingthktoboratdary ofrnanoerenngarforsinglemovementtum-c&d
3
Calculating yard depth& loading bay spacingfor 15 m articulated trucks parked at 900 to dock 122m1n(for tTaflicflowA c0unterclockwise
19.flforlfl.8tractor/traileretc 168 for168tractor/trailer
VIA V I A V
t'
manoeuvengyr
loadingar
————
- -ltorclockwise. trafficflow A)
5
Typicalturningdimensionsforrigidchassis &articulated trucks maalo7kerticul
c
A tractor-trailerI
B
c
posftion w
'apron' space
10.7
3.0 3.7
14,0 13.1
122
3
146
43
128
A
£ £
-—
b
4
I
137
13,4
30
174
4.3
14,9 14.6
37
waitingar
Truckloading& manoeuvring, USAdimensions a loading, manoeuvring andwaitingar b& C apronspace requiredfor 1 move intooroutof position
Industry
283
Industrial buildings LOADINGBAYS (cont) Spacing
Directly related to yard depth; conditioning factor: distance closely parked vehicles have to pull out before turning —.(1). Angled, raised docks reduce yard depth at expense ofnumber ofvehicles handledat 1 time: ground level drive-through bays reduce circulation width but increase length. Finger dock compromise for side and end loading where manoeuvring area limited.
Loadcheck-off/accumulationspace
Behind cross circulation aisle load handling zone (dock levellers with raised docks). Should have capacity of 1 .5 vehicle loads. Remember space for broken pallets, relected loads, rubbish: at least 1 load area. Crosscirculation aisle4000 allows 2 fork-lift pass and for turnout from docklevellers. Keep thisarea clear ofcolumns.
end-loadingraiseddock: drawforwarddistance
Raised docks
Equip with docklevellerplates accommodate both changes in vehicle bed height as they are loaded and different types of vehicle. Standard loading dockheight in USA 1220, common with 1 200 in Europe: with European vehiclesgreater variationsinbed height.Dock levellers should not exceed gradient of 1 in 10withhighest orlowest vehicle.
Energy
Do not face loading bays into prevailing wind. Raiseddocks: use dock shelterswhere vehicle forms hermetic seal with bldg and segmentalor roller shutterdoor closes on to leveller when vehicle leaves. Ground levelor finger docks can be completely enclosed (straightthrough flow ortail in). Alternatively, hot orcold air curtainscan beused butthese not substitute for enclosure.
Security
Drivers should not be able gain access beyond dock, except in some distribution operationswith company'sownvehicleswheredriver arranges order of loading. Generally, raised docks with dock shelters provide inherent security: separate lavatoriesand access totraffic office should beprovided forvisitingdrivers.
finger dock: raised end& sideleading
Weather protection
If docksheltersor enclosed dockcannot be installed canopy required overloading area: should allow at least 5000clear height.
Gradients
Ground should beflat(except forlocal drainagefall) for lengthofvehicle in frontofdockor mm oflength of articulatedsemi-trailer.
checkoff buffenat 1.5toad
Heavy goodsvehiclemarshalling & circulation Segregate light vansfromheavygoods vehicles: to use differentdocks! partsofthe dock
equivalent
gafew foraccess frombothdirections
,I' \
Provide heavy vehicle waiting bays before loadingbayarea and clear of manoeuvring space Provide parking baybefore exit for drivers tocheck load security Circulation should beclockwise inrighthanddrive countries, anti-clockwisein lefthanddrive: iereversing into loadingdocks alwaysondriver's
21.5
------- __J Themore angleofvehiclefromloading dockreduced greaterreductionin yard depthbutlower numberof vehicles handled simultaneously in space 1
sid
7mcanopy L
:—-------
_
3800 mm
-
5000 nun
1100—1500
K 12.0 levelsection (55 ftinsomeliSAslaten)
2
-
II
ml
1220standard
3000typicalfor4000laming/passing levellerplate
aisle
Sectionthroughraisedloading dockfittedwithdockshelterforenergyretention: canopy(dotted)only ifshelteromitted
needed
284 Industry
Industrial buildings LOADINGBAYS: USA RAIL
1
Typical rail track spacingrequirements USA fence(if required)
leadtrack
J2.2railrightofway \ 3050 9140min
___
m1n_- __
rail servicedoor
7' tspurtrack 21
3
r
!, C-
a 61.0
truck loading
bldg
-'
parking 1 520 walkway
orlandscaping
I
0 F
______________
V
//
b
91
23.0—
12.2railright ofway
tWCI(
6100min —
rail spurinside bldg 2590from inside wall bldg
parking
loading
1
n
5, CS1I
co
c
j___________
520walkway
orlandscaping
J9l4osetback(Iandscaped) street right-of-way
bldg
91.4
parking 9.
.
1 520 walkway orlandscaping
street right-of-way
:
Sm!
.1111,!
25gOfrominsidewall
I loading
-.j F
—
bldg
parking
0
1520 walkway orlandscaping
I
5, V
Il
21 3 1 c
Is, IC) 61.0
stH
H
eli
railspurinside bldg
23—
I
f9l4osetback(landscaped)
Railservedbldg layoutsUSA arail in right-of-way, bldgset back,spuralongsidebldg brail ineasement, bldg set back, spur alongsidebldg, note:spur layoutrequires easement onadjacentproperty: canbeeliminatedby movingeastwardrail servicedoor &consequently point of switch crail in right-of-way, bldgonpropertyline, spur insidebldg d rail ineasement, bldgset back,spur insidebldg 2
2590 (typic&) -21.3
___________________property line¢reline of lead track 12.2 raileasementi I •
21
1
61.0
r1tZii!
146 setback (landscaped)
streetright-of-way
23 I .l
\
rail servicedoor
truck 61.0 loading
19146setback(landscaped)
leadtrack-
property line¢erhneleadtrack rail easement iit)mm spur track j_
_______________
2590(typical)
(—23.0—
ii.
—
—
Industry. 285
Industrial buildings
ci
Rental unit
WORKSHOPS Great variety in shape and size: workshops classifiedhere by location, circulation requirements —*p286, tenancytypes —p287, and technology theycan accommodate—*p288. Most ofdetailedstandardsand examples given thoserequired fortypical inner cityflatted factory (rental unit).
C')
Most common locations —.(1)—(5).
Domestic
1 garden
IK 1
1
or2 peoplecarryingonhobbyorpart-timeoccupation inextension
of
home
Educational institution
4
Standardunitswithsharedaccessinmulti-storeybldg
Ancillaryto large factory
2
Repetitiveprovisionforclassorgroupof 20—40 people
production
Small industrial estate
wc off workshop sto
I I
I
photo lab
I
Groupofnon-specificunitsfor range ofverysmallbusinesses
wood workshop
metal workshop
I onference
I 3
—
5
gar
Specialistworkshopsforusebystaffmaintaining company'splantorbldg itself
286 Industry
Industrial buildings WORKSHOPCIRCULATION
spaces/floorar
innercity suburbs&rural
distribution heavy goodsvehicles light commercial vehicles
m2
m2
Parkingoutsidebuilding
1/1000 1/1000
Elevatorsinsidebuilding
cars
1/400
1/500 1/500 1/1 000
light industry heavygoodsvehicles light commercial vehicles
1/4000
1/2000
1/1 000 1/200
1/500 1/50
1/1 000 1/150
1/500 1/30
cars
Standards depend on location as well as on type ofuse—.(1). Related toexternal parking and totenancies —.(2)(3).
Circulationwithin workshop
Derived fromtechnology used aswell astype oftenancy —+(4)—(7).
offspace light commercial vehicles cars 1
Parkingguide lines: USAstandards—.p263
4
Straightline: goodsin&outoppositesidesofplant; requires bldg with good accessboth sides:common inmedium-sized firms
5 Overlapping:similarto4 butformuchlargertypeoffirm
2
Goodselevatorservinglargegroup of tenancies: centralmanagement may neededtomaintainfreeuseofelevators at peaktimes
6
U-shape:goodsin&outsameside of plant; possible in bldgwithonly limitedaccess:commonwith verysmallfirms
3
Severalgoodselevatorseach of whichservesseveral tenants,whomust cooperatein its use
7
Convoluted: goodsin&outon same side of plant;sometimes necessary in bldgwith restricted access
forlargefirmswhen accommodated
Industry
287
Industrial buildings WORKSHOPTENANCIES: BUILDINGTYPE
ci
Indirectaccess—(1) Typeofbldg: shallow ormedium depth with cross wallstocreatevertical
C')
compartments. Type of management: individual firm's name displayed and each has unitwithownservices. Managementcould take 1 unitover forown use. Type ofuser. small well establishedfirms requiring own identity. Subdivision: units have street (or yard) frontage, may receive visitors directly and have own stairs,elevators. Compartmentation: each bldg contains several tenancies divided by fr walls. Escape routes: each tenant has fr stairway: if area of high fire risk alternative means ofescape required.
Open plan —*(2) Type of bldg: shallow or medium depth with central corridor on each
1
level. Type ofmanagement: common receptionist: lifts/stairs/corridors from intermediate space to be maintained. Type ofuser: small firms needing some security but less concerned withpresenting individual identity. Subdivision: unitsreached through internal stairsorcorridors common to several users. Compartmentation: each tenant separated from adjacent tenants by fr floor. Escape routes: each individual tenant has door to shared fr escape corridorwhich leads to fr stairway, second means of escape normally alsoneeded.
Indirectaccess
Shared spaceI —(3) Type ofbldg: deepplan.
Type of management: tenants share services and participate in management of accn. Type of user: small expanding firms with compatible uses: allows for rapidchanges in sizeand staffing. Subdivision: unitsas suchdo not exist but tenants take space within largeenvelope having single front door. Compartmentation: each open area surrounded byfrwallsand floors. Escape routes: each compartment has directaccess or 2 or more fr stairways: may be necessaryprotect relevantdoorwayswith fire shutter.
2
Open plan
3
Sharedspace
Shared spaceII—*(4)
Typeofbldg:any building type. Type of management: head lessee relinquishes no responsibility for space: may provide telephone, secretarial services on time sharing basis. Type of user: newly founded tiny firms (1—5 persons) requiring low overheads and mm commitments. Subdivision: space rented from another firm usually on somekind of licence. Compan'mentation: separate subdivision only required if sub-tenant represents high riskof fireorexplosion. Escape routes: considered same as for main tenant unless special fire risk.
A J
4
Sharedspace
288 Industry
Industrial buildings type
machine passengers heavy light goods goods rrn
pit
elelevators
yes yes yes
yes yes no
yes yes yes
yes no no
yes yes yes
yes yes yes
no no no no no
yes no yes yes yes
yes yes yes yes yes
no no no no no
no no yes no yes
yes yes no yes no
2sides
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes
2sides
no rio no
yes no no
yes yes yes
no no no
no no no
yes yes mobile
4sides 4sides
hydraulic lift manually operated lift platform hoist elservicelift scissorslift dock leveller
elbelt
conveyor gravity conveyors elwinch manual winch manual floorcrane 1
external fittings
access
3sides 3sides 3sides 3sides
WORKSHOPS:EQUIPMENTSPACE —(1) shows requirements for some suitable handling eqp for small premises. —.(2)(3) showtypical space needed per machine in tightly planned layout: does notnecessarilyallowforgeneral circulation,process sto or initial installation of machinery. —v(4) shows percentage of total area required foroperations invarious types of workshop.
4 sides
2sides 2 sides
mobile
Suitablehandlingeqp forsmallpremises
A
2
4 Space budgettingbytechnology
Eqpspace—.(3) eqp in commonuse
types
Ax B-.(2) workingspace per item
metal work machiningcentre jig boring& milling machine turret drill surfacegrindingmachine capstanlathe bar & billetshears press brake engraver
diesinker
weldingplant toolgrinder shaper power hacksaw punch press sliproll nIbbler
shearclamphead bandsaw workbench plastics
extruder vacuumformer blow moulder acrylic saw heatingoven
6.0 x 4.0 3.0 x 3.0 2.6 x 3.2 2.6 x 2.2 3.0 x 4.0 2.5 x 3.0 3.0 x 6.0 2.2 x 3.0 1.8 x 2.2 2.8 x 2.5 1.1
x 1.2
1.7 x 2.1 4.0 x 1.2 1.5 x 1.3
x 2.1 2.3 x 1.2 2.1 x 1.5 2.3 x 3.1 1.1
2.7 X 1.9
2 8 x 2.8 2.8 x 2.8 3 ü 4.5 3.0 x 50
06 x 1.1
woodwork bandsaw circularsaw surfaceplaner knot holedrill milling machine slot boring machine dove-taller
jointer scroll saw drill press woodshaper radial arm saw
beltsander
veneerpress lathe polisher
carpenter'sbench printing lithographicpress plate maker folder drill
3.0 x 5.0
4.8 x 7.9 2.6 x 5.0 2.2 x 4.2 4.0 x 5.0 2.2 x 5.0 2.2 x 4.3
x 8.3 x 1.9 x 1.6 2.9x 1.6 6.5 x 1.8 4.4 x 4.8 5.0 x 4.2
nailer
sole press heel press shapingmachine leathercutter patternstamper
1.5 x 2.2 1.5 x 2.2 1.5 x 2.2 2.Ox 2.5 3.0 x 3.5 1.5 x 1.7
2.0 X 3.0 2.2 X 2.6 3.0 x 4.5
electronics instrumentbench
1.5 x 4.5
motor repairs each bay
30x 60
general compressor
0.75 x 1.2
2.5 x 5.0 1.5
x 1.8
1.2 1.2
1.5 1.5
1.5 < 3.0 2.0 4.2
photographic developingtank
2.4 x maxlength print 1.5 x maxlength print/2
3 Typicalspace requiredper machineintightlypackedlayout
footwear
7.0 x 14.0 1.2 x 2.2 2.0 x 2.0 2.0 x 2.0 1.2 x 1.2
1.4 1.6 1.6
guillotine gluing belt
enlarger
clothing layingup machine sewingmachine steampress ironing bar steamboiler
x
dustcollector furnace hot dip tank dryingcabinet upholsterypress forge kiln potter'swheel
x 2.0 x 3.0 x 2.2 3.0 x 7.0 2.5 x 3.5 0.9x2.1 0.9 x 2.1 1.8 x 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.7
Industry
289
Industrialbuildings 3 Mixed workshop:
WORKSHOPEXAMPLES
1
die casting; employs15;approx 150m2
Benchworkshop: furskins;employs2; approx 75m
4 Repairshop: electronicsrepair;employs2;approx47m2 2 Craftwork:
organ building & wood furniture; employs2;approx 175m2
.
general woodwork
sander
ri U
organassembly & wiring
ii —V
5 Machine workshop: lithographicprinting; employs3; approx93m2
6 Small factory: women'sshoe manufacturer; employs47;approx 370m2
ci
c(I)
290Industry
Industrial buildings Workshopdesignfactors
Factors affecting fabricdesign and services requirementsforrepresentativecategories ofworkshop —(1). factorsaffectingfabricdesign
Service requirements
E
Factors affectingfabricdesign& servicerequirementsforworkshops 1
z
ma
a
poBe A
B
C
D
rjsssDiowniri timber furniture film production furs, skins film processing electronicrecording engraving toys, musicelinstruments metalwork,plating,casting clofhrig tight engineering valves,tools deskaceessories,plastics food processing pnnting
E
rnenufacturing stationery brewing spinning
F
electronicrepairs motorcar repairs bicycterepairs meamcaiprops
SERVICINGSTANDARDS Check all applicablebldg codes and municipalplanreview requirements. Fornew industrial bldg following standardsapply:
Electricity
UK: Each unit to be provided with separate 415 V 3-phase supply, including, sitednormallywithin production area,main distribution board, ofadequate capacity fornormallyanticipatedunitneed ofabout 70kVA, fitted with fused switchboard. (70 kVA units in range of 1 000 m2 and upwards need separateloadcalculations.)Lightingcircuitsto beprovided within offices and lay in appropriate locations. Power socket outlets to be provided in offices. Fused switch socket outlets to beprovided in lay where el sto heaters used. In offices —vp234 lighting wiring should followlikelyoffice subdivision and should finishwith fluorescent fitting but in lay and do should be batten ceiling typefitting. Provide external flood lighting atbackof bldg over service door wired to each individual unit to illuminate rear service area: may be supplemented by street lighting where layout permits. Note: no provision to be made in standard specification for lighting trunking or 13 amp ring main in production areas. USA:currentcharacteristics ofservice vary with process. El eqp forair conditioning may be required for some processes orlocations.
Telephone
Underground service ducttobeprovided intoground floortoallow easy cable connexion.
Gas/gascentralheating
Services to be carried into bldg and sealed off in production area. Supplycapacity to be designed toallow provision ofcentral heating to production and office areasto normalworking standards.Centralheating to be provided only when required at landlord's cost: may be in office areas for larger units using conventional hot water radiator system incorporating provision for hot water for domestic uses. Boiler to be sitedin production area.
Watersupply/plumbing
Cold water supply for domestic needs only to be carried into bldg; tenants'process orsprinkler requirements notallowed for: supplementary serviceto be laid if excessive need indicated. Cold and hot water supplies tobe connected to allwashing installations: hotwater supplied from either wall mounted el 3 kW sf0 heater (capacity54 I) or if more economic central hotwatercylinder having capacityapprox 351/basinor sink. All stotanks tobe adequatelyinsulated.
Drainage
Surface waterdrainage down pipes should have traps accessible from ground floorlevel and be locatedinpositions to avoidaccidentaldamage. Ample external surface watergullies should be provided in service yard to avoid waterstanding and grid channels should be provided across serviceyard entrance where levels ofyard could allow surface water to run off into bldg. Foul drainage should allow for domestic demand; sealed gully in production area for process effluent. Trade effluent certificate required for individual trade needs.
Ventilation
Mech ventilation tobe provided forwconlywhere layout makes impractical natural ventilation. All offices naturallyventilated. Productionareas needonlyhave separate provision for manuallycontrolled roofmounted extractors where chosen form ofheatingwill notachieve this result.Any extractor fans to be completely weather proofed and capable of being serviced at roof level.
Fire alarm
Alarm systems to be installed toeach unitthroughout office production areas. El operated systemwith manual initiation. Supplementary brief (program) to advise if provision to be made for sprinklers, smoke detectorsor emergency lighting. Hosereel pointsonly to be provided whererequired by reg or statute. In USA sprinkler design approved by state insurance commissionorfire
marshall's office. Industrial buildings references: —eBibliographyentries 031 036 052 053 164 177 178257280284301 305 331 332 333 338 341 346 348352 354 363 374 382 387418456 470 477480 481 486 505 534 539 590 592 597 600601 602603604 605 606 608 616 627 634 642651
Industry 291
Laboratories ________
CLASSIFICATION Lab differwidelyin layout and service requirements according to use.
linkto adjoiningunit &/orfireescape
aM
IL] eH
Classificationcategoriesincludetype ofdiscipline(eg chemistry,physics, biology), level ofstudy(eg routine, teaching, research),provision of eqp (egbenches, rigs), level ofservicing (eg wet, dry). Hospital lab —+p176
bE2]
TRENDS In past lab designed for specific, fixed use; now growing tendency advocate 'multi-purpose' where worker has permanent station. Rapid changes in technology create new fieldsof study and demand costly sophisticated eqp which must be fully used: consequent need for adaptable labspaces which may bechanged during life ofbldg. Most difficulties in adapting to change arise because lab benches, sto cupboards and piped services aspermanentfixtures can only be moved with considerable effort and disruption. 1 approach is design main structure and standardservices asfixed items with more specific variable items,including furniture, movable.
dE2i
ii
Comparisonof square& rectangularlab unitsofequalar showinggreaterflexibilityoffered bysquare layout arectangular unit (24.8m2) bsquareunit(24.5 m2)C2workers& sharedeqp d3workers&sharedeqp e4 workers&shared eqp in centralar 2workers&largerig 1
PLANNINGPRINCIPLES Most significant recent developmentsin planning: adoption of square rather than rectangular modules —÷(1) allowing for greater flexibility in bench arrangements with introduction of island bench unitsand freestanding eqp; use of movable table tops rather than permanent fixed bench units: variations in work top height as well as grouping of tables can be achieved to suit particular needs;
f
2 a banthropometricdata
governingbenchspacingforboth teaching& research type
bench h
seat h
w kneehole mm
vertical distance mm
floorto underbench sittingonly sitting& standing: women sitting& standing: men
3
700 850 900
425 625 675
575 575 575
606 800 850
INDIVIDUALSPACEREQUIREMENTS —*(2)(3) Ideally conditioned by critical anthropometric dimensions, eg depth of
work top being based on max convenient reach; may be some 600 in theorybut in practice worktopmay vary between 610 and 840. Work top length similarly may vary between 2100and 4600for researchstudent, depending on discipline and particular research requirements; can be reduced to approx 1 500/P where groups of workers share eqp. Work top heightmay varybetween lowchemistry benches at450above flocr level and 900 forbenches at whichworker stands.
Typical rangeofbench&seatI
_ILLIIJLL±IIILIJ
r;i
arrangement of heavy eqp, fume cupboards, wash-up etc grouped in central servicezones.
PLANNINGMODULE Working unit (group ofworkplaces) forms basic planning bay ormodule —(2b). Normal workplace can beconsidered as being approx 1600 x 800. Modulewidth may vary from 2600 to 5250; av approx 3000 to 3600, which allows 2 parallel rowsof benches with centre gangway giving room to pass between 2workers. = 2workspaces + centre passageway Modulew
2 x 800
3000—3600
I. hiflfTTTTTflrfl FtiIiiIL Li:'1 !Tn1T1t
1400—2000
Typical bldg dimensions include: modulew 3000—3600 moduled 5000—8000 corrw 2000—2500 3600—4200 storeyh
L.
4
Typical plan showing flexible lab with grouped central services (preclinicalsciencesSouthampton UniversityEngland) ArchJohn S BonningtonPartnership key 1 teachinglab 2post-graduate & research lab 3preparation& servicemi 4rmwith specialisteqp
5
Typicalplan showingrelationship of centralworkspace tolab unit (zoologydept Edinburgh University Scotland) ArchArchitecture Research Unit Universityof Edinburgh key 1 lay 2sto 3culture 4 research lab 50ff 6cold mi 7lecturelab 8instruments 9 post-graduate lab 10chromatology 11 centralworkspace l2warmrm l3darkrni l4secretary l5labl6radioactiverml7media preparationmi 18wash-up
I 16
ip
I 32
15
48
20m I 64
ft
292 Industry
Laboratories SERVICES DISTRIBUTION
—ip383—4 Sub-main distribution can be either offvertical ducts serving individual orpairs oflab ateveryfloororoffhorizontal ducts serving group oflab on everyfloor.Vertical ducts can be integrated with main structural frame, provideready access toservices onfloorthey serve, eliminate problem of fumecupboard ducting; butcanprove expensivestructurally if service potential not fully utilised. Horizontal distribution of sub-mains usually cheaper initially; but has not same adaptability and requires numerous connexions infloor.
Several methods of servicing individual benches available; need for
adaptability led to development of movable and pre-plumbed services connected flexiblyto floor points. Central service spine permits backto-backlayout of benches; service bollard allows benching laid out in 2 directions. However, studies of relocatable spine systems show new layout ofteninvolves extra costand disrupts activities in rm below since live supply of services to all possible connexion points prohibitively expensive. Overhead servicing by mast and/or flexibles more convenient and economic arrangement. Perimeter,peninsularand island layoutscan be serviced in any combination and spacing required. Access for main-
tenance and adaptation can be achieved with mm disruption offurniture and eqplayouts and confined tofloorbeing served. Valuablefloorspace can be saved since traditional floor-mounted service spine between benches removed. Furthermore, tendency overprovideto compensate for lack of flexibility in layout reduced.
DISPOSALSYSTEMS Drainage problem with overhead servicing: gravity ratherthan pumped systems simplest, with permanent grid of floor points. Lab wastes may carry corrosive agents orbe ofvery high temp. Drip cups, bottletrapsin borosilicate glass and chemically resistantptfe flexible tubing to outlets normal methods of dealing with suchrequirements. In any case waste runs should be immediately visible and accessible in rm towhichtheybelong.
or vacuum-assisted
Solid waste normally put in bins; but in hospital research or animal experiment lab incinerationofsoiled materialorcarcassesobligatory.
STORAGE Growth in project work and use of multi-discipline lab has increased amount and type ofsf0. Recent developmentstowardadjustableshelving and trays: movable sto unitsundertables more adaptable than fixed bench sto. Pressing needfor further space makes organisation and management ofsto major consideration. Categories include: central: special sf0 often centralised (eg workshop sto, inflammable solvents, explosives, poisons); best for large scale and/or expensive eqp; staff organisation and checking control important; local: frequent use of items necessitates regular local sto, limited in capacity; workplace: essential forpersonal eqp and project work material.
Flexiblelab arofscienceblock WellesleyCollegeMassachusetts USA Arch PerryDeanStahl Rogers 1
key
h
hotwater coidwater main waste g gas twp rainwater m W
wvp waste ventpipe te telephone& at le iume extract I lightingtrunking heatingpipes as air suppiy
3 Zoologydept EdinburghUniversityScotland: leftintegration ofservicesandstructure right sectionthroughdeptextension showing repetitive verticalsub-mainsducting 2
iFmn
400
-
wUP . LjL oljHlL worktop
sto
cpd
o
4 Overheadflexibleservicinginpilot project
LeicesterPolytechnic EnglandArch Leicester EducationAuthority
400
5
Sectionthroughscienceslab Polytechnic Sunderland England showing detailsof overhead servicing& its integration withinstructure ArchJo4in SBonnington Partnership
Industry
293
Laboratories SPECIALREQUIREMENTS Some operations need special eqp or techniques calling for particular controlled environment not availableorappropriate ingeneral lab areas. These include:
cold sto & lab
warm & incubator rm sterile/dust free rm dark rm fumeproducing techniques chromatography rm chemical distillation steam production vibration/noisy eqp animal rm radiation & x-rayrm
temp control important air locks & cleansing provision needed entrycontrol needed cupboardsusuallysufficient: largescale need special rm special rm: fume extraction extraction needed structural & plan isolation environment & security control screening & security
RELATEDSPACES
1 Detailsof lab benchesinscienceblockWellesley
Space for related activities needed in addition to general lab provision: staff, seminar, small off, lib, do, sto, plant, preparation, some or all of suchrm will be needed College
Massachusetts USA
FINISHES Floor: durable, easy clean and maintain, resistant to most chemicals likelybe spilled; ideally should be lointless or have mm jointspossible. Such traditional finishes aswood blocks still preferred by users buttend to high cost. Sheet linoleum, pvc or rubber with welded orsealed joints and coved skirtings now more common.
Walls &ceilings:special protection notgenerally needed. Suspended ceilings provide smooth, light-reflecting surface with acoustic properties to whichpartitions can be abutted. Walls need to be washed down from time to time: blockwork should be plastered and decorated or sealed with sprayed plastics finish.
Worktops: traditionally solid timber, teak or iroko; laminated plastics faced board cheaper. Aswith floor multitude of finishes frompvctiles or sheetto vitreous tiles can be used, depending on type of work being carried out.
2 Mobile fumecpdshowingserviceconnexions
3
TypicalteachingarTeacherTrainingCollegeTeesideEngland
Laboratoryreferences: —.Bibliographyentries 039 122 206 278 283 336 337 341 349 354362 524571
a ci)
294 Industry
Farm buildings PURPOSE
partsper million hydrogen sulphideH2S
I
upper limitconsidered acceptableforman to breath duringworkingday
carbon
ammonia
NE-I3
dioxideCO2 5000
10
25
Design data presented here are based on human and animal requirements, animal housing technology including labour use, crop sto and processing, waste handling and legal controls.
Toxic gas limits illumination (lx) —.p25
2050*
stockyard calf nursery sickanimal pen pig/poultryshed
HUMANWELFARE
50 50
Man: environment
30_50*
milking ar
Dust concentration not more than 10 mg/rn3ofair
100 100
dairy
Toxic gases —v(1) Noiselevel not more than 90dB (A) per 8 hr-day exposure Avoid contact with dirt ifpossible Illumination levels —+(2)
20_50* 2050* 20_50*
vacpumprm barnetc tractorimplements farmworkshop
100
* higherfigureapplieswhen nonatural lighting
CATTLE:BASICDATA
Illuminationlevels
2
Function of farm bldg to modify effect of climate on livestock, crops, agricultural eqp and man atwork. Housing also allows easier handling and storing of feeds, products and waste materials. Decision to erect farm bldg may also be influenced by other considerations, eg investment, taxation, personal motives etc.
Thermal requirements
Under UKclimatic conditions allclasses ofcattle can be housed at temp equivalent tothoseprevailingoutside. Protectionfromrain notnecessary forolderanimals (180kgliveweight) ifanimalperformanceonly criterion. But combination of rain, wind and lowtemp may lead to fluctuation of food intake. In high rainfall areas rainwater entering waste sto system can be excessive.
USAwide variations inclimate meanall classescattle cannoteverywhere be housed at temp equivalent to that prevailing outside. Except in temperate areas milking cows need protection in extremes of cold and
3
heat. In blizzard areas cows calvingand beef cattle up to 14—16 months old need shelter.
DimensionsofFriesiancows
type
age
weight
kg
youngfemales (heilers)
cows lightbreeds medium-heavy heavy
withers
body I
neck I
35
700
650
6rnonths
175
1000
1101)
— —
1year 2year
1150 1 250
1 250 1 450
— —
3year
300 450 575
1300
1600
mature mature mature
350—450 500—550 600—650
1140—1350 1 390—1620 600—620 1 320—1380 1 530—1650 630—650 1 350—1440 1 620—1680 650—700
atbirth
calves
hto
4
—
Typicaldimensionsofcattle; recently USAbeefcattlerevertedto longer back animal I
1100 1300 1500 1 600 1 700 1800 5
reachof mouthforvarious h of feed table abovestance 0
100
200
300
400
750 800 850
800 840 880 900 920 940
840 910 980 1 020 1 060 1080
910 960 1010 1030 1060 1080
940 990 1040 1070 1090 1120
880 900 930
Reachofmouthofcattle
Animaldimensions
Typical dimensions ofFriesiancows shown—v(3); otherclasses ofcattle Reach ofmouth basic criterion fordesign offeeding barriersand troughs —v(5).
Feed &waterintake
Cattle in UK consume 30—60 kg of forage or silage depending upon energyand fibrecontentof ration, and drink 35—601 ofwater per day. In USAwider variation in normal feed and water intake.
295
Industry
Farm buildings
a
CA1TLE
Wasteproduction
Cattle defecate and urinate indiscriminately:canonly be madetodeposit waste in particular places by useofphysical restraint,egcubicles. —*(1) showsquantities ofwaste produced by different classes of cattle
1200kg/rn2deadload 200 kg/rn2 live load
HOUSINGELEMENTS Housing systems canbeclassified bymethod ofcollectingand handling waste products. In slatted floor systems waste passes through perforations in floor to be collected and periodically removed from cellar beneath. In straw-bedded pens dung and some urine absorbed by straw. Resultant farmyard manure must be removed periodically. In cubicle systems use made of inability of cattle to walk backwards up step.Raised cubicles can thereforeonlybeentered headfirst; dungand urine deposited into cubicle passage, scraped regularly, or may be slatted.
Slatted floorpens
Slatted floorsystems eliminatebedding and save labour. Proper space allowances —(2) should be maintained to ensure sufficient animal treading action. Totally slatted floors normally used for beef cattle or suckler cows only. For dairycows useofslats limitedto cubiclepassages, feeding stances and circulationareas.
3
Reinforcedconcreteslatsforcattle
4
Slurrydraw-offpoints
125 slat laid with 40 gap suitable for all stock above 200 kgliveweight or 6—8months —*(3).Foryounger stockqualityand conditionofslats more critical: 25 or 30gap preferable. Slurry cellars should be flat floored with draw-off points orreceiving pits
for vacuum tankers orpumps at gable ends orperimeter walls. Sluice gatesliftedorpusheddown allowing slurryto fill receiving pit; overflow
lip system —.p304(4) also used. Sometimes necessary agitate slurry before emptying. For this purpose slats may have to be removed for access with recirculation/agitation pump. Some designs incorporate suspendedcentral passage with several access points. Some pumps require 0.5 m sump to work efficiently. Examples of slurry draw-off points—*(4).
Sto capacities of slurrycellars —(5). Externalwaste sto—p301 (3).
animal
calf calf
store(stock) dairyheifer beef
age (month)
0—3 3—6 6—15 6—15 15—24 15—24
dairy heifer beefcow 24+ dairycow 24+ 1
wasteproduced (kg/day)
(m3/day)
5 7 14 14
0.005 (O.17ft3)
21 21
28
45
0.007 0.014 0.014 0.021 0.021 0.028
0.045 (1.6ff3)
Avquantitiesofwasteproduced bycattle floor ar weightof approx animal (kg) age (months) (m2/animal) 200 300 400 450 500 550
2
7 12 16 18 20 23
1.1
1.5 1.8 1.9 2.1
2.2
Spaceallowanceforbeefcattleonslats
weightof beast (kg)
floor ar
sto capacity (m3lbeast) forvarious cellardepths(m)
(m2/beast) 0.9
200 300 400 450 500 550
1.1
1.5 1.8 1.9 2.1
2.2
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
0.99 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.31 1.35 1.8 2.35 2.7 3.15 1.62 2.16 2.7 3.24 3.78 1.71 2.28 2.85 3.42 3.99 1.89 2.52 3.15 3.78 4.41 1.98 2.64 3.3 3.96 4.62
5 Stocapacitiesofbelow-slatcellars
2.4
2.7
3.0
2.64 3.6 4.32 4.56 5.04 5.28
2.97 4.05 4.86 5.13 5.67 5.94
3.3 4.5 5.4 5.7 5.3 6.6
(I)
296 Industry
Farm buildings numberof animals
capacityofurinetankrequired(m3)
CAULE
540 kg beef cows
360 kg 450 kg beef cattle beef cattle
50 100 150 200
22 44 66 88
19
22
38 57 76
44
Build-up ofslurryatrecommended stocking densities 300—400/month, depending on type and level of feeding. Hay fed animals produce thick slurrydifficulthandle with pumps. In suchsystems high-level slats can be installed allowing tractor access for mucking out. Urine drained off throughdrainage shafts intourinetank. Urine tank capacity fordifferent numbers ofanimals —(1).
66 88
Tankcapacityrequiredfor2monthsstoof urinefromhigh level slattedbldg
1
Fortypical arrangement ofhigh-level slatted systems —(2).
Straw-bedded pens
Resting area bedded with 2—4 kg allowance/animal —(3).
2
Mucking out usually doneonce during and at end of housing period. Build-up of bedding overhousing period .—*(4). Walls mustbebuiltwithstandpressureofmuck and stock:225 blockwork with piers at3000 centres rising to height of 1 400 above max level of muck build-up suitable. Height should preferably be3700(mm 3000at eavesto allow tractor headroomformucking out.
High levelslats forbeef cattle
weight(kg)
(months)
200 300 450 500 550
3.0 3.4 4.0 4.2
7 12 18 20 23
lot housing period (months)
Space allowances
forcattlein bedded pens
build-upof muck(m) 3.4 ma/beast 4.0m2/beast 2.1
5 4 3 2
1.75 1.4 1.05 0.7 0.35
5
3
4.4
6
1
Whereverbedding next to feeding trough step or ramp should
total ar, lying &feeding(m2/animal)
approxage
of straw/animal/day. For space
be
provided allow cattle reach trough comfortably —(5). Floors should preferably be concreted butrammed hardcore may be used. Ifliquidto bedrained fromunderbedding concrete floor should have fall of 1:20. Concrete feeding stance above level of bedding area provided in part-bedded pens: saves some straw. Cattle may also be given access concrete area cleaned by scraping in self-feed silage systems. Silo floor should fall 1:30 away from feed face. Open scraped areas should fall 1:30away fromtroughs and covered areas. Urineand faeces together with bedding and feed residuals scraped to external slurrysto (midden). Tractor mounted orautomatic scraper blades normally used remove slurryintosto.
Cubicles
1.8 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.3
4
Build-upofmuck
at2stockingdensities (not USApractice)
In this system small quantities bedding (500 g/daychopped straw or sawdust) spread over resting area equipped with cubicles and raised 150 above passage. Cubicle divisions —(6) should not hinder lying or rising movements ofanimals orallow animal to gettrapped orentangled in cubicle frame. Cubicles not often used for beef cattle. Keeping cubicle bed dry more difficult with male animals. Problem accentuated by fact that animals are growing. Cubicle system not suitable for bull beefproduction. Cubicle must notbe sowidethat smallestanimalto use itcanturn round and dungin it; but must be wide enough allow animal lie comfortably. Cubicles must be short enough ensure dung falls in passage: but cubicles too shortwill not be used as animal will lie over heelstone or kerb. Adjustable head or knee rail used to reduce effective length of cubicle;adjustable side rails accommodatedifferent sizes of beast. Cubicle dimensions should be related toanimal weight—(7).
Step orramponbeddedfloor
Cubicle passage widths (mm): slatted 1 800, solid scraped 2100. If passage serves also as feed stance, mm widths 2500 slatted, 3000 scraped. Cross-passes 1 800 should be provided if more than 25—30 cubiclesin line.
Calf pens Mm
space required —(8).
Divisions forindividual pens can be constructed from demountable and adjustable rails,or boardswhere completeseparationrequired. Divisions should bedemountable and easily cleaned and disinfected. Alternative to individual penstethered feedfence—.(9).
6 Cubicledivisionsforcattle 612
7 I& w cubicles as relatedtoweight
8
pen type
age (weeks)
mm
individual
upto4
1.1 (1.5
group
uptog upto8
Mm
uptol2
space (m2/calf)
180
-i
640
x 0.75m)
3660
1.8(1.8x 1Gm)
6casT
L1&
1.1 1.5mm
space requiredforcalf pens
9 Tetheredfeed fence
4270
Industry 297
Farm buildings CATTLE
C
Calf pens(cont)
In grouppens with bucket feeding pen front oftenequipped with simple manual trapping yoke.
1
Alternativeto buckets cascadetrough: allowssimplified pipeline delivery of milk with individual rationing.—(1)shows details ofcascadetrough: system suitable for larger scale operations where labour spent on feeding tasks often reduced to mm. Self-trapping yoke installed to control calves during feeding reduces subsequent cross-suckling. 'Automatic' feeders mix and supplymilk substitute feed to groups of 10—15 calves on adlib basis: allow more flexible labour routines but feed consumption (and hence cost) higher.
Cascadetrough
formilkfeeding calves
Feeding
weight (kg) approxage 150
2
Troughspacefor restrictedfeeding
300 400 450 500 550
mm
troughspace
(months)
(mm/animal)
5 12 16 18
360 520 600
20 23
620 640 660
J:L__ i5 jpj 300:otoer stock 250:youngerstock
130°
500 180
3
nmn
Feeding barriersforcattle
25
When feed rationed or restricted sufficient trough space must be provided for all animals feed simultaneously. Trough space requirements When teed continuously available (ad/lb feeding) notall animals require teed atonce.Trough-space/animal depends on typeof feed aswell as sizeofanimal. Lessspace required forcereal feed than forforage: grainor concentrates: 75—100/animal self-feedsilage: 100—175/animal mechanically-filled trough maintainedfull: 175/animal Feeding barriers —(3)essential prevent feed wastage. Self-trapping feeding barriers (yokes) designed prevent animal access tofeed,or restrain or releaseselected animals—*(4). Dimensions of trough and feeding passages for mechanised cattle feeding —*(5). Inclined floortrough allows animals reach further; subsequently less secondaryhandlingoffeeds required—.p294(5). Forunits housing over200animalsflat floor feeding passage4400wide preferred: feed left outside reach of cattle can be pushed forward nearer to them using specialised tractor mounted plough or brush attachment. Feed residuals can be also removed using this machine. Feed bunkers for complete (mixed) diets—*(6). These hold2—3days' supplysince denser feeddeteriorates less rapidly.
j
Self-feedingbarrier
6
5
Passagesformechanised feedingofcattle
1600
:/LZ,//k
, 4
120
Feedbunkersforcomplete(mixed)diets
(1)
298 Industry
Farm buildings passages). Lower (inlet) area twice this. Ifdifference in height between inletsand outlets different from1 000, areas multiplied by height factor obtained from—(3b).
CATFLE Feeding (cont)
Typical dimensions ments —*(2).
ofmobile feeding eqp —(1);
turning space require-
Feeding stances should allow space for animals pass behind others feeding. Foradult cattle allow 2400mm forslatted stances,2700mm for solidscraped stances.
Watering
Should be 10—30 animals/water bowl. Water troughs should provide 0.02 m2 of water surface/animal or 300 of water trough frontage for 40—50animals. During winter water should be heatedto 10CC.Provision to prevent cattle fromdefecating intowaterdrinker required: install floor curb200highor rail about 300 fromdrinker; ordrinkers can be recessed into wall or covered with cattle operated flaps. Water bowls ortroughs usually installed at height 700—1 000: should be located where do not obstruct otheranimals feedingor movingto and fromfeeding area, and preferably wherespillage will notwetbedded lying areas.
Ventilation Natural ventilation suitable for ventilating all cattle bldg, including calf bldg. Fan-assistedventilationsystems only justifiedinexceptionalcircumstances eg USA in heavily fly infested areas to supplement fly spray system; exhaust fan system not continuous running but worked on times.Sizesofopenings fornatural ventilation basedonbldg floor area, weightof cattle and difference in height between airinlet and airoutlet. —*(3a) used to obtain area/animal of upper opening (outlet) from av weight of animal in bldg and total bldg floor area/animal (including
Example 1: 30 x 100 kg calves in bldg 750 difference between inlets& outlets floor ar/calf 75/30 = 2.5 m2 outletar 0.042 x h factor 0.7 = 0.03 m2/calf inlet ar double this = 0.06 m2/calf
x 10000 with 2000 h
Example 2: 100 x 400 kg cattle in bldg 10 x 30 m, 2500 h difference between inlets& outlets floor ar/animal 300/100 = 3 m outletar 0.087 x hfactor 0.57 = 0.05m2/head inlet ar doublethis = 0.1 m2/head Design procedures also available for bldg with single openings, eg open-fronted bldg, and slotted roofs (—+Bibl08). Type of ventilation opening can be chosen suit method of construction and size required. Simplest has continuous opening at eaves and open ridgeformed by omitting ridgecapping—(4). Mechventilation should notbeneeded ifnaturalventilation designed for in newworkorconversions. If required, provide capacityof 1.4 m3/h kg live weight= 0.39 I/s kg live weight. Design openings to provide inlet speed of0.5—1 rn/s.
Animal handling&veterinarysystems
Efficient handling systems essential for speedy and safe restriction of animals for veterinary, breeding or management purposes. Important elements ofcattle handlingand controlsystemsare shown—p299.
E S E '0 t0
S
0 1
Dimensionsoftractorwith fore-endloader&of forageself-emptywagon a
b hd,ffe(er'ceinIe&outlet
3 a arofridgeopeningasdetermined byweightofanimal &stocking density; bhfactorforcalculationofventilationopenings +24t
t/////////////Z '/,'2'
2
Turningspacesforfeedingmachinery
4
Open ridge:USA ventedridgepreferred
tff
8000 race
Industry
Farm buildings CATTLE
Animal handling(cont)
________
33°E1____ __________ 330[H____ 255El __________ l75:1 _____
torcingpen
IiII
Li
iii iiii iiIi '
I
it
I2I II Li
U
Isolation pens forveterinary treatment,disease diagnosisetcshould be provided. Pens (3000 x 6000) should be bedded: feed should be delivered totrough fromoutside pen; for dairy cows milking line should beinstalled. Drain separatelyfromother animal areas. Calving pens should be separate from main resting area; floor should be bedded; tractor access for mucking out required. Pen size 4000 x 4000adequate. Holding pens space requirements: beef cattle 0.95—1.4 m2/beast mm adult cattle 1.7m2/beast cows and cattle 1.85 m2/cow and calf
IiIi
IiLi
______________
:TT60
Forcing penleads fromcollecting pen to race;should befunnel-shaped and should hold not less than 12 cows plus calves or 15 adult cattle.
catwalk
crush & vetgates vet gates race
Single sided splay preferable, with 30 angle. Race(chute): 18mlong 680 wide internallyand 1 680 totop rail will hold 10—12 cattle. Catwalks should be provided on both sidesof race 760 above ground level and not less than 300wide.
—
crush J_______
J
3—way shedder
299
______
pen2 pen 3
Crush (squeeze chute): race terminatedbycrush which may be metal
proprietary make orconstructed in timber. Weighcratesometimes used ascrush. There should be goodaccess at bothsidesto head,neck, feet, underflanks and rear ofanimal. Crush should beunder cover with good daylight and artificial lightand provisionforhosing down whole area. Shedder gate: should be installed after crush wherever need to sort animals for weighing, separation for pregnancy, loading etc. Gates should be installed at far end of all holding pens allow recirculation of groups or individual animals. Dimensions of cattle handling systems —v(1), typical Iayout—*(2).
race
recircijlationalley catt race
1 Cattle handlingsystems: dimensions
Milking
In loose housing systems cows milked in parlour. Milking in cowsheds using bucket or pipeline not practised in new dairy units because of access
2
hygieneand high labour requirements both in milking and cleaningeqp. Examples oftypical milking parlours—v(3). Basic considerations which will determine type and size of milking parlour: max size of herd (allowing for future expansion) time allowance formilking (max2hours) max mean peakyield concentrate feeding policy use of dairy labour (1 or 2 men) capital available
Automatic cluster removal essential in 1-man operated rotary parlours toavoid serious overmilking ofcows. In UKsecondoperatorconsidered wasteful of labour since not fully occupied during milking. In USA second operator required forhandstripping.Selectingnumber ofmilking units complex matter: for advice consult local agricultural advisory service.
Cattle handling systems: typical layout
Design of parlour pit for operator should respect ergonomic limitations of operators. Location of milking jar should not hinderroutine tasks or obscure viewofcows.
3 Typesofmilkingparlour
abreast
hernngbone
r
I
LI
II
tandem
III
1 chule
tandem
''
300 Industry
Farm buildings CA1TLE length'A'
noof
Milking (cont)
Pit depth —(1 )(D) ideally 950 for tall milker, false floor being used for shortermilkers: compromise depth of750oftenused. Pit width—.(1 )(C) for2stalls/unit mm 1 515, for 1 stall/unit 1 515 mm for 1 operator and 1 828mm for 2operators.
cows
6 8 10 12 14
Use only high-level jars in pits less than 1 515 mm.
16
Parlour length —e(1)(A) 3050 + 500/rn standing.
20 22 24
18
Rotary pariourdimensions vary between individual manufacturersas well as with type and number of standing.—n(2) gives guide; use manufacturer'sdata fordetailed design. Collecting area: before milking cows moved from resting and feeding area tocollecting areanext milking parlour.Space allowancein collecting area should be 1.35 m2/cow, but 1.1 m2 usuallyadequate with straight herringbone parlours where initial batch of cows removed almost immediately. In rectangular yardswidth usually equal that of parlour. Cows should enter at farther end so that all movement in 1 direction. Circular yards make backing gate easier install: usually either full or three-quarter round. Capacityshould be coordinatedwith size of herd orgroup. When at grazing in summer herd maybegrouped differently or not atall.
6050 7050 8050 9050 10050 11050 12050 13050 14050 15050
Dairy: normally attached milking parlour reduce length of pipe runs. Should be sitedso that rear of milk tanker can be parked within 3000of door; adequate tanker turning space must be provided.900clear space should be left all round bulk milk tank(s) (mm 600). Space must be
provided for working and for eqp as required: washing troughs, water heater, cupboard, cleaning products etc. Ifexpansion of herd may take place space should beprovided for replacementoftank by largerone, or installationof second tank. 2600mm ceiling height may be required for use of tank dipstick. Wide external doorway (2000—2500) with no astragal should be provided for installationor replacementoftank. Tank capacity can be calculated by taking av daily yield and adding 40—50% to contain fluctuations and possible future yield increases. Alternatively, workfromfigures of 181 asdaily yield, to which 20% may be added to allow forall cows reaching peak yield at same time. Internal finish of dairy must be smooth and easily cleaned eg walls cementrendered and paintedwith chlorinated rubber or epoxy paint to height of at least 1 400; non-slip concrete floor draining to trapped gulley; rooflinedon underside ofjoistssothatitcanbekept freeof dust and cobwebs. Dairy must be lightand airy: windows one-tenth of floor area; opening windowsorventilators fly-proof; illuminationof 100 lx required. In USA reg require screened openings; lobbytype entryalso necessaryprevent flyspraymist contaminatinganimals' feed or utensils. Motor rm should be separate from dairy, area 3.5—4 m2. Provision for tractor pto to operate vacuum pump in power emergencies may be required. Office to accommodate table, wall charts etc should be sited with clear viewofparlour and area next to unit. Modern dairy unitshould have wc, changing rrn and rest rm for staff. Feeding: concentrate often fed in parlour from automatic dispenser, oftenfeed stored in loft over parlour. Sometimes bulk bin set outside and feedstransported to parlourbyauger. Footbath:provide forfootbathfarenough away from parlourexit prevent slow flow of cattle leaving parlour. In such situation footbath does not require to be more than 1 200 wide butto be effective should be at least 3000 in length and have drain outlet. Possiblearrangementof services in 120-cow dairy unit—*(3).
I
Herring-bonemilkingparlourdimensions type tandem tandem herringbone herringbone abreast abreast abreast
numberof standings approxdia (m) 16 12 18
7.6 13.5 7.0 9.2
14
6.1
20 30
7.7 11.4
8
2 Rotary milkingparlours: approxdia
3
Servicesin 120-cowunit
Industry 301
Farm buildings CAULE
:3
Bull pens
C
Pen can be sitednear collecting areasothat cows ontheirwaytomilking parlour may see bull. Stockman can thus observe cow behaviour and look formanifestation of heat' or readinessto mate. Feeding and watering of bull mustbecarried out from outsidepen. Wall, gatesand feedersmust beofsubstantialconstruction. Cowservice area should be incorporated within pen layout. Dry lying areashould slope to drain, usually raised by 50 from concrete floor and well bedded with straw or sawdust. Feeder should be provided with strong trapping yoke to restrain animal for routine veterinary treatment or restriction during cleaning. Refuge' must be installed ineach corner of pen—.(1). Tethering ringenables bulltethered independently ofyoke. Exercising yard (unroofed) oftenprovided next to bull pen (20—35 m2). Service pen should include foot rests to take weight of heavy bull especially when used with young heifers. Footrests are 2sloping timber ramps 225—300 wide, fitted to inside of pen walls. Length of rests approx1 500, height 530atrear to900 at cow'sshoulder. Typical layout and dimensions for twin bull pens —n(2).
External wastestorage
1
Slurry sto —ep295 304 requiredfor wastefrom scrapedareas in cubicle units oras extrasto for slatted units with shallow channels. Slurrysilos or tanks (above and below ground) lose moisture ony by evaporation. Dungsteads and middens designed drain off excess liquids and used for more solid waste, or help solidify semi-solid wastes(not used USA, where muck collectedbycontractors). Examples—n(3).
Bull pen refuge detail
Dairy cow housing Examples ofdairyunits—r(4).
2935
2 Bull pens:typical layout&dimensions
4
Dairyunits:typical layouts lagoon
dependson lagoon Capacity
310
IT
I
4—
channei\
\
,.f//fl/7
25
/////Z/ZZt7f///Zi/Z/////////
tank
3
spacing
Externalwastesto
ramp
//
flZ/ ///Z.
core
///////// / /
/110ramp
300
butylsheet
melden
(I)
302 Industry
Farm buildings Sucklercow housing
CATTLE
Beefcattle housing
Beef cattle normally housed in slatted, bedded or part-bedded pens, occasionally in cubicles. Linear plans usual, with pens arranged either side feeding passages. Pen depth determined by ratio of floor space —np294(5) 295(2) to feed trough length animal —.p297(2). Typicalplans
-a(1).
In some low rainfall areas possible house and fatten cattle in roofless unitson sheltered sitesorwith sheltered wall. These units have slatted pens or sometimes cubicles. Slurry sf0 must have additional capacity for rain falling on unit. Ifentiremale cattle (bull beef) kept pens must berobust with divisions at least1 600high: cubicles should notbeused. For safety ofstockmen all fittings, eg waterbowls, should be accessible from outside pens and goodanimal handling and loadingarrangements(race (chute) etc) must be provided: example of bull beef housing —.(2).
NB: beef cattle not normally housed in USA apart from loafing barns—.(6)
Calf production from suckler cows usuallyrelies onsmall, early maturing cow,well adaptedsevere environments.Provisionofcalf creep (nursery) pens (where calves receive food without competition from cows and rest)major design point of difference fromother formofbeefhousing. Cows housed in cubicles, bedded pens or slatted pens. In slatted pens allow 2.5—3 rn2/cow. Cowareas communicate with calf creep pens by creep gate through which only calvescan pass.Creep pens dimensioned according avsizeof calf, which depends on calving date—o(3). Should be visual contact between cows and calves in creep; inspection of and access to creep pen for supervision, feeding, cleaning waterbowls and mucking out (in bedded pens) should be good. Provide 1 waterdrinkerforevery12 calves.
If cows tocalve indoors, provide separate calvingarea, preferably straw bedded pen. Typical arrangements of suckler cow housing—.(4).
Calf housing
General arrangement of calf housing units—.(5).
e I,
tM14
126
3000
5400
4
I
1....
i,
36
_____
Beef housingunits:typical layouts
1
Vslattedpens creep
j
'L
I
J J
J
I cainp pen
4 Suckler cow bldg: typical layout
2
Bull beet unit layout
calvingdate
bedded pen (m2/calf)
slattedcreeppen (rn/calf)
springcalving continuouscalving
1.1 1.4
autumn calving
1.7
1.0 1.2 1.4
3 Sizes ofcalf creeppens
385 space
kiI
1f,anei r 6
Loafingbarn
5
Calf housingunits:layout
81
— tractoraccess
.1•
Industry
303
Farm buildings Thermalrequirements
Outside thermoneutral range of tempanimals either too hot, or will be wasting feed keeping warm because too cold. Thermoneutral range of different classes of pigs depends on level offeeding, type offlooring, number of pigs/pen and air velocity. —(1) shows ambient air temp related to 3 floor types, 3 times maintenance level of feeding and air velocity not exceeding 0.15 m/s. Thermoneutral zone of sows pregnant for 112 days, live weight of 140 kg undersame conditions as above: 11—25° for thin and 7—25° for fat animals. Pigs on low feeding levels should be kept at2—3°C higher airtemp than thoseon high levels. —*(2) shows relationshipsbetween feed,floorand mm airtempfor65 kg pigs. Thermalinsulation—p393—4
Animal dimensions
—°(3) givesbodydimensions ofdifferent classes ofpigs.
Behaviour:buildingimplication
Eliminatory: pigs defecate in discriminatory fashion,iewithin selected area usually determinedby location of water drinkers —p304. Every pig
tends defecate in own area within eliminatory zone. Important allow enough space ineliminatory zone, sothat atleast3pigs maydefecate at same time. Should less space be given likelythat some excreta will be deposited elsewhere, eqin lying orfeeding area.
Sexual: newly weaned sows should be housed near boar in orderto encourage sexual behaviour. Partition between sows and boar should be perforated, allowing visual and bodily contact.
Resting, eating & general movements: piglets spend approx 10— 20% of time suckling (15—25 times/day). Fattening pigs on dry ad/lb rations spend 5% of time feeding (8—12 times/day). On wet feeding only 3% of time spent at trough (4—8 times/day). In general fatteners (75 kg) would spend 80—85%of time lying, 15—17% moving about in pen, 3—5%eating. Abnormal behaviour: aggression amongst growing pigs manifested bytailand earbiting, sometimescannibalism.Savagingmore predominant among adult sows. Bldg designer can influence behaviour pattern by changes in stocking rate, group size or housing systems. Abnormal behaviour can be also caused by nutritional factors, genetic susceptibility, disease states, teething problems etc.
floor type
thermoneutralrange(°C) forvarious live weights(kg)
concrete perforated bedded
34—5 31—5 30—5
1.5
20 17—30 16—30 10—30
40
60
age atfirst parturition litters/sow/year number/litter born alive number/litter at 3 weeks avweightof piglet at 3 weeks number ofpigletsstillalive at 8 weeks avweightat 8 weeks total weight ofweaned pigs/sow/year farrowing index = daysbetween birth of 1 litter & next limit to larrowing index national avof farrowing index 10% ofUK producers with farrowing index length of lactation = anytime upto85 days
403days 2.0 10.5 9.0
5.9 kg 8.7 18.2 kg
300kg
133 days 195 days 230 days
pigsfattened as 40—90 kg porkers baconers 90 kg heavy hogs 120kg; USA 147—180 kg
Illumination Keep pigs in dim light: but at least 5 lux —4p25 should be provided for management and servicing tasks.
Feeding systems
Pig can be fed wet or dry meal either in ad/lb or rationed form. Typical systems shown in following scheme: ,bags—hoppers---trough ry m wheelbarrow—+handscoop—trough automatic conveyor—÷hoppers-—trough "automatic conveyor—+hopper/dispenser-—*floor Trough-{ 1automaticpiped—*trough tank—.trough meaLm0be closecircuit communaltrough "(river feeding)
ea\
/
et
\
Waterconsumption Adequate supplies of fresh water should be available at all times.
Following waterallowances should begiven: Growing pigs il/dayat15kg liveweightincreasingto51/dayat 90 kg liveweight sows non-pregnant 51/day sowspregnant 5—8 I/day sows lactating 15—201/day 2 days sto ofwatershould be providedto ensure continuity ofsupply in emergencies.
animal
1(m)
w(m) h(m) rumpto
approx weight(kg)
breed
shoulder(m)
100
boar
1.95
0.32
0.85
1.1
135
Iargewhite
13—29 13—29
11—29 12—29
10—28 11—28
sow
1.5
0.75 0.85
1.1
135
landrace
1.85
0.35 0.4
1.2
158
largewhite
7—29
5—29
4—28
fattener
1.28
0.3
0.7
0.95
77
largewhite
weaner
0.9
0.2
0.42
0.7
50
0.72
0.17
0.33
0.58
40
largewhite 13 weeksold argewhite 11 weeksold
0.4
0.09
0.22
0.23
1 Thermoneutralzoneofpigs
piglet 3
2
:3
Pig husbandrydata-check list:
PIGS: BASIC DATA
Feed—floor —airtemprelationships for65kgpig
Approx pig sizes
2.5
7daysold
a(n
304 Industry
Farm buildings but also sawdust, peat, woodshavings etc, to faeces and urine. In general housing systems based on solid waste (farmyard manure) demand more labour for bedding tasks but no problems should occur where access, sto areaand run offdrain properly designed.
PIGS: BASICDATA (cant) Watering
Forvarious typesof drinkers and theirrespective water wastage—*(1). There should be 2 drinkers/pen in case 1 gets blocked. In general 1 drinker/6 pigs required. Bowl type drinkers should be sited where
Bedded systems
Straw bedding oftenused for pregnant sows (1.0 kg/day), boars and weaners (500 g/day) Bedded pensshould be at least3000wide.All internal partitionsshould be removable to allow tractor access for mucking out. Floors should be sloped 1:20 towards drain leading to sumpat side of bldg accessible for slurrytanker. Some bedded unitshave chain and paddle manure conveyor including loading elevator at one gable end. Manure removed twiceweeklyinto muck spreader and then tofieldsor sto(not usualinUSA).
faeces contaminationminimised.Pig-operatedflapscan be used prevent contamination. Variation on trough drinker sometimes used: 50—75 pvc pipe set in raised concrete floor and top cut open, discharging water into shaped concrete within concrete floor: water supply controlled with ballcock valvelocated atbeginning of line.
PIGS: WASTE
Wasteproduction
Slurrysystems
Pigs fed dry meal with adfib water produce quantities ofwaste asgiven
Pigs housed on perforated floors, eg slats, expanded metal ormesh; or dunging area onlyeither perforated orregularly scraped toholding tank. Faeces and urinestored inchannels below perforated floors. Channels emptied eithercontinuously oronce in 3months intoexternal slurrysto. Channels emptied periodically have sluice gateand receiving pit. Flushing system where liquid fraction of slurry pumped into tipping buckets holding several hundred I sometimes used. Flowremoves solid faeces and feed residuals intoexternal sto. Some slurrychannels have sump at end directly emptied with vacuum tanker. This system not recommended as oftendifficult remove solid sedimented at far end of channel. Continuous emptying ofslurry channels intoexternal storelies on hydrostatic pressure gradient which causes slurryto slide over lip into pit. Only narrow (1 000) channels not longer than 20 m should be used. Depth determined fromequation given —(4).
Wastehandlingsystems Typicalsystems —(3). Solidwastes produced byadditions of bedding material, usually straw, type ofdrinker
% of waterwastage
indirectnipple (bite type) directlyoperatednipple bowl
46 56 6 12
trough
animal
live
weight kg 15
piglet
weaner growing—finishing growing—finishing boar
Waterwastageof drinkers waste produced kg/day 1.04 1.9
30 70 90
4.4 5.8 4.03
125 170 160
drysow sow&litter
1
2
Waste (urine & faeces)producedby pigs
14.9
4.9
4
Continuousoverflowslurrychannel
y 1 6 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 38 1 1: 51 22 < slurry handlingsystem
lending system
I
a
I
c
b
d
e
I
g
S
3
7(Th
24
40
15
I
feeders Illliquidfeedingfronr fendingsystems: dry feedingon floor IIdryfeecting fromautomatic trough&bowls dry feedingfrombowls Vdry feeditrg fromtroughs
iv
3
Typicalwastehandling &feedingsystems
manureremovalsystems a partfyslattedIloor overslurry channelbdoabledungnigpassages with sohdfloors ccentraidungung passagewithsolidfloor dservicepassageovercentralscraper channel epartlyslattedfloor(gaps:251 overcentralscraperchannel partlyslattedfloor (gaps: 25>over sidescraperchamels 9partlyslatted floor (ranied 100>oversidechannels hpartly slatted fkjor(raised 100>over centralscraperchanrid
I
Industry 305
Farm buildings Sow & boarhousing
PIGS: MANAGEMENT Ventilation Forced orfan ventilation should be designed according to mm and max ventilation rate required, inlet air speed and subsequent air jet and air distribution pattern withinbldg. Free airoutput offans can be found from manufacturers' data sheets. Allowance should be made for resistance of ventilation ducts, usually 0.5—0.7 of their free air output. Inlet air speed or jets can be used to determine air movement within house: specialised technique and assistanceofspecialist should be sought. Pressurised systems usually blow air into roof space and use false ceiling ofglassfibresupported on netting foreven distribution ofair. Air outlet often below slat level thus removing most air pollutants. In air extraction systems fans housed in central shafts terminating above apex or alternatively in side walls suitably baffled and terminated in neutral pressure area to minimise effect of wind. Location, area and numberof air inletswill determine air distribution and air velocities in bldg. Manufacturersoffans who specialisein animal housingapplications oftenprovide design assistance. ventilation rateshould be0.000052 m3/s per kg liveweight, summer ventilation rate 0.0003 12 m3/s per kg of live weight. Max airvelocity at pig level to be 150—200rn/s. Mm
—(3)(4) showexamples ofdry sow housing and service bldg. Sow stalls: w: 600—650 (if divisions open to 150 above floor level) or 700—750 (if divisions solid fromfloorlevel) I: 2000, with orwithout trough according todesign h: 900 gate forentryand exit ofsow: usuallyat rear floor:rear halfusually slatted. Boarpens: should extend to at least9 m2; 1 side of pen should be approx 2500 long; divisions should bevertical tubular railing 1 400 high, allowingboar observe other animals and general activities within bldg; vertical arrangement of railing prevents boars from climbing and jumping on to divisions. Farrowing: —a(5) shows farrowing crate and creep area for piglets. Function of farrowing crate prevent piglets from getting injured orcrushed bysow. Creep for piglets ofupto5weeks ofage should be 1.3m2 mm and from 5 to 8 weeks 1.75 m2. Mostof farrowing accn designed for weaning of piglets at5weeks ofage. Approx 1.0m2ofcreep areashould beheated. Farrowing house —*(6).
