Facade Notes

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S

FAÇADE NOTES

PART I

EUROCODE PART II

BRITISH STANDARDS PART III

AMERICAN STANDARDS ANNEX

DESIGN AIDES 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA

DISCLAIMER This compendium of international building codes and standards for façade construction is compiled as private property for the purposes of personal notes only. The compiler does not claim ownership specifically where data or content is referenced to a source. If this façade notes reaches the hands of another person aside from the compiler, it should not be distributed, copied or published in any form or manner. If information contained in this notes are used as reference, the compiler does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of the information nor its usefulness in achieving any purpose. Readers are responsible for assessing the relevance and accuracy of the content of these notes. The compiler will not be liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or relying on information in these notes.

LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA PE Board Examination Topnotcher, 2

nd

Place │1998

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering - Saint Louis University │1993 – 1998 Master of Science in Structural Engineering - University of the Philippines │1999 – 2001 ______________________ Structural Engineer/Façade Specialist –

Structures & Facades, Switzerland │2014 –

Structural Engineer - LINDNER-SCHMIDLIN, Switzerland │2008 – 2014 Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN TSK, Switzerland │2006 – 2008 Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN LLC, Dubai │2005 – 2006 Façade Engineer - ARUP, Singapore │2004 – 2005 Structural Engineer - United Reliance Engineering Pte. Ltd., Singapore │2001 – 2004 Civil Engineering Instructor - Mapua Institute of Technology, Philippines │2001 – 2001 Design Engineer - Sumitomo Construction Co. Ltd., Philippines │1999 – 2001


FAÇADE NOTES

PART I

EUROCODE 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES

Table of Contents I-1

LOADS

5

1.1

Dead load (D)

5

1.2

Imposed/live load, (L)

6

1.3

Snow load (S)

12

1.4

Wind load (W)

14

1.5

Load combinations

25

I-2

DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS

26

2.1

Deflection limits

26

2.2

Structure tolerance

27

I-3

DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING

31

3.1

Assessment via the characteristic value (5% Fractile)

31

3.2

Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications

32

I-4

STEEL DESIGN

33

4.1

Properties of steel

33

4.2

Properties of stainless steel

35

4.3

Resistance of steel cross-sections

36

4.4

Sheets as diaphragms

39

4.5

Cold-formed members

40

I-5

ALUMINIUM DESIGN

41

5.1

Properties of aluminium structures

41

5.2

Definitions

42

5.3

Protection at metal-to-metal contacts

43

5.4

Cross-sectional properties

44

5.5

Resistance of aluminium cross-sections

47

5.6

Cold formed members

50

I-6

CONCRETE DESIGN

51

6.1

Properties of concrete

51

6.2

Concrete design

52

6.3

Anchorage design

52

I-7

TIMBER DESIGN

53

7.1

Strength grade

53

7.2

Service class

54

7.3

Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL

55

I-8

GLASS DESIGN

59

8.1

Properties

59

8.2

Glass sizes

59

8.3

Glass holes

59

8.4

Structural design of glass

60

PART 1 EUROCODE

3


4

8.5

Glass stress and deflection

64

8.6

Climatic effects

67

8.7

Structural silicone glazing (SSG)

69

8.8

Safety glass TRAV Requirements

71

8.9

Glass fins

73

I-9

STONE DESIGN

75

9.1

Properties

75

I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING

77

10.1 Testing overview

77

10.2 Weather performance tests

78

10.3 Impact resistance tests

82

10.4 Glass safety tests

84

10.5 Fire classification

85

I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS

86

11.1 Bolted connections

86

11.2 Pin connections

93

11.3 Tapping screws and rivets

94

11.4 Stud welds

97

11.5 Weld

98

11.6 Plate bracket resistance

103

11.7 Anchors in Concrete

104

I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS

105

12.1 Thermal Performance

105

12.2 Acoustic Performance

105

12.3 Fire Performance

105

PART 1 EUROCODE


LOADS

I-1 LOADS 1.1

Dead load (D)

Density of materials Group Material Metal

EN 1991-1-1:2010, Table A.3 Density, γ [kg/m³]

Group

Material

Concrete

Normal weight

Aluminium

2 700

Bronze

8 450

Light weight

Copper

9 100

Heavy weight

Iron, cast

7 400

Iron, wrought

7 750

Natural Stone

Density, γ [kg/m³] 2 450 900 – 2 000 > 2 000

Granite

2 750 – 3 000

Basalt, diorite, gabbro

2 750 – 3 150

Lead

11 600

Tachylyte

Steel

7 850

Sandstone, gray wacke

2 100 – 2 750

Stainless Steel

7 850

Dense limestone

2 000 – 2 950

Zinc

7 340

Slate

Glass

Glass (annealed)

2 500

Plastic

ETFE film

Insulation

FRC

Aggregates

Light weight

2 650

2 850 900 – 2 000

-

Normal weight

2 000 – 3 050

PVC-U 250

1 400

Heavy weight

> 3 050

Terra Cotta

2 100

Sand

1 400 – 1 950

Gravel & sand

1 500 – 2 000

Rockwool (Loose)

25

Rockwool (Medium)

51

Rockwool (Dense)

70

GRC

PART 1 EUROCODE

2 680

Wood

Timber

350 – 1 100

Plywood

500 – 700

Particle board

700 – 1 200

Fibre board

800 – 1 000

5


LOADS 1.2

Imposed/live load, (L)

1.2.1 Occupancy live load, LV Imposed load balconies including floors and stairs Load Description

EN 1991-1-1:2010 EN 1991-1-1 UK NA Table 6.2 Table NA.3 qk [kN/m²]

A Domestic and residential activities

Qk [kN]

qk

Qk

1.5

2.0

2.0

2.0

A4 Billiard, snooker rooms

2.0

2.7

A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units

2.5

2.0

3.0

2.0*

4.0

2.0

2.5

2.7

3.0

2.7

2.0

3.0

2.5

4.0

3.0

3.0

4.0

3.6

3.0

2.7

C31 Corridors, hallways, aisles in institutional type buildings not subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest houses, residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats

3.0

4.5

C32 Stairs, landings in institutional type buildings not subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest houses, residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats

3.0

4.0

C33 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings subjected to crowds

4.0

4.5

5.0

4.5

C35 Stairs, landings in all buildings not covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings subjected to crowds

4.0

4.0

C36 Light duty walkways- access for one person, width ≤ 600 mm

3.0

2.0

C37 General duty walkways- regular two-way pedestrian traffic

5.0

3.6

C38 Heavy duty walkways- high density pedestrian traffic incl. escape routes

7.5

4.5

5.0

3.6

5.0

7.0

5.0

3.6

7.5

4.5

4.0

3.6

A1/A2 Single family dwelling units incl. communal areas A3 Hotels, motels, hospital wards, toilet areas

A6 Balconies in hostel, guests house, residential club

1.5 – 2.0

2.5 – 4.0

2.0 – 3.0

2.0 – 3.0

A7 Balconies in hotels and motels B Offices

B1 General use above ground level

C1 Areas with tables

C11 Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and lounges, cafes and restaurants

B2 Ground level or below

C12 Reading rooms with no book storage

2.0 – 3.0

2.0 – 3.0

1.5 – 4.5

3.0 – 4.0

C13 Classrooms C2 C21 Assembly areas with fixed seating Areas with C22 Places of worship fixed seats C3 Areas without obstacles for moving people

C34 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings subjected to wheeled vehicles, including trolleys

C4 Physical activities

C41 Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages C42 Drill halls and drill rooms

C5 C51 Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, bars Susceptible and places of worship to large C52 Stages in public assembly areas crowds D D1 General retail shops Shopping/ D2 Department stores Retail areas Note: * Concentrated at the outer edge

6

3.0 – 4.0 2.5 – 7.0(4.0)

3.0 – 5.0

4.0 – 7.0

4.5 – 5.0

3.5 – 7.0

5.0 – 7.5

3.5 – 4.5

4.0 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0(4.0) 4.0 – 5.0

3.5 – 7.0

PART 1 EUROCODE


LOADS

1.2.2 Barrier loads, LH Claddings shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic values of the line load qk acting at the height of the partition wall or parapets but not higher than 1.20 m Horizontal loads on partition walls and parapets, qk [kN/m] Category

Sub-category examples

EN 1991-1-1:2010 EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.12

A (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one dwelling including stairs, landings etc. but excluding external balconies and edges Domestic and residential activities of roofs [see (vii)] (ii) Residential areas not covered by (i) B and C1 Offices areas

(iii) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office and institutional buildings, reading rooms and classrooms including stairs

0.36

0.20 - 1.0 (0.5)

(iv) Restaurants and cafes

D

E Storage and industrial areas

0.74 0.8 – 1.0

0.74

1.5 1.5 3.0 3.0 – 5.0

(xi) Grandstands and stadia (See requirements of appropriate certifying authority)

-

(xii) Industrial; and storage buildings except as given by (xiii) and (xiv)

0.74

(xiii) Light pedestrian traffic routes in industrial and storage buildings except designated escape routes

0.8 – 2.0

(xiv) Light access stairs and gangways not more than 600 mm wide F and G (xv) Pedestrian areas in car parks including stairs, landings, ramps, edges or internal floors, footways, edges of roofs Garages and vehicle traffic areas (xvi) Horizontal loads imposed by vehicles

PART 1 EUROCODE

0.74

1.5

(viii) All retail areas

C5 (ix) Footways or pavements less than 3 m wide adjacent to Areas susceptible to sunken areas large crowds (x) Theatres, cinemas, discotheques, bars, auditoria, shopping malls, assembly areas, studios Footways or pavements greater than 3 m wide adjacent to sunken areas

0.74

1.5

C2, C3 & C4 (v) Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of the barrier, Areas where people balustrade or parapet may congregate (vi) Stairs, landings, balustrades, corridors and ramps (vii) External balconies and edges of roofs Footways within building curtilage and adjacent to basement/sunken areas

UK NA Table NA.8

0.36 0.22 1.5

See Annex B See Annex B

7


LOADS 1.2.3 Maintainance load, LM Roof live load

Roofs shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic uniformly distributed load qk and concentrated load Qk acting independently. EN 1991-1-1:2010

Imposed loads on roofs H Roofs not accessible except for normal maintenance and repair

I Roofs accessible by occupants

EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.10 2

qk,[kN/m ]

Qk,[kN]

0 – 1.0 (0.4)

0.9 – 1.5 (1.0)

UK NA Table NA.7 2

Slope, α

qk,[kN/m ]

α ≤ 30˚

0.6

30˚ < α < 60˚

0.6[(60-α)/30]

α > 60˚

0

Qk,[kN]

0.90

Consider appropriate imposed loads according to categories A to D

• Actions during execution – EN 1991-1-6, Table 4.1 2

Working personnel, staff and visitors, with hand tools or other small site equipment shall be min. 1.0 kN/m . • Roof other than those with roof sheeting – EN 1991-1-1, 6.3.4.2 (4) Roofs, other than those with roof sheeting, should be designed to resist 1,5 kN on an area based on a 50 mm sided square. Roof elements with a profiled or discontinuously laid surface, should be designed so that the concentrated load Qk acts over the effective area provided by load spreading arrangements.

8

PART 1 EUROCODE


LOADS

BMU Loading • Definition acc. to EN 1808:1999 1 – Trolley unit 2 – Monorail track 3 – Traversing trolley 4 – Single point suspended platform 5 – Carriage 6 – Fixed davit 7 – Counterweight suspension beam 8 – Suspended platform 9 – Parapet clamp 10 – Suspended chair EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.3.3

Wind loads Description Normal operation (25mph)

Wind speed

Wind pressure

11.2 m/s

0.08 kN/m

Unrestrained (H ≤ 40 m) Restrained (H > 40 m)

Impact energy**

0.29 kN

280 N·m or J

0.46 kN

690 N·m or J

1.00 kN

1400 N·m or J

2 2

14 m/s

0.125 kN/m

20 m/s

2

0.25 kN/m

Wind load for 3m long BMU*

Notes: * The exposed area of one person standing on a work platform behind 2 an imperforate section of fencing 1 m high is 0,35 m with the centre of area 2 1,45 m above the platform floor. The full area of one person is 0,7 m with the centre of area 1,0 m above the platform floor. ** Impact energy of the suspended platform when allowed to be drawn or sucked from façade by negative gust wind pressures acting on the suspended platform, and then released to impact into façade. • Minimum restraint force EN 1808 Cl. 6.7: The mullion guide and anchor points shall be adequately attached to the building and capable of withstanding the operational and wind loads imposed upon them with the platform in any position. The members linking the platform to the mullions or anchor points shall be capable of withstanding the operational and wind loads imposed upon them. For the calculation, the minimum value of the effort applied to the restraint system shall be 1 kN. • Restraint system EN 1808 Cl. 7.7.3: The lowest restraint point shall not be more than 40 m above the lowest working level. The distance between restraints above 40 m shall not exceed 20 m. 1 – Anchor point 2 – Member linking the platform to the anchor point 3 – Suspension wire ropes EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.2.1.1

Allowable stresses Condition

Load case

Allowable Allowable yield stress, breaking stress, σE/νE σR/νR

1

In service conditions, SAE with RL affected by wind.

Fy/1.5

2

Occasional conditions (e.g. static and dynamic tests, tripping of overload detection device)

Fy /1.33

3

Extreme conditions (e.g. operation of secondary device, out-of-service wind)

PART 1 EUROCODE

Fy

Fu /4.0 Fu /2.2 Fu /1.5

9


LOADS Fall Arrest – Protection against fall from a height

EN 795:1997 Cl. 5

Anchor Devices Class

Diagram

Class A1 - Vertical, horizontal and inclined surface anchor devices

Static load

Dynamic test

10 kN [4.3.1.1]

1 – Structural anchors 2 – Anchor point

Class A2 - Inclined roof anchor devices

10 kN [4.3.1.2]

1 – Structural anchors 2 – Anchor point

Class B - Transportable temporary anchor devices

100 kg mass at a maximum of 300 mm horizontal eccentricity from the anchor point to freely fall at a height of 2500 ± 50 mm.

10 kN [4.3.2]

1 – Anchor point

Class C - Horizontal flexible anchor line

6 kN [5.3.4.1]

1 – Structure 2 – Extremity structural anchor 3 – Intermediate structural anchor 4 – Anchor line 5 – Mobile anchor point

Class D - Horizontal rigid anchor lines 1 – Anchor rail 2 – Mobile anchor point

100 kg mass at a maximum of 300 mm horizontal eccentricity from the anchor point to freely fall Dynamic performance test: at a height to provide sufficient fall energy to develop at least 6 kN.

One person: 10 kN Multiple person: 10 kN + 1 kN for each additional person. [4.3.4]

Class E - Dead weight anchors 1 – Anchor point

10

PART 1 EUROCODE


LOADS

Temporary Edge Protection EN 13374:2004

Temporary edge protection Class

Inclination

Verification Static loads:

A

< 10°

B

10° - 30°

C

30° - 60°

Pendulum test: ≤ 200mm: 1100 J > 200mm: 500 J

- Maximum lateral deflection of 55mm under horizontal loads FT1 & FT2 for boards and FH1 for posts - No material failure under vertical load FD (γF = 1.0) - No material failure under horizontal loads FH1 & FH2 (γF = 1.5)

All components are capable of resisting 30 kg upward force

Rolling Test: - 75 kg roller - Impact points (worst location): midspan and post

Sample of temporary edge protections

Class A Static load

Class B & C

Class C

Pendulum Test

Rolling Test

PART 1 EUROCODE

11


LOADS 1.3

Snow load (S) Snow load on roof is considered as medium term load, i.e., to have a notional duration of one month acc. to EN 1991-1-3 Cl. 5. EN 1991-1-3:2003

Snow load on monopitch roof Action

Values

Notes

Clause

Data

Z A Characteristic snow load, Sk: Region

Zone Site altitude, [m]

Fig. C.1 through C1.13

UK [NA.2.8]

Sk

0.1Z + 0.2 + ( A − 100 ) 525

Characteristic snow load on ground, 2 [kN/m ]

Table C.1

2 Alpine Region ( 0.642 Z + 0.009 )  1 + ( A 728 )   

Roof Shape coefficient

Canopy Shape coefficient

Central East

2 ( 0.264 Z + 0.002 )  1 + ( A 256 )   

Central West

0.164 Z − 0.082 + A 966

α Case (i): Undrifted load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: µ1 = 0.8 b) 30˚ < α < 60˚:  60 − α  µ1 = 0.8    30  c) α > 60˚ µ1 = 0 Case (ii): Drifted load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚:  α  µ2 = 0.8 + 0.8    30  b) 30˚ < α < 60˚: µ2 = 1.6 c) α > 60˚ µ2 = --

Angle of pitch of roof, [˚] Fig. 5.2 (a) Flat or monopitch roof – undrifted & drifted load Table 5.2

b1 b2 h b1 ≤ 5m or { b1 > 5m; h ≤ 1m}: ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m} µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 5.0}

Width of canopy projection Width of abutting taller building Differential height

(b) Duopitch Roof – undrifted (case i) and drifted load (cases ii & iii) Fig. 5.3 Table 5.2

5.3.6

Fig. B3 B4 (d) B4 (c)

b1 > 5m: ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m} a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 8.0} b) 30˚ < α < 60˚:

Fig. B2 B3 (3)

 60 − α  µ3 = min { 2h S k , 2bmax l s , 8.0}    30 

Snow load

12

Case (i) Undrifted snow load s = Ce · µ1 · sk Case (ii) Drifted snow load s = Ce · µ2 · sk case (iii) Exceptional snow drift s = µ3 · sk

Table B1

2

Characteristic snow load, [kN/m ] Exposure coefficient, Ce: Topography Ce Windswept 0.8 Normal 1.0 Sheltered 1.2

5.2 (3)P Table 5.1

PART 1 EUROCODE


Figure 1.3-1 Characteristic ground snow load map

PART 1 EUROCODE

LOADS

Fig. NA.1 UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-3:2003

13


LOADS 1.4

Wind load (W)

1.4.1 Relevant dimensions For low-rise buildings (h/d ≤ 0.25), according to EN 1991-1-4, Table 7.1 the effect of building plan dimension is more severe on the positive pressure of the windward face when the inwind depth “d” is the longer dimension. Albeit, the directional factor is conservatively assumed unity.

1.4.2 Directional factor, cdir Directional factor, cdir EN 1991-1-4 Direction cdir 1.0

EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause 4.2 0° 0.78

30° 0.73

60° 0.73

90° 0.74

UK NA [Table NA.1] 120° 150° 180° 210° 0.73 0.80 0.85 0.93

240° 1.00

270° 0.99

300° 0.91

330° 0.82

1.4.3 Seasonal factor, cseason These factors provide the 0.02 probability of exceedence for the period given. Seasonal factor, cseason EN 1991-1-4 Months January February March April May June July August 1.0 September October November December January February March

1 month 0.98 0.83 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.66 0.62 0.71 0.82 0.82 0.88 0.94 0.98 0.83 0.82

2 months

EN 1991-1-4:2005 clause 4.2 UK NA [Table NA.2] 4 months 6 months

0.98 0.86

0.98 0.87

0.83

0.83

0.75

0.76

0.71 0.67

0.84

0.73 0.83

0.71

0.86

0.82

0.90

0.85 0.89

0.96 1.00

0.95

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

0.98 0.86

1.4.4 Probability factor, cprob The basic values of wind velocity or the velocity pressure determined using EN 1991-1-4 are characteristic values having annual probabilities of exceedence of 0.02, which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years (it should not be interpreted as occurring regularly every 50 years). EN 1991-1-4:2005 Cl. 4.2 UK NA [NA.2.8]

Probability factor EN 1991-1-4 Probability of exceeding a given R-return period wind speed in L years Probability factor

-

c prob =

1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − p )  = 1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − 1 50 ) 

Return periods for climatic actions Duration Target return period Probability of exceeding in any one year, p of execution L ≤ 3 days 2 years 0.40 ≤ 1 month 3.5 years 0.25 ≤ 3 months 5 years 0.18 ≤ 1 year 10 years 0.10 > 1 year 50 years 0.02 14

p = 1 − (1 − 1 R)

Probability factor cprob 0.7982 0.8376 0.8622 0.9025 1.0

R L

1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − p )  1.3343

EN 1991-1-6:2005, 4.7 Table 3.1 Wind load Rec. basic value vb’ = cprob · vb 0.64·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s 0.70·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s 0.74·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s 0.81·qp qp -

PART 1 EUROCODE


LOADS

1.4.5 Calculating peak velocity pressure Wind load calculation for EU Action Values Data Factors

EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause

Notes

Fundamental value of basic wind velocity (10 min. 4.2 (1)P mean), [m/s] cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] Directional factor, [-] 4.2 (2)P cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] Seasonal factor, [-] c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4] Probability factor, [-] vb,0

ρ = 1.25 kg/m3

Air density

Basic velocity pressure

vb = cprob · cseason · cdir · vb,0 qb = ½ρ·vb2

Basic wind velocity, [m/s] 2 Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ]

Peak velocity pressure

z ce(z) qp(z) = ce(z)·qb

Height considered above terrain, [m] [See Figure 1.4-1] Exposure factor, [-] 2 Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ] Land category: Land Category 0 Sea or coastal area I Flat country without obstacles II Farmland with boundary hedges III Suburban or industrial areas IV Densely built-up urban areas

Figure 1.4-1 Exposure factor, ce(z)

PART 1 EUROCODE

4.5 (1) 7.2.2 Fig. 4.2 4.5 (1)

EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. 4.2

15

LOADS


Figure 1.4-2 EU Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]

16

PART 1 EUROCODE

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Wind load calculation for UK Action Values Data

LOADS

Notes

UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause

Basic wind velocity (10 min. mean), [m/s]

Fig. NA.1

 10  calt = 1 + 0.001 ⋅ A ⋅    z  vb,0 = vb,map · calt cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4]

Altitude factor for z ≥ 10 m., [-] Fundamental value of basic wind velocity, [m/s] Directional factor, [-] Seasonal factor, [-] Probability factor, [-]

NA.2.5

vb = cseason · cdir · cprob · vb,0

Basic wind velocity, [m/s]

4.2 (2)P

qb = 0.613 · vb2

Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ] ρ = 1.226 kg/m

vb,map

[see Figure 1.4-3] 0.2

Factors Basic velocity pressure

Displacement h have = 15 m height x - for Town values of hdis: terrain (IV)

2

(if no available data)

hdis (lesser of) x ≤ 2have

3

4.2 (2)P

4.5(1)P

Building height, [m] Average height of neighbouring structures, [m] Site horizontal distance to other structures, [m] Effective height, [m]

A.5 (1)

Exposure factor, [-]

Fig. NA.7

0.8have; 0.6h

2have < x < 6have 1.2have – 0.2x; 0.6h 0 x ≥ 6have

Orography is not significant

ce(z)

[see Figure 1.4-4]

a) Country terrain (I & II) qp = ce(z) · qb b) Town terrain (III & IV) ce,T [see Figure 1.4-5] qp = ce(z) · ce,T · qb

co(z) = vm/vmf Orography is significant z ≤ 50 m

2

Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ]

NA.2.17

Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, [-]

Fig. NA.8

Orography factor, [-]

A.3

2

 co( z ) + 0.6  q p =   ce( z ) ⋅ qb 1.6   z > 50 m cr(z) a) Country terrain (I & II) vm = co(z) · cr(z) · vb b) Town terrain (III & IV) cr,T vm = co(z) · cr(z) · cr,T · vb

Iv(z)flat I v(z) =

(

I v ( z ) flat co( z )

q p = 1 + 3I v( z )

PART 1 EUROCODE

)

2

⋅ 0.613 ⋅ v m 2

2

Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ]

NA.2.17

Roughness factor, [-]

Fig. NA.3

Mean wind velocity, [m/s]

NA.2.11

Roughness correction factor for Town terrain, [-] Fig. NA.4 Turbulence intensity for flat terrain, [-]

Fig. NA.5

Turbulence intensity factor, [-]

NA.2.16 3

Peak velocity pressure for ρ = 1.226 kg/m , 2 [kN/m ]

NA.2.17

17

LOADS


1.4.6 Factors and coefficients Figure 1.4-3 UK Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]

18

UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.1

PART 1 EUROCODE


LOADS UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.7

Figure 1.4-5 Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, ce,T

UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.8

2

5

5

20

30

50 70

Figure 1.4-4 Exposure factor, ce(z)

PART 1 EUROCODE

19


LOADS 1.4.7 Wind load on cladding elements

The coefficients may be applied to non-vertical walls within ±15° of vertical acc. to UK NA.2.27. Characteristic wind load for walls of rectangular plan buildings Action

Values

Data

Notes

e = min{b; 2h} gap values of Cpe: Side wall Zone A

Clause

Building height, crosswind breadth, inwind depth, [m] Slenderness ratio, [-]

h, b, d h/d

External pressure coefficient

UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.2

Isolated

Scaling length, [m] Fig. 7.5 Gap to adjacent building, [m] External pressure coeff. for isolated & funnelling, [-] Table 7.1 NA.2.27 Funnelling

≤ 1m² > 1m² b/4 ≤ gap ≤ b -1.4 -1.2 - 1.6

B

-1.1

-0.8

- 0.9

C

-0.5

-0.5

- 0.9

Table 7.1

Windward wall D

h/d ≤ 0.25 +1.0 +0.7

h/d > 0.25 +1.0 +0.8

Leeward wall E Internal pressure coeff. Net wind Pressure

h/d ≤ 0.25 - 0.30

1 ≥ h/d > 0.25 - 0.5

h/d >1 - 0.7

cpi(+) = +0.2 cpi(–) = –0.3 Zones A, B, C & E: w = qp [cpe – cpi(+)] Zone D: w = qp [cpe – cpi(–)]

Internal pressure coeff. for uniformly distributed opening, [-] 2

7.2.9 5.2

Maximum net wind suction, [kN/m ] 2

Maximum net wind pressure, [kN/m ]

1.4.8 Pressure on walls with more than one skin EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.10

Walls with more than one skin Action

Values

Data

µ = (area of opening)/(area of skin)

Case 1:

Permeable outside skin, µo ≥ 0.001: w+ = qp (2/3·Cpe+); w– = qp (1/3†·Cpe–) Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001: w = qp (Cpe – Cpi)

Case 2:

Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001: w = qp (Cpe) Impermeable more rigid inside skin, µi > µo w = qp (Cpe – Cpi)

Case 3:

Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001: w = qp (Cpe – Cpi) Permeable inside skin, µi ≥ 0.001: w = qp (1/3·Cpi)

Case 4:

Impermeable more rigid outside skin, µo > µi: w = qp (Cpe – Cpi) Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001: w=0

Note: 20

†

Notes

Clause

Permeability of a skin

7.2.10

Applicable when extremities of the layer between skins are closed

7.2.10

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

2/3 according to CWCT 2.2.5.1.

PART 1 EUROCODE


LOADS

1.4.9 Wind load for walls of rectangular plan building in London Wind Load in London Building height LONDON [m] Low-rise bldg. 10 Intermediate 25 Medium-rise 50 High-rise 100 Skyscraper 200

Pressure [kN/m²] 0,89 1,15 1,31 1,43 1,57

Isolated [kN/m²] Local Suction -1,16 -0,77 -1,50 -1,00 -1,71 -1,14 -1,87 -1,25 -2,05 -1,37

Funnelling [kN/m²] Local Suction -1,39 -0,85 -1,81 -1,10 -2,05 -1,25 -2,24 -1,37 -2,46 -1,51

200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120

Building Height [m]

110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

-2.5

-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

Wind Load [kN/m²]

PART 1 EUROCODE

21


LOADS 1.4.10

Wind load on free-standing walls EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4

Wind load on free-standing walls Action Data Pressure coefficients

Values h, L φ

Net pressure coefficients

22

7.4.2 Fig. 7.20

)

Corner fins: cp,net = 2.0 Series of fins: x ψs cp,net = max{ψs·cp; 0.4}

Net pressure coefficient [-] Dist. of sheltering upwind fin ≥ h, [m] Shelter factor, [-] Net pressure coefficient [-]

[BRE NJCook cl. 20.8.3] 7.4.2 Fig. 7.20

w = cp,net · qp

EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4.3

Values h b zg values of cf: zg ≥ h/4 zg < h/4

Net pressure

Fig. 7.19

)

Wind load on signboards Data

Fig. 7.19 7.4 (1) Table 7.9

(

Action

Height and length of free-stand wall, [m] Solidity ratio, [-]

φ = 1.0 φ = 0.8 Without return corners* Cp3 Cp5 Cp10 L/h ≤ 3 L/h = 5 L/h ≥ 10 2.3 2.9 3.4 A 1.4 1.8 2.1 B 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.7 C 1.2 D With return corners ≥ h 2.1 A 1.8 B 1.2 1.4 C 1.2 D * Intermediate values of Cp L c p5 − c p 3 3 < L/h < 5 c p5 −  5 −  h 2  L  c p10 − c p5  5 < L/h < 10 c p10 −  10 −  h 5  φ < 0.8: Treat as plane lattices acc. to 7.11

Net pressures

Clause

values of Cp: Zone

(

Fin features

Notes

Notes

Clause

Height of signboard, [m] Width of signboard, [m] Separation height of signboard from ground, [m]

Fig. 7.21 7.4 (1) Fig 7.21

cf = 1.8 b/h ≤ 1 cf = 1.8 Treat at parapet b/h > 1 acc. to 7.4.1

w = cf · q p

PART 1 EUROCODE

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 1.4.11

LOADS

Wind load on long elements EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.6, 7.7 & 7.8

Design wind loads on long elements Action Data Force coefficient

Values b, d, L φ values of cf,0: Structural (sharp edge)

Notes

Clause

Width, depth and length of element, [m] Solidity ratio, [-]

Fig. 7.23

Force coefficients, [-]

7.6 Fig. 7.23 7.7

cf,0 = 2.0

Circular

cf,0 = 1.0

Rectangular

See Fig. 7.23

Square

cf,0 = 2.1

Fig. 7.28

Reduction factor for square sections with radius: Reduced force coefficient, [-] ψr Fig. 7.24

End-effect Free-end polygon & sharp edged reduction factorsections: a) L < 15 m λ = 2·L/b or 70(lesser of) b) L ≥ 50 m λ = 1.4·L/b or 70(lesser of) Free-end circular sections & Ends connected to structure: a) L < 15 m λ = L/b or 70(lesser of) b) L ≥ 50 m λ = 0.7·L/b or 70(lesser of) values of cf,0: Structural, λ = min polygon & {2L/b;70} Free-end lattice Abutted ends

Circular

cf,0 = 1.0

Any section

See Fig. 7.23

Effective slenderness ratio, [-]

Table 7.16

Fig. 7.36

End-effect factor, [-]

ψλ Net pressure

w = cf,0 · ψλ · qp

PART 1 EUROCODE

Net wind pressure

23


LOADS 1.4.12

Wind load on parapet attached to curtain wall

δC

δC max, wparapet

C

a

min, wparapet B

min, wcw

L

max, wcw

A

Case-1: max, wparapet = Cp,A·qs min, wcw = [Cpe,E – Cpi(-)]·qs Case-2: min, wparapet = Cp,D·qs max, wcw = [Cpe,A – Cpi(+)]·qs

24

PART 1 EUROCODE

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 1.5

LOADS

Load combinations

1.5.1 Faming member design The most unfavourable effect of the following load combinations should be considered for characteristic serviceability evaluations. EN 1990:2005 6.5.3

Vertical facades Serviceability

Ultimate limit state

Description

Occupancy

CO100: D

CO200: 1.35D

Dead incl. member self-weight

all

CO101: D + W p

CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p

Dead + wind pressure

all

CO102: D + W s + 0.7L

CO202: 1.35D + 1.5W s + 0.7·1.5L

Dead + wind suction + imposed

all

CO103: D + L + *0.6W s

CO203: 1.35D + 1.5L + *0.6·1.5W s

Dead + imposed + wind suction

all

Note: *0.5W s acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1 EN 1990:2005 6.5.3

Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing Serviceability


Description

Occupancy

CO100: D

CO200: 1.35D


all

CO101: D + W p + **0.7S CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p + **0.7·1.5·S D + W p + 0.7SA

Dead + wind downforce + snow Dead + wind downforce + snow drift

all

CO102: D + S + *0.6W p

CO202: 1.35D + 1.5S + *0.6·1.5W p D + SA + 0.7W p

Dead + snow + wind downforce Dead + snow drift + wind downforce

all

CO103: D + W s

CO203: D + 1.5W s

Dead + wind uplift

all

CO104: D + L

CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L

Dead + imposed

H

Note: *0.5W p for UK NA:2005 Table NA.A1.1 **0.7S for H >1000m a.s.l; 0.5S for H ≤ 1000m a.s.l.

1.5.2 Glass design TRAV:2003 4.2

Vertical facades Serviceability

Description

Single glass CO301: D + W + 0.5L

Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load

CO302: D + L + 0.5W

Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load

Multiple glazing CO311: D + W + 0.5L

Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load

CO312: D + L + 0.5W

Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load

CO313: D + W p + Hw

Dead + wind pressure + winter climate

CO314: D + W s + Hw

Dead + wind suction + winter climate

CO315: D + L + Hw

Dead + imposed + winter climate

CO316: D + W p + Hs

Dead + wind pressure + summer climate

CO317: D + W s + Hs

Dead + wind suction + summer climate

PART 1 EUROCODE

25



I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 2.1

Deflection limits EN 1990:2002 cl. 3.4, states that serviceability requirements are agreed for each individual project.

2.1.1 Primary Structure

EN 1993:2005 & EN 1992:2004

Steel and Concrete design Component

Deflection

Steel Vertical EN 1993-1-1 deflection

Horizontal deflection

Concrete Vertical EN 1992-1-1 deflection

EN

UK NA

Carrying brittle finish

-

L/360

Other beams

-

L/200

Cantilevers

-

L/180

Tops of columns in single-storey buildings except portal frames

-

H/300

In each storey of a building with more than one storey

-

Hi/300

Beam, slab or cantilever under quasi-permanent loads

span/250

-

Deflection after construction to prevent damage to adjacent parts of the structure under quasi-permanent loads

span/500

-

Description

EN 1995-1-1:2004

Timber design EN 1995-1-1 Table 7.2 Instantaneous, winst

Net final, wnet,fin = winst + wcreep - wcamber

UK NA:2008 Table NA.5 Final, wfin = winst + wcreep

Net final, wnet,fin = winst + wcreep - wcamber No plaster*

With plaster*

Simple beam

L/300 to L/500

L/250 to L/350

L/150 to L/300

L/150

L/250

Cantilever

L/150 to L/250

L/125 to L/175

L/75 to L/150

L/75

L/125

Note: * Roof or floor members with or without a plastered or plasterboard ceiling.

2.1.2 Facade EN 13830:2003

Curtain wall Component

Limit

Frontal deflection under wind load

L/200 or 15mm

4.1; EN 13116:’01, 4.3.1

Horizontal framing under vertical loads

L/500 or 3mm

4.2

26

Clause

PART 1 EUROCODE



Structure tolerance

2.2.1 Concrete Structures ‘Permitted deviation’ is the permitted algebraic differences between the limits of size and the corresponding reference size (unless ± is stated). See EN 13670:2009 cl. 3.13, also ISO 1803:1997 cl. 3.8. The "box principle" will require that all points of the structure are within the specified theoretical position with a margin in any direction corresponding to the permitted deviation. A recommended value when applying the box principle is ± 20 mm. EN 13670:2009

Tolerances Structure

Type

Base Plan section supports Foundations

Vertical section

Columns and Verticality by storey walls

Description

Permitted Deviation [mm]

Clause

Position in plan of a base support relative to the secondary lines

∆ = ± 25

G.10.3.a

Position in vertical direction of a base support relative to the secondary level

∆ = ± 20

G.10.3.b

Inclination of a column or wall at any level

h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.4.a h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}

h in mm

Offset between floors

Deviation between centrelines at floor level

Curvature between adjacent Curvature of a column or floors wall between adjacent storey levels

PART 1 EUROCODE

∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 30;15} ≤ 30

10.4.b

∆ = max {h 300;15} ≤ 30

10.4.c

h in mm

27


DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS Inclination

Beams and slabs

28

Location of any column, wall or floor edge, at any storey level from any vertical plane through its intended design centre at base level



∑ hi

 ; 50   200 n 

∆ = min 

10.4.d

H in metres

Position on plan of a column Position in plane of a column relative to the secondary lines

∆ = ± 25

G.10.4.a

Position on plan of a wall

Position in plane of a wall relative to the secondary line

∆ = ± 25

G.10.4.b

Distance apart

Free space between adjacent columns or walls

∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 60

G.10.4.c

Location of beam to column connection

Measured relative to the column

∆ = ± max {b 30;20}

10.5.a

Bearing

Position of bearing axis support

∆ = ± max {l 20;15}

10.5.b

Straightness of beam

Horizontal straightness of beams

∆ = ± max {l 600;20}

G.10.5.a

Distance apart

Between adjacent beams, measured at corresponding points

∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 40

G.10.5.b

PART 1 EUROCODE


Sections


Inclination of beam or slab

Difference in level across a beam or slab at corresponding points in any direction

∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 )

G.10.5.c

Level of adjacent beams

Measured at corresponding points

∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 )

G.10.5.d

Level per storey

Level of adjacent floors at supports

∆ = ± 20

G.10.5.e

Level

Level of floors measured relative to the intended design level at the reference level

Cross-section dimension of elements

Tolerance Class 1

H ≤ 20m : ∆ = ± 20 G.10.5.f H > 20m : ∆ = ± 0.5(H+20) ≤ 50

H in metres

l ≤ 150

400
Tolerance Class 2 See cl. 10.1(2)Notes

l ≤ 150

Tolerance Class 1

( l − 400 ) 140

: ∆ = ± 30 : ∆ = ±5

150
Location of reinforcement

10.6.a

: ∆ = ± 10

150
( l − 400 )

l ≥ 2500

: ∆ = ± 30

h ≤ 150

: ∆ = +10

105

10.6.b

150
Tolerance Class 2

h ≥ 2500

: ∆ = +25

h ≤ 150

: ∆ = +5

( l − 400 ) 210

150
( l − 400 ) 210

: ∆ = +20

Lap joints

Length of reinforcement

∆ = − 0.06 ⋅ l

Squareness of element

Orthogonality of a crosssection

∆ = ± max {a 25;10} ≤ ±20

G.10.6.a

Moulded or smoothed surface

l global = 2.0 m ; ∆global = 9

G.10.7.a

Surface Flatness straightness

PART 1 EUROCODE

10.6.c

llocal = 0.2 m ; ∆local = 4 29


DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS Not moulded surface

l global = 2.0 m ; ∆global = 15 llocal = 0.2 m ; ∆local = 6

Skewness

Skewness of cross-section

∆ = ± a 25 ≤ 30

G.10.7.b

∆ = ±b 25 ≤ 30

Edge straightness

Floor slab or element

G.10.7.c

l ≤ 1000 : ∆ = ± 8 l > 1000 : ∆ = ± min {8·l;20}

Holes and inserts

Holes and conduit inserts

G.10.8.a

Deviation from secondary line

∆x , ∆y = ± 25

Blockout and recesses

Deviation from secondary line

∆x , ∆y , ∆1 , ∆2 = ± 25

G.10.8.b

Anchor bolts and similar inserts

Placing of bolts and centre of a bolt group

∆1 = ± 10

G.10.8.c

Internal distance between bolts in a group

∆2 = ± 3

Protrusion and inclination

∆3 = +25/ − 5

∆D = ± 10

∆s = max {l3 200; 5}

Anchoring plates and similar Deviation in plane inserts

Deviation in depth

30

∆x , ∆y = ± 20

G.10.8.d

∆z = ± 10

PART 1 EUROCODE


DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING

I-3 DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING 3.1

Assessment via the characteristic value (5% Fractile) EN 1990:2002 Annex D7.2

Statistical evaluation of test result Action Data

Values

Notes

D7.2 Measured values [kN] Number of measured values [-] Design value of the conversion factor [-] Partial safety factor of the material [-]

x1, x2 .., xi .., xn n ηd γm

Normal distribution

mx =

Mean value [kN]

1 ∑ xi n i 2 ∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 )

sx = ± s Vx = x mx

D7.2

Standard deviation [kN] Coefficient of variation [-]

X k = m x ( 1 − knV x )

Log-normal distribution

Clause

Characteristic value [kN]

1 ∑ ln ( xi ) n i Vx is known from previous knowledge: my =

(

)

s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x

Logarithmic mean value [kN] Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]

Vx is unknown from previous knowledge: sy = ± Xk = e

5% Fractile

Design value

2

∑  ln ( xi ) − m y  ( n − 1 ) ( m y − kn s y )

values of kn: n Vx known* Vx unknown* 1 2.31 2 2.01 3 1.89 3.37 4 1.83 2.63 5 1.80 2.33 6 1.77 2.18 8 1.74 2.00 10 1.72 1.92 20 1.68 1.76 30 1.67 1.73 ∞ 1.64 1.64 Xd =

ηd Χ γm k

Characteristic value [kN] Values of kn for the 5% characteristic Table D1 value based on the normal distribution of x’s.

Design value [kN]

Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’ needs to be determined by engineering judgement.

PART 1 EUROCODE

31


DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING 3.2

Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications EN 1990:2002 Annex D7.3

Statistical evaluation of test result Action Data

Normal distribution

Values x1, x2 .., xi .., xn n ηd

mx =

1 ∑ xi n i

sx = ± Vx =

2 ∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 )

sx mx

Clause

Measured values [kN] Number of measured values [-] Design value of the conversion factor which should cover all uncertainties not covered by the tests [-]

D7.3

Mean value [kN]

D7.3

Standard deviation [kN] Coefficient of variation [-]

X d = ηd m x ( 1 − kd ,nV x )

Log-normal distribution

Notes

Design value [kN]

1 ∑ ln ( xi ) n i Vx is known from previous knowledge: my =

(

)

s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x

Logarithmic mean value [kN] Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]

Vx is unknown from previous knowledge: sy = ±

2

∑  ln ( xi ) − m y  ( n − 1 )

X d = ηd e

( m y − kd ,n s y )

0.1% lower value values of kd,n: n Vx known* Vx unknown* 1 4.36 2 3.77 3 3.56 4 3.44 11.4 5 3.37 7.85 6 3.33 6.36 8 3.27 5.07 10 3.23 4.51 20 3.16 3.64 30 3.13 3.44 ∞ 3.04 3.04

Design value [kN] Values of kd,n for a probability of observing a lower value of about 0.1% based on normal distribution of x’s.

Table D2

Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’ needs to be determined by engineering judgement.

32

PART 1 EUROCODE

STEEL DESIGN


I-4 STEEL DESIGN 4.1

Properties of steel EN 1993-1-1:2005, Cl. 3.2.6

Material constants of structural steel Form

Density, γ [kN/m³]

Unit weight, ρ [kg/m³]

Young’s modulus, E 2 [N/mm ]

Modulus of rigidity, G = E/[2(1+)ν] 2 [N/mm ]

Poisson’s ratio, ν [-]

77.0

7 850

210 000

81 000

0.30

All

Characteristic values of structural steel (3mm ≤ t ≤ 40mm) Form Process Grade Yield strength, 2 fy [N/mm ] Sections, plates, bars and rods

t ≤ 40

S235JR/J0/J2

235

225

360

0.80

S275JR/J0/J2

275

265

430

0.85

S355JR/J0/J2/K2

355

345

510

0.90

Normalized/ S275N/NL Normalized S355N/NL rolled weldable fine grain S420N/NL

275

265

370

355

345

470

420

400

520

S460N/NL

460

440

540

ThermoS275M/ML mechanical S355M/ML rolled weldable fine grain S420M/ML

275

265

370

355

345

470

420

400

520

S460M/ML

460

440

540

S235J0W/J2W

235

225

360

S355J0W/J2W S355J0WP/J2WP

355

345

470

Improved atmospheric corrosion resistance

Quenched and S460Q/QL/QL1 tempered S500Q/QL/QL1

460

550

500

590

S550Q/QL/QL1

550

640

S620Q/QL/QL1

620

700

S690Q/QL/QL1

690

770

S890Q/QL/QL1

890

940

S960Q/QL/QL1

960

980

Hollow sections Hot finished

Cold formed

PART 1 EUROCODE

-6

12·10

EN 1993-1-1:2005, Table 3.1 Min. tensile Fillet weld Reference strength, correlation 2 ft [N/mm ] factor, βw [-]

3 ≤ t ≤ 16 Non-alloy

Thermal coefficient, α [/˚C]

[EN 10025-2]

[EN 10025-3]

[EN 10025-4]

[EN 10025-5]

[EN 10025-6]

S 235 H

235

235

360

0.80

S 275 H

275

275

430

0.85

S 355 H

355

355

510

0.90

S 460 NH

460

460

560

1.00

S 235 H

235

235

360

0.80

S 275 H

275

275

430

0.85

S 355 H

355

355

510

0.90

S 460 NH

460

460

550

1.00

[EN 10210-1]

[EN 10219-1]

33

STEEL DESIGN

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES EN 1993-1-3:2006, Table 3.1

Characteristic values of steel sheets (t ≤ 3mm ) Form

Process

Sheets for Constuction

Sheets for Cold forming

Yield strength, fy 2 [N/mm ]

Min. tensile strength, 2 ft [N/mm ]

Pre-galvanized S220GD

220

300

S250GD

250

330

S280GD

280

360

S320GD

320

390

S350GD

350

420

Hot rolled

S235JR

210

320

[EN 10025-2:2004]

Hot rolled weldable

S275N/NL

220

330

[EN 10025-3:2004] [EN 10346:2009 superseded EN 10327]

Pre-galvanized DX51D Low carbon DX52D/53D/55D mild steel

-

270

140

270

DX54D/56D/57D

120

260

Pre-galvanized HX160YD High strength HX180YD/BD

160

300

180

330/290

HX220YD/BD

220

340/320

HX260YD/BD/LAD

260

380/360/350

HX300YD/BD/LAD

300

390/400/380

HX340BD/LAD

340

440/410

HX380LAD

380

440

HX420LAD

420

470

Pre-galvanized HCT450X Cold rolled HCT500X

260

450

300

500

HCT600X

340

600

Pre-galvanized HDT450F Hot rolled HDT560F

320

450

460

560

HDT580X

330

580

DC01/03/04/05

140

270

DC06

120

270

DD11

170

440

DD12

170

420

DD13

170

400

DD14

170

380

Cold-rolled

Hot-rolled

34

Grade

Remarks

[EN 10346:2009 superseded EN 10326]

[EN 10346:2009 superseded EN 10292]

[EN 10346:2009]

[EN 10346:2009]

[EN 10130:1999]

[EN 10111:1998]

PART 1 EUROCODE

STEEL DESIGN


Properties of stainless steel EN 1993-1-4:2006 Cl. 2.1.3

Material constants of stainless steel Microstructure




Austenitic 1.4539, 1.4529 & 1.4547 Austenitic Others

Modulus of rigidity, G = E/[2(1+ν)] 2 [N/mm ]



77 000

0.30

16·10

195 000 77.0

7 850

200 000

Ferritic

-6

220 000 EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table 2.1

Characteristic values of stainless steel Grade

AISI

Cold rolled sheet, Hot rolled sheet, strip & plates strip & plates t ≤ 6 mm t ≤ 12 mm (≤ 75mm) fy fu fy 2 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]

1.4301

304

fu 2 [N/mm ]

Bars, rods & sections t ≤ 250 mm fy fu 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ]

Secant Modulus Coeff., n [Rolling direction] Long.

Bend radius

Trans. [EN 1090-2]

230

540

210

520

190

500

6

8

2t

1.4306, 1.4307 304L

220

520

200

520 (500)

175

450

6

8

2t

1.4401

240

530

220

530 (520)

200

500

7

9

2t

1.4404, 1.4435 316L

240

530

220

530 (520)

200

500

7

9

2t

1.4462

480

660

460

660 (640)

450

650

5

5

2.5t

316

Duplex

Note: Fillet weld correction factor, βw = 1.0 for Stainless steel. EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table B.1; EN 10088-2:2005 Table 17

Work hardened condition (process route 2H) Microstructure

Symbol

0.2% proof strength level, 2 Rp0.2 [N/mm ]

Tensile strength level, 2 Rm [N/mm ]

Austenitic steels

+C700

-

700 – 850

+C850

-

850 – 1000

+C1000

-

1000 – 1150

+CP350

350 – 500

-

+CP500

500 – 700

-

+CP700

700 – 900

-

4.2.1 Secant modulus of stainless steel

E s,ser =

(E s,1 +E s,2 ) 2

E

E s,i = 1+0.002

E σ i,Ed,ser

 σi,Ed,ser   fy

  

n

where: Es,1 is the secant modulus corresponding to the stress σ1 in the tension flange. Es,2 is the secant modulus corresponding to the stress σ2 in the compression flange.

PART 1 EUROCODE

35

STEEL DESIGN 4.3


Resistance of steel cross-sections

4.3.1 Partial safety factors Partial material safety factors for ultimate limit states Steel

Part

[EN 1993-1-1]

Stainless steel

UK NA.2.15

[EN 1993-1-4]

Resistance of cross-section whatever class

γM0

1.0

1.0

1.1

Resistance of members to instability

γM1

1.0

1.0

1.1

Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture

γM2

1.25

1.1

1.25

4.3.2 General cross-sections EN 1993-1-1:2005

Design resistance of steel structures Mode Shear

Values V Ed ≤ 1.0 Vc ,Rd

{

Vc,Rd = min V pl,Rd ; Vc,Rd

}

Plastic shear resistance A V pl,Rd = v f y γ M0 3 Elastic shear resistance(horizontal shear) I·t 1 Vc,Rd = f γ Q 3 y M0 Torsional shear ( It c ) f γ ≥ T TRd = y M0 Ed 3 ( I t c ) ≈ b 2 t 2 ( 3b + 1.8t ) Bending

{

}

Lateral-torsional buckling: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M b ,Rd M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd

RHS // to h

Av = A ⋅ h ( b+h )

RHS ⊥ to h

Av = A ⋅ b ( b+h )

CHS

Av = 2A π

Flat bar

Av = 0.8A

Round bar

Av = 0.6A

General yielding along the member [kN·m] Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m]

6.2.5(4) 6.2.5(2)

Section modulus, W: W = W pl Class 1 & 2

6.3.2.1(1)

Class 3

W = Wel

Class 4

W = Weff

6.3.2.1(3)

Design buckling resistance moment [kN·m]

where:

π EI z GI t

Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m]

L = W y f y M cr

Slenderness [-] 2

φ LT = 0.5  1 + α LT ( λ LT − 0.2 ) + λ LT  1 χ LT = ≤ 1.0 φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2

36

6.2.6

Design tension resistance [kN·m]

M u,Rd = Wel,net f u γ M2

λ LT

Design shear resistance [kN] Shear area, Av: Av = hw t w I, H, C, T

6.2.5(1)

M c,Rd =W f y γ M0

M cr =

Clause

Torsional resistance [kN·m] Approx. non-linear torsional constant [mm³] (refer to design aide formulas for exact value)

Pure bending: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M c ,Rd M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd

Notes

6.3.2.2 6.3.2.2

Initial sway inperfection [-] Reduction factor for buckling [-] Imperfection factor, αLT:

6.3.2.2

Rolled I, h/b ≤ 2

a

α LT = 0.21

Rolled I, h/b > 2

b

α LT = 0.34

Welded I, h/b ≤ 2

c

α LT = 0.49

Welded I, h/b > 2 Other sections

d

α LT = 0.76

6.3.2.1

PART 1 EUROCODE

STEEL DESIGN


EN 1993-1-1:2005

Design resistance of steel structures Mode Tension

Values

Notes

Clause 2

Gross section area [mm ] 2 Net section area [mm ]

A Anet Basis: N Ed ≤ 1.0 N t ,Rd

6.2.3

Where:

{

N t,Rd = min N pl ,Rd ; N u ,Rd

Compression

}

Design tension resistance [kN]

N pl,Rd = A f y γ M0

Design plastic resistance of gross section [kN]

N u,Rd = 0.9Anet f u γ M2

Local failure at a section with holes [kN]

Local squashing N Ed ≤ 1.0 N c ,Rd

6.2.4

Class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections: N c,Rd = A f y γ M0 Class 4 cross sections: N c,Rd = Aeff f y γ M0

Design compression resistance [kN]

Design buckling resistance of compression member without welding [kN]

6.3.1.1

Flexural buckling, λ > 0.2 : N Ed ≤ 1.0 N b ,Rd N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1

a) Critical flexural buckling: π EI y π EI z ; N cr,z = N cr,y = 2 2 ( kz L) ky L

(

N cr

1

φ + φ2 −λ 2

≤ 1.0

Effective length factor, k: 0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0

PART 1 EUROCODE

 yo is the distance from the shear centre to the  centroid of the gross cross section along the y-y 

axis (zero for doubly symmetric sections)

A⋅ fy

φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 

χ =

6.3.1.2

)

a) Critical torsional buckling:  π EI w 1 N cr,T = 2  GIt + 2 2  i y + i z + yo  Lcr 2

λ =

Elastic critical force [kN]

Slenderness [-]

6.3.1.2

Initial sway inperfection [-]

6.3.1.2

Reduction factor for buckling [-] Imperfection factor, α: RHS, CHS (HF)

Table 6.2 a

α = 0.21

Rolled I, h/b > 1.2 L

b

α = 0.34

RHS, CHS (CF) Rolled I, h/b ≤ 2 Welded I Solid, C, T

c

α = 0.49

Welded I, h/b > 2 Other sections

d

α = 0.76

37

STEEL DESIGN


4.3.3 Buckling resistance of steel cross-sections EN 1993-1-1:2005

Lateral-torsional buckling

Clause T

h d

h

y

t

Wy

Section modulus: Section

≤ 10ε

W pl , y

Class 1 & 2

≤ 20ε

W pl , y = bh 2 4

≤ 14ε

Wel , y

Class 3

≤ 42ε

Wel , y = bh 2 6

web d/t

flange b/2T

Class 1 & 2

≤ 83ε

Class 3

≤ 124ε

Class 3

values of γLT,0:

Welded

χ LT =

χ LT =

γLT,0 = 0.2

Lc = 1638.9 I z I t W y f y

β = 1.0

Tables 6.3 & 6.4

Lc = 1639.1 ⋅b f y

λ LT = 0.00494 f y L / b

6.3.2.2

φ LT = 0.5  1 + 0.76 ( λ LT − 0.2 ) + λ LT 2 

Lc = 6556.4 I z I t W y f y

β = 0.75

Table 5.2

Wy

Buckling factors [kN,cm]: Lc = 1092.8 ⋅b f y Class 1 & 2 λ LT = 0.00605 f y L / b

φ LT = 0.5  1 + 0.76 ( λ LT − λ LT ,0 ) + βλ LT 2  γLT,0 = 0.4

h/b

6.3.2.2

Buckling factors [kN,cm]: Wy fy L λ LT = 0.00494 Iz It

Rolled

6.3.2.1

M b,Rd = χ LT W y f y γ M1

M b,Rd = χ LT W y f y γ M1

Section modulus: Section

y

1

φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2

≤ 1.0

where:

1

φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2

6.3.1.3

ε = 235 f y

≤ 1.0

EN 1993-1-1:2005

Compression buckling

Clause

z

t

h c

d

y

t

N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1

Buckling about y-y: π EI y N cr,y = 2 ky L

(

)

Buckling about z-z: π EI z N cr,z = 2 ( kz L)

λ =

A⋅ fy N cr

t

h

d

y

y

N b,Rd = χ b h f y γ M1

Buckling about y-y: kyL λ = 0.004265 fy h Buckling about z-z: k L λ = 0.004265 z fy b φ = 0.5  1 + 0.49 ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 

χ =

1

φ + φ2 −λ 2

y

6.3.1.1

N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1

λ = 0.009849

kyL d

6.3.1.2

fy

φ = 0.5  1 + 0.49 ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 

χ =

1

φ + φ2 −λ 2

≤ 1.0

≤ 1.0

φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2  values of α: Hot finished α = 0.21 Cold formed α = 0.49 1 χ = ≤ 1.0 φ + φ2 −λ 2 38

PART 1 EUROCODE

STEEL DESIGN


Sheets as diaphragms EN 1993-1-5:2006 Cl. 5

Shear buckling resistance of sheets Action Data

Values hw a tw E fyw η = 1.2

Shear buckling Criteria for slender web: hw ε > 72 tw η kτ = 5.34 2

 tw   kτ  hw 

τ cr = 190 000  λ w = 0.76 χw =

Clause

Height of sheet parallel to direction of shear [mm] Width of sheet [mm] Sheet thickness [mm] 2 Modulus of elasticity [N/mm ] Yield strength of sheet [-] For steel grades up to S460

5.1 (2)

Slender web

5.1 (2)

Shear buckling coefficient [-] A.3 (1) For plates without transverse and longitudinal stiffeners 5.3 (3) & 2 Critical shear stress, [N/mm ] A.1 (2)

f yw

τ cr

0.83

λw

Vbw ,Rd = χ w

Notes

hw t w f yw 3 1.1

Slenderness parameter [-]

5.3 (3)

Shear buckling factor

Table 5.1

Design shear buckling resistance [N]

5.2 (1)

c

hw V

V

H a

c =

PART 1 EUROCODE

2a ( 1+v ) 1000Et w hw

Shear stiffness [mm/kN]

BS5950 Table 9

39

STEEL DESIGN 4.5


Cold-formed members EN 1993-1-5:2006

Panel edge stiffeners Action Data

Values

Notes 235 fy

ε = λp =

Single edge fold

Yield constant [-] b t

Slenderness [-] 4.4

28.4 ⋅ ε kσ

b = b − ( 0.586r + 1.293t ) kσ = 4.0

ρ=

λ p − 0.22 λp

beff = ρ

2

≤ 1.0

Buckling factor for uniform compression, ψ = 1.0 [-]

28.4t − 354.9 t 2 b

S275

26.2t − 303.2 t 2 b

S280GD

26t − 297.8 t 2 b

S320GD

24.3t − 260.6 t 2 b

Table 4.2

kσ = 0.5

λ p − 0.188 2

≤ 1.0

ceff = ρ ⋅ c

Double edge fold

Approx. ceff 20.1t − 75.8 t 2 c

S275

18.6t − 64.8 t 2 c

S280GD

18.4t − 63.6 t 2 c

S320GD

17.2t − 55.7 t 2 c

d = d − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) kσ = 0.43

λ p − 0.188 λp

2

d eff = ρ ⋅ d

40

Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-] Effective return depth [mm]

Grade S235

ρ=

Table 4.1

Approx. beff

c = c − ( 0.293r + 0.646t )

λp

Table 4.1 4.4

Reduction factor for plate buckling [-] Effective width [mm]

b 2

Grade S235

ρ=

Clause

≤ 1.0

4.4 Table 4.2

Table 4.2 Buckling factor for uniform compression, ψ = 1.0 [-]

4.4

Effective lip [mm]

Table 4.2

PART 1 EUROCODE


ALUMINIUM DESIGN

I-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.1

Properties of aluminium structures EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 3.2.5

Material constants of aluminium Form



Modulus of elasticity, E 2 [N/mm ]



26.6

2 700

70 000

27 700

0.30

All

Coef. of linear thermal exp., α [/˚C] -6

23·10

EN 485-2:2007

Aluminium sheet, strip and plate Form

Alloy

Temper

Site formed sheets

1050A [Al 99.5]

Preformed Sheets or Plates

3003 [AlMn1Cu]

ρu,haz

1

1

65

H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5

75

105

O/H111

≤3│≤6│≤12.5

35

95

H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5

115

145

5005/5005A O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 [AlMg1] H22/H32 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5

35

100

1

80

125

H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5

110

O/H111

≤3│≤6│≤12.5

H24/H34 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5

5083 [Al Mg4,5 Mn0,7]

Bend radius*

ρo,haz

20

180°

90°

0│0.5t│t t│-│-

t│1.5t│2.5t

0│t│-

0│t│1.5t

2t│-│-

t│2t│2.5t

1

0.5t│t│-

0│t│1.5t

0.55

0.80

1.5t│-│-

t│t│2t

145

0.37

0.69

2.5t│-│-

t│2t│2.5t

80

190

1

1

t│t│-

t│t│2t

160

240

0.63

0.79

2.5t│-│-

2t│2.5t│3t

≤3│≤6│≤12.5

255

300

0.48

0.60

-

3.5t│4.5t│6t

O/H111

≤6│≤25

125

190

1

1

-

1.5t│-

H22/H32

≤6│≤25

215

305

0.72

0.90

-

2.5t│-

H24/H34

≤6│≤25

250

400

0.62

0.81

-

3.5t│-

6082 T6/T651 [AlSi1MgMn] Plates

HAZ-factor

≤3│≤6│≤12.5

5754 [AlMg3]

O/H111

Rp0.2 Rm 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ]

Thickness t [mm]

1

1

Note: * For information only. Characteristic values of aluminium Form Grade Chemical Temper symbol Extrusion 6060

[AlMgSi]

T5

t ≤ 5│≤ 25

120│100

T6

t ≤ 15

140

T66

t ≤ 3│≤ 25

160│150

t ≤ 20

240

T5

t ≤ 3│≤ 25

130│110

T6

t ≤ 25

160

t ≤ 5│≤ 10

225│215

10 < t ≤ 25

200

6061

[AlMg1SiCu] T6

6063

[AlMg0,7Si]

6005A [AlSiMg]

Thickness 0.2% proof Tensile strength, fo strength, fu t 2 2 [mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]

T6 Open section

Hollow section t ≤ 5│≤ 10

Cast

EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.2 HAZ- HAZ-factor, Buckling ρu,haz factor, class ρo,haz

160│140 0.42│0.50 0.50│0.57 170

0.43

0.59

215│195 0.41│0.43 0.51│0.56 260

0.48

0.67

175│160 0.46│0.55 0.57│0.63 195

0.41

0.56

270│260 0.51│0.53 0.61│0.63 250

0.58

0.66

B A A A B A A A

215│200

255│250 0.53│0.58 0.65│0.66

A

290│310 0.50│0.48 0.64│0.60

A

6082

[AlSi1MgMn] T6

t ≤ 5│≤ 15

250│260

7020

[AlZn4,5Mg1] T6

t ≤ 15│≤ 40

290│275

350

0.71│0.75

0.80

A

42100 [AlSi7Mg0.3] T6

-

147

203

-

-

A

42200 [AlSi7Mg0.6] T6

-

168

224

-

-

A

PART 1 EUROCODE

41


ALUMINIUM DESIGN Characteristic values of aluminium fasteners Form Grade Chemical symbol Tempering (Designation to EN28839) Solid rivets

5019 5754 6082

Bolts

5.2

AlMg5 AlMg3 AlSi1MgMn

Diameter, d [mm]

EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.4 0.2% proof strength Tensile strength fo fu 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ]

H111

≤ 20

110

250

H14,H34

≤ 18

210

300

H111

≤ 20

80

180

H14/H34

≤ 18

180

240

T4

≤ 20

110

205

T6

≤ 20

240

300

5754

AlMg3 (AL1)

-

≤ 10│≤ 20

230│180

270│250

5019

AlMg5 (AL2)

-

≤ 14│≤ 36

205│205

310│280

6082

AlSi1MgMn (AL3)

-

≤ 6│≤ 36

250│260

320│310

Definitions

5.2.1 H Tempers Work hardening is used extensively to produce strain-hardened tempers of the non-heat-treatable alloys. HXY H – Strain hardened by cold working X = 1 for strain hardened only. = 2 for strain hardened and partially annealed. The products are strain hardened more than is required to achieve the desired properties and then are reduced in strength by partial annealing. = 3 for strain hardened and stabilized. In the strain-hardened condition, these alloys tend to age soften at room temperature. Therefore, they are usually heated at a low temperature to complete the age-softening process and to provide stable mechanical properties and improved working characteristics. Y = 2 for quarter-hard cold work condition. = 4 for half-hard cold work condition. = 6 for three-quarter cold work condition. = 8 for full-hard cold work condition. = 9 for extra-hard cold work condition.