Withnatural ventilation systems air inlet area should betwice as largeas air outletarea. Air outletcan be either open ridgeor several chimneytypeextractors withflatcapping. Air enters through baffled inlets round wall, at least 1 000 above pigs. Ventilation extraction area should be 3.6 cm2/kg live weight. Air inlet area should be 7.2 cm2/kg live weight. Typical ventilation systems—(1).
Handling
Pigs, particularly fatteners, regularly weighed, usually by mobile crate/
weigherin feed passage. Some arrangements have permanentservice
area for weighing, cleansingand veterinary tasks with holding area. Pig movement should be controllableby 1 man.
I
Pigs canwalkthrough 600 widepassage.With 700 baconerswill be able turnaround. Mature sows and boars require 1250—1 450wide passages to turn round. Corners should be wider (900).Wherever pigs, particularly sows, required reverse round corners passageshould be increased by 300—.(2). For loading and unloading into animal road transporters provide ramp (1:7) with battens or deepgrooves toprevent slipping.
30.5
3500 250
4
I
r
Dry sow housewith boarpens&food sto
0
3
heated
Cr]_, ii
LJ 1
600
950
U
Typicalventilationsystemsforpig housingunits
j
1200
2750
5
Fan-owing pens:dimensions&layout
I I
-•
JiHHI
HI iii HI
I
11.6
ih111I 4200
1450
2 wofpassagesforsows
3
Drysow housewithboarpens
6
Farrowinghouse
11.6
C
(I)
306
Industry
Farm buildings liveweightkg
totalarm2 daily consumption of beddingkg
10—30 30—90
0.75
Group size & pen shape
0.3 0.5 1.2
11
sows
PIGS: REARING& FATTENING
2.5
Formation of stable social hierarchydesirable. Fattenerson ad/lb floor feeding should be kept in groupsof 15—20. Pigs lying down should coverfloor area, so that excreta will be deposited elsewhere (dunging area). With part-solid, part-slattedfloors, pen should be twice as long as widewithapprox900 wide slatted dunging area.
Individualspaceallowances &strawconsumption
1
08
c
Troughspace B
07 O
o 0, 04 6
2
..
— .—. .—-..-D .—- .—.. -_ —.. —-
.—
-.....
03
.... —.
02
.—
.—
Trough space/pig for ad lib feeding should be 100 and for rationed feeding300.
Spatial requirements
—.(1) shows individual space allowances for bedded systems, ie total floor areadividedbynumber ofanimals occupying it;—.(2)shows space allowances for systems with solidfloorand slatted dunging area. —.(3)(4)showexamples of rearing and fattening houses.
,
01
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00 110 20 130 140 (kg) IveweiglrI
coverage 01 floor A oplimuni tourcoverageby 5019pigsitattenersi12-18 caIrtemp. B loose aboveabove26 c
c& duringsummertempup1026c 0:floorcoveragebelow 12 c 12—18
ett
c floorcoveragedurrngtemp
note dunqlngarentraat0 15—02 rn'/pg
2
I
Spaceallowancesforfatteningpigs
a
1
___k1 leedpassage
I
200k
1800
1000
l500
1800
000 j)
00
.
01L
3000
2O0,
[IHili 1100 1100 1200
1200
3
Rearingaccn
4
__L20 __ tng
4
wallsto _— ceIlIng --.-,
Fatteninghouseforpigs
ar _________
6000
4900 ________
6000
an Outlet
Industry 307
Farm buildings SHEEP
Feeding
Housing ofsheep prevents poachingofland, allows better management and labour use, can lead toincreased stocking rate on land, may release pasture for cropping and can reduce lamb mortality during lambing period.These potential benefits are offsetby high cost of housing as well as costof providing additionalfeed.
Space requirements
Individual floor space allowances forsheep —v(1).
Solid floor Sheephoused on bedded floor seem to have more foottroubles than those kept on timber slatted floors. Solid floor should be well drained consolidated hardcore with 150 ofstraw.
Hayracks and concentrate troughs required. —v(3) shows recommended trough length. Simplewooden trough with hayrack —÷(4) sufficient.
Water Sheep prefer running fresh water. This can be provided by trough equipped with overflow to drain: 600 x 300 water trough surface sufficientfor up to80ewes.
Ventilation Natural ventilation system based on 450 open ridge and 1200 deep spaceboarding with 100 boards and 25 gaps satisfactory. Sheep in open-fronted bldg can be protected bystraw bales.
Illumination
Slatted floor
Pressure treated timber slats rangefrom63 x 32to38 x 25with 20gap forlarger sheep and 16gap forsmallerbreeds. Slatsusually arrangedin removable floorsections 1200 x 2400. Slattedpanelscanbesupported on dry blocks for easy removal and so allow easy tractor access for mucking out. Floor panel joists 75 x 50should besplayed foreasierself cleaning and set at 450 centres. Depth of500 issufficient for 1 housing season waste sf0.
Illumination of20 lx—.vp25 required during lambingperiod.
Feedstorage
Feed sto area at gable end or close by should be provided to minimise handling time.
Sheep housing
Example ofslatted pole barn type sheephouse for 320 ewes—v(5).
Layout
Ewes preferlamb in groups rather than individual pens. Creep area for lambs after lambing can be provided. Feeding should be carried out in pen passages. —v(2) shows 2typical layouts. spaceallotment
type
largeewe (68—70kg) largeewe&lamb smallewe (45—69kg) smallewe&lamb ewe hogg
(m2)
slatted floor
solid floor
0.95—1.1 1.2—1.7 0.75—0.95 1.0—1.4 0.45—0.75
1.2—1.4 1.4—1.85 1.0—1.3 1.3—1.75 0.65—0.95
Floor spaceforsheep
1
4 Dutchbarn
Troughforfeeding hay&concentrate
polebarn
675
.1'
slaa spaceboarding
ding 9500 1600
i
—
frOugh
a
— I I
//
I
individualpens
2
Typicallayoutsforsheephousing
typeofsheep
trough1*
largeewes smallewes
475—500 375—425 350—400
hoggs
4800
1200 1 L
4800
4800
21.6
*
onself-feed silage100—250 adequate for allsheep
3
Recommendedtrough I
5
Slattedpolebarn sheephousefor320 ewes
12
4
308
Industry
Farm buildings SHEEP (cont)
j 46O
5000
900
1staggeredshedding(spieer)gates
[th deco
--_________
8 anti-wavegroove
thu1?ifi 3bath controlisland
ft
-Jllffii
—
dimensions
0
E F A B C 0 610 1168 381 2743 1219 305 686 1168 381 2743 1219 305 686 1245 381 3200 1372 229
955 1090 1365
Sheep handling
Sheepshedder
Handling eqp usually constructed from 950 high, 125 x 125 timber posts set at 1 500 centres with either complete dressed boarded sides or4 x 100 wide timberrails. Should consist of following:
(splitter)
1800 2100
appros capacityQ)
2
1
holdingpen: spaceallowance/eweand lamb 0.65 m2
shedder (splitter): width 460 and length 3000—5000; should have 2 A
staggered gates —v(1).
Sheep dip
Sheep dip bath and swim-around dipper often used when sheep enter bath on side-slideprinciple and walkout on ramp. —v(2) shows dimensionsand layout of such dips.
Drainingpen
2draining pens required side by side with shedding entryand guillotine exit gates —v(3).
Forcingpen
2 forcing pens or circular pen leading to dip with exit shedder gate
Sheepdip
required. Forcing pen usually8000 long and 900 wide with solid sides.
6700
Footbath race(trough)
Footbath race should be 10—12 m long, 900 wide at top and 350 wide at bottom —v(4). Typical layout for handling 200 ewes and lambs —a(S).
3
4
Sheepdrainingpen
/
-I
/_
drattingpen pens
taading pen
race& tootbath holdingpes
5
Sheepfootbathrace
-
Typicalsheephandling layout
POULTRYHOUSING Poultry houses should be well insulated (0.6 W/m2°C), equipped with fan ventilation, feeding,watering and mechanicalwasteremovalsystems. Deeplifterhouses suitable foralldomestic fowl. Layers normally kept in cages. .—a(6)shows typical designs for poultry houses.
Light requirements
Light levels of 0—20 lx —ap25 required; for most poultry control eqp for manipulation of artificialday length required.
Ventilationrates category
pertorated
f 6
-7600
pullets&hens
1.2 2.5 3.5
broilers
0.05 0.9 1.8
tkrorhosse
22
Typicaldesignsofpoultryhouses turkeys tan
naturalventilation eatractventilationsystem gabletan pertorated pvcdad
pentorated cmimg
_1'"<11_ .t"lii(k
orate __________ __________ outlet
7
Typicalventilationsystems, poultryhouses
weight max rate mm rate nit/h bird rr?/h bird kg
0.5
2.0 5.0 11.0
10 14 15
0.8—1.3 1.5 2 0.1
0.8 10 14
12
6 12 15 27
0.7
1.7
12 1.5
2.7
Ventilation systems &controls
Poultry house ventilation systems consist of light-prooted airinlets, air
distribution, outlets, fans and controlgear.—a(7) shows typical ventilation arrangements.
Industry
309
Farm buildings POULTRY
Space requirements: hens
a-
deeplitter
0)
system
density(live weightper unitof floor ar)
qualifications
rearing birdsfor laying (age 16—20 weeks)
19.5kg/rn2
floor artoincludethat occupied byfeeding&wateringeqp
upto3.2kg liveweight over 3.2 kg live weight
14.7kg/rn21 17.1 kg/rn2J
floor artoincludethat occupied byfeeding&wateringeqp
broilerproduction units
34.2 kg/rn2
floorartoincludethat occupied byfeeding&wateringeqp
system
density(liveweightper unitof floor ar)
qualifications
rearingbirdsfor laying
39.1 kg/rn2
densityrelates to cage floor ar
adult batterybirds 3or more lightweightbirds/cage 3or more heavierbirds/cage 2birds/cage singlebird cages
39.1 kg/rn2 44 kg/rn2 29.3 kg/rn2 19.5kg/rn2
densitiesrelateto cagefloor ar: rnintroughspace 100/bird
system
density(liveweightper unitof floor ar)
qualifications
rearingbirds forlaying
9.8 kg/rn2
floorarto includethatoccupied byfeeding& watering eqp
layingbirds
8.3 kg/rn2
floorarto includethatoccupied byfeeding& watering eqp
laying birds
cages
strawyards
Space requirements: turkeys rearing system
density(liveweightper unitof floor ar)
qualifications
broiler-typehousing
39.1 kg/rn2
floorartoincludeany aroccupied byfeeding&wateringeqp
tierbrooders
19.5kg/rn2
carry-oncages, hayboxes raisedonwire orslats,
34.2 kg/rn2
verandahs
pole barns
24.4 kg/rn2
enclosedrange ar
10m2/bird (987birds/ha)
floorartoincludeany aroccupied byfeeding&watering eqp
breeding density(liveweightper unit of floor ar)
system
on floors hens kept for insemination, hens 19.5kg/rn2 &maleskept togetherfor natural mating
maleskeptforartificial
qualifications
floor arto excludeanyfloor nest boxesbutto includeallothereqp
0.84 rn2/bird
insemination
in cages
29.3 kg/rn2 0.84 rn2/bird
hens males
in enclosed
range ar
16.7 rn2/bird (617 birds/ha)
hensshouldbe housed individually
310 Industry
Farm buildings SMALLDOMESTICANIMALS:DOVES
hayracksshould notexceed 20.Metal orceramictroughs used forwater and grain concentrate: should be fixedto prevent overturning. Trough
Specification
frontage 50—60/rabbitsufficient.
space requirements 0.4—0.5m2/pair dry and clean protected fromexcessive sunshine, windand rain safe from predators demountable forcleaning goodaccess for keeper
Pens
Location
Fur rabbits often kept in pens (2 m2/pair) constructed fromgalvanised netting —÷(3). Side netting should be sunk about500 belowground level to prevent rabbits from burrowing out. Pens should have sidesabout 600 high and be covered over with netting. At 1 corner of pen box consisting of 2 compartmentsforfeeding and nesting.In some instances penscan beraised 800above ground.
on SE-E facing wall, usually underprojecting eaves behind perimeter walland in roofspaces.
DOGS
Construction Dressed T&G boardingwith waterproofroof, internally2compartments, 40 wide top for roosting. Floor level 100 below entrance to prevent young fromfalling out. —(1) shows layout and dimensions ofdovecots. 1 with nest. Partition between compartments with
RABBITS
Spacerequirements breed
spacear
small
medium
0.56 0.72
large
1.2
Domestic kennels should be roomy enough allow dog stand upand turn round. Construction usually dressed timberwith waterproofroofing, eg roofing felt. Kennel should be demountable for easy cleaning. Floor should be raised 60—100 above ground level, often bedded with straw or wood shavings. Floor and roof can project in front of entrance, forming sheltered lying area. —.(4) shows typical design for medium sizedog. Professionalkennels—*p31 1
SMALL POULTRYHOUSES
hofcage
Poultry houses for layers should be situated in sheltered locations surrounded by fenced area allowing 15—20 m2/layer.
500 550 650
Design ofcages
Depth should be 800 for easy cleaning or catching rabbits. Cages usually arranged in 3tiers, raised fromground level by 150. Single tier cages should be800above ground level. Height oftop floorshould not exceed 1600. Floorshould beslattedwithtimberslats,30wide with 10gap: waste collected on sloped floor underneath, urine stored in collecting tank or bucket. —(2) shows details of 2-tier rabbit cages. Cages for nesting should have front half of floor area solid. Frame and walls of rabbit cages usually dressed timberprotected with timber preservative. Felted roofshould have good overhangsforweatherand sun protection.
Feeders & waterdrinkers Hay racks with small trough below usually fixed on front gates but should not occupymore than 1/3 of gate area to maintain good lighting and ventilation. To prevent young escaping gaps between wiresand
Internal space of 1 m2 sufficient for 3—4 layers. Volume of 0.65 m3 should beprovided per hen, with at least200 oflinear space on roosting rail. Rail should besituated about 1 600 high with gaps between rails of 400. Below roosting rail is waste collecting board which is periodically cleaned. Nests should be 300 wide and 350 deep; often located in groups along wall. Nests bedded with straw; if production control required, folding, self-trapping flapsfitted tonests
Feeders &waterdrinkers Hoppers or feedingtroughs with wire above trough to prevent hens
defecating into feed. Drinkers usually heavy containers 400 high with rail round.
Construction Hen houses oftentimber-built with felted roof and resting on concrete base with DPC throughout. Structure should be insulated; provide proper opening for air inlet and outlet for natural ventilation. Typical layout and dimensions ofsmall poultry house —.(5). .—\
k
i
hay
'IS
II
_______ ________
S
j
2000
550
______
Ji, 1000
hay
Layoutofdovecots
Ing
art)
I
Li
4
td 850
Dog kennels
840
4
L_J°° 1
1000
3
2 Tierrabbitcages
f
sheltered
______
I
__j
bed
S Smallpoultryhouse
pen
water
Furrabbitcages
Industry
311
Farm buildings KENNELS
concreteblock
Professional kennels include sleeping quarters in conjunction with adequate exercise runs. Area of individual runs varies according to breedand size of dog. Where individual independentdog housesused in each run construction should be wood with demountable roof (centre-hinged if large) for sanitary purposes. Floor should bewood mm 75 above ground with full ventilation between ground and floor. Burlap bags provide washable bedding and may be stuffed with cedar wood shavings for severe weather protection. Dog house entrance should be baffled against directwind draughts and driving rain, snow. Kennels with common shelter bldg, perhaps incorporating grooming and minor med services can be constructed economically of concrete blockwith poured concrete floor, which should be sloped to gutter and drain, providing easy wash down. Wood pallets with loose washable rugs serve as beds in eachenclosure—n(1 )(2). Fencing for exercise runs mm 1680 high should be fully fenced across top unless sides 8440 high. Gravelsurfacepreferedforruns but concrete more easilymaintained and offers better sanitation. All exercise runs should have full man gate with patentedkennel hardware. Mm run 1 070 wide and 3050 long. Food and water dishes stainless seamless steel mounted on runfencing with steel bands.
_______
}(}4 .
run
fUfl
1220
run
run run
t
run
run •
tredraln
gutter
__________________________________________________________
Layoutplanofkennelswithcommonshelterbldg
;IH
__________________________
___________________________
4__ Lj4I
2 Kennelswith commonshelterbldg aelevation
bsection
7000 1L
°hy — '
workbench
DUCKS
§
]
______
I
_______
Sb
ru
extrac/_lJ
_______________
__________________________________________________________
3 Layoutofsto&honeyprocessing rmforup to 100 beecolonies __________________________________________________________
i
GEESE Design similar to houses forducks: space allowance of 0.4 m2/goose required. Floor should be sloped to drain, damp-proofed and lightly bedded. Nests should be 600 x 650 and nest partitions 300 high. Entrance should be 500 x 500 equipped with doors orcurtain. Layout and dimensions of goose house for 30 geese or 3 geese and young
run
I
concretewalk
honeynpening &bottling
x
run
..
* ittgatesoperatebyinteriormechanism
Example of timberbeehouse set on stoneor concrete foundations for small bee-keeper —(4). Beehouse could be insulated for operator comfort.
Ducks sleep on floorswhichshould be dryand sloped todrain foreasy cleaning. Floor should be damp-proofed, lightly bedded with straw and open drain covered with timber slats 40 wide with 20 gaps. Space allowance of 1 m2 required for 3—4 ducks: 1 duckhouse should house nomore than 20ducks and 4drakes. Entranceintohouse should be300 wide and 400 high. Ducks must have accessto water. Nests should be 450 450 with 300 high partitions and placedonfloorwith no bottom so that ducks do not damage eggs as they enter nest. Good natural ventilation and lighting required. Water trough should be located near slatted drain. Structure maybe insulated.Typical layoutand dimensions of duck house—n(S).
fioorriraunU
!
Iift
_____
Though bees normally kept in hives beehouses equipped with sto and honey extraction and bottling rm sometimes constructed. In general 30 and more bee colonies would justify provision of sto and processing area. Sto area3000 x 4000should benext tocovered loadingentrance or patio. Honey processing area (6000 x 7000) should have outside door. Layoutofworksurfaces—n(3).
4
2700
6300
—/
I I I
nests I
I
3000
5
JlOOO
2300
Beehotisefor20beecolonies
sleepingar
Housefor30geese
LI IT[1d09
gutter
BEEHOUSES
6
sto I
I
Housefor20ducks
—
312 Industry
Farm buildings: crop storage GRASS
Towersilos
Glass coated steelorconcrete,hermeticallysealed sto torshortchopped (10—12) wilted grass (35—50% moisture content). Rapid tilling and emptying possible using blower-loader, cutter unloader, auger and delivery conveyor belt. Av density ot silage 1.2 m3/t. Estimated losses 10—15%. Silo dimensions vary from 5500—9000 dia and 12 to 21 m height. Site requirements: adequate soil load-bearing capacity, space for dump-box, access for tilling and turning of tractors, trailers and elevator loaders. Animal handling, feeding and waste removal should not be affected by tower filling operating. Space for future expansion may berequired.
Clamp silos
Usually openconcrete pools withdrainage ofslurry liquor topitholding 150 I/f of silage. Walls capable of withstanding lateral pressures of unwilted shortorlong cutgrass. Lateralwallsofrailwaysleepers (orties) held by vertical steel shores or columns, mass reinforced concrete or sloped timber. Detailed designs should be by structural engineer. Cut grass deposited onconcrete apron stackedwith tractor mountedloaders and compacted by tractor: compacted density 1.1 m3/t. Silage depth 2000for self-fed cattle upto3500fortractor cut-and-cart to cattle.—u(1) shows examples ofopenclamp and towersilos.
STRAW Baled straw avvolume 1.4m3/t; bales 1 000 x 600 x 500 weight 22—27 kg.Simple open-sided Dutch barns with dry floors positioned near livestock bldg with vehicular access adequate. Sometimes bale stacks orroundbig bales leftoutside. Loosestraw can be blown into barnswith space-boarded open sides. Mechanisation of handling difficult: av volume of loose straw 23 m3/t.
taneous combustion. Mechanisation of hay feeding difficult unless chopped, driedand ted as processed teed with other components of ration. Barndrying: cold or hot air reducing moisture to 20% used to ensure good quality hay during rainy weather. Hay in bales or blown loose stacked on wooden slats ormesh over main and lateralair ducts (600 x 800). Overall height ofdriedhayupto 3500in barnswith space boarded sides.
POTATOES
Bulk store
Bldg usually portal frame, 4800toeaves, insulatedto 0.5W/m2 °C with thrust-resistant wallsforbulk sto. Concrete floor with DPCstrong enough support heavy vehicles; doors normally sliding, insulated (4500 x 4500) with personnel door. Ventilation system based on under-floor lateral ducts(350 x 350) at2000centres running at right angles to main air ducts. 75thick spaced timber slats used to coverducts. Surface 'A' frameducts cheaper but inconvenientduring unloading.Fanstosupply air flow of0.02 m3/s pert stored including mixing chamber for recirculation and thermostatic control system required. Bulk sf0 volume 1.5 m3/t; height up to4000.
Pallet box store Suitable for sf0 of different
lots, varieties or seed crop potatoes. If potatoes harvested directintoboxes less handlingdamage totubers. Bldg specification similar bulk sf0 but6000hightoeaves and of narrower span. Because nothrust on walls, timber frames and panels oftenused. Ventilation based onfloor level ducts forair distribution and extractfans located at 1 gable end opposite air intakefan. Recirculation duct required to maintainair recirculationduring periods oflowventilation rate: usually of plywood suspended from ridge, fitted with adjustable apertures. Ventilation rate of 0.01 m3/s per stored adequate. Pallet box 1 200 x 1 800 x 900deepwill hold Boxes often stacked 6deep. Allow 3000 freefloorspace at 1 gable end.
it.
HAY Bale sizessimilarto straw. Av volume 9 m3/t; loose hay 12 m3/t. Dutch barn or pvc heavy duty sheeting required protect hay from rain. Good ventilation and moisture content below 2S% required prevent spon-
..eutemaichute
f
Goodsf0 management required to minimise:
bacterial rot& loss of colour moisture loss loss due tosprouting loss ofcooking qualify, and to prevent frostdamage —u(2) shows examples of bldg forbulkand pallet methods of sf0.
topcutter—auger
recircuiation
unioader
conveyorbeft
§
j .11
biower ioad
: 1
E
8 0 Ca
".>_siiaeiiuortank tO—40m
TI 1
Tower &openclampsilos
I
1
I
2
Bulk &pallet boxpotatosf0 bldg
4i2.O
+
Industry
313
Farm buildings: crop storage GRAIN top [conveyor
lop conveyor
evator
I
I
elevatoi L_
—
1 1
—r
outlets
-,
--
[T
n
portabie augerin tube
S
h1
_______________________
bottom conveyor(in trench:binoutletsover) longitudinalsections (alternativegrainflow)
top conveyorwith outletstoeachbin
trench
squarebins
square bins
Layoutsforgrainsto bins nomial mm
3000x3000
,
4500 high; slotted metal floor over plenum chamber approx600 deep (special slots canblowairtoliftgrain withoutmanual workintobottom conveyor)connected tofan rm(eloroil fired) by airduct, usually combined with bottom conveyor. Some circular bins have perforated sidesand central plenum vertical duct of < 1 000 dia —v(3). (ii) predrying: mostly by continuous floworbatch driers (el or oilfired) for < 10 t/hr. Former may need 10000 x 3000 x 2500 high plus perimeter access and Iatter3000 x 2500 x 4000 high. Intakepit—v(4) (from bulk tanker truck) slopes to elevatorwhich raises wet grainto drier (possibly through pre-cleaner) and/or to sto. Work space for drierand eqp may need 80—lOOm2. Elevator will need 2000abovetop conveyor, probably as penthouse (vented). Driers need dust extract pipe(s); intake doors should be 3500 x 4500high. (iii) refrigerated: betterquality ifgrain kept at 4.4cCbymeansofcoldair blown through bulk or bin sf0. Most layouts similar to warm airdrying: some have lateralducts at 3000centreswith external mobile refrigerator/ blower connected to each in turn.
—v(2) (more normally predried)
i) trench
blower-auger or overhead conveyor and emptied by portable auger; uninsulated roof; small gable vents; artificial lighting; doors 3700 x 3700. (ii) bins: (mostly for small quantities orvery mechanised units) —(1), square or circular thrust-resistant steel ortimbersides seton3500grid and 3800 high; usually bins support roof; filled byconveyor under ridge, emptied by gravity and shovel into below ground conveyor or by floor sloped at35°. (iii) hermetically sealed bins: using glass-fused steel or reinforced 9 dia x 12 m plastics rings for wet grainof 25% moisture content; high (sometimes 18 m); reinforced waterproof concrete base; filled by blower throughtop dome, emptied by bottom outletauger.
Drying (i) insitu: forbulk, in principle generally asforpotatoes —vp3l 2; for bins
bottomconveyorin trenchorlunne crosssections(binsmay nothavesloped floors)
circularbins
Sto: wheat 13, barley 14, oats 2 m3/t. (i) bulk: withinthrust-resistant walls, usually steel, approx 2500 high, plus asbestos-cement sheets to eaves 1 200; waterproof floor, with grain coned upat30°to centre ofbldg; normal spans 14—18 m; filledby
normalmax 4575x3800
asbestosi roof
3 Grain drying&sto: radialflowbins inbarn
2 Grain drying&sto: nestof binswith roof: section
4
Intakepit
c(I)
314 Industry
Farm buildings MACHINERY& IMPLEMENT STORAGE
Circulationroundstationery machines automotive machinery space allowanceto side 1000 " " toside 600 high machinery low machinery all machinery all machinery
" "
" " "
toside tofront to rear
Machinerysheds
Open-fronted shedsadequatefor simple implement sto. Tractor, combineharvester and self-propelled machineryrequiring some daily maintenance should be kept in sheds equipped with sliding door, el light, watersource and preterably concrete floor.
500 500 500
Workshop
Static space requirements offarmmachinery description
h
w
I
tractor
2600—3000 1 400 1 800
1800
3200
2200 2200 2300 3500 2500
4000—6000
trailer manurespreader crawler
combineharvester truck
slurry spreader baler
drill mountedplough disc harrows/roller hayturner
2300 4000 2900 2200 2600 2000
1 800
2800 3200
1 200
1 400
800 1200
4300 2800
5500 3800 9500 8600 3600 6000 2800 2400 2400 2500
Fully enclosed, insulated bldg 4000 to eaves, equipped with sliding door, watersource, el light and power points, forge with chimney or point torel forge, operating pitwith gantry beamover, racks abovework benches. Outside concreted drained turning area and floodlight
Fuel store Oil-tanks to workshop
and turning area, raised on concrete walls to allow gravity filling ot machinery. Catchpit holding content of tanks desirable. Fuel stored in separate sf0 complying with conditions of reg and codes—*(1) shows example ofmachinery shed and workshop.
concreted
turningar
1
Stofortractor & implements with workshop
Farmbuildings references: —÷Bibliographyentries 108115118137288325333334335340341 347 348351 352 356357358359360363364365 415 582 589 601 646
Leisure
315
Sport STADIA:GENERALDESIGN
CD
Sportsdata on following pages compiled with help ofBritishSports Council TechnicalUnit for
C')
Sport: basic technicalinformationgathered from governing bodies ofsports and gamescovered.
CD
C
Activities divided into 3 categories: outdoor; those which can beplayedin common spaces indoors; thosewhich essentiallyneedseparate
orexclusivespace. Governingbothèscommonly specify dimensions for 3 standards of play:
international and national; county and club; recreational. In some instances standard dimensions available for olympic competition and forsports fordisabled:forthese dimensions forall standardhave not been included; unless specified they are inadequate for national
1
USA: segmental
2 Amsterdam:semicircular
3
Rotterdam: sides& corners curved;
4
standards.
Several sports subject tostatutory requirements for lighting, temp, playingsurfaces and eqp: always refer to Technical Unitfor Sport and to governing body.
NB for UK stadia, terrace and seating design, reference must be made to Guide toSafety at Sports Grounds (Football) Combined soccer pitchwith running track roundit conforming to recognised international athletics standards may determine size of sports area: basic shape ellipse—(6). Stadium usuallypartexcavated:earth so gained built up all round. Combination of grandstand with changing rm, shower, first aid rm and provision for police, fire service, admin, press, broadcasting now usually avoided (economy and hygiene). Dormitories fortraining courses in separate bldg.
forfootball only
Townplanning: stadia should be well integrated with surroundings, with easyaccess for traffic and supplies (rail station, bus stops, car parks etc). Neighbouring industries with smoke, smell and noise undesirable. Group together covered and open-air installations for different sports: if possible in town's
5 U-shaped plan
greenbelt.
6
StadiumatHanover Arch Hillebrecht Goesmann
Budapest:horseshoe shapeabouttransverse axis
316 Leisure
Sport: stadia SIGHT LINES In Europe axes
of stadia
usually NE-SE —(1) ensure most spectators
havesun behind them. According toVitruvius (1st century BC) rowsof seats and standing terraces should rise atsteady rate 1:2 for acoustic reasons also.Today useofamplifiers makes good viewonlycriterion for tiering. For staggered seat arrangement every other back row should look over heads of corresponding front rows: gives parabolic curve —(26)starting with rise of 380 and ending with rise of 480. Best views on long sideswithinsegment; hence stadia of this shape, first built by Hadden (USA), whichgive new and convincing impression.
2 Designforgrandstandofstadium for100000spectators(Nervi) asection bconstructionofsightlines
Visibilitydetermines sizeofstadium
1
2rows 2 rows
—
a
-4-
-1
b 150 for peoplewithhats 100 for peoplewithout hats edge of arena +22.3 constructionof sighttinesfor(a)
+12.7 +6.7
TRAFFIC Stadia should be near traffic arteries, accessible by road and rail, with projecting turnstiles sothat spectators candivide intostreams fordifferent entrances. These usuallyat half heightofgrandstand, giving access to rows higher and lower by ramps or stairs —(2). Calculate widths of passages and stairs according number ofspectatorsleaving stadium as all leave at same time in contrast to gradual arrival. According van Eestern's investigations 5000spectators at Amsterdam stadium need 420sto leave by 9500stairways (Los Angeles 720s Turin 540s).
To determinestair wtoevacuategiven numberof spectatorsfromstadium number of spectators withingiventime: stair w = departure time ins x 1.25 Stairs and corridorsflow times—p407—8 Check applicable codes and standards.
9500x420s= 0.8sor
1 spectatoroccupiesl000stairwin
in 1 S
95O002o
5000
= 1.25spectatorsoccupyl0000fstairwayw.
Heisinki
Rio deJaneiro
3
Circulationroutesin stadia
Fiorence
Arezzo
Leisure
317
Sport: stadia Standing terraces: proportion w: h400:200—v(4)—(9) Seatingterraces:proportionw: hfrom 800 : 480—v(11)—(1 7)
CD
C,)
After5 steps firm railings (crush barrier) Lower passageway all round
1
CD
250wide
Doubleand treble standing terraces nolonger built
spectatt_ _____________ 1
natural ground level
3
Sectionthroughstadiumwith partialexcavation,earthmound& superstructure
SectionthroughOlympicstadium Berlin ArchMarchBrothers
-
SEATINGTERRACES —
-
11 Woodenbencheswith plank
--
8000 -
6370
4-
6860
-.
6860
— 29.44 -—_______
-4
step
4—
2
900
780
—4
SectionthroughViennastadium 31
—i
780
i—
0
470
STANDING TERRACES 400 4—1250-—.-—4-—I 400
43304450
12 Woodenseatsonconcrete
Ox70 4 Steps withtimber reinforcement
I—
5
—-
330-450
I
1
760 —4
Angle steps
7
700
—4
450
14 Seatingtiers:d750 h450 w 500
6
I—
4-260-4---440 —.
per person 330—
13 SlopingRC deckwith stepsin concretetopping
uprights
Movableconcreteunits
I—
760
15 On timberframe asatStuttgart
—I
330—450l I330—4504
9. 8
Reinforced concretewith fallsto
drain
16 On metal bracketsset in
9
PrefabricatedRC unitsonsteel joists
concrete
17 Seatingwith backs
GRANDSTANDSECTIONS --i i20—.-72O--72O
_______________________________________________________ 10 Standingramp,slope 10%,6P/i 000 mm2
18 Normalrise,upper steps
19 Normalrise, lowersteps USA risers 152—460, treads610—762(660 usually satisfactory)
318 Leisure
Sport centres CD
ORGANISATION
(I) crcuiar track CD
7—
1
2
Dispositionofspectators large scale sports &
large scale sports
medium
medium
small
Spatial patterns &circulationindrysportscentre small
scalewet scale sports community &dry dryonly centre provision leisure/rec centre sports/rec sports/rec centre centre (wet& centre dry)
S.
pools 50m 25m
o
• ••0
20m
tree shape learner
diving
.. •
sportshall(s) large medium
o
small
small community ancillaryindoorsportsaccn practiceha weighttraining/conditioningrm projectileha squashcourts climbingwall indoor bowls billiards/snooker ice rink
theatre/multi-purposeha ancillaryaccn changing
spectatorseating: fixed occasional
informalviewing club meetingrm firstaid firstaideqp crechesto creche(alternative use, sto) saunasuite refreshments cafeteria bar vendingmachine
IS
• 0
.. •
outdoorgrounds grasspitches hard porous/syntheticpitches floodlitpitches tenniscourts possible
5 0
•5 S.
staffrest rm staffchanging
0
•• •• 0 •
I0
reception off
SI essential
0 0 0
S
staff& management
key:
•• •0 •0
0 0 0 0
S typical/desirable
•• •• o
. ..
0 0 0 0
.• •. S 0 o 0
5
S•
•• .
•• o •o 0 0
0 0 •0
•• •• SI ••
0 S
•
0
IS 55 0 0 0 55
I0 S
S
•
55 •• 0 0
IS S
5 0
•• •S •• •• 5. 0
S. 0
.5
..
. .. .0 0 .0
0 0
•. •.
•. .• S. •S
I• 0
•1
S
S
S
•
. . 0
•• •I
0
.. .0 I •• 0 o I 0S •• S•
.
0
0 0
o o o o
0 0 a a
0 0 0 0
SS
•
•• S
Mainfeaturesrequiredfor6sizes of sports bldg:general recommendations onlyallbldgbeing influencedbyarserved,population &other resourcesavailable 3
Leisure
319
Sport centres EXAMPLES
bowlsha
iti -J 1
Dry &wet leisurecentreonschoolsite DunstableEngland
Sports centres for disabled —Bib639
2
SportscentreBridgnorthEngland:circulation &socialspacesspatially well conceivedegin entrance haglazedscreenallowsviewsintoswimmingpool, betweensportsha&squashcourtsglazed bridgeoffersviewintoeitherar
3
LargecomplexHarrowEngland comprises indoor&outdoorsportscentre,withpoolalongside&outdoorbowlsground
320 Leisure
Sporthalls USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE
courts of same kind;critical heights which in some instances degrade standard for which otherwise floor space adequate; need for some additional tree circulation space inside hail entrance.
—'(1) shows number of sport playing courts or other spaces which fit into various sizes ofsports orcommunity halls. Number ofspaces given foreach sportoptimum willfitintoundivided hall spacefor3 standardsof play:N internationaland UKnational;CUKcounty orclub;R recreational. Required mm space allowed for each takes intoaccount not onlyactual playing area but: necessary run-outor safety margins, team bench and officials'space round playing space which amount to overall areasused forassessment; where practicalsome overlapof marginbetween parallel
36.5x32x 32x26x 91 7.6—9.1
bowls)portablenoncompetitive rinks) boxing)trainingr'ings)
32x23x
32x17x
7.6—9 1 754 m2
6.7—9.1 736m2
67—76 554 m
)105x75
(105x56x )97x54x )85x54x
)92x54x 3995ff2
12600ff2
8925ft2
8175if2
7770ff2
5880ff2
5238ff2
nostandard
nostandard
nostandard
nostandard
nostandard
nostandard nostandard
2 C ±3)1*) R
2 N 3)1*) n
N
4
N
4
N
C
25—30 if)
22—25 if)
25m 18m 2Oyd 8
N
525m 18m 2Oyd 5
Nt
2
N
7
A
18m 20yd
2Oyd
3/4Nt/c 4
A'
4 6
N
4
C**
A
N
A'
4
A
3
A
3
A*
6
C
C**
9
N
N
4
N
6
C
A
12
A
9
R
8
N A
3
12
6
A
3 5
1
C
—
1
C
1
A
—
6
N
6
C
S
N
4
C
4
N/C A'
—
7 8
N C
6 8
N C
3/4 2/3
N
1
C
1
A'
1
C
1
A'
2
A'
N
—
C
—
C
1
1
2
— 1
N*
1
—
P
A'
1
C
C
— 1
A'
C'
1
A
1
4 6
N
2 4
N C
4
N A
1
A
A
1
N C
2 4
N
4 2
N*
2 6
N
1
2/4N/C 6
A
4/6C/A
4 6
N A*
2 4
N C
1
N
1
C*
1
1
A'
—
1
N'
2
A
microkorfball
1
C
1
C
netbat
1
N
1
A
2
C'/A
10 15/21
12
N 6 N C/C 10/15 C/C N
A
8
FtP
12
A C
2 4
1
—
N*
A
1
A
2 4
A
1
2
A
)56—65x41 )56x28x x 22 if) 22It) 2850—3455ft21555if2
nostandard 1
N
lSyd —
—
N
2 3
N A
C''
1
C"
2 6
N A'
C*
N
1
C*
N'
C
2
1
A
—
A
—
2
N
1
Nt
1
Nt
C A'
2'Nt/C
A
2 3
2
A
2
C
— 1
3
1
nostandard —
7
C/C
A
12
A
10
4
C''
4
—
A
—
A
C
C''
1
nt
1
A+t
C
2 4
A
N C
C
A
1
A'
—
P
—
—
—
—
—
1
A*
A'
C
1
2
A*
A
—
—
—
—
N A
1/2
A
—
—
1
N
1
N
A
2
A
1
A
3
2
2
2
A
C'
—
/
C
—
—
A
—
— —
— 1
— —
—
— C
1
—
— — —
N
— — miniBB —
/
N
2
A*
/
7 1
A
—
—
A*
—
—
— —
—
—
—
—
—
C/C
C"
—
—
1/2N/C
2
1
4 6
1
2
A
—
—
1
P
7
1
—
—
N'/C A
—
A'
miniBB
P
2 3
A'
—
A*
1
1
1
N
—
A'
2
C
Nt C'/A
1
A
1
2
—
3 4
3/4* N/C +1 A
P
C
—
A
N
C
4 8
A'
2 4
1
A'
7/9 14
4
C A
2
1
n
—
N C
A'
N 6 10/12 C/C
C
1 2
—
2
1
A
1
A
—
Nt
3
1
1
A
—
3
3
18m
A
1
—
N 6 10/12 C/C
—
A
1
C
—
8
1
A
V
I
keeptitmovement & dance;Yoga
1
1
1
12
voteybat
N
iBm lSyd
2 5
A
3/4' N/C +2 A'
—
P
mini-handball
tug-ot-war
C''
5
N C
trampolining
1
1
3)3*)
tabletennisc/c
1
A
1
9
lawntennis
no standard
x
A'
5
I
C
lacrossetemale
22—25 if)
N
R*
N
kendo
C**
N
12 14
karate
3 4
1 2
N
N
judo
iBm 2Oyd
C'/A
8
hockey
2
N
2
1
cricketnets
handbat
2
525m 18m 2Oyd
525m 18m
C
gymnastics)olympic)
22—25if) 4590ff2
22—25 if)
17,0—20.Ox 17.0x8.5 67 156 6.7 265.2—321 m2 144,5m2
3Om
N
5-a-sidetootball
486.7 m2
67—7.6 371.25 m2
25—30 tt)
1
)pistes)
6.7—76 429 m2
x 25—30 If)
2
fencing
x 6.7—7.6
(105x85x )96x85x
pitches
crickef6-a-side
29.5x16.5 26x16.5x 22.5x16.5
)120x105 x 30if)
6)2')A basketball
communityha
small ha
29x26x
832 m2
archery )l of shoot)
badminton
space.
1168 m2
4 6
aikido
Fire: check fr reg and max component value; in UK halls 7000 m3 or over need DoE waiver; 'volume' can include unenclosed structuralroof
mediumha
large ha
sports
For most sports possible provide spaces for mix of 3 standards; in practice several differentactivities may beprogrammed at same time.
C"
A
Definitionofscales:max numberofcourtsrelatedtostandardsofplay:(forkey & footnotes—tp321(1))
6/7
1
C/C A
C'' —
4 8
C/C A
4
A
—
C'' 1'
—
C''
3—6
6—8 2
— 1
—
—
—
C/C A
4
A'
1
A
A
— —
—
A'
—
—
Leisure
321
Sporthalls USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE(cont) largeha
mediumha
small ha
36.5x32x 32x26x
29x26x
32x23x
32x 17x
9.1
7.6—9.1
7.6—9.1
6.7—9.1
6.7—7.6
1168n,2
832m2
7Mm2
736m2
554m2
(120x105 x 30It)
(105x85x (96x85x
x 25—30 if)
(105x75
25—30 if)
25—30 if)
(105x56x (97x54x
8925ft2
8175ff2
7770ff2
12600ff2
weight lifting contests wrestlin
x 6.7—7.6
486.7m2
22—25 if)
22—25if)
5238ff
5880ff2
6.7—7.6
6.7—7.6
429m2
communityha 17.0—20.Ox 15.6 x 6.7
371.25m2
265.2—321 m2
(85x54x
(92x54x
29.5x16.5 26x 16.5x 22.5x16.5 22—25 if)
4590ff
22—25if)
3955ff
17.0x8.5 6.7
144.5m2 (56—65x41 (56x28x x 22if) 22 It) 2850—34551f 1555ff
—
N
—
N
—
N
—
N
—
C
—
C
—
C
—
C
—
C
—
—
4
N C
2 6
N C
6
C
2 6
N C
2 3
N
3 8
C R
2 6
C R
2 6
C
2 4
C
2
R
12
C
R
A
Key:
N C A P
C/C ns
S
t 1
international/national standard county/club standard recreational standard practice aronly forfable tennis2gradesofmm spaceallowances forinter-county/inter-club standardsof play no standards have yetbeenlaid down arbehind shooting line belowsafety standardrecommended;acceptablespacecan beprovidedbyslightlengthening ofha; oresisting spaces may be usedforpractice belowmm space standard recommended bygoverning body concernedbut capableofproviding purposeful & enjoyable activity recreational standard where ha is less than7600clear hforbadminton & trampolining orless than7000forbasketball & volleyball; 6700 hsuitable formini-basketball & mini-volleyball county/club standard whereha less than 9000clearh
Continuation of —.p320(1) definition of scales
NB UK standards subject to revision. Current details availablefromSports Council Information Centre
STORAGE Inadequate sto space for sporthalls very common fault. Allow for full rangeof eqp needed. As eqp must beaccessible sto must be shallow (say 5000 max)and ideally placed along side of hall. Recommended mm requirements for3catagoriesofhall —v(2). Check list—v(3)
fixed
ceiling protectionfor lighting Climbing ropes& trackway climbingpoles&trackway speakers
track systemfordivision nets
• • • • •
cricket golf archery volleyball 5-a-side-soccer basketball
ceiling mountedbackboards &goals (manual
oreloperation)
(manual
oreloperation)
wallmountedbackboards & goals gymnastics asymmetricbars pommelhorse vaulting buck vaulting horse horizontal bars rings trampolinespotting rig parallel bars springboards,floors
boxing ring
gamesapparatus tennis volleyball badminton
5-a-sidesoccer indoor hockey handball netball
3
Sportseqp checklist
• • • • • •• •
. .
movable
• • • • • • • • • • • • • .•
. .. .. • • .
sto ar m2 h access
large
112 75 50
medium small 2
sportsha
ha
Mm
7000 2700 2250
waccess 4500 4500 3600
sf0 requirementsfor3cate9onesha
sportsha walls scoreboard wall protection/padding seating fixings/recesses fire eqp protectionto services/heating wallspeakers floors
courtmarkings sockets&plates(fixed to floor orsub-floor)
fixed
. .
movable
.. . .
S S
•
.
ancillaryha ceiling
tracksystemforcurtains lightingsystems
•
activities judo & martial arts (mats,wallpadding)
.•
snooker
tabletennis fencing boxing
movement& dance(barre, mirrors)
.• •. .
floor sockets/fixings
•
boxing training weight/fitnesstraining weightlifting wrestling
markings
movablefloors/platforms
.
. • . .
.. • S
.
322 Leisure
Sport: outdoor
-
PITCHES
4.57m 48.8m 4.57m (15ft) (16011) (1511)
70yd)
110—155 m (120—i
True
-
V
'........
8
I
E
I--
I---
C',
8
Orientationdiagram:for purposesofthischartseasonsfor variousgainestakentobeasfollows (southernhemisphereexcepted): associationfootball&rugbyfootball 1 Sep—30 Apr; hardcourt tennis, basketball,netballallyear round; cricket,baseball,grasscourttennis 1 May—i 5Sep; pavilionsshould avoid SW-NWaspect (225°—3150)
H
I
I
9
Football,Australian
r..
I -J
Football,American
1
76.8—91.5
68m)74yd)
-
)
,
(84-100yd)
V 8
N
0
E
6 '0
t
N
I
rn-00 20m
II I E
I
I I I
L
000
1Dm 30m 40m 50m
70m
l
90m Isalety 1wai6ng line
se&end margins6m(20ft)
0
2Oyd(18.288) 3Oyd(27.432) 40ydl36.576l
10 Football,Gaelic
E
Ir'i
11
Handball
13 Hockey:forcounty&club matchesrecommendedpitch90 x 55(98½ x 60 yd),overallspace95
55-65m
SOyd(45.72)
6Oyd(54.864) 70ydl64.008) 8Oyd(73.152) 90ydl82.296) lOOyd(91.44)
wrunen
6
I
--
men
12
(60—70 yd)
Li
3 Archery,clout
Archery,target
Football,rugbyleague
54.9-73.15m(60-8Oyd)
54.9m(6Oyd)
8 11
x 60(104 x 66Y2yd)
---c
7m 69n1(76yd)
T
59.47m(66yd)
HI;
I E
lt
ItI;
IS N
LL
60m(66yd)
4
Baseball(Littleleague2/3 size)
E '0
Hill
Football,association:National PlayingFieldsAssociation recommendssizes:seniorpitches
82yd)
I
L
J
73(4590)m
l1Li (195—225It1nUSA( 6,,i
14 Football,rugbyunion
15 Football,Canadian 40m(44yd(
0 0
p
T
S 0 S
11
N "C
E
8
x
96—100 x 60—64(105—109 66½— 70yd);juniorpitches90 46—55 (98½ x 50—60 yd); international 100—110 64—75(109—120 70—
x
f
—
1
Camogie
x
E1
,.. side&endmargins6m(20ft) 6rn
6 7
E
5 Bicyclepolo
91—110 m(110—126yd)
H
lI;l
x
E
a,
L 16
Hurling
17
Korfball
323
Leisure
Sport: outdoor PITCHES 110m(l2Oyd) lOOm(lO9yd(
o
Lacrosse,men
1
Lacrosse,women:groundhas
2
nomeasuredormarked out boundaries
IIi
27.5m
27.Sm 275m (300yd)
3043m1
I
1
Ic In0
II
I I I
I
L 3
, II) 33m135yd)
4
'
-1-
H
/ / \\\ //
I I
0
LL
E
Polo
ii1
(ii \1I
IL'
Netball
alllines
E
50 wide
600 in
3
IrI
Ii
II
,
ix
frombad lineto supportpo 1000
q
2m
128—183 m (140—200yd)
(l2
7
-
E.-
Tug-of-war
radius
E
**
850 inbetween
extension
,
marginatsides& ends1000;where spectatorsprsserttmix2000;dimensions aretoinsideoflines mm
6
Rounders
rope off
7
restricted 800
150
m
17m(l9ydl
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18 Softball 27.43—54.86
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324 Leisure
Sport: outdoor ATHLETICS 867gm
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radiussatetyboundary80-95 m
400 mstandard7-laneclub running trad: for6-laneall-weathersurfaces reduceoveralldimensionsby2440(approx overallsize 179 x 106m (193 x
116yd)); majorcompetition®ionaltracksrequireBall-weatherlaneswilh 10-lane sprintstraight:increaseoveralldimensionsby2440 (approx overall size 181 xlii m(198x l2iyd)
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15 Shuffleboard
326 Leisure
Sport: indoor PITCHES(cont)
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I
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9m(301t)
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Karate
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Kendo
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305m flhifl2m
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3
6
Trampoline
Aikido
ATHLETICSTRACKS Resources for indoorathletics fall into 2 main categories: competition: provide forfull range ofcompetitivedisciplines; will provide for spectators training: (a) with some limited competitive use; (b) purpose built; (c) adaptations ofexisting sports halls. In USANational Collegiate Athletic Association(NCAA) rules forcollege athletics, forotheramateur events Amateur Athletic Union (MU);some track and field events still measured in yards, feet and inches; many present tracks still in such measurements; new layouts generally in metresorotherSI units. European AthleticAssociation (EAA) specifies forindoor events:
Arena Shall be covered and heated and shall consist of track circuit, sprint straight, runways for4jumps, siteforshotputt.
Natureoftracks
Tracks andrunways surfaced with woodor suchothermaterialasallows normal use of spiked shoes; number of spikes shall comply with InternationalAmateur Athletics Federation rule 142 (4).
60 m hurdlesshall include 5 hurdles, h 1 060; 13.72 mfromstart line to first hurdle; 9140between hurdles; 9720fromlast hurdle to finishline. Female: 50 m hurdles shall include 4 hurdles, h 844; 13.0 m from start line to first hurdle;8500 between hurdles; 11.5 m from last hurdle to finishline.
60m hurdles shall include5hurdles, h844; 13.0 m fromstart line tofirst hurdle;8500between hurdles; 13.0 m fromlast hurdle to finish line.
Events
Runwaysfor long&triple jump & polevault:
wide.
Landingareaforjumps:in high jump and pole vaultlandingareasshall be in accordance with IAAF rules 201 (e) and 3 (d). In long jump and triple jump they shall measure 6000 long and 2500wide and shall consistof 300 in depth ofwet sand on synthetic track base. Putting theshot: sector shall be 450 but may be reduced bytechnical delegate ifnecessary to meetlocal conditions.
Othertechnical installations: all other technical installationsshall be strictlyinaccordance with IAAF rules.
Circulartrack 1 lap oftrack shall measure
160 m 200m in length. Eachbend shall be 35 min length and banked atanangle 100 18°. Eachstraight 35m.Where no raisedborder, measurementshall betaken 200 outward from inner edge of track. Track shall be 4000 6100 wide; shall include 4 lanes.
'
Sprinttrack
'
Sprint straight shall have
beyondfinishing line 15m.
6 lanes: width of each 1220;
/
,
—
consdecsurroundingindoorcyclingtrack
4or6nesat1 or mm w. 1.22or prefered
extension
Hurdleraces
Male: 50mhurdlesshall include4hurdles, h 1060. There shall be13.72 m fromstart line tofirst hurdle; 9140 between hurdles; 8860fromlast
hurdletofinishline.
40 m long and 1 220
45or40m bends 10
Requirementsforindoortrack
Leisure 327
Sport: indoor ATHLETICSTRAIMNG
CD
for athletes training indoors, with limited competitive use,
Provision
neednot includeexpensive 200 m banked tracks. Many events can be simulated if briefthought out inadvance with consideration of needsof athletes.
Needs
a
b
12 badminton poie vaufl ihrowingpactice
gymnasiucs 1
badminton(2courts)
345 athietics—longjump —Sprint
be considered at planning stage
of sports
4'—236in(77 tt6in)—4-.--.--———-—--428 m(140116cr)
: :• : :
2
of athletes should
centresso that this maior spectator and participantsportcan gain some of benefits fromindoor provision other sports have received —*(1)
pole vault hurdies
0
-4.-
13m(14¼ yd) combatsports
basketbafl—training gym & 2badminton tennis 5-a-side football I I volleyball badniinlon ootball
iectures demonstraiions
14 basketball
5sid&oolball
: . : • :
I I
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34 badminton(2courts) pole vault throwingpractice long jump Sprintstarts 25 hurdles
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tennis 5-a-sidetootbail volleyball ba&ninton
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SportsstadiumtraininghaGateshead England: apermutations possibleathleticstraining 1
ofpossible activities bpermutationsof
WEIGHT& FITNESSTRAINING
multi gym multi gym abdominal shoulder unit conditioners squat conditioner
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_________ 15m(49ft3tn) flex
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blackboard multi-purpose betch squat racks -. gym 12 Stationwith [199 multi 7complete weight stack cycle II I dual 'ackboard OtH barbell fl_purpose bench
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Fiiin!
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FitnessrmatleisurecentreCramlington England
3 Conditioning&weighttrainingrmBunyanrecreation centreBedford England
I
(1)
C CD
328 Leisure
Sport: indoor SPORT NEEDINGOWN PITCHES/SPACES
-
ia
--
303(loott)-
!+
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tiiTighne
425m(141t) plan
-
303(1005)-
a
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firingline
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targetzonel05m(3ftS4r)4
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Projectile ha section & plan
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10 Rackets asection bplan
mlI
ILP
2archersshootto eachtargetboss
stopnet
9.754m(32lt)
—-:iiiii shooting waiting line line
targethoe
S N
2ni (65610)
l
range
2 Archery:international&nationalshootsrequire rangesof3025& 16m &20yd; forclub & recreationalshoots 13.716(15 yd)willdo: mm ceiling h3000 mm
37m(12ft3w1(
I
rolldowncarpetlstoneeded)
1 5m
125(4ft9iii>
-
33m(tOItlt)
ll
hall 125 1Sm
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Squash asection bplan: dimensions & surfacefinishescritical;referto governingbodies
6
32 m(105It)desirable3749m(123It)
3 Bowling:singlerinkinprojectile
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Rugbyfives
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Billiards& snooker,agreedstandardstable: 3500x 1750 playingat
b
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asection bplan
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12 Golfpractice Real tennis: dimensionsofcourtatHampton Court England
8
II
33.5 m)llOIt)
_______ 4
9.lSm(30ft)
Bowling:4rinksmittforrecreation, 6 for
IIIl:E. ujj I
20.117m(66tt)
toumamerits
13 Cricketpracticenets; h3.650(12ft) 303m(99531n) -
a b
425m
4—-f
5
9
Cycling
11 hnngline
j
1.05m
targetzone 4_f U+Itbifll
Shooting,target, small bore a section bplan
14 Ice skating
Leisure 329
Sport: swimming INDOORPOOLS
Waterarea—*(1)
Location: central, good public transport connexions. Rough guide to
changing nn—p336—7: accessible from hall,separated bysex; notinside pool area; 1 do unitll—1.5 m2 pool area; common changing rm as extra
provision: dispersed population (rural areas) 20—25 x 11—13 m within 25 minutes travel of 30000 people; partially concentrated (surburban areas and free standing towns) 25 x 11 m pool + learner pool within 15—20 minutes travelof30000people; concentrated population 25 x 13 m pool + learner pool within 12 minutes walking time of 30000 people.Usage/head ofpopulation: medium and small towns 3.5times/
year;cities 1.3—2.5/year. type of b coveredspace changingrm
small av large
2floors
changingrm 1 floor
m3
m3
30—40 40—55 50—70
40—50 50—65 60—80
1
Ratio of enclosed spaceto1 m2water ar
2
Circulation&groupingofelements
space.
Pre-cleanse:barefootpassage pastwctoshowers; 1 sho/8dospaces: sho space required 1.35—2.15m2; in some countries (eg Switzerland USA) use of cleaning passages with sho activated by floor contact or light beam.Throughshormto swimmingand teachingpools—*p335. Toilets: mm
2wc; male 1/15—20female 1/7—10; urinals 1/15—20 male.
public access
3
Baths at Hanover-Linden Germany(design HochbauanttHanover):indoorbseparatedfrom outdoorbby 3submersibledoorswithfootbasins and 6 sti infront indoorswimmingb: pool 12.5 x 25m training pool6 x 12.5 m openairswimmingb: free-shapegeneralpurposepool 20 x 25 m divingpoolwith 10m stage 20x 20m changing:indoor49change-overcubicles, 600do & 5groupchanging rm;outdoor36change-over cubicles&1320cIa
exercise
sectiona-a
III II 176
o 36 Leisure&poolcomplexRoxburyYMCA USA Arch TheArchitectsCollaborative 4
9 12m ft
330 Leisure
Sport: swimming INDOORPOOLS(cont) Heating & ventilation: water temp recreational pools 27°C, learner
pools 28°—30°, diving pool 28°; airtemp 1—2°abovewatertemp: changing rm, pre-cleanse, clothes sto not less than pool water; air changes: volume flow rate of0.15m3/m2/s ofpool water plus wet surround. Waterpurification plantfor heating,filtering, disinfection. Watercirculation: main pool 3 hr (if veryshallow withheavy bathing load every 2 hr); learner pool 11/2 hr; diving pool 6 hr; pH near aspossible 7.7 or 7.6, never outsiderange 7.2—8.0. Pool: width, length —*(3); water depth: non-swimmers 900—1 250, swimmers 1 250—3500,learnerpool 500—900. Mm depth forswimming 900.
a
_L
bh
Internal finishes: floors easy-grip and slip-resistant finish, glazed ceramic tiles, smallsize mosaic; pool surrounds slip-resistant flooring; pool bottomand walls: tiles, wallsurround upto2000tiles orwaterproof paint; upper wall areas and ceiling sound absorbent materials. Metal parts rust and condensationproofencased,no heattransmissionbridges. Plastics generally suitable. All fixings and fittings ideally made from corrosion resistant metals, egstainlesssteel, bronze, certainaluminium
i.l r ij
r1 L_J
r—-'
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r
r—' L..J
25m
8.5 m(4lanes) 10.5m(5lanes) 13m(6lanes)
f
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r'°' L_.J
17 m(8lanes)
r
r'
L.._l
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33.33m
d
Typicalpool profiles: a&bfor 'in ground' pools c& for'aboveground' pools e 'in ground'steeltank 'aboveground'steeltank
f
international pool
S
•0
freeformshapepool separate deepwaterdivingpooi
S
S
•
5
5 a 0 0 0 a
• 0 5 0
S
0
•0
• •
informalviewing viewingaroverlookingpooi
0
0
0
21 m(8lanes:lullOlympicstandards) 25m
10-12 m(7ni mx)
•0
vendingmachines
firstaidrm
S
•
• • • S
sauna suite
a
a
a
•O
17m
0
•0 •
cafeteria bar
21 m
SOm
spectatorseating fixed rakedspectatorseating occasional spectatorsat poolside
refreshments
17m
leisure pool
pool
pool waterar 50 m main pool 25 m main pool
separate teaching/training pool 1 000 springboardmain pool recreational divingchutes wave machine
13m
national! local recrearegional pool tional/
S
0
I 600
5 0
I
I
stepsupto
600
posunound
lanero
I
600
2m
laneropepombOn 900
7m
900
I
900
2m
16¾m 20m
definite provision possible provision
2
Poolfeatures
3
Mainpool sizes:mostcommonsizesshownin heavierlines
Leisure 331
Sport: swimming Waterpolo
INDOORPOOLS(cont)
Playing area: for national/international events 1 800 deep; district! countyevents 1 500 mm; club/Amateur Swimming Association events in UK 1200mm. Dimensions—(2). Swimmingpools for disabled —*8ib639
Poolsforleisure
Main features of pools specifically created for indoor leisure and recreational swimming: lively, warm, gay interior; good quality materials; shallow waterwith beach edges; wavemachines; water chutes; artificial sun bathing; plants, trees, seating, refreshment areas forswimmers. Private indoor poo1s—p115—6
S E
N
1
Commonwealth poolEdinburgh Scotland MatthewJohnsonMarshall& Partners
asection bplan
Arch Robert
4
Typical'leisure' freeformpoolWhitleyBayEngland; plan Arch Gillinson Barnett& Partners
2
Dimensions
forwaterpolo
F—
20.0 50.85
3
IndoorbWuppertalGermany:section Arch Hetzelt
H 5
Indoorpool BottrupGermany Arch Heinz Kisler
CD
U)
C CD
332 Leisure
Sport: swimming INDOORPOOLS (cont) a
/
//
1.-I.
b %
T'LI4
-1500-
7
I hydraulic
L
F1600
1
Springboard hydraulically adjustable 1000—3500 a plan 4800
Pooledgedetail
liftingplant
I—i 500-1
—I
bsection
pO$selehand-grip
drainage charerel 500
2
600
Springboarddetail
3
Deck-levelpool: edgesection
8
Pooledgewith Wiesbadentypeoverflow: restingledge &gangway in multi-purposepool
a
9
Longitudinalsectionof25mpoolwith9underwater lights
x
500 500mmmm surface ar max slope 10
b
4
10 Diagramof startingplatform: cable to timingeqp only built-inin major poolcentres
Moveablefloorstypicalinstallation a in raisedposition b lowered
Underwaterlightingin swimming,diving&multipurposepool 11
- IF-i sechona—b
a--''_IHEE,
:..:
150
5
Recessedshapedsteps
6
Glazedceramicsteps
Leisure
333
Sport: swimming OPEN AIR POOLS Location: sunny, not down wind of industrial plants, nuisance from smoke or noise.
Season:depends on climate. For NW Europe: 100—120visits/year, of which 40—60 busydays, of which 10—15 peak days
Perhead of population (depending on climate): 1 .5—3
visits/year.