5.2.2 T Tempers The complete heat-treatment consists of a solution heat-treatment, a quenching process and subsequent ageing, where the actual hardening occurs. It must be said that, unlike steel, aluminium alloys are definitely not hard after quenching. To get the highest strength values it is important to keep the material for sufficient time at the correct solution heat temperature and to follow the correct quenching procedure. Depending on the alloy this may be carried out using water or moving air. Quenching with water produces distortion and residual stresses. Alloys quenchable with air have some technical and economical advantages, but the most of the high strength alloys need to be water quenched. If the solution heat-treatment or the quenching process is not properly executed this will result in lower values with respect to mechanical strength and elongation (ductility). Symbol Description T4 = Solution heat-treated and then naturally aged T5 = Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged T6 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged T61, T64 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions in order to improve formability (T64 between T61 and T6) T66 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged –mechanical property level higher than T6 achieved through special control of the process 6000 series alloys T7 = Solution heat-treated and artificially over-aged 42

PART 1 EUROCODE


ALUMINIUM DESIGN

Protection at metal-to-metal contacts Additional protection at metal-to-metal contacts to take precautions against crevice and galvanic effects. EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table D.2

Characteristic values of aluminium fasteners Metal to be joined to aluminium (M)

Bolt/rivet material (B/R)

Dry, unpolluted (M)

Aluminium Aluminium

Painted steel Zinc-coated steel

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Industrial urban

Rural

(B/R)

Mild (M)

0 0

0

(B/R)

0

Zinc-coated steel

0

(2)

Aluminium

0

0

Stainless steel

0

0

(M)

0 0

0

0

(B/R)

0/X

0

0 0/X a

0

(2)

(2)

Aluminium

0

0

0

Zinc-coated steel

0 0

0

0 (2)

0/X a

0 (2)

(B/R) 1

X a

1 1 (2)

(1) (2)

0

0

(M)

0

Zinc-coated steel

Stainless steel

Severe

Moderate

X a z

X a z

1 1 1 (2) 1 1 1 (2)

Treatments applied to the contact areas of structural members Procedure 0 A treatment is usually unnecessary for causes of corrosion Procedure 0/X Treatment depends on structural conditions. Small contact areas and areas which dry quickly may be assembled without sealing (see procedure X) Procedure X Both contact surfaces should be assembled so that no crevices exist where water can penetrate. Both contact surfaces, including bolt and rivet holes should, before assembly, be cleaned, pre-treated and receive one priming coat, see prEN 1090-3, or sealing compound, extending beyond the contact area. The surfaces should be brought together while priming coat is still wet. Where assembling pre-painted or protected components sealing of the contact surfaces might be unnecessary, dependant on the composition of the paint or protection system employed, the expected life and the environment. Treatment applied to bolts and rivets Procedure 0 No additional treatment is usually necessary. Procedure 1 Inert washers or jointing compound should be applied between the bolt heads, nuts, washers and connected materials to seal the joint and to prevent moisture entering the interface between components and fixings. Care should be employed to ensure that load transfer through the joint is not adversely affected by the washers or jointing compounds. Procedure 2 Where the joint is not painted or coated for other reasons, the heads of bolts, nuts and rivets should be protected with at least one priming coat (see prEN 1090-3;), care being taken to seal all crevices. Note: Similar coating on aluminium and zinc-coated steel parts around the stainless steel bolts is required only for immersed structures. Further treatments Procedure a If not painted for other reasons it may be necessary to protect the adjacent metallic parts of the contact area by a suitable paint coating in cases where dirt may be entrapped or where moisture retained. Procedure z Additional protection of zinc-coated structural parts as a whole may be necessary

PART 1 EUROCODE

43


ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.4

Cross-sectional properties

5.4.1 Section Classification EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4, 6.1.5

Classification of cross-sections Action Data

Internal

Values b, t c yc yo fo

ε =

250 / f o

(β ε )

= η ε ⋅b t

Notes

Clause

Width and thickness of critical part [mm] Length of reinforcement leg (if any) [mm] Dist. to n.a. of more heavily compressed edge [mm] Dist. to n.a. of other edge [mm] Tensile yield strength of alloy [N/mm2]

Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.2

Yield point constant [-] Effective slenderness ratio [-]

Table 6.2 6.1.4.3 Fig. 6.2

Unreinforced: a) uniform compression η = 1.0 b) stress gradient, yo/yc ≥ –1.0 η = 0.7 + 0.3 ( yo yc ) c) stress gradient, yo/yc < –1.0 η = 0.8  1 − ( yo yc )  Singly-reinforced:

Fig. 6.4

1

η=

1 + 2.5 ( c t − 1 )

2

Doubly-reinforced: 1 η= 2 1 + 4.5 ( c t − 1 )

≥ 0.5

(b t )

yo /yc ≥ 0.33

(b t )

Classification of cross-section part: Class Local buckling factor 1 β ≤ 11ε ρc = 1.0 2 11 < β ≤ 16ε 3 16 < β ≤ 22ε 32 220 ρc = – 4 β > 22 β ε ( ) ( β ε )2

(yo /yc)σ

Table 6.3 (a) singly-reinforced

(b) doubly-reinforced Fig. 6.2

Reinforced: ce = 3 t c t ⋅ c

Fig. 6.4

1 1 + 0.1 ( ce t − 1 )

2

(a) Uniform thickness (b) Non-uniform thickness Reinforced outstand

Classification of cross-section part: Class Local buckling factor β ≤ 3 ε 1 ρc = 1.0 2 3 < β ≤ 4.5ε 3 4.5 < β ≤ 6ε 10 24 ρc = – 4β > 6 ( β ε ) ( β ε )2 t eff = ρ c ⋅ t 44

6.1.4.4 Table 6.2

Outstand Unreinforced: a) yc is free-end/toe η = 1.0 b) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc ≥ –1.0 η = 0.7 + 0.3 ( yo yc ) c) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc < –1.0 η = 0.8  1 − ( yo yc ) 

η =

Table 3.2

6.1.4.4 Table 6.2 Table 6.3

Effective thickness [mm]

6.1.5

PART 1 EUROCODE


ALUMINIUM DESIGN

5.4.2 Local buckling The table below is a guide for minimum thickness for a class 3 cross-section part and prevent local buckling. EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4 Internal

Non-welded aluminium profile Class 3 minimum thickness Outstand peak comp. @ toe peak comp. @ root

ε O0 · · · O1 η = 0.7+0.3(yo/yc) = 1,0 0,8 6060

6063

O2 0,7

O3 0,6

O5 0,4

I0 1,0

I1 0,8

I2 0,7

I3 0,6

I5 0,4

T5 (t ≤ 5) B

1,44

b/7,2

b/9

b/10,3

b/12

b/18

b/26

b/32,5

b/37,1

b/43,3

b/65

T6 (t ≤ 15) A

1,34

b/8

b/10

b/11,5

b/13,4

b/20

b/29,4

b/36,7

b/42

b/49

b/73,5

T66 (t > 3) A

1,29

b/7,7

b/9,7

b/11,1

b/12,9

b/19,4

b/28,4

b/35,5

b/40,6

b/47,3

b/71

T5 (t > 3) B

1,51

b/7,5

b/9,4

b/10,8

b/12,6

b/18,8

b/27,1

b/33,9

b/38,8

b/45,2

b/67,8

T6 (t ≤ 25) A

1,25

b/7,5

b/9,4

b/10,7

b/12,5

b/18,8

b/27,5

b/34,4

b/39,3

b/45,8

b/68,8

Local buckling factor for class 4 cross-section part

PART 1 EUROCODE

EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4

45


ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.4.3 Effective section properties of thermally separated profiles

EN 14024:2004 Annex C

Effective properties of thermally broken profiles Action Data

Values

Notes 4

Area and moment of inertia of inner profile [mm,mm ] Distance of inner profile centroid to inner edge [mm] 4 Area and moment of inertia of outer profile [mm,mm ] Distance of outer profile centroid to outer edge [mm] Modulus of elasticity of the profiles [N/mm²] Length of member [mm]

A1, I1 a1,i A2, I2 a2,o E L c=

Centroid distances

Clause

∆F ∆δ ⋅ L

z =  A1 ⋅ a1,i + A2 ( h − a 2 ,o )  a1 = z − a1,i

( A1 + A2 )

Elasticity constant determined from test [N/mm/mm]

5.4.3

Location of centroid [mm]

Annex C

a 2 = h − z − a 2 ,o

Moments of intertia

ν =

A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2 Is

C =

I ef

Effect of elastic connection [-]

Partial solution constant [-]

π 2 +λ2 1 −ν = Is 1 −ν ⋅ C

We,2 =

4

Effective moment of inertia [mm ] 1

C ( a1 + a1,i ) Is

+

( 1 − C ) a1,i

C ( a 2 + a 2 ,o )

+

3

Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]

I1 + I 2

1 Is

46

4

λ2

We,1 =

Annex C

Compound part of the rigid moment of inertia [mm ]

c ⋅ a 2 L2 E ⋅ I s ⋅ν ( 1 − ν )

λ=

Section modulus

4

Rigid moment of inertia [mm ]

I s = I 1 +I 2 +A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2

3

Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]

( 1 − C ) a 2 ,o I1 + I 2

PART 1 EUROCODE


ALUMINIUM DESIGN

Resistance of aluminium cross-sections

5.5.1 Partial safety factors EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 6.1

Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states Part

Example

EN 1999

UK NA

Resistance of member to instability

Bending and overall yielding

γM1 = 1.1

γM1 = 1.1

Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture

Local capacity in net tension

γM2 = 1.25

γM2 = 1.25

EN 1999-1-1 clause 1,1,2(1) The following design applies to material thickness not less than 0.6mm, steel bolts not less than 5mm, rivets and tapping screws not less than 4.2mm.

5.5.2 General cross-sections EN 1999-1-1:2007

Design resistance of aluminium structures Mode Shear

Values

Notes

Av, Ae Utilization grade: VEd ≤ 1.0 VRd

Shear area and effective shear area [mm ] E γ U= k F Rk γ M

General, hw/tw < 39ε: VRd = Av 3 ⋅ f o γ M1 values of Av: Av = 0.8· Ae Solid bar Av = 0.6· Ae Round tubes

Design shear resistance for sections containing shear webs [kN]

Torsional shear TRd = ( I t c ) Bending

Clause 2

6.2.7 Design torsional shear resistance [kN]

3 ⋅ f o γ M1 ≥ TEd

3

Elastic modulus of the gross section [mm ] 6.2.5 Elastic modulus of the net section allowing for 3 holes and reduced thickness of ρu,haz [mm ]

Wel Wnet Pure bending: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M Rd

{

M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd

}

Design tension resistance [kN·m]

M c,Rd = α Wel f o γ M1

General yielding along the member [kN·m]

M u,Rd = W net f u γ M2

Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m]

values of α: α = W pl Wel Class 1 & 2 Class 3 & 4 α = 1.0 Lateral-torsional buckling: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M b ,Rd

Shape factor [-] Table 6.4 Design buckling resistance of compression member without welding

M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd

where: M cr = π EI z GI t L

Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m] Slenderness [-]

λ LT = α Wel , y f o M cr 2

φ LT = 0.5  1 + α LT ( λ LT − λ0 ,LT ) + λ LT  Initial sway inperfection [-]

χ LT =

1

φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2 values of αLT & λ0,LT:

≤ 1.0

Class 1 & 2

α LT = 0.1 λ0 ,LT = 0.6

Class 3 & 4

α LT = 0.2 λ0 ,LT = 0.4

PART 1 EUROCODE

6.2.6 (A.1)

Reduction factor for buckling [-]

6.3.2.1 6.3.2.1 I.1 6.3.2.3 6.3.2.1 6.3.2.1

Imperfection factor [-] Limit of the horizontal plateau [-]

6.3.2.1

47


ALUMINIUM DESIGN

EN 1999-1-1:2007

Design resistance of aluminium structures Mode Tension

Values

Notes

Clause 2

Gross section area [mm ] 2 Net section area [mm ] Effective area based on the reduced thickness of 2 ρu,haz [mm ]

Ag Anet Aeff Basis: N Ed ≤ 1.0 N t ,Rd

6.2.3

Where:

{

N t,Rd = min N o ,Rd ; N u ,Rd

Compression

}

Design tension resistance [kN]

N o,Rd = Ag f o γ M1

General yielding along the member [kN]

N u,Rd = 0.9Anet f u γ M2


N u,Rd = Aeff f u γ M2

Local failure at a section with holes [kN] 2

Net section area [mm ] Effective area based on the reduced thickness of 2 ρu,haz [mm ]

Anet Aeff Local squashing N Ed ≤ 1.0 N c ,Rd

{

N c,Rd = min N c ,Rd ; N u ,Rd

}

N c,Rd = Aeff f o γ M1


Flexural buckling, λ > λo : N Ed ≤ 1.0 N b ,Rd

6.3.1.1 Design buckling resistance of compression member without welding [kN]

N b,Rd = χ Aeff f o γ M1

a) Doubly symmetrical cross-sections: π EI y π EI z ; N cr,z = N cr,y = 2 2 ( kz L) ky L

λ =

Elastic critical force [kN]

)

N cr

φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − λo ) + λ 2  1

I.3 Slenderness [-]

Aeff f o

χ =

Design tension resistance [kN] General yielding along the member [kN]

N u,Rd = Anet f u γ M2

(

Initial sway inperfection [-] Reduction factor for buckling [-]

≤ 1.0

values of α & λ0: α = 0.2 Class A

α = 0.32

λo = 0.0

6.3.1.2

Table 6.8

Imperfection factor [-]

λo = 0.1

6.3.1.2

6.3.1.2

φ + φ2 − λ 2 values of k: 0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0

Class B

6.2.4

Table 6.6

Limit of the horizontal plateau [-] See section 5.1 for buckling class

Torsional-flexural buckling, λ T > λo : See I.3& I.4

48

PART 1 EUROCODE


ALUMINIUM DESIGN EN 1999-1-1:2007

Combined stresses Mode

Values

Notes

Bending and high shear

General: M Ed ≤ 1.0 f o,V ⋅ M Rd

6.2.8

For VEd > VRd/2: 2  2V f o,V = f o  1 −  Ed 1   − VRd     Bending and tension

Clause

Moment resistance reduction factor [-] (6.38)

General: M y,Ed M z,Ed N Ed + ≤ 1.0 + N Rd M y,Rd M z,Rd

Interaction formula (conservative)

6.2.9.1

Hollow sections:  N Ed     N Rd 

 M y,Ed +    M y,Rd 

1.3

   

1.7

1.7

 M z,Ed + M  z,Rd

  

 M z,Ed + M  z,Rd

  

   

0.6

(6.43)

≤ 1.0

Solid sections:  N Ed     N Rd 

Bending and compression buckling

 M y,Ed +    M y,Rd 

2.0

   

1.7

1.7

   

0.6

(6.43)

≤ 1.0

General: Major axis (y-axis) bending:

6.3.3.1 Interaction formula (conservative)

0.8

 N Ed  M y,Ed ≤ 1.0   +  N b,y,Rd  M y,Rd   Minor axis (z-axis) bending: 0.8

0.8

 N Ed   M z,Ed   +   N b,z,Rd   M z,Rd Hollow sections:

  

 M y,Ed +    M y,Rd 

   

 N Ed   N b,Rd

0.8

  

(6.60) ≤ 1.0

1.7

 M z,Ed + M  z,Rd

  

1.7

   

0.6

(6.62) ≤ 1.0

Solid sections:  N Ed     N Rd 

Lateral-torsional General: buckling  N Ed   N b,z,Rd

PART 1 EUROCODE

 M y,Ed +    M y,Rd 

2.0

   

(6.59)

1.7

 M z,Ed + M  z,Rd

  

1.7

   

(6.61)

0.6

≤ 1.0

6.3.3.2 0.8

  

 M y,Ed +  M  b,Rd

  

1.0

 M z,Ed + M  z,Rd

  

0.8

≤ 1.0

Interaction formula (conservative)

(6.63)

49



Cold formed members

5.6.1 Effective widths EN 1999-1-4:2007

Panel edge stiffeners Action Data

Single edge fold

Values

λ p ≅ 1.052

bp t

⋅

fo Ekσ

b p = b − ( 0.586r + 1.293t ) kσ = 4.0

ρ=

λ p − 0.22 λp

beff = ρ

2

≤ 1.0

bp

3003

5005A

Clause

Plate slenderness [-]

5.5.2

Buckling factor for uniform comp., ψ = 1.0 [-]

Table 5.3;

Reduction factor for plate buckling [-]

5.5.2

Effective width [mm]

2 Alloy

1050A

Notes

Approx. beff

2 O/H111 112t − 2783 t b p

H14

58t − 742 t 2 b p

O/H111

42t − 795 t 2 b p

H14

23t − 242 t 2 b p

O/H111

42t − 795 t 2 b p

H14

24t − 253 t 2 b p

EN 1993-1-4 Table 4.2

c p = c − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) kσ = 0.5

ρ= ceff

λ p − 0.188 2

Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-]

Alloy 1050A

3003

5005A Double edge fold

4.4

≤ 1.0

λp = ρ ⋅cp Approx. ceff

O/H111

40t − 297 t 2 c p

H14

20t − 79 t 2 c p

O/H111

30t − 170 t 2 c p

H14

17 t − 52 t 2 c p

O/H111

30t − 170 t 2 c p

H14

17 t − 54 t 2 c p

Effective return depth [mm]

EN 1993-1-4 Table 4.2

d p = d − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) kσ = 0.43

ρ=

λ p − 0.188 λp

2

d eff = ρ ⋅ d p

≤ 1.0

Table 4.2

Buckling factor for uniform compression, ψ = 1.0 [-]

4.4 Table 4.2

Effective lip [mm]

50

PART 1 EUROCODE


CONCRETE DESIGN

I-6 CONCRETE DESIGN 6.1

Properties of concrete EN 1992-1-1:2004 Cl. 3.1.3

Material constants Form


Normal Lightweight Heavy weight

Unit weight, ρ Modulus of elasticity, Ecm [kg/m³] 2 [N/mm ]

24.0

2 450

8.8 – 19.6

900 – 2 000

> 19.6

> 2 000

22 ( f cm 10 )



≈ 21 000

0.20*

0.3

Coef. of linear thermal exp., α [/˚C] -6

10·10

Note: * Uncracked. 0 for cracked. Concrete Strength Class Strength Characteristic Characteristic Class cylinder cube strength strength fck fck,cube [N/mm²] [N/mm²]

Mean cylinder strength fcm [N/mm²]

Mean tensile strength fctm [N/mm²]

EN 1992-1-1:2004 Table 3.1 Characteristic Characteristic Mean tensile tensile modulus of strength strength elasticity fctk,0.05 fctk,0.95 Ecm [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²]

C12/15

12

15

20

1.6

1.1

2.0

27 000

C16/20

16

20

24

1.9

1.3

2.5

29 000

C20/25

20

25

28

2.2

1.5

2.9

30 000

C25/30

25

30

33

2.6

1.8

3.3

31 000

C30/37

30

37

38

2.9

2.0

3.8

33 000

C35/45

35

45

43

3.2

2.2

4.2

34 000

C40/50

40

50

48

3.5

2.5

4.6

35 000

C45/55

45

55

53

3.8

2.7

4.9

36 000

C50/60

50

60

58

4.1

2.9

5.3

37 000

C55/67

55

67

63

4.2

3.0

5.5

38 000

C60/75

60

75

68

4.4

3.1

5.7

39 000

C70/85

70

85

78

4.6

3.2

6.0

41 000

C80/95

80

95

88

4.8

3.4

6.3

42 000

C90/105

90

105

98

5.0

3.5

6.6

44 000

PART 1 EUROCODE

51


CONCRETE DESIGN 6.2

Concrete design EN 1992-1-1:2004 Table 2.1N

Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states Design Situations

Concrete

Steel

Prestressing steel

Persistent and Transient

γC = 1.5

γS = 1.15

γS = 1.15

Accidental

γC = 1.2

γS = 1.0

γS = 1.0

6.3

Anchorage design EN 1992-1-1:2004

Tension anchorage Type Bond strength

Action

f ctd = α ct ⋅ f ctk ,0.05 γ C

α ct = 1.0 f bd = 2.25 ⋅ η1 ⋅ η 2 ⋅ f ctd

Anchorage length

lb,rqd =

F π ⋅ φ ⋅ f bd

cd = min {a 2; c; c1 }

Bent bars: lb,eq = α 1 ⋅ lb ,rqd

Notes

Clause

Design tensile strength [N/mm²]

3.1.6

Long-term and load application effects [-] Ultimate bond stress for ribbed bars [N/mm²] Coefficients, η η1 = 1.0 Good bond condition

3.1.6

Others & built in slip-form

η1 = 0.7

Ø ≤ 32 mm

η 2 = 1.0

Ø > 32 mm

η 2 = 1.32 − φ 100

8.4.2

8.4.3

Basic anchorage length [mm] Ø ≤ 16mm : r ≥ 4Ø Ø > 16mm : r ≥ 7Ø

Edge distance and spacing

8.4.4

Design anchorage length [mm] Table 8.2

Effect of the form of bars, α1: α 1 = 1.0 cd < 3Ø

α 1 = 0.7

cd ≥ 3Ø

Straight bars: lb,eq = α 2 ⋅ lb ,rqd

α 2 = 1 − 0.15 ( cd − φ ) φ U bars: lb,eq = 0.7 ⋅ lb ,rqd

Design resistance

Tension Fbt,Rd = π ⋅ φ ⋅ f bd ⋅ lb ,eq α

Design bonding tensile resistance [N]

8.4.3

Bearing shear

Fbv,Rd = φ 2 52

f yk γ s ⋅ f ck γ c Design bearing shear resistance [N]

8.6

PART 1 EUROCODE

TIMBER DESIGN


I-7 TIMBER DESIGN 7.1

Strength grade

7.1.1 Solid timber A timber population may be assigned to a strength class if its characteristic values of bending strength and density equal or exceed the values for that strength class, and its characteristic mean modulus of elasticity in bending equals or exceeds 95 % of the value for that strength class. Strength grading of solid timber can be achieved in one of two ways: Visual method: EN 14081-1. Machine method: EN 14081-1, EN 14081-2, EN 14081-3 & EN 14081-4. The characteristic values are defined as the population 5th-percentile values obtained from the results of tests with a duration of approximately 5 min at the equilibrium moisture content of the test pieces relating to a temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%. Timber strength class – Characteristic values Strength Density Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending class Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus

2

[kg/m³] ρk Softwood (Conifer)

Tension

EN 338:2009 Table 1 Compression Shear

2

[N/mm ]

[N/mm ]

ρmean

E0,mean

E0,05

E90,mean

Gmean

fmean,k*

ft,0,k*

ft,90,k

1.2ρk

-

0.67E0,m

E0,m/30

E0,m/16

-

0.6fm,k

0.4

fc,0,k

fc,90,k

5fm,k0.45 0.007ρk

fv,k -

C14

290

350

7 000

4 700

230

440

14

8

0.4

16

2.0

3.0

C16

310

370

8 000

5 400

270

500

16

10

0.4

17

2.2

3.2

C18

320

380

9 000

6 000

300

560

18

11

0.4

18

2.2

3.4

C20

330

390

9 500

6 400

320

590

20

12

0.4

19

2.3

3.6

C22

340

410

10 000

6 700

330

630

22

13

0.4

20

2.4

3.8

C24

350

420

11 000

7 400

370

690

24

14

0.4

21

2.5

4

C27

370

450

11 500

7 700

380

720

27

16

0.4

22

2.6

4

C30

380

460

12 000

8 000

400

750

30

18

0.4

23

2.7

4

C35

400

480

13 000

8 700

430

810

35

21

0.4

25

2.8

4

C40

420

500

14 000

9 400

470

880

40

24

0.4

26

2.9

4

C45

440

520

15 000

10 000

500

940

45

27

0.4

27

3.1

4

C50

460

550

16 000

10 700

530

1000

50

30

0.4

29

3.2

4

1.2ρk

-

0.84E0,m

E0,m/15

E0,m/16

-

0.6fm,k

0.6

Hardwood (Deciduous)

5fm,k0.45 0.015ρk

-

D18

475

570

9500

8000

630

590

18

11

0,6

18

7.5

3.4

D24

485

580

10000

8500

670

620

24

14

0,6

21

7.8

4

D30

530

640

11000

9200

730

690

30

18

0,6

23

8.0

4

D35

540

650

12000

10100

800

750

35

21

0,6

25

8.1

4

D40

550

660

13000

10900

860

810

40

24

0,6

26

8.3

4

D50

620

750

14000

11800

930

880

50

30

0,6

29

9.3

4

D60

700

840

17000

14300

1130

1060

60

36

0,6

32

10.5

4.5

D70

900

1080

20000

16800

1330

1250

70

42

0,6

34

13.5

5

Note: * For rectangular solid timber, the reference depth in bending or width (max. dim.) in tension is 150 mm. For depths in bending or widths in tension less than 150 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased by the factor k h , given in section 0. B

B

PART 1 EUROCODE

53


TIMBER DESIGN 7.1.2 Glulam

A glued laminated member can be assigned to one of the strength classes if its characteristic bending strength and modulus of elasticity, derived from tests in accordance with EN 408 and EN 1193, equal or exceed the values for that strength class. It is assumed that bending specimens have a depth h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. It is assumed that tension specimens have a width h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. If the cross-section dimensions are lower than these reference values, the test results shall be multiplied by:  b  k size =    150 

0 ,05

 h   600   

0 ,1

EN 1194:1999 Tables 1, 2 & A.1

Glulam strength class – Characteristic values Strength class

Density

Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus

2

[kg/m³] ρg,k Homogene 1.1ρl,k ous

Tension

Compression

Shear

2

[N/mm ]

[N/mm ] *

E0,g,mean

E0,g,0.05

E90,g,m

Gg,mean

fm,g,k*

ft,0,g,k

ft,90,g,k

fc,0,g,k

fc,90,g,k

fv,g,k

1.05E0,l,m

0.85E0,l,m

0.035E0,l,m

0.065E0,l,m

7.0 + 1.15ft,0,l,k

5.0 + 0.8ft,0,l,k

0.2 + 0.015ft,0,l,k

7.2ft,0,l,k0.45

0.7ft,0,l,k0.45

0.32ft,0,l,k0.8

GL 24h

380

11 600

9 400

390

720

24

16.5

0.4

24

2.7

2.7

GL 28h

410

12 600

10 200

420

780

28

19.5

0.45

26.5

3.0

3.2

GL 32h

430

13 700

11 100

460

850

32

22.5

0.5

29

3.3

3.8

GL 36h

450

14 700

11 900

490

910

36

26

0.6

31

3.6

4.3

1.05E0,l,m

0.85E0,l,m

0.7ft,0,l,k0.45

0.32ft,0,l,k0.8

Combined 1.1ρl,k

0.035E0,l,m

0.065E0,l,m

7.0 + 1.15ft,0,l,k

5.0 + 0.8ft,0,l,k

0.2 + 0.015ft,0,l,k

7.2ft,0,l,k0.45

GL 24c

350

11 600

9 400

320

590

24

14

0.35

21

2.4

2.2

GL 28c

380

12 600

10 200

390

720

28

16.5

0.4

24

2.7

2.7

GL 32c

410

13 700

11 100

420

780

32

19.5

0.45

26.5

3.0

3.2

GL 36c

430

14 700

11 900

460

850

36

22.5

0.5

29

3.3

3.8

Note: * For rectangular glued laminated timber, the reference depth in bending or width in tension is 600 mm. For depths in bending or widths in tension less than 600 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased by the factor k h , given in section 0. B

7.2

B

Service class The service class system is mainly aimed at assigning strength values and for calculating deformations under defined environmental conditions.

Service classes EN 1995-1-1:2008 Cl. 2.3.1.3 Service Examples EMC = Maximum equilibrium Characterised by moisture content class acc. to UK NA Table NA.2 corresponding to a temperature of 20°C… moisture content for most softwoods

54

1

Warm roofs, intermediate floors, internal walls

…and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 65 % for few weeks per year

≤ 12 %

2

Cold roofs, ground floors, external walls, external member protected from weather

…and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 85 % for few weeks per year

≤ 20 %

3

External member fully exposed

Conditions leading to higher moisture contents than service class 2

> 20 %

PART 1 EUROCODE

TIMBER DESIGN


Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL

7.3.1 Serviceability EN 1995-1-1:2008

Deflection Mode Stiffness*

Deflection

Values

Notes

Clause

E mean Gmean

Modulus of elasticity [N/mm²]

u fin = u fin,G + u fin,Q1 + + u fin,Qi

Total final deformation [mm]

2.3.2.2

Modulus of rigidity [N/mm²] 2.2.3

where:

(

u fin,G = uinst,G 1 + k def

)

Final deformation due to permanent action [mm]

( ) = uinst,Qi (ψ 0 ,i + ψ 2 ,i kdef )

u fin,Q1 = uinst,Q1 1 + ψ 2 ,1 kdef

Final deformation due to leading variable action [mm]

u fin,Qi

Final deformation due to accompanying variable action

Deformation factor, kdef Service Material class 1 Solid, Gluelam 2 and LVL 3

[mm] Table 3.2

Deformation modification factor

kdef 0.6 0.8 2.0

Note: * The moduli given in clause 2.3.2.2 are used only for structure with different materials (i.e. different creep).

7.3.2 Ultimate limit state EN 1995-1-1:2008

Timber design Mode Stiffness Resistance

Values Ed =

E mean

γM

Rd = k mod

; Gd =

Gmean

γM

Rk

γM Material safety factor, γM: Material Solid timber Glued laminated timber Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) Connections

γM 1.3 1.25 1.2 1.3

Notes

Clause

Mean value of modulus of elasticity & shear modulus

2.4.1

Design resistance

2.4.3

Material factor

Table 2.3

Table 3.1

Modification factor, kmod: Load-duration class

Example

Permanent: > 10 yrs Long term: 0.5-10 yrs Medium: 1 wk-6 mos Short term: < 1 wk Instantaneous

self-weight storage imposed floor snow, aintenance wind, impact, explosion

PART 1 EUROCODE

kmod Service class 1&2 3 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.55 0.8 0.65 0.9 0.7 1.1 0.9

55


TIMBER DESIGN

EN 1995-1-1:2008

Timber design Mode Tension

Values

Notes Design tension resistance [N]

N t,Rd = A· f t ,d

Parallel to grain f t ,0 ,k

f t ,0 ,d = k h ⋅ k mod

γM

Depth factor, kh: Material Criteria

kh

Solid

h < 150 mm

( 150 h )0.2 ≤ 1.3

Glulam

h < 600 mm

( 600 h )0.1 ≤ 1.1

LVL

L ≠ 3000 mm

( 3000 l ) s 2 ≤ 1.1

Perpendicular to grain f t ,90 ,k f t ,90 ,d = k mod γM Compression

Criteria for design tension stress parallel 6.1.2 2 to grain[N/mm ] 3.2, Depth factor: 3.3, 3.4 h = maximum dimension

Criteria for design tension stress parallel 2 to grain [N/mm ]

6.1.3

Design compression resistance [N]

N c,Rd = A· f c ,d

Parallel to grain f c ,0 ,d = k mod

Clause

Criteria for design compression stress 2 parallel to grain[N/mm ]

f c ,0 ,k

γM Perpendicular to grain f c,90,d = kc,90 ⋅ f c ,90 ,d Load direction factor, kc,90: Support

Criteria for design compression stress 2 parallel to grain [N/mm ] kc,90 ≤ 4.0

l  h   1+ End, a ≤ h/3  2.38 −   250   12l  

Intermit End, a >h/3 tent Internal Continu h ≤ 2.5b ous & discrete support h > 2.5b

6.1.4

Splitting and comp. deformation factor

6.1.5

1.0 l  h   2.38 − 250   1 + 6l    

Fig. 6.2

l  lef   2.38 − 250  l   lef l

;l
N b,Rd = A· f b ,d

Compression buckling 12 λz = k ⋅ L b λ z f c,0,k λrel,z = π E0.05 kc ,z =

Slenderness ratio [-] Relative slenderness ratio [-]

1 kz +

k z2

2 − λrel,z

2  k z = 0.5  1 + β c λrel ,z − 0.3 + λrel ,z   f b ,d = k z ⋅ f c ,d

(

values of βc: Material Solid timber Glulam & LVL 56

6.3.2

)

Reduction factor [-] Compression buckling stress [N/mm²]

βc 0.2 0.1

PART 1 EUROCODE

TIMBER DESIGN


EN 1995-1-1:2008

Timber design Mode Shear

Values

2

γM

J τ tor ,d r ≤ k shape ⋅ f v ,d

TRd =

τ tor ,d

τ tor

h M  Rectangular 3  1 + 0.6  tor2 b  h⋅b 

1 + 0.15

f m ,k

kh

( 150 h )0.2 ≤ 1.3

Gluelam h < 600 mm

( 600 h )0.1 ≤ 1.1

LVL

( 300 h ) s ≤ 1.2

h < 300 mm

Bending and tension Ft ,Ed M y,Ed M z,Ed + ≤ 1.0 + km Ft ,Rd M y ,Rd M z ,Rd Ft ,Rd

+ km

M y,Ed M y ,Rd

+

M z,Ed M z ,Rd

≤ 1.0

Bending and compression 2

 Fc ,Ed   Fc ,Rd

 M y,Ed M z,Ed + km ≤ 1.0  + M y ,Rd M z ,Rd 

 Fc ,Ed   Fc ,Rd

 M y,Ed M z,Ed + ≤ 1.0  + k m M y ,Rd M z ,Rd 

PART 1 EUROCODE

h ≤ 2.0 b

Design bending resistance [N/mm²]

γM

h < 150 mm

Ft ,Ed

6.1.8

Design moment resistance [N]

M Rd = W · f m ,d

values of kh: Material Depth

Combined stresses

Design torsion resistance [N]

1.2

4π D 3

Solid

6.1.7

kshape

M tor

Circular

f m ,d = k h ⋅ k mod

Design shear stress [N/mm ]

Design torsional shear stress 2 [N/mm ]

values of τtor & kshape: Section

Bending

Clause

Design shear resistance [N]

A · f v ,d 1.5 f v ,k = k mod

VRd = f v ,d

Torsion

Notes

6.1.6

Allowance for redistribution of stresses and the effect of inhomogeneities in a cross-section 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 Depth factor

6.1.6 Stress redistribution factor, km: Section km Rectangular 0.7 Others 1.0

6.2.3

6.2.4

2

57


GLASS DESIGN

I-8 GLASS DESIGN 8.1

Properties

8.1.1 Glass Mechanical properties of glass Form Density, Unit weight, γ ρ [kN/m³] [kg/m³] All

24.5


Modulus of rigidity, G 2 [N/mm ]


70 000

29 166

0.20

2 500

EN 572-1:2004 Thermal coefficient, α [/˚C] -6

9·10

8.1.2 Interlayer Laminated glass interlayer Shear Modulus [N/mm²] Thickness [mm]

Interlayer

PVB Polyvinyl Butyral

SG Sentryglas

xx.1 [mils] [mm] [mils] [mm]

15

Temp.

xx.2 xx.3 xx.4 30

45

35

60

90

3s

1m

10 m

1 hr

24 h

1 mo

10 yr

30°C

0.97

0.75

0.5

0.44

0.28

0.07

0.05

50°C

0.44

0.29

0.09

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

30°C

141

110

65*

59.9

49.7

11.6

5.31

50°C

26.4

11.3

4.0*

4.0

2.82

2.18

2.0

60°C

8.18

3.64

2.0*

1.7

1.29

1.08

0.97

80°C

1.32

0.83

0.4

0.32

0.25

0.21

0.18

60

0.38 0.76 1.14 1.52 120

0.89 1.52 2.28 3.05

Load Duration

Note: *According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016.

8.2

Glass sizes Split sizes are delivered in size ranges 3210mm*×1000mm to 2550mm. Jumbo sizes are delivered in sizes 3210mm*×4500mm, 5100mm or 6000mm *The usual width is 3 210 mm. Exceptional production requirements can cause this to be reduced but the nominal width is never below 3 150 mm EN 572-2:2004 Table 1

Tolerance on nominal thickness Nominal thickness

Tolerances

Nominal thickness

Tolerances

2, 3, 4, 5, 6

± 0.2 mm

15

± 0.5 mm

6, 10, 12

± 0.3 mm

19, 25

± 1,0 mm

8.3

Glass holes EN 12150-1:2000 Design rules for loaded holes: The distance, a, of the edge of a hole to the glass edge should be not less than 2d. The distance, b, between the edges of two holes should be not less than 2d. The distance, c, of the edge of a hole to the cor-ner of the glass should be not less than 6d.

PART 1 EUROCODE

59


GLASS DESIGN 8.4

Structural design of glass

8.4.1 Allowable stress design (ASD) σ max ≤ σ allowable

- Principal stress under 10 minute mean wind velocity. TRLV:2006 Table 2 Barrier glass

Glass design acc. to TRLV Four-side supported glass Wind load only

Form

Vertical glazing

Overhead glazing

†

With climatic load combination Vertical glazing A ≤ 1.6m

2

A > 1.6m

Impact load

Overhead glazing

2

TRAV:2003 cl. 6.4.4

Annealed

18 12 22.5 20.7 13.8 80 ‡ Annealed Laminated 22.5 15 (25) 28.1 25.8 17.25(28.8) 80 30 30 37.5 34.5 34.5 120 Float Heat strengthened Toughened with frits 30 30 37.5 34.5 34.5 120 Toughened 50 50 62.5 57.5 57.5 170 Annealed 10 8 12.5 11.5 9.2 Cast Toughened 37 37 46.2 42.5 42.5 † Note: Allowable stresses, for checking under combined wind and climatic loading, can be increased by 15% in 2 general and 25% for float glass for vertical glazing having a surface area of up to 1.6m . ‡ Value in bracket is for the upper ply of the laminated lower pane at the event of upper pane breakage.

8.4.2 Design according to DIN 18008: Limit state design (LRFD) Leichtbau und Glasbau S-5-01/2007

Glass design acc. to DIN 18008 Mode

Values

Design

Clause

σ Ed ≤ σ Rd σ Ed { Fd } =

Resistance

Notes

2

∑ γ G ; j Gk ; j + γ Q ;1Qk ;1 + ∑ γ Q ;iψ 0 ;1Qk ;i

Design stress, [N/mm ]

Annealed glass (AN): k ⋅f σ Rd = mod k γM Thermally toughened glass (HS/TVG, FT/ESG): f σ Rd = k γM

2

Design stress resistance, [N/mm ] values of kmod & γM: Short-term load (wind) Medium and long-term load (dead, snow, climatic load)

kmod = 0.7

γ

kmod = 0.4

γ

Design stress resistance under load combination 2

Characteristic bending tensile stress, 2 fk [N/mm ]

No short-duration load

General

Four-side supported vertical glass

Annealed

45

10

17.5

28.64

Heat-strengthened with ceramic frit

45

30

30

40.91

Heat strengthened

70

46.67

46.67

63.64

Toughened with ceramic frit

75

50

50

68.18

Toughened

120

80

80

109.10

Annealed, edge under tension

36

8.8

15.4

-

Annealed

45

11

19.25

31.5

Heat-strengthened with ceramic frit

45

33

33

45

Heat strengthened

70

51.33

51.33

70

Toughened with ceramic frit

75

55

55

75

Toughened

120

88

88

120

Laminated

Monlithic

Float glass

60

Design stress resistance, fRd [N/mm ] With short-duration load

PART 1 EUROCODE


GLASS DESIGN

8.4.3 Design acc. to prEN 13474 prEN 13474-1:1999

Glass design to Eurocode Mode Design Resistance

Values

σ ef,k ≤ f g,d [ULS] or

Notes

Clause

Calculated unfactored stresses [N/mm²]

f g,d [SLS] FS

fg,k = 45 N/mm2 k A = A0.04 Annealed glass (AN): k mod ⋅ f g,k ⋅ γ n ; γn = 1.0 f g,d = γ mkA Thermally toughened glass (HS/TVG, FT/ESG):  f b,k − f g,k kmod ⋅ f g,k  f g,d =  + γ γv γ m k A  n  values of kmod: Duration of load Load Short wind Medium snow, climate Permanent Selfweight, altitude

Generic strength of glass Size factor

6.3.1 6.3.5 2

Design stress resistance, [N/mm ] 6.3.6 National partial safety factor Table A.1

Modification factor according to the duration of the dominant action Table 6 kmod 0.72 0.36 0.27 Table 5

values of γm: γm Glass

All ULS 1.8 1.8 2.3 2.3 2.3 3.2 1.8 1.8

Float and sheet Enamelled float Patterned Enamelled patterned Polished wired Patterned wired Borosilicate glass Glass ceramics values of fb,k:

SLS 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.8 1.0 1.0

Heat strengthened 70 45 55 45 -

Glass Float and sheet Enamelled float Patterned Enamelled patterned Borosilicate glass

γv Heat strengthened, thermally toughened ULS SLS 2.3 1.5 2.3 1.5 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.3 1.5 -

Chemically strengthened ULS SLS 2.3 1.5 3.0 2.0 -

Thermally toughened 120 75 90 75 120

Chemically strengthened 150 150 -

Table 4

2

Allowable stress for panes up to 4.0 m area (kA = 1.057). prEN 13474-2:2000 Table 2 2 Allowable stress for uniformly distributed load, fg,d [N/mm ]* Glass Short duration loads Medium duration Permanent loads (Wind) (Snow, climate) (Selfweight, altitude) Type Process ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS SLS Annealed (AN) 17.0 30.7 8.5 15.3 6.4 11.5 Heat strengthened (HS) 27.9 47.3 19.4 32.0 17.3 28.2 Float and sheet Thermally toughened (FT) 49.6 80.7 41.1 65.3 39.0 61.5 Chemically strengthened (CS) 62.7 100.7 54.2 85.3 52.0 81.5 Heat strengthened (HS) 17.0 30.7 8.5 15.3 6.4 11.5 Enamelled Thermally toughened (FT) 30.1 50.7 21.6 35.3 19.4 31.5 Note: * SLS values have to be reduced by appropriate safety factors.

PART 1 EUROCODE

61


GLASS DESIGN 8.4.4 Design of single glass

prEN 13474-2:2000 Annex E

Design of Single Glass Action

Values

Notes

Clause

Data

a, b Fd, Fk

Shorter and longer side of the glass, [mm] 2 Design and characteristic load, [kN/m ]

Monolithic

hef,σ = hef,w = h

Effective glass thickness, [mm]

Laminated Shear transfer coefficient, Γ =0: glass h3

∑ i

hef ,σ j = hef ,w =

i

hj 3

Effective glass thickness for stress calculation of individual pane, [mm] Effective glass thickness for deflection calculation, [mm]

∑ hi 3

Table F.1 F.2

i

Laminated Short duration loads, Γ =1: hef,σ = hef,w = Σ(hi) safety glass Other loads, Γ =0:

Effective glass thickness for stress calculation of individual pane, [mm]

∑ hi 3 i

hef ,σ j = hef ,w =

hj 3

Effective glass thickness with full composite action, [mm]

Effective glass thickness for deflection calculation, [mm]

∑ hi 3 i

Load combinations** Ultimate limit state

Serviceability limit state

Table F.1 F.2

Allowable stress criteria

Vertical glazing 1.5W

W

1. 5(W + 0.7L)

(W + 0.7L)

1.5L

L

σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration )

Sloped glazing 1.35D

D

σ ef ≤ f g ,d (permanent )

1.35D + 1.5(S + *0.6Wp)

D + (S + *0.6Wp)

σ ef ≤ f g ,d (medium duration)

1.35D + 1.5(Wp + 0.5S)

D + (Wp + 0.5S)

1.35D + 1.5(Wp + 0.7L)

D + (Wp + 0.7L)

1.35D + 1.5(L + *0.6Wp)

D + (L + *0.6Wp)


D + 1.5Ws D + Ws Note: **Load combinations are according to EN 1990. Factors in prEN 13474 are according to the obsolete draft ENV 1991-1. *0.5W p acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1

62

PART 1 EUROCODE


GLASS DESIGN

8.4.5 Design of IGU prEN 13474-2:2000 Annex E

Design of Insulated Glass Unit Action Data Insulating glass

Values

Notes Glass thickness, [mm]

h1, h2

δ1 = δ2 =

Clause

h1

3

h1 + h2 3

Stiffness of outer pane 1, [-]

h2 3

Stiffness of inner pane 2, [-]

3

h1 3 + h2 3

 s ⋅ h1 3 h2 3 a* = 28.9  k h 3 + h 3 2  5 1 1 φ= 4  a  1+    a* 

(

Vertical glazing Ultimate limit state

)

   

8.3.1

0.25

Characteristic length of the unit, [mm]

8.3.2

Insulating unit factor, [-]

Serviceability limit state

Allowable stress criteria Remarks

Design of outer pane 1: 1.5Wp(δ1+φδ2)

Wp(δ1+φδ2) - φ(pH +0.9pC)

1.5Ws(δ1+φδ2)

Ws(δ1+φδ2) + φ(pH +0.9pC)

1.5[Wp(δ1+φδ2) + 0.7L]

[Wp(δ1+φδ2) + 0 .7L] - φ(pH +0.9pC)

1.5L

L - φ(pH +0.9pC)

σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration ) Live load on outer pane

Design of inner pane 2: 1.5Wp(1-φ)δ2

Wp,s(1-φ)δ2 + φ(pH +0.9pC)

1.5Ws(1-φ)δ2

Wp,s(1-φ)δ2 - φ(pH +0.9pC)

1.5[Ws(1-φ)δ2 + 0.7L]

[Ws(1-φ)δ2 +0 .7L] - φ(pH +0.9pC)


Live load on inner pane L - φ(pH +0.9pC) Note: Net wind load is assumed acting on the outer pane only (i.e., including internal pressure). Sloped glazing Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state Allowable stress 1.5L

Design of outer pane 1: 1.35D1(δ1+φδ2) +1.35D2(1-φ)δ1

D1(δ1+φδ2) + D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)

f g ,d (permanent )

[1.35D1+1.5(S+*0.6Wp)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1

(D1+S+*0.6Wp)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 -φ(pH +0.9pC)

f g ,d (medium)

[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.5S)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1

(D1+Wp+0.5S)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 -φ(pH +0.9pC)

[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.7L)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1

(D1+Wp+0.7L)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)

[1.35D1+1.5(L+*0.6Wp)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1

(D1+L+*0.6Wp)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)

(D1+1.5Ws)(δ1+φδ2) + 1.35D2(1-φ)δ1

(D1+Ws)(δ1+φδ2) + D2(1-φ)δ1+ φ(pH +0.9pC)

f g ,d (short)

Design of inner pane 2: 1.35D1(1-φ)δ2 + 1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)

D1(1-φ)δ2 + D2(φδ1+δ2)+ φ(pH +0.9pC)

[1.35D1+1.5(S+*0.6Wp)] (1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+S+*0.6Wp)(1-φ)δ2 +D2(φδ1+δ2)-φ(pH +0.9pC) [1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.5S)] (1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)

(D1+Wp+0.5S)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)-φ(pH +0.9pC)

[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.7L)] (1-φ)δ2 +1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)

(D1+Wp+0.7L)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)- φ(pH +0.9pC)

[1.35D1+1.5(L+*0.6Wp)](1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)

(D1+L+*0.6Wp)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)- φ(pH +0.9pC)

(D1+1.5Ws) (1-φ)δ2 + 1.35D2(φδ1+δ2)

(D1+Ws)(1-φ)δ2 + D2(φδ1+δ2)+ φ(pH +0.9pC)

PART 1 EUROCODE

f g ,d (permanent ) f g ,d (medium)

f g ,d (short)

63


GLASS DESIGN 8.5

Glass stress and deflection prEN 13474-2:2000

Calculation of glass stress and deflection and cavity volume change Action

Values

Notes

Clause

Data

a, b Fd

Shorter and longer side of the glass, [mm] 2 Design load, [kN/m ]

Stress and deflection

λ = a/b

Aspect ratio, [-]

a 4 Fd p* = hef 4 E

σ max = k1 σ ef = k 2

hef ,σ

2

a2

w max = k 4 V = k5

Normalised load, [-]

a2

hef ,σ

B.1

2

Fd

a4 hef ,w

Fd

3

a 5 b Fd hef ,w 3 E

Fd E

2

Maximum tensile stress, [N/mm ] 2

Effective glass stress, [N/mm ]

Maximum glass deflection, [mm] 3

Insulating glass change of cavity volume, [mm ]

8.5.1 Coefficients for two-edge supported rectangular glass k1 = 0.75 k2 = 0.699 k4 = 0.148

8.5.2 Coefficients for three-edge supported rectangular glass

64

PART 1 EUROCODE


GLASS DESIGN

8.5.3 Coefficients for four-edge supported rectangular glass The coefficients in the table below are valid for a Poisson number in the range 0.20 to 0.24. For small deflections (linear theory) the values for p* = 0 apply. Figure 8.5-1 Calculation of maximum stress, k1

prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.1

Figure 8.5-2 Calculation of effective stress, k2

prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.2

PART 1 EUROCODE

65

GLASS DESIGN


Figure 8.5-3 Calculation of maximum deflection, k4

prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.3

Figure 8.5-4 Calculation of volume change, k5

prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.4

66

PART 1 EUROCODE


GLASS DESIGN

Climatic effects

8.6.1 IGU Internal actions TRLV:2006

Insulating glass Action Data

Isochoric pressure

Values

Notes

Clause 2

Wind load [kN/m ] Thermal unit pressure Temperature difference from glass production to site [°K] Altitude unit pressure Altitude difference from glass production to site [m] Glass production altitudes: Producer Location Altitude Sunglass (Guardian) Villafranca, Italy + 20 m Polypane (Guardian) Temse, Belgium + 23 m Interpane (AGC) Lauenförde, GErmany + 98 m Schöllglas Nossen, Germany + 273 m

W c1 = 0.34 kPa/°K ∆T c2 = 0.012 kPa/m ∆H

p0 = c1 ⋅ ∆T − ∆ pmet + c2 ⋅ ∆ H

TRLV:2006 Table 1 & Annex B1

Recommended isochoric pressure Condition

Site

Production

Temp. pmet Temp. pmet 2 2 [°C] [kN/m ] [°C] [kN/m ] Summer

Winter

101

103

∆pmet 2 [kN/m ]

∆H [m]

+20

-2

+600

+16.0

Glass absorptance ≤ 30%

+39

30% < absorptance ≤ 50%

+48

+29

+19.0

absorptance > 50%

+57

+38

+22.0

Internal sunscreen (ventilated)

+48

+29

+19.0

Internal sunscreen (non-ventilated)

+57

+38

+22.0

Shadow box panel

+74

+55

+28.0

Heated building

+2

Unheated building

-10

103

+19

∆T [°C]

Isochore pressure p0 2 [kN/m ]

+27

99

Site

+4

-37

-300

-16.0 -20.0

prEN 13474-1:1999 Table 1 & Table B.1

Recommended isochoric pressure* Condition

-25

2

Production

Temp. Met. pressure Temp. Met. Pressure 2 2 [°C] [kN/m ] [°C] [kN/m ]

∆T [°C]

Climatic Altitude action pH,0 [kN/m ] action Site altitude Site altitude pC,0 ∆pmet 2 2 ≤ 400m ≤ 700m [kN/m ] [kN/m ]

Summer

+45

100

+18

103

+27

-3

+12.0

+3.6

+8.4

Winter

+3

104

+30

98

-27

+6

-15.0

-3.6

-8.4

Note: *These recommendations can be used when exact values of internal loads cannot be determined provided that: 1) The IGU is manufactured from clear glass or has an overall absorptance not exceeding 35%; 2) Heat build up by other structure elements or sun protection devices is prevented; and 3) If the altitude of the place of production (final sealing) is unknown.

PART 1 EUROCODE

67


GLASS DESIGN 8.6.2 Thermal stress/shock

Glass can break as a result of excessive thermal stress. Thermally induced stress within a pane of glass results from a temperature differential between two areas of the pane. For instance, in hot weather, the centre of the glass warms up faster than the edge, because the edge is within the glazing rebate and shaded from direct solar radiation. Assuming the area of glass within the frame is insignificant compared with that exposed to solar radiation, as the centre of the pane expands due to the increase in temperature, the edge will be forced to expand by a similar amount inducing a tensile stress. Thermal induced stress Action

Values

Notes

Data

L E α ∆T

Glass original length [mm] 2 Glass modulus of elasticity [N/mm ] Glass coefficient of thermal expansion [-] Temperature difference between the edge and centre of the pane [°K]

Thermal stress

∆L = α ·L·∆T σT = (∆L/L)·E

Expansion of glass [mm] 2 Induced stress [N/mm ]

68

PART 1 EUROCODE


GLASS DESIGN

Structural silicone glazing (SSG) ETAG 002-1:2001

Properties of structural sealant Sealant

Elastic Shear modulus* modulus* E0 2 [N/mm ]

Structural Two- Sika SG 500 glazing part DC 993 One- Sika SG 20 part DC 995 Sika SG 18

1.05

G0 2 [N/mm ]

Allow. strain ε [%]

Short term load Tension, † σdes 2 [kN/m ]

Shear, Γdes 2 [kN/m ]

Long term load, γc = 10 Tension, σ∞ 2 [kN/m ]

Shear, Γ∞ 2 [kN/m ]

140

105

14

10.5

0.47

10

140

110

14

11.0

0.35

12.5

170

128

17

12.8

170

95

17

9.5

140

101

14

10.1

150

83

15

8.3

15 12.5

DC 895 Insulating Two- Sika IG 25 glass part Sika IG 25H DC 3362 One- Sika IG 16 part DC 3793 Note: * Modulus tangential to the origin. † Design stress is based on the Ru,5 value with a safety factor of 6. The Ru,5 value is the probability at 75% that 95% of the population will have a breaking strength above this value.

8.7.1 Types of SSG Type 1: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The structural seal transfers all other actions. Devices are used to reduce danger in the event of a bond failure. Type II: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The structural seal transfers all other actions and no devices are used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure. Type III: The structural seal transfers all actions including the self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and thence to the structure. Devices are used to reduce danger in the event of a bond failure. Type IV: The structural seal transfers all actions, including self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and thence to the structure. No devices are used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure. EN 13022-1:2006 Retaining devices may be required by national regulations. SSGS types III & IV may be forbidden by national regulation for laminated glass and laminated safety glass. ETAG 002-1:2001 Types III and IV SSGS are only applicable for single glass units. For insulating glass units or laminated glass, each pane of glass must be supported (type I or II).

PART 1 EUROCODE

69


GLASS DESIGN 8.7.2 Structural silicone design (ASD)

ETAG 002-1:2001

Structural glazing Action Data

Values

Notes

Clause

Glass width and height [m] 2 Unit weight of glass [kN/m ] 2 Wind load [kN/m ] Allowable strain [%]

b, h γg W ε

Types I, II & III Structural bite Supported min {b; h} ⋅ W ≥ 6mm hc ≥ system 2σ

Structural bite, minimum [mm]

A2.3.1

Expansion length [mm]

A2.3.2

des

Sealant thickness 1 2 S = b + 4h 2 2 ∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0  S values of α & ∆T: Tf,g – T0 [°C] α Condition [/°K] ETAG SIKA

(

)

-6

Alu.

24·10

Steel

12·10

S/S

16·10

Glass

9·10

(

)

Internal

55 - 20

Exposed

80 - 20

60

-6

Clear

55 - 20

30

100 - 20

-

Opaque  ∆ ⋅ G e ≥ min  S ;  Γ des

∆S 2ε + ε

2

 ; 6mm  

IGU hermetic seal* min {b; h} ⋅ W r ≥ ⋅ β ≥ 6mm 2 σ des values of β: Glass thickness β do ≤ di do ≤ di Type IV Unsupported system

Sealant thickness 1 2 S = b + h2 2 ∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0  S  ∆ ⋅ G e ≥ min  S ;  Γ des

Relationship

Sealant thickness, minimum [mm]

Seal height in non-stepped IGU [mm]

A2.3.4

Structural bite, minimum [mm]

A2.4.3

Expansion length [mm]

A2.4.2

0.5 1.0

Structural bite b ⋅γ g ≥ 6mm hc ,min = 2 Γ∞

(

4.4.4.1 Coefficient of thermal expansion of frame and glass Temperature difference

-6 -6

Differential expansion [mm]

)

(

)

 ; 6mm   2ε + ε

∆S

Differential expansion [mm] Sealant thickness, minimum [mm]

A2.4.1

2

e ≤ hc ≤ 3 ⋅ e

A2.3.3

Note: * For small units or non-rectangular shapes climatical effects must be taken into account.

70

PART 1 EUROCODE


GLASS DESIGN

Safety glass TRAV Requirements

8.8.1 Categories [TRAV:2003 cl.6.2.2 & Appendix A] Category A (VSG or ESG) Pendulum height = 900mm

Impact area

Category C1 (VSG or ESG) Pendulum height = 450mm

Category B (VSG only) Pendulum height = 700mm

Category C2 (VSG or ESG) Pendulum height = 450mm

Category C3 (VSG or ESG)

8.8.2 Balustrade construction (Category B) Handrail design features Cl. 5.5.1 - The continuous handrail should be attached to the glass in such a manner that, should a glass panel fracture, the handrail will remain in position and will not fail if the design load is applied across the resulting gap, transferring the loads to adjacent glass panes, end posts or anchorage to building. -

Handrail with structural or non-structural capping integrated with structural U-profile

-

Prevent glass-to-metal contact by inserting u-profile non-flammable elastomeric strip (distance 200 to 300 mm)

-

Filler in the gap between the handrail u-profile and glass shall be sealant in accordance with DIN 18545-2 Group E

-

Glass rebate in the u-profile ≥ 15 mm

Support design features -

Clamping height ≥ 100 mm

-

Clamping steel plate ≥ 12 mm

-

Clamping fastener spacing ≤ 300 mm

-

Setting block at the bottom of glass

-

Bush sleeve around fasteners

-

Glass holes (25 to 35 mm) centred to the clamping plate

-

Non-compressible elastomer filler along the glass-to-metal contacts

-

The clamping may also be rigidly fixed to the supporting structure.