1—2 m2 overall site area 0.1—0.2 m2 water area
Pervisitor 0.6—1 m2 water area
L9i
ogood viewing o badviewing 1
Viewingconditionsforend &side positiondivingboards
Changing rm for5—8%of population
Non-swimmerspool: separate in largeinstallations;depth 800—1 250; easy-grip steps for sitting at shallow end; floor surface of pool nottoo slippery.
Paddling pool: access by gentlyfalling ramp; free shape; depth 100— 400; floor surface of pool nottoo slippery. Waterchute:-_*p337(5) Pool construction: dense vibrated concrete or RC; inside finishfrost resistant tiles, paint (epoxy resin orother). Expansion jointsdepending on construction Steps (a) corrosion resistant metal in 600—1 000 wide recesses (b) special shaped ceramic glazed unitsbuilt in—p332. Distance apart ofsteps 10 m; distancefromdiving tower 8000
Starting platforms: —p332 Guide line: vertical below starling platforms.
2
D'Albaroopenairbat GenoaItaly
Diving line: on pool floor, 250—300wide. Walk-through pool:3000 x 4000—4000x 6000: depth 300—400 with overflow.
Walkway round pool:
2000;
access.
5600 near diving stages and pool
Water circulation: 6 hr turnover when bathing load infrequent; 3 hr turnoverwhen load heavy. Water cleaning—*p337. Ancillaries:
3
Layoutofalpine bGloggnitzAustria
entrance with cash desk, centrallysituated laundry issue& sf0 swimming instructors' rm first aid rm (or doctor's rm) staff rm, separate formen & women eqp, swimming & sports gear, deckchairs etc, possibly with issuing counter changing rm, separate for men & women (communal changing rm, changing cubicles, separate rmforclubs& schools); family change wc sitedconveniently tochanging rm & pool pre-cleanse showers hand & foot wash basins plant rm: watercirculation & purification:boilers telephone, loudspeaker & clock systems with signaldevice adequate parking space admin off Showers, lavatories—vp335; changing rm—ap336 Desirable:roofed rest rm, sales rm, manager'sflat, broadcastingsystem. Garden swimming pools —*p114
4 Open airbinFrankfurtGermany
334 Leisure
Sport: swimming DIVING POOL DIMENSIONS a
+F 100
IJo
+
E
J
-I-
mel 7500 p
5000 p
A-A4
1 FédérationInternationalede Natation Amateur(FINA) international standardsof diving:diagrams alongitudinal section bcrosssection
a springboards fixedboards
A
board h fromwater B boardI
C boardw D d of water at plummet E distanced D
im
3m
4.8
4.8 0.5
7.5m lOm 6.0 6.0
3.5 6.0
Sm 5.0 2.0 3.8 6.0
2.0 4.1 8.0
2.0 4.5 10.5
2.2
2.7
3.0
3.0
3.0
7.5
10.25
11.0 4.5 2.5
1.25
1.5
4.6
9.0 3.5 2.5 1.5 4.6
3.0
3.2
13.5 4.5 2.5 1.5 3.4
2.75 5.0
2.75 5.0
2.75
2.75 5.0
0.5 3.0 5.3
maintained forward
F distancedD maintained to sides G clearanceforward H clearanceto sides I distanceto adjacent board J clearancebehind L clearanceoverhead M clearanceoverhead
w01srround necessary wdh 1000 springboard
+M •
N
H,
'F'
a
2 StandardsfordivingboardsapprovedbyAmateurSwimming Association (UK) table a competitivedivingtable brecreational diving(firmboards)
maintained tosides clearance overhead maintained forward
3.8 2.5
5.0
2.75 6.0
Notes: 1 tableincorporateslatestdimensionsrecommendedbyASA;includes column ofdimensionsfor7500platformh (considereduseful forhigh board training) 2 ± 100 tolerancepermissibleonnominalboardh: alldimensions should relate to centralpoint atfront end of diving board(s) 3platform thickness should not be 200 at Itsfront 4designersshould consider current standardsspecifiedbyFINAifpoolto be used fornational/international standard events; recommendedthat divingpool beseparatefrom mainpool: where not possible boardhotspringboardshould be confinedto 1000 and wheninuse arconcerned should be ropedoffto avoid swimmerscausing safety hazard
plummet
sectiotmof divingpoolstobe readin association with tables & 5
2.5 2.5 1.5
b A board hfromwater B boardl C board w 0 d of waterat plummet E distanced 0 maintainedforward F distanced D maintainedto sides G clearanceforward H clearancetosides I distance to adiacent board J clearancebehind K clearancebehindboard
L
1 m 1 m 2m 2 m 0.75 1.75 0.75 1.75 075 0 75 0.75 0.75 2.6 26 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0
3m
3m 0.75 175 0.75 0.75 325 3.25 3.5 4,5
5m 5.0 2.0 3.8 6.0
2.2
2.2
2.4
2.4
2.6
26
30
45
5.5 2.5 2.5
5.5 3.0 2.5
6.5 3.0 2.5
6.5 3.5
7.5 3.5 2.5
10.25 3.8 2.5
2.5 2.5
25
1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 0.8 0.8 08 0.8 0.8
1.25 0.8
0.8
1.25
3.0
3.0
to wall clearanceoverhead
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
Leisure 335
Sport: swimming SLIPPERBATHS,SHOWERS Slipper baths: in separate units; number approx 0.1 x pooi size (m2); sizesaccording todemand and number ofvisitors —o(4);space required
changing rrn
CD
(0
C
CD
Centrepassage width 3000. Side passage width 1600.
Clotheshooks inside on freewall or inside door. Window cillabove bath Washable walls
1
I—
23
U,
650 1000
--
f-i 000 -
HI
Sho passagesection&plan I—2000—i
I—
2700
—1900-1
—i
2Ii 1-2000--i
4
800 abovefloor level.
Hard finishon solid floorwith drainage; all corners and skirtings coved; all metal parts heavily galvanised; alltimberpainted 3undercoats and 1 finishing coat. Steam baths: individual cubicles, box baths or shared baths (steam baths), separate for men and women,orused at differenttimes. Separate rest rm 22°C, massage rm 30°, sho rm 25°with warm bath 22°and cold bath 100. Shapes ofbenches for lying on—o(6). Turkish bath —o(7): warm airrm 45—50°C, hotairrm 55—60° and sweat rm 65—70°, adjoining rest, sho and massage rm as above. Outer walls doublewith heated aircavity; ceiling slopes towardsoutside todrain off condensation. All fittings rustproof. Windows with treble glazing. El fittingswater tight. Saunas—*(5)(6)—p1 17338
Arrangementofsho&wcwithcirculationroutes
-
1
1 300 above floor level.
1-2000-1
-
(?) i—2000-l
Cubiclesizes
1200—.-
-
1000
rr Jo 'j......,400
T1H
4..
F- -+—
400
420 340
6 Bench typesforsteamb
5
StandardFinnish saunastove with boiler (alsosuitableforwashing clothes)
accordingto Finnish standards: 12000;steps& benchesofwooden battensnailedfrombelowsothat bodydoes nottouchhotnail heads
Functionaianaiysisof healthb bathr layout—o(4)
ab& bench bb&couch cbasabove d—easabove lasabove
8
mrii2
+ vestibule (1000) mm2
3800 5120 5220 7600 7600
5600 7800 7120 9600 9600
— vesitibule
Spaceneededforbath cubicles—.(4)
336 Leisure
Sport: swimming POOLCHANGINGROOMS i500'- 1000
1250
*-
1250
i-
1-.- 1250
Individual cubicles —v(lb): 1/visitor; size 1000 x 1000—1200;gross
—.
area ofchanging rm/cubicle 3—4 m2.
Cubicles to be used in turn: (a) with locker —a(la)(2)3—4 lockers! cubicle; (b) with supervised central do —v(3)(4); size and area as for
:
individual cubicle; desirable ratio approx 53%. (Very economical: itfew
cub,c'es cubicles
visitorscubicles can beusedsingly.) Bath cubicles—ap335(4)(8) Common changing rooms: (a) with central handing-in do —v(4); a
b
loot washbasins
Cubicleswithoutseparate shod &barefootpassages: with locker bindividual 1
ainterchangeable
Heightofchanging rm
f/
(\
---4 I
—— ± 0
I
0
+ 8 ±
j_ -'
(_\
1_i
ventilation
8 C,
—
fj J_
Oi
f\ /\ fi /\
,' 4.
4----;---4
f---1
,\
LI:'....
-4-4-
8
± 8
TWWThHH
I
t *4004 F 1500 400
400 F
: :::....:
_:
400
400
lemales
1— 1300 +1000-l--1300—
I..,.I.11111111
i_j I
"""ii"," iiiii—
I
,i.
•4
lernales
—1300 11000 -l300-4
1_
1500
5 Commonchangingrm: awith clotheshooks bwith lockers
2 Interchangeablecubicleswith lockers
I
2800.
-r
shodpasage
/\
space required/place 0.5—0.8 m2; (b) with locker —e(5b); space requirementas (a) + locker area, 3—4lockers/seat; locker size: 300 x 500— 400 x 600desirable ratio approx 26%; (c) without locker, with clothes hooks—v(5a); for groups supervision desirable; space requirement as (a); desirable ratio approx 14%.
I
,uslll,iuil.ui
.1.
3 interchangeablecubicleswithcentralattended do males I—.-
'F
UUiUiffltlJ clothesreceiving& issuing 1000
C,
interchangeable cubicies
4000
.—+—-
clothesissue ______________________
4.
a,
4000
,500
t3°°0 I
]
—4
504'
common changing
rm
1.
key
tool washbasin
availabletofemaies availabletomales
4
do
cubicles&common changingrmwithcentralsupervised Interchangeable
6
______________
outofuse
CiO5edslidingdoor
Changingarplannedsothat2centralspacescanbeusedat different times
by eithersex
Leisure 337
Sport: swimming I-130O-i-1000-1300--+- 2200
POOLCHANGINGROOMS
-1
Forpublic bldg essential find most economic staffing solution. Division
of interchangeable sections by sex can be varied by use of sliding partitions —ep336(6) or byswitching notice boards.
Av visitors 60—70%men 30—40%women Cubiclewith supervised do; interchangeablecubiclesformen & women;indicatorboard 0canbe switchedaccordingtodemand 1
F—750H-—750
]
T.S
-r
'
L
hooksfor clothes
Coatstandsfor interchangeable cubicledo
3
bench h 375; bench w 300 In open-air bathsper changing rm 40 users per section or area20 coat hooks on run of board forcoat hooks 3000.
shoes,
j30O
Space requirements —(2)(3): 500 bench/adult
400 bench/child
—H
foldingbench
m
Clothes sto: individual lockers orattendant supervised basket—.(4)sto —sp336(3)(4)
Ratio of total changing/clothes sto space per user approx 1 .75 m2. 29
Cubicleswith proprietarypanels
inbaths atNordeneyGermany
Cubicles and clothesstand of timberor corrosion resistant metal with proprietary panels —(3). Include changing needs ofdisabled users: 2000 x 2000 cubicle.
WATERCLEANING Purification, flocculation and disinfection ofswimming pool water: hygienically essential turnover period forindoor public pools: swimming pool 3hr learner pool 1/2 hr diving pool 6 hr Purification of river, surface and pooi water chemically byflocculationof organicsubstances to induce coagulationfollowed by filtration. Filterrm
sizes—÷(6).
Disinfection usually bychlorination. In asymmetrical pools arrange outlets so that complete through flow possible and no watercan stagnate in corners. For cleaning pooi floor, specially in open-air pools, remove sediment with brushes and suction sediment pump. Basketcoathangerwithshoebagforinterchangeable cubicles
4
capacity/hr aroffilter rm clear h offilterrrn m2
m
20—40
20—30
3.5
60
40 50 60 65
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.5
m3
80—100 150—200
250 300 400
70
80
6
Spacerequiredforfilter installation;foropenairadd 50%
polishedterrazzo
120
I- t—
600
h—
I—
2030
5 Water chute BadKissingenGermany
800
120
—t--i
—
338
Leisure
Sport SAUNAPLANNING sauna
fresh exhaustair exhaustair ax ussr under
entrance/exit
•
t
airb
I
Domestic saunas—xpl 17
Bathing time: 3 x 8—12 minute sessions, total for 1 bath 120 minutes. Rm forcooling (sho, hose, plunge) —x(2)(3)(9)(1 0)and airbath—x(3)(12). Natural cold waterpleasanter: lake orsea inlet (or snow).
Air bath: breathing in fresh cool air as offset to hot air, cooling down freshairrmH
she_a bI warn,fool
hosean
1
warmfootb essentiai,plungeboptional
Privatesaunadiagram
2
Domesticsauna—xpl17
body. Provide protection against peeping; seating; water cooling by hose withoutrose or/and plunge of approx 1 000 m3. Warm footbwith seating required.
Changing area: cubicles (oropen) fortwice number ofvisitors at peak times —(13); also ancillary rest and massage rm —x(12) for approx 30 visitors, 2 massage points; 1 rest rm for 1/3 bathers apartfromstaff. Room temp: undressing 20—22°C; pre-cleanse (coldwater) rm 18—20°; massage rm20—22°.
J
24—26°; cooling
—400
swlrmningpooi
-850
-
450
I— 900
3
Saunain swimmingha
9
10
Plungeb
2000
4 Planl—3P
±t.h 5
S
2—4P
Section—x(9)
I
Publicsaunasuite Ashtonunder-Lynepool England Arch TechnicalUnitforSport 11
6
3—5P
OT 500- 500 p600
1 refreshments
1—600--I
changingml pre-cleanse hoserecess piungeb 6 warn,footb 7 sauna 8 freshairb 9 restrm 10 massage 11 cash desk
2 3 4 5
I 7
l—.-—3750 —Ii-—-4280 —-41.2000
Saunafor1—3Pt section 12
11— 4250 —44-.-— 4000
Saunafor 30Pt plan
IP changingrm pre-cieanse& wc sauna coolingmm restrm freshair massage
8 Saunawith indirectheating (Bemberg):section
13
1
nTlsizesegfor30P 0.8—1.0m'IP 0.3—0.5m'/P
0 5—06m'/P 1.0-1.5 m'/P 03—0.6m'/P 0.5 m'/P 6—Bm
Arrequiredper P& mi sizes
changingmi pre-cleanse sauna coolingIn, massage
restm,
xi'
24—30 9—15 rn' 15—18rn'
30-45rn' 12—iBm' 9—lBrmi'
lob, iav,corr
99—144m' +21—35m'
air b bench
20—50m' 120—17gm'
Leisure 339
Sport: tennis COURT REQUIREMENTS Playing space needed for court—(1): h of net at centre 915, at posts
h 4000; 2.5 wire 40 mesh. Artificial lighting 10 m h at long sides. Scale of courts to population: regular players av 2% oftotal; ratio courts/players 1:30 to 1:35 very good, 1:45orover poor; new courts 1:30. Additional space amounting to 25% ofplaying spaceneeded forcar park,children'splay area, paths,bldg etc. Surface: exceptionally smooth, hard and pervious to rain: must attract very little dust and be dazzle free; materials: grass, cinders, plastics. 1 060; netting enclosure
10970 1370
3
Drainageplansfortenniscourts
end margin
h= 11.0
enclosure
9000 enclosure dimensions international&national county & club recreational relating to standards officialchampionships recommended of play minendmargin mm
sidemargin
6400
6400
5490
3660
3660
3050
36580x 18290
enclosure size for 1 cOurt mm
h
36580x 18291 34750x 17070
wiorcourts
33530
31700
waddedloreach additionalcourt
15240
14630
in 1 enclosure
7000
—6400 4
Playingspace neeoed forcourtsofdifferent standardsaccording to requirementsof(UK) LawnTennisAssociation
11.89
1
Coveredcourt h
I
2000I
14.0 10.0
i'2000.i
10.97-
'f
fl! -
—36.57-
16.27
I neth800
(TeTh
:.:.:.z.L.:.;:.:!:!r:..t.:.J.:.:.:.:
a
2 Dimensions& shapesforcoveredcourts—(4)sections alongitudinal bcross
5 Children'scourt
340 Leisure
Sport SKI JUMPINGSLOPES
pian
/ Sketch forconstructionofskijumpslopes
1
Following symbols should be used: Djstance fromparapet of lower referee's cabin ofhorjzontal 'd' beneath edge of platform: D x tg 16°—20°. Cabins should be located stepped along diagonals formed by line fromplatform edgetoend of point 'D'. Upper sideof floor of individualcabins lies 1 000—1 200 beneathparapet. Diagonal oftowertoaccess oftrack should be7°—i0°sothatreferee can properly observe entire flightand landing. As manystarting pointsas possible should be locatedon run up distri-
P
datum point table point K critical point (end of Slowingdown section & startof runoutslope) B endof landing runforvaulting M slowing-down section (distancefromPlo K) Mi distance from P to B L distance fromedgeof slope to P Li distance fromedge of slope to K H verticaf projectionof L N horizontal projectionof L H:N ratio ofverticalsto horizontals a slopeof platform b slopeof jump-off trackat datum point(P)upto criticalpoint(K) C run upslope Ri radius of bend fromrunupto platform R2 radius of bend fromlump-off to run Out R3 radius of bend fromplatformto jump-offtrack Iofplatform U partof runupinwhichspeed no longerincreases E partof runupinwhichspeed increases F OveralllOfrunup(F=U±E+I) A lofrunout Vo speed at platformedge in rn/s D horizontaldistancefromplatformedge to lower part ofreferees tower 0 distancefromjump offtrackaccessto referee'stowerfront edge TP
buted evenly along length E15 whose distance should amount to about 1 000vertically. Bottom starting point: E — E/5.
widthofjump-offtrackat K: L1/7 + 4m.
Mm
Remarks
All slopesgivenin oldgrading (360°). If transfersparabolic, thenRi and P2 smallest curves on thoseparabolas.
I
Withnatural runup, sections mainlyused should be marked every2000 to help locate starting point precisely.Gradients on platformand several pointsin curve between run upand platformend should be recorded on both sidesbyfixedbuilt-in profiles so that even non-experts can determine correctand precise profile when jump being worked. Profile markings should be applied along jump-off profile both sides down torun-out, allowingexact snow profileto bedeterminedparticularly in deepsnow. Jumps with L more than 5Dm should not normallybe built with Vo of less than 21 m/s. Jumps with Lover 90 m not approved by Fédération internationale deski (FIS) (except foraerial skijumps).
Standardsforchiefparts of platform:
H:N 0.48—0.56 Datum point of platformcan bedetermined:
Li —M, wherestandardsforMare: 0.5—0.8Vo forplatforms up toP= 70m
P M M
Mi Ri R2 R3
I
U
A
0.7—1.1 Vo forplatformsuptoP = 90m 0—0.2Vo
0.12Vo2—0.i2Vo2+ 8m 0.14 Vo2—0.14Vo° + 2Dm profile selectedforfront structurewhich best meetsangleof flight 0.22Vo 0.02Vo2 D 0.5—0.7x Li to loweredge oftower 4—5Vo on horizontalrunOut 0 0.25—0.50x Li
medium &largejumps
L
E
C
E
L
c
C
8—10
30° 35'
40
U
25 23
21
4.5 3.3
32 28 25
T
7—9
6—8
Vo =0.5 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.4
0.38
b
.1.
9—12
C
4O U
I
Vo
05
0.48
b
53.0
51 0
35—37
58.5
562
665
64.0
61.5
750
722
695
66.7
81 0
780
750
72.0
65.3
630
60.8
23
71.5
69.0
24
77.7
5.5 25
840
52
8.8
46
21
71
58
49
9.7
48
22
80
65
54
10.6
5.1
89
72
60
114
53
99
80
67
125
15
20.0 19.5 19.0 18.5 18,0 17.5 170 30—34
111
90
74
140
5.7 26
902
870
837
805
77.2
5.1 3.5 16
96.3
930
895
860
82.5
915
87.7
25.5 24.8 24.0 23.3 22.5 21.8 21 0 3O—35
124 100
81
150
5.9 27
39 32 28 5.8 3.7
17
31.0 300 29.0 28.0 27,0 26.0 250
33—30°
137 110
88
16.0
62
46 37 32 6.5 4.0
18
36.5 35.3 34.0 32.8 31.5 30.3 29.0
33—30°
52 43 37 7.2 42
19
42.0 40.5 39.0 37 5 36 0 34.5 33.0 34—37
59 49 42 8.0 4.4
20
47 5 45 8 44.0 42.3 40.5 38.8 37.0
2
056
0.52
44
€a
8—10 0.54
62
smalljumps
c
C
3O 35'
Dimensionssmall slopes
34—37W
28
.1.
36—30°
37—30°
38—40°
3
Dimensionslargerslopes Example: accordingtoterrainfollowingdataapplyto LI &H:NegH/N =0.54; C = 35°; L = 87m; intableyouwillfind L = 87&incolumn to left Vo=26; at
somelevelbeneathc=35°,E=gOm,U=14&T=5.7;F=E+ U+T= 90+ 14 + 5.7 = 109.7m: skijumpwith dimensionsdifferingfromabovecan beapprovedbyFIS but in suchcasesdesignermustgive writtenreasons
Leisure 341
Sport SKIJUMPING SLOPES 5
a
if"
I
I
juniorlumP
_
4
LI
!6
I 5
,
Olympicjump
___________________
0
b m
6
12
18
24m
40
40
40
ott
vi Olympicjump
1 Skijumpsat aGarmischPartenkirchen Germany b HolmenkollenNorway: 1 start 2 run up 3take-offplatform 4 run out 5grandstand 6umpires towers
ICE RINKS Hosed ice rinksinsomecountries ontenniscourts, rollerskating rinks
and similar large areas (surrounding wall h approx 100—150); water layer20; drainage forletting out water. Artificial ice rinkswith refrigeration system 25 below screed. Pump system with deep freeze salt solution or cold air chambers (usually ammonia compression method) —e(3)—(5).Sometimes combination of rollerskatingrink summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink winter (Dec—Feb). Refrigeration system25—50 below top of rink surface (not possible on terrazzo).
Standard racetrack: 1300m, 333.3 m,standard400m: measured500 in fromedgeoftrack—e(2). In double track system each track 3000 5000. Ice hockey—ep342. Bobsleigh runs with pronounced camber madeofice blocks atcurves. Spectators preferably oninside curves, otherwise protective mounds of snoworstraw bales. Toboggan runssitutated on N-NW-NE slopes, preferably in hollow: I 1 500—2500m; incline 15—25%;w 2000.FIat finish orrise inopposite
w
direction, camber at curves, obstacles protected with straw bales or snowmounds. Walk-up alongside noton run.
400mracetraclc 2xosntralaxis= 2x111.94= 223.88m innercurve =25.5x3.1416= 80.11m oulercurve =30.5x3.1416= 95.82m
25 111.94 —20.97
70
P/
CrOSSIng
//i! ,-5000 m_/'/'/
20.97—1O00m
41 3000m
startls0Om
7.957.76 innerlane
----.-
)
JcringPxtradsw
from70m
=0.18m
crossingstraight
2
Standardracetrack 400mI 100
insul--— ahon
_.....f
sub-concrete concrete
seamlesspipes distrbution rods in 75 concretemd trios-salt steel
prig
elf felt
endline m
2'
reinforcement
crease protectiveordIe radius2000
gravel
3
Artificialice rink: layoutof refrigerationsystem(brine)
4
Detail ofsurfacepipes
5
Detail
ofembeddedpipes
6
Longcurlingground
342 Leisure
Sport ICE RINKS (cont) 0
m-nee
targetground
l()
run-ott— sideline ——
I
1000
0
.LI —I
.Le5aO
Curling —(1): ground 42 m; w 4000 (30 x 3000also possible); intermediatetracks(strips) 1 m; pitch ends 600. Starting and aiming areas surrounded with easily crossed wooden barrier on3 sides. Scottish curling—e(2): field 142m;target area (tee) 03650. Tocentre pointoftee 38.35 m. If ice poor, reduce to 29.26 m. Curling stone: weight19.958 kg, circumference 914,h
ofcircumference. Icehockey—o(3): ground 1/8
26 x 56 m, 30 x 61 m. Goal1830w, 1220h; may be played
around back. Pitch requires wooden barrier
1200h—u(3).
Figure skating: rectangular rink 26 x 53 m 30 x 60 m. Combination ofrollerskating rink in summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink in winter (Dec—Feb).Cold pipe system 25—50 beneath
a
track surface —*p34l (5).
ROLLERSKATINGRINKS
2
1
Scottishcurling rink
Sportstracks rollerskating hockey—.(4)15 x 30— 20 x 40 m 25 x 50 m figureskating
2 Play tracks
lOx 10—
20 x 20m.
Impact board 250 h, 30 above track, 800 parapet along allsides, 2000chain-linkgrid at narrow end (to catch ball), surrounding walking areas 1200; 50—100 deeper. Joints 5—6, slope 0.2%. Surface wateringuttersorditches, frost protection layer
200 —*(4).
Construction Asbestoscement panels 15; laid on squared timberor on sand bed. Concrete tracks, 100— 150 according to type of bed, jointless ifposs-
ible, but imitation joints may be incised 2—3 wide.Space jointsevery 25—30 m, gap width 15.
1000—2000
Hard concrete screed, 8 on fresh concrete base (20 mortar if possible to take up stress between screed and concrete base).
I
.+_5400-÷--5000_1
I
I
2
Cementscreed withadditives 1—10. centre
1215
1000
1 I
jj
200
a ptnalt4 point I
Ib
Iu I
I I 30-40m
4
Rollerskatinghockey
Thnx\n
rollerskatetrack
30m
N9 cxi,
5
teamchangingrm
L=rr
ArtifIcialice& rollerskatingtrack
vc
E
o Cs
Terrazzo, polished, 15, joint rails of brass, metalalloyor plastics, only forindoor tracks. Castasphalt trackson fixed base, as normal.
Leisure
343
Sport: golf SITE Courses generally cover between 40 and 60 ha. Most popular those amongsand dunes or on heath land, neither hilly norflat. Well-drained arable land generally suitable; in UK government grants may enable more expensive works beconsidered if derelictortipped land reclaimed. Golf holes need proper safety margin: should not pass closeroads or throughnarrow tongues between houses.
LAYOUT—(1) Normally 18 holes: often prudent start with future extension.
9 holes while
providing
Site round club house 1stand 10th tee, 9th and 18th green (preferably infull view), putting green, practiceground, car parks,members entrance and serviceaccess. Ifprofessional's shop separate,place onway to first
Fairways
Width normally 30—40 m. Start 100 hole: 60 m (90 m on boundaries).
Rough Carry rough:tee to fairway Marginal rough: to either side of fairway,generally with mown band of semi-rough' of approx 10 m before trees, shrubs etc.
Bunkers
Sand areas averaging perhaps 100 m2 but of all shapes and sizes. To influence play determineoptimum line, provide options and penalise mistakes.
tee.
Area dictates total length absolutely; contour, natural features obstacles affectitmarginally.
and
Expect about 5300 m from40ha 6220 m from60 ha
Par is rating of av professional performance and yardstick by which measure skill, errors and course difficulty: applied to each hole and totalled for 18—.(2).
Tees May be combined on av length course but may be separated into championship, medal, club, ladies at progressively shorter distances. Allow300 m2 (400 m2 at par 3 holes).
a
Greens —(4) Size tosuit approach shotand need to spread wear by changing holes: say400 m2 to 600m2.
3
agolfclub b golfbag
Cgolftrolley
1
Golf courselayout(GolfDevelopment Council) strokes
par!
usuall
hole
m
3 4 5
110—1921—2 290—410 440—500
1
1
1
2 avm
2 Parvalues
2 2
par
75
72
71
67
67
3 9 6
4
5 13 0
4
11
12
4 10 4
3
1
m from men's tee. Playing width!
6310 5580 5120 5120 6760
4
Typicalgreen: 59m2
344 Leisure
Sport: equitation INDOORSCHOOLS
Location
Preferably attownedges directily connected bybridlepathtowoodland, pasture, heath-land orotherhacking-out —v(1).
In past ridingschoolsusually grew round existing bldg, eg adding to stablesof old house, building asbestos-clad barn structure over riding area to provideall-weather teaching.
Siting & access
1
Countrylivery stables& riding school
size ofopen trackwi frontofschool:70.0>' 100.0 clearhot largeschool:11.2 clearhot smallschool 8.0
-.
If' >partrmabove douhie>'andsclosed inatapprox5600 above
0
both gangways&stan arwith lanternround top hot bldgabovestandings 2400, gangways4600; litbylanternabove increasedhover gangways
Essential requirements for anysite: goodaccess for heavy vehicles aswell ascars access toopencountry and/or bridlepaths adequate el supply adequate watersupply, possibly including fire hydrants loose boxes should be protected fromprevailing winds low-lying sites whichcatch water and are usually frostyin winter to be avoided stable smells sited awayfrom adjacenthouses turning space for horsebox trailersand for loweringramps side and rear, with space to load and unloaddifficulthorses;tuming space also required formuck lorry —vp345(1)(2) access for fire appliances; requires roads mm 3600 wide capable of supporting pumping appliance laden weightapprox 101, with mm turning circle17 m dia mm clearance height 3600, forhay lorries 4500: all gate openings mm width3000clear space to convert barn or erectpurpose-designed indoor school; nun land requirementwith outdoor installations —vp3454ha.
Planning& layout Planning of installations breaks down into 3 main groups: instruction, horse management,admin—vp345.
Traditional plan usually arranges loose boxes looking inwards to courtyard with only covered way in front of each box. Later development: totally enclosed loose boxes arranged either side of corridor enabling themtobeserviced bytractorand trailor circulatingthrough block—v(3): disadvantage extra cost, including extrafire precautions; horses can become bored withoutoutside view. However, betterworking conditions forstable girls;ventilation can becontrolled toeliminatedraughts; easier tomaintain even temp; quieterconditions canbeadvantageifsite near road or railways.
Othergeneral principles: preferable school not so near stables that voice of command from instructors canbe heard and sodisturb horses atrest; riskoffire in stables necessitates special planning consideration: straw sto requires mm 1 hrfr from other parts of bldg, or fire break at least
4500recommended.
Consult relevantcodes and standards.
Spacerequired Size of indoor school
dictated by ability of fast moving horse turn 10.0—11.0mø. Many differentstandardsofcovered school. UK National 24.4 m, large enough contain Equestrian Centre has riding area 61 international size arena and hold dressage and showjumping events, with seating for300along 1 side.At other end ofscale possible provide suitable area underDutch barn, ofwhich sidesonly clad for 3000from eaves, with wattle hurdles enclosing floor.Whatever standard of bldg essential indoor ridingspace be 42 x 22 m to give40 x 20 m clear floor space required forelementary dressage, allowingfortiltedkickingboardsurrounding walls.
x
— _____________ hay sto
20
19
18
17
seroce 16 yard
-
i_
14
13
12
11
wof school floorfor single circuit accordingly: 12.0 m wof school floorforgroups: 15.25 preferably 20.117 m I ofschoolfloor ratio 2:110w eg40.0:20.0 I can be increased: 20.0 x 60.0—80.0
yard
10
muck container feed
x
military school: 18.29 54.86m h ofbldg: 4000—5000
-
Information based on requirementsof British Horse Society (BHS), British Show Jumping Association(BS,JA) and Fédération d'EquitationInternationale(EEl)
2
II n ii
tack
Ueichange
ue=amity box
Ii
im —I -r
entrance
Plan of Lea Bridgeriding schoolLondon Lee ValleyRegional Park Authority Arch J M VBishopMGQuinton 3
Leisure 345
Sport: equitation RIDINGCENTREPREMISES 10.0 7.O(7.0 I 2500 landrover &trailer
I I
t6.01.11.o i0.O
horse box
fl7.oI
Instructional: indoor school and areas—u(3)(4); outdoor manege—e(5); grass paddocks (mm 8000 m2); outdoorshow jumping ring; outdoor dressage area; cross country training area; clubrm/lecture rm/canteen; sf0 forjumps, cavaletti etc(approx 5% activity area).
6.0 manure container
2
1 Clearancerequiredfor
Clearancerequiredfor manoeuvringlargecontainertruck
manoeuvringhorsesintotrailer/box
62.0 60.35
42.0 40.234
I
riear_
I ..L
mm
JL-_ I
riding space
Vehicle and loading areas—+(1 )(2)
— ====1 I I
temahona
Horse management:stables (loose boxes —a(6)and stalls); utility box: grooming, clipping, shoeing, washing, treatment of cuts etc (size as loose box but without fittings except tie rings); sick box (approx 3500 x 4500): should be away fromother boxes but within sight of other horses; door should be in 2 leaves for horse to look out or be enclosed if requires complete quiet; sling suspended frombeam with block and chain may be needed: 1 250 kg max loading (for heavy draught horse); larger establishments may need completely isolated boxfor infectious diseases. Feed sto —u(7), feed rm, tack rm—u(8)(9), tool sto; hayand straw sto: Dutch-barn type structure; size depends on number of horses and method of buying: year's supply of hay most economic way to buyas price rises steeply during winter; straw price not affected so much therefore sto less critical. Datato determine size required: for 1 horse approx 9 kg hay/day, 1/2 bale straw/day; weight: 1 bale hay approx 23 kg, 1 bale straw approx 18 kg; bale size approx 900 450 x 450: approx 10% extra volume should beallowed ontotal storequired forair circulation and remaining stock when newload arrives.
x
Ridingschoolar: mm hneeded forjumping4000, 5000 preferable; doorw 2300in twinsliders;ifspectatorseating needed will beadditional to riding ar; judgesbox &collection/mounting aralso needed 3
33.2
f—18.3-4
01
J
E
1'
manege ring
365
101a
&
rail fence surround
C at
ra
5
48.857.81
•
I
a
tm
C
0
cinder all-weather welldrained surface
E
5
Mucksto: traditionally openbunkers with brickorblock wallson4sides with opening approx 900 wide on 1 side: concrete floor should drain towards this opening with gully outside. Size depends on number of horses and management.Allow approx 5.6m3/horse/week. After month
volume reducedapprox two-thirds. Skip-type containersrecommended: various sizes depending onnumber ofhorsesand frequency ofremoval. Veterinary sto: bandages may be kept in cupboards or pigeon-hole racks. Leg bandage measures 127 wide and approx 75dia. Medicines and poisons should be kept inseparate cupboardsand clearly labelled. Smithy: possibly 10—15 m2 in large centres otherwise space to park mobile blacksmith.
Administration; reception off; manager's off; staff rm; first aid rm; lavatories; changing rm; garaging for horse boxes, tractors and trailers; resident accn formanager; residentaccnfor grooms and/or stable girls; plant rm (boilers, el switchgear etc); workshop.
Manegering entrancefrom stables
—24.4—25.9-—'f
3500
4 Indoorshowjumpingarenawithcollectingnng,warm-up&practicejump space:formounting/collecting ar allowfor20—30 horsesat 3.5—5 m2each
Jo
2hatterhooks metal channel protective ping to door
ca
______
/
11tiering
j{
fallonmanger floor
painted brickwork
a
hayrack
straphinges
tie ring forhay net
'feedsto 1200 I
I
L_1
_______ .—i
skunitL
shelfoer hot & cold
halter hooks
e
bucket taps over gulley
bridleracks ceilinghung bridlecleaning+ hooksfor
girths
r
+
ce4nghung dr'jing rack
7
Feed sto:size dependson numberof horses &methodof buying feed (sacksor bulk); each bin capableof holding 101 kgoats, 76kg bran, 178kgcubes
8
enirancefromyard
holders
ullnose\
automatic drinking trough or
x
j•x900 ______ _________
entrancefromyard
b
brick
tiering for horse
iJ_ racks
kick-overlatch
mange
150O 3500
r_-4&oboiIe°
8
ii Ivanisedmetal screen
3500
iop
with units
3500 saddlehorse r—49000451)
ragchesfS.f1 ffsosk ----8500 cleanrm draining
Planoftypicaltack & clean rm; in larger establishmentsseparate cleaningrm desirable; BHS recommends1 tack rm/15 horses;valueof tack requires rrnspecially securefrom burglars
o
[___///
saltlickholder
r
9 Eqp storedintackrm includes: saddleson racks anotlowerthan700 fromfloor nor higherthan 1800,600 centres;stirrups& leathers;bridleson
C
Typicallayoutforloosebox: mm intemaldimensionsponies 3000 x 3000, horsesbelow 16handshigh3000x 3500, horsesabove16hh3500 x 4000; recommendedh approx3000—4000; ifinternal corrneeded mm w 3000recommendedfor usebyservicing vehicles&as means of fireescape; stallsmm 12700,mm w 1 800; mm passage betweenstalls1 800 asection belevation Cplan
6
a
b
racks b 1 600abovefloor;head collars,girthsonhooks 1 800 above floor;blankets, rugs,sheetsusually storedingalvanisedsteelchests(may be kept in generalsto)
346 Leisure
Sport: marinas DEFINITION
water
Liwater
d
bJFJJW
/
land
TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT Landto water relationship —'(1): land locked —'(4), built-in —'(5),
®eO Landtowater relationship: a land-locked d offshore e island 1
a
N
semi-recessed, offshore, island (constructed in open water: special case).
Tidal situation:
bbuilt-in csemi-recessed
//////////
L1!IJJ b%'//////////
0
non-tidal: variations ofwaterlevel 1000; usually easy for people and trolleysand simple connexions between onshore and offshore service systems; tidal: substantial changes of water level; difficult connexion between pontoons and land for people and services; construction difficulties almost inevitable.
Site selection factors:legalproblems; transport systems; potential for future extension; construction options and methods; geological, hydraulic, climatic; soil and sub-soil; orientation, physical features, erosion, possibility offlooding; engineeringnetwork onshore; materials stability; tides, currents, navigational requirements; pollution control; labour sources; effect of marina on existing environment during construction periodand after completion.
125 250375 500w
4J0
Marina's main role provide shelter from wind, waves and swell of passing craft; access to moorings at all states of tide with space for manoeuvre; tieing-uppoints for boats with services, eqwater, el, telephone, television, refuse collection, fire fighting, sanitation, public address system; sanitary needs and amenities for yachtsmen, eq wc, sho,changing and drying rm, entertaining,sporting activities,shopping; car parking; eqpforlaunching, lifting, manoeuvring, repairing, maintaining boats; other bldg directly relatedto boating.
800120016005
2
Energy-absorbing slopesinside HantsholmharbourDenmark
3
Pontoonlayouts: astretching from land bstretchingfrom breakwaters cstretchingfrom floatingelements
OFFSHOREBOAT HARBOUR COMPONENTS Area needed: craftsizesvary: I 4.8—21.3m (USA 4.3—24.4m), beam 1.8—6.0m (USA 2—6m); areas ofwatercalculatedon basis ofplanned numberand sizeof craft moored, pontoon layout, types ofberth. Depth ofwater: mm 600 (USA 610) plus max draft ofvessel at lowest astronomical tide, 300 reserved for stilting, 300 for clearance, If too shallow atlowest tidedredging necessary. Channel: leading to entrance 20—30 m wide; main channel within harbour area depends on number and sizes of craft passing through at any 1 time, mm w 18 m. Entrance:protectionrequired from ingress(waveenergy tobeabsorbed before choppy conditionsarise inyacht basin)—'(2); suitableprotection: spending beaches, rocks or concrete blocks moulded to appropriate shapes, piles.
Pontoon layouts: well selected layout very important; main choice limited to pontoonsstretching from a land, b breakwaters, c floating elements —'(3). 9
50
10
150 200w
150 300 450 6006
4
Yacht basinChichesterEngland: land locked, 1000berths
Berth types—'(6): a stern toquay, iettyorpontoon bowsto piles (poor for embarking); b same but bowsmoored to anchors or buoys (notfor
tidal marinas); c alongside finger piers or catwalks, 1 craft each side (convenient for embarking); d alongside quays, ietties or pontoons, single banked; esame upto 3 or4abreast (disadvantageofyachtsmen on outer climbing overinnercraft); fstar finger.
central square
kb Hto
5
MarinaPort GrimaudFrancebuilt onreclaimed marshland:900 flats each withberth
6 Types ofberth
k
a
Leisure
347
Sport: marinas COMPONENTS(cont) Locks: oftenhave more than 1 compartment; should maintainconstant water level on 1 side,other side varying withtide; capacity decided by peak use; waiting pontoons either side lock recommended. Pontoon design: often used to carryservices and to support lighting units, lockers, refuse collection points, fire fighting devices; service bollards oftenprovided: boats/bollard 2—6;sewage collection points for boats recommended either as holding tanks or as outlets connected with vacuum sewage system leading to onshore network. Mm w main access pontoons 2000with fingers 500 wide;if total pier I over 100, 2500wmoreappropriate; mm wfloating pontoon 2500. Pontoon types: fixed: for non-tidal marinas; fixed deck (timber, aluminium, plastics decking) resting on structural supports (piles most common);serviceducts usuallyunderdeck; floating:for tidal marinas or where structural difficulties occurand supportson bed not feasible (eg deep water, geological conditions); deck fixed tofloating unitsand so kept at required level above water; floats of steel, plastics, timber, concrete, polystyrene, filled with lightweight material (eq polystyrene) or left hollow; pontoons held in position by dolphins; in exceptional cases may be anchored to bed; connexion to land byhingedbridge,ramps, lifts, hoists, collapsible steps. Breakwaters: rubble mound: mainly forsites with relatively small tidal variations; alternative concrete blocks moulded to shape: not appropriate for more extensive structures; with relatively shallow slope (1:2 to 1:3) rubble mound occupies largewater area otherwise available for craftor otheressential uses; vertical face: concrete walls (constructed in open sea conditions as mass concrete
or buttress structures): efficient when built, difficult
to
constructand maintain;
caisson type: precast concrete cylinders (either hollow or filled with
sand) resting on sea bed; circular shaped cusps between units, positive contribution towave energyabsorption; floating: usually considered for sites with great depth of water and relatively mild conditions; sometimes act as secondary protection or primary barrier, reducing sea impact before waves reach main sea defence.
Fuellingpoints:considered desirable but not required by authorities
(UK); floating tanks not usually accepted. NB fire risk prevention at pointsofflexibleconnexions between tanks and floating pumps. Pollution control: in non-tidalmarinaswater circulationcertainlyrequired but hard to achieve. Sanitary accn for yachtsmen essential (travelling distance 100 m); provide refuse disposal units close to craft as possible; pollution culverts may alsobe needed. Onshore elements: car parking: ratio cars: boats 1:1—1:2; not too farfromcraftforyachtsmen and their eqp; sanitary accn; recommended mm either 1 wc and 1 shoeach sexper20 berthsor 1 wc, 1 urinal, 1 hb, 1 shoper25men, 1 wc, 1 hb, 1 shoper25 women (max occupancy of harbour estimated 6O%; suggested ratio men towomen 2:1);
yacht clubs: floor ar/P 1.0—5.0 m2: club rm, lay, drying rm, bars, restaurants, meeting rm, indoorsports, off, information centre, sleeping accn, caretaker's flat: hard standing, boat sf0, repair shop and other elements related to boat maintenance and handling; should have suitable device for boat lifting and launching and easy connexion toroads; freeareas formanoeuvring; fuel tanksoftensitedclose to boatyards; ancillaries may include customs, coastguards, lock keepers, insurance brokers, car hire, travel agent oft.
njjiiii_j.I [DDfl .I
-l—la
4
1
Boat sto with hoist
MarinaentrancedesignBrightonUK
5 Stoforsmall motor boats Sto
bar lecturerm
club
C
2 Main componentsof lock ter
d 6 Floatingjetty with housing superstructure Brightonmarina: section
3
Slidingcaisson& dockentrance
7
Clubhousedesign StokesBay sailingclub Gosport UK: aWelevation bgroundfloor cfirst floor dsecondfloor
Sportreferences: —Bibliography entries003006 046 083 183 205 212 297 355 384 388 475514515516517537538549585586587588639
1 CD
(I)
C
CD
348 Leisure
Theatres REGULATIONS street
--
overt otherwise
audience
v
i:I
1•passage >
stage
-&
passage >40
40
court
'1' a9o4
I street
!ih1: 4O
Reg concerning theatre and cinema bldg and schemes not rigid inUKor USA:concern public safety; must becomplied with to obtainnecessary licence; should be discussed with licensing authority atearliest stage. Principles applicable world wide;main task ofarchitectachieve balance between commercial, artistic and spectator requirements, and design scheme which complies with 'means of escape' and differential detail safety reg.
For consents required in UK in addition to theatre or cinematograph
Street
Distanceto adjoiningbldg if theatre street 1
passage
Ito
licence—.Bib300 301 328 329 346 347 361 363 591 598 599
2
Distanceiftheatreparallel tostreet
For USA—e local bldg codes
Organisation
Theatres may bedividedinto 3 parts—e(4): reception: entrance, booking hall, foyer, cloaks etc auditorium stage: main stage, wings, back of stage, scenery sto, workshops, dressing rm, rehearsal rm etc Parts vary in content and size depending on type drama, revieworcinema.
of theatre: opera,
Situation: Bldg for public entertainmentmust be sited allow
3
Distanceiftheatreliesbetween blocks
4
LayoutofViennaStateOpera
concert opera
.
revtew
. cinema
audience
leavearea more rapidlythan requiredleavepremises.Check requirements at earliest stage. —v(1)(2)(3)for typical dimensions.
Audience arrival times —s(5) extend from 15—30 minutes, departures 5—20 minutes.
Pwaitingin booking ha Pbookingwithin20mm
6% before
performance queuingforadvance booking ticket control time, ifarrivingbycar seating % ofPleavingseatsat interval time requiredfor leavingseatto
foyer time intoilet time fromseattodrive,excludingdo waitingfor taxisortransport
10% 20%
8% 2—15mm 1 mm 4—12 mm
2—15 mm
100%
— 1
1 mm
6—9 mmr
4 mm
—
50
75
4 mm
4 mm 6 mm 6 mm
1 mm
5mm 1—15mm
1—15
mm
2—5 mm
mm
— — — —
S Tableafter Burns-Meyer& Cole(—oBibi52) giving% ofP&time inmm needed reachorleaveseats,asmeasured inUSA
111111 JI
EU
cio/P
Car parks
—vp248—50. Capacities usually determined by planning authority. Site vehicle entrance away from theatre entrance. Include covered areaforsetting down passengers.
Exits mustall openoutwards and comply with requirementsfornumbers and travel distance. General rule for numbers (UK) 1600 width for250 visitorsor partthereof with mm of2exits —.(6)(7).Ramps not toexceed 10% in UK; can be limited to 5% incontinental Europe. Cloakrooms—v(7) Modern systems include self-service lockable coathangers orlimited length counters with mm number attendants.
Stairs—v(8) —°p408 Must complywith exitwidths requirements.Ifwidth more than 1 800 should be designed as double stairs with central handrail, 2 x 1100 ie 2200 wide. Risers not exceed 150, treads mm 280.
Foyers fortheatres can be 100—500 m2/P;for cinenias space required for circulation and exitonly,unlikely be more than 100 m2/P. Toiletsin accordance with licensing requirements; also —eBibO92. USA reg for exits, stairs etc vary: example—a(1 0).
v'l000for2OP befler2000&more direct imght&
+
oecitiiation 1100—l_00
IAI
6
Corrw: llOOforuptolOOP, 1600forup to 250 P
7
Exit&clo maxtravel
refreshment
fire-proofwail
distance within assembiy space Im)
rim
occupancy group classification
L/1
f-la
ffJ f-2
ofwI
capacitylP/unit
doorsoropenings aisle
primary
Secondary
& from from stairs cross assembiy safe & aisle space Sr escalators
26 30 53
38 38 76
80 90 400
50 80 400
100 125
500
60 80 320
ramps corr, safe ar, exd passageways
80 100
425
'unit 560
/corr
i-ia: enclosed theatreswithstagesthat
theatreswhichprohibit
mayhave scenicelements,i-lb.enciosed
use of scenic elements onorabove stage: f-2, outdoor
assembly spaces
8
Stairs:llOOforuptolOOP;
1600 forupto 250 P; centre handrail requiredover 1800w
9
Providelob betweensmoking& non-smokingar: doorsto openin directionofexit
10 Determinationof exit&accessrequirements: extractfromNewYorkCity bldgcode
Leisure
349
Theatres CD
SIGHT LINES
C')
Typical seated spectator—(1) Eye height: 1120± 100 Tread of seating tier (rowspacing) 1: 800—1150 Head clearance C: C1 = 65: mm clearance/row, assuming spectator will see between heads row infront (every-other-row vision) C2 = 130 allows av spectator see over head av specator in front (every-row vision) Rise R —*(2): difference in height between adjacentseating platforms Floor slope: Arrival point of sight(APS) —(2)(3): intersection of highest sightlmneat focal planepositioned 50above stage platform Distance: horizontal distance from eye ofseated spectatorto APS D1 = distance fromeye offirst row toAPS = distance fromeye ofgiven rown toAPS Elevation: vertical height ofeye ofseated spectatorabove focal plane E1 = vertical height ofeye offirst row abovefocal plane = vertical height ofeye ofgiven rownabove focal plane = 0 establishes max stage height allowable, ie 1 060
CD
C
E
Constant rise floor slope —(2): sight lines from rows parallel; APS determined by intersection of sightlinefromlast orhighest row at focal plane: T T
R=-E1+(N—1)+C E1
D1=—E1+(N—1)C
=t(R—C)—C(N—1)
N = number ofrowsin seat bank. Iscidomal floor slope —(3): exponential shape of floor slope results from generation of sightlines fromsingle focal point orAPS; iscidomal floor slope makes more efficient use ofgiven total rise:
2
Constantrisefloor slopes
Type and scale of performance will dictate range of performing area sizes —*(4). May be desirable enable performing space accommodate variety of performing area sizes. Containment of audience within130° angleperipheral spread of vision from performer at point of command will help promote maxvisual and auralcommunicationbetween performer and spectator. Largest performing area should fall within boundary defined by 130° angle of peripheral spread of vision from seats at ends of front rows —(5). Limitofcentreof action defined by 60°angle of normal, accurate, polych romaticvisionfrom seatsatends of front rows. Pointofcommand should logically fall within centre ofaction. Boundary limit of seating area ofauditorium might be defined by given constant angle of peripheral spread of vision to sides of given stage opening. Limits ofboth30°and 60°angles of peripheral spread of vision tovarious openings illustrated —(6).
3
Iscidomalfloor slopes
A 8.5m B 10.7m C 12.8m D 14.9m E 17.Om
4
Rangeofperformingar
5
Relationstiipbetween performingar&seating
6 Viewinganglefields fromstageopening
350 Leisure
Theatres AUDITORIUM
movable (flying &/or hinged) auditorium ceilingcan beused tovary seating capacity insingle ha
Auditorium longitudinal sections shown —.(1 )—(6) have same numbers of rows. Max D:H balcony overhang proportion recommended: 1:1 for concerts, 2: 1 foropera, drama. Flying balcony may allow greater D : H ratio by allowing reverberant energy reach rear seats frombehind. Last rows should have clear sightline to central speaker cluster. Balcony overhangs positioned clear of projection beam. Max sight line angle frombalcony to stage: 300 Convexand irregular surfaces aid sound diffusion. Domes, vaults and other large concave surfaces may cause acoustic problems. Higher ceiling for longerreverberationtime asrequired forconcerts; typical hall volume: 20.5 m3—35 m3/audienceseat. Lower ceiling forshorter reverberation time as required for drama, speech; typical hall volume: 7.5 m3—14 m3/audience seat. In halls used for concerts treat stage and audience seating as 1 volume. In multiple-use halls this condition achieved with hard orchestra shell which must be demountable for full useofstage forscenery. Acoustic requirementsmay dictatethat reflective surfaces at ceiling of orchestra enclosure extend out above audience seating.
6
3flying baic
traprm
seatwagon sb
ar/musician 1—1.5 m2
7
Typicalorchestrapitliftdetail
max seats: 12—17(l4typ) USA 18—30 modifiedcontinental 14—22 UK
8
Multipleaisle seating
max seats permittedperrow: 49;unlimited incremental increase in row I sometimespermitted asfunction ofincremental increaseinrow spacing
9 'Continental'seating
Leisure
351
Theatres SEATING Sizesdepend on type of chair and determine chair spacing. Decide on chair style at outset. Traditional chairs require mm spacing at 840 and are 500 wide—*(1);mostcommon USAdimension 530. Modern chairs vary considerably: can need1 400 spacing and width of 750. Standing space —+(2) formerly normal not usual in modern theatres. Seating usually laid out in straight or curved rows; in some theatres angled seating tried —e(3). Seating radius centre point best established by trying alternative positions. Short radius enables whole audience face centre of stage but this must be drawn to ensure adequate circulation spaceat front stalls sides.
I- 840—1000H
I Allseatsfixedtip-up chairs
(exceptinboxes);armchairseating needs1400 x 750spaces
2
Standingroom, unusualin modem theatres
BALCONIES 2000
r—
Theatres with 1 balcony (frequent in USA) —*(5) can give better sight lines than multiple —*p350, reduce staff requirements, simplify exits, increase spectatorconvenience. Sometimesmovableceiling.Very deep stalls under balcony .—(5) tend to limit upward sight line. Multiple auditoria have become common —e(7). Containment of sound in each auditorium major problem.
—1
:
FLEXIBLESEATING—aIsop135 H—
3
Angledtip-up seatsgive elbow
room
2400
—
4
Boxesmay have 10chairs& clear way toexit
Divisionofauditoria intosmaller rm bysliding folding partitions common in conference centres; more difficult in theatres with stepped floors. Consider closing off areas of seating to provide smaller capacity; to provide full flexibility folding seating areas can slide away to expose level floor —spl35(4). Loose seating used on flat floor gives very poor sightlines:musthave temporary fixing. Stoaccnforloose seating must be provided;1 000folding chairs need 20—36 m2stospace. 9
24 25
50
1
8
5
5
24m
15ft
m
75 ft PUIHHHIIIH0011_
5
Section rough auditorium ofAmerican1-balcony theatrewith ambulatory&view intorear stalls: equal seatvaluesostandard prices possible 6 HamiltonPlaceOntarioCanada aorchestrafloor b1St balconyfloor Arch Garwood-Jones
7
Concertha Helsingborg Finlandwith 2ha1 aboveother a longitudinal section bplan of large ha Arch S Markelius
key 6 upperlob 7 upperpart studio theatre
8 meetings 9 orchestrastage
10 dramastage
11 reCeiving 12 ott& entrance 13 dressingrm 14 rnecheqp
0 3 6 9
12m
10 20 30 40ft
352
Leisure
Theatres mm
normal max
m
m 10
drama
8
review
10 10 12
musical opera 1
11
12 18
STAGETOWER Dimensions governed by stage machinery, increasingly complex to speed scenery handling and changes. Small stage withoutside and backstage —(2a). Shifting scenery by hand with trained staff 3 mm; with 'jacknife'trolleys15sec—9(2b); ifsideand backstagewith traverse
rn
12 14 15 25
trolleys10sec—(3).
Revolvingstage
Stagew
Discwith 2—3 sets—(3) 2 discswith contact at stage centre Reciprocating segments —*(2c) Ring stage withcentreupstage—(2d) Ring stage withcentrein house—*p353
I
r--t—l
2A I
Stage tower
Widthofstage twicestage opening —÷(3). Depthof stagefromfire curtain 3/4 stage width, height to rigging loft
i i
L_i
underside
medium height of auditorium
+
height of stage opening
Fireman's rm 800wide,2200 high scenery at each side of stage,with viewandexittostage; escape route also required. Width of corridor at stage level 2200, otherwise 1 500. If stage (without side and backstage) larger than 350 m2 width of corridors increases by 150/50m2. Exits fromstage areas should beplanned provide readyegress from all parts. Include at least2 exits ofwhich 1 must lead to openairthrough
a
unventilated lobby. Mm widths should comply with reg. Exit requirements frombasement and dressing rm areas similar, ito be independent of stage area and 1 from dressing rm should also lead directto openair.
Workshops(locksmith, carpenter,paint shop) connectedbyfirelobbies
to corridors. c
d
Diagramsshowingvariousways ofsetting&handlingscenery
Scenery sto atstage level 1O% ofstage area. Heightof scenery stoapprox6000—10000. Rigging loft: space overstage used for hanging scenery and lighting eqp. Between loft and roof construction allow 2100 head room. Adequate ventilation equal to 10% stage areatobeprovided by haystack lanternabove loft. Varies fromcode to code USA.
Fire curtain:stage must be separated fromauditorium by fire proof curtain ofwire-woven asbestos clothstretched between top and bottom steelpipes, asbestos plates fixed tofireproofsteelframe orsheetmetal fixed to fire proof steelframe. Hand release to operate fire curtain and
drencher system over. Both automaticand hand releaseusuallyrequired in USA. Curtain must be in 1 piece; should move vertically and should close completelyin 30 seconds.
3
Diagrammaticplan of stage towerwithtypicaldimensions
Diagrammaticsectionofstagetowerwithtypicaldimensions
Leisure 353
Theatres MULTI-FORMTHEATRE Ring stagewithcentre inhouse-.-(1)—(5)Aimsatintimateconnexion of audience and actor; brings play amongst audience in contrast to
peep-show' stage. These methods call for modern stagecraft. Actor
playssurrounded by his audience —(2)(4)(5) without curtain and with little scenery. Auditorium may be round, square or rectangular —(4). Instead ofsceneryuse canbe made offilm projection.Revolving stages —(2)(3). Revolving auditorium —*(2)(3).'Theatre in the round' (arena type)where common stage omitted —(5). Combined 'arena' &'peep-show' stageAsarena theatresidewalls of auditorium have rolling orsliding outpanels which line upwith cyclorama and thus enclose space. As 'peep-show' theatre proscenium arch put between auditorium and stage.
1 Arenastage:groundfloorplan Arch Kreisiinger& Rosenbaum
2 'Total theatre' withrevolving centre: plan shows bothpositions: after Gropius
Theatre references: —4Bibliographyentries 015 034 113 114 152266298309340343350 351 352361 408409413475556572626
3 NewLondonTheatreDrury LaneLondon: revolving stage&frontstalls with adjustableh seating; canbe eitherin theroundorproscenium Arch Tvrtkovic& KennyChew&Percival
I
KleinesHausTheater Mannheim (Germany)with adjustable seating
a peep-show'stage withorchestra bdouble-sidedarena stage carena stage allround ArchG Weber
5
Arena StageTheaterWashingtonDC USA upperlevelplan Arch Harry Weese
6
Circle level Olivierauditorium National TheatreLondonEngland Arch DenysLasdun
Plan at balc level TyroneGuthrieTheater(three-quarterarena) MinneapolisUSA Arch RalphRapson
354 Leisure
Cinemas —also theatres p348—53
Techniques& regulations
Very similar to theatres. Old requirements (UK) for open space round cinemas stillapplicable—(1 )(2);architect mustdiscuss requirements at earliest stage. Use of courtor mall access becomes more common in comprehensive schemes, but unless courtfully fire protected may not countas exit—(3). Consultrelevant codes and standardsfor all details.
Doors & corridors
mended. Limitto sightangleof35° above horizontal produces distance to screen on centre line of 1.43 x height fromfront roweye level totop of picture—*p357(4). Seat sizes finally determine layout dimensions —*p350—1. Vertical sight lines determined in similar way as for theatres—p349 except that each spectatorshould have clear viewto bottomofpicture. Side seating at front limited byangles ofsightto screen —p355(6).
Widthsmust match exitrequirements. Doors toopenoutwards against exit flow in corridor and to be free of fastenings except panic bolts. Projections forhandrailsup to75allowedintoexitwidths butdoors must provide clear exit dimension measured fromdoor face to frame when standing open. Doors generally required to befr and selfclosing —'(5).
Accesstoauditorium
Srcases
Now often considered necessary in commercial cinemas. Various theoriesusedto divide total seats needed. Ratios of 1:2or2:3 fordual cinemas; ratiosof1:2:3 fortriple cinemas; progressionofseat totals for larger multiples. Basicrequirement: givevisitor choice of programmes andenableoperator judge business potential of each film soas showit in auditorium ofcapacity to match public demand. If film playing to half capacity audiences can be transferred to smaller auditorium or vice
Must also match exit requirements —p348, clear width being measuredbetween walls orwalland balustrade—*(6). Not less than 3 risers permitted; not more than 16 risers in straight flights. Max of 2 successive flights without turn allowed provided number of risersreduced to 12. Landings attop, bottomand between flights should equal width required. Stairrisers(UKcode) not to exceed 150, treads atleast 280; USAcodesvary. Stairs —'p408
In stepped seating can be from beneaththrough vomitory orfromrear, each to crossoveraisle. Side and rear aisles add toease ofaccess and supervision ofaudience.
Multipleauditorium
versa. Seating capacities vary between 100—600 chairs: generally regarded (UK) asmm and max auditorium sizes—(7).
Seating
Layoutssimilar totheatres—*p349—50,except seatblocks donotnormally exceed 14 chairs. Spectator convenience improved for continuous performances; salesofconfectioneryimprove when accessfrom seating increased. Modern chairs, some of which have nottip-up seats, need greaterspacing, Distance fromscreen to front rowofseats determined bymax allowable anglebetween sightline fromfirst rowtotop ofscreen and perpendicular to screen at that point: max angle 30°—35° recom-
Sales, staff, projection and service arrangements can be as for single cinema —*p355—7. Ventilation andacoustic separation must be provided. Single projection rm to link all auditoria preferred but automation and closed circuit tv to monitor programmes make possible separate eqp in conversion of old properties.
!
0
•i\\
street
t1o
:i.;:;;II;I.1i1r... 6OL120 1courttotaketotal
tierofspectators street
1 Cinemas with morethan 2000 seatsshould haveexits on more than 1 publicroad,orbesituatedin courts
i3i3
Cinemaswith less than2000 seats shouldhaveexits on public road; maybe incourts—(3);for passages—(4)
street
pa11t1 : I:
1
court.
ii!
3
Cinemascanbesituatedoff street butmayrequirealternative exits
slope1:1O. radiatorsin tire proof rise
eys auditonum
5
's15O tread
door'must openoutward
Door&corrwtocornplywithreg —p348:doorstoopenagainstexit flow
6
direct light& —ventilation
1.1
1.
Wofstairstoequaiexitw —p348:flightsnotlessthan 3 risers not morethan16, l2if2flights without turn
7
CinemaPutneyLondon: multipleauditona; partofcommercialbldg, with high levelcommonprojectionrm
Leisure
355
Cinemas Cloakrooms
Not standard requirement inUKcinemas: ifprovided should beplanned notto obstruct exits or normal circulation—*(1)—sp348.
•
Projectionrooms
Used to be divided into separate compartments for rewinding and projecting film with dimmer rm, battery rm, switch rm, spotlight rm, workshop and staff and storm, each 6—10 m2forming suite—e(2)(3).
column
1.6
::...:.-.::::-:::•::.......g ......•.....