PART 1 EUROCODE

71


GLASS DESIGN 8.8.3 Balustrades - Free-standing balustrades or juliet balconies

Deflection of free-standing glass balustrade is limited to L/100 or 15 mm, whichever is smaller in relation to TRLV:2006. Glass design tensile stress resistances in accordance with DIN 18008. Barrier loads are combined with half wind loads in accordance with TRAV:2003 cl. 4.2. TRAV:2003

Maximum cantilever height of barrier [m] Barrier load ( ≤ 10 min. duration load) Glass

0.8

Barrier[kN/m] Wind [kN/m²] ≤ 0.8

≤ 1.4

1.0 ≤ 2.0

≤ 0.8

≤ 1.4

2.0 ≤ 2.0

≤ 0.8

≤ 1.4

3.0 ≤ 2.0

≤ 0.8

≤ 1.4

≤ 2.0

Laminated glass with PVB interlayer (G = 0.5 N/mm² @ 30°C)* 12.76 mm 6/0.76/6

HS FT

0.70 0.65 0.70 0.70

0.59 0.69

0.57 0.63

0.52 0.63

0.48 0.63

17.52 mm 8/1.52/8

AN HS FT

0.27 0.26 0.89 0.89 " "

0.25 0.88 "

0.21 0.81 "

0.21 0.81 "

0.20 0.79 0.80

21.52 mm 10/1.52/10

AN HS FT

0.44 0.41 1.14 1.13 " "

0.38 1.13 "

0.34 1.04 "

0.33 1.03 "

0.75 1.03 "

0.72 0.77

0.67 0.76

0.64 0.76

25.52 mm 12/1.52/12

AN HS FT

0.66 0.59 1.39 1.38 " "

0.54 1.37 "

0.52 1.27 "

0.48 1.26 "

0.45 1.25 "

0.24 0.94 "

0.24 0.93 "

0.23 0.93 "

0.66 0.79

0.63 0.79

0.60 0.78

31.52 mm 15/1.52/15

AN HS FT

1.08 0.92 1.78 1.76 " "

0.82 1.74 "

0.86 1.62 "

0.76 1.61 "

0.69 1.60 "

0.39 1.20 "

0.38 1.20 "

0.37 1.19 "

0.25 1.01 “

0.25 1.01 “

0.24 1.00 “

Laminated glass with Sentryglas interlayer (G = 65.0 N/mm² @ 30°C)* 17.52 mm 8/1.52/8

AN HS FT

0.55 0.51 1.19 1.18 " "

0.48 1.18 “

0.45 1.11 "

0.43 1.10 "

0.41 1.09 1.10

0.23 0.78 0.88

0.22 0.74 0.88

0.22 0.71 0.88

0.54 0.77

0.52 0.77

0.51 0.76

21.52 mm 10/1.52/10

AN HS FT

0.79 0.72 1.46 1.45 " "

0.67 1.44 "

0.67 1.36 "

0.62 1.35 "

0.58 1.35 "

0.35 1.08 “

0.34 1.07 1.08

0.34 1.01 1.08

0.23 0.80 0.94

0.22 0.77 0.94

0.22 0.75 0.94

22.28 mm 10/2.28/10

AN HS FT

0.84 0.76 1.51 1.50 " "

0.70 1.49 ”

0.71 1.41 "

0.65 1.40 "

0.61 1.39 "

0.37 1.12 “

0.36 1.11 “

0.35 1.07 1.11

0.24 0.85 0.97

0.23 0.82 0.97

0.23 0.80 0.97

25.52 mm 12/1.52/12

AN HS FT

1.06 0.95 1.73 1.72 " "

0.87 1.71 "

0.91 1.61 "

0.83 1.60 "

0.77 1.59 "

0.50 1.28 "

0.48 1.28 "

0.47 1.28 “

0.33 1.11 1.12

0.33 1.06 1.12

0.32 1.02 1.12

26.28 mm) 12/2.28/12

AN HS FT

1.11 0.99 1.78 1.77 " "

0.90 1.75 "

0.95 1.66 "

0.87 1.65 "

0.80 1.64 "

0.52 1.32 "

0.51 1.32 "

0.49 1.31 “

0.34 1.15 “

0.34 1.12 1.15

0.33 1.07 1.15

31.52 mm 15/1.52/15

AN HS FT

1.50 1.30 2.14 2.12 " "

1.18 2.10 "

1.30 1.99 "

1.16 1.93 "

1.07 1.93 "

0.75 1.59 "

0.72 1.58 "

0.69 1.58 “

0.51 1.39 “

0.50 1.39 “

0.49 1.38 “

31.52 mm 15/2.28/15

AN HS FT

1.55 1.35 2.18 2.16 " "

1.22 2.14 "

1.35 2.03 "

1.20 2.02 "

1.11 2.00 "

0.78 1.62 "

0.75 1.61 "

0.71 1.61 “

0.53 1.41 “

0.52 1.41 “

0.51 1.41 “

Note: * According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016. Temperature is limited to 30°C since high temperature does not occur at the same time with maximum barrier or wind load. 72

PART 1 EUROCODE


GLASS DESIGN

Glass fins

8.9.1 Glass fin design Structural Glass Fins – Dr. -Ing. Tobias Holberndt Action

Values

Fraunhofer-Informationszentrum Raum und Bau IRB:2006 Notes

Clause

Data

H d t = tef,w E, G fg,k

Glass fin unsupported span [mm] Glass fin depth [mm] Glass fin effective thickness [mm] Modulii of elasticity and rigidity of glass [N/mm²] Glass fin characteristic resistance [N/mm²]

Criteria

My,d M y ,d

Design bending moment [kN·m] ≤ 1.0

M b ,Rd

Buckling reduction factor

Criteria

Wel , y = t ⋅ d 2 6

Elastic section modulus of glass fin [mm³]

M el , y = Wel , y ⋅ f g ,k

Bending moment resistance [kN·m] Moment of inertia about strong axis [mm ]

dt  t t   1 − 0.63 + 0.052 5  3  d d  3

IT =

5

χ = E ⋅ d 3t 3

(5.4) 4

I z = d ⋅ t 3 12

Reduction factor

(5.2) (5.1)

( 192 H

2

G ⋅ IT

4

Torsional inertia [mm ]

(3.5) (4.2)

)

Wind pressure (-h/2) <<- more critical! Uniformly loaded beam: Euler constant [-] k = 3.59 − 4.35 χ 0.37 Wind suction (+h/2) k = 3.56 + 18.5 χ 0.58 k E ⋅ I z G ⋅ IT H = M el , y M cr

M cr =

λ LT

(5.6)

(4.3)

Critical buckling moment [kN·m]

(4.1)

Slenderness [-]

(3.1)

Moment reduction factor due to buckling [-]

(5.5)

for λ LT < 1.1 :

κ LT = 1

(

1 + λ LT − 0.12

)

5

+ 0.05 λ LT

for λ LT ≥ 1.1 :

κ LT = 0.87 λ LT Buckling moment

M b ,R d = κ LT ⋅

PART 1 EUROCODE

2

(5.5)

M el , y

Buckling moment design resistance [kN·m]

(5.1)

1.5

73

GLASS DESIGN


8.9.2 Glass fin design Fraunhofer-Informationszentrum Raum und Bau IRB:2006

Glass fin

LAMINATED GLASS FIN

18 16 14 12

8

6

SINGLE GLASS FIN

4

74

PART 1 EUROCODE


STONE DESIGN

I-9 STONE DESIGN 9.1

Properties

9.1.1 Testing Tests for stone panels Test

Units

Test/calculation method

2

Water absorption

[g/m ; %]

[EN 1925; 13755]

Uniaxial compressive strength

[MPa]

[EN 1926]

3

Density and porosity

[kg/m ; %]

[EN 1936]

Frost resistance

-

[EN 12371]

Flexural strength under concentrated load

[MPa]

[EN 12372]

Flexural strength under constant moment

[MPa]

[EN 13161]

Breaking load at dowel hole

[N]

[EN 13364]

Static elastic modulus

[MPa]

[EN 14580]

Linear thermal expansion coefficient

[/°C]

[EN 14581]

9.1.2 Flexural strength test EN 13161:2001 / EN 12372:1999 Annex A

Statistical evaluation of test result Action

Values

Data

Notes

x

A.2 2

Logarithmic mean value [N/mm ]

1 ∑ ln ( xi ) n i

∑  ln ( xi ) − xln 

sln = ±

Flexural strength

Measured values [N/mm ] Number of measured values [-]

x1, x2 .., xi .., xn n xln =

Clause 2

2

2

Logarithmic standard deviation [N/mm ]

n−1 − k ⋅s

2

Lower expected value [N/mm ]



E = e  ln s ln  Fractile factor ks*: n ks 3 3.15 4 2.68 5 2.46 6 2.34 7 2.25 8 2.19 9 2.14

n 10 15 20 30 40 50 ∞

ks 2.10 1.99 1.93 1.87 1.83 1.81 1.64

Table A.1

Quantile or fractile factor [-] *Corresponding to 5% fractile for a confidence level of 75%

9.1.3 Tolerances EN 1469:2004

Stone tolerances Measurement

Thickness [mm]

Thickness

12 < t ≤ 30

± 10 %

30 < t ≤ 80

± 3 mm

t > 80

± 5 mm

Length or width

t* ≤ 50 t* > 50

Length or width [mm]

Tolerance

L or b < 600

± 1 mm

L or b ≥ 600

± 1.5 mm

L or b < 600

± 2 mm

L or b ≥ 600

± 3 mm

Reference Table 1

Table 2

Note: * Sawn edge thickness

PART 1 EUROCODE

75


CURTAIN WALL TESTING

I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.1 Testing overview 10.1.1

Curtain walling product standard [EN 13830] BBSEN 13830:2003 Cl. 5.2.3

Curtain wall tests No Test

Test/calculation method

Requirement/classification

2

1 Resistance to wind load Pressure [kN/m ] [EN 12179]

-

[EN 13116]

2

2 Dead load

Unit weight [kN/m ][EN 1991-1-1] -

3 Resistance against impact

Internal, [EN 12600] cl.5 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 [EN 14019] (N/A) (200) (300) (450) (700) (950) drop height [mm]

4

External, drop height [mm]

E0 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 (N/A) (200) (300) (450) (700) (950)

5 Air permeability

Test pressure [Pa] [EN 12153]

A1 A2 A3 A4 AE (150) (300) (450) (600) (>600)

[EN 12152]

6 Watertightness

Test pressure [Pa] [EN 12155]

R4 R5 R6 R7 RE (150) (300) (450) (600) (>600)

[EN 12154]

7 Airborne sound insulation Rw [dB]

[EN ISO 140-3] 2

[EN ISO 717-1]

8 Thermal transmittance

UCW [W/m K]

[EN 13947]

-

9 Fire resistance

E [min]

[EN 13501-2]

E15 E30 E60 E90

10 Integrity and insulation

EI [min]

11 Equipotentiality

Ω

EI15 EI30 EI60 EI90 [EN 13830] A

12 Resistance to horizontal Force at height loads [kN @ m]

10.1.2

-

[EN 1991-1-1] -

Windows and doors performance tests EN 14351-1:2005

Door and window tests Test

Test/calculation method Window

Resistance to wind load Reaction to fire External fire performance

External pedestrian door

Requirement/classification Window

EN 12211

External pedestrian door EN 12210

EN 13501-1

-

EN 13501-1

-

EN 1187

-

EN 13501-5

-

Watertightness

EN 1027

EN 12208

Impact resistance

EN 13049

EN 13049

Resistance to static torsion

EN 14609

EN 948

-

Acoustic performance

EN ISO 140-3; EN ISO 717-1

-

Thermal transmittance

EN ISO 10077-1; EN ISO 12567

-

EN 1026

EN 12207

Air permeability Operating forces Mechanical strength Bullet resistance Explosion resistance Resistance to repeated opening and closing Burglar resistance

PART 1 EUROCODE

EN 12046-1

EN 12046-2

EN 13115

EN 12217

EN 14608

EN 947; EN 948; EN 949; EN 950

EN 13115

EN 1192

EN 1523

EN 1522

EN 13124-1; EN 13124-2

EN 13123-1; EN 13123-2

EN 1191

EN 12400

EN 1628; EN 1629; EN 1630

EN 1627 77


CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.2 Weather performance tests 10.2.1

Weather performance test sequence [EN 13830]

Weather resistance tests are interdependent on each other. The following groups of tests carried out in sequence shall be considered as a single weather test. All tests shall be carried out strictly in sequence, as follows Weather resistance sequence of testing Test

Purpose

BBSEN 13830:2003 cl. 5.2.3 Test method

Requirement/ Classification

a

Air permeability

for classification

EN 12153

EN 12152

b

Watertightness under static pressure

for classification

EN 12155

EN 12154

c

Resistance to wind load

serviceability

EN 12179

EN 13116

d

Air permeability

repeat to confirm wind resistance classification

EN 12153

EN 12152

e

Watertightness

repeat to confirm wind resistance classification

EN 12155

EN 12154

f

Resistance to wind load

increased wind resistance test - safety

EN 12179

EN 13116

Note: Where specifically required, an additional supplementary watertightness test under dynamic wind conditions can be carried out, in accordance with ENV 13050, on completion of test sequence a) to e). No test in the sequence shall be carried out unless all previous tests have been passed to the acceptance criteria.

78

PART 1 EUROCODE



Air permeability [EN 12153:2000]

BBSEN 12152:2002 Tables 1 & 2

Air permeability class Based on overall area [A]

Air permeability Maximum test pressure class Pmax [Pa]

Based on fixed joint length [L]

Air permeability 3 2 Q/A [m /h/m ]

Maximum test pressure Pmax [Pa]

Air permeability 3 Q/L [m /h/m]

A1

150

1.5

150

0.5

A2

300

1.5

300

0.5

A3

450

1.5

450

0.5

A4

600

1.5

600

0.5

AE

> 600

1.5

> 600

0.5

3

2

Note: Specimens which leak air > 1.5 m /h/m at pressures < 150 Pa cannot be classified. 3 2 Specimens which leak air < 1.5 m /h/m at pressures > 600 Pa are classified E (exceptional).

PART 1 EUROCODE

79


CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.2.3

Watertightness [EN 12155:2000]

BBSEN EN 12154:2000 Tables 1 & 2

Water tightness Class

Maximum test pressure Pmax [Pa]

R4

150

0/15; 50/15; 100/5; 150/5

2

R5

300

(as in R4); 300/5

2

R6

450

(as in R5); 450/5

2

R7

600

(as in R6); 600/5

2

RE xxx

> 600

(as in R7); +150 Pa steps for 5 minutes duration

2

Pressure steps and test duration P/T [Pascal/minutes]

Water spray rate 2 [li/min/m ]

Note: Specimens with water leakage at pressures < 150 Pa cannot be classified. Specimens without water leakage at pressures > 600 Pa are classified E (exceptional). For class RE xxx the exceptional test pressure should be taken as a minimum of 0.25 of the design wind pressure (where design wind pressure is > 2400 Pa) 80

PART 1 EUROCODE



Resistance to wind load [EN 12179:2000]

BBSEN EN 13116:2001 Cl. 4

Resistance to wind load Performance under

Requirements

Design load The frontal deflection shall not exceed 1/200 of the span of the framing member, measured - both positive and between points of structural support, or 15 mm whichever is less negative pressure The frontal deflection shall be temporary deformation only, and shall recover after the removal of load by a minimum of 95% within a time period of 1 h. Frontal displacement of fixings of framing members at their connections to the building structure or other structural components shall be limited to less than 1 mm and this shall be allowed as residual deformation. This limit shall be taken from an assessed neutral position. The positive difference between the air permeability measured at maximum pressure in the first 3 2 3 and second tests, should not differ by more than 0.3 m /h/m (0.3 m /h/m length of joint). Increased load No permanent damage shall occur to framing members, infil panels, opening units, fasteners or - both positive and anchors. negative pressure Panels, glazing beads and decorative capping pieces shall remain securely held and gaskets shall not be displaced. If a pane of glass breaks during the increased load test, then it may be replaced and the test continued only if, following close examination, the cause of breakage is not attributable to any fault in the glazing technique or the supporting frame.

PART 1 EUROCODE

81


CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.3 Impact resistance tests 10.3.1

Framing - Impact resistance [EN 14019:2004]

Its criteria is targeted to safety in use and integrity of curtain wall in the event of sudden impact forces on the curtain wall surfaces. It applies to those areas of curtain walling which face onto areas of human activity, either internally or externally and takes account of accidental impacts brought on by people going about their normal daily activities and impacts brought about by equipment and similar devices for maintenance, cleaning, repair and similar occasional activities. The specimen shall be tested in accordance with EN 13049 with one impact for any single position. Impact loads normal to the plane of the curtain wall are to be applied in the following positions: 1. Centre mullion height between fixings (external only). 2. Centre width (external, internal at sill height). 3. Crossing mullion and transoms. 4. Centre of spandrel unit. Glass products used as or incorporated in infill components shall be assessed in accordance with EN 12600. BBSEN EN 14019 :2004 Tables 1 & 2

Impact classification Internal impact

External impact

Class

Drop height [mm]

Class

I0

Not applicable

E0

I1

200

E1

I2

300

E2

I3

450

E3

I4

700

E4

I5

950

E5

10.3.2

Requirements

Drop height [mm] Not applicable The curtain wall shall safely absorb the impact loads and shall retain its integrity in fulfilling the following criteria : 200 a) no parts shall fall down; b) any holing shall not occur; 300 c) any breakage shall not occur; 450 d) any infilling panel shall remain in its position and come off only when removed; 700 e) any permanent deformation of curtain wall component shall 950 be accepted.

Windows - Soft and heavy body impact resistance [EN 13049]

The test applies to all infill of whatever materials including glass. It is intended to assess the interactions between all components of a window with particular regard to safety in use. The impactor as specified in EN 12600 shall be mounted on a horizontal or vertical axis, as best befits the requirements of access to the impact point. Tests shall be performed separately, one impact on each test specimen. Select, e.g. by means of pre-tests or calculations, the most dangerous impact point to strike the following: the centre of the infill or a corner of the infill or the centre of the longest edge of the largest area of the infill. BBSEN EN 13049:2003 Table 1

Impact level/drop heights Class

Drop height [mm]

1

200

2

300

3

450

4

700

5

950

82

Requirements a) Any opening shall not allow the ellipsoid, as specified in ENV 1630, to pass; b) The impact shall not detach or dislodge any casement or sash of the test specimen nor disconnect any hardware or infill retaining components, nor shall any of its composite parts become dislodged or shattered in a dangerous manner; c) The mass of any dislodged part shall not exceed 50 g.

PART 1 EUROCODE



Glass - Pendulum impact test [EN 12600:2002]

The test shall be carried out at each drop height on four pieces 876mm×1938mm of identical structure and the same nominal thickness. For asymmetric materials that are intended for installation where the risk of impact is from both sides, carry out the test on both sides. Performance classification: Classification α (β) Φ α - highest drop height class at which the product either did not break or broke in accordance with a) or b) of clause 4 requirements β - mode of breakage; Φ - highest drop height class at which the product either did not break or when broke, broke in accordance with a) of clause 4 requirements. When a glass product breaks at a drop height of 190 mm and the breakage is not in accordance with a) of clause 4 requirements then the value of Φ quoted shall be zero. BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Table 1, Cl. 4 & 6.2

Drop height class Class

Drop height [mm]

3

190

2

450

1

1200

Clause 4 Requirements Each test piece shall either not break or shall break as defined in one of the following ways: a) Numerous cracks appear, but no shear or opening is allowed within the test piece through which a 76 mm diameter sphere can pass when a maximum force of 25 N is applied (Annex A). Additionally, if particles are detached from the test piece up to 3 min 2 after impact, they shall, in total, weigh no more than a mass equivalent to 10 000 mm of the original test piece. The largest single particle shall weigh less than the mass equivalent 2 to 4 400 mm of the original test piece; b) Disintegration occurs and the 10 largest crack-free particles* collected within 3 min after impact and weighed, all together, within 5 min of impact shall weigh no more than the mass equivalent to 6 500 mm² of the original test piece.

Note: *The particles shall be selected only from the portion of the original test piece exposed in the test frame. Only the exposed area of any particle retained in the test frame shall be taken into account in determining the mass equivalent. BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Cl. 6.3; Annex C

Mode of breakage Type Mode of breakage

Typical breakage

A

Numerous cracks appear forming - Annealed glass (EN 572-1) separate fragments with sharp edges, - Heat strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 1863-1) some of which are large - Chemically strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 12337-1)

B

Numerous cracks appear, but the fragments hold together and do not separate

- Laminated safety glass (EN ISO 12543-1) - Wired glass (EN 572-1), polished wired glass (EN 572-3) - Film backed annealed glass

C

Disintegration occurs, leading to a large number of small particles that are relatively harmless

- Thermally toughened soda lime silicate safety glass (EN 12150-1)

• Sphere penetration test [EN 12600] The probe assembly has a 76 ± 1 mm diameter sphere with a force measuring device. It is pushed horizontally into any opening formed in the test piece. The weakest point of resistance shall be selected. The requirement is to achieve a maximum force of 25 N without penetration by the sphere.

PART 1 EUROCODE

83


CURTAIN WALL TESTING 10.4 Glass safety tests

EN 12600 :2002 & EN 356:2000

Sample glass classifications Laminated glass (PVB)

EN 12600 (Impact safety)

EN 356 (Manual Attack)

Class*

Drop height [mm]

Class

33.1 = 6.38mm 44.1 = 8.38mm

2(B)2

450

-

55.1 = 10.38mm

1(B)1

1200

-

Height [mm]

Number of throws**

33.2 = 6.76mm

P1A

1500

3

44.2 = 8.76mm 55.2 = 10.76mm 66.2 = 12.76mm 88.2 = 16.76mm

P2A

3000

3

44.4 = 9.52mm 66.4 = 13.52mm

P4A

9000

3

44.6 = 10.28mm 66.6 = 14.28mm

P5A

9000

9

Tempered glass

Class

4, 6 & 8 mm

1(C)2

Drop height [mm] 450

10 & 12 mm 1(C)1 1200 Note: * See section 10.3 for classification to EN 12600

** Test with steel ball of 4.1 kg. EN 12600:2002 & EN 356:2000

Safety and burglar resistance Resistance to impact (EN 12600)

Resistance to manual attack (EN 356)

Class

Glass type

Drop height [mm]

Class

Test method

Drop height [mm]

No. of drops

1A1

Monolithic annealed

1200

P1A

1500

3

450

P2A

3000

3

190

P3A

6000

3

1200

P4A

9000

3

450

P5A

Steel ball 4.11 kg dropped to form an equilateral triangle

9000

3×3

190

Class

Test method

No. of hits

1200

P6B

30 to 50 hits (axe)

450

P7B

Hammer and axe impacts

190

P8B

2A2 3A3 1B1 2B2

Laminated annealed

3B3 1C1 2C2

Monolithic tempered

3C3

51 to 70 hits (axe) ≥ 71 hits (axe) EN 1063:2000

Bullet and explosion resistance Resistance to bullet attack (EN 1063) Class

Firearm type

BR1

Resistance to explosion No. of impacts

Class

Pressure [kPa]

Duration [ms]

Rifle – 0.22 LR

3

ER1

50 to 100

20

BR2

Handgun – 9mm Luger

3

ER2

100 to 150

20

BR3

Handgun – 0.357 Rem. Magnum

3

ER3

150 to 200

20

BR4

Handgun – 0.44 Rem. Magnum

3

ER4

200 to 250

20

BR5

Rifle – 5.56 ×45

3

BR6

Rifle – 7.62 × 51 (Long. Torsion 175mm)

3

BR7

Rifle - 7.62 × 51 (Long. Torsion 254mm)

3

SG1

Shotgun – Cal. 12/70

1

SG2

Shotgun – Cal. 12/70

3

84

PART 1 EUROCODE



10.5 Fire classification ∆T, ∆m, tf – Temperature rise [K], mass loss [%] and duration of sustained flaming [s], respectively PCS - gross calorific potential [MJ/kg or MJ/m²] FIGRA - fire growth rate index used for classification purposes [W/s] LFS – lateral fire spread [m] THR - total heat release during the evaluation period [MJ] Fs – Fire spread during the evaluation [mm] SMOGRA – smoke growth rate [m²/s²] TSP - total smoke production during the evaluation period [m²] EN 13501-1:2007 Table 1 Additional classification (EN 13823:2010)

Classes of reaction to fire performance Class A1

A2

B

Test methods

Classification criteria

-

∆T ≤ 50 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 % & tf ≤ 20 s

-

-

-

-

abce

ad

EN ISO 1716 &

PCS ≤ 3,0 MJ/kg & 2 bc PCS ≤ 4,0 MJ/m

EN 13823

FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ; LFS < edge of specimen & THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ

EN 13823 &

FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ; LFS < edge of specimen & THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ

EN ISO 11925-2 : Exposure = 30 s

Fs ≤ 150 mm within 60 s

EN 13823 &

FIGRA ≤ 250 W/s ; LFS < edge of specimen & THR600s ≤ 15 MJ


Fs ≤ 150mm within 60 s

EN 13823 &

FIGRA ≤ 750 W/s i


i


EN ISO 11925-2 : Exposure = 30 s E

-

PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ/kg 2 d PCS ≤ 1.4 MJ/m

i

D

;&

EN ISO 1716 a


Flaming droplets/particles -

∆T ≤ 30 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 %; & tf = 0 (i.e. no sustained flaming)

EN ISO 1182 or

f

-

EN ISO 1182 &

i

C

Smoke production

d0 = s1 = 2 2 SMOGRA ≤ 30m /s & No flaming droplets/ 2 TSP600s ≤ 50m particles within 600 s; s2 = d1 = 2 2 SMOGRA ≤ 180m /s & no flaming droplets/ 2 TSP600s ≤ 200m particles persisting longer than 10 s within s3 = not s1 or s2 600 s; g

d2 = not d0 or d1.

-

h

F

No performance determined For homogeneous products and substantial components of non-homogeneous products. b For any external non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products. c Alternatively, any external non-substantial component having a PCS ≤ 2,0 MJ/m2, provided that the product satisfies the following criteria of EN 13823: FIGRA ≤ 20 W/s, and LFS < edge of specimen, and THR600s ≤ 4,0 MJ, and s1, and d0. d For any internal non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products. e For the product as a whole. f In the last phase of the development of the test procedure, modifications of the smoke measurement system have been introduced, the effect of which needs further investigation. This may result in a modification of the limit values and/or parameters for the evaluation of the smoke production. g Ignition of the paper in EN ISO 11925-2 results in a d2 classification h Pass = no ignition of the paper (no classification); Fail = ignition of the paper (d2 classification). i Under conditions of surface flame attack and, if appropriate to the end–use application of the product, edge flame attack. a

PART 1 EUROCODE

85


CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS

I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.1 Bolted connections 11.1.1

Properties of bolts

Characteristic values of fasteners Grade Steel

Yield strength, 2 fyb [N/mm ]

EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.1, EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table 2.2 Tensile strength, Min. clear thread protrusion* 2 fub [N/mm ] [pitch]

4.6

240

400

1

4.8

320

400

1

5.6

300

500

1

5.8

400

500

1

6.8

480

600

1

8.8

640

800

3

10.9

900

1000

5

50

210

500

1

70

450

700

1

80

600

800

1

Austhenitic A1, A2, A4

Note: *DIN 78 requires 2P. EN ISO 724:1993

Metric screw threads Height of fundamental triangle 3 P ≈ 0.866254P 2

H = P sin(60°) =

Basic minor diameter d 1 = D1 = d −

5 5 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P 4 8

Basic pitch diameter d 2 = D2 = d −

3 3 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P 4 8

Nominal stress area (EN ISO 898-1) 2 π  d 2 +d 3  As =

4 

2

 

≈ 0.7854 ( d − 0.938194 P )

2

where: d3 = d1 −

Size

1 H ≈ d – 1.2269P 6

Pitch

Major Minor Pitch diameter diameter diameter P [mm] d, D [mm] d1, D1 [mm] d2, D2 [mm]

Nominal stress area 2 As [mm ]

M4

0.70

4.0

3.242

3.545

8.78

M5

0.80

5.0

4.134

4.480

14.18

M6

1.00

6.0

4.917

5.350

20.12

M8

1.25

8.0

6.647

7.188

36.61

M10

1.50

10.0

8.376

9.026

57.99

M12

1.75

12.0

10.106

10.863

84.27

M16

2.00

16.0

13.835

14.701

156.67

M20

2.50

20.0

17.294

18.376

244.79

M24

3.00

24.0

20.752

22.051

352.50

M30

3.50

30.0

26.211

27.727

560.59

M36

4.00

36.0

31.670

33.402

816.72

86

PART 1 EUROCODE



Nominal clearances for fasteners

Nominal clearances give the diameter of the hole when added to the diameter of the bolt. Nominal clearances [mm]

EN 1090-2:2008 Table 11

Nominal bolt or pin diameter, d [mm]

M12

M16

M20

M24

≥ M27

Normal round holes

1*

2

2

2

3

Oversized round holes

3

4

4

6

8

Short slotted holes (on the length)

4

6

6

8

10

Long slotted holes (on the length)

1.5 d

Note: *M12 and M14 bolts may also be used in 2 mm clearance holes provided that the design resistance of the bolt group based on bearing is greater or equal to the design resistance of the bolt group based on bolt shear. In addition for class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9 bolts the design shear resistance Fv,Rd should be taken as 0,85 times the value given in Table 3.4.