F::::::::•:•::-::::::::•::::::: 1
1.1
Modern automated systems take about same space and require rewind bench to giveoperational flexibility.
Arrequiredfordocounter —vp348:notusualinmodern cinemas amplifier & tapedeck 1
Type of eqp to be used should be established at outset tofinalise detail dimensions. Provided non-inflammable (safety)filmonlyused exits can beinternal —n(4): if inflammabletimused 1 exit mustleadtoopenairand haystack lantern must be provided, with opening area of 0.19 m2for each 640 m of film used and stored in rm. Exit to public area must be through ventilated protected lobby. Circulationspace for servicing and access must be provided round eqp; front wall length of 5500 x rm depth of 3500is av size. Plan staircase and door widths to allow for access of eqp; risersshould not exceed 190 treads at least250. Mirror projections and observationused where space limited, and before automation became available —(3). With mirrors 1 projection rm can serve multiple cinemas located vertically; but as general rule better avoid mirror projection. Picture ratios vary with film systems: operator mustdecide whatrequired —n(S).Advance techniques employ variable height and width pictures; as size of arc lamp used determined by picture area max effectobtained byusing differentratios ofequal areas.
portholesassmall
P\
canopy
arclampextract switch gear rm
Diagramofprojectionrm; ifwindow installed ensuredaylightcannot reachscreen aplan bsection 2
Using70 film makes possible bigger area screens. Normally accepted max screen widths:for 70film 20 m, for35film 13 m. Screen sizeshould be largeas possible up tothese maximaorwidth of
Projectionrmingallerystructure, observationthroughmirrors:with 35 mm also projectthroughmirrors 3
seating whichever least; ratios ofwidth to max viewing distance should befrom 1:2to 1:3—v(6). Advisable inverysmall cinemasaccept ratio of 1:2 to enable standard focallength lenses to be used and avoid very small pictures. Wider pictureswould requirespecial lenses. Tocalculate picture widthobtainablefromgiven lens:
4
Internalprojectionrmwith mech ventilation
w=
film frame apperture w x throw focal Iof lens
Inanamorphic (Cinemascope) projection same formula used multiplied by2. 1:1.37 normal 1:1.66paramount 1:I.75mgm 1:1.B5columbi 1:2.2 todd ao (70mm) 1:2.34cinemascope
5
1:3.25 cinerama
Commonfilm ratios:useadjustable maskingto screentosuitpicturesizes
\/
with vertex zoneii perboia \—asyniptote pointonScreen iso-defo,rTlatlon zonelimit lutes zonei: y=0.3x'—H' zoneii: = H=screenh
y
6
Curved directional screens originallydeveloped to overcome dispersion of reflected light from flat screen. Modern cinema with betterscreen material able to use curve of screen to reduce amount of apparent distortion to sidesightlines. Too much rise onchord cangive problems with focus over whole picture area. Screen radius usually between 75—100% of projection throw; rise on chord should not exceed 10— 12% ofchordwidth.
i
ii'
flatscreen—seatingzonelimits zone i: y= ±(0.5W—yO.33x'
—
H')
Vii)
where, \/0.75W'+3H'
zoneii:y= ±(0.5W—
where, 0.25W' +3H'
Filmprojectionplanning: viewing pointonscreen:line of iso-deformation =boundaryof seatingarfor which spectatorswillseesame apparent distortion: hyperbolashapedefined in planbyasymptotesfrompointon screen; zoneIdistortion existsbutnot noticedfromseatsfallingwithin hyperbola: mm horizontal distancefrom vertexof hyperbolatoscreendeterminedbylimitationof verticalanglefrom eye of firstrowtotopofscreento max of 30°—35°;zoneIIdistortions noticed but toleratedfrom seatsfallingoutsidezone I;zone Ill (seating placed beyondlimit ofzone II) distortionsof projected imagenottolerated&viewerwillrefuse
curvedscreen—seating zonelimits iso-deformationzonelimit tinesmost easily plottedbygraphicalmethod: plotiso-deformationhyperttoiaIronpoint on screen& rotateaxesaboutcentre ofscreencurvature
seat placedhere: viewing flatscreen: seatingarrepresented by arcommon to spacewithin 2 hyperbolas;arinzone Iforwide projectedimages lessthanzone Iforpointon screen;seatingarforzone IIforwide imageonflat screen maycorrespond approxtozone Ipoint onscreen viewing curvedscreen: zoneI arforgrvenscreenwcanbeincreased by curvingscreen;appropriatecurving willcause overlapof hyperbolasdrawn from sidesofprojectedimagesoastodefinegreatercommonseating ar
CD
(/)
C CD
356 Leisure
Cinemas Generallayout In addition topublic areas must include staff and service areas: boilerhouse el substation
m2 25—30 28—38
m2
plenum chamber kiosk stockrm manageroffsuite 3 sto rm switch, battery, workshop &staffrm
ice-cream sto 20 staffrm 45 projection rm 19—25
20 10—15
or
38 28 40
Lighting systems
Provideinaccordance with detail licensing requirements: decorative lightingand anyrequired spotlights toauditorium dimmed to showfilm, otherpublic areasmaintainedwhile spectators use bldg; cleaner'slighting to auditorium and foyers: auditorium system used as emergency lighting under managementcontrol; USA emergency lighting operates automatically if main fails; maintained lighting to auditorium and exit boxes throughout bldg: designed provide illuminationofseatingareasand gangwaysduring film programme (no light to fall on screen or walls); New York City code requires aislesand crossings have mm 5.35 lx at all times;
2
Cinema in Oslo:groundfloorplan showing circulationinlateral arrangementwith double-sideddo ArchBlackstad& Dunker
safety lighting to all public, key staff areas and exit boxes throughout bldg: must be kept on as part of maintained system; should main el supply fail safety system must be able provide sufficient light allow public and staff leave bldg safely; N American and continental Europe practice provide separateemergencylightingsystem which only illumines on failure of main supply: notpermitted in UK.
other el systems includefire and burglaralarms, speakerwiring, internal telephones, induction systems forboth deaf-aids and managementcall, closed circuit tv, emergency public address and main switchgear for controlofheating, ventilation, projection and stage eqp.
box oft
Heating—*pl 6385—9 Ventilation&air conditioning—*pl5—16392—4
Heating and ventilation for public entertainment bldg developed as licensing authorities required higher ventilation standards. In UK fresh airventilation requirement basedon number of persons accommodated and varies from 70—93 m3/hr/P in auditorium and extract system for 75% of input air. Where air-conditioning installed at least half this quantity must be fresh air, with up to 50% filtered and recirculated.
3
CinemainMadrid:diagonallysituatedincorner bldg withmosteconomic useofspace &goodshapeofauditorium; ground floor plan Arch Gutierrez Soto
Foyer and toilet systems based on normally accepted standards —xBlb347.Toilets affected bylicensing requirements. staff
Incoming air must be heated; plenum system generally used with air supply at screenend and extract divided in auditorium rear corners to avoid vitiated airbeingilluminated by projection light ray. General parts ofbldg can be heated by lowpressure hot water system.
cix
Filmdisplay
In schools, universities, hotels and other bldg 16 eqp used; when approved this does not require separate projection rm, provided clear space maintained round eqp. Regulationsfor space requirement vary from 900 to 2000. Picturewidths up to6000possible with suitable light source; anamorphic (Cinemascope) ratio varies from 35 to 1:2.66. Commercial cinemas in USA and UK have used 16 eqp but in UK picture and printquality notgoodenough. —xalso lecture theatres p135
:J1fl projection
exit
cio-l-
sidegangway
exit
't
stair to gaiiery
.
stage podium
screenJfl artists
[
cix-4--
-
auditorium
(orchestraLfil exit
wc
-
I
.
I sidegangway
LI
. fresh-
j, exit
I
4—
street stairto gatery secondaryentry & stair toprojection
1 Circulationdiagram: stageaccnnotnormallyneeded; exitstosuit seating capacity
4 Cinema in Turku Finland: 590seats ArchBryggman
I
Leisure 357
Cinemas Screensystems
Cinema screen in past titted into adapted theatre; today increased picture size (Cinemascope, Cinerama,Todd AD, Circarama, IMAX,for small cinemas closed circuit tv) determines interior design. Traditional cinemas—.(1a)had small pictureswhereas3-projectororiginalCinerama system .—°(lb) involved spectator with 30.5 m screen. This surpassed by new single projector IMAX system with 70 film used horizontally to enlarge frame size and provide 36.5 m picture, seating being placed closescreen preventing whole picture being seen without both vertical and horizontal movement of head; callsforspecial projector and auditorium; used in Canada and USA.
a
Circarama system using 11 projectors gives full involvement but no seating practicaland handrails necessary prevent audience tailing over —°(3): used very successfully at Disneyland. Further development used in theme parks and now in Experience theatres world wide: audio-visual technique ofautomated multiple projection of still pictures with auditorium effects and multi-track magnetic sound systems. Closed circuit projection tv system feasible with electronic line enhancement; gives picturesof 2430x 1 830. With Eidophor' screen sizes up to 9 m x 12 m possible. Development in progress in USAand UK.
1
Sound systems
Have developed considerably; problems of handling magnetic sound recordings on film being answered by Dolby encoding optical system. Stereo across screen and to front and rear provided on 70 film with 5 rear screen speaker tracks and 6th track forauditorium speakers. Wide screens and side sound sources can produce acoustic problems: generally for cinemas reflected sound paths should notexceed directpaths by more than 15 m—.p18395—7.
atraditionalcinema bfororiginalCineramasystem
2
Civiccentre in centralrestricted position forces placingofhaforvarious uses (cinema,concert,exhibition, museum, theatre)aboveone another: spaciouscentrallob,foyer&stairsshared Arch Cassandra Athens
3
Circarama:screencircular (370°);11 synchronised projectors producecoherentpicture; example;Expo Brussels
yroihonray cenireiune
betternot toeeceedtO
I
+
—keepeyepoinitor saeen frame
sighthnesfromrearsears
tobottomofyiciure
sight tine angiesvary
raker
t v
to screen= .43 hfromfront .f_.___distaflce eye ieneitotopofscreen
4
Basicrequirementsforauditorium levels; rakenotnecessarily limited to 10% & 5% in USA
358 Leisure
Drive-in cinemas Curved layouts give maxof360 carspaces and individual speakers foreach car. Usual layouts on principle of amphitheatre forboth individual and multiple schemes. —(1 )(3). Sizesover 1000 carsunusual.Multipleschemes more acceptable to operators. Some original situations in N America rebuilt to include dual, tripleorquadruple layouts. Situation on highways usuallyaway from residential areas. Should be sited so that lights frompassing traffic donot disturbspectators or throwlighton screen.
Layout should provideview of picture at not more than45°from screencentre; rampsshould be designed so that spectators can see over cars in front —*(2). Distance from screen to front rowwith large screen often more than 50 m. Carholding areasavoid trafficjams on highway. 2 double ticket booths normal mm: 500 cars need mm
20minutes toenter. Exitsshould
be away from entrance. Cars may leave and entersimultaneously between programmes. Screen size varieswith overall capacity: 30.4 x 13 m normal max, 20% of distance to rear
Drive-incinemainfanshapewith singleramp, shownforright-handdrive traffic;projection bldg obstructsviewfrom2rowsto rear 1
sightlines to bottomof screen—cars titledupto maximise viewthrough windscreen&over cars infront
-
2
• 6100 2OO
1
o
Children's playground and outside seating provided in NAmerica. Surface waterdrainage catchment pooi oftensitedin front ofscreen. Projection bldg in centreor at rear, includes
--
—
0 pole with loudspeakers &elheaters
—-
-
cars normal mm. Should face between E and 5, making possible earlier evening performances. Heightabove ground depends on site profile, determines angles ofcar ramps.
0 3400
increases with steeper carramps
Dimensionsfordoubleramplayout: singlerampscommoninUSA
workshop, sto, switchrm, soundand projection system. Can includepublic toilets, restaurant and office. Max projection throw 137 m nor lessthan2 x screen width.
Sound reproduction best with speaker taken into car from poles spaced at 5000 centres. El fan heaters may also be on poles. Some N American operators also have air-conditioning by underground ducts with flexible car connexions.
Floodlighting provided for intermission;
hooded roadway lighting maintained through performance.
3
Dual drive-incinema:1 projection rmfor bothscreens makes possiblestaggered startingtimes;all other services(eg ticket off,bar,lay) used jointly
Cinema references: —Bibliography entries 084 098 099 113 114 129328329339 347 426 598 599
359
Leisure
Museums Irecepton
restoration
registry
sto
CD
Forshowing worksofartand obiects ofculturaland scientific interest rm
C',
must:
ensure protection against damage, theft, fire, damp, aridity, strong
curator
research lecture rm
gallery
check-in entrance
1
ROOMS
2
Sectionofgallery litfrom 1 Side only, bottompartindirectly, attenuatedlighting
Layoutdiagram
spotlight
sunlight and dust; showworks in best light(in both senses ofterm): normally achieved by dividing collection into objectsforstudy(egengravings, drawings) kept in portfolios and stored in cupboards (with drawers) about 800 deep and 1 600 high; objectsfordisplay (eg paintings, frescoes, statuary,ceramics, furniture) Exhibits must be so placed as to be seen without effort: calls for selective and spacious arrangement, with variety and suitable rm shape and sequence.
So faraspossible each group of pictures in 1 rm orsequence ofrm and each picturea wall to itself: ie number of small rm. These also provide morewall space in relation to ground area than large rm, necessary for big pictures: rm size depends on picture size. Normal human angle of vision (54° or 27°up fromeye level) achieved with well lit pictures 10m away = hanging height of4900above eye level and about 700 below it —(5). Only withlargepictures isthere needforeyetotravel from bottom of frame up above angleof vision. Best hanging position for smaller pictures: point of emphasis (level of horizon in picture) at eye level
m
3
4
Installlightingsothat anglesof incidencecorrespondwith natural light
Typicalcross-sectionfor museumofnaturalhistory
ribbed glass frosted glass
,
screen
N'
S
N
_____
"
__________
k>1 j 100 I-
5
-
largest hanging surface best 5.6 hanging surfaces between
950&3.6
3—5 hanging surface space/picture 6—10 m2 ground surface space/sculpture 1 m2cabinet space space/400 coins Calculations formuseum lighting highly theoretical: quality of light what matters. Experiments carried out in America therefore more important (—÷Bib561). In recent times continuous increase in use of artificial lighting, instead of constant variations of light experiences even with N lighting —*p360.
GENERALLAYOUT No continous circularitinerary butwingsleadingoutfromentrance. Side rm forpacking, despatch, transparencysection, restorationworkshops, lecture rm. Museums sometimes in bldg originally designed for other purposes.
1)
6
Ideallylitrmwith uniform lighting front both sides,asworkedoutby S HurstSeager(-.Bib561)
Well-lit exhibitionhabasedon Bostonexperiments
1001
(Th
i
>
I27/' iLl
T1
900r
27°
2.0
1.0 1.5 500e
h
7 Field ofvision:h&distance
8
a
0.1
1000
0.5 0.6 0.75
10 Paintingstowithdetachablesteelmeshframesonwhichpictures can behungasrequired&be readyforremovalatanytimeforstudy
Size & distance
outerwallof glass optional
J.
AAAA1iAWA1,AI I
Exhibitionrmwith side lighting: suitablehangingsurfacebetween 300 &600 with mih of6700&dlih 2130forpicturesor3040—3650for sculpture,ascalculatedfrom Bostonexperiments 11
9
Exhibitionrmwith folding screens(designK Schneider) allowsgreat variety ofrmarrangements
ox+iöo-+io.o'
—,
12 Exhibitionrm withsuccessful
useofavailablespace:panels
betweencentralpillarscanbe rearrangedbetweensupportsas needed;ifouterside-wallof glass installedwindowarrangementof innerwallcanalso bevaried
CD
360 Leisure
Museums LIGHTING Daylight as lightsource givesmm overheads. Overheadlighting: advantages,independentof orientation, not affected by overhanging trees or neighbouring bldg, easily regulated (lamella ceiling), little reflection, light more widely spread over exhibit area; disadvantages, strong heat build-up, risk of damage from water and condensation, only diffused light. Window lighting: viewout (relaxing), rm easily aired and kept ateven temp, better light on groups and individual exhibits, illumination of showcases fromback.
4 Main floor Wallraf-Richartz-Museum CologneGermany
Arch R Schwartz&Bernard key 1 rest rm 2 rm reaching to overheadlight inupperstorey 3side-litrm 4side-lit recess
1 Section& light sourcesMuseumofWesternArtTokyoJapan Arch LeCorbusier
a lightsource
b
2
Section
a-a
&light sourcesMuseoCiVKOTurin Italy ArchBassi& Boscheth
b-b
5
Joan Miro FoundationBarcelonaSpain hasrampextendinground all4 sides ofsculpturerm allowing worksto beviewed fromvarying heightsand aspects;note useofskylights-.section afirstfloor plan sections Arch Sert Section key 1 sculpturerm 2 ha 3print mi 4balcover groundfloor 5 telwith sculptures 6ha 70ff 8director'soff 9restm, lOprintarchives
b
3 Section&light sourcesMuseumofModem Art Rio deJaneiroBrazil Arch Reidy
Leisure
361
Museums 2 VancouverMuseum Canada Arch ArthurErickson key
EXAMPLES
14
TTjm1' [1]
n-i
[III
[111
r
—
L.
L
gairer'
1 entrance 2 lob
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
off/seminarrm rampedgallery greatha small objectgallery theatre
visiblestoar lounge 10 outdoorcourt
[Ii LII [Ii
r-i r1 r, :
:
r-
-
-r
r1
-
gallery
0
EEEJ
-
- -t :
:
__________ _____
L.
b
W4EEI1. gallery
L
apaceanum
F4iii
jJ auditorium
vvvvv
ri L1 im
I—I
3 C
1 CenterforBritishArtYaleUSA asectionatB—*le bthirdfloor csecond floor d firstfloor egroundfloor ArchKahn
rii 'v"" I
ir'wri Ia..rJI
I
vvvvv[
Air &Space MuseumWashington USA asecond floor b firstfloor C groundfloor Arch Hok
Museumsreferences —*Bibliographyentries 040318385476612
Page blank in original
363
Components INTRODUCTION Components bringstogether various categories ofconstruction data intended asan aid to the userofArchitects' Datainapplying the principlesand examples given throughout the body of the book. Underthe general heading Services' are guidelines on the spaces needed to install, operate and maintain systems of distribution, heating, ventilation, thermal and sound insulation, lighting. Thereafterfollow practicalcriteriaforcertaincomponents: doors, windows, corridors andramps, stairs, escalators, elevators.
practices are presented in detail in Ramsey& Sleeper/American Institute of Architects Architectural Graphic Standards —Bib 549.
Conversions As anaid to readers whodo not workin metric units ofmeasurementa listofconversion factors and a setof42conversion tables introduce the pages on services systems.
Data here presented are based on the latest Britishand European research and are not directly applicable by those working in non-metric units of measurement. The material presented and Materials the approach to its presentation are thought to be of general Values to be given to physical characteristics ofcommon building interestto architects in America as in other continents; but USA materials have been brought together inatable which follows the practices differ in somerespects from what is given here. Such conversion tables and precedes 'Services' .—p384(1).
364
Conversions FACTORS metric
'imperial'/US
length 1.0mm 25.4 rnrn (2.54cm)
0.039 in 1 in
304.8 mrn (30.48cm) 914.4mm 1000.0mm(1.0 m) 20.117rn 1 000.00rn (1 km) 1 609.31 m area lOOrnm2(1.Ocm2) 645.2 mm2 (6.452 cm2) 929.03cm2 (0.093 m2)
0.836rn2 1.0m2
0.405ha (4046.9m2) 1.0ha (10000m2) 1.0km2 2.59 km2(259 ha)
1
ft
lyd
1 yd 3.4 in (1 .093yd) 1 chain
0.621 mile 1 mile 0.155in2 1 in2 1 ft2 1 yd2
1.196yd2(10.764ft2) 1 acre 2.471 acre 0.386 mile2 1 mile2
volume 1004J mm3 (1.0cm3; 1.0 ml) 0.061 in3 16387mm3 (16.387cm3; 0.01641; 1 in3 16.387 ml) 61.025in3 (0.035 ft3) 1.01(1.0 drn3; 1000cm3) 0.028 rn3(28.32 I) 1 ft3
0.765 m3 1.0 m3
1 yd3
1.308 yd3(35.314 ft3)
capacity
1.Ornl 1.0 ml 28.41 ml 29.57 ml 0.473 litre 0.568litre 1.0 litre 1.Olitre 3.785 litre 4.546 litre 100.0 litre 100.0 litre 159.0 litre 164.0 litre
0.O34flozUS 0.035 fI ozimp 1 fI oz imp 1 fI oz US 1 pint (liquid) US 1 pint imp 1.76 pint imp
2.ll3pintUS 1 gal US 1 galimp
21.99 gal imp 26.42 gal US 1 barrel US 1 barrel imp
mass
lOg 28.35g 454.0 g (0.454 kg) 1000.0g(1 kg) 45.36kg 50.8 kg 907.2 kg (0.907 t) 1000.0kg (1.0 t) 1000.0kg(1 .0 t) 1016.0kg(1.016 t) mass/unit length 0.496kg/rn 0.564kg/rn (0.564 t/km) 0.631 kg/rn(0.631 t/km) 1.0kg/rn 1.116kg/rn 1.488 kg/rn 17.86 kg/rn
length/unitmass 1.0rn/kg 2.016 rn/kg
0.035 oz (avoirdupois) 1 oz (avoirdupois) 1 lb 2.205 lb 1 cwtUS
cwt irnp ton US 0.984 ton irnp 1.102ton US 1 ton imp 1
1
1 Ib/yd 1 ton US/rnile 1 ton irnp/mile
0.056 lb/in (0.896 oz/in) 1 oz/in 1 lb/ft 1 lb/in
0.496 yd/Ib 1 yd/Ib
metric mass/unit area 1.0g/m2 33.91 g/m2 305.15g/rn2 0.011 kg/rn2 0.013 kg/rn2 0.224 kg/rn2 0.251 kg/rn2 1.0 kg/rn2 4.882 kg/rn2 703.07 kg/rn2 350.3 kg/km2 (3.503 kg/ha; 0.35g/m2) 392.3 kg/km2 (3.923 kg/ha; 0.392 g/m2)
'imperial'/US 0.003 oz/ft2 1 oz/yd2 1 oz/tt2 1 cwt US/acre 1 cwt imp/acre 1 ton US/acre 1 ton imp/acre 29.5oz/yd2 1 lb/ft2 1 lb/in2 1 ton US/mile2 1
ton imp/mile2
density(mass/volume) 0.593 kg/rn3 1.0kg/rn3 16.02kg/rn3 1186.7kg/rn3(1.187 t/rn3) 1 328.9 kg/rn3 (1.329 t/rn3) 27680.0kg/rn3 (27.68 t/m3; 27.68 g/cm3)
1 b/yd3 0.062 lb/ft3
lb/ft ton US/yd3 1 ton irnp/yd3 1 1
1
lb/in3
specific surface (area/unit mass) 0.823 rn2/t 1.0rn2/kg 29.493rn2/kg
1 yd2/ton
0.034 yd2/oz 1 yd2/oz
area/unitcapacity 0.184m2/l 1.0 rn2/l
1 yd2/gal 5.437 yd2/gal
concentration 0.014 kg/rn3 0.017 kg/rn3 1.0 kg/rn3 (1.0g/l) 1.0kg/rn3 (1.0g/l) 6.236 kg/rn3 7.489 kg/rn3
58.42 grain/gal US 70.16 grain/gal imp 1 oz/gal imp 1 oz/gal US
mass rate offlow 0.454kg/s 1.0kg/s
1 lb/s 2.204 lb/s
volume rateofflow 0.063 I/s 0.076 I/s 0.472 I/s 1.01/s (86.4 rn3/day) 1.01/s
1.0 1/mm 1.0 1/mm 3.785 I/s
4.5461/s 28.32 I/s 0.0038rn3/rnin 0.0045rn3/rnin 1.0 rn3/s 1.0 rn3/s 1.0rn3/h 0.0283m3/s
velocity
1 grain/gal imp 1 grain/gal US
1
gal US/minute
1 gal irnp/minute
ft3/rninute 13.2 gal imp/s 0.264 gal US/s 0.22 gal imp/mm 0.264 gal US/mm 1 gal US/s 1
1 galimp/s 1
ft3/s
1 gal US/mm 1 gal imp/mm
183.162 gal US/s 219.969galimp/s 35.31 ft3/h 1 ft3/s
0.005 rn/s 0.025 rn/s 0.305 rn/s
1 ft/minute 1 in/s 1 ft/s
1Dm/s
3.28ft/s
1 000.0 rn/hr (1 krn/hr) 1 609.0 rn/hr (0.447 rn/s)
0.621 rnile/hr 1 mile/hr
365
Conversions metric
'imperial'/US
fuelconsumption 1.0I/km
1.01/km 2.352 I/km 2.824I/km
acceleration 0.305rn/s2 1.0 rn/s2 9.806 m/s2 = g (standard
0.354 gal imp/mile 0.425 gal US/mile 1 gal US/mile 1 gal imp/mile
itt/s2 3.28 ft/s2 g = 32.172 ft/s2
acceleration due to gravity)
temperature X°C
x(X—32)°C temperature interval 0.5556K
1K=1°C
energy
(X+32)°F X°F
1°F 1.8°F
1 Btu/hr
1 calorie/s
7.233 ft lbt/s) 1 horsepower 0.986 horsepower
0.317 Btu/(ft2hr) 1.0 Btu/(ft2 hr) 1 Btu in/(ft2hr°F)
i.OW/(rn2.K) 5.678 W/(m2.K)
0.176 Btu/(ft2hr°F) 1.0Btu/(ft2 hr°F)
thermal registivity 1.0m K/W 6.933 rn K/W
0.144 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in) 1.0 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in)
67.07 kJ/(m3 K)
0.239 Btu/(lb °F)
1.0Btu/(lb°F)
0.015 Btu/(ft3°F) 1.0 Btu/(ft3°F)
specificenergy
1.0 kJ/kg 2.326kJ/kg 1.0 kJ/m3 (1 kJ/l)
1.OJ/l 232.1 J/l
0.093 ft-candle (0.093 lumen/ft2) 1.0 ft-candle (1 lumen/ft2)
1 apostilb 0.000645 cd/ft2 1 cd/ft2 1.0cd/in2
force
iON
8.897kN 9.964 kN
1.ONrn 1.356 Nm 113.ONrn 253.1 Nm 1356.ONm 3037.ONm
pressure 1.0Pa (1.0 N/rn2) 1.OkPa
100.OPa 2.99kPa 3.39 kPa 6.9 kPa i0O.OkPa 101.33 kPa 107.25 kPa 15.44 MPa
0.2251bt 2.205 Ibi
1.0kipf(1000lbf) 1.OtonfUS 1.0tontimp 0.067 lbf/ft 1.0 lbf/ft 1.0 tont/ft
i.Olbf/in 1.Olbfin
0.738lbfft 1.0 lbf ft 1.Okipfin 1.Otonfin 1.Okipfft 1.Otonfft 0.021 bt/ft2 0.1451bf/in2 1.Omillibar 1 ftwater 1 in mercury 1.0 lbt/in2 1.Obar 1.0 standardatmosphere 1.0 tonf/ft2 1.Otonf/in2
6.933 Btuin/(ft2hr°F)
thermal conductance
specific heat capacity 1.0 kJ/(kg.K) 4.187 kJ/(kg.K) 1.0 kJ/(rn3 K)
.0 cd/rn2 10.764 cd/rn2 1 550.0 cd/rn2
moment offorce(torque) 0.li3Nm(113.ONrnm)
0.738ttlbf/s 1.0kilocalorie/hr 1 ftlbf/s
0.144 W/(rn.K) 1.OW/(m.K)
luminance 0.3183cd/rn2
1 Btu 1 kilowatt-hr 1 therm (100000 Btu)
1.0W
thermal conductivity
1 lx (1 lumen/rn2) 10.764 lx
1.Ocalorie 7.233 ftlbf
ftlbt
0.293W
1 W/m2 3.155 W/m2
illumination
1.0 N/rn 14.59 N/rn 32.69 kN/m 175.1 kN/m (175.1 N/mm)
1
intensity ofheat flowrate
refrigeration
force/unitlength
1.356J 4.187J
1.163W 1.356W 4.187W 1 kgf rn/s (9.807W) 745.7W 1 metrichorsepower (75 kgf rn/s)
12000 Btu/hr = ton of
1.0 kgf (9.807 N; 1.0 kilopond) 4.448 kN
0.239calorie
power (energy/time)
'imperial'/US
refrigeration 3.517 kW
1
1.OJ 9.807 J (1 kgfm) 1 055.06J 3.6 MJ 105.5MJ
metric
0.43 Btu/lb 1.0 Btu/lb 0.027 Btu/tt3 0.004 Btu/gal 1.OBtu/gal
Metric systemreferences: —Bibliographyentries010012 127135228473479494495531 610
366
Conversions TABLES
Listoftables
1 millimetres toinches
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
2 decimals ofinch to millimetres 3 inches & fractions ofinchto millimetres 4 feet &inchesto metres 5 metres tofeet 6 feettometres 7 metrestoyards 8 yardstometres 9 kilometres tomiles
kilograms to pounds
poundstokilograms 31 kilograms per cubic metre to pounds percubicfoot 32 pounds percubicfootto kilograms percubicmetre 33 metresper second to miles per hour 34 milesper hour to metres persecond 35 kilograms forcepersquare centimetre to pounds forceper square
10 milesto kilometres
11 square centimetres tosquare inches 12 square inches to square centimetres 13 square metrestosquare feet 14 square feettosquare metres 15 square metrestosquareyards 16 square yards tosquare metres 17 hectares to acres 18 acresto hectares 19 cubiccentimetres tocubicinches 20 cubicinches to cubiccentimetres 21 cubicmetrestocubicfeet 22 cubicfeettocubicmetres 23 litresto cubicfeet
th
cubicfeetto litres litresto gallons imperial gallonsimperial to litres litresto gallons US gallonsUSto litres
inch
36 poundsforceper square inch tokilograms forceper square centimetre
37 kilonewtons persquare metre topounds force persquare inch 38 poundsforceper square inch to kilonewtonspersquare metre 39 wattsto British thermal unitsperhour 40 Britishthermal unitsperhour to watts 41 wattspersquare metrekelvin to Britishthermal unitspersquare foot hourdegree F
42 British thermal units per square foot
hour degree
F to watts per
square metre kelvin
TABLES
millimetres to inches
mm
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.04 0.43 0.83 1.22
0.08 0.47 0.87 1.25 1.65 2.05 2.44 2.83 3.23 3.62 4.02
0.11 0.51 0.91
0.16 0.55 0.94 1.34 1.73 2.13 2.52
0.2 0.59 0.98 1.38 1.77 2.17 2.56 2.95 3.35 3.74 4.13 4.53 4.92 5.31 5.71
0.24 0.63
0.28 0.67
0.31
1.02 1.41 1.81
1.06 1.46 1.85
1.1
2.21
2.24 2.64 3.03 3.42 3.82
0.35 0.75 1.14 1.57 1.93 2.32 2.72 3.11 3.5 3.9 4.29 4.69 5.08 5.47 5.87 6.26 6.65 7.05 7.44 7.83 8.23 8.62 9.02 9.41
In
0 10 20 30 40 50
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
0.39 0.79 1.18 1.57 1.97 2.36 2.76 3.15 3.54 3.94 4.33 4.72 5.12 5.51 5.91 6.3 6.69 7.09 7.48 7.87 8.27 8.66 9.06 9.45 9.84
1.61
2.00 2.4 2.8 3.19 3.58 3.98 4.37 4.76 5.16 5.55 5.94 6.34 6.73 7.13 7.52 7.91 8.31
8.7 9.09 9.49
4.41
4.8 5.2 5.59 5.98 6.38 6.77 7.17 7.56 7.95 8.35 8.74 9.13 9.53
1.3 1.69
2.09 2.48 2.87 3.27 3.66 4.06 4.45 4.84 5.24 5.63 6.02 6.42 6.81 7.21
7.6
7.99 8.39 8.78 9.17 9.57
2.91 3.31
3.7 4.09 4.49 4.88 5.28 5.67 6.06 6.46 6.85 7.24 7.64 8.03 8.43 8.82 9.21 9.61
6.1
6.5 6.89 7.28 7.68 8.07 8.46 8.86 9.25 9.65
2.6 3.0 3.39 3.78 4.17 4.57 4.96 5.35 5.75 6.14 6.54 6.93 7.32 7.72 8.11
8.5 8.9 9.29 9.69
4.21 4.61
5.0 5.39 5.79 6.18 6.57 6.97 7.36 7.76 8.15 8.54 8.94 9.33 9.72
0.71 1.5
1.89 2.28 2.68 3.07 3.46 3.86 4.25 4.65 5.04 5.43 5.83 6.22 6.61 7.01
7.4 7.8 8.19 8.58 8.98 9.37 9.76
9.8
367
Conversions in
0.000 mm
0.0 0.01
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0.06 0.07
0.08 0.09 0.1
0.254 0.508 0.762 1.016 1.27 1.524 1.778 2.032 2.286 2.54
in
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.0254 0.2794 0.5334 0.7874 1.0414 1.2954 1.5494 1.8034 2.0574 2.3114
0.0508 0.3048 0.5588 0.8128 1.0668 1.3208 1.5748 1.8288 2.0828 2.3368
0.0762 0.3302 0.5842 0.8382 1.0922 1.3462 1.6002 1.8542 2.1082 2.3622
0.1016 0.3556 0.6096 0.8636 1.1176 1.3716 1.6256 1.8796 2.1336 2.3876
0.127
0.1524 0.4064 0.6604 0.9144
0.1778 0.4318 0.6858 0.9398 1.1938 1.4478 1.7018 1.9558 2.2098 2.4638
0.2032 0.4572 0.7112 0.9652 1.2192 1.4732 1.7272 1.9812 2.2352 2.4892
0.2286 0.4826 0.7366 0.9906 1.2446 1.4986 1.7526 2.0066 2.2606 2.5146
1/16
/16
1/8
1/4
/16
3/
/I8
9.5 34.9
11.1
0.381
0.635 0.889 1.143 1.397
1.1684
1.4224 1.6764 1.9304 2.1844 2.4384
1.651
1.905 2.159 2.413
1/2
/16
/8
14.3
15.9
11/16
3/4
17.5 42.9
19.1
/8
13/16
15/16
mm 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
25.4 50.8 76.2 101.6 127.0 152.4 177.8 203.2 228.6 254.0
1.6 27.0 52.4 77.8 103.2 128.6 154.0 179.4
3.2 28.6 54.0 79.4 104.8 130.2 155.6 181.0 204.8 206.4 230.2 231.8 255.6 257.2
4.8 30.2
55.6 81.0 106.4 131.8 157.2 182.6 208.0 233.4 258.8
6.4 31.8 57.2 82.6 108.0 133.4 158.8 184.2 209.6 235.0 260.4
7.9
12.7
36.5 38.1 39.7 41.3 58.7 60.3 61.9 63.5 65.1 66.7 84.1 85.7 87.3 88.9 90.5 92.1 109.5 111.1 112.7 114.3 115.9 117.5 134.9 136.5 138.1 139.7 141.3 142.9 160.3 161.9 163.5 165.1 166.7 168.3 185.7 187.3 188.9 190.5 192.1 193.7 211.1 212.7 214.3 215.9 217.5 219.1 236.5 238.1 239.7 241.3 242.9 244.5 261.9 263.5 265.1 266.7 268.3 269.9 33.3
20.6
22.2
23.8
44.5 46.0 68.3 69.9 71.4 93.7 95.3 96.8 119.1 120.7 122.2 144.5 146.1 147.6 169.9 171.5 173.0 195.3 196.9 198.4 220.7 222.3 223.8 246.1 247.7 249.2 271.5 273.1 274.6
47.6 73.0 98.4 123.8 149.2 174.6 200.0 225.4 250.8 276.2
49.2 74.6 100.0 125.4 150.8 176.2 201.6 227.0 252.4 277.8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
0.2032 0.508 0.8128 1.1176 1.4224 1.7272 2.032 2.3368 2.6416 2.9464
0.2286 0.5334 0.8382 1.143 1.4478 1.7526 2.0574 2.3622 2.667 2.9718
0.254 0.5588 0.8636 1.1684 1.4732
0.2794 0.5842 0.889 1.1938 1.4986 1.8034 2.1082 2.413 2.7178 3.0226
m
ft
0 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.0254 0.3048 0.3302 0.6096 0.635 0.9144 0.9398 1.2192 1.2446 1.524 1.8288 2.1336 2.4384 2.7432 3.048
decimals ofinchto millimetres
3
inches &fractions of inch to millimetres
4
In
0
2
1.5494 1.8542 2.159 2.4638 2.7686
0.0508 0.3556 0.6604 0.9652 1.27 1.5748 1.8796 2.1844 2.4892 2.794
0.0762 0.1016 0.127 0.381 0.4064 0.4318 0.6858 0.7112 0.7366 0.9906 1.016 1.0414 1.2954 1.3208 1.3462 1.6002 1.6256 1.651 1.905 1.9304 1.9558 2.2098 2.2352 2.2606 2.5146 2.54 2.5654 2.8194 2.8448 2.8702
0.1524 0.4572 0.762 1.0668 1.3716
0.1778 0.4826 0.7874 1.0922 1.397 1.6764 1.7018 1.9812 2.0066 2.286 2.3114 2.5908 2.6162 2.8956 2.921
1.778 2.0828 2.3876 2.6924 2.9972
feet& inches to metres
368
Conversions 5 metrestofeet
m
ft 0 10 20 30
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
7 metresto yards
m
32.8 65.62 98.43 131.23 164.04 196.85 229.66 262.46 295.28 328.08 360.89 393.7 426.51 459.32 492.13 524.93 557.74 590.55 623.36 656.17 688.98 721.79 754.59 787.4 820.21
0 0
9.84 42.65 75.45 108.27 141.08
13.12 45.93 78.74 111.55 144.36
173.89 206.69 239.5 272.31 305.12 337.93 370.74 403.54 436.35 469.16
177.17 209.97 242.78 275.59 308.4 341.21 374.02 406.82 439.63 472.44 505.25 538.06 570.87 603.68 636.48 669.29
1
2
3 3.28 14.22 25.15 36.09 47.03 57.96 68.9 79.83 90.77
502.0 534.78 567.59 600.39 633.2 666.01 698.82 731.63 764.44 797.24
22.97 55.77 88.58 121.39 154.2
734.91 767.72 800.53
508.53 541.34 574.15 606.96 639.76 672.57 705.38 738.19 771.0 803.81
19.69 52.49 85.3 118.11 150.91 183.73 216.54 249.34 282.15 314.96 347.77 380.58 413.39 446.19 479.0 511.81 544.62 577.43 610.24 643.05 675.85 708.66 741.47 774.28 807.09
515.09 547.9 580.71 613.52 646.33 679.13 711.94 744.75 777.56 810.37
255.91 288.71 321.52 354.33 387.14 419.95 452.76 485.56 518.37 551.18 583.99 616.8 649.6 682.42 715.22 748.03 780.84 813.65
4
5
6
7
8
9
8.75 19.69 30.62 41.56 52.49 63.43 74.37 85.3 96.24 107.17
9.84 20.78 31.71 42.65 53.59 64.52 75.46 86.4 97.33 108.27 119.2 130.14 141.08 152.01 162.95 173.89 184.82 195.76 206.69 217.63 228.57 239.5 250.44 261.37 272.31
702.1
80 90
10.94 21.87 32.8 43.74 54.68 65.62 76.55 87.49 98.43
1.09 12.03 22.97 33.9 44.84 55.77 66.71 77.65 88.58 99.52
2.19 13.12 24.06 35.0 45.93 56.87 67.8 78.74 89.68 100.61
101.71
100 110 120 130 140
109.36 120.3 131.23 142.17 153.1
110.46 121.39 132.33 143.26 154.2
111.55 122.49 133.42 144.36 155.29
112.64 123.58 134.51 145.45 156.39
26.25 37.18 48.12 59.06 69.99 80.93 91.86 102.8 113.74 124.67 135.61 146.54 157.48
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240
164.04 174.98 185.91 196.85 207.79 218.72 229.66 240.56 251.53 262.47 273.4
165.14 176.07 187.0 197.94 208.88 219.82 230.75 241.69 252.63 263.56
166.23 177.17 199.04 209.97 220.91 231.85 242.78 253.72 264.65
167.32 178.26 189.2 200.13 211.07 222.0 232.94 243.88 254.81 265.75
168.42 179.35 190.29 201.23 212.16 223.1 234.03 244.97 255.91 266.84
0 mile
1
2
3
4
0.62 6.84 13.05 19.29 25.47 31.69 37.9 44.12 50.33 56.54
1.24 7.46 13.67 19.88
1.86 8.08 14.29 20.5 26.72 32.93 39.15 45.36 51.57 57.79
2.49 8.7
30 40 50 60 70
250
kilometres tomiles
6.56 39.37 72.17 104.99 137.8 170.6 203.41 236.22 269.03 301.84 334.65 367.45 400.26 433.07 465.88 498.69 531.5 564.3 597.11 629.92 662.73 695.54 728.35 761.16 793.96
16.40 49.21 82.02 114.82 147.63 180.45 213.25 246.06 278.87 311.68 344.49 377.3 410.1
442.91 475.72
187.01 219.82 252.63 285.43 318.24 351.05 383.86 416.67 449.48 482.28
26.25 59.06 91.86 124.67 157.48 190.29 223.1
29.53 62.34 95.14 127.95 160.76 193.57 226.38 259.19 292.0 324.8 357.61 390.42 423.23 456.04 488.85 521.65 554.46 587.27 620.08 652.89 685.7 718.5 751.31 784.12 816.93
yd 10 20
9
3.28 36.09 68.9 101.7 134.51 167.32 200.13 232.94 265.75 298.56 331.37 364.17 396.98 429.79 462.6 495.41 528.22 561.02 593.83 626.64 659.45 692.26 725.07 757.87 790.68
km 0 10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
6.21
12.43 18.64 24.85 31.07 37.28 43.5 49.7 55.92 62.14
188.1
26.1
32.31 38.53 44.74 50.95 57.17
4.37 15.31
14.91
21.13 27.34 33.55 39.77 45.98 52.2 58.41
5.47 16.4 27.34 38.28 49.21 60.15 71.08 82.02 92.96 103.89 114.83 125.74 136.7 147.64 158.57
61.24 72.18
7.66 18.59 29.53 40.46 51.4 62.34 73.27
83.11
84.21
180.45 191.38 202.32 213.26 224.19 235.13 246.06 257.0 267.94
94.05 104.99 115.92 126.86 137.8 148.73 159.67 170.6 181.54 192.48 203.41 214.35 225.28 236.22 247.16 258.09 269.03
95.14 106.08 117.02 127.95 138.89 149.83 160.76 171.7 182.63 193.57 204.51 215.44 226.38 237.31 248.25 259.19 270.12
129.05 139.99 150.92 161.86 172.79 183.73 194.66 205.6 216.53 227.47 238.41 249.34 260.28 271.22
5
6
7
8
9
3.11
3.73 9.94 16.16 22.37 28.58
4.35 10.56 16.78 22.99 29.2 35.42 41.63 47.85 54.06 60.27
4.98 11.18 17.4
11.81
169.51
9.32 15.53 21.75 27.96 34.18 40.39 46.6 52.82 59.03
6.56 17.5 28.43 39.37 50.31
34.8 41.01 47.22 53.44 59.65
118.11
23.61
29.83 36.04 42.25 48.47 54.68 60.89
5.59 18.02 24.23 30.45 36.66 42.87 49.09 55.3 61.52
369
Con versions 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.31
0.6
3.35
3.66
0.91 3.96
1.22 4.27
6.71
7.01
7.31
10.06
10.36
13.1
13.41
1.52 4.57 7.62 10.67 13.72
2.74 5.79 8.84 11.89 14.94
32.31
32.61
35.37
38.1
38.41
41.15 44.2 47.24 50.29 53.34 56.39 59.44 62.48 65.53 68.58 71.63 74.68
41.45 44.5 47.55 50.6 53.64 56.69 59.74 62.79 65.84 68.89 71.93 74.98
35.67 38.7 41.76
17.68 20.73 23.77 26.82 29.87 32.92 36.0
17.98 21.03 24.08 27.13 30.18 33.22 36.3 39.32 42.37 45.46 48.46
61.87 64.92 67.97 71.02 74.07
16.46 19.58 22.56 25.6 28.65 31.7 34.75 37.8 40.84 43.89 46.94 49.99 53.04 56.08 59.13 62.18 65.23 68.28 71.32 74.37
2.13 5.18 8.23 11.28 14.36 17.37 20.42 23.47 26.52 29.57
2.44 5.49 8.53 11.58 14.63
16.15 19.2 22.25 25.3 28.35 31.39 34.44 37.49 40.54 43.59 46.63 49.68 52.73 55.78 58.83
1.83 4.88 7.92 10.97 14.02 17.07 20.12 23.16 26.21 29.26
3
4
5
m
0 10 20 30
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
yd
3.05 6.1
6.4
9.14 12.19 15.24 18.29 21.33 24.38 27.43 30.48 33.53 36.58 39.62 42.67 45.72 48.77 51.82 54.86 57.91 60.96 64.01 67.06 70.1 73.15 76.2
9.45 12.5 15.54 18.59 21.64 24.69 27.74 30.78 33.83 36.88 39.93 42.98
9.75 12.80 15.85 18.9 21.95 24.99 28.04 31.09 34.14 37.19 40.23 43.28
46.02 49.07 52.12 55.17 58.22 61.26 64.31 67.36 70.41 73.46
46.33 49.38 52.43 55.47 58.52 61.57 64.62 67.67 70.71 73.76
0
1
2
16.76 19.81
22.86 25.91 28.96 32.0 35.05
39.01
63.09 66.14 69.19 72.24 75.29
42.06 45.11 48.16 51.21 54.25 57.3 60.35 63.4 66.45 69.49 72.54 75.59
60.66 63.7 66.75 69.79 72.85 75.9
6
7
8
9
5.49 14.63 23.77 32.92 42.06 51.21 60.35 69.49 78.64 87.78 96.93 106.07
6.4 15.54 24.69 33.83 42.98
7.32 16.46 25.6 34.75 43.89 53.04 62.18 71.32 80.47
8.23 17.37 26.52 35.66 44.81 53.95 63.09 72.24 81.38 90.53 99.67 108.81 117.96
44.81
47.85 50.9 53.95 57.0 60.05
51.51
54.56 57.61
m
0 10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
mile
0.91
9.14 18.29 27.43 36.58 45.72 54.86 64.0 73.15 82.3 91.44 100.58 109.73 118.87 128.02
10.06 19.2 28.35 37.49 46.63 55.78 64.92 74.07 83.21 92.35 101.5 110.64 119.79 128.93
1.83 10.97 20.12 29.26 38.4 47.55 56.69 65.84 74.98 84.12 93.27 102.41 111.56 120.7 129.85 138.99 148.13 157.28 166.42 175.57
2.74 11.89 21.03 30.18 39.32 48.46 57.61 66.75 75.9 85.04 94.18 103.33 112.47 121.61
137.16 146.3 155.45 164.59 173.74 182.88 192.02 201.17 210.31 219.46 228.6
138.07 147.22 156.36 165.51 174.65 183.79 192.94 202.08 211.23 220.37
193.85 203.0 212.14 221.29
130.76 139.9 149.05 158.19 167.34 176.48 185.62 194.77 203.91 213.06 222.0
0
1
2
3
184.71
3.65 12.8 21.95 31.09 40.23 49.38 58.52 67.67 76.81 85.95
4.57 22.86 32.0 41.15 50.29 59.44 68.58 77.72 86.87
95.1
96.01
104.24 113.39 122.53 131.67
105.16 114.3 123.44 132.59 141.73 150.88 160.02 169.16
13.71
115.21
140.82 149.96 159.11 168.25 177.39 186.54 195.68 204.83 213.97 223.11
187.45 196.6 205.74 214.88 224.03
124.36 133.5 142.65 151.79 160.93 170.08 179.22 188.37 197.51 206.65 215.8 224.94
4
5
6
178.31
52.12 61.27 70.41 79.55 88.7 97.84 106.99 116.13 125.27 134.42 143.56 152.71 161.85 170.99 180.14 189.28 198.43 207.57
89.61
98.76 107.9 117.04 126.19 135.33
136.25 145.39 154.53 163.68 172.82 181.97
225.86
200.25 209.4 218.54 227.69
7
8
9
12.87 28.97 45.06 61.16 77.25 93.34 109.44 125.53 141.62 157.72
14.48 30.58 46.67 62.76 78.86 94.95 111.05 127.14 143.23 159.33
191.11
km
0 10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1.61
16.09 32.19 48.28 64.37 80.47 96.56 112.65 128.75 144.84 160.93
17.7 33.8 49.89 65.98 82.08 98.17 114.26 130.36 146.45
3.22 19.31
35.41 51.5 67.59 83.69 99.78 115.87 131.97 148.06
4.83 20.92 37.01 53.11 69.2 85.3 101.39 117.48 133.58 149.67
6.44 22.53 38.62 54.72 70.81
86.9 103.0 119.09 135.19 151.28
8.05 24.14 40.23 56.33 72.42 88.51 104.61
120.7 136.79 152.89
9.66 25.75 41.84 57.94 74.03 90.12 106.22
11.27 27.36 43.45 59.55 75.64
122.31
91.73 107.83 123.92
138.4 154.5
140.01 156.11
8 yardsto metres
127.1
144.48 153.62 162.76 171.9 181.05 190.2 199.34 208.48 217.63 226.77
216.71
6 feet tometres
10
milesto kilometres
370
Conversions Area 11
squarecentimetres
to square inches
cm2
3
4
5
6
7
0.31 1.86 3.41 4.96
31.16 32.71 34.26 35.81 37.36
20.46 22.01 23.56 25.11 26.66 28.21 29.76 31.31 32.86 34.41 35.96 37.51
0.47 2.02 3.57 5.12 6.67 8.22 9.77 11.32 12.87 14.42 15.97 17.52 19.07 20.62 22.17 23.72 25.27 26.82 28.37 29.92 31.47 33.02 34.57 36.12 37.67
0.62 2.17 3.72 5.27 6.82 8.37 9.92 11.47 13.02 14.57 16.12 17.67 19.22 20.77 22.32 23.87 25.42 26.97 28.52 30.07 31.62 33.17 34.72 36.27 37.82
0.78 2.33 3.88 5.43 6.98 8.53 10.08 11.63 13.18 14.73 16.28 17.83 19.38 20.93 22.48 24.03 25.58 27.13 28.68 30.23 31.78 33.33 34.88 36.43 37.98
0.93 2.48 4.03 5.58 7.13 8.68 10.23 11.78 13.33 14.88 16.43 17.98 19.53 21.08 22.63 24.18 25.73 27.28 28.83 30.38 31.93 33.48 35.03 36.58 38.13
2.64 4.19 5.74 7.29 8.84 10.39 11.94 13.49 15.04 16.59 18.14 19.69 21.24 22.79 24.34 25.89 27.44 28.99 30.54 32.09 33.64 35.19 36.75 38.29
7.44 9.0 10.54 12.09 13.64 15.19 16.74 18.29 19.84 21.39 22.94 24.49 26.04 27.59 29.14 30.69 32.24 33.79 35.34 36.89 38.44
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.16 1.6 3.1
1.71
30 40
4.65
4.81
6.2
6.36
50
7.75 9.3 10.85 12.4 13.95 15.5 17.06 18.6 20.15 21.7 23.25 24.8 26.35 27.9 29.45
7.91
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 13
2
1
0 10 20
60 70 80
squaremetresto squarefeet
0
j2
m2
3.26
9.46 12.56
12.71
14.11
14.26
15.66
15.81
17.21
17.36
24.96 26.51 28.06 29.61
35.65 37.20 38.75
0
9.61
11.16
23.41
34.1
8.06
11.01
18.76 20.31 21.86
31.0 32.55
6.51
18.91
1.09
8 1.24 2.79 4.34
5.9
9 1.4 2.95
4.5
6.05 7.6 9.15 10.7 12.25 13.8 15.35 16.9 18.45 20.0 21.55 23.1
24.65 26.2 27.75 29.3 30.85 32.4 33.95 35.5 37.05 38.6
9
ft2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
107.64 215.29 322.92 430.56 538.2 645.84 753.47 861.11 968.75 1 076.39 1 184.03 1 291.67 1 399.31 1 506.95
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290
1 614.59 1 722.23
300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500
10.76 118.4 226.01 333.68 441.32 548.96 656.6 764.24 871.88 979.52 1 087.15
1194.79 1 302.43 1 410.07 1 517.71 1 1 1 1
21.53 129.17 236.81 344.45 452.08 559.72 667.36 775.0 882.64 990.28 1 097.92 1 205.56 1 313.2 1 420.84 1 528.48 1 636.11 1 743.75 1 851.39 1 959.03
32.29 139.93 247.57 355.21 462.85
43.06 150.66 258.33 365.97 473.61
53.82 161.46 269.1 376.74 484.38
64.58 172.22 279.86 387.5 495.14
75.35 182.97 290.63 398.?7 505.91
570.49 581.25 678.13 688.89 785.77 796.53 893.41 904.17 1 001.04 1 011.81 1108.68 1119.45 1 216.32 1 227.09 1 323.96 1 334.72 1 431.6 1 442.36 1 539.24 1 550.0
592.02 699.65 807.29 914.93 1 022.57 1130.21 1 237.85 1 345.49 1 453.13 1 560.77
602.78 710.42 818.06 925.7 1 033.34 1140.97 1 248.61 1 356.25 1 463.89 1 571.53
613.54 721.18 828.82 936.46
625.35 732.99 1 829.86 840.63 1 937.5 948.27 2045.14 2055.91 2066.67 2 152.78 2 163.55 2 174.31
1 1 1 1
2368.06 2378.82 2389.59 2 475.7 2 486.46 2 497.23 2583.34 2594.1 2604.87 2 690.98 2 701.74 2 712.51 2 798.62 2809.38 2820.14 2906.26 2917.02 2927.78 3013.89 3 024.66 3035.42 3121.53 3132.3 3143.06 3 229.17 3 239.94 3 250.7 3336.81 3347.58 3358.34 3444.45 3455.22 3465.98 3552.09 3562.85 3573.62 3 659.73 3 670.49 3 681.26 3 767.37 3 778.13 3 788.9 3875.01 3885.77 3896.54 3982.65 3993.41 4004.17 4090.29 4101.05 4111.81 4197.93 4208.69 4219.45 4305.56 4316.33 4327.09 4413.2 4 423.97 4434.73 4520.84 4531.61 4542.37 4628.48 4639.25 4650.01 4736.12 4746.88 4757.65 4 843.76 4 854.52 4 865.29 4951.4 4 962.16 4 972.93 5 059.04 5 069.8 5 080.57 5166.68 5177.44 5188.2 5274.32 5285.08 5295.84 5381.96
2400.35 2411.12
646.88 754.52 862.16 969.8
1 1 1 1
657.64 765.28 872.92 980.56 2077.43 2 088.2 2 185.07 2 195.84 2260.42 2271.19 2281.95 2292.71 2303.48
2507.99 2 518.76
2615.63 2626.39
2 723.27 2 734.03 2841.67 2938.55 2949.31 3 046.19 3056.95 3153.83 3164.59 3261.46 3272.23 3369.1 3379.87 3476.74 3487.51 3584.38 3 595.15 2830.91
3692.02 3 702.79 3799.66 3 810.42
3918.06 4025.7 4133.34 4240.98 4348.62
96.88 20451 312.15 419.79 527.43
624.31 635.07 731.95 742.71 839.59 850.35 947.22 957.99 1 054.86 1 065.63 1162.5 1173.27 1 270.14 1 280.91 1 377.78 1 388.54 1 485.42 1 496.18 1 593.06 1 603.82 1 700.7 1 711.46 1 808.34 1 819.1 1 915.98 1 926.74
1151.74 1 259.38 1 367.02 1 474.66 1 582.29 1 668.41 1 679.17 1 689.93 1 776.05 1 786.81 1 797.57 1 883.68 1 894.45 1 905.21 1 991.32 2002.09 2012.85 2023.62 2034.38 2098.96 2109.73 2120.49 2131.25 2142.02 2206.6 2217.37 2228.13 2238.89 2249.66 2314.24 2325.0 2335.77 2346.53 2357.3 2421.88 2432.64 2443.41 2454.17 2464.94 2 529.52 2 540.28 2 551.05 2 561.81 2 572.57 2637.16 2647.92 2658.69 2669.45 2680.21 2 744.8 2 755.56 2 766.32 2 777.09 2 787.85 2852.44 2863.2 2873.96 2884.73 2895.49 2960.08 2970.84 2981.6 2992.37 3003.13 3067.71 3078.48 3089.24 3 100.01 3 110.77 3175.35 3186.12 3196.88 3207.65 3 218.41 3282.99 3 293.76 3 304.52 3 315.28 3 326.05 3390.63 3401.4 3412.16 3422.92 3433.69 3498.27 3509.03 3519.8 3530.56 3541.33 3605.91 3616.67 3627.44 3638.2 3648.97 3 713.55 3 724.31 3 735.08 3 745.84 3 756.6
3821.19 3928.83 4036.47 4144.11 4251.74 4359.38 4 445.49 4 456.26 4467.02
3907.3 4014.94 4122.58 4230.22 4337.86
1 044.1
86.11 193.75 301.39 409.03 516.67
3842.72 3 853.48 3 864.24 3950.36 3961.12 3971.88 4057.99 4068.76 4079.52 4154.87 4165.63 4176.4 4187.16 4262.51 4273.27 4284.04 4294.8 4370.15 4380.91 4391.68 4402.44 3831.95 3939.59 4047.23
4477.79
4488.55
4499.31
4553.13 4563.9 4574.66 4585.43 4596.19 4606.95 4660.77 4671.54 4682.3 4693.06 4703.83 4714.59 4768.41 4779.18 4789.94 4800.7 4811.47 4822.23 4876.05 4 886.82 4 897.58 4 908.34 4 919.11 4 929.87 4983.69 4994.45 5005.22 5015.98 5026.75 5037.51 5091.33 5 102.09 5 112.86 5 123.62 5 134.39 5 145.15 5198.97 5209.73 5220.5 5231.26 5242.02 5252.79 5306.61 5317.37 5328.14 5338.9 5349.66 5360.43
4 510.08
4617.72 4725.36 4833.0 4 940.63 5048.27
5 155.91
5263.55 5371.19
371
Conversions j2
0
1
2
4
3
5
7
6
8
9
cm2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
64.52 129.03 193.55 258.06 322.58 387.1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
451.61 516.13 580.64 645.16 709.6 774.19 838.71 903.22 967.74 032.26 096.77 161.29 225.8 290.32 354.84 419.35 483.87 548.38 612.9
0
ft2
6.45 70.97 135.48 200.0 264.52 329.03 393.55 458.06 522.58 587.1
651.61 716.13 780.64 845.16 909.68 974.19 1 038.71
1103.22 1167.74 1 232.26 1 1 1 1 1
296.77 361.29 425.8 490.32 554.84
12.9 77.41
141.94 206.45 270.97 335.48 400.0 464.52 529.03 593.55 658.06 722.58 787.1 851.61 916.13 980.64 1 045.16 1109.68 1174.19 1 238.71 1 303.22 1 367.74 1 432.26 1 496.77 1 561.29
19.36 83.87 148.39 212.9 277.42 341.94 406.45 470.97 535.48 600.0 664.51 729.03 793.55 858.06 922.58 987.1 1 051.61
32.26 96.77 161.29 225.8 290.32 354.84 419.35 483.87 548.39 612.91 677.42 741.93 806.45 870.97 935.48
25.81
90.32 154.84 219.35 283.87 348.4 412.91
477.42 541.93 606.45 670.97 735.48 800.0 864.51
929.03
993.55 058.06 1116.13 1122.58 1180.64 1187.09 1 245.16 1 251.61 1 309.67 1 316.13 1 374.19 1 380.64 1 438.71 1 445.16 1 503.22 1 509.67 1 567.74 1 574.19 1
103.23 167.74 232.26 296.77 361.29 425.81 490.32 554.84 619.35 683.87 748.39 812.9 877.42 941.93
000.00 064.51 1129.03 1193.55 1 258.06 1 322.58 1 387.09 1 451.61 1 516.13 1 580.64
1 006.45 1 070.97
1 1
45.16 109.68 174.19
38.71
238.71
303.23 367.74 432.26 496.77 561.29 625.81
690.32 754.84 819.35 883.87 948.39
012.9 077.42 1135.48 1141.93 1 200.0 1 206.45 1 264.51 1 270.97 1 329.03 1 335.48 1 393.55 1 400.0 1 458.06 1 464.51 1 522.58 1 529.03 1 587.09 1 593.55 1 1
116.13 180.65 187.1 245.16 251.61 309.68 316.13 374.19 380.64 438.71 445.16 503.23 509.68 567.74 574.19 632.26 638.71 696.77 703.22 761.29 767.74 825.81 832.26 890.32 896.77 954.84 961.29 1 019.35 1 025.8 1 083.87 1 090.32 1 212.9 1 277.42
0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500
0.93 1.86 2.79 3.72 4.65 5.57 6.5 7.43 8.36 9.29 10.22 11.15 12.08
1 1 1 1 1
1
219.35
341.93 1 348.38 406.45 1 412.9 470.96 1 477.42 535.48 1 541.93 600.0 1 606.45
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.19
0.28
0.37 1.3
0.65 1.58
0.74
1.21
2.14 3.07 3.99 4.92 5.85 6.78
10.31
10.41
11.24 12.17
11.33 12.26 13.19 14.12 15.05 15.98
2.42 3.34 4.27 5.2 6.13 7.06 7.99 8.92 9.85 10.78
2.6 3.53 4.46 5.39 6.32 7.25 8.18
8.64 9.57 10.5 11.43 12.36 13.29
2.23 3.16 4.09 5.02 5.95 6.87 7.8 8.73 9.66 10.59 11.52 12.45 13.38
2.51
4.74 5.67 6.6 7.53 8.45 9.38
2.04 2.97 3.9 4.83 5.76 6.69 7.62 8.55 9.48
0.46 1.39 2.32 3.25 4.18 5.11 6.04 6.97 7.9 8.83 9.75 10.68
0.56
1.11
11.61
11.71
14.21
14.31
15.14 16.07 17.0 17.93 18.86 19.79 20.72 21.65 22.58
15.24 16.17 17.09 18.02 18.95 19.88
12.54 13.47 14.4 15.33 16.26 17.19 18.12 19.05 19.97 20.9 21.83 22.76
12.63 13.56 14.49 15.42 16.35 17.28
23.5 24.43 25.36 26.29 27.22 28.15 29.08 30.01 30.94 31.87 32.79 33.72 34.65 35.58 36.51 37.44 38.37 39.3 40.23 41.16 42.09 43.01 43.94 44.87 45.8
23.6 24.53 25.46 26.38 27.31 28.24 29.17
0.09 1.02 1.95 2.88 3.81
13.01
13.1
13.94 14.86 15.79 16.72 17.65 18.58 19.51 20.44 21.37 22.3
14.03 14.96 15.89 16.82 17.74 18.67 19.6 20.53 21.46 22.39
23.23 24.15 25.08
23.32 24.25 25.18 26.11 27.03 27.96 28.89 29.82 30.75 31.68 32.61 33.54 34.47 35.4 36.33 37.25 38.18 39.11 40.04 40.97 41.9 42.83 43.76 44.69 45.62
26.01
26.94 27.87 28.8 29.73 30.66 31.59 32.52 33.45 34.37 35.3 36.23 37.16 38.09 39.02 39.95 40.88 41.81 42.74 43.66 44.59 45.52 46.45
16.91
17.84 18.77 19.7
20.62 21.55 22.48 23.41 24.34 25.27 26.2 27.13 28.06 28.99 29.91 30.84 31.77 32.7 33.63 34.56 35.49 36.42 37.35 38.28 39.21
40.13 41.06 41.99 42.92 43.85 44.78 45.71
7.71
20.81
21.74 22.67
23.69 24.62 25.55 26.48 27.41
31.03 31.96 32.89 33.82 34.75 35.67 36.6
28.34 29.26 30.19 31.12 32.05 32.98 33.91 34.84 35.77 36.7
37.53 38.46 39.39 40.32 41.25 42.18 43.11 44.04 44.97 45.89
37.63 38.55 39.48 40.41 41.34 42.27 43.2 44.13 45.06 45.99
30.1
1.49
18.21
19.14 20.07 21.0 21.93 22.85 23.78 24.71 25.64 26.57 27.5 28.43 29.36 30.29 31.22 32.14 33.07 34.0 34.93 35.86 36.79 37.72 38.65 39.58 40.51 41.43 42.36 43.29 44.22 45.15 46.08
3.44 4.37 5.3 6.22 7.15 8.08
1.67
9.01
9.1
9.94 10.87 11.8 12.73 13.66 14.59
10.03 10.96 11,89 12.82 13.75
15.51
15.61
16.44 17.37 18.3 19.23 20.16 21.09 22.02 22.95 23.88 24.81 25.73 26.66 27.59 28.52 29.45 30.38
16.54 17.47 18.39 19.32 20.25 21.18
31.31
32.24 33.17 34.1
35.02 35.95 36.88 37.81
38.74 39.67 40.6 41.53 42.46 43.39 44.31
45.24 46.17
centimetres
1 283.87
9
m2
10
to square
1148.38 1154.84
2
1
58.06 122.58
51.61
12
squareinches
14.68
22.11
23.04 23.97 24.9 25.83 26.76 27.69 28.61 29.54 30.47 31.4 32.33 33.26 34.19 35.12 36.05 36.98 37.9 38.83 39.76 40.69 41.62 42.55 43.48 44.41 45.34 46.27
0.84 1.77 2.69 3.62 4.55 5.48 6.41
7.34 8.27 9.2 10.13 11.06 11.98 12.91
13.84 14.77 15.7 16.63 17.56 18.49 19.42 20.35 21.27 22.2 23.13 24.06 24.99 25.92 26.85 27.78 28.71 29.64 30.57 31.49 32.42 33.35 34.28 35.21 36.14 37.07 38.0 38.93 39.86 40.78 41.71 42.64 43.57 44.5 45.43 46.36
14
square feetto square metres
372
Conversions 15
squaremetresto squareyards
0
m2
17
4
5
3.58 15.55 27.51 39.47 51.43
4.78 16.74 28.7 40.66 52.62
63.39 75.35
64.58 76.54 88.5 100.46 112.42 124.38 136.34 148.31 160.26 172.22 184.18 196.14
5.98 17.94 29.9 41.86 53.82 65.78 77.74 89.7 101.66 113.62 125.58 137.54 149.5 161.46
3
6
7
8
9
8.37 20.33 32.29 44.25
9.57 21.53 33.49 45.45
56.21
57.41
68.17 80.13 92.09 104.05
69.37 81.33 93.29 105.25
116.01
117.21
10.76 22.72 34.68 46.64 58.6 70.56 82.52 94.48 106.44 118.4
127.97 139.93 151.89 163.85
129.17 141.13 153.09 165.05
175.81
177.01
130.36 142.32 154.28 166.24 178.2
187.77 199.73 211.69 223.65
188.97 200.93 212.89 224.85 236.81
190.16 202.12 214.08 226.04 238.0
594.41
248.77 260.73 272.69 284.65 296.61 308.57 320.53 332.49 344.45 356.41 368.37 380.33 392.29 404.25 416.21 428.16 440.12 452.08 464.04 476.0 487.96 499.92 511.88 523.84 535.8 547.76 559.72 571.68 583.64 595.6
249.96 261.92 273.88 285.84 297.8 309.76 321.72 333.68 345.64 357.6 369.56 381.52 393.48 405.44 417.4 429.36 441.32 453.28 465.24 477.2 489.16 501.12 513.08 525.04 537.0 548.96 560.92 572.88 584.84 596.8
yd2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
hectares toacres
2
1
11.96 23.92 35.88 47.84 59.8 71.76 83.72 95.68 107.64 119.6 131.56 143.52 155.48 167.44
150 160 170 180 190
179.34 191.36 203.32 215.28 227.24
200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500
239.2 251.16 263.12 275.08 287.04 299.0 310.96 322.92 334.88 346.84 358.78 370.76 382.72 394.68 406.64 418.6 430.56 442.52 454.48 466.44 478.4 490.36 502.32 514.28 526.24 538.2 550.16 562.12 574.08 586.04 598.0
ha
0
1.2 13.16 25.12 37.08 49.04 61.0 72.96 84.92 96.88 108.84 120.8 132.76 144.72 156.68 168.64 180.59 192.55 204.51 216.47 228.43 240.39 252.35 264.31 276.27 288.23 300.19 312.15 324.11 336.07 348.03 359.99 371.95 383.91 395.87 407.83 419.79 431.75 443.71 455.67 467.63 479.59 491.55 503.51 515.47 527.43 539.39 551.35 563.31 575.27 587.23
1
2.39 14.35 26.31 38.27 50.23 62.19 74.15 86.11 98.07 110.03 121.99 133.95 145.91 157.87 169.83 181.79 193.75 205.71 217.67 229.63 241.59 253.55 265.51 277.47 289.43 301.39 313.35 325.31 337.27 349.23
87.31
99.27 111.23 123.19 135.15 147.11 159.07 171.03 182.99 194.95 206.91 218.87 230.83 242.79 254.75 266.71 278.67 290.63 302.59 314.55 326.51 338.47 350.43
208.1
220.06 232.02 243.98 255.94 267.9 279.86 291.82 303.78 315.74 327.7 339.66 351.62
.
173.41
185.38 197.34 209.3 221.26 233.22 245.18 257.14 269.1
7.18 19.14 31.1
43.06 55.02 66.98 78.94 90.9 102.86 114.82 126.78 138.74 150.7 162.66 174.62 186.57 198.53 210.49 222.45 234.41
235.61
246.37 258.33 270.29 282.25 294.21 306.17 318.13 330.09 342.05 354.02 365.97 377.94 389.89 401.85 413.81
247.57 259.53 271.49 283.45
425.77 437.73 449.69 461.65 473.61 485.57 497.53 509.49 521.45
426.97 438.93 450.89 462.84 474.81 486.77 498.73 510.69 522.65 534.61 546.57 558.53 570.49 582.45
361.19 373.15 385.11 397.07 409.03 420.99 432.95 444.91 456.87 468.83 480.79 492.75 504.71 516.67 528.63 540.59 552.55 564.5 576.47 588.43
362.39 374.35 386.31 398.27 410.23 422.18 434.14 446.11 458.06 470.02 481.98 493.94 505.9 517.86 529.82
363.58 375.54 387.5 399.46 411.42 423.38 435.34 447.3 459.26 471.22 483.18 495.14 507.1 519.06 531.02
281.06 293.02 304.98 316.94 328.9 340.86 352.82 364.78 376.74 388.7 400.66 412.62 424.58 436.54 448.5 460.46 472.42 484.38 496.34 508.3 520.26 532.22
541.78 553.74 565.71 577.66 589.62
542.98 554.94 566.9 578.86 590.82
544.18 556.14 568.1 580.06 592.02
545.37 557.33 569.29 581.25 593.21
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
12.36
14.83
17.3
19.77
22.24
50
60
70
80
90
123.55 370.66 617.76 864.87 1111.97 1 359.08 1 606.18 1 853.29
148.26 395.37 642.47 889.58 1136.68 1 383.79 1 630.9 1 878.0 2125.11 2 372.21
533.41
295.41
307.37 319.33 331.29 343.25 355.21
367.17 379.13 391.09 403.05 415.01
acre 2.47
0 acre
ha
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1000
10
4.94 20
24.71 49.42 271.82 296.53 518.92 543.63 766.03 790.74 1 013.13 1 037.84 1 260.24 1 284.95 1 507.34 1 532.05 1 754.45 1 779.16 1976.84 2 001.55 2026.26 2223.95 2 248.66 2273.37 247.11 494.21 741.32 988.42 1 235.53 1 482.63 1 729.74
2471.05
7.41
30 74.13 321.24 568.34 815.45 1 062.55 1 309.66 1 556.76 1 803.87
9.88 40
98.84 345.95 593.05 840.16 1 087.26 1 334.37 1 581.47 1 828.58 2050.97 2075.69 2 298.08 2322.79
2100.4 2347.5
172.97 420.08 667.19 914.29
197.68 444.8 691.9 939.0 1161.4 1186.11 1 408.5 1 433.21 1 655.61 1 680.32 1 902.71 1 927.42 2149.82 2174.53 2 396.92 2421.63
222.4 469.5 716.61 963.71 1 210.82 1 457.92 1 705.03 1 952.13 2199.24 2446.34
373
Conversions 0
yd2
1
2
3
1.67 10.03 18.39 26.76 35.12 43.48 51.84 60.2 68.56 76.92 85.29 93.65 102.0 110.37 118.73
10.87 19.23 27.59 35.95 44.31 52.68 61.04 69.3 77.76 86.12 94.48 102.84 111.21 119.57
4
5
6
7
8
9
6.69 15.05 23.41 31.77 40.13 48.5 56.86 65.22 73.5 81.94
7.53 15.89 24.25 32.61 40.97 49.33 57.69 66.05 74.4 82.78
90.3 98.66 107.02 115.39 123.75
91.14 99.5 107.86 116.22 124.58
132.11
132.94 141.31 149.67 158.03 166.39
m2
0
0.84
10
9.2
100 110 120 130 140
8.36 16.72 25.08 33.45 41.81 50.17 58.53 66.89 75.25 83.61 91.97 100.34 108.7 117.06
17.56 25.92 34.28 42.64 51.0 59.37 67.7 76.09 84.45 92.81 101.17 109.53 117.89
150 160 170 180 190
125.42 133.78 142.14 150.5 158.86
126.26 134.62 142.98 151.34 159.7
127.09 135.45
200 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440
167.23 175.59 183.95 192.31 200.67 209.03 217.39 225.75 234.12 242.48 250.84 259.2 267.56 275.92 284.28 292.65 301.0 309.37 317.73 326.09 334.45 342.81 351.17 359.54 367.9
450 460 470 480 490 500
376.26 384.62 392.98 401.34 409.7 418.0
168.06 176.42 184.78 193.15 201.51 209.87 218.3 226.59 234.95 243.31 251.67 260.04 268.4 276.76 285.12 293.48 301.84 310.2 318.57 326.93 335.29 343.65 352.01 360.37 368.73 377.09 385.46 393.82 402.18 410.54
168.9 177.26 185.62 193.98 202.34 210.7 219.07 227.43 235.79 244.15 252.51 260.87 269.23 277.59 285.96 294.32 302.68 311.04 319.4 327.76 336.12 344.48 352.85 361.21 369.57 377.93 386.29 394.65 403.01 411.38
1
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
210
acre
0
2.51
3.34 11.71
4.18 12.54 20.9 29.26 37.63 45.99 54.35 62.71 71.07 79.43 87.79 96.15 104.52 112.88 121.24 129.6 137.96 146.32 154.68 163.05 171.41 179.77 188.13 196.49 204.85
5.02 13.38 21.74 38.46 46.82 55.18 63.55 71.9 80.27 88.62 96.99 105.35 113.71 122.08 130.44 138.8 147.16 155.52 163.88 172.24 180.61 188.97 197.33 205.69
5.85 14.21
186.46 194.82 203.18
20.07 28.43 36.79 45.15 53.51 61.87 70.23 78.6 86.96 95.32 103.68 112.04 120.41 128.76 137.13 145.49 153.85 162.21 170.57 178.93 187.29 195.65 204.02
211.54 219.9 228.26 236.62 244.99 253.35 261.71 270.07 278.43 286.79 295.15 303.51 311.88 320.24 328.6 336.96 345.32 353.68 362.04 370.41 378.77 387.13 395.49 403.85 412.21
212.38 220.74 229.1 237.46 245.82 254.18 262.54 270.91 279.27 287.63 295.99 304.35 312.71 321.07 329.43 337.8 346.16 354.52 362.88 371.24 379.6 387.96 396.32 404.69 413.05
213.21
214.1
221.57 229.94 238.3 246.66 255.02 263.38 271.74 280.11 288.46 296.83 305.19 313.55 321.91 330.27 338.63 346.99 355.35 363.72 372.08 380.44 388.8 397.16 405.52 413.88
222.41 230.77 239.13 247.49 255.86 264.22 272.58 280.94 289.3 297.66 306.02 314.38 322.75 331.11 339.47 347.83 356.19 364.55 372.91 381.27 389.64 398.0 406.36 414.72
214.89 223.25 231.61 239.97 248.33 256.69 265.05 273.41 281.78 290.14 298.5 306.86 315.22 323.58 331.94 340.31 348.67 357.03 365.39 373.75 382.11 390.47 398.83 407.19 415.56
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.4
0.81
1.21
1.62
2.02
2.42
2.83
3.23
3.64
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
4.05 44.52 84.98 125.46 165.92
8.09 48.56 89.03 129.5 169.97
206.39 246.86 287.33 327.8 368.26
210.44 250.91 291.37 331.84 372.31
12.14 52.6 93.08 133.55 174.02 214.48 254.95 295.42 335.84 376.36
16.19 56.66 97.12 137.59 178.06 218.53 259.0 299.47 339.94 380.41
24.28 64.75 105.22 145.69 186.16 226.62 267.09 307.56 348.03 388.5
28.33 68.8 109.26 149.73 190.20 230.67 271.14 311.61 352.07 392.55
143.81
152.18 160.54
127.93 136.29 144.65 153.01 161.37 169.73 178.1
30.1
22.58 30.94 39.3 47.66 56.02 64.38 72.74 81.10 89.47 97.83 106.19 114.55 122.91 131.27 139.63 148.0 156.36 164.72 173.08 181.44 189.80 198.16 206.52
140.47 148.83 157.19 165.55 182.28 190.64 199.0 207.36 215.72 224.08 232.44 240.81 249.17 257.53 265.89 274.25 282.61 290.97 299.33 307.7 316.06 324.42 332.78 341.14 349.51 357.86 366.22 374.59 382.95 391.31 399.67 408.03 416.39
174.75 183.11 191.47 199.83 208.2 216.56 224.92 233.28 241.64 250.0 258.36 266.73 275.09 283.45 291.81 300.17 308.53 316.89 325.25 333.62 341.98 350.34 358.7 367.06 375.42 383.78 392.14 400.51 408.87 417.23
173.91
ha
acre
0 ha
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
700 800 900 1 000
40.47 80.94 121.41
161.87 202.34 242.81 283.28 323.75 364.22 404.69
20.23 60.71
101.17 141.64 182.11
222.58 263.05 303.51 343.98 384.45
32.37 72.84 113.31
153.78 194.25 234.71 275.19 315.66 356.12 396.59
36.42 76.89 117.36 157.83 198.3 238.77 279.23 319.7 360.17 400.64
16
squareyards to squaremetres
18 acres to hectares
374
Conversions Volume
5
6
7
8
9
in3
19
cubiccentimetres to cubicinches cm3
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.24
0.31
0.37
0.43
0.49
0.55
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
6.1
0.61 6.71
12.82 18.92 25.02 31.12 37.22 43.38 49.43 55.53
1.22 7.32 13.43 19.53 25.63 31.73 37.83 43.94 50.04 56.14
7.93 14.04 20.14 26.24 32.34 38.45 44.55 50.65 56.75
2.44 8.54 14.65 20.75 26.85 32.95 39.06 45.16 51.26 57.36
3.05 9.15 15.26 21.36 27.46 33.56 39.67 45.77 51.87 57.97
3.66 9.76 15.87 21.97 28.07 34.17 40.28 46.38 52.48 58.58
4.27 10.37 16.48 22.58 28.68 34.78 40.89 46.99 53.09 59.19
4.88 10.98 17.09 23.19 29.29 35.39 41.5 47.6 53.7 59.8
5.49 11.59 17.7 23.8 29.9 36.0 42.11 48.21 54.31 60.41
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
j3 0
21
cubicmetresto cubicfeet
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
24.41 30.51 36.61 42.72 48.82 54.92
1000
61.02
m3
18.31
0 ft3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
23 litresto cubicfeet
12.2
1.83
litre
35.31 353.15 388.46 706.29 741.61 1 059.44 1 094.75 1 412.59 1 447.9 1765.73 1801.05 2 118.88 2154.19 2472.03 2 507.34
105.94 141.26 176.57 459.09 494.41 592.72 812.24 847.55 882.87 1130.07 1165.38 1 200.7 1 236.01 1 483.22 1 518.53 1 553.85 1 589.16 1836.36 1871.68 1 906.99 1942.31 2189.51 2224.82 2260.14 2295.45 2542.66 2577.97 2613.29 2 648.6 2825.17 2860.49 2895.8 2931.12 2966.43 3001.75
211.89 565.04 918.18 1 271.33 1 624.47 1977.62 2330.77 2 683.91 3037.06 3178.32 3213.63 3248.95 3284.26 3319.58 3354.89 3390.21 3 531.47 3 566.78 3602.1 3 637.41 3672.73 3708.04 3743.35 3884.61 3919.93 3955.24 3990.56 4025.87 4061.19 4096.5 4237.76 4 273.07 4308.39 4343.7 4 379.02 4414.33 4449.65 4590.91 4626.22 4661.54 4696.85 4732.17 4767.48 4802.79 4 944.05 4 979.37 5 014.68 5050.0 5 085.31 5 120.63 5 155.94 5297.2 5332.51 5367.83 5403.14 5438.46 5473.77 5509.09 5650.35 5685.66 5720.98 5756.29 5791.61 5826.92 5862.23 6 003.49 6038.81 6074.12 6 109.44 6 144.75 6180.07 6215.38 6356.64 6391.95 6427.27 6462.58 6497.9 6533.21 6568.53
6709.79 6745.1 7062.93 7098.25 7416.08 7451.39 7 769.23 7 804.54 8 122.37 8 157.69 8475.52 8510.83 8828.67
0
70.63 423.78 776.92
247.2 600.35 953.5 1 306.64 1 659.79 2012.94 2366.08 2 719.23 3072.38 3425.52
3 778.67
4131.82 4 484.96 4838.11 5 191.26 5544.4 5897.55 6250.7 6603.84 6851.05 6886.36 6921.67 6956.99 7204.19 7239.51 7274.82 7310.14 7557.34 7592.65 7627.97 7 663.28 7910.49 7945.8 7981.11 8 016.43 8263.63 8298.95 8334.26 8369.58 8616.78 8652.09 8687.41 8722.72
282.52 317.83 635.67 670.98 988.81 1 024.13 1 341.96 1 377.27 1 695.1 1 730.42 2048.25 2083.57 2401.4 2436.71
2754.54 2789.86 3107.69
3143.01
3460.84 3496.15 3 813.98 3 849.3 4167.13 4202.45 4 520.28 4 555.59 4873.42 4908.74 5 226.57 5 261.89 5579.72 5615.03 5932.86 5968.18 6286.01 6639.16
6321.33 6674.47 6992.3 7027.62 7345.45 7380.77 7 698.6 7 733.91 8051.74 8087.06 8404.89 8440.21 8758.04 8793.35
6780.42 7133.56 7 486.71 7839.86 8 193.0 8546.15
6815.73 7168.88 7522.02 7 875.17 8228.32 8581.46
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.04 0.39 0.74 1.09 1.45 1.8 2.15
0.07 0.42 0.78 1.13 1.48 1.84 2.19 2.54 2.9 3.25
0.11 0.81
0.14 0.49 0.85
0.21 0.57 0.92
0.25 0.60 0.95
1.17
1.2
1.31
1.55
1.27 1.62
0.28 0.64 0.99 1.34
1.52
1.66
1.7
1.87
1.91
1.98
2.01
2.22 2.58 2.93 3.28
2.26
0.18 0.53 0.88 1.24 1.59 1.94 2.3 2.65
2.33 2.68 3.04 3.39
2.37 2.72 3.07 3.42
2.05 2.4 2.75 3.11 3.46
0.32 0.67 1.02 1.38 1.73 2.08 2.44 2.79 3.14 3.5
ft3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.35 0.71 1.06 1.41
1.77 2.12 2.47 2.83 3.18 3.53
2.51
2.86 3.21
0.46
2.61
2.97 3.32
3.0
3.35
375
Conversions in3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
16.39
32.77
49.16
65.55
81.94
98.32
10
20
30
40
327.74
491.61
7
8
9
cm3
jfl3
0
50
60
114.71
131.1
147.48
70
80
90
20 cubicinches to cubiccentimetres
cm3
0 100 200
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1000
163.87
1638.71
1802.58
1966.45 2130.32
6554.83 6718.7 8193.53 8357.4 9832.24 9996.11 11470.9 11634.8
6882.57 7046.44 8521.27 8685.14
3441.28 3605.15 3769.02 3932.9 4916.12 5079.99 5243.86 5407.73 5571.6 3277.41
13 109.7 13273.5 14748.4 14912.2 16387.1
0
ft3
655.48 819.35 983.22 1147.09 2294.19 2458.06 2621.93 2785.8
10160.0 11798.7 13437.4 15076.1
10323.9 11962.6 13601.3 15240.0
3
0.06 0.34 0.62 0.91
1 474.84
2949.67
3113.54
7865.79
8029.66 9668.37 11307.1 12945.8 14584.5 16223.2
4096.77 4260.64 4424.51 4588.38 4752.25 5735.47 5899.34 6063.21 6227.08 6390.95 7374.18
7538.05
9012.89 9176.76 10651.6 12290.3 13929.0 15567.7
10815.5 12454.2 14092.9 15731.6
7701.92 9340.63 10979.3 12618.0 14256.7 15895.5
9504.5 11143.2 12781.9 14420.6 16059.3
4
5
6
7
8
0.08 0.37 0.65 0.93
0.11 0.4 0.68 0.96
0.14 0.42
0.17 0.45 0.74 1.02
0.2 0.48 0.77 1.05
0.23 0.51 0.79 1.08
1.22 1.5 1.78 2.07 2.35 2.63 2.92
1.25 1.53
1.27 1.56 1.84 2.12
1.3 1.59 1.87 2.15 2.44
1.33
1.36
1.61 1.9
1.64 1.93 2.21 2.49 2.78 3.06 3.34 3.62 3.91 4.19 4.47 4.76 5.04 5.32
5.69 5.98 6.26 6.54 6.82
1.19 1.47 1.76 2.04 2.32 2.61 2.89 3.17 3.46 3.74 4.02 4.3 4.59 4.87 5.15 5.44 5.72 6.0 6.29 6.57 6.85
1
2
1
2
7210.31 8849.01 10487.7 12126.4 13765.1 15403.8
1 310.97
9
m3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240
250
ft3
0.28 0.57
0.03 0.31 0.59
0.85
0.88
1.13 1.42 1.7 1.98 2.27 2.55 2.83
1.16 1.44 1.73 2.01 2.29 2.58 2.86 3.14 3.43 3.71
3.11
3.4 3.68 3.96 4.26 4.53 4.81 5.1
5.38 5.66 5.95 6.23 6.51
6.8
4.0
4.28 4.56 4.84 5.13 5.41
3.2
3.48 3.77 4.05 4.33 4.62
1.81
2.1 2.38 2.66 2.94 3.23 3.51 3.79 4.08 4.36 4.64 4.93
0.71
0.99
2.41
2.69 2.97 3.26 3.54 3.82 4.11
5.18 5.47 5.75 6.03 6.31
5.21
6.6
5.49 5.78 6.06 6.34 6.63
6.88
6.91
4.39 4.67 4.96 5.24 5.52 5.8 6.09 6.37 6.65 6.94
3
4
5
4.9
2.71 3.01
3.28 3.57 3.85 4.13 4.42 4.7 4.99 5.27 5.55 5.83 6.12 6.4 6.69 6.97
2.18 2.46 2.75 3.03 3.31 3.6 3.88 4.16 4.45 4.73
0.25 0.54 0.82
2.8
3.09 3.37 3.65 3.94 4.22
6.99
5.89 6.17 6.46 6.74 7.02
6
7
8
9
169.9 453.06 736.22 1 019.38 1 302.54 1 585.7 1 868.86 2 152.02
198.21 481.37 764.53 1 047.69 1 330.85 1 614.02 1 897.18 2 180.34
226.53 509.69 792.85 1 076.01 1 359.17 1 642.33 1 925.49
5.58 5.86 6.14 6.43 6.71
5.61
7.08
0 litre
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
cubicfeetto cubicmetres
1.1 1.39 1.67 1.95 2.24 2.52
4.51 4.79 5.07 5.35 5.64 5.92 6.2 6.48 6.77 7.05
5.01 5.3
22
28.32 56.63 84.95 113.26 141.58 283.16 311.48 339.79 368.11 396.42 424.74 566.32 594.64 622.95 651.27 679.59 707.9 849.48 877.8 906.11 934.43 962.75 991.06 1132.64 1160.96 1189.27 1 217.59 1 245.91 1 274.22 1 415.8 1 444.12 1 472.43 1 500.75 1 529.07 1 557.38 1 698.96 1 727.28 1 755.6 1 783.91 1 812.23 1 840.54 1 982.12 2 010.44 2 038.76 2067.07 2 095.39 2 123.7
254.84 538.01 821.17 1104.33 1 387.49 1 670.65 1 953.81 2208.65 2 236.97 2491.81 2520.13
2265.28 2293.6 2321.92 2350.23 2378.55 2406.86 2435.18 2463.5 2548.44 2576.76 2605.08 2633.39 2661.71 2690.03 2718.34 2746.66 2774.97 2803.29 2831.61
24
cubicfeetto litres
376
Conversions 25 litresto gallons
0
litre
imperial
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
2.2 4.4 6.6 8.8 11.0 13.2 15.4 17.6 19.8 22.0
100 27
litresto gallons US
litre
0
20 30 40
2.64 5.28 7.93 10.57
50
13.21
60 70 80 90
0.22 2.42 4.62 6.82 9.02 11.22 13.42 15.62 17.82 20.02
0.44 2.64 4.84 7.04 9.24 11.44 13.64 15.84 18.04 20.24
0.66 2.86 5.06 7.26 9.46 11.66 13.86 16.06 18.26 20.46
11.88 14.08 16.28 18.48 20.68
1
2
3
4
0.26 2.91 5.55 8.19
15.85 18.49 21.14 23.78 26.42
100
0
kg
29
kilograms to pounds
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.88 3.08 5.28 7.48 9.68
1.1
1.32 3.52 5.72 7.92 10.12
1.54 3.74 5.94 8.14 10.34 12.54 14.74 16.94 19.14
1.98 4.18 6.38 8.58 10.78 12.98 15.18 17.38 19.58 21.78
3.3 5.5 7.7 9.9 12.1
14.3 16.5 18.7 20.9
5
12.32 14.52 16.72 18.92 21.12
21.34
1.76 3.96 6.16 8.36 10.56 12.76 14.96 17.16 19.36 21.56
6
7
8
9
1.85 4.49 7.13 9.78 12.42 15.06 17.7
2.11
2.38 5.02 7.66 10.3 12.95 15.59 18.23 20.87
gal US
10
Mass
2
1
gal imp
0.53 3.17 5.81 8.45
10.83
11.1
13.47 16.12 18.76 21.4 24.04
13.74 16.38 19.02 21.66 24.31
1
2
0.79 3.43 6.08 8.72 11.36 14.0
1.06 3.7 6.34 8.98 11.62 14.27
1.32 3.96
16.64
16.91
19.29 21.93 24.57
19.55 22.19 24.83
9.25 11.89 14.53 17.17 19.82 22.46 25.1
3
4
5
6.61
1.59 4.23 6.87 9.51
4.76 7.4 10.04 12.68
12.15 14.8 17.44 20.08 22.72 25.36
25.63
15.32 17.97 20.61 23.25 25.89
6
7
8
13.23 35.27 57.32 79.37
15.43 37.47 59.52 81.57
20.34
22.96
23.51
26.16
9
lb
2.21 24.25
0 10 20 30
4.41
26.46 48.5 70.55 92.59
22.05 44.09 66.14
46.3
40
88.18
90.39
50 60 70 80 90
110.23 132.28
112.44 134.48 156.53 178.57 200.62 222.67 244.71 266.76 288.81 310.85
114.64 136.69
332.9 354.94
335.1 357.15 379.2 401.24 423.29
68.34
154.32 176.37 198.42 220.46 242.51 264.56 286.6 308.65 330.69 352.74 374.79 396.83
100 110
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
377.0
399.04
418.88
421.08
440.93 462.97
443.13 465.18 487.22 509.2 531.31 553.36 575.41 597.45 619.5 641.55 663.59 685.64
485.02 507.06 529.1
551.16 573.2 595.25 617.29 639.34
661.39 683.43 705.48 727.53
707.68
729.73 751.78 773.82 795.87 817.92 839.96 862.0
749.57
771.62 793.66 815.71 837.76 859.8
884.05
410
881.85 903.9
420 430
925.94 947.99
928.15 950.19 972.24 994.29 016.33 038.38 060.42 082.47
440 450 460 470
906.1
970.03 1
992.08 014.13
480
1
490
1
036.17 058.22 080.27
500
1
102.31
1
1 1 1 1
158.73 180.78 202.83 224.87 246.92 268.96 291.01 313.06
445.33 467.38
489.43 511.47 533.5 555.57 577.61 599.66 621.7 643.75 665.8 687.84 709.89 731.93 753.98 776.03 798.07 820.12 842.17 864.21 886.26 908.31 930.35 952.4 974.44 996.49 1 018.54 1 040.58 1 062.63 1 084.67
6.61
28.66 50.71
72.75 94.8 116.85 138.89 160.94 182.98 205.03 227.08 249.12 271.17 293.22 315.26
8.82 30.86 52.91 74.96 97.0 119.05 141.1
163.14 185.19 207.24 229.28 251.33 273.37 295.42 317.47
337.31 359.35 381.4 403.45 425.49 447.54 469.59 491.63
339.51 361.56 383.6 405.65 427.68 449.74 471.79 493.84
513.6
515.88
535.72
537.9
557.77 579.82 601.86 623.91 645.95 668.0 690.05 712.09 734.14 756.19 778.23 800.28
559.97 582.02 604.07
822.32
844.37 866.41 888.46 910.51 932.56 954.6 976.65 998.69 1 020.74 1 042.79 1 064.83 1 086.88
11.02 33.07 55.12 77.16 99.2 121.25 143.3 165.35 187.39 209.44 231.49 253.53 275.58 297.62 319.67 341.72 363.76 385.81 407.86 429.9 451.95 473.99 496.04 518.0 540.13 562.18 584.23
101.41
103.61
123.46 145.51 167.55 189.6 211.64
125.66
233.69 255.74
277.78 299.83 321.88 343.92 365.97 388.01
410.06 432.11 454.15 476.2
498.25 520.29 542.3 564.38 586.43
606.27 628.32
608.48 630.52 652.57
758.39
650.36 672.41 694.46 716.5 738.55 760.6
780.44 802.48
782.64 804.69
824.53 846.58
826.73 848.78 870.8 892.87 914.92 936.97 959.01 981.06 1 003.1 1 025.15 1 047.2 1 069.24 1 091.29
626.11
648.16
670.21 692.25 714.3 736.34
868.62 890.67 912.71
934.76 956.81
978.85 1 000.9 1 022.94 1 044.99 1 067.04 1 089.08
674.62 696.66 718.71 740.75 762.8 784.85 806.89 828.94 850.98 873.03 895.08 917.12 939.17 961.22 983.26 1 005.31 1 027.35 1 049.4 1 071.45 1 093.49
147.71
169.76 191.8 213.85 235.9 257.94 279.99 302.03
17.64 39.68 61.73 83.78 105.82 127.87 149.91 171.96 194.01 216.05 238.1
260.15 282.19 304.24
19.84 41.89 63.93 85.98 108.03 130.07 152.12 174.17 196.21 218.26 240.3 262.35 284.4 306.44
324.08
326.28
328.49
346.13 368.17 390.22
348.33 370.38 392.42
350.54 372.58 394.68
412.26 434.31 456.36 478.4 500.45
414.47 436.52 458.56 480.61
416.67
522.4
524.7 546.7 568.79 590.84 612.89 634.93
544.54 566.59 588.63 610.68
632.73 654.77 676.82 698.87 720.91 742.96 765.0 787.05 809.1 831.14 853.19 875.2 897.28 919.33 941.37 963.42 985.47 1 007.51 1 029.56 1 051.6 1 073.65 1 095.7
502.65
656.98
679.02 701.07 723.12 745.16 767.21 789.26 811.31 833.35 855.39 877.44 899.49 921.53 943.58 965.63 987.67
438.72 460.77 482.81 504.86 526.9
548.9 571.0 593.04 615.09 637.14 659.18
681.23 703.28 725.32 747.37 769.41
791.46 813.51 835.55 857.6 879.64 901.69 923.74 945.78 967.83 989.88 1 011.92 1 033.97 1 056.01 1 078.06
1 009.72 1 031.76 1 053.81 1 075.86 1 097.9 1100.11
377
Conversions gallmp
0 Iftre
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
70 80 90 100
galUS
45.46 90.92 136.38 181.84 227.3 272.76 318.22 363.68 409.14 454.6
0 litre
0
2
254.57 300.03 345.49 390.95 436.41
259.12 304.58 350.04 395.5 440.96
263.67 309.13 354.59 400.04 445.5
268.21 313.67 359.13 404.59 450.05
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11.36 49.21 87.06 124.91 162.76 200.61 238.46 276.31 314.16 352.01
15.14 52.99 90.84 128.69 166.54 204.39 242.24 280.09 317.94 355.79
132.48 170.33 208.18 246.03 283.88 321.73 359.58
22.71 60.56 98.41 136.26 211.96 249.81 287.66 325.51 363.36
26.5 64.35 102.2 140.05 177.9 215.75 253.6 291.45 329.3 367.14
30.28 68.13 105.98 143.83 181.68 219.53 257.38 295.23 333.08 370.93
34.07 71.92 109.77 147.62 185.47 223.32 261.17 299.02 336.87 374.72
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2.72 7.26 11.79 16.33 20.87
3.63 8.16 12.7 17.24 21.77 26.31 30.84 35.38 39.92 44.45 48.99 53.52 58.06 62.6 67.13 71.67 76.2 80.74 85.28 89.81 94.35 98.88 103.42 107.96 112.49 117.03 121.56
4.08 8.62 13.15 17.69 22.23 26.76 31.3 35.83 40.37 44.91 49.44 53.98 58.51 63.05 67.59 72.12 76.66 81.19 85.73 90.26 94.8 99.34 103.87 108.41 112.95 117.48 122.02 126.55 131.09 135.62 140.16 144.7 149.23 153.77 158.3 162.84 167.38 171.91 176.45 180.98 185.52 190.06 194.59 199.13 203.66 208.2 212.74 217.27 221.81 226.34
3 13.64 59.1
4 18.18 63.64
159.1
18.93 56.78
9463
174.11
168.21
26 gallonsimperial to litres
28 gallons US to litres
30
poundsto kilograms
0 10 20 30
4.54 9.07 13.61 18.14
50
100 110 120 130 140
22.68 27.22 31.75 36.29 40.82 45.36 49.9 54.43 58.97 63.5
0.45 4.99 9.53 14.06 18.6 23.13 27.67 32.21 36.74 41.28 45.81 50.35 54.88 59.42 63.96
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290
68.04 72.57 77.11 81.65 86.18 90.72 95.25 99.79 104.33 108.86 113.4 117.93 122.47 127.01 131.54
68.49 73.03 77.56 82.1 86.64 91.17 95.71 100.24 104.78 109.32 113.85 118.39 122.92 127.46 132.0
300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380
136.08 140.61 145.15 149.69 154.22 158.76 163.29 167.83 172.37 176.9 181.44 185.97 190.51 195.05 199.58 204.12 208.65 213.19 217.72 222.26 226.8
136.53 141.07 145.6 150.14 154.68 159.21 163.75 168.28 172.82 177.36
132.45 136.99 141.52 146.06 150.59 155.13 159.67 164.2 168.74 173.27 177.81
181.89 186.43 190.96 195.5 200.03 204.57 209.11 213.64 218.18 222.71
182.34 186.88 191.42 195.95 200.49 205.02 209.56 214.1 218.63 223.17
400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500
213.66
86.38 131.83 177.3 222.75
3.79 41.64 79.49 117.34 155.19
1
390
204.57 250.03 295.49 340.95 386.41 431.87
36.37 81.83 127.29 172.75 218.21
2
0
60 70 80 90
31.82 77.28 122.74
154.56 200.02 245.48 290.94 336.4 381.86 427.32
27.28 72.74 118.2 163.66 209.11
40.91
109.1
22.73 68.19 113.65
1
lb
40
9
104.56 150.02 195.48 240.94 286.4 331.86 377.32 422.77
100
60 70 80 90
8
9.09 54.55 100.01 145.47 190.93 236.39 281.85 327.31 372.77 418.23
193.04 230.89 268.74 306.59 344.44
50
7
4.55 50.0 95.47 140.93 186.38 231.84 277.3 322.76 368.22 413.68
189.25 227.1 264.95 302.81 340.65 378.51
20 30 40
37.85 75.7 113.55 151.40
6
2
7.57 45.42 83.27 121.12 158.97 196.82 234.67 272.52 310.37 348.22
10
5
1
0.91 5.44 9.98 14.52 19.05
1.36 5.9 10.43 14.97 19.5
6.35 10.89 15.42 19.96
2.27 6.8 11.34 15.88 20.41
23.59 28.12 32.66 37.19 41.73 46.27 50.8 55.34 59.87 64.41
24.04 28.58 33.11 37.65 42.18 46.72 51.26 55.79 60.33 64.86
24.49 29.03 33.57 38.1 42.64 47.17 51.71 56.25 60.78 65.32
24.95 29.48 34.02 38.56 43.09 47.63 52.16 56.7 61.24 65.77
25.4 29.94 34.47 39.01 43.54
68.95 73.48 78.02 82.55 87.09 91.63 96.16 100.7 105.23 109.77
69.4 73.94 78.47 83.01 87.54 92.08 96.62 101.15 105.69 110.22 114.76 119.3 123.83 128.37 132.9 137.44 141.97
69.85 74.39 78.93 83.46 88.0 92.53
70.31
70.76 75.3 79.83 84.37 88.9
114.31
118.84 123.38 127.91
146.51
151.05 155.58 160.12 164.65 169.1
173.73 178.26 182.8 187.33 191.87 196.41
200.94 205.48 210.01 214.55 219.09 223.62
1.81
9707 101.61 106.14 110.68 115.21 119.75 124.28 128.82 133.36 137.89 142.43 146.96 151.5 156.04 160.57 165.11
169.64 174.18 178.72 183.25 187.79 192.32 196.86 201.4 205.93 210.47 215.0 219.54 224.08
74.84 79.38 83.91 88.45 92.99 97.52 102.06 106.59 111.13 115.67 120.2 124.74 129.27 133.81 138.35 142.88 147.42 151.95 156.49 161.03 165.56 170.1
174.63 179.17 183.71
188.24 192.78 197.31
201.85 206.39 210.92 215.46 219.99 224.53
48.08 52.62 57.15 61.69 66.22
93.44 97.98 102.51 107.05 111.58 116.12 120.66 125.19 129.73 134.26 138.8 143.34 147.87 152.41
156.94 161.48 166.02 170.55 175.09 179.62 184.16 188.69 193.23 197.77 202.3 206.84 211.37 215.91 220.45 224.98
3.18 7.71
12.25 16.78 21.32 25.85 30.39 34.93 39.46 44.0 48.53 53.07 57.61 62.14 66.68 71.21 75.75 80.29 84.82 89.36 93.89 98.43 102.97 107.5 112.04 116.57 121.11
125.65 130.18 134.72 139.25 143.79 148.33 152.86 157.4 161.93 166.47 171.0 175.54 180.08 184.61
189.15 193.68 198.22 202.76 207.29 211.83 216.36 220.9 225.44
126.1
130.64 135.17 139.71
144.24 148.78 153.31
157.85 162.39 166.92 171.46 175.99 180.53 185.07 189.6 194.14 198.67 203.21 207.75 212.28 216.82 221.35 225.89
378
Conversions Density (mass/volume) 31
kilo9rams per cubicmetre to pounds per cubic foot
Velocity 33
metresper second
tomilesperhour
kg/rn3
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000
mIs
kilonewlons per squaremetre to pounds forceper squareinch
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0.62 6.87
1.87 8.12 14.36 20.61 26.84 33.09 39.33 45.57 51.82 58.06
2.5
3.12 9.36
56.81
1.25 7.49 13.73 19.98 26.22 32.46 38.71 44.95 51.19 57.43
33.71 39.95 46.2 52.44 58.68
21.85 28.09 34.33 40.58 46.82 53.06 59.31
3.75 9.99 16.23 22.47 28.72 34.96 41.2 47.45 53.69 59.93
1
2
3
4
5
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
kgfI
13.11
19.35 25.6 31.84 38.08 44.32 50.57
8.74 14.98 21.23 27.47
4.37
5.62 11.86
60.56
5.0 11.24 17.48 23.72 29.97 36.21 42.45 48.7 54.94 61.18
15.61
24.35 30.59 36.83 43.08 49.32 55.56 61.81
6
7
8
9
15.66 38.03 60.4 82.77 105.13 127.5 149.88 172.24
17.9 40.26 62.63 85.0 107.37
20.13 42.51 64.87 87.24 109.61
129.74
216.98
174.48 196.85 219.22
131.98 154.34 176.72 199.09 221.46
10.61
16.86 23.1
29.34 35.58 41.83 48.07 54.31
18.11
4.47 26.84 49.21 71.58 93.95
6.71 29.08 51.45 73.82 96.19
8.95 31.32 53.69 76.06 98.43
11.18 33.55 55.92 78.29 100.66
111.85 134.22 156.59 178.96 201.32 223.69
114.08 136.45 158.82 181.19 203.56
116.32 138.69 161.06 183.43 205.8
118.56 140.93 163.3 185.67 208.04
120.8 143.16 165.53 187.9 210.27
123.03 145.4 167.77 190.14 212.51
13.42 35.79 58.16 80.53 102.9 125.27 147.64 170.0 192.38 214.75
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.42 15.65 29.87 44.09 58.32 72.54 86.76 100.99 115.21 129.43
2.84 17.07 31.29 45.51 59.73 73.96 88.18
91.03 105.25 119.48 133.7
21.34 35.56 49.78 64.0 78.23 92.45 106.68 120.9 135.12
8.53 22.76 36.98 51.2 65.43 79.65 93.87
116.63 130.86
4.27 18.49 32.71 46.94 61.16 75.38 89.61 103.83 118.05 132.28
122.32 136.54
9.96 24.18 38.4 52.63 66.85 81.07 95.3 109.52 123.74 137.97
11.38 25.6 39.83 54.05 68.27 82.5 96.72 110.94 125.17 139.39
12.8 27.02 41.25 55.47 69.69 83.92 98.14 112.36 126.59
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
11.6
13.05 27.56 42.06 56.56 71.07 85.57 100.07 114.58 129.08 143.58
22.37 44.74 67.11 89.48
194.61
152.11
lbf/in2 0
14.22 28.45 42.67 56.9 71.12 85.34 99.56 113.79 128.01 142.23
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
37
10
2.24 24.61 46.96 69.35 91.71
0 10
cm2 35 kilograms forceper squarecentimetre to poundsforceper squareinch
6.24 12.49 18.73 24.97 31.21 37.46 43.7 49.94 56.19 62.43
0 mile/hr
100
PreSSUre,stress
0
lb/ft3
kN/m2
(kPa)
0 lbf/in2
0
10
102.41
5.6 19.91
34.13 48.36 62.58 76.81
7.11
108.1
2.9 17.40 31.91 46.41 60.91
4.35 18.85 33.36 4V.86 62.36
5.8 20.30 34.81 49.31 63.81
7.25 21.75 36.26 50.76 65.26
8.7 23.21 37.71
43.51 58.01
1.45 15.95 30.46 44.96 59.46
72.52 87.02 101.52 116.03 130.53
73.97 88.47 102.97 117.48 131.98
75.42 89.92 104.42 118.93 133.43
76.87 91.37 105.87 120.38 134.88
78.32 92.82 107.32 121.83 136.33
79.77 94.27 108.77 123.28 137.78
81.22 95.72 110.22 124.73 139.23
100 200 300 400
14.50 29.01
500 600 700 800 900 1 000
145.03
52.21 66.71
10.15 24.66 39.16 53.66 68.17 82.67 97.17 111.68 126.18 140.68
26.11 40.61 55.11
69.62 84.12 98.62 113.13 127.63 142.13
140.81
379
Conversions lb/ft3
0
2
1
3
4
100
mile/hr
6
7
8
9 32
kg/rn3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
5
16.02 32.04 176.2 192.22 160.19 336.39 352.41 320.37 512.59 480.55 496.57 640.74 656.76 672.78 800.92 816.94 832.96 977.13 993.15 961.11 1121.29 1137.31 1153.33 1 313.51 1 281.48 1 297.5 1 441.66 1 457.68 1 473.7
48.06 208.24 368.43 528.61 688.79 1 1 1 1
848.98 009.16 169.35 329.53 489.72
64.07 224.26 384.44 544.63 704.81 865.0 1 025.18 1 185.37 1 345.55 1 505.74
112.13 128.15 80.09 96.11 272.31 288.33 240.28 256.3 400.46 416.48 432.5 448.52 560.65 576.67 592.68 608.7 736.85 752.87 768.89 720.83 913.05 929.07 881.02 897.03 1 057.22 1 073.24 1 089.26 1 041.2 1 201.38 1 217.4 1 233.42 1 249.44 1 361.57 1 377.59 1 393.61 1 409.62 1 521.75 1 537.77 1 553.79 1 569.81
144.17 304.35 464.54 624.72 784.91 945.09
1 265.46 1 425.64 1 585.83
1601.85
0
0 10
20
4.47 8.94
30
13.41
40
17.88 22.35 26.82 31.29 35.76 40.23
lbf/
j2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
lbf/ in2
1
6
7
8
g
2.68 7.15 11.62 16.09 20.56 25.03 29.5 33.98 38.45 42.92
3.13 7.6 12.07 16.54 21.01 25.48 29.95 34.42 38.89 43.36
3.58 8.05 12.52 16.99 21.46 25.93 30.4 34.87 39.34 43.81
4.02 8.49 12.96 17.43 21.91 26.38 30.85 35.32 39.79 44.26
5
6
7
8
g
0.49 1.2
0.56
0.63 1.34 2.04 2.74 3.45
2
3
4
5
70 80 90 100
0.45 4.92 9.39 13.86 18.33 22.8 27.27 31.74 36.21 40.68
0.89 5.36 9.83
1.34 5.81 10.28 14.75 19.22 23.69 28.16 32.63 37.1 41.57
1.79 6.26 10.73 15.2 19.67 24.14 33.08 37.55 42.02
11.18 15.65 20.12 24.59 29.06 33.53 38.0 42.47
14.31
18.78 23.25 27.72 32.19 36.66 41.13
28.61
2.24 6.71
34
milesperhour to metresper second
44.7
36
0 kgt/cm2 0.7 1.41
2.11 2.81 3.52 4.22 4.92 5.62 6.33
1
2
3
4
0.07 0.77 1.48 2.18 2.88 3.59 4.29 4.99 5.69 6.4
0.14 0.84 1.55 2.25 2.95 3.66 4.36 5.06 5.77 6.47
0.21
0.35 1.05 1.76 2.46 3.16 3.87 4.57 5.27 5.98 6.68
0.42
1.62 2.32 3.02 3.73 4.43 5.13 5.84 6.54
0.28 0.98 1.69 2.39 3.09 3.8 4.5 5.2 5.91 6.61
5 34.48 103.42 172.38 241.32 310.28 379.22 448.18 517.12 586.08 655.02
0.91
1.12 1.83
1.9
1.27 1.97
6.12 6.82
2.67 3.37 4.08 4.78 5.48 6.19 6.89
6
7
8
9
41.37 110.32 179.27 248.22 317.17 386.12 455.07 524.02 592.97 661.92
48.26 117.22 186.16 255.12 324.06 393.02 461.96 530.92 599.86 668.82
55.16 124.11 193.06 262.01 330.96 399.91 468.86 537.81 606.76 675.71
62.06 131.0 199.96 268.9 337.86
2.53 3.23 3.94 4.64 5.34 6.05 6.75
2.6 3.3 4.01 4.71 5.41
poundsforceper squareinch to kilograms forceper squarecentimetre
4.15 4.85 5.55 6.26 6.96
7.03
1
2
3
4
6.9 75.84 144.8 213.74 282.7 351.64 420.6 489.54 558.5 627.44
13.79 82.74 151.69 220.64 289.59 358.54 427.49 496.44 565.39 634.34
20.68 89.64 158.58 227.54 296.48
27.58 96.53 165.48 234.43 303.38 372.33 441.28 510.23 579.18 648.13
0 kN/m2(kPa)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
IC
meLre
1105.27
rn/s
50 60 70 80 90 100
oot o iogramspercu
68.95 137.9 206.85 275.8 344.75 413.7 482.65 551.6 620.55 689.5
365.44 434.38 503.34 572.28 641.24
406.8 475.76 544.7 613.66 682.6
38 pounds forceper square inchto kilonewtons per square metre
380
Conversions Refrigeration
W
thermal units per hour
0 10
20 30 40 50 60 70
80 90
100
Thermal
conductance 41
wattsper square
metrekelvin to Britishthermal units persquarefoot hour degree F
0
1
2
3
3.41 37.53 71.66 105.78
6.82 40.95 75.07 109.12
10.24 44.36 78.5 112.6 146.72 180.84 214.97 249.09
4
5
6
7
8
9
13.65
17.06
47.77 81.89
51.18 85.3 119.43 153.55 187.67 221.79
20.47
23.89
30.71
Btulhr
39 wattstoBritish
34.12 68.24 102.36 136.49 170.61
204.73 238.85 272.97 307.09 341.22
139.91
174.02 208.14 242.26 276.38 310.51
143.31
177.43 211.55 245.68 279.8 313.92
116.01
317.33
150.13 184.26 218.38 252.5 286.62 320.74
283.21
191.08
92.13 126.25 160.37 194.49
225.2
228.61
290.03 324.15
259.32 293.45 327.57
262.74 296.86 330.98
27.3 61.42 95.54 129.66 163.78 197.9 232.03 266.15 300.27 334.39
255.91
5459
88.72 122.76 156.96
58.01
6483
98.95 133.07 167.2 201.31
235.44 269.56 303.68 337.8
W/ (m2K)
i
0.0 Btu/(ft2hr°F)
0.0 .0
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
0.176 0.352 0.528 0.704 0.881
1.057 1.233 1.409 1.585 1.761
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.018 0.194 0.370 0.546 0.722 0.898 1.074 1.250
0.035
0.053 0.229 0.405
0.074 0.247 0.423 0.599 0.775
0.088 0.264 0.440 0.616 0.793
0.106 0.282 0.458
0.141
0.158
0.951 1.127 1.303 1.479 1.656
0.969 1.145 1.321 1.497 1.673
0.986 1.162
0.123 0.299 0.476 0.652 0.828 1.004 1.180 1.356 1.532 1.708
1.427 1.603
0.211
0.387 0.564 0.740 0.916 1.092 1.268 1.444 1.620
0.581
0.757 0.933 1.110 1.286 1.462 1.638
0.634
0.810 1.34 1.515 1.691
0.317 0.493
0.335 0.511
0.669 0.845
0.687 0.863
1.021 1.198 1.374 1.550 1.726
1.039
1.215 1.391
1.567 1.744
381
Conversions Btu/hr
0
4
5
2
3
0.59 3.52 6.45 9.38
0.88
1.17
3.81
4.1
7.03 9.97 12.9
24.03 26.97
6.74 9.67 12.6 15.53 18.47 21.4 24.33 27.26
15.83 18.76 21.69 24.62 27.55
1.47 4.4 7.33 10.26 13.19 16.12 19.05 21.98 24.91 27.84
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.568 1.136 1.703 2.271
0.057 0.624 1.192 1.76 2.328 2.896 3.464 4.031 4.599 5.167
0.17 0.738 1.306 1.874 2.442 3.009 3.577 4.145 4.713 5.281
0.227 0.795 1.363
2.839 3.407 3.975 4.542
0.114 0.681 1.249 1.817 2.385 2.953 3.52 4.088 4.656 5.224
1
6
7
8
9
2.05 4.98
2.34 5.28
2.64 5.57
w 0 10
20 30
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Btu/(ft2.
hF)
2.93 5.86 8.79 11.72 14.66 17.59 20.52 23.45 26.38 29.31
0.00
0.29 3.22 6.16 9.09 12.02 14.95 17.88 20.81 23.74 26.67
12.31
15.24 18.17 21.1
1.76
4.69 7.62 10.55 13.48
7.91
8.21
8.5
10.84 13.78
11.14 14.07
16.41
16.71
17.0
19.34 22.28 25.21 28.14
19.64 22.57 25.5 28.43
19.93 22.86 25.79 28.72
11.43 14.36 17.29 20.22 23.15 26.09 29.02
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.284 0.852 1.42 1.987 2.555 3.123
0.341 0.908 1.476 2.044 2.612 3.18 3.747 4.315 4.883
0.397 0.965 1.533 2.101 2.669
0.454 1.022 1.59 2.158 2.725
3.236 3.804 4.372 4.94 5.508
3.293
0.511 1.079 1.647 2.214 2.782 3.35 3.918 4.486 5.053
W/(m2K)
0.0 0.1
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
5.11
5.678
1.931
2.498 3.066 3.634 4.202 4.77 5.337
3.691
4.258 4.826 5.394
5.451
3.861
4.429 4.997 5.564
5.621
40 British thermal unitsper hour
owa
42
Britishthermal units persquare foothour degreeFtowattsper squaremetre kelvin
382 Components
Materials PHYSICALCHARACTERISTICSOF COMMONBUILDINGMATERIALS
material
densi, (kg/rn)
E-modulus (kN/mrn2)
tensile moisture strength movement (MN/rn2) (%)
In selecting building materials architect needs
take into account their significant physical characteristics. This knowledge helps him assess how manufactured products specified and constructions designed perform in use. Precise values influenced by such factors as temp, moisture content, surface condition, internal structure. These usually determined by means of standard tests, which may take into account conditions of use. Handbooks issued by professional and other independent organisations give precise values for many common materials, with details on conditions underwhich values were determined. Manufacturers'literature may also givevalues. —.( 1) brings together valuesfrommany sources:
devised as aid for architects at early stages of design. In most instancesrange ofvaluesgiven. Designer must judgewhichappropriate to his need. However, in some instances contractual orregulatory reasons may imposestandardised values, orvalues determined by standardtests. Manufactured products may be combinations chosen and placed to give desiredperformance. Innumerable combinations available, some proprietary. Not possible give their values here. Formany values may becalculatedusing recognisedprocedures. For others information must be sought from manufacturers or obtained experimentally.
of different materials,
Characteristics Table givesfollowing characteristics: Density (kg/rn3): enables mass of material be calculated; gives indication of many other properties, eg generally light weight material when dry gives good thermal insulation and sound absorption but poor sound insulation
Modulus ofelasticity (kN/mm2) and Tensile and impressive strength (MN/rn2)give indicationsof structural performance, modulus of
ages. Generally lightweight and fibrous and some cement-based materials show dimen sional changes when wetordry; suchneed be accommodated in design; movement may be reversible or onlyhappen on first use
Coefficient of thermal expansion(per 00 x 10-6): changes intempcause materialsexpand or contract; such movement again may need be accommodated: expressed bycoefficient Thermal conductivity —up393(2) expressed asWm/rn2°C,conventionallyW/rn°C. Forsome materials values greatly influenced bymoisture content
Sound apsorption coefficients—vp397(2)
non-combushble
naturalstone granite limestone marble sandstone siate
2600 2000—2200 2500 2000—2200 2700
dense concrete gravei aggregate limestoneaggregate otherrock aggregate
1800—2500 1800—2500
20—60
slight
8—to
10—80
001
35
slight
3—4 4—6 7—12 9—11
15—36
0.02—006' 0.02—003' 0.03—01'
12—14 7—8 10—13
0.03_0,06i 003—0 06' 0.1—0.2' 0.02—0.03'
8—12 8—12 6—8
035—07
8
0 15—0.3
00—005'
8—14 5—8 4—6
slight
20—36
sintered aggregate vermicuhte aerated (auto-ciaved)
1400—1600 1100—1400 400—500 400—900
8—10 8—10
bfldra caicium siiicate load-bearing clay engineering cementsci'seds
1500—1800 1 500—1800 1800—2200
14—18 4—26
1400—1500
20—35
siight 002—0.06
asbestoscement
1400—1600
14—26
01—025
lightweightconcrete clinkeraggregate
t.5 2—2.5
007
15—36
no tines
2.5
3—80 10—35
1800—2500 1750
1 4—3.2
0022
1.3 1.9—2.0
06—20 08—2.0
08—20
05—07 015—0 18
05—I
0 5—1
0.7—1.3
iO—t3
0.5—0.6
8—12
025—0.4
gypsum: asplasterorsiabs, biocks& paper-cooered aggregate,
boards; maybe reinforcedwithlibrousmateriais, be namedorirlcorporaie light weight iowstrengthwhenwet,noncombustible
denseplaster foamed piaster plasterboard
1100—1200 850—900
950
16
18—21
16
18—21
04—045
025 0 16
metals&glass:
densemater,ais assheetsorthinseciions;physicalcharacteristics dependon composition, shapeSgeometricai arrangement, SirOitg bat maybe brittle;no signilicantoiled ofchange in moisiureconteni
castiron miidsteei
aiuminiurri&atoys copper&alioyo lead zinc glass
7000 7800 2300—2800 8400—8900 11 350 7000
2500
80—120
210 70—75 95—130
70—280
400 70—550 120—400
14 140—220
70
30—170
negligible negligible negiigible neghgible negligible negligible negiigib)e
10 12
24—29 17—21 30
23—33 9—11
40 50 160—230° 130—200°
113 07—1
wood:
naturalmaterial with considerable variat,oorisinphysicalcharacieristics accordingtospecies& condition, particularly moista,econtent
balsa softwood hard wood
100—250
300—600 55—12.5 550—900 7—21 (veryheavywoods over 1 000)
considerable considerable
005—0 06 4.Swithgrain 01—013 30—70across grain
0 14—0.17
plastics: syntheticorganicpolymers'thermosetting remainhard on hardening,iherrnoplastic sohened on reheating,physical characteristics depend oncomposition,modifiedbyfillers& piasticisers; natural& syntheticrubberssimilar; combustible, givingoilsmoke& ioniccombustion products;highcoetttcientofexpansion acrylic polycarbonate polyethylene (iowdensity) polyethylene (highdensity) polyproplylene polystyrene nyion rubber asphalt
1440
25—3.3
1150 920
22—25 01—0.28
negligrbie negligible negligible
50—90 50—70 160—200
02 023 035
05—1
negligible
t 10—140
05
0.9—1.6
negligible negligible negligible negligible negligible
80—110 60—80 100—120
0.24
30—80
1.2
960 915 1050 1100 930 2300
1,7—3.1
0007
017
03
0 16
thermalinsulatingmaterials:
lightweight,tibrousorcellularin compoutiongiving goodthermal insulation 650usdabsorbliorn butpoorsoundinsulation, lowresistanceto crushing;readilyabsorbmoisture, with increasein density&thermalcondachnity; montcombustible exceptmineral based,improvedby cl'rernical additives
mineral baud expanded perlite expanded vermiculite glass tibre mineral wool asbestos orsubstitute insulating board cellular glass
— notes: nitiai irreversibie shrinkage 2 initial irreversible expansion 3iowemissivity/high reflectivity ofbnghtsurtace ot thesemetais againstheat radiation
(W/mC)
natural stone.clay bricks,terracoitablocks.caiciamsilicatebricks,concrete (block, slabOr cast).rieriseorhghtweight(aerated, ceilular,or mortar, reinforcemeni; lighterweight rnateriais: betterthermaiinsuiation,soundabsorption, absorbmoisture&showdimensional change onwetting& loweriherrnalresistioity,
wood-wool sfab chipboard tibreboard corkboard
characteristics
tivity
lightweightaggregate), physicalcharacteristics dependondensity,shape, georiretrical arrangement,
01 1 Common building materials: valuesfor physical
(per"Cx 106)
thermal conduc-
masonry:
elasticity indicating stiffness
Moisture movementsexpressed aspercent-
thermal movement
65 100 25—100 50—150 750—900
26—36
175
5—8
400—700 500—800 250—350
0.6—07 2—28
o 16—0.25
2 5—72
0.04—007 0.7—01 00.4—0 07 0.04—007 0 12—0 16
85
0.06
015—0.4 035
008—013 015—0.2
005—0.07
04
130—160
polystyrene bead
15—25
pvc
40—70
tuenwd urea-formaldehyde polyurethane
30
8—15
004—0.05 14—45 35—50
0035 0035—0 045
9
003—0.04
2—7
0.03—0.07
Components 383
Services: Distribution Distribution system for services needs careful planningensure system economical in both builders and specialistwork. System starts at point ofentryofserviceto bldg orfromboiler and plant rm to all spaces being served. Points of entry of services and plant rm location should be determined at early stage.