11.1.3

Minimum distances EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.3, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.2

Minimum distances Minimum

Normal hole

Slotted hole

11.1.4

Maximum Steel or Aluminium exposed

Aluminium not exposed to weather

Edge distance

// to load

e1 ≥ 1.2d0

4t + 40

max{12t; 150}

⊥ to load

e2 ≥ 1.2d0

4t + 40

max{12t; 150}

Spacing

// to load

p1 ≥ 2.2d0

min{14t; 200}

min{21t; 300}

⊥ to load

p2 ≥ 2.4d0

min{14t; 200}

min{14t; 200}

Edge distance

// to load

e3 ≥ 1.5d0

⊥ to load

e4 ≥ 1.5d0

Spacing

// to load

p3 ≥ 2.0d0

⊥ to load

p4 ≥ 2.0d0

Washers

Generally, washers are not required for use with non-preloaded round holes. The use of washers can reduce local damage to metal coatings (washer to be placed under nut or bolt head, whichever is rotated) Plate washers shall be used for connections with long slotted and oversized holes. They shall not be thinner than 4 mm Taper washers shall be used if the surface is at an angle to a plane perpendicular to the bolt axis of more than 1/20 (d≤20mm) or 1/30 (d>20mm) Washers acc to EN 14399-5 (plain) shall only be used under nuts Washers acc to EN 14399-6 (chamfered) shall be used under heads of preloaded bolts and positioned with the chamfer towards the bolt head. For preloaded 8.8 bolts a plain washer (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under the bolt head or the nut, whichever is to be rotated For preloaded 10.9 bolts plain washers (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under both the bolt head and the nut

PART 1 EUROCODE

87


CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.1.5

Bolt design

Design resistance for individual fasteners subjected to shear and/or tension EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4 and EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5

Design resistance of fasteners Mode

Values

Data

d P A As fub

Shear

Notes

Clause

Nominal diameter of the fastener [mm] Pitch of thread [mm] 2 Cross-sectional area of the fastener [mm ] 2 Tensile stress area of the fastener [mm ] 2 Tensile strength of fastener [N/mm ]

a) rivets and shear through shank of bolts: Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f ub 1.25 b) shear through thread of bolts: Fv,Rd = α v ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25

Shear resistance per shear plane [N]

Reduction factor or packing: β p = 9d 8d + 3t p ≤ 1.0

(

)

3.6.1 (12)

values of αv: 0.6 class 4.6, 5.6 & 8.8 class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 10.9, 0.5 stainless steel & aluminium Bearing

Fb,Rd = α b ⋅ k1 ⋅ d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25

t k 2 Single lap joints: Fb,Rd ≤ 1.5 d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25 t´ = t −

Reduction factor slot holes βR: 1.0 Nominal size hole Oversized holes 0.8 0.8 0.65

Short slot, axis ⊥ to load Long slot, axis ⊥ to load [EN 1999-1-1] Slotted holes [EN 1993-1-8]

0.6 values of αb: f e1 , ub or 1.0 3d 0 fu

p1 1 f − , ub or 1.0 3d 0 4 f u values of k1: e 2.8 2 − 1.7 or 2.5 d0 1.4

Tension

p2 − 1.7 or 2.5 d0

Interaction

edge bolts: e2 < 1.5d0 inner bolts: p2 < 3d0

Ft,Ed

Slot holes: Short: length ≤ 1.5d0 Long: 1.5d0 < length ≤ 2.5d0:

Fig. 3.1

values of αb for slot holes: e3 + d 2 end bolts: 3 ( d + 1) ( e3 + d 2 ) < 3 ( d+1 ) p3 + d 1 − 3 ( d + 1) 4

inner bolts: ( p3 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 )

values of k1 for slot holes: edge bolts: e +d 2 2.8 4 − 1.7 ( e4 + d 2 ) < 1.5 ( d+1 ) d+1 inner bolts: p +d 1.4 4 − 1.7 ( p4 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 ) d +1 Tension resistance [N]

rivets countersunk steel bolts steel bolts aluminium bolts

F p,Rd = 0.6 π ⋅ d m ⋅ t p ⋅ f u 1.25

1.4Ft,Rd 88

inner bolts: p1 < 3d0

Ft,Rd = k 2 ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25

values of k2: 0.60 0.63 0.90 0.50 Punching

end bolts: e1 < 3d0

Bearing resistance of connected part [N] Thickness of the connected part [mm] For countersunk head screws, the effective thickness should have a reduction of half the countersinking. Limiting bearing resistance for single lap joint with 3.6.1 (10) only one bolt row [N] Fig. 3.3

+

Fv,Ed Fv,Rd

≤ 1.0

Punching shear resistance [N] Combined tension & shear

PART 1 EUROCODE



Design slip resistance

Slip resistant bolts using 8.8 or 10.9 Action Values

EN 1993-1-8:2005 Cl. 3.9.1 Clause

Notes

Data

d n As fub

Nominal diameter of the fastener [mm] Number of friction surfaces [-] 2 Tensile stress area of the fastener [mm ] 2 Tensile strength of fastener [N/mm ]

Preload force

F p,C = 0.7 As ⋅ f ub

Preloading force [kN]

3.9.1 (2)

values of Fp,C [kN]: Grade M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36 8.8 47 88 137 198 314 458 10.9 59 110 173 247 393 572

SlipDesign slip-resistance [kN] Fs,Rd = k s ⋅ n ⋅ µ ⋅ F p,C 1.25 resistance values of k : s 1.0 Normal holes 0.85 Oversized holes 0.85 Short slot, axis ⊥ to load 0.76 Short slot, axis // to load 0.70 Long slot, axis ⊥ to load 0.63 Long slot, axis // to load values of slip factor, µ: µ Class of friction surface 0.5 A – surfaces blasted with shot or grit with

3.9.1 (1) Table 3.6

Table 3.7

loose rust removed, not pitted

0.3

B – Surfaces blasted with shot or grit: a) spray-metallized with an alu. or zinc based product; b) with alkali-zinc silicate paint with a thickness of 50 µm to 80 µm C – Surfaces cleaned by wire-brushing or

0.2

D – Surfaces as rolled

0.4

Combined tension and shear

11.1.7

flame cleaning, with loose rust removed

(

Fs,Rd = k s n µ F p,C − 0.8Ft ,Ed

)

Design slip-resistance at ultimate [kN]

1.25

(

Fs,Rd,ser = k s n µ F p,C − 0.8Ft ,Ed ,ser

)

1.0

3.9.2 (1)

Design slip-resistance at serviceability [kN]

Thread pull-out

Thread stripping resistance (Simplified) Action Values

Thickness of screw thread engagement [mm] 2 Yield strength of bolt [N/mm ] 2 Yield strength of threaded part [N/mm ]

Data

t fyB fyM

Strip-off diameter

α M = β B f uB

Resistance

( β B f uB + β M f uM )

d τ = d 2 +(α M − 0.5 ) 3P ≤ d values of βB: 0.5574 4.6

0.5774 values of βM: 0.58 0.77 0.44

8.8, 10.9 & Stainless steel Steel Stainless steel Aluminium

Fo,Rd = α M β M π d τ t ⋅ f uM 1.25

PART 1 EUROCODE

Notes

Gerhard Dose 2006 & Wilhelm Schwarz 2005 Clause

Material factor for threaded part [-]

Dose

Strip-off diameter [mm] Shear stress factor for screw [-]

Shear stress factor for threaded part [-]

Schwarz Dose

Pull-out resistance of screw [kN]

Dose

89



Bolt design tables EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5

Shear resistance of bolts Fv,Rd = αv·As·fub/1.25 [kN] Thread

Stainless steel

Shank

As [mm2] A [mm2]

A2-70

A2-80

4.6

8.8

10.9

700

800

400

800

1000

2

fub [N/mm ] 0.5

αv

Steel

0.6

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.5

0.6

M4

8.78

12.57

2.46

4.22

2.81

4.83

1.69

2.41

3.37

4.83

3.51

6.03

M5

14.18

19.63

3.97

6.60

4.54

7.54

2.72

3.77

5.45

7.54

5.67

9.42

M6

20.12

28.27

5.63

9.50

6.44

10.86

3.86

5.43

7.73

10.86

8.05

13.57

M8

36.61

50.27

10.25

16.89

11.72

19.30

7.03

9.65

14.06

19.30

14.64

24.13

M10

57.99

78.54

16.24

26.39

18.56

30.16

11.13

15.08

22.27

30.16

23.20

37.70

M12

84.27

113.1

23.60

38.00

26.97

43.43

16.18

21.72

32.36

43.43

33.71

54.29

M16

156.7

201.1

43.88

67.56

50.14

77.21

30.09

38.60

60.17

77.21

62.68

96.51

M20

244.8

314.2

68.54

105.56

78.34

120.64

47.00

60.32

94.00

120.64

97.92

150.80

M24

352.5

452.4

98.70

152.00

112.80

173.72

67.68

86.86

135.36

173.72

141.00

217.15

M30

560.6

706.9

156.97

237.50

179.39

271.43

107.64

135.72

215.27

271.43

224.24

339.29

Note: Values in black are for shear through threaded part; values in gray are for shear through shank

EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5

Tension resistance of bolts Ft,Rd = k2·As·fub/1.25 [kN] Stainless steel As [mm2] fub [N/mm2] k2

Steel

A2-70

A2-80

4.6

8.8

10.9

700

800

400

800

1000

0.9

0.63

0.9

0.63

0.9

0.63

0.9

0.63

0.9

0.63

M4

8.78

4.43

3.10

5.06

3.54

2.53

1.77

5.06

3.54

6.32

4.43

M5

14.18

7.15

5.00

8.17

5.72

4.08

2.86

8.17

5.72

10.21

7.15

M6

20.12

10.14

7.10

11.59

8.11

5.79

4.06

11.59

8.11

14.49

10.14

M8

36.61

18.45

12.92

21.09

14.76

10.54

7.38

21.09

14.76

26.36

18.45

M10

57.99

29.23

20.46

33.40

23.38

16.70

11.69

33.40

23.38

41.75

29.23

M12

84.27

42.47

29.73

48.54

33.98

24.27

16.99

48.54

33.98

60.67

42.47

M16

156.7

78.96

55.27

90.24

63.17

45.12

31.58

90.24

63.17

112.80

78.96

M20

244.8

123.37

86.36

141.00

98.70

70.50

49.35

141.00

98.70

176.25

123.37

M24

352.5

177.66

124.36

203.04

142.13

101.52

71.06

203.04

142.13

253.80

177.66

M30

560.6

282.54

197.78

322.90

226.03

161.45

113.01

322.90

226.03

403.62

282.54

Note: Values in black are for hexagonal and socket head bolts; values in gray are for countersunk head bolts

90

PART 1 EUROCODE



Moment resistance of bolts Mpl,Rd = d13/6·fyb/1.25 [N·m] Steel fasteners d1 [mm]

W el [mm3]

fyb [N/mm2]

A2-70

A2-80

4.6

8.8

10.9

450.0

600.0

240.0

640.0

900.0

M4

3.24

5.67

2.04

2.72

1.09

2.90

4.08

M5

4.12

11.7

4.20

5.59

2.24

5.97

8.39

M6

4.92

19.8

7.15

9.53

3.81

10.16

14.29

M8

6.65

49.0

17.64

23.53

9.41

25.09

35.29

M10

8.38

98.1

35.31

47.08

18.83

50.22

70.62

M12

10.11

172.2

62.00

82.67

33.07

88.18

124.00

M16

13.84

441.8

159.06

212.08

84.83

226.22

318.12

M20

17.29

861.5

310.12

413.50

165.40

441.07

620.25

M24

20.75

1489.0

536.05

714.73

285.89

762.38

1072.10

M30

26.21

3000.9

1080.32

1440.43

576.17

1536.45

2160.64

EN 1993-1-8:2005 Cl. 3.6.1(10)

Bearing resistance of bolts on single lap joint per mm Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 [kN/mm] per (t) Aluminium EN AW-5005

EN AW-5754

O/H111 H24/H34 O/H111 H24/H34 fu [N/mm 2]

Stainless steel

Steel

6060

6005A

6082

1.4301

1.4401

S235

S275

S355

T6

T6

T6

-

-

-

-

-

100

145

190

240

170

260

290

540

530

360

430

510

M4

0.480

0.696

0.912

1.152

0.816

1.248

1.392

2.592

2.544

1.728

2.064

2.448

M5

0.600

0.870

1.140

1.440

1.020

1.560

1.740

3.240

3.180

2.160

2.580

3.060

M6

0.720

1.044

1.368

1.728

1.224

1.872

2.088

3.888

3.816

2.592

3.096

3.672

M8

0.960

1.392

1.824

2.304

1.632

2.496

2.784

5.184

5.088

3.456

4.128

4.896

M10

1.200

1.740

2.280

2.880

2.040

3.120

3.480

6.480

6.360

4.320

5.160

6.120

M12

1.440

2.088

2.736

3.456

2.448

3.744

4.176

7.776

7.632

5.184

6.192

7.344

M16

1.920

2.784

3.648

4.608

3.264

4.992

5.568

10.368

10.176

6.912

8.256

9.792

M20

2.400

3.480

4.560

5.760

4.080

6.240

6.960

12.960

12.720

8.640

10.320

12.240

M24

2.880

4.176

5.472

6.912

4.896

7.488

8.352

15.552

15.264

10.368

12.384

14.688

M30

3.600

5.220

6.840

8.640

6.120

9.360

10.440

19.440

19.080

12.960

15.480

18.360

PART 1 EUROCODE

91



EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5

Punching-shear resistance Fp,Rd = 0.6π·dm·fu/1.25 [kN/mm] per tp dm [mm]

Aluminium EN AW-5005

EN AW-5754

O/H111 H24/H34 O/H111 H24/H34 2

Stainless steel

Steel

6060

6005A

6082

1.4301

1.4401

S235

S275

S355

T6

T6

T6

-

-

-

-

-

fu [kN/cm ]

10.0

14.5

19.0

24.0

17.0

26.0

29.0

54.0

53.0

36.0

43.0

51.0

M4

7

1.056

1.531

2.006

2.533

1.794

2.744

3.061

5.700

5.595

3.800

4.539

5.383

M5

8

1.206

1.749

2.292

2.895

2.051

3.137

3.498

6.514

6.394

4.343

5.187

6.152

M6

10

1.508

2.187

2.865

3.619

2.564

3.921

4.373

8.143

7.992

5.429

6.484

7.691

M8

13

1.960

2.843

3.725

4.705

3.333

5.097

5.685

10.586

10.390

7.057

8.430

9.998

M10

17

2.564

3.717

4.871

6.152

4.358

6.665

7.434

13.843

13.587

9.229

11.023

13.074

M12

19

2.865

4.154

5.444

6.876

4.871

7.449

8.309

15.472

15.185

10.314

12.320

14.612

M16

24

3.619

5.248

6.876

8.686

6.152

9.410

10.495

19.543

19.181

13.029

15.562

18.457

M20

30

4.524

6.560

8.595

10.857

7.691

11.762

13.119

24.429

23.977

16.286

19.453

23.072

Gerhard Dose 2006 & Wilhelm Schwarz 2005

Thread pull-out resistance per (t) Fo,Rd ≈ αM·βM·π·d2·fuM/1.25 [kN/mm] per t d2 [mm]

αM = βBfyB/(βBfyB+βMfyM) A2-70 screw

P

fuB [N/mm2]

700 0.5774

βB Threaded

EN AW-5005

Temper

EN AW-5754

O/H111 H14/H24 O/H111 H24/H34 2

6060

6005A

1.4301

1.4401

S235

S275

S355

T6

T6

-

-

-

-

-

fuM [N/mm ]

100

145

190

240

170

250

520

530

360

430

510

βM

0.44

0.44

0.44

0.44

0.44

0.44

0.77

0.77

0.58

0.58

0.58

αM

0.90

0.86

0.83

0.79

0.84

0.79

0.50

0.50

0.66

0.62

0.58

M4

3.55 0.70

0.399

0.552

0.687

0.821

0.628

0.846

1.794

1.808

1.293

1.430

1.562

M5

4.48 0.80

0.499

0.690

0.859

1.028

0.786

1.060

2.266

2.285

1.627

1.800

1.969

M6

5.35 1.00

0.598

0.828

1.031

1.233

0.943

1.270

2.707

2.728

1.947

2.153

2.354

M8

7.19 1.25

0.798

1.104

1.375

1.646

1.258

1.697

3.636

3.666

2.607

2.886

3.158

M10

9.03 1.50

0.997

1.381

1.720

2.059

1.574

2.123

4.566

4.603

3.266

3.618

3.961

M12

10.86 1.75

1.197

1.657

2.065

2.473

1.889

2.549

5.495

5.540

3.926

4.350

4.764

M16

14.70 2.00

1.596

2.210

2.758

3.307

2.521

3.410

7.436

7.499

5.278

5.857

6.426

M20

18.38 2.50

1.995

2.763

3.447

4.134

3.151

4.263

9.295

9.373

6.597

7.322

8.032

M24

22.05 3.00

2.393

3.315

4.136

4.960

3.781

5.115

11.153

11.248

7.917

8.786

9.638

M30

27.73 3.50

2.992

4.145

5.174

6.208

4.729

6.402

14.024

14.143

9.928

11.026

12.104

92

PART 1 EUROCODE



11.2 Pin connections Pin connections with no rotation may be designed as single bolted connections. Design resistance of pin connections

EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.10, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.13

Mode

Values

Data

d A Wel fup fy

Diameter of pin [mm] 2 Cross-sectional area of pin [mm ] 3 Elastic section modulus of pin cross-section [mm ] 2 Tensile strength of pin [N/mm ] Lower of the yield strengths of the pin and the 2 connected part [N/mm ]

Shear

Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f up 1.25

Shear resistance per shear plane [N]

Bearing

Notes

Permanent pin: Fb,Rd = 1.5 d ⋅ t ⋅ f y 1.0

Clause

Bearing resistance of the connection [N]

Replaceable pin: Fb,Rd,ser = 0.6 d ⋅ t ⋅ f y 1.0 ≥ Fb,Ed,ser Bending

 t + 4e + 2t 2  M Ed = FEd ⋅  1  8  

Permanent pin: M Rd = 1.5 Wel ⋅ f yp 1.0

Design bending moment in pin [N·mm]

Fig. 3.11

Bending resistance of pin [N·mm]

Replaceable pin: M Rd,ser = 0.8 Wel ⋅ f yp 1.0 ≥ M Ed,ser

Interaction

 Fv,Ed   Fv,Rd

  

2

M  +  Ed   M Rd 

Design of pin ended members Mode Given thickness

Given geometry

Values

≤ 1.0

EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.9, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.12 Notes

a ≥

FEd ⋅ γ M 1 2d 0 + 2 t ⋅ fy 3

c ≥

FEd ⋅ γ M 1 d 0 + 2 t ⋅ fy 3

t ≥ 0.7 ≥

Combined shear & bending

2

1.0FEd fy

Clause Table 3.9

Table 3.9

d0 2.5

PART 1 EUROCODE

93


CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.3 Tapping screws and rivets Spaced thread Size

Tensile Plastic section Tightening tourque Stress area modulus 2 3 3 [N·m] As [mm ] W pl = d1 /6 [mm ]

P [mm]

Major diameter dmin [mm]

Thread root diameter d1,min [mm]

Shank area 2 Ab [mm ]

ST 3.5

1.3

3.35

2.51

4.95

4.95

2.64

2.7

ST 3.9

1.3

3.73

2.77

6.03

6.03

3.54

3.4

ST 4.2

1.4

4.04

2.95

6.83

6.83

4.28

4.4

ST 4.8

1.6

4.62

3.43

9.24

9.24

6.73

6.3

ST 5.5

1.8

5.28

3.99

12.50

12.50

10.59

10.0

ST 6.3

1.8

6.03

4.70

17.35

17.35

17.30

13.6

11.3.1

Pitch

Minimum distances EN 1993-1-3 :2005 Table 3.3, EN 1999-1-4:2007 Fig. 8.1

Minimum distances Steel sheet (EN 1993-1-3)

Aluminium sheet (EN 1999-1-4)

Screw

Rivets

Screw & rivet

Edge e1, // to load distance e2, ⊥ to load

3d

1.5d

2d or 20mm

1.5d

1.5d

1.5d or 10mm

Spacing p1, // to load

3d

3d

4d or 30mm

3d

3d

2d or 20mm

p2, ⊥ to load

11.3.2

Design resistance of self-tapping screws

Design resistance of self-tapping screws Mode Material

EN 1993-1-3 Cl. 8.2

Net section

by test

-

Fv,Rd = As 380 1.25

tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.43d Fb,Rd = 3.2 t d f u ,min 1.25 Otherwise (also for timber support): Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25

- fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2; - d ≥ 5.5mm

tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25

Otherwise (also for timber support): Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25

Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25

Tension Pull-through (punching)

Conditions

Self-tapping screws to EN ISO 1479, 1481 or ISO 7049 Self-drilling screws to EN ISO 15480 or 15481

-

Shear Bearing

EN 1999-1-4 Cl.8.3

by test


-

Ft,Rd = As 560 1.25

-

Steel or stainless steel washer: F p,Rd = 6.1 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25

F p,Rd = 0.5 d w t f u 1.25

Aluminium washer: F p,Rd = 4.88 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25 tsup < P: Pull-out (thread strip) Fo,Rd = 0.45 d t sup f u ,sup 1.25 tsup ≥ P: Fo,Rd = 0.65 d t sup f u ,sup 1.25 Combined

Ft,Ed 1.4Ft,Rd

94

+

Fv,Ed Fv,Rd

≤ 1.0 &

Fo,Rd = 0.95 d t sup 3 f u ,sup 1.25

Ft,Ed

{

min F p,Rd ,Fo,Rd

}

+

Fv,Ed

{

min Fb,Rd ,Fn,Rd

}

- fu ≤ 260 N/mm2; - t ≤ 1.5mm; - dw ≥ 14 mm; tw ≥ 1 mm

- fu ≤ 260 N/mm2; - d = 6.3 mm; - tsup >6 mm; fu,sup > 250 N/mm2 - tsup >5 mm; fu,sup > 400 N/mm2

≤ 1.0

PART 1 EUROCODE



EN 1090-3:2008 Table E.1

Diameter of predrilled holes [mm] Substructure thickness t [mm]

Aluminium

Steel

≤ 3.0

>3≤4

> 4.0

ST 6.3

3.3

3.5

4.1

11.3.3

Screw design tables

≤ 0.75 > 0.75 ≤ 1.5 > 1.5 ≤ 3.0 > 3 ≤ 5.0 > 5.0 ≤ 7.0 3.3

3.5

4.1

4.8

5.5

6.0

EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.3

Shear, tension and moment resistance of screws Screw

> 7.0

As

Wpl

Fv,Rd = As·380/1.25

Ft,Rd = As·560/1.25

MRd = W pl·450/1.25

[mm 2]

[mm 3]

[kN]

[kN]

[kN·mm]

ST 2.9

3.40

1.50

1.03

1.52

0.54

ST 3.5

4.95

2.64

1.50

2.22

0.95

ST 3.9

6.03

3.54

1.83

2.70

1.27

ST 4.2

6.83

4.28

2.08

3.06

1.54

ST 4.8

9.24

6.73

2.81

4.14

2.42

ST 5.5

12.50

10.59

3.80

5.60

3.81

ST 6.3

17.35

17.30

5.27

7.77

6.23

EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.3.2.1

Bearing resistance of screws per mm Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 per (t) [kN/mm]

Screw

1050

5005

5754

6060

6005A

6082

1.4301 1.4401

S235

S355

O/H111

H14

O/H111

H14

O/H111

H14

T6

T6

T6

-

-

-

-

fu [N/mm ]

65

100

100

145

190

240

170

260

290

540

530

360

510

ST 4.2

0.328

0.504

0.504

0.731

0.958

1.210

0.857

1.310

1.462

2.722

2.671

1.814

2.570

ST 4.8

0.374

0.576

0.576

0.835

1.094

1.382

0.979

1.498

1.670

3.110

3.053

2.074

2.938

ST 5.5

0.429

0.660

0.660

0.957

1.254

1.584

1.122

1.716

1.914

3.564

3.498

2.376

3.366

ST 6.3

0.491

0.756

0.756

1.096

1.436

1.814

1.285

1.966

2.192

4.082

4.007

2.722

3.856

2

PART 1 EUROCODE

95



Resistance of rivets

Design resistance of blind rivets Mode

EN 1993-1-3 Cl. 8.2

Material

-

Shear

Fv,Rd = Anet ⋅ f u 1.25

Bearing

EN 1999-1-4 Cl.8.2

EN ISO 15973, 15974, 15977, 15978, 15981 &15982 - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2; - 2.6mm ≤ d ≤ 6.4mm

Fv,Rd = 38 d 2 1.25

tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.34d

tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25

Fb,Rd = 3.6 d t min 3 f u ,min 1.25

Otherwise: Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25

≤ e1 1.2 t f u /1.25 Otherwise (also for timber support): Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25

Net section

Conditions



Tension

by test

Ft,Rd = 47 d 2 1.25

-

Pull-through (punching)

by test

F p,Rd = 2.35 α E t f o 1.25

- fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2; - t ≤ 1.5mm; - dw ≥ 9.5mm

Pull-out (Slip through)

by test

Steel sheet: Fo,Rd = 0.47 d t sup f y 1.25

- fy ≤ 350 N/mm2; - tsup ≤ 6mm

Aluminium sheet: Fo,Rd = 0.20 d t sup f o 1.25 Combined

Ft,Ed 1.4Ft,Rd

+

Fv,Ed Fv,Rd

≤ 1.0 ;

Ft,Ed

{

min F p,Rd ,Fo,Rd

}

+

Fv,Ed

{

min Fb,Rd ,Fn,Rd

}

≤ 1.0

(Goebel) ISO 14589

Breaking load of blind rivets Type

Open

Material Ø3.0 Ø3.2

Ø4.0

Ø5.0 Ø4.8

Ø6.0 Ø6.4

Ø3.0 Ø3.2

Ø4.0

Ø5.0 Ø4.8

Ø6.0 Ø6.4

AlMg2.5 / Alu

0.67

1.025

1.42

-

0.535

0.845

1.15

-

AlMg5 / A2

0.87

1.6

2.5

3.9

0.68

1.2

2.0

3.0

ISO 15983

A2 / A2 (A4 / A4)

2.0

3.8

6.5

8.85

1.6

3.1

5.0

6.5

ISO 15979

Steel / Steel

1.125

1.99

3.255

5.0

0.915

1.55

2.575

4.0

AlMg5 / A2

0.98

1.6

2.25

-

0.76

1.2

1.7

-

ISO 15984

A2 / A2

2.0

3.8

6.5

-

1.6

3.1

5.0

-

ISO 15980

Steel/Steel

1.125

1.99

3.255

-

0.95

1.55

2.575

-

ISO 15975

Al99.5 / Alu

0.49

0.82

1.12

-

0.45

0.58

0.9

-

AlMg5 / A2

1.245

2.24

3.1

-

1.07

1.7

2.2

-

ISO 15981

-

-

96

Shear, Fv [kN]

Sleeve/Mandrel

-

Closed

Tension, Ft [kN]

ISO 16586

A2 / C1(S/S)

2.5

4.0

5.5

8.7

2.0

3.0

4.5

6.8

ISO 15976

Steel / Steel

2.2

2.5

3.8

-

1.6

2.3

2.9

-

-

Al99.5 / Alu

0.49

0.82

1.12

-

0.45

0.58

0.9

-

-

AlMg5 / A2

1.245

2.24

3.1

-

1.07

1.7

2.2

-

PART 1 EUROCODE


P 15


PS 45

PS 25

EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.2.2.1

Blind nut bearing resistance per mm Rivet

Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 per (t) [kN/mm] 1050

5005

5754

6060

6005A

6082

1.4301 1.4401

S235

S355

Ø

O/H111

H14

O/H111

H14

O/H111

H14

T6

T6

T6

-

-

-

-

fu [N/mm 2]

65

100

100

145

190

240

170

260

290

540

530

360

510

4.0

0.312

0.480

0.480

0.696

0.912

1.152

0.816

1.248

1.392

2.592

2.544

1.728

2.448

4.8

0.374

0.576

0.576

0.835

1.094

1.382

0.979

1.498

1.670

3.110

3.053

2.074

2.938

5.0

0.390

0.600

0.600

0.870

1.140

1.440

1.020

1.560

1.740

3.240

3.180

2.160

3.060

6.0

0.468

0.720

0.720

1.044

1.368

1.728

1.224

1.872

2.088

3.888

3.816

2.592

3.672

6.4

0.499

0.768

0.768

1.114

1.459

1.843

1.306

1.997

2.227

4.147

4.070

2.765

3.917

11.4 Stud welds ISO/TR 15608:2000

Suitability of base and stud materials Stud Material

Steel

Stainless steel Copper Aluminium

Group 1 – 6, 11.1

Group 8

Group 31 - 37 Group 21, 22 Pure copper and lead-free copper alloys

Aluminium* (1xxx, 3xxx & 5xxx)

a

b

-

b

b

b

-

a

b

a

b

-

A2-50

b

b

a

b

-

CuZn37(CW508L)

b

b

b

a

-

EN AW-1050A

-

-

-

-

b

EN AW-5754

-

-

-

-

a

Grade

Steel (≤ 0.35% C)

Galvanised Austenitic steel (≤ 25µm) stainless steel

S235

a

b

4.8

a

1.4301

Note: * Pure aluminium and non-heat treatable alloys. a: very suitable b: weldable to a certain extent -: not suitable for welding

PART 1 EUROCODE

97


CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.5 Weld 11.5.1

Weld Symbols to EN 22553:1994 (ISO 2553:1992) (Arrow side)

1 – weld size (a) throat (z) nominal 2 – weld symbol (fillet) 3 – supplementary symbol (concave face) 4 – number of welds × length of each weld 5 – symbol for staggered intermittent weld 6 – weld spacing 7 – welding process reference

(Other side)

98

8 – weld class

PART 1 EUROCODE



Weld examples – hollow sections

PART 1 EUROCODE

99

CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS Weld examples – full penetration butt welds

100

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES EN 1011-11998

PART 1 EUROCODE



Design resistance of welds for steel design

Intermittent fillet welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of : •

12×thickness of thinner parent material or 200mm if it is in compression or shear.