DISTRIBUTIONMEDIUM Heating distribution may be byhot water,steam, orwarm air.Water may be at low pressure under boiling point or at high pressure above boiling point depending on quantity of heat to be distributed. Air inefficient means ofdistribution but required for ventilationorairconditioning. Example: in 100 tube transfer capacitiesare: low velocity air 072 kW 2.16 kW high velocity air 525 kW low pressure hot water 2385 kW high pressure hot water
DISTRIBUTIONLAYOUTS In multi-storey bldg distribution pattern may be: (a) primarily horizontal with secondarydistribution upor down through floors; (b) primarily vertical with secondary distribution along floors. (a) more common especially for low bldg or those with dissimilar flow plans but system may occupy greater building volume by increasing floorto tloor height of all floors. (b) more suitable forhigh bldg with repetitive floor plans.
VENTILATION Some ducts may require ventilation to limit temp rise or because of service contained, eq natural gas. Where floor construction carried through, vent each floor topand bottom. Ifductcontinuous,vent at ends (—.Bib111).
WALKWAYS—+(1 )(2) Retain clear working space 700 wide x 2000 high after all services installed. Large takeoffs and expansion loops may require additional width. Accessfromends —boiler rmorplant rm. Intermediateaccess to changes ofdirection and lunctions by removablecovers mm 450 x 600. Access openings should allow length of pipe (6000) be installed or removed.
CRAWLWAYS—(3) Clear working space 700 wide x 1 000 high after all services installed. Accessbycovers mm 450 x 600 atintervals of 10—15 m.
heat loss
uptokW
35 64 153 255 423 956 1432
Whether primary distribution atground level orroot level willdepend on location of boiler or plant rm At ground level may be in walkways or crawlways underground slab provided these do not conflict with foundations. root void or in extra deep ceiling void.Horizontal distribution above root level difficult protect from weather, complicates root drainage.
A w
B
h
6 pipes 6 pipes
PRIMARYHORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION
At roof level distribution may be in pitched
heating
f&rsize
on 1 side
on both
40
10€
50 65 80 100 125 150
1140 1180 1235 1330 1425 1505
1430 1 580
with hangers with rollers
sides
2010 2055 2130 2230 2370 2515 2665
1660 1770 1960
2150 2310
2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Walkways:dimensions(f&r= flow &return)
1
PRIMARYVERTICALDISTRIBUTION Primary vertical distribution is by vertical duct spaces through bldg. Direction ofhorizontal connexion atfloor slab level should notbe limited byadjacent stairwells, liftshafts, orflues. Trimming beamsmay also limit horizontal connexions.
-f
INTERCONNEXION VERTICAL& HORIZONTAL Interconnexion between verticaland horizontalduct critical:ducts should
not be in samevertical plane and vertical duct should be long sideonto horizontal duct to givegreatest common interconnecting area.
-A-
ACCESSTO DUCTS Access to ducts should be adequate for maintenance work and for renewal of pipes etc, which have shorter life than that of bldg. Access either through duct —walkways, crawlwaysand large vertical ducts —or through access panels in sideortop of duct.
FIREPRECAUTIONS
2 Walkways& crawiways—.(1 )(3) heat loss
heating
uptokW f&rsize
3 pipesoneachside A w
Either firestops atfloor level orfr construction and access panels.
SOUNDTRANSMISSION
35 64 153 255
Floor construction carried through at or near floor level. All pipe penetrations sealed airtight. Access panels of adequate sound reduction and sealed airtight.
423 956
432
3
40 50 65 80 100 125 150
B h with hangers
with rollers
1430 1580
1070 1095
1 000
1660 1770 1960 2150 2310
1140
1000 1 000 1000 1000 1020
Crawlways:dimensions
1 205
1280 1360 1435
1 000
384 Components
Services: distribution heatloss upto kW
3 6 13 24 35 64 153
255 423 956 1432
heating & size
I r
A w
B hwithout crossover
hwith
15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150
1350 1360 1395 1430 1475 1520 1600 1680 1780 1920
230 235 240 250 255 265 285 295 320 345 375
320
2070
TRENCH DUCTS—*(1)(2)
crossover
345 375 410 445 520 560 615 710 805 885
r •
Trencnducts:dimensions(I&r=flow&return)
1
heatcapacity uptokW
A w
B
l&rsize 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150
605 615 650 685 730 775 855 935 1035 1175 1320
300 305 315 325 330 340 380 425 475 555
heating
3 6 13 24 35 64 153
255 423 956 1432
A
pipesize
1 pipe
HORIZONTALDUCTSAT CEILING LEVEL—*(3)(4) Pipe supports above pipes for pipework to be installed or removed from below. Crossovers
Trenchduct
LA
625
Space requirementsforhorizontalductat ceiling level (containingheatingflow & return,hot waterflow&return,coldwater service&coldwater main) uptokW
2
A
h
3
heatless
Pipe supports should be below pipes or on sides to allow lengths of pipe be installed or removed. Allowspace under pipe supports and slight fall for draining. Access through continuous covers or covers at junctions and changes of direction and breakout screedcover whenrequired. Pipeson rollersallow expansion movement.
A B 2pipes d
4
I
r
SCREED DUCTS—*(5)(6) Chase formed by omitting floor screed. Useful for local hot and cold water connexions to sanitary fittings and local heating pipework. Floor finish carried over plywood covernailed to battens. Access by cutting floor finishand prising up cover. Pipe size usually limited to 20—22,otherwise screed ofuneconomic thickness. Oversized hole required for connexion for expansion of pipework.
Horizontalduct at ceiling level
C diaof hole requiredfor connexion
1.5
3 6
20 25 32
13 24
5
150
150 150 150 150
54.5 59.0 64.5 71.5 80.0
46.5 51.0 56.5 64.0 73.5
VERTICALDUCTS—*(1 1 )(12) Onerow pipestoallow installationand removal
6
Screedducts:dimensions
heat loss uptokW
w A
heating
f&rsize
605 615 650 685 730 775
153
15 20 25 32 40 50 65
255 423
80 100
956
125 150
935 1035 1175 1320
3
6 24 35 64
1432
d
withorwithout B crossover without
13
r
100 100 100 100 100
10 15
855
from front without removing other pipework exceptcrossovers. Access through removable panels or doors full floorheight on long side. Crossoversand clearance for valves increase depth considerably. Diagonal takeoffs with 45° bend reduce depth but increase width by
Screedduct
— B
with
crossover
crossover
115 120 125 135 140 150 170 180
205 230 260 295 330 405 445 500 595 690 770
205 230 260
increasing spacing ofvertical pipes.
ESTIMATINGVENTILATION! AIR-CONDITIONINGSIZES For preliminary planning purposes ventilation! air-conditioning ducts may be calculated from:
Lowvelocity:cross sectional arofductm2 = floor ar servedm2
Space requirementsforverticalducts
9
Vertical ductwith crossover
(containingbeatingflow & return,hotwaterflow & return,coldwater service&cold watermain) heat heating loss f&r upto size kW 75
B
A
w
——
may be above or below depending on venting of pipework. Continuous access from below through ceiling or panel. Add extra depth of ceiling support system, recessed light fittings etc. Drop rodsallow expansion movement.
B
dWtthOLit
dwithcrossover
———— crossover
100 150 75 100 150 soil soil soil soil soil soil pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe
75 soil pipe
—
100
150
soil pipe
soil pipe
750
High velocity:cross sectional arofduct m2 = floor arserved m2 2250 Ductsshould notexceed 1:4 shorttolong side and bestsquare. High velocity ducts should be circular. Allowspace for insulation,flanges and supports:100 on allsides.
pvc copper pvc copper pvc copper waste waste waste waste waste waste 3 6 13
24
15
20 25 32
40 50 65 255 80 423 100 956 125 1432 150 35 64 153
815 840 895 173 825 855 905 173 860 885 940 173 895 920 975 173 940 965 1020 173 985 1015 1065 173 1060 10901140 173 1145 1170 1225 180 1245 1270 1325 205 1385 14152875 230 1530 1555 1610 260
205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 230 260
255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255
295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 255 295 260 295
350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350
320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320
375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375
375 375 375
370
370 370 370 370 370 370
370 370 370 370
425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425
10 Space requirementsforverticalduct including soiupipe(containingheatingflow & return,hotwater flow &return,cold water service,cold water main&soil &wastepipes)
I)
socket exiemai dia
socketexternal
pipe nsuiation
)
—
pipeinsulation pipesupport channei
A
r
5pesupport channel
) )
—B-. 11
Vertical ductwith
soil pipe
12 Verticalductwith soilpipe &crossover
Components
385
Services: Methods of heating Decision on type of heating emission in individual spaces depends on requirements ofthermal comfort inrelationtothermal responseofbldg.
anglevstves,sideconnexions, top & bottom size mm
A
B
C
15
115 125 140
115 120 135
25
20
25
THERMALCOMFORT-+(4) —vpl6 High standard ofthermal comfort requires: surrounding surface temphigher than airtemp airtempat head lower than atfloorlevel: low tempgradient air movement justperceptible butvariable and with nodraughts hum not very important except at tempabove 21°C: should not exceed 70% norbe less than30%
straight valves, bottomconnexions 15
20 25
130 150 160
130 140 155
_____________________
Ifradiator underSI elf, clearance of twice cifromfaceofradiatorto waftrequired aboveradiator: clearance of 1½ timesd requiredunderradiator 1
Space forradiatorvaIves—(2)
THERMALRESPONSEOFBUILDING Thermal response ofbldg depends on: area and orientation of glazing: largeareas of glazing facing sun give quickresponse reflectivityof external surfaces where exposed to sun: high reflectivity reduces heat gain fromsunand reduces response mass of bldg structure and position of thermal insulation: mass inside insulationgiveslong responsetime; lightweightbldg haveshortresponse time Quick response bldg will give economy in heating cost but be hotterin summerandmoredifficult heat comfortably.
TYPES OF HEAT EMITTERS
*—c'A 2
Space forradiatorvalves—°(1)
Low temperature radiant panels: heated by embedded el cables or heating water pipework. Surface preferably floor for low temp gradient butwall orceiling surfaces can beused. Floor surfacetemplimited to 29°C. Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection.
Mediumtempradiant panels:flat steel orcast iron plates with waterwayscast in or welded tobackofplate. Surface tempgenerally 75°C. Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection. Radiators: generally made fromsheet steel; may be 1, 2 or 3 panel or with finson backto increase outputfor given face area. Surface temp 75°C. Radiant: convection emission depends on number of panels, fins etc; single panel approx 25% radiation75%convection. If radiators in corner or recess allow space for valves and for air flow
Natural convectors: may becontinuous casing orindividual casing of pressed steelcontaining finned tube heater. Heatoutput depends on size offinned tubeand height ofconvector. Surface templower than radiator: about35°C. Saferwithyoung children
ordisabled people.
Emission: 10% radiation 90% convection. Natural convector cases often made ofbuilders workfor better appearanceand robustness —(3). Opening atbottomAshould notbeless than width of finned tube. Inside depth of casing B should only allow mm clearance (6)forfinned tube.Grilleat top should have atleast70% open area.
3 Buildersworknaturalconvector—(1) type ofheat emitter
floorheating
mediumtempradiantpanels
order of thermal comfortunder steadyconditions 1
2 3 panel radiators 4 naturalconvectors fanconvectorsorductedwarm air 5
approxorderof response
5 4 3 2 1
Forthermal comfortsurface tempofsurroundings better if higher thanairtemp;someradiant emission required, proportiondepending
onthermal insulation 4 Order ofthermalcomfort&speedofresponsefromheatingemitters
Fan convectors: similar tonaturalconvectors except that aircirculation byfan. High outputforsmall sizeand independent ofheight of casing. Heatoutputeasilycontrolled byfanspeed. May bepositioned overhead iffanadequate toblow hotairdown. Emission: 100%convection. Ducted warmair:forheating similartofan convectors. Difference is in method of heat distribution and in space occupied in rm. Used in domestic installations but in large bldg only when mech ventilation required. Emission: 100% convection.
386 Components
Se,vices: Heating systems C)
0 2 -a 0 CD
I-.. C')
In choosing heating system 3 decisions to make: fuelto be used means ofdistributing heat fromcentral source method ofheatemission in individualspaces
meter w size kW
CAPACITYOF INSTALLATION
d
h
doorw doorh
373
1980
1170
1530
1220
1450
560
2060
1220
1680
1370
1520
Approxcapacity of installationcan be calculated—(1). Example: 4-storeybldg 13 x 70 x (shallow plan bldg) ventilation rate2 air changes
933
2290
1370
1830
1680
1680
1400
2590
1450
1830
1680
1830
= intermediatefloors2x 13 x 70 x 72= = top floor 13 x 70 x 86
1867
2750
1450 2220
1680
1830
2800
2900
1710 2360
1830
1830
3733
3050
1730 2520
1830
1830
groundfloorl3x7Ox79
= =
total heat loss
71890 131040 78260 281190 280kW
ventilationrequired:upto1 867 kWventilation arto be4% of floor ar of meterrm dividedbetween high & low level;over 2800kW ventilationartobe 6% of floor ar
Bldg with intermittent heating need overload capacity: thisdepends on heat uptime. Normally 20% butmay be 100% excess capacity.
2 small bldg
shallowplan
Gas meter rmmm dimensions
deep plan bldg
bldg
number ofair changes
1
2
4
6
2
4
6
2
4
6
181
79 121 167 72 115 161
62 104 150 57 100 146
106 148 194
86 128 174
71 113 159
117
92 134 180
75 117
groundfloor intermediatefloor topfloor
102
singlestorey
146 192
92 135
159 205
163
Heatloss W/m2
GAS SUPPLIES
Distribution
Gas distributed through high pressure nationalgrid system toall regions.
The main: provision and maintenance of main gas supply in UK responsiblity ofBritish GasCorporation. Service pipe: where laid in public ground, British Gas Corporation
responsible for provision and maintenance of service pipe between main and inlet side of meter. Where part of service pipe laid in private land provision and maintenanceusually responsibilityof user. Internal installation pipes from meter to appliances responsibility of bldg owner. No service pipe may be installed inunventilatedvoidspace orduct.
Protection ofpipes:gaspipes must beprotectedagainstcondensation, damp, freezing and corrosion. Flues andair supply for gas appliances(—÷Bibl 19).
Themeter Primary metersshould be situated closeas possible point of entryof servicepipe and allow easy accesswithout disturbing consumer.Meters should not beexposed to: possibilityofphysical damage continuous damp orwet excessive changes oftemp possibilityofcontact with flame or elsparks. Gas meters mustbe separatedfromel meters byfrpartition. Domestic meters require space 330wide, 360deep, 660 high. Gas metersin larger installationsrequireseparate rm—(2).
ELECTRICITYTARIFFS 2 basic types of tariff for el heating: restricted hours tariff, with el available at night onlyatcheap rate; normaltariffs,with elavailableat any time but at 2—3 times restricted hours rate. With restricted hours tariff heat generated must be stored during night for use next day. Heat may be stored in structure of bldg, particularly concrete floors, in vessels containing waterunderpressure, or in wellinsulated high-density cores ofthermal stounits. Storing heat in form of hot watermostflexible arrangement. Direct el heating by radiant or convective emitters, often in form of individual portable appliances.
Oilstorage
4 main types ofoil stotanks for industrialand commercial oil fuels: mild steelwelded mildsteelsectional cast iron sectional reinforced concrete
Most widely used: mild steelwelded; usually horizontal, cylindrical or rectangular. If ground space limited vertical cylindrical tanks may be used.
Capacities
net sf0 capacity (—Bib130) can be calculated in 2 ways (use largest): 3 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption 2 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption plus usual quantityordered for 1 delivery. Ifmax weeklyoffiake less than 9001,stocapacitystillshould notbe less than 2950 Itoaccept 22701 deliveries. Desirable provide more than 1 tank in many circumstances, each of capacity accept at leastfull delivery, each tank having separate filling pipe, unless situated next each otherwhere common filling point can be used, with isolating valves. Different grades must bestored in separate tanks. Mm
SITING Should if possible be installed aboveground. Site should not be sublect extremesoftempand not beintrusive. Clearance should be allowedfor withdrawal offittingssuchassteam coilsand immersion heaters.
If underground
installation unavoidable, should be in specially constructed brickorconcrete chamber, with access to drain valve etc: dry ground and finished structure madewatertight. Sump must be provided in floor at 1 endand floor must slope towards sump. Buried tanks should not be indirectcontact with soil: almost impossible avoid corrosive attack.
Components
387
Services: Heating systems
-A
OILSTORAGE(cont) Supports
Horizontal tanks on brick or reinforced concrete cradles. Downward slope of 1:50 fromdrawoff towards drain. Cradles should not be under jointsorseams of tank plates; layer of bitumenised felt between cradle and tank. Height of tank supports should provide at least 400 space between drain valve and ground level to allow access for draining and painting.
C)
0 9 -o 0 B
CD
.3
mm
150forsteelcradles
Verticaltanks
Up to 2750 dia may bedirectly erected on BC foundation. Base of tank with bitumen-based seal between tank and concrete. Largerdiatanksto be assembled on site should be erected on self-draining foundation with base plated on bitumen and sand or bitumen-macadambase.
4 Cylindricaloilsto tank —.(3)
BOILER ROOMS
Catchpit
Where overfilling or leakagewould be fire hazard or contaminatedrains catchpit required. Made of brick or concrete with oil-tight lining and sealed to concrete base under tank supports. Capacity should be 10% greaterthan capacity of tank or tanks. Catchpit should have facility to remove waterbut no permanent drain.
Manholes —vpl 3
Every sf0tank should have manhole in accessible position,preferably at top. Circular: notless than 460 dia;ovalorrectangular: not less than 460 long, 410 wide. Vertical tanks over 3650 high should have additional manhole at base for maintenanceand cleaning.
Storagetemp oilclass
BS classification
mm
temp
sto °C
lightfueloil mediumfueloil heavy fueloil
E F
Boilers and associated eqp heavy and noisy. Generally best position on ground slab. Boiler rmshould not benext spaces that are toremain cool orquiet.
Accessfromroad toboilerhouse must be adequate forlargest piece of eqpto be replaced. Boilers require airforcombustionand boiler houses need good ventilation reduce internal temp. In large boiler houses separate flue desirable for each boiler, rising directlyto highest part of bldg. For size of boilerrm, access and ventilation requirements —vp388(1)— (4). Dimensions allow all layouts. Solid fuel boilers may need larqer boiler house for fuel handling eqp. If pressurisation eqp or chillers to be included boiler rm must belarger.
10 30 45
10
25 35
G
tempat outhow fromsto &forhandling°C mm
Space round eqp required for making pipe and el connexions and dismantling eqp for servicing. Goodmaintenanceofall plant essential for proper performance, fuel economy and max life.
ciear h
ioadkW 1
Delivery About 7 to 8 t capacity. Delivery vehicle dimensions similar to 7 t long wheelbase tipping vehicle. Conveyor delivery vehicles can stack to 2500above load level: ordinary delivery 1400. Factors: bulkdelivery foreconomy stocapacity mm 11/2 x capacity ofdelivery vehicle goodsf0 heightsaves space plan for mm manual handling eggravity feed fordelivery point to sto Where boilerfiredfromfront fuel should be stored in front orgravitateto front fromsto at higher level. Magazine type boilers should befed from fuel sto above hopper attop ofboiler.
CalorificValue& Density fuel
calorificvalue MJ/kg
densitykg/rn3
anthracite bituminous coal
35
330
30 28
800 400
coke
Calorificvalue& density capacityI 1140 2275 2730 3410 4550 5455 6820 9095 11365 13640 15915
3
w
w
h
Oilsto temp
SOLID FUEL
2
I
access door
lengthA 1655 1705 2010 2165 3150 3760 2900 3305 3940 3965 4880
diaB 990 1375 1375 1375 1375 1375 1830 1985 1985
2135 2135
capacity
length
A
dia B
18185 22730
5260 5870
2135 2290
27280 31825 36370 40915 45460 54555 68190 81230 90920
6175 5590 6505 7420 8030 9550 12195 12195 13720
2440 2745 2745 2745 2745 2745 2745 3050 3050
Oilsto: dimensionsof cylindricaltanks—.(4)
ventilation Iouvres inlet
outlei
(low level) m2
(highievei) m2
upto200
7900
5300 3500
1500
2000
048
0422
200—600
9800
7900
4300
1700
2300
1.44
1.22
600—1800
16900
12200
5300
3400
3000
4.32
1800—6000
19100
18200
7300
3400
4200
144
11.646
6000—20000
26800
26000
9300
4400
5800
48 0
3668
5
Boilerrrndata
3.709
C,)
388 Components
Services: heatingsystems BOILER ROOMS(cont) emergency exit
pumps 1 to4 Boiler houselayouts;technicaldata-.p387(5)
CALORIFIERROOMS Calorifier rmis heating substation where heatinwater(orsteam) athigh pressure and tempchanged to heat atlow pressure and temp. Several calorifier rm may befed from1 boilerhouse in large installation.
In districtheating schemes with distribution at high pressure and temp, calorifier rmrequired at intake.
rating A
h
B
c
w
d
Calorifier rm should notbe next tospaces that are to remain cool.
D space at front
E space at back
F H 0 weight flue l/D space space space lull on left on above kg side right
side
Access required fromroad through bldg tocalorifier rm forlargestpiece ofeqp to be replaced. Calorifier rm must be ventilated to reduce internal temp.
610 610 35 915 35— 1020 610 100 1320 960 100— 1605 960 1 1180 300 1605 640 1525 300— 1605 2230 1525 1180 900 1765 2230 1885 1550
upto
Calorifierrm —(5) contain 2 hot watersto calorifiers, 2 water to water non-stocalorifiers, pumps and controls.
915
500 500 560
535 600 840 845 1130 775 1525
75 150 160 160 200 200 200 200
10 10
155 250 510 510 510 510
75
150 160 160
510 510 510 510
500 680 810 840 900 990 990 990
115 220 270 680 980 1750 2520 3350
102 150 178 225 254 2x 254 460
2x356
ATMOSPHERICGAS BOILERS Smaller gas boilers burn gas at low pressure, do not have forced draught; quieterthan pressure let boilers butless efficient. Boilersuptoabout35kWcapacity availablewitheither balancedflue or
6 Atmosphericgasboilerdata:dimensions fortop&bottomofrangeof each rating; I/O = internaldia
front elevation
conventional flue.
sideelevation
Spacemustbeallowedatfrontforwithdrawalofburners and atsideand backfor connexions —(6)(7)p389(l )—(4). loadWI
w
I
clearh access door ventilation louvres w
h
inlet
outlet
110wlevel) m2
(highlevel) m2 0422
up to200
6900
4800 3500
1100 1950
0.422
200—600
10100
6500 4300
1500
1 950
1.22
7000
1600
1950 3.709
600—1800 12000
5Calonfiermidata
5300
1.22
F4HB+4 G4
3.709
7
Atmosphericgasboiler
—---E
Components
389
Services: heatingsystems A
kw
h
35—100
1195
1470 100—300 1550 1780 300—900 2060 900— 3000 3000— 10000
c
E F 0 H weight flue l/D space space space space space kit with at st onlett on above kg burner front back side right side
B w
rating
D
d
640 1450
610 940 940
1310 1310 1465 1830
2005 3060 3160 3520
1100 1000
2080 2080 2770 2980 5095 4115
3890 4350 5645 7040 8435
1415 2290 3250 2760 4130
2490 2490 3560 3785
500 1310 1310 1400 1500 1500 1640 3835 4370 6225
160
400 700 700 1425 1425 1505 1655 1655 1655
460 560 1210 1210 1210 1210 1230 1375 1375 1380
540 765 765 800 1000 1000
1500 1500 2000 2000
890 1690 2915 2915 4850 6095 6095 30990 30990 49490
200 200 254 432 432 432
432 660 710 1016
1 Pressurejetgasboilersdata:dthension fortop&bottomofeachheating range —'(3)
rating
kw
A h
upto35
950
35—100
950 1195
1470 100—300 1550 1780 300—900 2060 2490 900— 2820 3000 3655 3000— 3950 10000 5250
B
C d
D
B space space with at at burner front back
w
550 845 550 925 640 1005
1310 1265 1465 1830 3170 3170 3180 3180 4115
2005 2930 2930 3150 3945 3965
6535 7045 8435
800 800 800 1215 1215 1220 1220 1450 2290 3050 2880 3695
400 400 500 1310 1310 1320 1320 1415 1415 3535 4370 6225
F 0 H weight flue lID space space space kill onleft on above kg side right side 150 150 150 155
700 700 700 700 1505
1655 1655 1655
205 205 205 355 1000 1000 1425 1505 1505 1550 1550 1550
200 200
200 200 1000 1000 1000 1000
1500 2000 2000 2000
185
230 260 1380 2915 4675 4675 6100 9755 30990 30990 63100
152 152
203 204
254 255 350 400
PRESSUREJET GASOR OIL BOILERS On pressure jet boilers burner forced-draught fan assembly projects considerably from front. Assembly often hinged for access to boiler shell for maintenance. In largersizes considerable space required at backfor easybend flue connexion —'(1)(2)(3).
STORAGECYLINDERS
Domestichotwatercylinders
Domestic hot water cylinders must be installed with enough space make and unmake connexions to fit or remove cylinder —÷(4)—(6) p390(1). In rectangular cupboard connexions on diagonal save space
-'(7).
Largeindirect cylinders
Indirectcylindersneed only low primary circulation pressure and will operatewithgravity flowifcorrectly placed in relationto boiler. Large indirect cylinders have bolted head to allow internal annular heater to be withdrawn and replaced. For withdrawal space required —'p390(3). Indirect cylinders may be vertical or horizontal —÷p390(2)— (5). Horizontal useful if headroom limited but vertical more efficient in preventing mixing ofincoming coldwaterwith remaining hot. Inspection opening oftenprovided insideofcylinder.
400
710 710 1016
Pressurejetoil-filled boilers data:dimension fortop &bottomofeach heating range—'(3)
capacityA
B
I
diawith insulation
hwfth insulation
0
D
D-
spacefor
space
space
connexions above for aboveto opposite connexions withdraw sides flnersion
E space round overmsuIstion for
handaccess
hester
E
I
c
I
78 101
119
CD
91
103 115 127 151
175
238 307
Pressurejetgas&oil-filledboiler—.(1)(2)
414
4
990 990 1145 765 840 915 990 1145 1295 1295 1295 1675
510 560 560 610 610 610 610 610 610 685 760 760
115 115 115 115 115 115 115 140 140 140 155 155
I
insulation
6
B
114 100 123 145 170 215 255 332 418
-
Domesticverticaldirectcylinder
—'(4)
7
Domesticverticalcylinder: connexionsondiagonal—'(4)
5
1145 1145 1145 1525
C
D
0
space for insulation connexions opposite
space
space
connexions
withdraw
560 610 610 610 610 660 660 760 760
115 115 115 140 140 155 155 185 185
B
diewith
Sea
C
840 840 995 615 690 765 840 995
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Domesticverticaldirect cylindersdata—'(6)(7)
capacityA hwith
-I
115 115 115 115 115 115 115 140 140 140 155 155
1145
840 990 1145 1295 1345 1550 1450 1830
115 115 115 140 140 155 155 185
185
abovefor
B
apaceround overWiauladenfor flnerafon handacoess aboveto
MS
Domesticverticalindirectcylindersdata —'p390(1)
995
690 840 995 1145 1195 1400 1300 1680
100 100 100 100
iuo 100 100 100 100
390 Components
Services. heatingsystems STORAGECYLINDERS(cont)
STORAGECALORIFIERS Sto calorifiers serve same purpose as indirect cylinders except that heater is tubularbattery in side requiring pumped prrnarycirculation. Vertical withdrawal space not required. Sto calorifiers may be vertical .—*(6)(8) orhorizontal —*(7)(9). Vertical more efficient.
I
Domesticverticalindirectcylinder
2
Vertical indirectsto cylinder—.(3)
—.p389(5) capacity
B
capaotyA
diawith
hwith
insulation
insulation
C space for connesions
D
115 115 115 115 115 115 115
115 115 155 155 155 185 185 185 185 185
space for connexions
E space
abovefor connex,ons
600 600 650 650 750 750 750 750 850 850 900 900
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1350 1500 1800
940 1255 1335 1590 1415 1590 1765 1945 1685 1945 1925 2205 1995 2185 2305 2535 2185 2535 2505 2705 3145 2995 3335 3285
1000 1000 1050 1050 1200 1200 1300 1350 1350 1500 1500 1600
2100 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
140 140 140 140 155 155 155 185 185 185 185
385 385 455 455 455 485 485 485 485 485 540 540 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 660 660 660 660
215 215 249 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 305 305 305 305
215 215 215 215 215 215
I
F
space above for withdrawal
3(X)
700 760 950 820 950 1080 1215 1020 1215 1200 1410 1 252 1 395 1 485 1 660 1395 1 660 1635 1 785 2115 2005 2260 2220
350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1350 1500 1800 2100 2500 3000 3500 40(9)
s -C
B
4
I
100 150
E space abovefor connexions
630 630 680 680 790 790 790 790 890 890 955 955 1080 1080 1130 1130 1280 1280 1380 1430 1430 1590 1590 1690
80 80 95 95 95 115 115 115 115 115 140 140 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 185 185 185 185
385 385 455 455 455 485 485 485 485 485 540 540 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 660 660 660 660
865 1180 1260 1515 1340 1515
1690 1870 1610 1870 1850 2130 1920 2110 2230 2460 2110 2460 2430 2630 3070 2920 3260 3210
465 700 760 950 820 950 1080 1215 1202 1215 1200 1410 1255 1395 1485 1660 1395 1660 1635 1785 2115 2005 2260 2220
355 355 435 47470
720 720
820 820 820 820 920 920 970 970
340
1995
2185 2305 2535 2185 2535 2505
1070 1150 1200 1200 1350 1350 1470 1520 1560 1710 1710 1710
470 470 520 520 560 560 560 560
2705 3145 3075
3415 3365
D
E space above for connexions
front back space for spacefor withdrawal connexions
455 455
155 155 155 185 185 185 185
455 485 485 485 485 485 540 540 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 660 660 660 660
85 215 215 240 240 240 305 305 305 305 305 305 305 305 305
B (with insulation
745 745
C front space for connexions 315 315 315 315 315 340 340 340 340 355 355 435 470 470 470 470 520 520 560 560 560 560
1325 1580 1405 1580 1755 1935 1675 1935 1915 2195 1985 2175 2295 2525 2260 2580 2510 3040 3135 3220 3325 3540
855
855 855 855 955 955 1005 1005 1120 1120 1170 1170 1345 1345 1445 1495 1495 1645 1645 1645
C D frontspace back forcoil space for
E space
withdrawal connexions
connexions
1330 1585 1410 1585 1760 1940 1680 1940 1920 2200 1990 2260 2380 2610 2260 2610 2600 2800 3280 3130 3470 3420
455 455 455 485 485 485 485 485 540 540 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 660 660 660 660
85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 125 125 125 125 125 125 160 160 190 190 190 190
abovefor
note:aspace 01 300 required forgeneral access & 500braccess toinspection opening
7 Horizontalsto calorifiers
note: aspace of 300 required forgeneralaccess&500foraccessto inspectionopening
S Horizontalindirectsto cy'indersdata—.(4)
2205
insulation
250 3(9) 350
800 900 10(X) 1200 1350 1500 1800 2100 2500 3000 35(X) 40(X) 4500
—.(5)
D back space for connexions
315 315 315 315 315 340 340 340
hwith
2(X)
5(X) 6(X) 7(X)
Horizontalindirectstocylinder
A B C hwith with front insulation insulation space for withdrawal
1335 1590 1415 1590 1765 1945 1685 1945 1925
C
6 Vertical sto calonfiersdata—.(8)
450
200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1350 1500 1800 2100 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
1065 1065 1115 1115 1265 1265 1365 1415 1415 1565 1565 1565
capacity A
f I I
715 715 815 815 815 815 915 915 965 965
C front spacefor connexions
opening
4(X)
capacity
insulation
note: aspaceof300 required forgeneral access &500foraccess 10 inspection
Vertical indirectsto cylinders data —.(2)
D.----
hwith
insulation
450(1
Opening
3
B
diawith
200 250
465
note: space of300 required brgeneral access & 500foraccess to inspection
A
D.58
A-
data—. (9)
-S.C
Vertical sto calorifier—.(6)
D9
B
Horizontalsto calorifier—.(7)
Components
391
Services: Heating systems kW
100 125 150 175
A hwith
B
insulation
insulation
diawith
880 1390 1940 2550
225 400 500
395 395 420 420 470 470 525 525 575
1725
2640 2100 2710 2225 2835 2590
725 800
1125 1250
C space for pipework on 2 opposite sides
spacefor
160 160
85 85 160 160 215 215 280 280 375 375 375
215 215 280 280 375 375 480 480 580
575 615
pipework
on3rd
D spacefor withdrawal
side
575 1185 1490
TANK ROOMS In all but smallest bldg should beat least2 cold water sto tanks—'(3) to allow for draining down and maintenancewithoutinterrupting supply. Morethan 2tanks may be necessaryforsto required bywater authority. Feed and expansion tank for heating system also generally installed in
1220
2135 1540
2150 1 560
2170
tank rm —.(4). Tank rm should be well above highest distribution pipeworkand outlets to give adequate headand flowrate.
1880
Non-stowater to watercalorifiers data—. (2)
0
C 2
k
k
B
water
1>c
Non-stowatertowatercalorifier
nominal
3
tankdimensions
capacity
up to 20 20—45 45—60 60—75 75—150 150—225 225—300 300—375 375—450 450—600 600—750 750—1200 1200—1500
4
I
I
40 70 90 110 170 220 260 300 350
430 550
880 1000
w
d
475 610 610 610 610 686 736 762 914 914
305 305 406 432 457 508 559 584 610 606 610
305 371 371 432 482 508 559 610 584
475 610 610 610 686 736 762 914 914 1220 965 1170 1520
Feed &expansiontanksdata
686 762
864 889 914 1140 1220 1220 1520
w
d
305 305 406 432 508 559 584 610
305 371 371 432 508 559 610 584 610 610 787 889 813
660 610 762
889 914
A clear space of 500 round and above all tanks necessary for access,
with additional space at entrance to tank rm. Mm dimension over tank less than 450 I capacity 300. Access allow installation of replacement tanks desirable. Otherwise old tank may be cut up, removed in pieces and replaced with sectional tank. Cold water sto tanks may produce condensation on outside oftank unless insulatedwith vapour barrier. Drip tray often provided prevent condensationdamagingceilings below.
I
610 610 686 787 736 889 813 914 1 020 1220 1220
Cold water tanks, opentop rectangular,data
heater
ratingkW
tank dimensions
1220 965 965 1090 1170 1520 1520 1 830 1830 2440
—.(1)
boileror water
capacity
Non-sto caloritiers used to change heating water temp or pressure without mixing. Horizontal calorifiers more usual than vertical but in smaller sizes may take upmore space. Interiormay havetobewithdrawn annually forinspection and space must be allowed—.(1 )(2).
2105
note:calorifiers may beverticalor horizontal: space of500 required for accessonsides with pipeconnexionsand300 foraccess on side without connexions 1
NON-STORAGECALORIFIERS
(3)
Tanks larger than those listed either purpose-made or built up from plate sections 1 000 squareor 1 200 square. Sectionaltanksrequire 500 clear space under tankand bearersshaped allow bolts be tightened under jointsbetween plates.
392 Components
Services: Venti/ation will be necessary in addition to duct distribution system to individual
ESTIMATINGCAPACITY OF AIR HANDLING PLANT
spaces.
Quality of air—p15
Forpreliminary estimatesofspace requiredforductworkand air handling plant rateof 8 airchanges adequate tocarryheating and cooling loads of most bldg:
Interconnexion between extractfanand freshairinletof air handlingunit partly determines size of air handling plant rm. Generally extract fan is separate from airhandling unit—(2). Alternative isforextract fan to be partofair handling unit; this avoids interconnecting ductwork but complicates fresh air inlet and exhaust outletconnexions to outside —(3). Silencers generally necessaryon supply and extractductwork toreduce fan noise in distribution ductwork. Silencers should ideally be halfway through plant rm wall or floor toreduce flanking sound transmission.
150
Where otherairchange rates required capacity will be approx floorarof bldg x n ACHm3s1 1200 where n = numberof air changes
AIR HANDLINGPLANTROOMS Air handling plant bulky but relatively light; considerable additional space required in plant rm for duct connexions. Large fresh airinlet and exhaust openings required: foreconomy should lead directly tooutside. Withinternal air handling plant rm largeduct connexions to outside air
I air-
volume
conditioning
m1s
0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 11
13 16 20 1
I ventilation
w
h
mm
mm
mm
9300 10000 10800 11500 11700 13100 13100 14700 15000 16400 16800 18400 19600 20400
7200 7900 8700 9700 9700 11000
3500 2400 3900 2400 3900 2600 4400 2900 4700 3300 5500 3700 6000 4000 6500 4300 6800 4600 7200 4800 7300 5300 7900 5800 8700 6400 9900 6700
11000 12500 12800 14100 14500 16100 17400 18200
Air handling plant rm generally positioned ontop ofbldg to reduce these problems. Connexion to boiler and chiller rm by heating and chilled water pipework.
Air handling unitcapacity will beapprox floorarofbldg x m3s1
air
Fresh air inlet and exhaust openings noisy; fresh air should be taken fromwell above street level to be free fromdust and fumes.
mm
Provide adequate space in plant rm towithdraw individual components ofair handling unit: this requires spacealongside unitslightlywider than unit. Elsewhere mm 500 access space should be provided —.(4)(5) Access route fromroadtoair handlingplant rm should allow for removal and replacement offan section and should be same cleardimensions as door opening —(1 )—(3).
arof
arof access door freshair main h & exhaust ducts w openings m2
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
m2
mm
mm
0.067 0.13 0.2 0.27
1 300 1300
1600 1 600 1600 1800
2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 7.2
0.4
8.8
1.47 1.73 2.13 2.67
10.4 12.8 16.0
0.53 0.67
0.8 0.93 1.2
Airhandlingplant midata
1300 1500 1700 2000 2000 2300 2300 2400 2500 2700 3000 3200
2000 2300 2300 2600 2600 2700 2800 3000 3300 3500
air
lair-
I
volume1 m3s 1
conditioning
ventilation
0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 11
13 16 20
h
4330 4530 4530 4805 5030 5330 5330 6430 6430 6910 6910 7350 7530 7730
2220 2420 2420 3005 3005 3220 3220 4220 4220 4640 4640 5080 5320 5520
1200 1500 1500
4 Airhandlingunitsdata
m3s 0.5 1.0
1.5 2 3 4 5
6 7 9 11
13 16
20 5
handlingunit
box +fan
1090 1470 1090 1670 1090 1815 1700 1280 2125 1900 1480 2125 2280 1780 2410 2635 1780 2410 2650 2080 3110 2890 2080 3110 3200 2200 3515 3200 2255 3515 3600 2520 3955 4000 2730 4210 4600 2930 4410
basedoncoil facevelocity of 2.5rn/s1 2tobeaddedto I of AHU if extract fanto be in unit
3 Airhandlingplantmiwith extract fanin
Iofmix
section2
airvolume
2 Airhandlingplant rm withseparatefan
w
I
w
h
785 655 775 850 775 915 850 775 915 1100 1010 1220 1180 1125 1375 1295 1240 1525 1850 1540 1890 1850 1540 1890 1850 1540 1890 1915 1650 1975 2070 1880 2255 2220 2110 2480 2680 2350 2820 2850 2580 3080
Extractfans data
Components 393
Services: Thermal insulation
1
element
resistancem2 C1W
internal surtace of wall internal surface of ceilings & floors(downwardheat flow) internal surface of ceilings & floors(upward heat tlow( outsidesurface of wall sheltered exposure outsidesurface of wall normal exposure outsidesurface of wall severe exposure outsidesurface of roofsheltered exposure outsidesurface of roofnormal exposure outsidesurface of roofsevereexposure unventilated airspace 5thick unventilated airspace 20 thict ormore loftspacebelowunsealed,tiledpitched root loftspacebelowunsealed,tiledpitched roof withfeltbelowtiles air space behind tileson tilehungwall airspaceincavitywall
0.123 0.15 0.106 0.08 0.055 0.03 0.09 0.045 0.02 0.11 0.18 0.11 0.18 0.12 0.18
Conduction:
Radiation: transfer of heat between bodies at distance by electromagnetic radiation.
Resistanceofwalltopassageof heatthrough itmadeupfrom resistance of each element of wall, eg resistance of brick wall will be sum of resistance caused by conduction through brickand resistance through convective and radiative transfer at outside surface. Plastered cavity brickwall will include resistance ofairspace and plaster etc.
Thermal transmittance (or U value) of bldg element: reciprocal of
thermal conductivity
material
therma( conductivity (k)W/m °C
(k)W/m C aerated concrete aluminium asbestos cement asphalt
brickwork,common carpet
compositionflooring denseconcrete expandedpolystyrene fibreboard glass
directtransfer ofheat through a material.
Thermalconductivity (k): property of materialalone. Convection: transport ofheat through fluidsbycirculation: affects heat transfer throughairspaces and airmovement oversurfaces.
Surface&airresistances material
HEAT TRANSFER
0.21 160
gypsumplaster
0.7 0.05
hardboard lightweight plaster limestone linoleum plasterboard
0.44 1.5
rooflngfelt sandcement
0.035 0.057
slate
0.4 0.43
steel
1.05
thatch
glassfibre
granite
0.035 2.5
granolithic
1.16
timber woodchipboard
0.46 0.08 0.2 1.5 0.22 0.16 0.19 0.53 2.0 50 0.09 0.15 0.15
woodwool
0.1
resistance ie
U=-— 1
R
Rsi+Rl+R2++Ra+Rso
where R51
= internal surface resistance = = =
R50 outside surface resistance airspace resistance Ra R1, R2,etc resistance ofcomponents
where I = thickness ofcomponent layer (m) k = thermal conductivity W/m °C Units of U are W/m2 °C and heat flow through composite structure is given by U A(t1 — t0) where A isareaand t1 arid to are inside and outside temp.
Valuesof inside and outside surface resistances and air space resistances—v(1) and values of conductivity (k) for common bldg materials —(2).
2 Thermalconductivities of commonbldgmaterials construction
UvalueW/m2'C
solid225brickwallunplastered solid225brickwallplastered cavitywall2 x 105plastered on inside cavitywall105brickouterleaf100aeratedconcrete block innerleafplastered on inside cavitywall105brickouterleaf100aeratedconcrete block innerleafplastered on insidewith13 polystyrene incavity l50concrete 150concretewilh50 woodwool aspermanent shuttering,
2.3 2.1 1.5
plastered weatherboarding ontimberframing with10 plasterboardlining &50glass fibreincavity 19 asphalt on 150denseconcrete roof 19 asphalt on 150aeraled concrefeslabroof 3tayer feltonprescreeded 50woodwool slabs with plasterboard ceiling 3layerfelt onprescreeded 50woodwool slabs with plasterboard ceiling& 25 glass fiblre between joists 3layer felton 13 fibreboard onmetaldecking 3layer felton25polystyrene onmetal decking pitchedroof, tileson felton boarding withplasterboardceiling pitchedroof, tileson felton boarding withplasterboardceiling with 5Oglassfibre internal 20timberboarded flooron joistswithplasterboard ceiling internal 150concrete floorwith50 screed singleglazing anyweighttimber frame singleglazing metalframe double glazing anyweighttimberframes double glazing metalframes withthermalbreak
3
U valuesforcommonbldg structures
0.96 0.7 3.5 1.1
0.62 3.4 0.88 0.9 0.6 2.2 1.1
1.3 0.5 1.6 2.4 4.3 5.6 2.5 3.2
Example:Calculate Uvalue ofcavity wallconsisting of 105 brick outer leaf with 25-render, 50 air space, internal leaf of 150 aerated concrete blockwith 10 plasterboard lining on25 battens: inside surface resistance—+(1)= 0.123 resistanceof1Oplasterboard—.(2) = 0.01/0.16 = 0.063 resistance of airspace —÷(1) = 0.18 resistance of 150 aerated concrete—*(2)= 0.150/0.21 = 0.714 resistance of airspace—*(1)= 0.18 resistance of 105 brick—(2)= 0.105/0.7 = 0.15 resistance of render —*(2) = 0.025/0.53 = 0.047 outside surface resistance—v(1)(riormal)= 0.055 total resistance R = 1.1512 m2degC/W
U = 1/A =0.66W/m20C Uvaluesof some common structures fornormal exposure —v(3). Condensation....vp394
394 Components
Services: Thermal insulation CONDENSATION outside
Moisture inside bldg arises from such sources asexternal air, breath of occupants, cooking, washing, flueless gasand oil heaters.Warm aircan hold more moisture than cold air —.(1) Warm air cooled becomes saturatedat tempcalled dew point, which depends onamountofmoisture initially in warm air. Condensationoccurs on surfaces with tempbelow dew point Condensation prevented by (a) ventilation: introduction of outdoor air with lowmoisture content; (b) heating:raisessurfacetemp: (c) insulation: indirectly by increasing temp for heat output available. Calculationot condensationrisk requires knowledgeottemp and moisture differences between inside and outside air.
Example:
Unheated bedr at 6'C, outside air — IC, wall U value = Ventilation rate 1 airchange/hr, rm volume 35 m.
6 5 4 3 temp 2
06 W/m2"C.
0
moisture contentof saturated air at — iC = 0.0035 kg/kg outdoorair in winterapprox 90% saturatedmoisture content = 0 90 >< 0 0035 = 0 0032 kg/kg indoor airmoisture = outdoor air moisture + added moisture assume moisture input from2 occupants at 0 040 kg/hr. outdoorairadded = airchangerate x volume = 35m2 = 35 x 1.2 = 42
—2
19 weatherboarding
kg,
2 xO,040 moisture added = _______= 0,0019kg/kg 42 indoorair moisture = 0.0032 -f 0.0019 = 0 0051 kg/kg —.(t), indoorair dew point = 4 2"C tempdistribution through wall in proportion to resistances. U value 0.6
outside
-"C
dewpoint corresponds tointernal moisturecontent
gives resistance-O = 1 7, inside surface resistance = 0 123, temp difference insideto out = 7 C,surface is
inside 6"C
= USCbelow rm temp
1.7
ie 5 5' C. Condensation will not fake place
condensation cannot occur
Cold bridges
Wall of previous example bridged by concrete lintel U value 3.5W/m2 ,C. resistance surface
= —= 0 286
isx
7 = 3"C below rmtemp,
ie3'C: condensation will take place vapourbarrier
Interstitialcondensation
behind plasterboard
Assume wall with U value = 0.6 W/m2 "C consists of 19 weatherboarding on timber studs, 9 plasterboard on studs with 50 glass fibre between. Tempthroughwall obtained by proportioning total tempdrop
according to resistances —.(2):moisture contents of inside and outside airtakenas previous example. Within partition moisture varies but will
be constant through air space and porous insulation. Dewpoint corre-
sponding tomoisture content isabovetemp in airspaceand condensation occurs. Vapour barrier on rm sideof insulant reduces moisture content in cold sideofwalltothat ofoutdoor air,tempinwall willalways be above dew point ofoutside airsocondensation cannot occur
0.010 0.009 0.008 i..,
0.007
—
-..
—
—
U.UOb
0.001
21
temperature C
1
Moisturecontentof saturated air
—1
ci
0.004 0.003 0.002
4
0
— — —
-.; 10 9 8
'
—2 —3
2
Occurrenceof interstitialcondensation & itsprevention by vapourbarrier
onwarm side ofinsulation
Components
395
Services: Sound insulation Sound measured in decibels (dB); increase of 10 dB gives approx doubling in loudness. Sounds of equal level in dB but at different frequencies (frequency roughly equivalent to pitch) not equally loud: always necessary make frequency analysisofsound; 'overall' levels or single figure measurements notrelated frequency little use.
Example: from—.( 1) SRI of 100 concrete (surfaceweight 230 kg/rn2)is46dB; SRI of9 plywood (surface weight 4.5 kg/rn2)is 19 dB difference between values of SRI is 27 dB; ratio of areasis 0.01 from reduction is SRI: 8dB SRI ofcomposite: 46 — 8 = 38dB
SOUND REDUCTIONINDEX(SRI)
Effect ofsmall holes and gapsin and round partitions can befound using —.(2)and taking SRI of hole as0dB: egitcomposite partition in previous example with SRI dB at 500 Hzhasgaps of 1.5 wide down edges, ar of gaps = 2 x 0.0015 x 3 = 0.009 m2; ratio of ar = 0.001; difference between values of SRI = 38 — 0; soreduction in SRI partition will from —..(2) be9dB, giving atotal of38 — 9 = 29dB: gaps, though small,more significant than plywood infill panel. All structures intendei give sound insulation must be sealed airtight to eliminate holes and gaps. Joints between different materialsand round pipes and ducts etcmust be filled with resilient sealant to eliminate opening of gaps from shrinkage, differential thermal expansion, structural movement etc.
Measure ofsound insulationagainstairborne sound: difference in noise levels between 2 spaces separated by wall or floor corrected for acoustical conditions in quiet rm. Conversely, subtracting SRI of 1 element from noise level in 1 rmgivesafter correction noise level to be expected in second rm caused by sound transmitted by that element. SRI = L, — [2 — log S/A where L1 and [2 are noise levels in rm 1 & 2, S is partition area, A is total sound absorption in rm 2
SRI depends on weight and will vary with frequency. Values for 1-leaf homogeneous solid partitions can be calculated—.(1). Method ofcalculation: enterfigure at surface weightof panel and draw horizontal line in lower partof figure draw verticallinesthrough intersectionsofthis line with frequency scale into upperpartof figure read off SRI at intersections with graph for appropriate material: lower partsofgraph identical forpanels of same weight; graphs change from initial slope toflat 'plateau' atpointsindicated for each material
(2)
Adding sound absorbent tile or panel to wall orfloorwill have noeffect on SRI except through negligible increase in weight. Sound absorption will affectfinal levels in receiving rm through factor log S/A while sound absorption insourcermwill limitbuild-up of reflected sound and therefore levelsthathave to be designed against. Rm level isonly reduced3 dB for doubling in absorption. Principal use of sound absorption is to control character ofsound in rm. Acceptable noise levels
Example:
SRI of 100 conqrete: surface weight = 230 kg/m2 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 frequency Hz SRIdb 37 38 38 46 56 62 68 74
3
Formore complexstructuresSRI canbeestimated—p396(1). From —.(1) can be seen that weight of partition must be doubled to increase SRI by6dB below plateau regions. IfSRI too low forapplication because of plateau, increase only possible without massive increase in weightby changing material, egfrombreezeblocktobrick.
35 30 °cD
Composite structure consisting of2elements ofdifferent SRI (eg wall with window) will have SRI closer to weakest element as found from Method of calculation: 1 calculate ratio of areas of 2 elements and difference between values of SRI at each frequency 2 entergraph on horizontal scaleat difference in SRI 3 draw vertical line to intercept curve appropriate to area ratio 4 read off reduction in SRI on vertical scale 5 subtract fromhigh SRI to give SRI of composite repeat steps 2—5 for each frequency
25
ce,1, >
20
C
15
10 5 0
p18
--
7-
, - /- 7
- 7 7 7
? ? 7 7 77 (ilr — —
o
io.1(
-
5
10
15 20
—
?
0.01
2
iiU)
0.001
7— —
25 30 35 40
difference betweenvalues of soundreductionindex dB
2
SRI ofa 2ar composite structure
70 60 50 'C a)
C C
0 0
40 30 —
0 C 0 0,
20
concr breezeblock plaster brick aluminium glass plywood
10
12.5 25
50 100 200 400 800 frequency Hz
Calculation of soundreductionof 1-leafpartitionsof commonmaterials
1
396 Components
Services:Sound insulation
9 -a C
SOUNDREDUCTION
-
thickness
matarisi& construction
weight octave band centre frequency Hz kg/m2
______________________________
INDICES
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
31
1. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
CD
singlesheetmaterials aluminium, corrugated asbestos insulation board onwoodframe chipboard on woodframe fibreboard on woodframe
steelsheetl000x2000 steel sheet1 000 2000withstiffenem 1.6 plasterboardon woodframe 400centres 1.7 1&Gwood, jointssealed
U)
2. 2.1
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
3.5 3.6 3.7 3.6 3.9
x
laminated sheetmaterials gypsum wallboard 2 x 12 thick 9plywoodpanel 1 000 213)0 2 no 9plywood panels as2.2 bolted together gasbestos boardfaced 1.2 steel sheet laminatedinsulation board faced bothsideswith 3hardboard
x
masonry brickwork: plain plastered 1 aide plastered both sides plastered both sides clinkerconcrete blocks, 50 with 9plaster bothsides reinforced concrete cellular concrete, plastered 1 side hollowclay blocksplastered 1side denseconcrete
singlepartitions ofcomples panels 2 x 12skinsof plaster loined byhoneycomb webofplaster 42 dittowithcellsfilledwithtoamedplaster 4.3 2skinsofplasterboard 9loined bycardboard
0.9
6 0.9 12
2.44 8.4 16 3.9
— —
33
31
13 17 13 16 17 15 21
16 18 17 20 18 19 17 29 13 18 25
31
14 20
24 7 15 22
4 10
17
2
4
8 11
— —
16
129
6
1.8
12.9
6
9.5
3
10 14 8
5
12
12 — —
18 2
9
33 24 25 21
27 23 25 22
33 29
30 25 32 30
42 33 26 30 37
36
28 24
31
30
36
31
32 25 24 27
30 19 30 37
35 22 30 38
14
20
23
19
20
54 57 58 58
56 59 60 60
46 57 56 37 71
51
25
14
25 18 12
22 4.5 9.0 37
32
13
115 125 140
190 210 260 465
26 26 30 35
32 36 32 36 32 34 40 41
37 36 36 45
40 38
46 48
41
51
48
56
76 100 220 90 150
96 230 220
25 28 30 30 35 38 20 22 22 20 25 30 38 38 38
35
30
38
41
40 48
34
43 32 58
51
33 48
70 100
47
— 24 —
26 18
24 28
29
28 33
34
18
24 25
26
58
58 65
19 29
— —
18
18
23
30 30
32 34
30 30
32
23
24 26
50
23
—
20
21
24
27
27
27
30
50
14
—
15
17
19
25
30
35
40
30
11
—
14
15
21
25
28
26
30
125
49
28 38
34
41
46
50
54
58
120 125
25 29
12 15 20 25
31
35 34
37 47
45 39
46 50
48 52
125 65
29
— — — — —
20 25 10 10
37 14
42 22
49 28
46 42
59 42
63 44
280 300 300
380 420 420
39 43 39 28
45 48 40
55 58 45
55 57 62
79 77 73
87 86 82
— — —
16
18
31
36
46
50
27
25
34
35
34
42
9
13
22
29
42
42
9
255
75
300
5
19 22
33 65
32 43
65 58 41
78
85
4.
4.1
egg-crate
4.4 ditto with 12 plasterboard 4.5 25polystyrene faced each sidewith3 hardboard on 9plasterboard 46 12plasterboard faces tocoreofparallel packed straws
4.7 wood chipboard withverticalcylindrical holes 15 diaat38 centres 5. 5.1
5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5
sludpartitions lead plywood l2core20kg/m2on SOs 100 studsat400 centres plasterboard 9.5on 50 100studs at 400centres asabovebut plasterboard 127 asabove, 12.7 boards& with25 mineral woolblanket between studs 6plywood on50 50studsat600 centres
x
x
doublemasonry 115brickwith 50cavitynoties 6.2 asabovebut plastered bothsidesto 12 6.3 asabovebutwith93.7 butterflyties 6. 6.1
doublepartitions olsheetmaterials 7.1 asbestos board, 6,on separate 50 25 studs, at300 centres spaced 12apart,studs outermost 7.2 asabovebut tiledwithfinesand between leaves 7.3 9plywood, 1 leafon 50 50 studsother leaf on 25 50studsat1200centres spaced Soapail 7.
9. typicalfloorconstructions 9.1 concrete, 130 9.2 asabove but with50 floating screed 9.3 251& C boarding on oists at400centres, 12 plaster ceiling 9.4 as9.3 with50 asnd on ceiling 9.5 as9.4 withboards 'floating' on 25 glasswool blanket across joists
10.4 10.5
typical windowconstructions 3glazinginusealed openable frames dittoinweatherstripped openable frames 3 3thermal glazing units in weatherstripped openable frames 6glazing inframes as 10.1 asto.1with additional frame150away glazed with4glass, reveals lined withabsorbent as10.5 but with4glass in both frames & sealed
TypicalSRI indB
—
30
42
168
15
—
300
310
36 40 38
45
50
56
61
61
62
290
50
25 28 28
38
44
49
52
56
58
282
32
36 32
45 42
49 49
64
32
20 21 22 13 15 18
58
134
58
64
64 64
130
245
32 40 38 32 34 38
38 43
48 48
58 54
64 61
70 68
82 75
10 14 18 28 32 35
25 40
37 45
39 50
45 60
48 64
48 68
28 32 37
42
47
53
64
68
74
— —
16 16
15 18
17 16
19 23
22 26
18 21
22 23
— —
18 30
23 22
19
21
23
28
25 30
24 23
25 29
—
27 25 25 38
28 35
50
51
41
38
41
12 17 18 24
24
49 30 27
54 56 28 27
45 48 49 24 29
42 38 40 28
3
7.3
+
10.6 10.7 aslO.6bot6glass&200airspace 10.8 6glazing insealed frame 10.9 12 glazing insealed frame 1
— 43
— 22 — 26
15
x
8. doublepartitions of ccrnples panels 6.1 plaster, 2leaves as4.1 with20slagwool blanket incavity 8.2 plasterboard,2leaves as5.2 spared 50 apart with25glasswoolincavity 8.3 12asbostce wallboard on 30 timber frame spaced 200apart 8.4 as8.3 but 50 spacing
10.2 10.3
—
x
x
10. 10.1
7.2
32
38
4 212
— 30
tO
— 35
6
15
6
12
30
12
27
41
38 48
Components
397
Services: Soundinsulation SOUNDABSORBENTTREATMENTS Surfaces of rm partlyreflect and absorb sound according tonature and constructionofsurface. Proportion will vary with frequency. Result of reflection is reverberant sound which merges withdirect sound and affectsitscharacter. Period ofsustained sound knownasreverberationtime. Suitablereverberationtime dependson purpose ofrmandisestablished fromexperience —( 1).
E
Reverberation time 0.16V Can be calculated fromT = A whereVis rm volume m3 and Aistotal absorption in rm. A is found at each frequency by multiplying area (in m2)ofeach type ofsurface treatment by its absorption coefficient and summing over all different surfaces of rm.
E E 0.
0
Absorbentmaterials May be classified into 3types:
(a) porousmaterials: absorbsound overwhole frequency range, efficiency depends on thickness; (b) panel absorbents: panels over airspace absorb sound over narrow frequency range according to panel weight and airspacedepth; useful for low frequency absorption: too much absorption may be introduced by inadvertent use of seemingly solid materials which can only be fixedoveran air space; (c) cavity resonators can be 'tuned' to give selective absorption over narrow frequency range; of little practical importance as absorption obtained more efficiently using (a) or (b) but canbe made from'non-acoustic' materials, egconcrete:design not easy.
Absorption coefficients
For common materials given —.(2), for use in calculation of reverberation times. For absorption coefficients of proprietary acoustic tiles refer manufacturers' literature; but make sure method ofmounting oftilessame fortest data as for intended application. Surface finish and treatment as well as subsequent redecoration will also affect absorption. Painting porous acoustic tile will destroyabsorption at middle and high frequencies. Absorption of people and seats in auditoria taken into account using absorption units/item, and air/cm3 of rm volume.
mivolume m3 1
Optimumreverbaration timesforrm of differentsizes &uses 125Hz 500Hz 2000Hz 4000Hz boarding (match) l5thickoverairspaceonsolidwall brickwork:plainor painted breeze block:unplastered, plain pile carpet+ underfeltonsolidfloor pile carpet+ underfelton board & batten floor pile carpeton imperviousbacking onconcretefloor felted orwovencarpetonimpervious backingonconcrete floor concrete,plainortooledorgranolithic finish cork, linoleumorwoodblockfloor (orwall) curtains(mediumfabrics)hungstraight &closetowall curtains(mediumfabrics)doublewidths infoldsspaced awayfrom wall 25thick hairfelt,coveredbyscrimclothon solid backing fibreboard(soft) onsolid backing, 12nominal thickness
dittopainted fibreboard(12)overairspaceonsol,dwall dittopainted floortiles, plasticsorlinoleum glass windowsglazed upto4 glass 6orthickerinlarge sheets glassorglazedtilesaswallfinish glass fibre ormineralfibre 25thick onsolid backing ditto 50thick glass ormineralfibre 25 thickover airspace on solid backing
plaster,lime orgypsumon solid backing plasteronlath &plasterboard onjoists, or studs, air space &solid backing plasterboard on cellularcore partition plywoodmountedsolidly plywoodpanels mounted over airspace onsolidbacking dittowith porous material inairspace water, asin swimming baths woodboardson joistsorbattens woodwoolslabs,unplastered, 25thickonsolid backing
woodwoolslabsditto75thick woodwoolslabs,ditto 50thick emptyfullyupholsteredseats(perseat) emptyplastics+ metal chairs (perchair) adultsinfullyupholsteredseats(perp) adults in plastics + metalchairs (per P) prosceniumopeningwithavstage set (perm3)
Services references: —Bibliography entries 090 111 119 130 133
143150151246377390416489490503593
0.3 0.02 0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.02 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.2
0.04 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3
0.05 0.4
0.6 0.6 0.4
0.05 0.01 0.05 0.05
0.1
0.2 0.02
0.2 0.02
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.1
0.4
0.5
0.6
o.i
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.05 0.05 0.3 0.3
0.15
0.3 0.15 0.3
0.3 0.15 0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.05 0.05
0.05 0.02
0.02 0.01 0.9 0.95
0.02
0.3
0.04 0.01 0.7 0.8
0.4 0.02
0.8 0.02
0.9 0.04
0.8 0.04
0.3 0.15 0.05 0.3 0.4 0.01 0.15
0.1
0.04
0.07 0.05
0.04 0.05
0.04 0.05 0.05
0.15 0.15 0.01
0.1 0.1 0.01 0.1
0.05
0.1
0.4 0.8 0.8 0.28 0.14 0.46 0.4
0.6 0.8 0.7
0.6 0.8 0.7 0.33 0.14 0.46 0.4 0.02
0.1
0.2 0.1
0.03 0.2 0.1 0.01
0.02
0.2
0.2 0.12 0.07 0.18 0.16 —
0.02 0.05 0.25
0.1
0.3 0.15 0.03
0.1
—
0.31 0.14 0.51 0.43 0.007
0.01
0.8 0.9
0.5 0.01 0.1
audienceorseating inany rm causes shading of floor:should beallowed forin calculating reverberation times;suggestedsuitableadjustments infloorabsorption inconsequence of this shadingare: reduceby 20% 40% 60% 80%
2 Absorptioncoefficients
398 Components
Lighting typeof interior&illuminance
GENERALLIGHTING
lampcircuit efficac y(lm/W) 35
heavyindustry avservice illuminance 200 Iux/R 15 /R 12 av service illuminance 500 lux/R 15
IA 12
light industry avservice illurninance 200 IuxIR 15 JR 12 av service illuminance 500 IuxIR I 5 JR 12 commercial av service illuminance 200 IuxIR IS
/R 12
avserviceilluminance500lux/R15
IA 12
— — — —
45 —
— — —
50
60
70
90
7.0 6.0 50 4.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 4.5 18.0 15.0 13.0 10.0 20.0 16.5 14.0 11.0
12.0 9.5 8.5 7.0 — 13.0 10.5 9.5 8.0 — 30.0 23.0 21.0 17.5 — 34.0 26.5 24.0 20.0 —
— — — —
— — — —
— — — —
14 5 11.0 10.0 8.5 17.0 13.5 12.0 10.0 36.0 28.0 25.0 21.0 42.5 33.0 30.0 25.0
Targetwattageloading: boxednumbers indicaterestricted range when mostefficientsourcewithcompatibleotherparameterschosen 1
—also p25—6 Loading required to produce given av illuminance on horizontal plane fromgeneral lightingmay becalculatedfrom lumen formula'. If E is service illuminancerequired in lux over working place area A m2 lamps flux (L) =
ExA
MF
UF
lumenswhereUF is utilisationfactordescribed
above —p26. Wattage = ________________ lamp circuit efficacy L
Sources and luminaireswith highestpracticalefficacy shoudbeselected in conjunction with light decoration sothat wattage loadingis inlinewith targetsgiven —.(1). Iflightoutput ofeach lampis U then numberoflamps requiredto produce L
Magnetic programmes available from RIBA and CIBSfor performing thesecalculations on programmablehand calculators.