•

16×thickness of thinner parent material or 200mm if it is in tension. EN 1993-1-1:2005 4.5

Design resistance of steel welds Type

Action

Directional method

Notes

Nominal ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined 4.5.3.2 Factored normal stress in-plane , perpendicular and parallel to the throat, 2 respectively [N/mm ] Fig. 4.5

fu σ⊥, τ⊥, τ∥

σ ⊥ 2 +3 τ ⊥ 2 +τ / / 2

(

)

Interaction

2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2

≤

Simplified method

s l a = 0.707·z

Fw,Rd = l ⋅

fu 1.25 β w

fu 3 1.25 β w

a

⋅

values of βw: class S235 S275 S355 S420 & S460

11.5.3

Clause

βw 0.8 0.85 0.9 1.0

Size of fillet weld [mm] Effective length of fillet weld, lmin = 6·a or 30mm, [mm] Throat thickness of fillet weld, amin = 3mm, [mm]

4.5.1 Fig. 4.3

Design weld resistance [N]

4.5.3.3

Correlation factor [-]

Table 4.1

Design resistance of welds for aluminium design

Clause 1.1.2 (1): Welded components shall not have thickness less than 1.5mm. EN 1999-1-1:2007 8.6.3.3

Design resistance of aluminium fillet welds Type Directional method

Interaction

Simplified method

Action

Notes

Table 8.8 Characteristic strength of weld metal, [N/mm ] 2 Factored normal stress in the plane of the throat, [N/mm ] 8.6.3.3 2 Factored shear stress perpendicular to the throat, [N/mm ] Factored normal stress parallel to the Fig. 8.18 2 throat [N/mm ]

fw σ⊥ τ⊥ τ∥

(

σ ⊥ 2 +3 τ ⊥ 2 +τ / / 2

) fw 1.25

2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2

≤

values of γMw: EN 1999-1-1 UK NA

γMw = 1.35 γMw = 1.35

s l a = 0.707·z a) Longitudinal load f a ⋅ w Fw,Rd = l ⋅ 0.7 γ Mw b)Transverse load f a ⋅ w Fw,Rd = l ⋅ 0.85 γ Mw

Size of fillet weld [mm] Effective length of fillet weld, lmin = 6·a or 30mm, [mm] Throat thickness of fillet weld, amin = 3mm, [mm] Design weld resistance [N] Fig. 8.19 & 8.20

a) Longitudinal load

PART 1 EUROCODE

Clause 2

b) Transverse load 101


CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS Design resistance of fillet and butt welds in HAZ Type Directional method

Action

Notes Characteristic strength of welded parts [N/mm ] Reduction factor for HAZ [-] 2 Design normal stress perpendicular to weld axis [N/mm ] 2 Design shear stress parallel to weld axis [N/mm ]

σhaz τhaz

Fillet weld

check F & T

Butt weld

check T

102

Clause 2

fu ρu,haz

σ haz 2 +3τ haz 2 ≤

EN 1999-1-1:2007 8.6.3.4 Table 8.8 8.6.3.3

f u ⋅ ρ u ,haz

γ Mw F = HAZ in the fusion boundary T = HAZ in toe of the weld, full cross-section

Fig. 8.21

Fig. 8.21

PART 1 EUROCODE



11.6 Plate bracket resistance Plate bracket resistance Plate Properties EN AW-6005A T6 t

b

[mm] [mm]

A

I 2

[mm ]

4

[mm ]

EN 1993-1:2005; EN 1999-1:2007 S235 S355

EN AW-6082 T6

NRd

VRd

MRd

NRd

VRd

MRd

NRd

VRd

MRd

NRd

VRd

MRd

[kN]

[kN]

[kN·mm]

[kN]

[kN]

[kN·mm]

[kN]

[kN]

[kN·mm]

[kN]

[kN]

[kN·mm]

10

200 2000 1667 363.6 168.0

909.1 472.7 218.3 1181.8 470.0 217.1 1175.0

670.0 309.5 1675.0

10

225 2250 1875 409.1 189.0 1022.7 531.8 245.6 1329.5 528.8 244.2 1321.9

753.8 348.1 1884.4

12

200 2400 2400 436.4 201.5 1309.1 567.3 262.0 1701.8 564.0 260.5 1692.0

804.0 371.4 2412.0

12

225 2700 2700 490.9 226.7 1472.7 638.2 294.8 1914.5 634.5 293.1 1903.5

904.5 417.8 2713.5

12

250 3000 3000 545.5 251.9 1636.4 709.1 327.5 2127.3 705.0 325.6 2115.0 1005.0 464.2 3015.0

12

275 3300 3300 600.0 277.1 1800.0 780.0 360.3 2340.0 775.5 358.2 2326.5 1105.5 510.6 3316.5

15

225 3375 4219 613.6 283.4 2301.1 797.7 368.5 2991.5 793.1 366.3 2974.2 1130.6 522.2 4239.8

15

250 3750 4688 681.8 314.9 2556.8 886.4 409.4 3323.9 881.3 407.0 3304.7 1256.3 580.2 4710.9

15

275 4125 5156 750.0 346.4 2812.5 975.0 450.3 3656.3 969.4 447.7 3635.2 1381.9 638.3 5182.0

15

300 4500 5625 818.2 377.9 3068.2 1063.6 491.3 3988.6 1057.5 488.4 3965.6 1507.5 696.3 5653.1

15

325 4875 6094 886.4 409.4 3323.9 1152.3 532.2 4321.0 1145.6 529.1 4296.1 1633.1 754.3 6124.2

15

350 5250 6563 954.5 440.9 3579.5 1240.9 573.2 4653.4 1233.8 569.8 4626.6 1758.8 812.3 6595.3

PART 1 EUROCODE

103


CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.7 Anchors in Concrete Design resistance of metal anchors (Method A) Type

Action

Steel

Tension γ Ms =

1.2 f yk f uk

≥ 1.4

N Rd ,s = As f uk γ Ms

Shear

ETAG 001:2010 Annex C

Notes

Clause

Material partial safety factor [-]

3.2.2.2

Design tensile resistance of metal anchor [kN]

5.2.2.2

Condition fuk ≤ 800 N/mm² 1.0 Material partial safety factor [-] ≥ 1.25 and f yk f uk fyk/fuk ≤ 0.8 fuk > 800 N/mm² 1.5 or fyk/fuk > 0.8 a) No lever arm, mortar thickness ≤ d/2: Design tensile resistance of metal anchor [kN] γMs

V Rd ,s = 0.5 As f uk γ Ms

b) With lever-arm: l = a 3 + e1

(

M Rk ,s = 1.2Wel f uk 1 − N Sd / N Rd ,s V Rd ,s = α M M Rk ,s

)

l

3.2.2.2

5.2.3.2

Lever arm [mm]

4.2.2.4

Bending moment resistance [N·m]

5.2.3.2

Design shear resistance of metal anchor [kN]

Fixture restraint, αM: αM Fixture Rotation Free 1.0 Fixed 2.0 Concrete: Tension

Material partial safety factor (low installation safety) 3.2.2.1

γ Mc = 2.1

Pull-out failure (concentric load): 0 1.5 N Rk ,c = 7.2 f ck ,cube hef

Ac ,N

Char. res. of single anchor in cracked concrete [kN] 5.2.2.4 Actual total area of concrete cone 1:1.5 slope [mm²]

Ac0,N = 9hef 2

Concrete cone area for single anchor [mm²]

ψ s ,N = 0.7 + 0.2 c hef ≤ 1.0

Edge distance factor [-] Shell spalling factor [-]

ψ re ,N = 0.5 + hef 200 ≤ 1.0 Ac ,N

N Rd ,c =

0 ⋅ψ s ,N ⋅ψ re ,N ⋅ N Rk ,c γ Mc

Ac0,N

Design pull-out resistance (cracked concrete) [kN]

Splitting failure: hef ≤ h/2 to avoid splitting failure Concrete: Shear

γ Mc = 1.5

5.2.2.6 Material partial safety factor

3.2.2.1

Pry-out failure for hef ≥ 60mm. [kN]

5.2.3.3

Pry-out failure: V Rd ,cp = 2 ⋅ N Rk ,c γ Mc

Pry-out failure (concentric load):

(

α = 0.1 l f c1 0 V Rd ,c

α

)

0.5

= 1.7 d hef

β

; β = 0.1 ( d c1 )0.2 f ck ,cube c1

1.5

Concrete cone area for single anchor [mm²]

Ac0,V = 4.5c1 2

Actual total area of concrete cone 1:1.5 slope [mm²] Edge distance factor [-]

Ac ,V

ψ s ,V = 0.7 + 0.3 c2 c1 ≤ 1.0

Member thickness factor [-]

ψ h,V = 1.5c1 h ≥ 1.0 V Rd ,c =

Concrete: Combined 104

Ac ,V Ac0,V

0 ⋅ψ s ,V ⋅ψ h ,V ⋅ V Rk ,c γ Mc

(NSd/NRd,s) 2 + (VSd/VRd,s)2 ≤ 1.0 NSd/NRd,c)

1.5

+ (VSd/VRd,c)

1.5

lf is the effective anchor depth for shear [-] 2.4 Char. res. of single anchor in cracked concrete [kN] 5.2.3.4

≤ 1.0

Design pry-out resistance (cracked concrete) [kN] Steel failure interaction

5.2.4

Concrete failure interaction

PART 1 EUROCODE


BUILDING PHYSICS

I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS 12.1 Thermal Performance 12.1.1

Thermal transmittance (U-value)

EN ISO 10077-2 – Software validation CWCT - Guidance EN ISO 12631 – Calculation EN ISO 10211-1 – Linear and/or point thermal transmittance Part L2A cl. 4.12 & 5.1 to 5.8 – developing construction details

12.1.2

Condensation

EN ISO 13788 – Boundary conditions CWCT – Guidance EN 15927 – External conditions

12.1.3

Solar and light performance

EN 410 – Method Part L – G-values ASTM C 1649 & C1650 – Colour in reflection and transmission CIE technical report 130/1998 – Measurements of reflectance and transmission

12.2 Acoustic Performance 12.2.1

Airborne sound insulation

EN ISO 10140 – Min. sound reduction indices

12.2.2

Vertical flanking sound

EN ISO 10848 – Laboratory measurement EN ISO 717-1 – Weighted average

12.2.3

Horizontal flanking sound

EN ISO 10848 – Laboratory measurement EN ISO 717-1 – Weighted average

12.2.4

Noise control

EN 61672-1 – Sound level meters

12.3 Fire Performance Part B – Materials

12.3.1

Fire and smoke stopping

Part B – Materials BS 476-20,22 – Fire stop EN 12101-1 – Fire stop

12.3.2

Fire rating

PART 1 EUROCODE

105


FAÇADE NOTES

PART II BRITISH STANDARDS 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA


Table of Contents II-1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

5

1.1

Materials for patent glazing construction

5

1.2

Corrosion

6

1.3

Corrosion protection

7

II-2 LOADS

9

2.1

Definitions

9

2.2

Dead load (D)

9

2.3

Imposed load (L)

10

2.4

Snow load (S)

12

2.5

Wind load (W)

14

2.6

Thermal load (T)

24

2.7

Seismic load (E)

25

2.8

Blast load, BL

25

2.9

Load combinations

26

II-3 SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE

27

3.1

Deflection

27

3.2

Common structural movements

28

3.1

Cutain wall accommodation of structural movements

29

3.2

Structural tolerance

32

II-4 STEEL DESIGN

39

4.1

Properties of steel

39

4.2

Steel mullion moment of inertia

40

4.3

Steel transom moment of inertia

41

II-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN

43

5.1


43

5.2

Minimum profile thickness to prevent local buckling

44

5.3

Aluminium mullion moment of inertia

46

5.4

Aluminium transom moment of inertia

47

II-6 GLASS DESIGN

49

6.1

Properties of glass

49

6.2

Structural sealant glazing (SSG)

49

6.3

Overhead glazing

49

6.4

Safety glass

49

6.5

Balustrades

50

6.6

Glass fins

52

II-7 STONE DESIGN

55

7.1

Properties

55

7.2

Design of thin stone for cladding

56

BRITISH STANDARDS

3

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

4


II-8 CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS

57

8.1

CWCT test methods for building envelopes

57

8.2

Impact Resistance of Wall Components [BS 8200]

58

8.3

Windows and Vents

59

II-9 RAINSCREEN CLADDING

61

9.1

Pressure-equalised system

61

9.2

Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)

61

9.3

Subframes

61

II-10 ROOFS

62

10.1 Minimum Slope of Roofs and their Gutters [BS 6229 Cl. 7.3]

62

II-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS

63

11.1 Fastening bolts and screws

63

11.2 Weld

66

11.3 Guide to welding

68

11.4 Bracket

70

BRITISH STANDARDS

Structural Engineer’s Façade Notes

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

II-1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 1.1

Materials for patent glazing construction Patent glazing are self-draining and ventilated system of dry glazing that does not rely entirely for its watertightness upon external glazing seals.

Materials for patent glazing construction Material Use Material Aluminium

Architectural Extrusion, bars & rods members (e.g. mullion, transom, fin, beam, capping, etc.)

- 6060 T6 to BS EN 755-2:1997 - 6063 T6 to BS EN 755-2:1997

Structural members Extrusion, (e.g. Backet, sword, bars & rods crimping angle, glass support, etc.)

- 6005A, 6061, 6082 or 7020 T6 to BS EN 755-2:1997

Flashing

Site formed sheets

- 1050 O/H111 to BS EN 485-2:2007

Preformed sheets

- 1200, 3103, 5005 or 5251 to BS EN 485-2:2007

Fasteners Steel

Grade & treatment

BS 5516-1:2004 Finish - Anodised to BS 3987 - Liquid organic coated to BS 4842 - Polyester powder coating to BS 6496

Bolt or screw - 5056A H4 to BS 1473

Structural members Hot rolled sections

- S355 to BS EN 10025-2:2004

Hot rolled hollow sections

- S355 orS460 to BS EN 10210:2006

Plates & Flats

Hot rolled

- S235or S355 to BS EN 10025-2:2004 - S460 to BS EN 10137-1:1996

Sheets for cold bending

Hot rolled

- DD11 to BS EN 10111:2008 ???

- Hot dipped galvanized to BS EN ISO 1461 - Zinc sprayed to BS EN 22063 - Organic coated to BS 6497

Cold formed - D01 to BS EN 10130:2006 ???

Fasteners

Bolt or screw - Gr. 4.6, 8.8 or 10.9 to BS 4190 - HSFG to BS 4395

Fasteners

Bolt or screw - A2 or A4 to BS EN 3506

- Electroplating with zinc or cadmium to BS 3382 - Chromate passivated and sealed to BS 6338

Stainless steel

BRITISH STANDARDS

5


MATERIAL PROPERTIES 1.2

Corrosion

1.2.1 Bimetallic/glavanic corrosion When two different metals are in electrical contact and are also bridged by water containing an electrolyte (e.g. water containing salt, acid, combustion product), current flows through the solution from the anodic or baser metal to the cathodic or nobler metal. As a result, the nobler metal tends to be protected, but the base metal may suffer great corrosion. CWCT TN 24:2000

Bimetallic corrosion Electro negative, anodic, baser, active

Zinc Aluminium Steel Cast irons Cast irons (austenitic) Stainless steel

Electro positive, cathodic, nobler, passive

Industrial/urban

Marine

Rural

Industrial/urban

Marine

Rural

Industrial/urban

Marine

Rural

Industrial/urban

Marine

0

Rural

Aluminium

Marine

░

BS PD 6484:1979 Cast irons Stainless steel* (austenitic or nickel cast iron)

Industrial/urban

░

Cast irons

Rural

Industrial/urban

Zinc

coupled with…

Steels (carbon and low alloy)

Marine

Rural

Bimetallic corrosion of metals in contact Corrosion of… Zinc Aluminium

░

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

░

░

░

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

░

░

░

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0-1

░

░

░

0

0

0

0

1

-

0

0-1

1

░

░

░

-

(0)

-

0

0

(1)

░

░

░

0-1 0-1

Steels (carbon and low alloy)

0-1

1

1-2

1

1

3

Cast irons

0-1

1

1-2

0

1

2

Cast irons (austenitic)

0-1

1

1-2

1

(2)

Stainless steel

0-1

0-1 0-1

0

1

0-1 0-1 2

(3) (0-1) (0-1) (0-2) 2

1

-

2-3 0-1

1-2 1-2

Key 0 - Metal will suffer either no bimetallic corrosion, or at most only very slightly, usually tolerable in service. 1 - Metal will suffer slight or moderate bimetallic corrosion which may be tolerable in some circumstances. 2 - Metal may suffer fairly severe bimetallic corrosion and protective measures will usually be necessary 3 - Metal may suffer severe bimetallic corrosion and contact should be avoided. () Ratings in brackets are based on very limited evidences and hence are less certain. * Effect depends on relative areas. If the area of the stainless steel is small in relation to that of the coupled metal there may be considerable extra corrosion.

6

BRITISH STANDARDS

Structural Engineer’s Façade Notes

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

1.2.2 Crevice corrosion Crevice corrosion occurs in crevices and recesses, or under deposits of dirt or corrosion products, where there is localised depletion of dissolved oxygen. Such conditions can initiate corrosion of some normally resistant metals (e.g. aluminium and stainless steel) by preventing the formation of the natural protective oxide film. Crevice corrosion can be particularly damaging as it is both localised and likely to occur for relatively long periods as by its nature it takes place at locations that do not dry out rapidly. Surfaces located below projections are not rainwashed, enabling dirt to accumulate and moisture to be retained at the metal surface, underneath which crevice corrosion can begin. Water can also become trapped at many details and interfaces, for example: Between lap joints of sheeting, or between sheets and support rails, Between bolted plates and underneath bolt heads, Where sheets project into gutters, Within small welding imperfections or furrows across the surface of polished metal panels. Crevice corrosion may be prevented by using non-absorbent gaskets, by removing accumulated deposits frequently and avoiding details that trap water.

1.2.3 Pitting corrosion Pitting corrosion is another form of very localised corrosion in which small anodic areas in contact with large cathodic areas corrode to form pits or holes. They ordinarily penetrate from the top of a horizontal surface downwards in a nearly vertical direction. A pit may be initiated by a localised surface defect such as a scratch or a slight variation in material composition. In steel it is an extremely insidious type of corrosion, often going undetected as the volume of corrosion product is small. In aluminium the volume of corrosion product is very much greater than the volume of the pit. The corrosion reaction can therefore be inhibited by selfsealing of the pit.

1.3

Corrosion protection

1.3.1 Zinc coating

BRITISH STANDARDS

7


LOADS

II-2 LOADS 2.1

Definitions IRATA

Definition of loading capacities Category Load/strength Ultimate limit state (factored loads)

Tensile strength

Definition the force required (usually minimum or average) to a member to the point where it breaks

Characteristic strength value of the strength below which only 5% of all test results would be expected (probability) to fail

Service load (non-factored loads)

Devices with counter-mass

2.2

Yield strength

The load at which a member experiences a specified amount of permanent deformation

Proof load

the greatest load applied without straining it beyond the elastic limit (no evidence of deformation)

Rated capacity

the minimum load a complete assembly can withstand before failure in a laboratory pull test when the product is NEW

Breaking load

the lowest breaking force when tested to destruction

Working load limit (WLL)

the maximum load, specified by the manufacturer following an assessment by a competent person, authorized to support when the product is new and when the pull is applied in-line, unless noted otherwise, with respect to the centreline of the member

Safe working load (SWL)

the breaking load divided by an appropriate factor of safety (usually ≥ 2.0) giving a ‘safe’ load that could be lifted or be carried. No additional safety factors required. Ceased to be used in American, ISO and European standards because of legal implications.

Maximum rated load

maximum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with, as specified by the manufacturer

Minimum rated load

minimum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with, as specified by the manufacturer

Dead load (D)

2.2.1 Permanent attachements Typical loads supported from internal surfaces Fixtures

Description

Cupboard

Well loaded, 1.2 x 0.7 x 0.3 m

Washbasin Bookshelves

BRITISH STANDARDS

BS 8200:1985 Table 5 Load 2.5 kN 1.5 kN

Per meter of shelf

0.60 kN/m

Per square metre of wall face

2.0 kN/m

2

9


LOADS 2.3

Imposed load (L)

2.3.1 Occupancy live load Vertical load Internal ledges and framing members shall carry a vertical load of 1.0 kN or a distributed load of 0.6 kN/m², whichever is onerous, according to CWCT Cl. 2.3.3. & BS 6399-1 Cl. 10.

Barrier loads Horizontal loads applied either as a line acting at a height 1100mm above the finished internal floor level, or a distributed or point load on infill panels below this level. BS 6399-1:1996 Table 4

Minimum horizontal loads on barriers Occupancy

Specific use

Horizontal Uniform Infill load, ILQ Line load, ILL 2 [kN/m ] [kN/m]

A (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one single family dwelling including stairs, landings, etc. but Domestic and residential activities excluding external balconies and edges of roofs (see C3 ix)

Point load, ILP [kN]*

0.36

0.5

0.25

0.74

1.0

0.5

B and E (v) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office and institutional buildings also industrial and Offices and work areas not included storage buildings except as given above elsewhere including storage areas

0.74

1.0

0.5

C (vi) Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of Areas where people the barrier, balustrade or parapet may congregate

1.5

1.5

1.5

C1/C2 (vii) Restaurants and bars Areas with tables or fixed seating

1.5

1.5

1.5

C3 (ix) External balconies and edges of roofs. Areas without Footways and pavements within building obstacles for curtilage adjacent to basement/sunken areas moving people and not susceptible to overcrowding

0.74

1.0

0.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

(ii) Other residential, (but also see C)

D Retail areas

(xiii) All retail areas including public areas of banks/building societies or betting shops. For areas where overcrowding may occur, see C5

Note: * Clause 5.1.3: When used for the calculation of local effects such as crushing and punching, the concentrated loads should be assumed to act at a position and over an area of application appropriate to their cause. Where this cannot be foreseen, a square contact area with a 50 mm side should be assumed. Minimum barrier heights

BS 6180:1999 Table 1

Use

Position

Single family dwelling

Barriers in front of a window

800

Stairs, landings, ramps, edges of internal floors

900

External balconies, juliet balconies, edges of roofs

1100

Barriers in front of a window, balconies and stands, etc. having fixed seating within 530mm of the barrier

800

Stairs

900

All other uses

Other positions including juliet balconies 10

Height [mm]

1 100

BRITISH STANDARDS


LOADS

Balcony live load BS 6399-1:1986 Table 1

Minimum Imposed Load on Balconies Load

Description

A Domestic and residential activities

B, C and E Offices and work areas not included elsewhere, areas where people may congregate, including storage areas

Uniformly distributed load, 2 [kN/m ]

Concentrated Load, [kN]

Single dwelling units

1.5

1.4

Guests houses, clubs

3.0

1.5kN/m on outer edge

Hotels and motels

4.0


Balconies

4.0


2.3.2 Roof live load BS 6399-3:1988 Cl. 4

Minimum Imposed Roof Loads Live Load

Description

Roof with access

Slope, α

Load

Uniformly distributed load

-

1.5 kN/m

Concentrated load

-

1.8 kN

α ≤ 30˚

0.6 kN/m

Roof with no access Uniformly distributed load

Reference 2

2

30˚ < α < 60˚

0.6[(60-α)/30] kN/m

60˚ < α

0

-

0.9 kN

Concentrated load

BS 6399-3:1988 Cl. 4.2

BS 6399-3:1988 Cl. 4.3.1 2

Note: “access” means access in addition to that necessary for cleaning and repair. “no access” means access for cleaning and repair only.

2.3.3 Maintainance load Other Loads Live Load

Description

Maintenance crew

Man leaning against the wall

0.4 kN

BS 8200:1985 Cl. 6.5

Man on ladder

0.5 kN

BS 8200:1985 Cl. 6.5

0.5 kN

CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.3.3

Cradle/Man/Ladder Horizontal load on square of 100mm sides 1

On Patent glazing

Perpendicular to Sloping patent glazing Horizontal load on Vertical patent glazing

Industrial type flooring/walkways

Load

0.695 kN · cos(α)

Reference

BS 5516-1:2004 Ann. D

0.172 kN

Occasional access - inspection or maintenance by one person

1.5 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*

Light duty – regular one way pedestrian

3.0 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*

General duty – regular two way pedestrian

5.0 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*

Heavy duty – high density pedestrian

7.5 kN/m² or 1.0 kN*

BS4592-0:2006 Table 1

1

Note: Maintenance load should never be carried directly by the infilling (glass or panel). See BS 5516-1:2004 Annex D * Concentraled load over an area of 300mm × 300mm.

BRITISH STANDARDS

11


LOADS 2.4

Snow load (S) Snow load on roof is considered as medium term load, i.e., to have a notional duration of one month acc. to BS 6399-3 Cl. 5. BS6399-3:1988

Snow load calculation Action Data

Site snow load

Roof Shape coefficient

Values

Notes

Clause 2

α

Basic snow load, [kN/m ] Site altitude, [m] Angle of pitch of roof, [˚]

S alt = 0.1S b + 0.09

Altitude correction, [kN/m ]

 A - 100  S o = S b + S alt    100 

Altitude correction, [kN/m ]

Sb A

Case-1: Uniform Load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: µ1 = 0.8 b) 30˚ < α < 60˚:  60 - α  µ1 = 0.8    30  c) α > 60˚ µ1 = 0

Figure 1 6.2 7.2.2 2

6.2

2

6.2

(a) Flat or Monopitch Roof

(b) Duopitch Roof Figure 2 Figure 3(a)

Case-2: Asymmetric Load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 15˚: µ1 = 0 b) 15˚ < α ≤ 30˚:  α - 15  µ1 = 0.8 + 0.4    15  c) 30˚ < α < 60˚:  60 - α  µ1 = 1.2    30  d) α > 60˚ µ1 = 0 Canopy Shape Coefficient

Figure 3(b)

Width of canopy projection Width of abutting taller building Differential height

b1 b2 ho1 Case-1: b1 ≤ 5 m ls1 = 5ho1 or b1 (lesser) µ1 =

7.4.5 7.4.5 7.4.5 Figure 2 Figure 9

2h o1 2b or or 5 (least) So l s1

Case-2: b1 > 5 m ls1 = 5ho1 or b1 or 15m (least) µ1 =

Design snow load

12

2h o1 2b or or 8 (least) So l s1

S d = µ1 ⋅ S 0

Figure 6

2

Design snow load, [kN/m ]

5

BRITISH STANDARDS

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Basic snow load on the ground, Sb in kN/m

BRITISH STANDARDS

LOADS 2

BS 6399-3 Fig. 1

13


LOADS 2.5

Wind load (W)

2.5.1 Minimum wind load 2

CWCT 2.2.4 Table 2.1: the minimum wind load for design should be 0.80 kN/m .

2.5.2 Relevant dimensions in BS 6399-2:1997 For low-rise buildings (H < D), according to Table 5, the effect of building plan dimension is more severe on the positive pressure of the windward face (front) when the inwind depth “D” is the shorter dimension. Albeit, the directional factor is conservatibely assumed at unity. However, for high-rise buildings (H ≥ D), according to section 2.4.1.4, funnelling is more critical when the crosswind breadth “B” is the smaller dimension.

2.5.3 Horizontal zoning CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.2.3: Under normal circumstances there shall be no horizontal zoning of wind pressure to give lower design loads on the envelope nearer the ground. CWCT TN4:2000: For tall buildings the wind load at the top will be greater than that near ground level due to the increase in wind speed with height. BRE Digest 436 states that this variation in pressure with height only applies to the positive wind pressure on the windward face and is not applicable to suction loads on the side and rear faces.

2.5.4 Probability factor The wind map in BS 6399 gives wind speeds that has an annual risk of being exceeded of Q = 0.02 (it should not be interpreted as occurring regularly every 50 years). To vary the basic wind speed for other such annual probabilities the basic wind speed should be multiplied by: Sp =

5-ln[-ln(1-Q)] 5-ln[-ln(0.98)]

- Probability factor

where: R

 1 L Q = 1-  1-   R

- Risk of exceedence of a given R-return period wind speed in L years

Examples:

14

Sp = 0.749; Q = 0.632

- Risk of exceeding 50 year return period wind speed in 1 year

Sp = 0.905; Q = 0.096

- Risk of exceeding 50 year return period wind speed in 10 years

Sp = 1.000; Q = 0.02


Sp = 1.010; Q = 0.0167


Sp = 1.048; Q = 0.0083


BRITISH STANDARDS


LOADS

2.5.5 Calculating dynamic pressure Below is an outline to calculate the dynamic pressure for buildings qs, using standard method Wind load calculation Action Values Data

Notes

Vb

∆s Factors

Site Wind speed Data

Determine Effective height

BS6 399-2 :1997 Clause

Sa = 1 + 0.001∆s Sd = 1.00 (conservatively) Ss = 1.00 (for permanent buildings) Sp = 1.00 (for normal applications) Vs = Vb · Sa · Sd · Ss · Sp H Hr Ho Xo a) for Xo ≤ 2Ho, greater of: He = Hr - 0.8Ho He = 0.4Hr

Basic wind speed, Figure 6 [m/s] Site altitude above mean sea level, [m]

2.2.1 2.2.2.2

Altitude factor, [-] Directional factor, Table 3 [-] Seasonal factor, Table Annex D.1 [-] Probability factor, Annex D.1 [-]

2.2.2.3 2.2.2.4 2.2.2.5

Site wind speed, [m/s]

2.2.2.1

Building height, [m] Reference height for coefficient definition, [m] Obstruction height, [m] Upwind space, [m] Effective height, [m]

1.7.3.1 1.7.3.3 1.7.3.3 1.7.3.4 1.7.3.2

b) for 2Ho < Xo < 6Ho, greater of: He = Hr - 1.2Ho + 0.2Xo He = 0.4Hr; c) for Xo ≥ 6Ho He = Hr Standard Method

a) for He ≤ 20 m Sb

Terrain and building factor, Table 4 [-]

2.2.3.3

Effective wind speed, [m/s]

2.2.3.1

b) for He ≤ 100 m Sb Ve = Vs · Sb Directional Method

c) for He > 100m Site in country: Sc Fetch factor, Table 22 [-] St Turbulence factor, Table 22 [-] Sh = 0.0 (conservatively) Topograhic increment, [-] gt = 3.44 (for cladding & their fixing) Gust peak factor, [-] Sb = Sc[1+ Sh + (gt · St)] Site in town: Sc·Tc St·Tt Sh = 0.0 (conservatively) gt = 3.44 (for cladding & their fixing)

Effective wind speed

Terrain and building factor, [-] Fetch factor, Table 22 & 23 [-] Turbulence factor, Table 22 & 23 [-] Topograhic increment, [-] Gust peak factor, [-]

Sb = Sc·Tc [1+ Sh + (gt · St·Tt)]

Terrain and building factor, [-]

Ve = Vs · Sb

Effective wind speed, [m/s]

3.2.3.3.4 3.2.3.3.3 3.2.3.2.2

3.2.3.3.4 3.2.3.3.3 3.2.3.2.3 2.2.3.1

Pressure

qs = 0.613 Ve

BRITISH STANDARDS

2

2

Dynamic pressure, [N/m ]

2.1.2

15

LOADS


2.5.6 Factors and coefficients Basic wind speed, Vb in UK

BS 6399-2:1997 Fig. 6

16

BRITISH STANDARDS


LOADS BS 6399-2:1997 Table 4

Terrain and building factor, Sb for He < 20m 1.9 Country: ≤ 10km from sea 1.8

Country: 50km from sea Country: ≥ 100km from sea

Terrain & bulding factor, Sb

1.7

1.6

1.5

1.4 Town: ≤ 10km from sea

1.3 Town: 50km from sea 1.2 Town: ≥ 100km from sea

1.1

1.0 2

4

6

8

10 12 Effective height, H e [m]

14

16

18

20

BS 6399-2:1997 Table 4

Terrain and building factor, Sb for He ≥ 20m 2.10

2.05

Terrain & bulding factor, S b

2.00

1.95 Country/Town: ≤ 10km from sea 1.90

1.85

Country/Town: 50km from sea

1.80 Country/Town: ≥ 100km from sea 1.75

1.70 20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Effective height, He [m]

BRITISH STANDARDS

17


LOADS

BS 6399-2:1997 Table 22 & 23

Fetch factor, Sc and Adjusted, Sc·Tc 1.8

Country: ≤ 10km from sea

a) Country terrain: Fetch factor, S c b) Town Terrain: Adjusted fetch factor, S c ·T c