BUILDINGLIGHTING B = rmw H
H=rmh h = hoflightsource h' = eyelevel mm distance = /8 B
H-h
2 Cornicelighting
High degree of uniformity of lighting can beprovided by indirect lighting fromcornices—*(2): inefficient in terms ofpower butmaybedesirable to display ceilings of particulararchitectural interest. Edge of masking cornice should be high enough conceal lamps. To avoid dark areas between lamps tubesshould be staggered or overlapped —.(3). High reflectances on upperwalls and ceiling essential to redirect lighton working plane. More efficient overall lighting given by fluorescent lamps fitted above 'egg-crate' or otherformsof louvred false ceiling. Specially contoured plastics metallised louvre grids concentrate light downwards with low brightness appearance of ceiling. In air-conditioned bldg extract air should be drawn through 'airhandling' luminaires so that heat can be removed from lamps and control gear before enters rm. This heat may often be uselully recovered foruse in perimeter areas.
Glare
3
Excessive brightnesscontrast infieldofview cancauseglare—.pl 732. If source, eg window or unshaded desklamp, seen closeto visual task it can cause disability glareand reduce task visibility; can also be cause of discomfort; this can occureven when source is well away fromtask,eg luminaires on ceiling, and is much more common danger. IES code givesrecommendations forupperlimit ofdiscomfort glare index, which is related to luminance and size of light sources, their number and position in fieldof viewand luminance oftheirsurroundings. Calculation ofthis glare indexcan beperformedas described—.Bib382.
Overlappingpreventsdarkar
N\
Contrast Objectsare seen bycontrast, either contained contrast orcontrast with their background: higherthe contrast the more visible the object. Visibilityof printed orwritten matter depends oncontrast ofmarking material with paper. This can be markedly dependent on lighting and viewing angles evenif materials used notobviously glossy. Light sources should be keptout of 'forbidden zone' indicated —(4): best position is to one side of worker rather than in front.
lumiriairesinthisarcan produce veiling reflections
Uniformity
Variation of illuminance overworking area should not normally be such that mm is less than 0.8 of av. To ensure this manufacturer's recommended spacing/h ratio (ratio of horizontal distance apart, 5, to mounting height above working plane, H) should not beexceeded.
N N
4
Offendingzonewithinwhichreflections fromlight sourcewill degrade contrastofflat task (about85% officetasksviewedbetween0° and40°from vertical)
Components
399
Lighting C)
TASK LIGHTING Calculations ofpower required for task lighting usuallymadeon basis of
0 2 0
directintensity.
Forfilament lamp desklights with diffusing reflectors inverse square law can be assumed to hold and itwill befound that 500 lux can beobtained at about 600 to 650 directlybelow 60 watt lamp in usualtype of reflector. Forfluorescent lamps use hasto be made of 'aspect factor' method as described —Bib383. This gives distances for 500 lux according to
I
lamp wattage
I
40 65 85
L
0 ____
CD
C,)
lampI distanced(foroffset0.5 h) m
I
•
1.2
15 1.8
m
::
10
13 15
1 Valuesofdirect distanceoffluorescent lamps intypicaldispersivemetal reflectorluminairetogive 500 luxatpointopposite centreoflamp -.(2)
Li
LIGHT SOURCES Incandescent tungsten filament lamps still used extensively in home and in display lighting where ease and cheapness of replacement, provision for limited areas of warm colour light and very small effecton life of frequent switching required. Standard life 1 000 hr and 'efficacy', te efficiency of light production, varies from 10—18 lumens per watt (lm/W); some manufacturers offer lamp lasting 2000hr for use where concomitant drop in light output can be accepted as price of less frequent maintenance. Lamps with bulbs silvered for use as integral spotlight or floodlight available; but betteroptical control and higher efficacy obtainablefrom tungsten lamps with small quartz bulbs and halogen gas filling Fluorescent lamps suitable forconcealed lighting in home —.(3)(4),for kitchen lighting and for most industrial and commercial interiors of moderate ceiling height. They can have efficacy up to 5 times that of filament lamp with reasonablyacceptable colour rendering properties and up to 3 times where particularly accuratecolour rendering needed. Their normal life is 7500hr.
Indirectrm lighting& direct lightingtoworkplace 3
4
Illuminatedcurtain
Mercury discharge lamps, colour corrected by use offluorescent bulbs (commonly designated MBF type) and/or introduction of metal halide into arc tube (MBI and MBIF), acceptable for achieving high illuminances in shops and in high-ceiling industrial areas. MBF lamps are available in wattageslowas 50, which offers possibility of use to highlight small areas. Efficacy can be 35—70 Im/W including ballast losses or nearly 6times that offilament lamps, with life 7000—10000hr(to 70% of initial output).
Low pressure sodium lamps (SOX or SLI) only suitable for outdoor lighting because of monochromaticnature of light emitted; butoperation athigherpressure (SON) broadens spectrum sothat lightis suitable for industrial applications (in high bays) and some commercial uses. SON lamps have efficacies 55—110lm/W, or upto 9 times thoseof filament lamps, and SOXlamps upto 10times, with livesof10000 hours (to70% of initial light output). Colour appearance of light source not good guide to appearance of coloursilluminated by it. Forclassification of lamps into three grades of appearancesindependentlyofcolourrenderingproperties—p25(3).
All discharge lamps require control gear forstarting and limiting current and capacitor for power factor correction. Mercury and sodium lamps take several minutes toreach fulllightoutput and fromito 20minutesto restrike after interruptionofsupply: some fluorescentor filamentlighting should be provided in any interior where light is needed immediately poweris restored. 100 cycle per second (Hz) fluctuation of light output from discharge lamps on 50 Hz AC mains not normally disturbing, but if problems encountered, eg with moving machinerylit by high pressure discharge lamps atlow mountingheight, measuressuchasdividing lamps between three phases, or locally lighting critical points by incandescentfilament lamps, may be taken. Fluorescentlamps may be mounted in pairs with 'lead lag' control gear.
2
Tasklightingwithfluorescent lampindispersivemetalreflector: —.(1) gives valuesofdto get 500luxatPfromvarious lampwattages
EMERGENCYLIGHTING Provision ofemergency lighting legalrequirementformany bldg; consult —*Bibl12.
OUTDOORLIGHTING Architect will often be required make provision for lighting exterior environment: may range from floodlighting whole bldg or feature to amenity lighting of city precincts, car parks and gardens, orfunctional lighting of railway, bus or air terminals. Wide variety of specialised techn:quesis involved;guidancegiven—.Bib386.
400 Components
Lighting INTEGRATIONOF ELECTRIC LIGHTING & DAYLIGHTING Even in well daylit rm, el light has tobeused onwinterafternoonswhen daylight fades. When side-litrm deep enough forworkrequiring illuminance 500 lx to be carried out at distance from window greater than height ofwindowhead above working plane, el light required for more than 15% ofworking year as DFwill probablybeless than 10% —+p27—30. This requirement increases to about 50%, at depth of 11/2_2window headheight and to practically 100%,even with fullyglazed wall, ifdepth greaterthan 5 x that height. Iftintedglazing used thesedepths greatly reduced. Therefore arrange general lighting luminaires in rows parallelto window wall,each row switched separately.Switches should be locatedsothat theycan beconveniently operatedby occupantsas requiredand sothat it isclear which rows they operate.Often possibleprovidependantswitches controlling individual luminaires with thin light cords which can be reached fromstanding position. Fluorescent lamps should be chosen from 'intermediate' colour range —.p25(3)compatiblewith colour renderingrequirementsand with warmth of lighting required at night. El lighting should be designed to provide illuminance recommended forparticular tasks carried out in interior, but not less than 30lx onavoverworking plane.
O.Bh
Formax conservation of energy automatic control should be installed in new bldg to switch off, or preferably dim, those rows of luminaires lighting the working area (usually first 2 or 3) whichare not required when daylight rises to provide illuminanceatthat depth suchthat full el lighting not necessary—(1). Under theseconditions windows need not be designed to achieve max penetration ofdaylight; more attention can be paid to any requirements for obtaining max benefit from exterior view, eg by providing wide uninterrupted windows rather than high and narrow ones. Opportunity can be taken to reduce contrast ofwall aboveor between windows with exterior seenthrough thembymaintaininglightcolourand arrangingfor somewallwashing byartificial lighting. In top-lit interiors with sufficient glazing to provide an average DF of 10% over working area el lighting will similarly be required for 15% of working yearfortaskson which 500lx required, and for longer than this where higher illuminance required or lower OF provided. If there is difference between activities carried out in different areas, requiring different Iluminances ordifferent periods ofoccupation, el lighting may be switched by areas. Otherwise whole installationcan be linked to 1 controller. This may be photo-electric switch or photo-electric dimming controlwhere fluorescent lighting is used; but at the date ofwriting there is little experience of application of such control to other types of discharge lamps.
1.6h
1.6h
1.6 h
-J
Li rarely needed:
wall-washer
proportion frequently needed; use automatic dimming top-up control
useautomatic switching
high proportion frequently needed: use automatic dimming top-upcontrol
alwaysneeded:
keep switchedon while interior occupied
wp
I O.Sh
I h
2h
3h
4h
5h
6h
distance fromwindow
1
Daytimecontrolofluminaures in relation to depthof interiorspace
Lighting references. —.Bibliographyentries 112 124202271 367380381 382 383 384 385 386 387 397 449457 523
Components
401
Doors DIMENSIONS Recommended dimensions forwood internal and external door leaves and frames —Bib145: doors to these dimensions cheaper than units built to special sizes. Dimensionsfor steel frame doors and windows for domesticpurposes—.Bib 138—.(1 )(2),
coordinatingh of doorset
hofopening coordinatingw of doorset (L)—.(2)
internal doors
external doors
2100 2300 2350 2400 2700 3000
2100 2300
2027
1982
widthof stairs, corridors or lobbies which it serves. Exit doors must be labelled; in certain instancessign must have emergency illumination.
Where pedestrian traffic heavy rate at which people move through doorway determined by type of people (old/young, whether carrying baggage etc) and by degree of congestion on each side of doorway. Total rateatwhichpeople can move through doorway in both directions farless than capacity with flow in 1 direction only;forheavy 2-way traffic, 2 separate openings should be provided —(3).
2400 2700
(P/mm)
3000 gateways&other clearopenings singleswing door (900)
900s&d
revolving door
l000s
1200d 1500d 1800d 2100d
1200d 1500d 1800d 2100d
ssingle ddouble 1 Size ofwooddoors(—.Bibl 45)
waist-highturnstile: with freeadmision with cashier operatedwith singlecoin
900s
l000s&d
60—110/mw 40—60 increased by 50% if fastened open 25—35 1 direction: this is doubledif leaves collapse to give2openings 40—60 12—18 25—50
3 Capacityof doorwayswith unidirectional
pedestrian flow
DISABLEDPERSONS Standard door sizes: mm convenient widthfor ambulantdisabled 800 doorset(opening width675, infernal door). This too narrow for wheelchair users: 900 doorset usuallyadequate. Wider doors not necessarily
coordinating w(L)
H
internaldoors
better forwheelchairs provided adequate space to position chair beside door Location of doors: corridors should be not less than 1 200 wide for wheelchair users to position themselves to open doors in end wall of corridor or at side. At end door should be offset to give max space beside handle. Similarly when located in corner of rm door should be hinged at side nearer corner —(4)(5).
L—125
external doors approx L— 150
2
Openingwofdoors(—.Bib145)
FIRESAFETY This may affect design of doorways both in need to maintain fr of partition and provision of means ofescape. fr doors described in El 1 of bldg reg. In general fr door must be self-closing; hinges must be neither combustible nor of metal that softens at low temp; rebates to frame generally larger than standard (25). For somecases directions of swing of double doors specified in reg. Means of escape from fire covered in Section II of Part E of Bldg reg: contains no detail on doorways but refers to code of practice. CP3: Chapter IV. Part 1: 1971 (Flats and maisonettes in blocks over two storeys) containsrecommendationson mainentrancedoors todwellings and ontypeand location ofinternal doors to bedr, living rm and kitchens. Section 4.3 lists requirements offrdoors.Part 2: 1968(Shops and dept stores) givesdimensions for exit openIngs: 1 070 for up to 200 users with additional 152 for each 30 persons over 200. Number of persons found by dividing total occupants offloorby number 1 less than number ofexits. Part 3: 1968 (Office buildings)gives requirementofmm opening width of exit doors in multi-staircase bldg as765 fordoorway serving up to 230 m2 grossfloorarea, 1 070 upto 1 860 m2 plus an additional76for each additional 140 m2 served. In general all doors which are fire escapes must open in direction of escape; doors which open into corridor must not cause obstruction within corridor; width of final exit doorway must not be less than mm
1200mm
4
0 0
FLOWCAPACITY
600s 700s 800s &d
C)
-
Locationofdooratendofcorridor
forwheelchairusers
5 Doorswing in corner of mi for wheelchairusers
In small rm,suchaswc cubicles,side-hung doors should open outwards
orsliding doors should be used. Designer should check whether doors swinging outwards into corridors orpublic areas such as washrm likely to be hazardous. Doorswings should not conflict with each other and should not extend oversteps.
Self-closing doors can cause difficulty to disabled; if essential, action should be as light as possible. In bldg for blind, self-closing doors required in some locations. Automatically-opening doors can be advantage to handicapped in public bldg but must not be of type that closes after predetermined delay. Lever handles preferable to knobs and usually satisfactory at standard height of 1040. Glazed doors should be used where possible. Foradult users base of glazed panel should not be over 1010fromfloor and it should be down to kick-platelevel in bldg used by handicappedchildren. Fully-glazed doors must carry some marking as hazardcue. Sliding doors slightlyeasier than side-hung doors for wheelchair users to operate; but may be less robust and give significantly poorer sound and thermal insulation. In general their useshould be limited to locations where space inadequate fora satisfactoryside-hung door. Also —.p85---7
CD
(1)
402 Components
Doors C)
INDUSTRIALTYPES
CD
For largeopenings (partitions)sliding, sliding-folding, concertinafolding —.(1 )—(8). Private garage doors (folding, sectional, roller) —api 02(7)—(1 0).
0 2 0
For very large and high bldg (eg
C),
Slidingdoor
1
2 Telescopicslidingdoor
3
Anglesliding doors(cornaway)
aircraft hangers) special design with lifting corner or section supports—a(9). Accessway doorsofimpact resistant plastics —.(1O); also plastics strip curtain —.(1 1).
Airdoors:injection ofspanningair curtain —u(12)—(13).
ply
Door frames of weather-proof rubber edging —.(14); all-round wired rubber segments —.(1 5). leit. imitation
er.orPsc\
4
Foldingdoors(foldaway)
5
Foldingdoors(centafold)
6
Concertinafoldingdoors
7 Concertinafolding doors
(plywood)
(plasticsfabrics)
10 Rubberswingdoor
11
liftable
8 Power-operatedfolding door
9 Roll shutterdoorover corneror with sectionalsupports(hreach
Strip curtain(pvc)forwide
access
possibilities)
channel single-sided
unitworkson interiorair
double-sided channel
/
unitworkson exteriorair
12 Aircurtainsystem
13 Aircurtainfor smalldoors
14 Rubberedgingdoor seal
15 Wired rubbersegmentsdoor seal
Door references —aBibliographyentries 117 145401 549 574 592 628
Components 403
Windows COORDINATINGSIZES
To suitmatricesof basicspaces in PD 6444 Pt 1 (—*Bibl03) Rangesofsteel windowsto8S990Pt2 &to Module100MetrIc Range'asgivenby SteelWindow Association
Metricpreferredrange
mm soo 600 200 300
5lI
800
1000
1200
ofW20steelwindows
1800
1500
asspecifiedbySteel
600
900
1200
1500
1800
WindowAssociation
fi
iL.....IE
700 II
I
900
II
II
1100 II
13(10 II
300 500
Note: BS&module 100metricrangeincludes doors& associatedfinedlights(notshown)
—.Bib138610
mm
tI
I
I'I
600
Not This angealsoi icludes18001 2190h with ixedlightsonly;the latterhincludesdoors 700
—
—
—
—
—
900
II
1100
_____ 1300
l
[IIiII]
111
ii i: :: L
Note:BS& Module100metricrange includedoors& associatedmiaed I= fixedlights lights(not shOWfl);f 1
Rangesofaluminiumwindowsto BS 4873: wIde rangeofwindowsincludingvertically&horizontally sliding types—.BibO9l
300 500 606
WindowSizes
70€
Forfitting windows into basic openings3options windowtailor-made tofitcompleted opening windowused astemplate for forming opening: traditional method in UK basicopenings coordinatedwith specified range of windows and other components: success dependson accuracy with whichopenings are built, dimensional compatibility of joints and
110€
On more general aspects of modular coordination —vBiblO4105.
1500
Range of sizes in steel windows can be extendedbycoupling members,byuse ofpressed steel box mullions and by use of wood surrounds. Aluminium window size limits in each range vary with type of window, eg whether
1806
Work sizes
2100
90€
130€
dimensional accuracy ofwindows
1500
2 Note:ttiis rangealsoincludes1800&2lOOhw,th hued lights only:2100hincludedoors
—
horizontal orvertical sliders.
Steel windows(—vBibl38) 6 less than coordinatingsize, permissibledeviation 1.5. Aluminium windows (—vBibO9l) as specified by manufacturers, permissible deviation 1.5. Wood windows in metric range6 less than coordinated size. 60€
:
90€ —
—
—
—
100€
— —
120(
150€
500 600
Dimensionallycoordinatedmetricsizesforwood windowsasrecommended byBritish Wood-workingFederation
800 900 izi,aj 1500 Note Abovediagramsintendedforgeneralguidanneonoverallsizes only; no distinctionmadebetweentypesofopeninglight,some sizes,hxedlightsonly(designated8)Obtainable in standardranges
2100
2400
404 Components
Windows POSITIONRELEVANTTO DAYLIGHT PENETRATION
2
Tallwindowscan give good daylight penetrationtowardsbackof
Longhorizontalwindowscan give good lateralspreadofdaylight close towindow
1
rrn
3 As—(1)cangive gooddaylight penetrationbutifwindowswidely
S
4
Can give goodspreadof daylight
&useful light on wallsurrounding
separatedlightingcanbe uneven
opposingwindow
7
8
POSITIONRELEVANTTOVIEWOUT & ACTIVITY
5
6
In liv whereextensiveviewsover countryortownscapelow cills may beprovided ifcompatiblewith safety
Wherepanoramicviews& balc provided,windowsdown to floor leveltake fulladvantageofview
In liv onupperfloors,forsafety, cillhshouldbe not lessthan 1020or guard rails provided
lnofflongwindowsoften preferredbutindeeprmonupper floors lowerpartofviewobscuredto peopleatbackofrm
SAFETY& ACCESSFORCLEANING
Ink,cills oftenhto provide splash-backbutindomestickcan give awkwardshadows&restricted view-out
10 In offfiling spacescill usually fixed byfiling cpddimensions
9
maxhof
maxlof facade(m) facade(m)
eqp
ladders
ordinaryladders travellingladders suspensionsystems portableeqp permanenteqp
9
an 45
any any
12
manually-operated cradles 452 power-operated cradles any
any any
any
any
walkways
butlimitedtoladder1019 m 2but wire ropesshouldbeusedabove30m 1
12 Recommendedrangesofexternal meansof accessto windowsfor cleaning& maintenance(basedon CP 153(5)-.Bib146)
11
In dosameconsiderationsas
—*(10): in1-storey bldgroof lights
may bebettersolution
POSITION&SIZE OFWINDOWS
Additional considerations
Positioning of windows in bldg facade, and their overall sizes determined usually by daylighting considerations —(1)—(4), admission of sunlight and importance given to view out —.(5)—(8). Constraints on positionmg and selection ofwindow sizes may be imposed by activities of occupants and positions of fixed furniture, fittings and plant —.(9)— (11). Energy conservation, protectionagainstexternal noise and security against unauthorised entrymay also imposeconstraints. With reference toconservation of fuel and power in bldg and restrictionof total area of window openings for buildings other than dwellings —Bib593. Fire precautions with particularreferencetoheat radiationhazardson escape routes may impose constraints. Bldgstandardsreg for Scotland (—.Bib594 595 596) limit amount of unprotected area of external wall, ie area comprising windows, doors or other openings.
Components
405
Windows BASIC TYPESOFWINDOW
1
2
Fixedlight
3 Casement—tophung 4 Casement— bottom
Casement—side
7
8
Verticallysliding
5 Horizontallypivoted
6
10 Projectedtophung
11
Verticallypivoted
hung
hung
I
H
F
1
Horizontallysliding
9
Linkedhopper
Louvred
VENTILATION
1
'c 17d1 12 Troublefromventilationin high winds atdeskh
13 Adjustabledevicesto give minimalventilationcanbefittedor obtained incorporatedinwindow: sometypes includeoptional
14
Fan-operated acoustic
ventilaton unitassociatedwith double-glazedwindow
15 Scandinavian-typesub-cill
ventilatorassociatedwith radiator toadmitwarmed air
flyscreen
DOUBLEGLAZING& DOUBLEWINDOWS
CHECK LIST Cost:if main consideration usestandard windows Performance:checkagainst reports oftestsin strength, air-leakage & resistance to water penetration Fixedwindows: doconditions justify? in particular: will there be access to outside forcleaning? will they inhibit fire-fighting &escape from fire? arefixedwindows required for security? will additional indirect costsoutweigh potential savings?
16
Factory-sealed
doubleglazingunitin steelwindow
7111
J
17 Supplementarywindowtypes: proprietary hinged&fixedpanelsavailableforfittingto frame or slidingtypes in separatelightframe
liT
18 Proprietoryhorizontallysliding type inaluminiumwithtwo pairs of sashes
Openablewindows: whattypes ofopening light should beused? is easy maintenance & cleaning frominside required? if so, consider reversible pivoted, inward opening casement, or projected top hung are projecting opening lights to beavoided? ifso, consider vertically or horizontally sliding types when should multiple louvrewindows be considered?wherefull opening with limited projection is desired
Double glazing(Soundinsulation):
is protection against outdoor noise essential?
can double glazing with widegap beafforded? will itcause ventilation & solar heat problems? Double glazing(heat insulation): ifair-conditioning, double glazing may beessential? ifdesiredmainly foramenity is someone preparedto pay? is double glazing tobe used forboth sound & heat insulation?if so, form with wide gap essential 19
Horizontally pivoted typein woodwith coupledsashes
Further details —BibO58
406 Components
Windows: shading devices Retractable types
I
Curtainsgive flexiblecontrolfor lowlevelsun:forotherthandomestic uselaunderingcanbe problem
2
Springrollerfabricblinds,easy maintain:somefabricstoodense allowdiffuse daylightthrough,but openweavematerialsbetter
3
Lath rollerblinds,also plastics louvredsheetingtype, whichallows ventingthroughsmall louvres
4
5
6
7
8
Fixedexternaltypes
tracks
Venetianblindsgive flexible control of sunlight&ventilation: wide rangeavailable,includingexternal types&foruse inspaceindouble glazing
Externalawningsgive goodsun control:motonsedversionsavailable forcommercialuse
Practicalconsiderations
Internal shades fixedon orbehind windows less effective than external shades for reducing solar heat gains because proportion heat they absorbreleased to rm: have advantage of protection against weather and accessible forcontrol and maintenance; when not required during sunlessperiodscan be easily retracted; when fully drawn at night can improve interior illumination. Curtains can be used with most window designs but pivoted windows can cause problems. Costs vary widely depending on materials. Fabric roller blinds simple operate but tend restrict ventilation unless ofopenweave: can beautomated. Venetian blinds easy install and maintain: manually-operated types relatively inexpensive but susceptible misuse; full automation available with photocell solar controls. Vertical louvre blinds—*(8)can be setexclude sunlightover wide range of conditions but for S facing windows may needfrequent adjustment follow sun path: can be automated; but this tendsbeexpensive. In general external solar shading devices more effective than their internal counterparts. Folding awnings and roll sun blinds often combine solar shading with decorative function. External vertical rollerblinds, as also horizontally louvred types, usually provided with guides at sidesgive protection against winds. For neatness banks of louvred types often controlled together, either manually byrod control through gear box or by electric motorshoused in head member. Provision need be made in window heads house retracted louvres. Fixed external shading devices less flexible than retractableand adjustable shades for dealing with sunlight; as rule more appropriate for climatswithpredictably continuous sunlight than for Britain: cost high forbenefit'received. In temperate climates, canopytype probably most useful for S facing windows when desired exclude summer sun but admit winter sunlight. Fixed vertical louvres —o(1 1) can be used for effective screening of windows mainly facing E or W if slats inclined towards N. Fixed horizontal louvre systems can give protection against direct sunlight over wide range of conditions depending on setting of louvres butreduction in diffuse daylight can bequite severe—(1 3)(14). Performance offixedtypescan be checked against sun path diagrams —p34—6byusing shading masks—*(9)—(14). Properties of materials used for blinds and louvre systems can be relatedto proportion ofsolar radiationtheyreflect, absorb and transmit; but in practice solar heat transfer complicated by number of factors. Some comparative data—*Bibl 64.
Continentaltypeexternallath awning: Norwegianvariantavailable with aluminiumslats
sloping
11
13
Light-excludingblindswhere complete black-out needed in lab & dark rm: require light-proofcasings; ventilatedbox headsavailable
Internal verticallypivotedlouvre blindswith impregnatedcottonor extrudedwhite pvc louvres: allow goodpenetrationof daylight;useful forlowangle sunfacing E orW; retractableontop, ortop& bottom
ss;4
12
___
14
Fixed external canopies, louvres & screens with shading masks; for examples given windows assumed face SW & sun's rays as at approx 1 400 hr midsummer lat51.5°N. Window references: —BibLiography references 019 058 091 103 138 146 170375380381 434 459 467520 536 543 549 567 610
Components
407
Corridors & ramps WALKING SPEEDS
WAITINGAREAS
On level walkways, within bldgand outside, rate ofmovement affected by: purpose of journey; age and sex of individuals; whether walking aloneoringroup(groups slower); airtemp(people walkmore quickly in cold); floorsurface (softsurfaces associatedwith slower pace); carrying ofbaggage; crowddensity; overall flow patternof crowd.
Linear queues
Within anycrowdconsiderable variation ofwalking speedfound; even in homogeneous sample, eg women shoppers, range between highest speed observed and lowest equalsmeanvalue.
Width of queue can be reduced to 600 when barriers or other constraints used. Unconstrained queue, suchasatbus stop orticketoffice window, typically has avwidthof 1 200. Form of queue can be affected by heavy flows ofpedestrians nearby. Down length ofqueue avdistance between persons is400—500undernormal circumstances.
Bulk queues Crowd of 2 P/m2 seems dense to those within it but much higher crowding(up to6P/rn2) possibleinelevatorcarsandsimilarsituations. Most
people feel comfortable in crowdof 1 P/rn2: useful design figure for waitingareas offmain circulation routes. Infoyersand other areaswhich combine waiting and circulationdensityof0.4 P/rn2good overall design value.
10
Hi
•
0.8
freeflow: meandensity 0.3 P/rn2 or less limitofcorr
walking speed (rn/a)
1.46
capacity with freeflow(P1
minpermw)
L8
walking speed(mIs)
Observedwalkingspeedsinindoorshoppingmall:shadedarindicates P walking with 1 or moreothers 1
commuters, working population individual shoppers familygroups: shoppers with highproportion ofyoung childrenorwith bulky packages; tourists in circulation arindoors, or interest outsidenearplacesot schoolchildren
elderlyand disabled, walkmore slowly down rampthan up.
.
1.5 1.3
27 23
1.0 0.8
1.0
18 18—32
0.6 50 0.7—1.1 59—92
1.1—1.8
84 67
underfreeflowconditions rangeof speed inanygroup may extend, typically,from 0.6 m/s belowmean to0.6 m/sabove: with crowding & allpedestriansmoving inone directionrange is very small
2
CORRIDORCAPACITY
Approxmeanwalkingspeedson levelwalkways; approxcorrcapacities 1200 singlequeuealong side of corr personsseatedonbenchalong wall 1000 coin-operatedmachines depthof machine plus 600far first personand400 foreach additional user 600 waitingpedestrianwith baggage shop windows 500—800, varying with the interest showninthegoods, and withtheir size smallfire-fightingappliances 200—400 wall-mountedradiator 200 200 rough ordirty bldgsurface
Limitoffreeflow conditionsabout0.3 P/m2.At greaterdensitiesindividuals not able alwayswalkattheirnaturalspeedorovertakeslowerpedestrians.
Commonly-adopted max density for design of circulation areas: 1.4 P/m2. At this crowding most people will walkat less than their natural speed and be aware of some discomfort. For short distances along route, up toabout3000, tighter crowdingpermissibleprovidedsignificantly wider spacesoccurbefore and after obstruction. With corridors wider than about 1 200 flow capacityproportionalto width; in narrowerpassages 2 people unable pass each other withease. Corridor dimensions given —v(2) for unobstructed routes; static people orfixtures reduce effective
width—e(3).
walking corrcapacity speed (P/mm per mWI (mIs)
increasing withage
Short length ofslopeinotherwise level corridor may have little effecton walking speeds. Longer rampsoflow gradient,5% orless, maysimilarly have little effect. On steeper ramps walking pace can be reduced from level rate by 20% with 10% gradient, 40% with 15% gradient (gradient
% = verticaldistance/horizontaldistancex 100). Somepeople,particularly
fulldewgn capacity 1-wayflow:1.4 P/rn2
3
Approx reductionsfromeffectivewofwalkway
-i iI tr
RAMPS FOR DISABLED
Exceptforveryshort ramps gradient should not exceeed 81/2% (1:12) and should not be greaterthan 5% (1:20) when more than 6000long —*(4). Level platform 1 800long should beprovided attop; inlong ramps rest-platforms desirable at changesofdirection. Nochanges ofgradient alongramp. Bldg reg H4specifies maxgradient of 1: 12, mm widths 800 withindwellings, 900forcommon ramps (02 ormore dwellings, 1 000in institutional and other bldg. Handrail required exceeds600.
305
by reg when total rise
kerb
JMfl
a
—'Il
0
honzontalprojection
-
wall
b
slope
maxrise
max horizontalprojection
1.12
760 760 760
9000 12000 15000
1 16
1 20 C slope
L 115
maxrise
75 Steeper than 1: 10 but no sleeper than1:8 Steeperthan 1: l2butnosteeperthan1:10 150 sleeperthan 1 : 8not allowed
¶mmmTr
max run 600 1500
4 acomponentsofsingleramp run bsamplerampdimensions callowable rampdimensionsforconstructioninexistingsites &bldg (USAstandards)
verticalguardrail
5
Examplesoframpedgeprotection& handrail extensions
408 Components
Stairs
0 0 030
TREAD& RISE PROPORTIONS
BUILDINGREGULATIONS
Following rule-of-thumb based on assumption of adult pace of 300 in ascending stair: going+ twice rise = 600—.(1).
General requirements for stairs in UK in Part H of Bldg reg:
:3
CD
:3
C,)
pitch line
i Mustbe landingattop and bottom with going notless than widthofstair (except at top of steps to an inward-opening external door where total rise does not exceed 600). Landing must be unobstructed and, if internal, level;if external may slope atgradient upto 1:12. ii Max of 16 risersallowed in each flight. With very long stairways must be change of direction of 30° or more at landing after notmore than 36 risesin consecutive flights. Landings between flights must be level and unobstructed, with going not less than width ofstair. Clear headroom of 2000 must be maintained, measured vertically frompitchline (line of nosings). ivTreads must be level, extend to complete width ofstair, and beeither parallel ortapered (except that lowest 2 ofstairwaymay berounded). All parallel treads must have same going; tapered treads must have same rate oftaper, narrow ends atsame side, and samegoing when measured in centre. v Rises must besamethroughout stairway. vi Projection ofnosings notexceed 15. vii Continuoushandrails required on any flight rising more than 600. Height mustbe 800—1 000above pitch line. Rails required at both sides on stairs widerthan 1 000. via Sumof goingand twice risemustnot beless than 550 and notmore than 700. ix Except in dwellings, stairs wider than t 800 must be divided by handrails into sections not less than 1 000and notmore than 1800wide.
FIRE ESCAPESTAIRS 1
Definitionof terms
No scientific ground for exactness in achieving this although some codes of practice specify particular proportions. Bldg reg H3 gives requirement that going and twice riseshould add upto between 550 and 700. Other criteria ofstair proportions: energy expenditureand freedom from accidents. Totalamount of energyused can become smaller as stairs increase in steepness but rate of energy expenditure increases. More accidents occurin descending than in climbing stairs; number of missteps increases as size of tread reduced. Generally satisfactory proportions can vary from 100 rise and 360 going to 180 rise and 280 going. Private stairs in dwellings may be satisfactoryupto steepness of 210rise and 240 going.
WALKINGSPEEDS& FLOW CAPACITY Short flights of stairs rarely climbed at speed which minimises energy expenditure (aspeople tendtodo when walking on level)but avwalking speeds on stairs lower than in corridors. When alone most people walk faster downwards than upwards butindense crowd reverse canbetrue. For fire safety codes flow capacity of 1 .3 P/s/m width has often been used as basis of recommendations but this is greater than normally acceptable in general use—.(2). freeftow:meanplan density0.6P/rn2
orless speed along Slope
(mis)
young& middle-aged
09
limit ot stair capacity with free
flow lP/ minimw)
full design capacity 1-wayflow:plan density2 P/rn2 speed along
slope (m/s)
stair capacity
(P/min/ m w)
Requirements for escape stairs in UK given in number of statutory documents. These include London Building Acts, Building Standards (Scotland), Bldg Reg (England&Wales) and Fire PrecautionsAct 1971. Requirements given also in statutes covering specific uses of bldg, suchas Factories Act 1961 and Offices, Shops & RailwayPremises Act 1963.
In general, fire escape stairs must be built within enclosed shaft with wallsof given fire resistance and frself-closing doors. Doors mustopen into shaft at all floors except final exit level; doorswings must
STAIRS FOR DISABLED External stairs particularly dangerous for elderly and disabled in bad weather. On internal stairs splayed treads should be avoided. There should be no open risers; splayed risers with slightly-rounded nosings preferable to undercut square nosings. Handrailsshould beprovided on bothsidesofstaircase; section ofrail that is gripped should be rounded. with widthabout 50. Railsshould be continuous at landingsand extend at least300beyond topofstairs; heightshould beabout 850 above pitch line. Max gradient should be 40°: 35° or less better. Preferred going 250; rise should not exceed 190 and preferably be 170 orless.
06
rain w
21
06
60
numbe,atrises mao penlight
60
roe
07
women
elderly people,family groups
2
0.5
15
0.4
40
3
Extractfrom tabletoBldgreg H3
6001 servirtg 1 rrn excepikor halortobatfrr andwc 800otherwise 42
900
1000
38
-
16
tO 2
stairscecnrnon 102ormore
otherstairs
au
8001 seraing partofbldgcapable ofbeingusedby rotmore than P
5
104343ott,ernsise
—
mar
2
3
6 3
max
220 75
90 75
tOO
190
75
75
220
240
280
250
—
rrniri—
paralleltreads rain going
taperedireads mis going
Approxmeanspeedsofmovement upstairways: approxstaircapacities
stairs itiflsl,tutionai bidg,exceptthose usedsoieiybystab
I
men
young& middle-aged
dwetirtgs
stairs servingoniy dweting
moo pitch
27
not
obstruct flow of people already on staircase Stairs from upper floors must not continue in unobstructed flightpast ground floor to basement. Winders generally not permitted. In most other aspects requirements given in recent British codes of practice related to thosein bldg reg. Section II of Part E of reg covers dwellings, office bldg and shops, and refers to Code of Practice CP3: Chapter IV for all instances except certain single-staircase bldg. Staircasewidths for specified numbers of occupants given in code.
maoarrgie aetweenadjacent
'isero nringoing 270 irom ends01 tread or In centreif widerthan 1000
16
—
15
th
-
220
240
280
250
75
75
Components
409
Escalators canbe significantly less than those used bycommuters in underground
DIMENSIONS UK reg limits angle ofelevation to 35° when rise does not exceed 6 m and speed along line of slope not greater than 0.5 rn/s. In all other instances angle must not exceed 30°. This most common, although somemanufacturers produce escalators tolower angle.BS allows max tread width of1 050 and mm 600. Manufacturershave rangesofstandard escalators cheaper than eqp builttospecial sizes —.(1). -. 2i96 hxl.73
-
30 35 hx143,maxh=6rn
stations
—(2)givesapprox capacities with escalators used by commuters or in treadw m
max w overall w between m balustrades
0.6 0.8
0.85 1.05 1.25
1.0
2
1.25 1.45 1.65
approxcapacity (P/mm)
95 125
90 120 150
Approxw&traffic capacityof escalators
PLANNING For escalators serving several storeys in 1 direction of travel superimposed flights occupy least plan area but require passengers to walk Dimensionsofescalators forinitialplanning
Structure ofescalator: steeltruss supported at upperand lower landings, and usually at intermediate point when rise exceeds 6000. Steps are carried on 2 sets of rails and drawn by steelchains. Motor and driving mechanism usually within truss below upper landing.
between successive rises. Crossover arrangement eliminates this; double crossover is common inlarge dept stores, for movement in both directions —(3). When escalators extend through fire compartment boundaries, selfclosing shutters required. Escalatorsnot normallyacceptable as means ofescape fromfire—.Bibll7.
PASSENGERCONVEYORS TRAFFICCAPACITY Dependent on rate at which people step on to escalator which, in turn, depends on widthof escalator speed of escalator: up to about 0.75 rn/s increasing speed results in greater capacity; higher speeds tend deter passengers stepping on typeof passenger and location:capacity of escalatorsin deptstores etc
Passenger conveyors —.Bib123. Restrictions on width same as for escalators: mm tread width 600, max 1 050. Atangles ofslope from 0° to 8° max permissible speed 0.90m/s; above8°to 12°0.75 m/s; angles of slope greater than 12° not permitted. Traffic capacity same as that of escalators of equivalent width under most conditions; with commuters, notcarrying baggage,slightlyhigher values may be observed.
'Fly) ,)
y)
)'
f ,, ,,,
,,
,
f.ffl flZFf
3
B
0 (1)
95 125 155
bldg with regular users. Forother instancesuseful figure forpreliminary planning 60 P/mm, regardless ofwidthand speed —.(2).
1
0
CD
speed(mis) 0.45 0.6 0.75 65
C)
Superimposed,crossover&doublecrossoverarrangements of escalators
Stairs references. —Bibliographyentrmes117123300338340346501591 594613628
410 Components
Elevators DIMENSIONS Dimensions for 7 classes of electric elevators —Bib123: Light trafficpassenger & perambulator/passenger Stretcher/passenger General purpose passenger Intensive traffic passenger Bed/passenger General purpose goods Heavy dutygoods Tables forclasses 1 3 and 6—.(2)(3)(4)
numberofP
4
6
8
10
load in kg
300
450
600
750
A B
1800
1 800
1300
1600
2000 1900
20O0 1900
internalw C
1100 800
1100 1100
1300 1 400
2200
2200
1100 1400 2200
well
w d
car
internal d internal h
0
clearw clear h
M N
700
700
800
800
2000
2000
2000
2000
V= 0.5 m/s V=0.75m/s
1400
— —
1400 1500 1500
1400 1500 1500
1 500
V=1.0 rn/s
p p p
V= 0.5 rn/s V= 0.75m/s V= 1.0 rn/s
Q Q
3900 — —
3900 3900 4000
4000 4000 4000
4000 4000 4000
R S H
1800
3700 2300
2300 4000 2300
2000 4400 2600
2000 4400 2600
landingdoors
Eqp to manufacturers standard specifications less expensive than elevators to special dimensions orwith special finishes. Electro-hydraulic elevators an alternative to el traction elevators. Maximum travel approx25 m and max speed 1.0 rn/s. Motorrm need not be at top shaft and may be remote. Initial cost slightly greater than that of equivalent traction elevator but maintenancecosts can be lower.
pitd
treeh
topterminal
w
machinerrn
d
minh
2
motor rrn
I
kn
numberof P
8
10
12
16
loadin kg
600
750
900
1200 1500
w A d B
CA landing doors
clearw M clear h N
freeh top terminal
V=0.75m/s Q 4000 4000 4000 4100 4100
V=1.0 rn/s V=1.5 rn/S V= 1.0 V= 1.5
P P P
1600 1600 1700 1700 1700 1800 1900 1900 1700 1800 1900 1900
w R
3100 3100 3300 3500 3500 4800 5000 5100 5300 5600 2600 2600 2700 2700 2700
GeneralpurposePelevators
maxnumberofP
6
13
20
26
26
40
40
load in kg
500
1000
1500
2000
2000
3000
3000
A B
1800 1500
2100 2100
2500 2300
2500 2800
2800 2400
3000 3300
3500 2700
internalw
C
internald
D
1100 1200 2000
1400 1800
2000
1700 2000 2300
1700 2500 2300
2000 2100 2300
2000 3000 2300
2500 2400 2300
1100 2000
2000
1700 2300
1700 2300
2000 2300
2000 2300
2500 2300
1 500 1 700
1 500 1 700
1 500
1500
1
1 700
1 700
1
well car
w d
internal h landing doors
pit
clearw clearh V = 0.25 rn/s V = 0.5 rn/S
V=0.75rn/s
V = 1.0 rn/s
M N P P P P
— 1400 1500
1400
1500 1 500
1800
1800
1 800
1 800
1800 1 800
1800
1 500
1 800
500 700 1800 1800
1 500 1 500
V=0.25rn/s
topterminal
V= 0.5 rn/s V= 0.75 rn/s V= 1.0 rn/s
0 0 Q 0
— 3800 3800 3800
3800 3800 3800 3800
4000 4100 4200 4200
4100 4300 4500 4500
4100 4300 4500 4500
4200 4400 4500 —
4200 4400 4500 —
machine rrn
w d
R S
minh
H
2000 3700 2400
2100 4300 2400
2500 4500 2700
2500 5100 2900
2800 4700 2900
3000 5600 2900
3500 5000 2900
freeh
4
1500 1700 1700
rn/s Q 4000 4000 4200 4200 4200 rn/s 0 4200 4200 4200 4300 4300
S rninh H
(—.Bib123)
800 800 800 1100 1 100 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
V= 0.75 rn/s
d
Lettereddistancesrefer to —.(2)(3)(4) which give dimensionsinmm of elevators to BS 2655
1800 2000 2100 2600 2600 1900 1900 2100 2200 2500
pitd
machinerrn
1
20
internalw C 1100 1300 1600 2000 2000 internald 0 1400 1400 1400 1 400 1700 internalh 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200
car
3
1600 1600
Light traffic P& perambulator e evators
well
Urn
2200
Generalpurposegoodselevators
Components
411
Elevators TRAFFIC CAPACITY
PATERNOSTERELEVATORS
Withintensive trafficdetailed analysisofflowpattern required. Selection
Dimensions
of elevators and ofcontrol system requiresspecialistadvice. Preliminary
design can be made with aid —(2)(3); —*(1) gives typical values of elevatortraffic flow and acceptable interval betweensuccessivedepartures of elevators. Example: multi-storey office bldg in several tenancies of similar type with 600 people occupying 10storeys above ground level. Number of peoplearriving inpeak 5mm period: 600 x 15% =90. Rateofflow90/5 = 18 P/mm. From .—*(2)will beseen that 4 x 1.5m/s elevatorscancarry 21 P/mm with 30sinterval; for 18 P/mm carsize required 900 kg. From —(3) 3 x 1.5 m/s elevators would give interval of 45 s. numberof Parrivingin5mm, givenas% occupants abovegroundfloor level
interval(s)
singleoccupancyoff bldg, industrial bldg
multipletenancyoff bldg hotels housing
leisurebldg, multi-storey
carparks,dept sto
15—20% 11—15% 10—15% 5—7% individual assessment required
25—35 25—35 30—60 60—90 40—50
Forpaternoster elevators —Bib123. Cardimensions limited tomm clear height of 2200; width and depth to between 900 and 1000with max floor area 0.93 m2. Landing entrances must be same width as open sides of cars with height between 2600 and 2800. Max permissible speed 0.4 m/s.Stringent recommendationsonsafety devices—+(4)(5).
Traffic capacity
Paternosters appropriate for random interfloor traffic with able-bodied users, having total trafficcapacity significantly greater than that of conventional elevators of similar plan area. With random interfloor traffic evenly distributed through bldg total of about 30 P/mm can be carried with little waitingwhen installation serves 5floors,35 P/mm when 11 floors served and approx42 P/mm with 16floors, Ifqueuestolerated capacity can beabout 60% more. Withtraffic emanatingfrom1 floor flow capacity significantly less: for upward traffic only from ground floor max approx 12 P/mm. In real conditions interfloor traffic not usually even over all storeys: intermediate figureshould be adopted.
Longjourneys slow: ifdominant traffic pattern flow to and fromground conventional elevators should be used. Paternostersgenerally inappropriate in bldg used by general public, bychildren and by disabled.
an interval at lowerend ofeach range associated with bldg having high standard of finishes& fittings 1 Peakperiodelevatordemand &acceptable intervalsbetween elevator departures
•213f— 950
4 324 4
20
down
4
5 Paternoster:typicalshaftdimensions
950 —12131 up
Paternosterelevator:typical plan dimensions
crossseCtion
longitudinal
412 Components
Elevators
80
fo5Q6Q I
20
•0
l a
b
main entry
do
1100 internal depth,900 width, 700 clear dooropening: 6-person light traffic passenger elevator —6ib123 just meets thesedimensions but largercars preferable. In public bldg thereshould besufficient space for another person to accompany chair-bound: 1400 mm depth, 1100 width. In special residential homes largewheelchairs need to be accommodated; dimensions for these: 1 800 depth, 1 000 width, 800 door opening.ANSI standards —(1)(2). Elevatorcars must beaccuratein levellingatlandings;must notaccelerate
dosed
mOIen
_______
atann
I
ELEVATORSFOR DISABLED In rnulti-storey bldg elevators are principal means ofvertical circulation forthoseconfined towheelchairs and for others with difficulty inwalking. Mm dimensionsof elevator car to accommodate standard wheelchair:
emeency stop
or brake with jerk, requirements which dictate use of either variablevoltage traction motors or electro-hydraulic elevators. Doors should
C
-
close slowly (0.3 m/s residential homes, 0.5 rn/s elsewhere); photoelectricdevicesto prevent premature closing desirable.
d
ElevatorcarcontrolsforwheelchairusersANSI standardsapaneldetail bcontrolh calternativeplacingofpanel withcentreopeningdoor d alternativeswith sideopeningdoor 1
Control buttons should light to operate. For general purposes normal vertical layout is best, with buttons at 30 centres mm spacing. Mean height should be 1 400, max 1600. In bldg used by unaccompanied wheelchair userscontrols should notbe higherthan 1 300. In residential homes horizontal arrangementofcontrol buttonsin carscan be desirable, at height 1 050and setin wall atleast600backfromdoor.
At landings floor numbers should be very clearly indicated. To position wheelchairs there should be clear space at least 1 500 x 1 500 before each liftdoor.
PLANNING Elevators serving single zone of upperfloor should begrouped inplan with interlinked controls. Arrangement of lobbies should allow waiting passenger moverapidly to whichever car arrives first. No more than 4 elevator entrances should be alongside each other; facing entrances should be 2500—3500 apart. Elevator entrances should not lie on opposite sidesof circulation route—+(3).
a
F
915
L
In large bldg lobbyareatendstobe 5—6m2 per elevator on upper floors and 15—20 m2perelevator atground floor with singlegroupofelevators. Forefficient performances under heavy flowsoftraffic numbers ofstops made byelevator cars should be kept to mm. In largebldg there should be single main loading floor; passengers entering bldg at other levels should be brought by secondary circulation to main lobby at ground level. Use ofelevators for mail deliveries orforotherinterfloor trafficat peak arrival or departure periodsshould bediscouraged.
In residential bldg and hotels noise to be generated by elevators must be considered at early planning stage. Bedr should be remote from machine rm and walls carrying landing door eqp should not be adjacent to them. Risk of noise carried through structural continuity should be examined.
b
Totalvolume of elevator shafts in very tall bldg reduced when different groups of elevators serve separate zones of upper floors. Generally justified only in bldg higher than 15 storeys but normal practice in commercial bldgof 30storeys or more. maindrculation rome
4lifts max
2500—3500
3 Liftlob dimensions 2 Mm dimensionselevatorcarsANSIstandardsacentreopeningdoors bsideopening doors NBcarswith mm wlessthan shownbutnotlessthan 1370canbeusedforelevatorsof less capacitythan900 kg
Elevator references: —Bibliography entries 053 123504613628
413
Bibliography ARRANGEMENT Thebibliography has3 parts: basiccomplete listof publications, numberedconsecutively extracted fromthat a list ofcodes, guides, reg, standardsand statutes reference numbers of publications listed undertopics Initials are used for the following: American Institute ofArchitects Architects Journal ANSI American National Standards Institute AR Architectural Record BRE Building Research Establishment British Standards Institution BSI International Council for Building Research,Studies & CIB Documentation CIBS Chartered Institute of Building Services CIRIA Construction Industry Research& InformationAssociation DES DeptofEducation & Science DHSS DeptofHealth &Social Services DoE Deptofthe Environment ES Illuminating Engineering Society ISO InternationalOrganization forStandardization HMSO HerMajesty's Stationery Office PSA Property Services Agency RIBA Royal Institute ofBritish Architects AlA
AJ
Sources
In additionto publicationslisted inthe bibliographysome general sources of information may befound useful: BRE information directory BRE Garston England annually British Architectural Library Architectural periodicals index RIBAPublications London England quarterly Building Centre/CIRIA Guide tosources ofinformation Building Centre Group London England every second year Building Centre Group Booksforthe construction industry annual list HMSO Government publications section list61: Building HMSO Government publicationssection list65: Scottish Development Dept RIBA Book list RIBA Publications London England annual
BASIC LIST Reference numbers of publications in this listare used for in-text references throughout the book Abraben E Resort hotels, planning &management Reinhold NewYorkUSA 1965 002 Abraham G The green thumb bookoffruit & vegetable 001
gardening Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 1970 003 Ackroyd P Sports pavilions NationalPlaying FieldsAssociation London England 1970 004 Adams R & M & Willens A& A Drylands; man & plants Architectural Press London England 1978
0
005 Addleshaw G W & Etchells F Thearchitecturalsetting of anglican worship Faber&Faber London England 1948 006 Adie D Marinas: aworking guideto their development & design Architectural Press London England 2nd edn 1977 007 A4 Publications Officeplanner A4 Publications Edenbridge England 1976 008 AJ Handbook ofbuilding structure (Hodgkinson A (ed)) Architectural Press London England 1974 009 AJ Legalhandbook (Davey P & Freeth E (ed)) Architectural Press London England 2ndedn 1978 010 AJ Newmetrichandbook (Tutt P & Adler D (ed)) Architectural Press London England 1979 011 AJ Principles ofhoteldesign Architectural Press London England 1970 012 AJ Urban landscape handbook (Tandy C (ed)) Architectural Press London England 1972 reprinted 1978 013 AJ/MoH Hospital planning & design guide Architectural Press London England 1967 014 Allen R W Hospital planning handbook John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 1976
015 AIoi A Architettureperlospettacolo Hoepli Milan Italy 1964 016 AIoi R Ristoranti Hoepli Milan Italy 1972 017 AIoi R & Bassco C Ospedali: hospitals Hoepli Milan Italy 1973 018 Alpern A Apartments forthe affluent McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1975 019 Aluminium Window Association Aluminium window edgeprofiles (Technical report 1) London England 1976 020 American Association of Hospital Consultants(Mills B (ed)) Functionalplanning ofgeneral hospitals McGraw-Hill New York USA & Maidenhead England 1969 021 American Federation of Arts Fountainsincontemporary architecture distributed byOctober House NewYorkUSA 1965 022 American Hospital Association Theextended care unitina general hospital: a guidetoplanning, organization & management AHA Chicago USA 1973 023 American Hospital Association Hospitalengineering handbook AHA Chicago USA 1974 024 American HospitalAssociation Thepractice ofplanning inhealth careinstitutions AHA Chicago USA 1973 025 American Hospital Association (committee oninfections within hospitals) Infection control inthe hospital AHA ChicagoUSA 3rdedn 1974 026 American Insurance Association Fireprevention code American Insurance Association NewYork USA latest edition
027 American InsuranceAssociation Nationalbuilding code American Insurance Association New York USA latest edition ANSI Specifications formaking buildings &facilities accessible to & usable bythephysically handicappedpeople ANSI NewYork USA 2ndedn 1979 028
029
ANSI Standards ANSI NewYork USA latest edition
030 American Society of Heating Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE standard 90—75; energy conservationin new buildingdesign ASHRAE NewYork USA 1975 031 American Society ofHeating Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE handbook offundamentals ASHRAE NewYork USA 1977 032 American Society of LandscapeArchitects Handbookof landscape ASLA McLean Va USA 1973 033 American SocietyforTesting Materials Standards ASTM Philadelphia USA latest editions 034 Amery C The National Theatre:an architecturalguide Architectural Press London England 1977 035 Annett F Elevators McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 3rd edn 1960
I
036 Anton J Occupational safety &health management McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1979
AR Apartments, townhouses &condominiums McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1975 038 AR TheArchitectural Recordbookofvacationhouses McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 2ndedn1977 039 AR Buildings forresearch FW Dodge NewYork USA 1958
037
040 AR Buildings for thearts McGraw-Hill New York USA 1978 041 AR Campus planning & design McGraw-Hill New York USA 1972
042 AR Greathouses forviewsites, beachsites, woodsites, meadow sites,smallsites, slopingsites, steepsites, flatsites McGraw-Hill New York USA 1976 043 AR Hotels, motels, restaurants & bars F W Dodge New York USA 2ndedn 1960 044 AR Houses, architects design forthemselves McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1974 045 AR Places forpeople;hotels, motels, restaurants,bars, clubs, community recreation facilities, camps,parks,plazas, playgrounds (Davern J (ed)) McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1976 046 Arlott J (ed) The Oxford companion tosports &games Oxford University Press Oxford England 1975
414
Bibliography BASIC LIST 047 Aronin 1953
JE
Climate & architecture Reinhold NewYork USA
048 Ashford N & Wright P Airport engineering John Wiley&Sons NewYork USA 1979 049 Atkins W W & Adler J Interiorsbookofrestaurants Whitney Library of Design NewYork USA 1960 050 Baker G & Funaro B Motels Reinhold New York USA 1955 Banham R Architecture ofthewell-tempered environment Architectural Press London England 1969 051
052 Barron I & Curnow R The future with microelectronics Francis Pinter London England 1979 053 Bates W Introduction to thedesign ofindustrialbuildings Constrado London England 1978 054 Baynes K Langslow B & Courtenay C C Evaluatingnew hospital buildings King Edwards Hospital Fund London England 1969 055 Bays K & Franklin S Designing forthehandicapped George Goodwin London England 1971 056 Beazley E Design & detail ofthespace between buildings Architectural Press London England 1960 Beazley E Designed forrecreation: apracticalhandbook fora/l concernedwithprovidingleisure facilities in thecountryside Faber& Faber London England 1969 058 Beckett H E & Godfrey AJ Windows:performance, design & installation RIBA/Crosby Lockwood Staples London England 1974 059 Beckman WA Klein S A & Duffie JA Solar heating design by the f-chart method John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 1977 057
060 Bedhar M (ed) Barrier-free environments Dowden Hutchinson & Ross Stroudsburg Pa USA 1977 061
BRE Smoke control methods inenclosed shopping complexes of oneormorestoreys:adesignsumma,y(Morgan HP) HMSO London 079
Bellis H & Schmidt
W Architectural drafting
McGraw-Hill
NewYorkUSA 2ndedn 1971
062 Bengtsson A Adventure playgrounds Crosby Lockwood London England 1972
England 1979 080 BRE Ventilation requirements (Digest 206) HMSO London England 1977 081
1973
BRE Working drawings (Digest 172) HMSO London England
082 BRE Working drawings in use (Daltry C D & Crawshaw DT) (Current Paper 18/73) BRE Garston England 1973 083 British Horse Society Basicrequirementsofaridingcentre BHS Kenilworth England 1947 084 British Industrial-Scientific Film Association Filmguideforthe construction industry Construction Press LancasterEngland 1979 Broadbent G & Ward A (ed) Design methods inarchitecture LundHumphries London England 1969 086 Brock G Road widthrequirements ofcommercial vehicleswhen 085
cornering Transport &Road ResearchLaboratory DoE London 1973 087 Brooks J The smallgarden MarshallCavendish London England 1977 088 BSI BS CP96 Accessforthe disabledtobuildings Part 1 Genera/recommendations BSI London England 1967 089
BSI BS 5606 Accuracy in building BSI London England 1978
090
BSI BS5440 Part2 Airsupply BSI London England 1976 BSI BS4873 Aluminium alloy windows BSI London England
091
1972
092 BSI BS CP3 Basic data forthe design ofbuildings, codeof see Daylighting Fire precautions Loading Sunlight Thermal insulation 093 BSI BritishStandards Handbook 3 vol 1—4 Summariesof Britishstandards ofbuilding BSI London England latest edition
BSI British standards yearbook BSI London England annual 095 BSI BS 1192 Building drawing practice (metric units), recommendations BSI London England 1969 (revision in progress) 094
063
BSI BS 4104 Cateringequipment burning liquefiedpetroleum gases BSI London England 1967 097 BSI BS 2512 Catering equipment, gasheated BSI London
Grafton/Deutsch London England 1966
England 1963 098 BSI BSCP 1007 Cinemas, maintainedlighting for BSI London England 1955 099 BSI BS5382 Cinematographscreens, specification BSI London England 1976
Beranek LL Music, acoustics & architecture John Wiley& Sons NewYorkUSA 1962 064 Beranek LL Noise& vibration control McGraw-Hill New York USA 1971 065 Berriman S G & Harrison K C British public library buildings
066 Bishop M L(ed) Fountainsin contemporaryarchitecture American Federation of Arts NewYork USA 1965 067 Blankenship E G Theairport Praeger NewYork USA Pall Mall London England 1974 068 Bockrath JT Environmental lawforengineers, scientists & managers McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1977 069 Boje A Open-plan offices Business Books London England 1971 Borchardt S Religiousarchitecture in America 1632—1979 StJohn's Church Washington DC USA 1976 070
0
071 Boswell M & Wingrove J M The handicappedperson inthe community Tavistock Publications/Open University Press London England 1974 072 Bower J Theevolution ofchurch buildings Whitney Library of Design NewYorkUSA 1977 073 Brawne M Libraries: architecture 8 equipment Praeger New York USA 1970 074 BRE Availability ofsunshine (Ne'eman E & Light W) (Current Paper 75/75) Garston England 1975 075 BRE Co-ordinating working drawings (Crawshaw D T) (Current Paper 60/76) BRE Garston England 1976 076 BRE Estimating daylight inbuildings (Digests 41 42) HMSO London England 1970 077
BRE Information directory BRE Garston England annual 078 BRE Noiseabatement zone Parts 1 &2 BRE Garston England 1977
096
100 BSI BS 5252 Colour co-ordination forbuilding purposes, framework for BSI London England 1976
BSI BSLP 110 Concrete, structural useof Part 11972 Design materials & workmanship Part 2 1972 Design charts forsinglyreinforced beams & rectangular columns Part 3 1972 Design charts forcircular columns &prestressed beams BSI London England 1972 101
102 BSI BS350: Part 1 Conversion factors, basis oftables BSI London England 1974 103 BSI PD6444Part 1 Co-ordinationofdimensions inbuilding, recommendations: Basic spaces forstructure, external envelope & internalsub-divisions BSI London England 1969 104 BSI BS4330 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building, recommendations: Controlling dimensions BSI London England 1968 105 BSI BS4011 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building, recommendations: Co-ordinating sizes forbuilding components & assemblies BSI London England 1966 106 BSI BS2900 Co-ordination ofdimensions inbuilding, recommendations: Glossary ofterms BSI London England 1970 107 BSI BSCP3: Ch 1: Part 1 Daylighting BSI London England 1964
108 BSI BS 5502 Design ofbuildings & structures foragriculture, codeofpractice BSI London England 1978 109 BSI BS 5619 Design ofhousing fortheconvenienceofdisabled people, code ofpractice BSI London England 1978
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136 BSI BS 5709 Specification forstiles, bridlegatesa kissing gates BSI London England 1979 137 B51 B5 1754 Steelbarns with covered roofs BSI London England 1961 138 BSI BS 990 Steelwindows generally fordomestic & similar buildings Part 2 Metric units BSI London England 1972 139 BSI BS CP 117 Structural steel& concrete, composite structures in Part 1 Simplysupported beamsinbuildings BSI London England 1965 140 BSI BS 449 Structural steelin buildings,use of Part 2 1969 Metricunits BSI London England 1969 BSI BS CP 3: Chap i(B) Sunlight (houses, flats &schools only) BSl London England 1945 142 BSI PD 6479 Symbols aothergraphic conventions forbuilding productiondrawings, recommendations BSI London England 1976 143 BSI BSCP3: Chap ii Thermalinsulationinrelation tothecontrol ofthe environment BSI London England 1970 144 BSI BS CP 112 Timber,structural useof Part 2 1971 Metncunits Part 3 1973 Trussed rafters forroofsofdwellings BSI London England 1971 & 1973 145 BSI BS 4787 Part 1 Wooddoorsets, door leaves & frames BSI 141
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118 BSI BS 2505 Fixedequipment forcowsheds Part 11965 Imperial units Part 2 1972 Metric units BSI London England 1965& 1972 119 BSI BS544OPart1 Flues BSI London England 1978 120 BSI CP2004 Foundations, general BSI London England 1972 121 BSI CP 101 Foundations & sub-structure fornon-industrial buildingsofnot more than fourstoreys BSI London England 1972 122 BSI BS3202 Laboratory furniture & fittings BSI London
146 BSI BS CP 153 Windows & rooflights Part 1 Cleaning asafety BSI London England 1969
147 Buchanan R D etal Theanatomy offoods service design Cahners Books Boston USA 1975
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151 Burberry P & Aldersley-Williams A A guide todomestic heating installations &controls Architectural Press London England 1977 152 Burns-Meyer H & Cole E C Theaters& auditoriums Reinhold NewYorkUSA 2ndedn 1964
126 BSI BS 5628 Masonry, structural usecode ofpractice Part 1 Universal masonry BSI London England 1978 127 BSI PD6031 Metric system in the constructionindustry, use London England 2ndedn 1968
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128 BSI BS 5536 Micro-filming, preparationoftechnical drawings for BSI London England 1978 129 BSI BS5550: PartV: Section 5.1: Subsection 5.1.1 Motionpicture safetyfilm, definition testing a marking BSI London England 1978 130 BSI BS 799: Part V Oil storage tanks BSI London England 1975 BSI BS 3178 Playground equipment forparks BSI London England various dates 132 BSI BS CP 114 Reinforced concrete, structuraluseinbuildings BSI London England 1969 131
133 BSI BS 5572 Sanitary pipework, code ofpractice BSI London England 1978 134 BSI BS 3030 Schoolfurniture now replaced by: BSI BS 5873 Educationalfurniture Part 1 Specifications forfunctional dimensions, identification & finish of chairs&tablesfor educational institutions. Part2 Specificationfor strength & stability of chairs foreducationalinstitutions. Part 3 Specification for strength & stability of tables for educational institutions BSI London England 1980 135
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153 Busche-Sievers U Kneipen, pubs&restaurants Callwey Munich Germany 1973 154 Butcher E G & Parnell A C Smoke control in firesafety design E& FN Spon London England 1979 155 Campbell CS Waterin landscape architecture Van Nostrand Reinhold NewYorkUSA 1978 156 Casson H lnscape Architectural Press London England 1968 157 Cheshire CountyCouncil Architect's brief:daycentre for physicallyhandicapped C CC Chester England 1975 158 Cheshire CountyCouncil Design aidhousing: roads CCC ChesterEngland 1976 159 Cheshire CountyCouncil Made to measure: domestic extensions&adaptations forhandicappedpersons CCC Chester England 1974 160 Christ-Janer A & Foley M M Modern church architecture McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1962 161
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176 Cottam DJ Technicalplanning manual forhotels, restaurants, grill&snack bars, industrial restaurants,universities,schools, hospitals, cook/freezereheat & convenience foodkitchens Stotts Oldham England 5th edn 1973 177 Cullingworth J B Town &countryplanninginBritain Allen& Unwin London England 7thedn 1972 178 Cusworth C R N Thehealth & safety atwork etcact 1974
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183 Dawes J Designing &planning ofswimmingpools Architectural Press London England 1979 184 De Breffney B The synagogue Macmillan NewYork USA 1978 185 DeChiara J &Callender JH Time-saverstandardsforbuilding types McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1973 186 De Neufville R Airportsystemsplanning MITPress Cambridge Mass USA 1976
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196 DES Fire & thedesign ofschools (BB 7) HMSO London England 5th edn 1975 197 DES Furniture & equipment dimensions; further & higher education (BB 44) HMSO London England 1970 198 DES Furniture equipment: working heights & zones for practical activities (BB 50) HMSO London England 1973 199 DES Guidelines forenvironmental design & fuel co,iservationin educational buildings (DN 17) DES London England 1974 200 DES JDPCLASP system building forhighereducation (BB 45) HMSO London England 1970 201 DES Thedesign ofschoolkitchens (BB 11) HMSO London England 1955 202 DES Lightinginschools(BB 33) HMSO London England 1967
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219 DHSS Planning, design &construction ofhospital buildings for the national health service(Cruickshank H J) DHSS London England 1973 220 DHSS Residential accommodation formentally handicapped adults (Local authority building note 8) HMSO London England 1973 DHS/Nuffield Orthopaedic Centre Equipment forthedisabled (10parts) Oxford Regional HealthAuthority Oxford England 1974/8 221
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248 DoE Spaces in the home(DB24) Part 1 Bathrooms & wc's Part 2 Kitchens &laundenng spaces HMSO London England 1972 249 D0E/PSA Office space: aprimerforusers& designers HMSO London England 1976 250 D0E/PSA Solarenergy: anannotated bibliography DoE Croydon England 2nd edn 1979 251 DoE/Welsh Office Daylight indicators HMSO London England 1971
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095 BSI BS 1192 Building drawingpractice (metnc units), recommendations BSI London England 1969 (revision in progress) 096 BSI BS4104 Catering equipment burning liquefiedpetroleum gases BSI London England 1967 097 BSI BS2512 Catering equipment, gasheated BSI London England 1963
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109 BSI BS 5619 Design ofhousing fortheconvenience ofdisabled people, code ofpractice BSI London England 1978 110 BSI DD 51 Dimensional co-ordinationinbuildings, guidance on BSI London England 1977 111 BSI BS CP 413 Ducts forbuilding services BSI London England 1975 BSI BS5873 Educationalfurniture see 134 below 112 BSI BS 5266 Part 1 Emergency lighting forpremises other than cinemas & certain otherspecified premises used forentertainment, code ofpractice BSI London England 1975 113 8Sf BS2560 Exitsigns, internally illuminated BSI London England 1976 114 BSI BS 4218 Exitsigns, self-luminous BSI London England 1978 115 BSI BS2053 Farm buildings offramedconstruction, general purpose BSI London England 1972 116 BSI BS5588 Fireprecautions inthedesign ofbuildings,codeof practice Part 4 Smoke controlin protected escape routes using pressurisation BSI London England 1978 117 BSI BS CP 3: Chap iv: Fire, precautions against Part 11971 Flats & maisonettes (in blocks overtwo storeys) Part 2 1968 Shops department stores Part 3 1968 Office buildings BSI London England 1968 & 1971
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133 BSI 5572 Sanitarypipework, codeofpractice BSI London England 1978 134 BSI 3030 Schoolfurniture now replaced by: BSI BS 5873 Educationalfurniture Part 1 Specifications forfunctional dimensions, identification & finish of chairs& tables foreducational institutions. Part2 Specificationfor strength & stability of chairs foreducational institutions. Part3 Specification for strength & stability of tables for educational institutions BSI London England 1980 135 BSI PD 5686 SI units, use of BSI London England 1978 136 BSI BS 5709 Specification forstiles, bndle gates & kissing gates BSI London England 1979 137 BSI BS1754 Steel barns with covered roofs BSI London England 1961 138 BSI BS 990 Steelwindows generally fordomestic & similar buildingsPart 2 Metric units BSI London England 1972 139 BSI BS CP 117 Structural steel& concrete,composite structures in Part 1 Simplysupported beamsinbuildings BSI London England 1965 140 BSI BS 499 Structural steelinbuildings, use of Part2: 1969 Metric units BSI London England 1969 141
BSI BS CP3: Chap i(B) Sunlight (houses, flats & schools only)
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145 BSI 8S4787 Part 1 Wooddoorsets, doorleaves & frames BSI London England 1972 146 BSI BS CP 153 Windows & rooflights Part 1 Cleaning & safety BSI London England 1969 148 Building Officials & Codes Administrators International Basic buildingcode BOCA Chicago USA triennial 7th edn 1978 164 CIBS Institution ofheating & ventilationengineers guide (vol AB&C) CIBS LondonEngland 1970 173 Constructional Steel Research & Development Organisation Steel designer's manual Crosby Lockwood London England 4th edn 1972
234 DoE Houseplanning: aguideto userneeds wtih achecklist (OB 14) HMSO London England 1976 271 Electricity Council & Lighting Industry Federation Interiorlighting design Electricity Council&LIF London England 1977 276 Essex CountyCouncil Design guide forresidential areas ECC Chelmsford England 1973 284 Fire Officers'Committee Rules forautomatic sprinkler installations FOC London England 1970 300 Greater London Council London building (constructional)
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347 HoC Offices, shops& railwaypremises act 1971 HMSO London England 1971 348 HoC Petroleum (consolidation) act 1928 HMSO London England 1928 349 HoC Pharmacy & poisons act 1933 HMSO London England 1933
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363 HoC Town 8 country planning act 1971 HMSO London England 1971 364 HoC Town & country planning (Scotland)act 1972HMSO London England 1972 365
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383 IES The IES Code: recommendations forlighting building interiors CIBS London England 1977 387
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395 International Civil Aviation Organisation Internationalstandards, recommended practices: aerodromes.Annex 14 tothe convention on international aviation IACO MontrealCanada 1976 396 InternationalCivil Aviation Organisation Stolport manual ICAO Montreal Canada 1976 397 InternationalCommission on Illumination International recommendations forthe calculationofnatural daylight (publication 16) CIE ParisFrance 1970 398 InternationalConference of Building Officials Uniform building code ICBO Whittier Calif USA latest edition International Federation of Library Associations Standards for publiclibraries Verlag Dokumentation Munich Germany IFLA The Hague Netherlands 1973 399
400
ISO Modular co-ordination: basic module (ISO 1006:1973) ISO GenevaSwitzerland 1973 401 ISO Modular co-ordination: co-ordinating sizes fordoor-sets, external & internal (ISO 2776: 1974) ISO Geneva Switzerland 1974 402 ISO Modular co-ordination: multi-modules for horizontal coordinating dimensions (ISO 1040: 1973) ISO Geneva Switzerland 1973 403
ISO Modular co-ordination: principles & rules (ISO 2848:1974)
ISO Geneva Switzerland 1974 404
ISO Modular co-ordination: reference lines ofhonzontal
controllingdimensions (ISO R 1970: 1970) ISO Geneva Switzerland 1970
405 ISO Modular co-ordination: storey heights & room heights for residential buildings (ISO 1789: 1973) ISO Geneva Switzerland 1973
ISO Modularco-ordination: vocabulary (ISO 1791:1973) ISO GenevaSwitzerland 1973 406
407 ISO Standard for the functional sizes of school furniture (ISO! D1S5970:1978) ISO GenevaSwitzerland 1978 473 Metrication Board Howto write metric: a style guide to teaching andusing SIunits HMSO London England no date 504 National Elevator Industry Elevatorengineering standards National Elevator Industry Inc NewYorkUSA 5th edn 1979 505 National Fire Protection Association Designing buildings forfire safety NFPA Boston USA 1975 508 National Fire Protection Association Life safety code NFPA Boston USA latest edition 509 National Fire Protection Association NationalFire codes NFPA Boston USA 16vol 1976 510 National Fire ProtectionAssociation Nationalfireprevention code NFPA Boston USA Latest edition 512 National House Builders Council Registered house builders handbook NHBC London England 1974 515 National Swimming Pool Institute Technical Council Minimum standards forpublicspas NSPI Washington DC USA 1978 516 National Swimming Pool Institute Technical Council Minimum standards forpublicswimming pools NSPI WashingtonDC USA 1974 517 National Swimming Pool Institute StandardsCodes Committee Suggested minimum standards forresidential swimming pools NSPI Washington DC USA 1974 549 Ramsey & Sleeper/American InstituteofArchitects Architectural graphic standards (Packard RT (ed)) JohnWiley & Sons New York USA 7thedn 1980 553 RIBA Cl/SfB construction indexingmanual RIBA Services Ltd London England 1976 573
Scottish Development Department Scottish Housing Handbook
part3 Housing development layout, roads & se,vices HMSO
Edinburgh Scotland 1977 574 Scottish Development Department Scottish Housing Handbook part 6 Housing forthe disabled HMSO Edinburgh Scotland 1979 581 Simmonds M F Accommodation standards foreducational buildings BRE Garston England revised edn 1977 584
Southern Building Code Congress Standard building code
SBCC Birmingham Ala USA latest edition 587 Sports Council Specification forartificial sports surfaces (technical report prepared bythe Rubber & Plastics Research
Association of Great Britain) Sports Council London England 1978 589 Statutory instruments 1959:428 Agriculture (safeguardingof workplaces) regulations 1959 HMSO London England 1959 590 Statutory instruments 1966:99 Building operations, construction health & welfare regulations HMSO London England 1966 591 Statutory instruments 1976:1676 Thebuilding regulations HMSO London England 1976 592 Statutory instruments 1976:1676 Thebuilding regulations Part
E Safety in fire E3 Rules formeasurement E4 Provision ofcompartment walls & compartment floors E5 Fireresistance ofelements ofstructure HMSO London England 1976 593 Statutory instruments 1978:723 Thebuilding (first amendment) regulations HMSO London England 1978 594 Statutory instruments 1971:2052 Thebuilding standards (Scotland) (consolidation) regulations HMSO London England 1971 595 Statutory instruments 1973:794 Thebuilding standards (Scotland) amendment regulations 1973 HMSO London England 1973 596 Statutory instruments 1975:404 Thebuilding standards (Scotland) amendment regulations 1975 HMSO London England 1975 597 Statutory instruments: Statutory regulations& orders 1922:73 (as amended by SI 1961:2435) Chemical works regulations HMSO London England 1961 598 Statutory instruments 1955:1129 Cinematographsafety regulations HMSO London England 1955
427
Bibliography CODES
REFERENCE BY TOPICS
599 Statutory instruments 1959:282 Cinematographsafety regulations HMSO London England 1959 600 Statutory instruments 1948:1547 Clay workswelfare special regulations HMSO London England 1948 601 Statutory instruments 1976:2010 Fire precaution (non-certified factory, office, shop & railwaypremises) regulations HMSO London England 1976 602 Statutory instruments: rules & orders 1917:1067 Metal Statutory worksas amended by SR&O 1926:864 & SI 1961:2434 HMSO London England 19171926& 1961
Access
603
Statutory instruments: Statutory rules
& orders 1929:534
Oil
cakewelfare order HMSO London England 1929 604 Statutory instruments 1964:966 Sanitaryconveniences regulations HMSO London England 1964 605 Statutory instruments: Statutory rules &orders 1925:864 Saw mills & woodworking factories welfare (ambulance& firstaid) as amended by SI 1961:2434 HMSO London England 1925& 1961 606 Statutory instruments: 1960:1932 Ship building & ship repairs regulations HMSO London England 1960 607 Statutory instruments 1972:2051 Standardsforschool premises regulations HMSO London England 1972 608 Statutory instruments 1964:965 Washingfacilities regulations HMSO London England 1964 610 SteelWindowAssociation Specification forthe metricpreferred range W20 steelwindows SWA 201 SWA London England 1972 629 United Nations EducationalScientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Planning buildings & facilities forhigher education Architectural Press London England UNESCOPress Paris France 1975 630
University Grants Committee Plann,ngnorms foruniversity
buildings HMSO London England 1974 631 Urban Land Institute Residential developmenthandbook ULI Washington DC USA 1978 632 USCongress Architectural barriers act US Superintendentof Documents Washington DC USA 1968 633
US Congress National environment policy act
US Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1970 634 US Congress Occupational safety & healthact US Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1971 635 US Federal Aviation Agency Theapron & terminal building. planning manual3 vol National Technical InformationService Springfield Va USA 1975
056086088136158189231242244276557 Acoustics
063 064 190 254 268 408428503 522 532544 545642655 Air conditioning —ventiIation Airports
048 067 165 186 341 370 391 392 393 394 395396 635 Apartments also—housing
018037 464 533 623 628 Auditoriums
063408413 Banks 007249 259 374 477 Building
services
090 111 119 130 133 143 150 151 246 377 390 416461 489 490503 593 Canteens —refectories
Car parks 086 308 424435 513 555 557 Cinemas
084098099113114129328329339347426598599 Climate 047 285 291 433434467520527529536617 Colleges
039040041063096097113114147168176200217226261377 413437441 446472476485526556569581 612629630652 Construction
008089092101120121125126132139140144173175200228 277288289316341 371 375378422445467491 494495498502 553 568 590 Daylighting also—*lightingsunlight 047059074076107251252291367368375380381382383397 452 457 527 528 529 567
Design
085163169173179185209210211 212213214247276279292 294302303313322375417425445462549567628638 Dining rooms
096097147168176217226439441 Disabledalso —foldpeople
028055060071088109157187189191220221281286287296 317327423432438447469488518535574628632639 Doors
117145401549574592628 Drawing practice 061 075081082095127128135142290322448463553621638 Elderly —.oldpeople Elevators also —.stairs
035123504613628 Energy conservation also —.climateheating
030059149172194195199250257258304427460558611615 Equitation—sport
Escalators —.stairs Factories —industrial buildings Farm buildings
108115118137288325326333334335340341347348351352 356357358359360363364365415582589601 646 Fire precautions 026079116117154196269284301324340412436492501505 506507508509510546592601 619 Flats—apartments
Garages 225 276 348435 636 650 Gardens 002 021 032066087 155 161 166 167 171 263 264 320 376 410 411 430431 466 482 550 562 563
428
Bibliography REFERENCE BYTOPICS
Handicapped —.disabled Heating also—.energy solar ventilation 031 059164172199230304416467487493500503536558611
Old people
232235236247295302438444469499644 Pools—gardens sport Proportions
075081082445
654
Recreation also —.cinemas museums 062 131 180227239443475
Hospitals
Refectories —dining rooms
013 014 017020 022 023 024 025054 218219220 262 294296303 315336337340341 349 354 362419420421 478525547 551 559 560576577578647 Hotelsalso —restau rants
001 011 043049050147176217223226243255272273274319 442477480583645 324341 346347363377439440441 Housing also—.apartments climate disabled energy gardening
old people
sport
theatres
Religiousbuildings 005070072160184311312478579620 Restaurants 016043045049096097147153156176217226243282319341 439 441 442 477583 Roads also—access 086158225240242244308 557
solar
037 038 044 047 092 179227 228 233 234 235236 237 238 240242 245246247248263264299 300 302363372458464467511512 519521 548558573574624631 637650 Industrialbuildings
Sanitary —lavatories Schools
134191192193194195196197198199200201202203204205 207208209210211 212213214215265267275314446451 476
031 036052053164177178257280284301305331 332333338 341 346 348 352 354 363 374 382 387418456470 477480481 483 486 505 534 539 590 592 597 600 601 602603604 605606608616
484 526 530 575 581 607 652
627634642651
Services—.building
Insulation
Shoppingcentresshopsstores 116117306340341 369374450477552601
143342503558 Kitchens 176 226 248 372 575 Laboratories
039 122 206 278 283 336 337 341 349354362524571 Landscape
012051 056057 166 167 169 171 229231239279334335363453 454 482 563616618633643 Lavatories
Schools ofartdesign drama music —.colleges
SI—metricsystem Solarenergy
059256528615654 Spacestandards
103104105110400401 402403404405406407607 Sport
003006046083183205212297355384388475514515516517 537538549585586587588639
029246 248 341 347 480 604 608
Stairs
Law
117123300338340346501591594613628
009068177178224300310321 373453649650 Lecture rooms& theatres —.colleges
Standards, international 400401 402 403 404 405406407 530
Libraries 065 073 314 323 353399 437447 455471 472474476622625641
Students Sunlight
hostels —colleges
also—*daylightingsolar
652
074 141 251 252
Lighting also—daylighting
Theatres also —cinemas
112124202271367380381382383384385386387397449457 523
015034113114152266298309340343350351352361408409 413475556572626
Man & his buildings 086 256445557
Toilets
Marinas —sport
Vehicleservices —car parks garages
Metric system
010102127135228473479494495531610 Museums
040318385476612 Offices
069177178222241 249257 259 260341346347 363364366374 389429465477480540541 542 545554564565566570580592 601 614
—.lavatories
Universities—.colleges
Ventilation also ---.heating
080090164416496 Warehouses—industriaI buildings Windows
019058091103138146170375380381434459467520536543 549567610 Workshops —.industrial buildings
429
Index indicates an illustration Abbreviations: listxiii—xiv,principles xi Access: air handling plant rooms 392, ambulances 166(2), buildings 19, cinemas 354, cinemas, drive-in358,disabled 43, disabled housing86, doors 401—2, ducts 383, flats & apartments 90, flats & apartments, internal 97, garages, private21, 100—1, gardens 47, hospital accident department 168, hotels212, houses 41—3, industrial buildings 264,273, 282—3, libraries 146, manhole dimensions 13, manholes,oil storage tank 387, motels 219, offices 230, oldpeople'shousing 83, security 76, services13, shops& stores 188, theatres 348, windows forcleaning 404(12), workon buildings 13—also stairs Accessroads 41—2 Accommodation: boarding schools 127, conventions 140,221, hotels 210, schoolsof art,design, drama, music 137, student 99, studenthostels140—1, youth hostels 143—4 Acoustics 18:collegelecture room 136, theatre 350, unitsof measurement 2(7), —also sound insulation Air: common contaminants 15(2),quality of 15, saturated, moisture content 394(1), supply rates 15 Air-conditioning: cinemas 356, duct sizes 384, hotels218, offices233 Air contaminants, ratesof production 15(3)(5) Air handling plant rooms 392 Airports 258—62:aircraft maintenancebuilding 262, aircraft parking 261, airfreight building 262, baggage handling 260, 261, catering building 262, components 258, flow diagrams 260, ground transport 260, layout 258, orientation of runways259, passenger terminals 259, 260, 261, runways258, 259, taxiways 258,259 Ambulances, dimensions 166(2) Ambulance rooms, industrial buildings 280 Apartments —*ffats Apostilb, definition 26 Architects'data:languagexii, style xi Art galleries —museums Artificial lighting —.lighting Art schools137—8 —also colleges Aspect, houses 46, 81, gardens 104, loading bays283 Athletics tracks, indoor326, outdoor 324 —also sport Auditorium: exitrequirements 136, 348, 354, lecture room 134—5, levels, cinema 357(4), multiple 351(7), 354, seating 135, 136, 349—51,354, theatre 350, 353 Balconies: access, flats & apartments88, 90, theatre 349,350,351 Banks 245—7: cashier positions 246, drive-in 246, examples 247, layout diagram 245(3) Barbecues 77(4), 107(8) Bars: hotel 211, public houses 224 Baths, domestic 63, swimming —.pools Bathrooms: disabled housing 86—7, domestic 61—5, equipment 61—3, hospital,geriatric 158, hotels 216, industrial buildings 281, old people, aids83, pre-fabricated units 65 Bedrooms: boarding school 127, disabled87, domestic 70—2, domestic, USA sizes70, fitments 71, hotel 210, 216, motel 220, old people's, dimensions & data 83, student hostels 140, wheelchair users 87, youth hostels 143, 144 Bed sizes: domestic 70, 71, hotel 216, hospital 159
Bell curveconcept—human dimensions Bibliography: basiclist 413—23, codes 424—7, topicreferences 427—8 Bicycle stands 257(12)(13) Blinds —windows Body measurements —cattle, children, man, pigs
Boilerrooms387—8
Book storage: domestic shelving 69, floor loading 177, library shelves 146, space needs 177 Building materials: physical characteristics (table) 382, sound absorption coefficients (table) 397, thermal conductivities 393(2) Bus stations —carparks Cabinets —cupboards Calorifier rooms 388 Calorifiers 390—1 Carparks248—52:buses249(1 )(3), bus stations, 255—6, bus station roadways256, busstation trafficorganisation 256, drive-in cinemas 358, industrial buildings 263, multistorey 251—2,off-street 249, ramps 251, road parking 248, space requirements 248, 249, stall widths USA 250, 'standard design car'251, theatre 348,truck,249, USA dimensions 250, vehiclecontrol 252 —also parking Cattle, dimensions 294 —*also farm buildings Ceiling heights, USA minimum 44 Changing rooms: hospital staff 178, industrial buildings 280, 281, swimming pool 336—7 Check lists: energy saving, earth 80, house userrequirements 48, old people's housing preferences 82, old people's housing safety precautions 84, pig husbandry data 303, services in flats &apartments 93, sporthall equipment 321, window choice 405 Children body measurements 131—2 Churches 182—4: furnishings 183, galleries 184, interiors 183, organs 184 Cinemas 354—8: auditorium levels 357(4), college halls 134, 135, drive-in 358, lighting 356, projection 355, prolection, drive-in 358, rear projection ofimage 134, seating 354, screen sizes 355, 358, screen systems 357, 16 mm 134—5, 356, sound systems 357, ventilation 356, viewing criteria, college 135 Circulation: houses, internal 47, 52, operating theatre 171, people 19, traffic 20—1 —also access, car parks Classification of technical drawings—drawing practice
Cl/Sfb 6
Cloakrooms: cinema 355, industrial buildings 281, swimming pool 337,theatre 348, windows404(11) Closets —cupboards Codingsystems for near-sighted 162 Cold bridges 394 Colleges 134—42: art, design, drama,music 137—8, arts centre layout 138(5), dining rooms 142, drawing studios 139, lecture rooms 134—6, lecture room acoustics 136, lecture rooms, convertibility 134, lecture roomsmeans ofescape 136, lecture rooms, tv in 136, student hostels 140—1 Community health care —hospitals Compartmentation (fire controD: hotels 211, hospitals 151, industrial buildings 277, shops & stores 189, 192, 198 Colour: in buildings 17, classification 17 Concerts, hallsused for350 Condensation 394 Conferences —*conventions Controls forhandicapped86, 162,412 Conventions: hotels221—3, student hostel
accommodation 140 Conversion factors 364—5 Conversion tables 366—81, list 366 Corridors14,407:capacity 407, hospital 157, 171, hotel 216, passenger conveyors 409, queues407, waiting areas 407,walking speeds 407 Crawlways 13, 383 Crematoria 187 Cupboards: bathroom 62(9)( 10), bedroom, built-in 71, 73, 74, hotel bedroom 217, kitchen75, reach height, disabled 86, reach height, old people 83, walk-in 73—4---also lockers Cylinders, hot water389—90 Daylight 27—32: daylight factor (DF) 27—9, OF calculation28—31,OFfortypes oftask 17(3), distribution of28, diversity of28, in hospitals 154, obstruction 40, quality of, glare32, sky components (table) 30,window positions 404—+alsoorientation, sunlight Daylight factor —*daylight Design: convention hotel concept 221, houses 38etseq, hospital 149,150,153,154, office buildings factors 225—7, operating theatre 171, primary schooltrends120, workshop factors 290, workplace 278, 279 Design schools 137—S Dimensions, controlling, forhouses 44 Dimensions & space requirements: air handling plant 392, ambulance 166(2), bedrooms, old people 83, busparking 256, beds 70, 71, 159, 216, calorifiers 390—1, car parks 248, 249, 250, 251, cars USA 251, cattle 294,296,church furnishings 183, crawlways 13, 383, cylinders 389—90, disabled access 43, 85—6, drawing studio equipment 139, elevators 410—12, escalators 409, extract fans 392(5), farm machinery 298,314, fire engine 20, 21(1), footways 19,43,85, 106, fork-lifts271, furniture, garden 107, furniture hotel2l7, furniture old people 83,furniture school 130—3, furniture snack bar 202, 205, garden paths 106, gardentools107, gasboilers 388, 389, hospital corridors 157, hospital equipment 156, 158, 159, 167, 169, 172(operating theatres), 1 79(stores), hotel bedroom 217, hotel kitchen 213, hotel reception equipment 212, human beings 11—14, kitchen equipment 59, kitchenovens, domestic 58, laboratory bench 291, laboratory equipment, hospital 176, laundry domestic 60, library equipment 146, 177, loading bays282—4, lockers 133, 178,280, manual handling 278, meter, external 74, gas, domestic 386, milk delivery box 99, officeequipment 243—4, office filing241—2, oil fuel tanks 387(3)(4), pedestrian movement 19, pallets 269—72, pigs303, 306, poultry309, prams, moving 19, prams, stored74, pressure jet boilers 389, ranges 58, refrigerators 58—9, restauranttables 202—4,school bags 133, school children 131—2, school children'scoats 133, school furniture 130—1, self-service shop equipment 195, service ducts 384, 'standard design car' 251, trucks turning 282(4), 283, vehicle parking USA 250, vehicles USA 21(1), walkways 383, waterstorage tanks 391, wheelchair car parking 85, 166, wheelchair moving 19,43,workshop equipment 288, youthhostels 144 Dining rooms:boarding school 128, college 142, domestic 66, outside spaces 66 Disabled: access to dwellings 43, 85—6, bathroom 86, 87, changing room, cubicle
430
Index size 337,codes&switches 86, 162,412, doors 401, elevators 412, gardens for 110, hospital baths 163, housing 85—7, kitchen layout 86, limbfitting centre 174, long stay ward 162, parking spaces for22, 85,166, ramps 85, 87(11), 407, stairs 86, 408, wc86, 87—also wheelchair Diving boards 334 Doors14,401—2: automatic 166(4), 190(7), bathroom opening 64, bedroom opening 72, cinema 354, dimensions 401, disabled 86, fire safety 401, flowcapacity 401, folding 402, hospitals sizes 157, industrial types 402, private garage 102, shops&stores 190 Dormitories —bedrooms Drainage: garden 109, industrial buildings 290, laboratories 292, petrol stations 254 Drama schools137—8 Drawing practice 6—8: classification &coding 8, levels 8, minimum character height 7(4), working drawings 6—7 Drawing sheets: layout & identification 3, sizes
& folds4—5
Drawings technical, preparation for micro-
filming7
Drive-in: banks 246, cinemas 358, restaurants 206 Ducts: access 383, air-conditioning, sizes 384, services distribution 384, ventilation, sizes 384 —*alsoservices Elevators 410—2:coding systems 162,412, dimensions 410, disabled 412, grouping 412, hospital 151(6)(7), hotels 210, industrial buildings 286, lobby dimensions 412, offices 228, paternoster 411, shops & stores 189, trafficcapacity 411, wheelchair dimensions 412 Emergency electrical supply, hotel 218 Emergency lighting, cinemas 356, hotels 218, shops191 —4Bibl12 Energy, unitsof measurement 2 Energyconservation: double window 405, house plan shape 80, house ventilation 81, indoor pool 115, industrial buildings compartmentation 278, loading bays 283, office 233, lighting control 400, position of windows81, underground houses 79, 80, ventilation 81 Equipment space needs: bathroom,domestic 61—4, bedroom, domestic 71, dining room, domestic 66, domestic storage 73—5, drawing studios 139, farm machinery 314, handbasin unit, hospital 158(2), household cleaning 75, kitchen, domestic 55—6, 58—9, laundry, domestic 60, living room, domestic 67—8, meters, domestic 74, 386, offices 241—4, operating theatre 172, schoolofart& design 137—8, security bellpush 76, workshop 288 Escalators: 409, shops& stores 189, traffic capacity 409 Escape: collegelecture room 136, flats& apartments traveldistance 91, hospital 151, 152, hotel 211, 216, office 231, multi-storey car park 252 —also fire Exits: cinema 354, lecture room 136, prolection room355, theatre 348, 352
311, domestic poultry3l0, doves 310,ducks 311,feeding, cattle 297—8, geese 311, grain drying 313, humanwelfare 294, milking 299—300,pigs 303—6, pig behaviour, building implications 303,pigs,dimensions 303, pigs, space needs 306, pigs,thermal needs303, pigs,ventilation 305, pigs, watering 304, poultry308—9, poultryspace requirements 309, rabbits, 310, sheep 307—8, sheep, flooring307, sheep, handling 308, slatted floors295, 296(2), 307, slurry handling 295, 304,storage, crops312—3, storage,fuel314, storage, machinery 314, straw-bedded pens 296, sucklercowhousing 302, ventilation, cattle housing 298, ventilation, pigs 305, ventilation, poultry 308,ventilation, sheep 307, waste production, cattle 295, waste production, pigs304, waste storage, external 301, waterconsumption, cattle 294, 298, waterconsumption, pigs303, water consumption, sheep 307 Fences 103 FHAstandards 44 Fire, means ofescape, flats& apartments91, 93 houses 44, hospitals 151, 152, industrial buildings 277, offices 231, stairs 408 Fire precautions: collegelecture room 136, flats & apartments 91,93, hospital 151, 152, hotel 211, 216,218, hypermarket 198, industrial building 264, 277, 290, multistorey carpark252, office231,shops& stores 189, 190, 192, sports hall 320, youth hostel143 Fire safetydoors 401 Firespreadbetween houses 45 Flats & apartments 89—97: access90—1, balconies 88, building types 89, escape routes93, fire precautions 91, internal access 97, internal planning 92—3, maisonettes 89, penthouses 88, point blocks 94—5, roofgardens 110, 112, services check list 93, split-level 96 Floodlighting garden features 110 Flow capacity: doors 401, corridors & ramps 14,407,stairs 14,408 Footways 19: disabled housing 85,86,garden 106(22) minimum clearwidth 43, wheelchair widths43, 85 Fruit trees, trained 108 Fuel storage: domestic 75, farm 314, oil tanks 387 Furniture: garden, dimensions 107, hotel bedroom 217, office 239, 240, old people, dimensions 83(1)—(4), 84, school 130—3, school dimension data 132, school stature data 131 Garage, private: 41,100—2, doors 102, entrances 21, ramps 21, UK regulations102, vehicle dimensions 21, 100, 251, wheelchair userspace85—also carparks Gardens 77, 103—14: banks 105, disabled 110, drainage 109, fences 103, fruit, trained 108, fruittrees, planting distances 108, furniture 107, gates103, glasshouses 111, hedges
103,104,indoorll2,layout 104,110,112, lighting, artificial110, 112, orientation104,
112, paths106, pergolas 106, pools109, 113, reservoirs 109, retainingwalls 106, rock
110, roofilO, 112,shedslll,shrub
Factories —.industrialbuildings Farm buildings 294—314:animal handling, cattle 298, 299, animal handling, sheep 308, beefcattle housing 302, beehouses 311, bull pens 301, calf housing 302(5), calfpens 296—7,cattle 294—302,cattle housing 295—302,cattle, thermal needs294,cubicles 296, dogs310,dogs,professional kennels
planting 108, soil treatment 105, steps 106, swimming pools 114, tools, dimensions 107, tree planting 108, watersupply 109, wells 109,windbreaks 81, 104 Gas: atmospheric boilers 388, pressure jet boilers 389, supplies 386 Glare 17, 32, 276, 398: hospitals 154 Glasshouses 111
Golden section 10 Grandstands, sportstadia 316 Health centres 181 Heating industrial buildings 276, 290 Heating systems 385—91:boilerrooms 387—8, calorifier rooms 388, calorifiers 391, capacity 386, cylinders, hotwater389—90,heat emittertypes 385, gas386, gas boilers 388, 389,oil 386—7, oil-filledboilers 389, pressure jet boilers 389, solid fuel 387, tank rooms 391, thermal comfort 16,385 Heattransfer393 Hedges 103, 104 Hospitals 149—81: ambulance critical dimensions 166(2), accident & emergency 168, administration 179—80, base concepts 153, bathroom, geriatric 158(4), bathroom, incontinent 163(2), bed/base ratios 153, bed concepts 153, bedsizes 159, burn units 175, cardiac surgical units174, casualty department 168, casualty entrances 166, cobalt units170, community healthcare 181, dental clinic 181,design 149, 150, 153, 154, dietary services 180, elevators 151(6)(7), escape, means of 151, 152, fire precautions 151, hand basin unit 158(2), health centres 181, Health Maintenance Organization 181, health services structure 149, intensive care 173, kitchen 180, laundry/linen service 180, lavatory, assisted 163(3), staff 178(3), wheelchair 167(6), library 177, limb fitting 174, maternity 160, neurosurgery 173, nuclear medicine 170, nurse working rooms 156, 157, offices179, operating theatres 171—2, operating theatre equipment 172, outpatients department 166—7, outpatients entrances 166, pathology laboratory 176, pharmacy 177, physical medicine 175, post mortem room 176, psychiatric centre 164, radiology department 169, 170, spinal injury 173, staff changing rooms, non-resident 178, supply &storage 179, transplant units 174, types 149, ward design 154,158,159, wards, acute 154, wards, children's 161, wards, geriatric 158, wards, long stay 162, 163, ward types 155, ward upgrading 165 Hostels: student140—1,youth 143—4 Hotels 208—24: administration215, bars 211, bedrooms 210, 216, 217, building services 218, convention 221—3, fireprecautions 216, 218, floor service 216, flow diagram 209, food stores 213, front of house 212, kitchen layouts 214, kitchenplanning 213, kitchen storerequirements 214, motels 219—20, motelroom sizes 220, plan forms 210, public houses 224, publicrooms 211, restaurants 211, space allocations 208, staff accommodation 215, types 208, vertical circulation 210—also restaurants Houses 38—102:access 41—3, access roads 41, 42, adaptable 78, aspect 40, 46, balconies 88, bathroom61—5, bedroom 70—2, bedroom sizes USA 70, ceiling heights USA44(2), children's room 67, circulation, internal 47, combined rooms 49, controlling dimensions 44,design expression ofperiod 38, dining room 66, disabled 85—7, disabled, access for43, energysaving 79—81, extendible 78, favourable & unfavourable sites40, garages built-in 101, garagingcar41, 100—2, gradient effectonplan 46, guests' room 67, kitchens 55—9, kitchen/bathroom relationship53, kitchen/dining 55, kitchen equipment 55, 58—9, laundry spaces 60, living room 67—9, living roomwindows 404, minimum room sizesUSA44, more than 1-storey53—4,
431
Index music room 67, 69, north slopes 46,old people82—4, officespaces 68, 1-storey 50—2, orientation 40,45,46, organisation (diagram) 39, outdoor living areas 77(2)(3), plan ranges 49, planselection 46,47,50, pram space 74(5), privategarages 100—2, private openspace 77, public rooms 66—9, relationship to otherbuildings 45, security 76, services economy 53, shared accommodation 99, site topography 46, siting40, space, sub-division of39, standards 44, 48, stepped 98, storage 73—5, underground 79, 80, user check list48, vertical circulation 53 House plans: circulation 47, examples 49, 51, 52, 54, morethan 1-storey53—4, 1-storey 50, plan ranges 49, selection 50 Human beings, space requirements 12—14, 257(1 )—(4) Human body,basis ofdimensions 1, 9, 10 Human dimensions: bell curve concept 9, significance for architecture 9 Human scale1,10 Hygiene: industrial buildings 280, 281, swimming pools 335 Identification controls& switches fordisabled
86,162,412
Laboratories 291—3: benches 293, benches, hospital 176, disposal systems 292,finishes 293, hospital pathology 176, internal environment 293, services distribution 292, spacerequirements 291, storage 292 Lamps: filament 399, fluorescent, aspect factor 399, fluorescent, properties 25(3) Laundry: hospital 180, hotel 213, spaces, domestic 60 Lavatories: assisted for disabled 163(3), boarding school 127, collegedining room 142, disabled 87(2)(3)(8), domestic 64,65, equipment dimensions 61,62, 65, hospital staff 178(3), industrial buildings 279, 281, marina 347, office228, old people, aids83, 84, pre-fabricated units65,studenthostel 140, swimming bath 335, wheelchair 167(6), wheelchair userspaces& fittings 87(2)(3)(8), youth hostel 143, 144 Le Corbusier 10 Lecture halls —colIeges Le Modulor10 Libraries 145—8: control 146, domestic 69, examples 146, 147,148, hospital 177, layout 146—7, school 129, services 147, space standards 145 Lifts—elevators Lighting 25—6, 398—400:artificial 17, cinemas 356,day 17,definitions 25—6, drawingstudio 139, farmbuildings, illumination levels 294(2), general, loading requirement 398, glare prevention 398, hotel 218, illuminance 25, 26, industrial buildings 276, 290, integration ofelectric& daylighting 400, libraries 147, light sources 399, luminaires, control in relation todepth ofinteriorspace 400, luminance 26, maintenancefactor 26, museum 359, 360, office234, outdoor399, reflectance 25, room index 26, task 399, utilisation factor 26—also daylight, sunlight Loading bays, industrial buildings 282—3, rail 284 Lockers: hospital staff 178, industrialbuildings 280(3)(4), office 242(6), school children 133 Lumen definition 2, 25 Luminance 26: sky, relation to glare 32 Luxdefinition 2, 25
llluminance 25, 26: for common tasks (table) 17, daylight on working plane (tables) 27, outdoor27 'Imperial'measures —conversion factors, conversion tables Indoor gardens 112 Industrial buildings 263—90:area/worker264, basicbuilding types 264, drainage 290, doors 402,environmental compartmentation 278, factories 265—8,factory process flow diagrams 266—8, factory structure 268, fire control 277, fork-liftdimensions 271, heating 276, 290, hygiene 280, 281, industrial parks 275, lavatories 280, lighting 276, 290, loading bays282—4, multiple development layouts 274, 275, noise control 276, order picking 276, 279(1 )—(3), parking requirements 263, rail-served 284, roof factors 265, sanitary installations281, security, loadingdock283,selection strategy 264—5, services 279, service routes 273, Maintenance factor—Iighting servicing standards 290, site development Maisonettes —fIats & apartments 263, site layout factors 273, structure Man 9: body measurements 11, dimensions & selection 265, vehicle parking standards spacerequirements 11—13, 257(1)—(4),flow ventilation ventilation level 286, 290, 276, capacity 14, space foraccess forworkon warehouses 269—72, warehouse handling buildings 13, universal standard 9,walking methods 272, warehouse pallet stacking speeds14 270, warehouse store flow diagrams Man & his buildings 15—24: access 19, colour diagrams269—70,workplacedesign 278—9, 17, noise & acoustics 18, parking 22, workshops 285—90,workshop circulation parking, vehicle dimensions 24, pattern & 286, workshop design factors (table) 290, texture 18, quality of air15, roadways, workshop equipment spaces 288, workshop dimensions20—1, thermal comfort 16, handling equipment 288(1), workshop types vehicleturningspaces 22—3, vibration, 285 sensitivityto 18, visual efficiency 17 Industrial parks 275 Manholes: access dimensions 13, oil storage thermal 393—4 Insulation, tank 387 Insulation —aIso sound Marinas 346—7 Internal environment 15: industrial buildings Media centres 129 278, laboratories 293, offices 233 Meters domestic 73, 74, 386 Meterrooms, gas386 Kitchens: boarding school 128, college dining Metric system—SI room 142, disabled housing 86, domestic Metric units—#conversionfactors equipmentspaceneeds 55,58, 59, domestic Microfilming technical drawings 7 layouts 56, 57,domestic ovens 58, domestic Minimum spaces, restaurant cars 207 Modular coordination, windows 403 storage 75, domestic working sequence 55, examples 57, fixtures &worktops 56, Modular systems: hospitals 150, schools 126 hospital 180, hotel 213—4, oldpeople's Mortuaries: crematorium 187, hospital 176, dimensions 83, relation to bathroom 52, temperatures 187 studenthostels 141, USA standards 56, Motels —hoteIs windows 404(9), youthhostels 143, 144 Mosques 185
Munsell scale 17—18,26 Museums 359—61:examples 360, 361, fields of vision359, lighting 359, 360, painting storage 359(10), room sizes359
Musicschools137—8
National House-Building Council 44 Neufertix Noise18:hospital 154, industrial buildings 276, maximum intrusive levels (tables) 18, privacy from45, sound insulation 395—7 Odours: air supply rate, sources, ventilation 15 Office buildings 225—44:access 230, building type225, computer room diagram 236(3), construction elements 234, cores228, 229, elevators 228, energyuse 233, equipment 243—4,furniture 239—240,internal environment 233, lighting organisation 234, means ofescape 231, meetings, spaces for 237, 238, officeareas definition of226, reception236(2), security 230,services 232, serviceducts 228, shell types227, space standards 235, special areas 236, stairs 228, 231, storage 241—2,table space, meetings 238, workstations 239—40 Offices:hospitals 179, private houses 68(13)—(18),ventilation requirements 15(8), windows 404(8)(10) Oil fuel, storage, tank capacities,siting386 Old people, housing for 82—4, 94(4): bathroom aids83, 84, bedroom dimensions 83, communal amenities 82, grouped flatlets 82, lavatory aids83, 84, maximum reach in furniture 83(1)—(4),planning factors 83, preferences check list 82, residential homes 84, safetyprecautions check list 84,water temperature 84—also disabled, hospitals (geriatric, long stay) 1-room dwellings 69(1) Operating theatres 171—2 Orientation: aircraft runways 259, balconies88, bedrooms 72, beds 72, buildings 33, drawing sheets 3, energyconservation 81, gardens 104, houses 40, 45,46, indoor gardens 112, kitchens 55, for natural ventilation 81, sports pitches322(1),windows 33—aIso sunpath Paper, international sizes 7 Parker Morris standards 44, 48—*Bib233 Parking: aircraft 261, fordisabled housing 85, hypermarkets 198, industrial buildings 263, intersections USA250, motels 219—*also car parks Parking spaces: basic 22, disabledpersons 22, shared housing 99, forwheelchair user 166 —aIsocar parks Passenger conveyors 409 Paths —*footways Patios 77 Penthouses 88 Pergolas 106 Petrol stations 253—4 Pigs, body measurements 303 —aIso farm buildings Pitches, sport: indoor325—6, 328, outdoor 322—3
Plant rooms, air handling 392 Planting distances, fruit 108 Pools: chemical treatment 113, filtersystem 113, fish 113, garden swimming 114, paddling 109, plumbing & pumping systems 113, private indoor 115—6, private, relationship to patio 77(7), public swimming 329—37,waterlily 113 Poultry houses, domestic 310
432
Index Prams: spacesfor movement 19, storage
space74
Pre-fabricated sanitary units65 Privacy: designing for 45, 76, flats & apartments 93, hospitals 154, houses &flats 76, 77 Projection roomscinema 355,drive-incinema 358 Proportions, relation to human scale10 Public houses224 Queues, dimensions 12(6)—(11),407 Radiators 385 Rail-served buildings 284 Railstations: baggage handling, ticketoffices, 257 Ramps 14, 85, 407: garageentrance 21, 101, kerbfordisabled 85(2), multi-storey car park 251, stadium, standing 317(10), for wheelchair user87(11), 407 Rear projection ofimage, lecture room 134 Refectories —dining room Reflectance 25 Reiher-Meister scale18(4) Religious buildings 182—7 Reservoirs, garden 109 Restaurants 202—7: drive-in& self-service 206, hotel 211, kitchens 213—4, restaurant cars 207, seating 202—4,snack bars 205, 206,spaceallowances 203, table arrangements 202, table sizes 204, types 203—*also colleges, diningrooms, schools Reverberation times for rooms 397 Riding schools344—5 Roads: access 41—2, dimensions 20, 21, garage entrances 21, hierarchy in housing area 42, rule of roadxii, turning circuits, buses256,turningdimensions 250, turning lanes 21, USA categories 21, widths for passing 20 Roofgardens 88, 110,112 Rooflights, calculation ofdaylight factor 31 Room index —lighting Room sizes, minimum in houses (USA) 44 Running tracks: indoor 326, outdoor 324
385—91, hotel 218, hypermarket 198, industrial buildings 279, 290, laboratory 292, library 147, office 228, 232, sound insulation 395—7, thermal insulation393—4, ventilation 392 Shadows cast bybuildings 33 Shared accommodation 99 Shelving,shops&stores 195 Sheds, garden 111 Shoppingmall, indoorwalking speeds 407(1) Shops & stores 188—201:access 188, aisles 188, boutiques 192, entrances 190, 191, exits 191, goods delivery 189, hypermarkets 198, layout 193, 194, 195, movement between floors189, self-service 196, service details 190, shopping centres& precincts 199—201, stairs 191, stock& despatch rooms191, storey heights 188, supermarkets, examples 197, windows 190, 191
Shops, petrol station 253 Showers: domestic space needs 61(8), 64, hospital geriatric 158(5), industrial buildings 280, forold people 83(9), pre-fabricated units65, swimming pool 335 SI xi, 1: unitsofmeasurement 2—Bib127, 135 Sickroom,boarding school 127 Sidewalks —*footways Sloping sites: effectofgradient 46, favourable & unfavourable 40(2), stepped houses98 Sight lines:cinema 355, 357, drive-in cinema 358, lecture room 134,135, sportstadia3l6, theatre 349, 350 Soil:treatment 105, weights &angles ofrepose 105 Solargain 80, 81 Sound absorption coefficients 397 Soundinsulation 395—7: absorbent materials 397, absorbent treatments 397, absorption coefficients 397, reduction index calculation 395, reduction indices, typical (table) 396, reverberation time397 Split-level: flats & maisonettes 96, houses 46 Sport 315—47:centres 318—9,324(3),centres, examples 319, centres, features required (table) 318, dimensions standardsvii, equitation 344—5, golf 343, halls 320—1, ice events 341—2,indoor athletics tracks 326, indoorathletics training 327, indoor pitches 325—6, 328, indoor riding schools 344, marinas 346—7, outdoor athletics 324, Safety precautions: old people's housing 84, window cleaning 404 outdoorpitches322—3, riding centre Sanitary unitspre-fabricated 65 premises 345, rollerskating rinks342, sauna Saunas 117,338 planning 338, ski-jumping slopes 340—1, Schools 118—33: art, design, drama, music space allocation, halls (table) 320—1, stadia 137—8, boarding 127—8, boarding 315—7, stadia, access 316, stadia, sightlines accommodation 127, boarding dining room 316, stadia stands 316, 317, swimming 128, boarding site layout 127, definition of 329—37,swimming changing rooms 336—7, swimming diving pools 334, swimming spaces119, dimensions ofpupils 131, 132, film display, 16mm356, furniture 130—3, indoor pools 329—32, private indoor pools furthereducation 126, media centres 129, 115—6, swimming openair pools 333, middle age range 121—2, nursery level 118, swimming pools watercleaning 114,330,337, olderage range123—5, planning ingredients, swimming pre-cleanse 329, 335, swimming, showers, slipper baths 335, swimming water nursery 118, planning forolderpupils 123, chute 337(5), tennis339, water polo planning trends119, 122, primary 119, 331 —*also pools primary design trends120, principles 118, pupils equipment dimensions 131, rural 120, Stairs14,408:building regulations408, stature data 131—2, storage, pupils' cinemas 354, disabled housing 86,fire protection 91, fire requirements in houses equipment 133, system building 126, work areas (diagrams)119, 121 44, flat & apartment access 90, hospital 151, house52, office 228, 231,old people 86(5), Seating: cinemas 354, college dining room 142, flexible 351, hotel function room 211, shops&stores 189, 191, theatre348,tread lectureroom 135, 136, restaurant202—5, & rise proportions 408, walking speeds 408 —also escalators retractable 135, stadia 317, storage space Standard overcast sky—.daylight 351, theatre 351 Security: houses 76, loadingdockdesign 283, Stature human adult 9—11 officedesign 230 Stature data schoolchildren 131—2 Services 383—97:access 13, distribution 383, Student hostels—.colleges distribution ducts384, heating systems Student: married accommodation 140, shared
accommodation 99 Studios: drawing —colleges Storage: colleges (art, design) 137, farm crops 312—3, farmmachinery 314, fuel, domestic 75, handling methods in warehouses 272, hotel food213, hospital 179, kitchen, domestic 75, laboratory 292, office 241—2, oil fueltanks386, paintings 359(10), pallet stacking 270, 272, school children's belongings 133, seating space 351, sports halls 321, warehouse flow diagram269—70, wine,domestic 75, hotels 213 Sun exposure of buildings 34—5 Sunlight 33—7: building orientation 33, building shadows 33, calculation ofradiation 37, criteria foradmission 33, duration, prediction 37, exposure, methods offinding 34, sun path diagrams 34—6, window shades 406 Sun pathdiagrams 34—6 Swimming pools:garden 114, hotel 116, private indoor115—6, public indoor 329—32, publicoutdoor333, temperature private indoor115 —*also sport Synagogues 186 Système internationale d'Unités —'SI Systems building: hospitals 150, schools 126 Tables: college dining room 142, office 238, old people83(4), 84, restaurant202—4, school 130—1
Tankrooms, water storage 391 Television: aerials, cables 43, closed circuit for hospitals 154, college lecture room 134, 136 Temperatures: furnace crematorium 187, indoor16, mortuaries 187, oilstorage 387, pig housing 303, pool 115, 330, rail booking hall 257,sauna 117, 338, shops &stores 192, turkish bath 335 Terraces: domestic 77, orientation 66,sport stadia 317 Theatres 348—53:access 348, auditorium 350, 351,353,balconies 349,350,351,boxes 351(4),college 134—6, exits348,352, fire precautions 352, multiform 353, multiple auditoria 351, organisation 348, revolving stage352, ring stage 353, seating 135, 136, 351, seats/row 350, sightlines 134,135, 349, 350,sound diffusion 350, stage tower 352 Thermal comfort 16: human requirements 385, USAchart16 Tools, garden 107 Trade marts 274—5 Traffic capacity: corridors 14, 407, elevators 411, escalators 409, ramps 407, stairs 408 Tree planting 108 Underground houses 79, 80 Unitsof measurement 1, 2: application xi, scales xi, —.alsoconversion factors, conversion tables Universities —.colleges Utilisation factor —.lighting U values: common building structures 393(3), formula 393 Vehicles: dimensions 20, 21, 24, dimensions, ambulances 166(2), dimensions forprivate garages 100, fork-lifts271, 'standard design car' 251, truckturningdimensions 282(4), 283, turningdimensions USA250 Vehicle services 248—57:bus stations 255—6, car parks 248—52,petrol stations 253—4, rail station passenger services 257 Vehicle turning spaces, farm 298, truck 282(4), 283 Ventilation: air handling plant 392, cattle
433
Index housing 298, ciriemas 356, duct sizes 384, energyconservation in houses 81, hospital 154, industrial buildings 276, 290, pig housing 305, potato stores 312,poultry housing 308, rates 16, requirements 15, sheep 307, windows 405 Vibration, human sensitivity 18, industrial buildings 276 Waiting areas 407 Walking speeds407: on level footway 14, on ramps 14 Walkways 383 Wardrobes —*cupboards Warehouses —iridustrial buildings
Washrooms: domestic 64, industrial buildings 281 Watercleaning: garden pools 113, 114, swimming pools 330,337 Watergarden supply109 Water closets—lavatories Watertanks 391 Wheelchair: doors for users 86,401,garage space for user85, elevator controls 412, elevator dimension 412,garden design for 110, parking space 166(3), passing width 43, spaces formovement 19, 43,turningspaces 43, 85, userswc87(2)(3)(8) Windbreaks 81, 104 Windows 403—6: basic types 405, blinds & louvre systems 406,coordinating sizes 403,
daylight penetration 404, double 405, functions 17, hospital 154, position &size 404, shades 406, shops & stores 190, 191, viewout 404, viewout, wheelchair user86, 87, worksizes 403 Winestorage, domestic 75, hotels213 Work on buildings, access for 13 Workshops: artcollege 137, drawing studios 139 —*also industrial buildings Workstations, office239, 240
Youth hostels143—4: fire safety 143, kitchens 143, 144, lavatories 144, space requirements 144
CONVERSIONS METRIC +— IMPERIAL'/US
Tables length
Factors metric
'lnsrtsl'/US
length 1.0mm 25.4mm 305.0mm 914.0mm 1000.Omm(1.om) 1000.Om 1 len) 1609.3m 1.61 km)
0039in 1 in
1ff
lyd
1.094yd 1093.61 yd(0.621 mile) 1 mile
1.0cm'
929.03cm2 (0.093ml 0.836m'
lam'
0.405ha 1.Oha 1.0km2
2.59kin'(259ha)
0.155in' 1 in' 1
ft'
lyd'
1.196yd'(10.764lf) lacre 2.471 acre 0.386mile' 1 mile'
l.Om'
capacity 0.4731i1re 0.S68Iitre 1.Olitre 1.Olitre
3.l8slitres 4.546litrea
ar
AC accri admin ANSI
av B
b bathr bedr
baic bldg
bldgreq
B(tA BRE
volume
I0.765m' litre(1cr')
A
ASThI
area
6452mm2 (6.452cu')
Abbreviations Mainabbreviations reedinteat& diagrarna arehated below. Full list on p. aiii-aiv. NB: plurals arenot used In abbreviations.
61.025in' (0.035 fI')
lyd'
1.308yd'(35.314ft') lpintUS lpintirnp 1.76pintimp
2.ll3pirilUS lgalUS 1 gal rip
BS(l) Btu
Corcpd ci' CIBS
CIE
maaa 0.454kg
1.0kg
0.9071(907.2kg)
lOt
1.01
1.016t(lOl6kg)
v— 0.025nt/a (25.4mm/a) 1.0 rn/a 1.0 km/hr 1.609kin/hr
11b
2.205th
lIonUS
0.ge4tonimp 1.lO2tonUS
ltoninp
1in/s 39.4in/s(196.9 ft/mm) 0.621 mile/hr
1mile/hr
cIt daaar
do
car d dB DC DES
DF DHSS DoE
temperature
Xt
x(X-32C
(x+32rF
xi
illumination
lix
10.764Ix
0.O93tt-cancle 1 ft-candle
kimmance
0.3183cd/m' 1.0cd/rn' l0.764cci/m' 1550.0cd/rn'
1 spoatilb
0.000645 cd/fl'
lcd/If
1cd/in2
DPC dr E at eqp FFL FHA
ampere area alternating current accommodation administration American National Standards Institute American Society for Teating& Materiaki average bed bath bathroom bedroom balcony building building regulation Building Ottlciala& CodeAdministrators Building Reaearch Eatabllahment British Standards (Inat) British thermal unit cupboard/USA cabinel children Chartered Instof Building Services Commiaaion intemationale de l'Ectairage (International Commission on Illumination) cooker/USArange classroom cloakroom corridor
dayordepth
decibel directcurrent Deptof Education & Soence daylight factor DeptofHealth& SocofSecurity Deptofthe Environment dampproofcourse diningroom illumination electrical
equTient finished floorleveVIJSA elevation Federal Houaing
tirereaiatant
9 gar
gram
ha hb hr Hz ICBO
25.4
1
50.8 762
2 3 4 5
101.6 127.0 152.4 177.8 203.2 226.6
m
ft
m
2
6 7
2.13 2.44 2.74
8 9
30 40 50
60 70 80 90 100
2.36 2,76 3.15
hallorhectare (waah)hand basin hour hertz
ngthMng laboratory laundry Inmng room lobby Iua
off
ft
m 3.05 6.1 9.14 12.19 1524 18.29 21.34 24.38 27.43 30.48
10
32.8 65.62 98.43 131.23 164.04 196.85 229.66 262.47 295.28 328.08
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
6.451 12.9 19.36 25.81 32.26 38.71 45.16 51.61 58.06
1
2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9
in'
cm2
0.16 0.31
64.52 129.03 193.55 258.06 322.58 387.1 451.61 516.13 580.64
0.47 0.62 0.78
0.93 1.09 1.24 1.4
in' 1.55 3.1
10
20
4.65
30 40
50 60
70 80 90 645.16 100
6.2 7.75 9.3 10.85 12.4 13.95 15.5
ft2
pa pe plr R
radr RC
RHA RIBA
ad ear
SIB aho sitr SI ak at sb
stu
UDC
0.093 0.19 0.28
0.37 0.46 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.84
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ft'
m'
10.76 21.53 32.29 43.06 53.82 64.58 75.35 86.11 96.88
0.93 1.86 2.79 3.72 4.65 5.57 6.5 7.43 8.36
9.29
ft' 10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
107.64
21528 322.92 430.56 538.2 645.84 753.47 861.11 968.75 1076.39
lItre 28.32 56.63 84.95
141.58 169.9 198.21
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ft'
lItre
0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.18
283.16 566.32 849.48 1132.64 1415.8 1698.96 1982.12 2265.28 2548.44 2831.61
021 025
0.28 0.32
m3
ft3
m'
0.03
35.32 70.63 105.94 141.26 176.57 211.89 247.2 282.52 317.83
0.28 0.57 0.85 1.13 1.42 1.7 1.98 2.27
0.11
0.14 0.17 0.2
0.23 0.25
USPHS uty
V
w
w wa waahr wc wp wr
ft3 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.35 0.7 1.06 1.41 1.77 2.12 2.47 2.83 3.18 3.53
m3..—.ft'
0.06 0.08
UF USHB
worlcr
litre.—.ft'
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2.55 2.83
ft3 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
353.15 706.29 1059.44 1412.59 1765.73 2118.88 2472.co 2825.17 3178.32 3531.47
maids roan(or au pair)
medical maintenance factor Maaaachuaetta Institute Tectinology metrea persecond newton National Fire Protection Aaaociation nursery office
of
Heatth
ter
m'
metre
panaI Ad
SBCC
cm2.—.in' cm'
degree Kelvin kitchen orthermal conductivity kilograrn-torce
Irinal of
nur
3.54 3.93
volume
garage heipltor high
rn/a N NFPA
un a
joule
Ix
0.79 1.18 1.57 1.97
area
K
liv lob
6.56 9.84 13.12 16.4 19.69 22.97 26.25 29.53
3 4 5
J
lab
3.28
1
ISO
Iau
0.28 0.31 0.35
0.39
10 20
m mdr med MF MIT
P
0.3 0.61 0.91 1.22 1.52 1.83
226.53 254.84
kgt
254.0 508.0 762.0 1016.0 1270.0 1524.0 1778.0 2032.0 2286.0 2540.0
In
—ft
Federation Library Aaaocialiona International Organiaation br Standardiaatiai
k
0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
024
8 9
113.26
IFLA
mm
02
6 7
International Conference ofBuilding Officials Illuminating Engineering
IES
For Comprehensivelistoffac.torsand wide rangeof further tables-.p364—81
mm
in
A
Ir h
in
mm
yd yr
0
Satety &
paaaenger, patient, person,pupil parents room/USA masterbedroom physical education penny radius radiator reinforced concrete regulation relativehumidity Regional Health Authority RoyalInstitute olBritish Architects
roan
second Southern Building Code Congress acullery aervery ayatem ofclaaaitlcation (building literature)
shower sittingroom
Système International
d'Unitèa
sink seat
store(-age) attaty tonne terrace universal decimal claaaification utiliaation tactor UnitedStateaHospital Board UnitedStates Public Heafth Service utilityroom volt watt width wardrobe/USA closet washroom watercloset workroom working plane waiting room area) yard year centre line diameter greaterthanorequalto
(a
equaltoorlessthan