Country: 50km from sea 1.7

Country: ≥ 100km from sea

1.6

1.5

Town: ≤ 10km from sea

1.4

Town: 50km from sea 1.3

Town: ≥ 100km from sea 1.2 100

150

200 Effective height, He [m]

250

300

BS 6399-2:1997 Table 22 & 23

Turbulence factor, St and Adjusted, St·Tt 0.180

b) Town Terrain: Adjusted turbulence factor, S t·Tt

a) Country terrain: Turbulence factor, S t

Town: ≥ 100km from sea 0.160

Town: 50km from sea

Town: ≤ 10km from sea 0.140

0.120

0.100

Country: ≥ 100km from sea 0.080 Country: 50km from sea Country: ≤ 10km from sea 0.060 100

150

200

250

300

Effective height, H e [m]

18

BRITISH STANDARDS


LOADS

2.5.7 Wind load on claddings BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.4

Design wind loads on vertical walls Action

Values

Data

Notes

Crosswind breadth and inwind depth of building, [m] 2.4.1.3 Slenderness ratio, [-] 2.4.1.2 Scaling length, [m] 2.4.1.1

B, D D/H b = lesser of B or 2H External pressure coefficients, Side wall

External Pressure Coefficient

Zone Isolated

Clause

External pressure coefficient [-]

Table 5

Internal pressure coefficient for enclosed building, Table 16 [-]

2.6.1

Funnelling

A

-1.3

b/4 ≤ gap ≤ b - 1.6

B

-0.8

- 0.9

C

-0.5

- 0.9

Windward wall D/H ≤ 1 1 < D/H < 4 D/H ≥ 4 0.85 0.85-12(D/H-1) 0.6 Leeward wall -0.5 Internal Pressure Coef. Net surface Pressure

Cpi(+) = +0.2 Cpi(-) = -0.3

2

Wind pressure on windward wall, [kN/m ] 2 Wind suction on leeward wall, [kN/m ]

Pw = qs [CpeW – Cpi(-)] PL = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)] a) Zone A (local), 0.2b: PA = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)] b) Zone B, b-0.2b: PB = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)] c) Zone C, D-b: PC = qs [CpeL – Cpi(+)]

2.1.3.3

Wind Load in London Building height [m] 10 25 50 100 200

LONDON Low-rise bldg. Intermediate Medium-rise High-rise Skyscraper

Pressure [kN/m²] 0.89 1.15 1.31 1.43 1.57

Isolated [kN/m²] Suction Local -0.77 -1.16 -1.00 -1.50 -1.14 -1.71 -1.25 -1.87 -1.37 -2.05

Funnelling [kN/m²] Suction Local -0.85 -1.39 -1.10 -1.81 -1.25 -2.05 -1.37 -2.24 -1.51 -2.46 Pressure

n Isolated-suctio

tion Funnelling-suc

Isolated-local

cal Funnelling-lo

Building Height [m]

200

150

100

50

0 -2.5

-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

Wind Load [kN/m²]

2.5.8 Pressure on rainscreen acc. to CWCT:2005 Cl.2.2.5 Drained and ventilated envelope: q·Cpe Pressure-equalised rainscreen panel complying to CWCT Cl. 2.2.6: 2/3·q·Cpe

BRITISH STANDARDS

19


LOADS 2.5.9 Wind load on long elements

BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.7

Design wind loads on long elements Action

Values

Notes

Clause

Data

B, L Circular section: Cp = 1.2 Sharp-edged sections: Cp = 2.0

Width and length of element, [m]

2.7.2.2 2.7.3 Table 20

Net Pressure Coefficient Reduction factor

Net Pressure

2.7.3 Fig. 25

a) for element with free ends effective = L/B b) for one end fixed to a plane effective = 2L/B c) for both ends fixed to opposite planes κ = 1.0

2.1.3.3

P = qs·Cp· κ

2.5.10 Wind load on free-standing solid wall and cladding fins BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.8.1

Design wind loads on free-standing solid walls Action

Values

Notes

Clause

Data

h, L Without return corners: Cp,A = 3.4; Cp,B = 2.1 CpC = 1.7; CpD = 1.2 With return corners ≥ h: Cp,A = 2.1; Cp,B = 1.8 CpC = 1.4; CpD = 1.2

Height and length of free-stand wall, [m]

Fig. 26

Net Pressure Coefficient

Reduction factors

a) for L/h ≤ 3 κ = 0.6 b) for 3 < L/h ≤ 5 κ = 0.6 + (L/h – 3)/20 c) for 5 < L/h ≤ 10 κ = 0.7 + (L/h – 5)/25 d) for 10 < L/h ≤ 15 κ = 0.9 + (L/h – 10)/50 e) for L/h > 15 κ = 1.0

Net Pressures a) Zone A (local), 0.3h: PA = qs·CpA· κ b) Zone B, 2h-0.3h: PB = qs·CpB· κ c) Zone C, 4h-2h: PC = qs·CpC· κ d) Zone D, L-4h: PD = qs·CpD· κ

Table 21

Table 21a

2.1.3.3

2.5.11 Wind load on sign boards Design wind loads on sign boards

BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 2.8.2

Action

Values

Clause

Data Net Pressure Coefficient

h, B Requirement: Gap ≥ h/2 Cp = 1.8

Fig. 28

Net Pressure

20

P = qs·Cp

2.8.2 2.1.3.3

BRITISH STANDARDS


LOADS

2.5.12 Wind load on canopies attached to tall buildings [BRE NJ Cook]

BRITISH STANDARDS

21

LOADS


2.5.13 Balconies and vertical Fin features [BRE NJ Cook]

22

BRITISH STANDARDS


LOADS

2.5.14 Wind load on corner cladding The table below shows the combination of external pressure coefficients (Cpe) for every wind load direction. Directional wind method

BRITISH STANDARDS

BS 6399-2:1997 Cl. 3

23


LOADS 2.6

Thermal load (T) Material and components of the cladding shall be capable of accommodating stresses generated by differential temperatures.

2.6.1 Temperature difference for checking of cladding components CWCT:2005 Table 2.2, 2.3 & BRE Digest 228:1979 Table 2

Service temperature ranges in UK Exposure Material

Type

Summer

Winter

†

†

Daytime Difference, Approx. Night-time Difference Approx. , (base contraction maximum, (base 0˚C) expansion minimum, +40˚C) ∆L [mm/m] TS [˚C] ∆TW [˚C] ∆L [mm/m] TW [˚C] ∆TW [˚C] Exposed Glass on one side

Clear

+ 40

+ 40

+0.32

Coloured or solar control

+ 90

+ 90

+0.72

+ 50

+ 50

+1.15 (Al) +0.80 (Ss) +0.60 (St)

+ 65

+ 65

+1.49 (Al) +1.04 (Ss) +0.78 (St)

Lightweight(insulated) light colour

+ 60

+ 60

+1.38 (Al) +0.96 (Ss) +0.72 (St)

Lightweight(insulated) dark colour

+ 80

+ 80

+1.84 (Al) +1.28 (Ss) +0.96 (St)

Light colour

+ 50

+ 50

+1.15 (Al) +0.80 (Ss) +0.60 (St)

Dark colour

+ 65

+ 65

+1.49 (Al) +1.04 (Ss) +0.78 (St)

Concrete Light colour

+ 45

+ 45

+0.54

Dark colour

+ 60

+ 60

+0.72

Empty or out of use

+ 35

+ 35

Normal use

+ 30

+ 30

Cladding, Heavyweight, Walling, light colour and Roofing Heavyweight, dark colour

Fully Metal exposed

Internal

Building

- 25

- 65

-0.52

- 20

- 60

-1.38 (Al) -0.96 (Ss) -0.72 (St)

- 25

- 65

-1.49 (Al) -1.04 (Ss) -0.78 (St)

- 25

- 65

-1.49 (Al) -1.04 (Ss) -0.78 (St)

- 20

- 60

-0.72

-

-5

- 45

-

+0.24 (Gl) +0.69 (Al) +0.48 (Ss) +0.36 (St) +0.12(Wd)

+ 10

- 30

-0.24 (Gl) -0.69 (Al) -0.48 (Ss) -0.36 (St) -0.12(Wd)

†

Note: See CWCT 2.7.3 for expansion and contraction of components at the time of installation up to the normal use of structure.

24

BRITISH STANDARDS

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 2.7 Seismic load (E)

LOADS

Cladding elements shall be able to accommodate seismic movement of the main structure without falling away and damage. Non-structural cladding shall not be used to stiffen or restrain the free deformation of the main structure. Cladding fixings and connections shall be designed to sustain the intertial forces due to excitation of the cladding elements.

2.8

Blast load, BL Expert in the field of blast structures shall be sought where performance of cladding be considered under conditions of blast loading to determine the equivalent static loads derived from dynamic effects. Cladding elements shall be designed under the equivalent static loads without load factors and reduction of strength of the members by the code specified patial safety factors.

Minimum rebate depths recommended by the UK Ministry of Defence

IStructE:1999 Table 15.1

Glass span

Rebate

< 0.75 m

25 mm

0.75 m to 1.5 m

35 mm

> 1.5 m

min. bearing depth = 15mm + span/100 min. bearing depth = 20mm + span/100

Response of blast-resistant glazing to blast load BLAST PRESSURE

qz

qz qy

qy

REBOUND FORCE

BRITISH STANDARDS

25


LOADS 2.9

Load combinations

2.9.1 Load combination for serviceability limit states The most unfavourable effect of the following load combinations should be considered. BS EN 1990 + CWCT TU14:2009

Vertical facade Serviceability


Description

CO100: D

CO200: 1.35D


all

CO101: D + W p

CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p

Dead + wind pressure

all

CO102: D + W s

CO202: 1.35D + 1.5W s

Dead + wind suction

1.35D + 1.5W s + 0.5·1.5L

Occupancy

Dead + wind suction + imposed

CO103: D + L (+ 0.5W s)* CO203: 1.35D + 1.5L (+ 0.5·1.5W s)* Dead + imposed (+ wind suction)* 1.35D + 1.5L + 0.5·1.5W s

Dead + imposed + wind suction

others C others C

Note: *Common additional project requirement.

BS EN 1990 + CWCT TU14:2009

Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing Serviceability


Description

CO100: D

CO200: 1.35D


all

CO101: D + W p + 0.6S

CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p + 0.6·1.5·S

Dead + wind downforce + snow

all

D + W p + 0.6SA CO102: D + S + 0.6W p

CO202: 1.35D + 1.5S + 0.6·1.5W p D + SA + 0.6W p

Occupancy

Dead + wind downforce + snow drift Dead + snow + wind downforce

all

Dead + snow drift + wind downforce

CO103: D + W s

CO203: D + 1.5W s

Dead + wind uplift

all

CO104: D + L

CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L

Dead + leading imposed

H

Overhead patent glazing

BS 5516-2 BBSBS 5516-2:2004 Annex E.5.1

Combinations

Description

CO100: 2.6D


all

CO101: 2.6(D + 0.6S) + W p

Dead + wind downforce + snow

all

CO102: 2.6(D + S) + 0.6W p

Dead + snow + wind downforce

all

CO103: D + W s

Dead + wind uplift

all

CO104: 2.6D + L

Dead + leading imposed/live

H

26

Occupancy

BRITISH STANDARDS


SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE

II-3 SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE 3.1

Deflection

Deflection limits Parts

Component

Description

Steel

Beams

Carrying brittle finish

L/360

Other beams

L/200

Cantilevers

L/180

Columns

Horizontal sway

H/300

Crane girders

Vertical deflection

Span/600

Horizontal deflection

Span/500

Aluminium Mullions & transoms under lateral loads

CWCT

Limit

Single glazed

L/175

Double glazed

L/250

Beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish

L/360

Cantilevers carrying floors

L/180

In-plane

Under dead and live load

Framing members generally

H ≤ 3000

[use EN13830]

Localised deflections: Four-side supported

H/200 or 15mm

3.5.2.2

H/300 + 5 [use BS8118]

H/250

Single glazed

L/125

3.5.2.4

Double glazed

L/175 or 15mm

3.5.2.5

2

Single glazed

Surfaces & framing members

Plasterboard or similar brittle materials

L/360 or 10mm

Natural stone units

L/360 or 3mm

Rainscreen panels

Aluminium, glass or steel

Double glazed

Stone or similar brittle material After one hour recovery

Support displacement Diff. peak positive and peak negative

Grating

BS 8118-1 Table 3.4

2.3.2.2

Localised deflections: Two-side supported

Residual deformation

BS 5950-1 Table 8

L/500 or 3mm

3000 < H < 7500 7500 < H

Patent Glazing

Reference

(L) /180 000

3.5.2.4

2

(L) /540 000 or 20mm 3.5.2.5

†

L/90

3.5.2.7

3.5.2.9

†

L/360

5%Def. or 1mm

3.5.2.11

2mm

3.5.2.12

Vertical and sloped glazing bars: (Two-edge systems)

Single glazed and coupled glazing

S2/180 000 or 50mm BS 5516-1 & 2

Insulating glass units

Vertical and sloped glazing bars: (Four-edge systems)

Single glazed and coupled glazing: S ≤ 3000mm

S2/540 000 or 20mm Cl. 6.6.3 & Cl. 7.6.1.2 S/125 Cl. 6.6.3 & Cl.

Single glazed and coupled glazing: S > 3000mm

7.6.1.3

S/250 + 12mm or 40mm

Insulating glass units

S/175 or 20mm

Point-supported

Between support points, L

L/200 or 20mm

Cl. 7.6.1.4

In-plane deflection

Not to reduce edge clearance between the member and the edge of the glazing or any part immediately below it by more than 25%

L/400 or 3mm

Cl. 6.6.3 & Cl. 7.6.2

L/200 or 10mm

BS 4592-0:’06 Cl. 5.2.2

Industrial type walkway Difference in level between loaded and neighbouring unloaded floor shall not exceed 4mm.

†

Note: Greater deflection may be allowable, according to Cl. 3.5.2.9.

BRITISH STANDARDS

27



Deflection limits Parts

Component

Glass

Patent sloped glazing Centre of pane deflection

3.2

Description

Limit

Reference L/65

Deflection of edges

acc. to supports

Free-standing balustrade

Any part of barrier

25mm

Under imposed load

h/65 or 25mm

Balustrade

Infill panel

L/80 or 25mm

BS 5516-2 Cl. 7.4.1 BS 6180 Cl. 6.4.1

Common structural movements Building envelopes have to accommodate movement of their components and of the supporting structure, and to make this possible building structures have to be sufficiently stiff.

Source: Pell Frischmann CWCT TN 56:2007

Structural movements Movement Description Floor deflection

Column shortening

Sway

Vertical movement due to Concrete structure structure self weight, dead load and live load. Note: Differential floor live load Steel structure deflection is usually less. Shrinkage or elastic shortening Cladding installed almost of concrete columns. immediately after pouring of Note: Usually occurring first 6 concrete. months after pouring of concrete Cladding installed before shrinkage is complete Lateral movement due to wind Concrete structure load and earthquake Note: Short term stochastic reversible movements occurring Steel structure after cladding is installed

Settlement Heave caused by foundation movement 28

Type

Differential settlement between adjacent columns

Common values

Clause

δv ≤

BS 8110-2 3.2.1.2 L or 20mm 500

δv ≤

L 360

BS 5950-1 Table 8

δc ≤

H 2000

BS 8110-2 8.2

δc ≤

H 6000

CWCT TN 56

δh ≤

H 500

BS 8110-2 3.2.2.2

δh ≤

H 300

BS 5950-1 Table 8

δs ≤

L 500

CWCT TN 56

BRITISH STANDARDS



Cutain wall accommodation of structural movements

3.1.1 Stick System The ability of framing members in a stick curtain wall to move or deflect in-plane without contacting the glass is governed by the edge clearance between the glass and the frame. Stick system behaviour under structure movement Effect of floor deflection

Effect of sway

CWCT TN56:2007

Accomodation of structural movement Action

Values

Notes

Definition

a = tight size b = pane size c = edge distance d = opening size e = edge cover f = rebate depth

Differential live load deflection

∆δv(+) ∆δv(–)

Floor-to-floor expansion [mm] Floor-to-floor contraction [mm]

Mullion: spigot depth ≥ ∆δv(+)

Min. depth of spigot through mullion at movement joint, [mm]

expansion gap ≥ ∆δv(–)

Min. clear distance between mullions at movement joint, [mm]

Glass horizontal joint, ch: δD fh ≥ ∆δv(+) ch ≥ δD + ∆δv(–)

Transom dead load deflection, [mm] Min. horizontal rebate depth controlled by expansion, [mm] Min. horizontal edge distance controlled by contraction, [mm]

†

Glass vertical joint, cv : L Span between columns, [mm] b, hg Width and height of glass, [mm] hg cv ≥ ∆δ v(+) 4 3L3 − 4 L ⋅ b 2 L Min. vertical edge distance controlled by vertical racking, [mm]

(

Sway

δh H Glass vertical joint, cv: hg † cv ≥ δ h H

)

Inter-storey drift due to building sway, [mm] Storey height, [mm] Min. vertical edge distance controlled by horizontal racking, [mm]

†

Note: For large cv requirements the glazing or panel will contact the frame at diagonally opposed corners and forced to rotate acting as a diagonal strut. The infill should be checked for induced stresses due to this.

BRITISH STANDARDS

29



3.1.2 Unitized system Unitized curtain wall elements accommodate movements at the split-mullion and split-transom joints. CWCT TN56:2007

CW Element Stack-joint movement accommodation Movement CW element

Remarks Fabrication tolerance

Instantaneous Structure self-weight Structure creep

a

Curtain wall DL

a,b

Finish DL

a

Slab creep Long-term

Live load

Before Notes: cladding a Every floor undergoes dead load and creep deformation installation at approximately the same rate except at ground floor and roof. b Every floor of completed CW element installation, the After levelling bolts are adjusted to zero out structure deflection cladding due to cladding weight. installation c Only differential deflection between adjacent floors are relevant to the curtain wall.

a

a

c

Slab creep

a

Column shortening/creep

i. Elements with spigot fixing Racking of unitised system with spigot fixing Under differential live load deflection

Under lateral sway (storey drift)

CW Element accomodation of structural movement Action

Values

Notes

∆δv(+) Differential ∆δv(–) live load deflection Stack joint, ch: δD ch ≥ δD + ∆δv(–)

Floor-to-floor expansion [mm] Floor-to-floor contraction [mm]

coupling ≥ ∆δv(+) Saddle gasket, cg: L b δ c g ≥ v4 3L3 b − 4 Lb 3 L

(

Sway

Combined effect

cg 30

Transom dead load deflection, [mm] Clear space between any contacting material in the split transom stack joint, [mm] Depth of penetration of male split-transom profile’s leg into the female profile, [mm] Span between columns, [mm] Width of element, [mm] Minimum saddle gasket play, [mm]

)

Inter-storey drift due to building sway, [mm] Storey height, [mm] Height of element, [mm]

δh H h Saddle gasket, cg: b c g ≥ δh H cg ≥

CWCT TN56:2007

δv 4

Min. vertical edge distance controlled by horizontal racking, [mm]

( 3L b − 4 Lb ) + 12 δ 3

3

L 1 δv 3L3 b − 4 Lb 3 ≥ 2 L4

(

b H b + δh H

Full differential live load deflection + partial sway

h

)

Partial differential live load deflection + full sway

BRITISH STANDARDS



ii. Elements without spigot fixing Racking of unitised system without spigot fixing Under differential live load deflection

Under lateral sway (storey drift)

CW Element accomodation of structural movement Action

Values

∆δv(+) Differential ∆δv(–) live load deflection Stack joint, ch: δD ch ≥ δD + ∆δv(–) coupling ≥ ∆δv(+) Mullion vertical joint, cv: L b hb 32h 2 cv,c ≥ δ v 4 b b ( L − b ) L 2 2 2hb  ( L + 2b ) ( L − 2b )    cv ,e = δ v 1− 4 b   L   Sway

CWCT TN56:2007

Notes Floor-to-floor expansion [mm] Floor-to-floor contraction [mm] Transom dead load deflection, [mm] Clear space between any contacting material in the split transom stack joint, [mm] Depth of penetration of male split-transom profile’s leg into the female profile, [mm] Span between columns, [mm] Width of element, [mm] Height of split transom to bracket level, [mm] Minimum vertical joint clear gap for contraction, [mm] Maximum vertical joint expansion, [mm]

No concerns!

BRITISH STANDARDS

31



3.2

Structural tolerance

3.2.1 Concrete Structures The permitted deviation ∆ given here are generally twice the deviation, as the values are given as both plus and minus numbers, except where separate plus or minus values are given (NSCS Guidance section 10.1.). The "box principle" will require that all points of the structure are within the specified theoretical position with a margin in any direction corresponding to the permitted deviation. Where it is applied to the whole building the tolerance is as given by Cl. 10.2.1; where it is applied to an individual element the tolerance is ± 20 mm. National Structural Concrete Specification, NSCS:2009

Tolerances Structure

Type

Description

Overall structure

Inclination

Location of any column, wall or floor edge, at any storey level from any vertical plane through its intended design centre at base level

Level

Base Plan section support Foundations

Vertical section

 ; 50   200 n  H approx. ∆ 6 m 20 = ±10mm 10 m 30 = ±15mm 20 m 40 = ±20mm 30 m 50 = ±25mm

n 2 3 6 10

H

10.2.1

Intended plan position

∆ = 25

10.3.1

Supporting concrete superstructure

∆ = 20

10.3.2

Distance of centre of a bolt group from intended design position Location of bolt tip and protrusion

Preset bolts not prepared for Distance of centre of a bolt adjustment group from intended design position Location of bolt tip and protrusion

32



∆ = min 

Clause

H ≤ 10m : ∆ = 15 Level of floors measured 10.2.2 relative to the intended 10m < H < 100m: ∆ = 0.5(H+20) design level at the reference H ≥ 100m : ∆ = 0.2(H+200) level H approx. ∆ 20 m 20 = ±10mm 60 m 40 = ±20mm 100 m 60 = ±30mm

Supporting steel superstructure Foundation Preset bolts prepared for bolts and adjustment similar inserts

Permitted deviation [mm]

∆ = −15/+5

∆ = 6

10.4.1

∆y , ∆z = 10 ∆ p = − 5/+25 ∆ = 3

10.4.2

∆y , ∆z = 3 ∆ p ,∆x = − 5/+45

BRITISH STANDARDS

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Elements - Position on plan Columns and walls

Verticality by storey

SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE Position of the element centre line relative to the actual location of the element at the level below

Inclination of a column or wall at any level

∆ = 10

10.5.1

h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.5.2 h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}

h in mm

Offset between floors

Deviation between centrelines at floor level

Curvature between adjacent Curvature of an element floors between adjacent storey levels

∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 60;10} ≤ 20

10.5.3

h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.5.4 h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}

h in mm

Elements Beams and slabs

Level per storey

Level of adjacent floors at supports

∆ = 10

10.5.5

Distance apart

Between adjacent columns and walls

∆ = max {l 600;20} ≤ 40

10.5.6

Location of beam to column connection

Measured relative to the column

∆ = max {b 30;20}

10.6.1

∆ = max {l 20;15}

10.6.2

Position of bearing axis support

BRITISH STANDARDS

33


Section of elements

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ∆ = max {l 600;15}

10.6.3

∆ = max {l 600;20} ≤ 40

10.6.4

Difference in level across a beam or slab at corresponding points in any direction

∆ = 10 + l 500

10.6.5


Measured at corresponding points

∆ = 10 + l 500

10.6.6

Position of slab edge

Relative to actual slab edge position on the floor below

∆ = 10

10.6.7

Cross-section dimension of elements

Beams, slabs, columns and other elements covering length, breadth and depth

: ∆ = 10

10.7.1

Straightness of beam

Horizontal straightness

Distance apart

Between adjacent beams

Inclination of beam or slab

l ≤ 150

150
Squareness of element

Position of Location of reinforcement reinforcemen t within elements

Beams, slabs, columns and other elements

Gives the tolerance of cover to reinforcement within an element

34

140

: ∆ = 30

∆ = max {a 25;10} ≤ 20

h ≤ 150

10.7.2

10.8.1

: ∆ = 10

150
Length of reinforcement lap joints

( l − 400 )

( l − 400 ) 420

: ∆ = 20

∆ = 0.06 ⋅ l

10.8.2

BRITISH STANDARDS

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Surface Flatness straightness

Edge straightness

SERVICEABILITY, MOVEMENT & TOLERANCE Basic unformed surface

∆global = 12 ; ∆local = 5

Ordinary unformed surface


Ordinary surfaces


Plain surfaces


Floor slab or element

10.9.1

10.9.2

l ≤ 1000 : ∆ = 8 l > 1000 : ∆ = min {8·l;20}

Holes and fixings

Holes

Size and location of hole relative to design position

Position:

10.10.1

∆1 = 10 Size: l2 ≤ 150 :∆=6 150
( l2 − 400 ) 140

:∆=30

Cast-in fixings

Individual or group of fixing location relative to the intended design position

∆1 , ∆2 = 10

10.10.2

Cast-in bolts and similar fixings

Individual or group of fixing location relative to the intended design position

∆1 = 6

10.10.3

∆2 = 3 ∆3 = max {l3 200; 5} ∆ protrusion = − 5/+25

BRITISH STANDARDS

35



3.2.2 Structural Steel National Structural Steel Specification, NSSS:2007

Deviations of erected components Structure Type

Description

Columns Position at base

Deviation of column section centre line from specified position

Level at base

Deviation of the top of the base plate from specified level

Plumb – single storey

Deviation of top relative to base, excluding portal frame column, on main axes.

Plumb – multi storey

Deviation in each storey Maximum deviation relative to base for up to 10 storeys

Permitted deviation [mm]

∆ = 10

∆ = ±5

Clause 9.6.1

9.6.2

∆ = ± max { H 600;5} ≤ 25 9.6.3

∆h = ± max { H 600;5}

9.6.4

∆H = ± 50

Maximum deviation relative to To be agreed with the Engineer base for more than 10 storeys Bearing surface

Gap between bearing surfaces

Eccentricity at column splice

Non-intended eccentricity about either axis

∆ = 5

9.6.6

Alignment at column splice

Straightness of a spliced column between adjacent storey levels

∆ = s 500

9.6.7

Alignment of adjacent perimeter columns

36

Deviation relative to next column on a line parallel to the grid line when measured at base or splice level

∆ =

(D

1000 ) + 1

9.6.5

with s ≤ h 2

∆ = 10

9.6.8

BRITISH STANDARDS

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Beams

Crane gantry and rail

Slab


Beam level

Deviation from specified level at supporting column

Level at each end

∆ = ± 10

9.6.9

Relative deviation in level at ends of same beam

∆ = 5

9.6.10


Deviation from relative horizontal levels of adjacent beams within a distance of 5 metres (measured on centreline of top flange)

∆ = ±5

9.6.11

Beam alignment

Horizontal deviation relative to an adjacent beam above and below

h ≤ 3m:∆=5 l > 3 m : ∆ = h 600

9.6.12

Columns plumb

Deviation of cap relative to base

Gauge of rail tracks

Deviation from nominal gauge

Eccentricity of rail

Eccentricity of rail relative to web

Profiled steel floor decking

BRITISH STANDARDS

∆ = ± max { H c 1000;5} ≤ 25 9.6.13

∆ = ± 10

t w ≤ 10 mm : ∆ = 5

9.6.14

9.6.15

t w > 10 mm : ∆ = t w 2

Deviation in level at rail joint

∆ = 0.5

9.6.16

Deviation in line at rail joint

∆ = 1

9.6.17

Deviation of dimension between decking edge trim prior to concrete placement and perimeter beam

∆ = ± 10

9.6.18

37


STEEL DESIGN

II-4 STEEL DESIGN 4.1

Properties of steel BS 5950:2000 Cl. 3.2.6

Mechanical properties of structural steel Form

All







77.0

7 850

205 000

81 000

0.30

12·10

Properties of structural steel (for t ≤ 40mm) Form Process Grade Yield strength, Ys 2 [N/mm ] Plates & sections Hot rolled

Hollow sections

BS 5950:2000 Table 3.1b Design Fillet weld Remarks strength, correction py = Ys ≤ Us/1.2 factor, βw 2 [N/mm ] [-]

S 235

235

360

235

0.80

S 275

275

430

275

0.85

S 355

355

510

355

0.90

S 460

460

540

460

1.00

S 235

235

360

235

0.80

S 275

275

430

275

0.85

S 355

355

510

355

0.90

S 460

460

560

460

1.00

Cold formed S 235

235

360

235

0.80

S 275

275

430

275

0.85

S 355

355

510

355

0.90

S 460

460

550

460

1.00

Hot finished

Properties of structural steel fasteners Form Grade Yield Tensile strength, strength, Yb Ub 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ] Bolts

Tensile strength, Us 2 [N/mm ]

-6

[EN 10025]

[EN 10210]

[EN 10219] welded

BS 5950:2000 Cl. 6.2 Shear strength, Tension strength, Bearing Min. clear ps = 0.4Ub pt = 0.7Ub ≤ Yb strength, threads 2 2 pbb = 0.7(Ub+Yb) [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [pitch] 2 [N/mm ]

4.6

240

400

160

240

460

1

4.8

320

400

160

240

500

1

5.6

300

500

200

300

560

1

5.8

400

500

200

350

630

1

6.8

480

600

240

420

750

1

8.8

640

800

375

560

1000

3

10.9

900

1000

400

700

1330

5

Properties of welding consumables Form Class Yield Tensile strength, strength, Ye Ue 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ] Electrode 35 42 50

355 420 500

BS 5950:2000 Table 10 Remarks

Design strength [parent metal] pw = 0.5Ue ≤ 0.55Us 2 [N/mm ] [S235] [S275] [S355] [S460]

440

130

220

500

o

o o

560

130

o

130

220 220

220

u

250

250

u

o

280

220

u

250

See BS5950-2

o

Note: – Over-matching electrodes u – Under-matching electrodes. Not to be used for partial penetration butt welds.

BRITISH STANDARDS

39


STEEL DESIGN 4.2

Steel mullion moment of inertia Required moment of inertia of a split mullion per unit wind load (qd,k), I ≥ qW,k×I* 4

- per split mullion

2

Minimum required moment of inertia, I [cm ] per 1.0 kN/m wind load

CWCT:2005 Cl. 3.5.2.2

Steel m ullion spacing, b [m]

Span, h [m]

δlimit, [mm]

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.0

3.0

15.0

18.8

20.2

21.4

22.7

23.8

24.9

26.0

26.9

27.8

29.3

30.6

31.4

32.0

32.1

3.1

15.3

21.1

22.6

24.1

25.4

26.8

28.0

29.2

30.3

31.4

33.2

34.7

35.8

36.6

37.0

3.2

15.7

23.5

25.2

26.9

28.4

30.0

31.4

32.8

34.1

35.3

37.4

39.2

40.6

41.7

42.3

3.3

16.0

26.1

28.0

29.9

31.7

33.4

35.0

36.6

38.1

39.5

42.0

44.1

45.8

47.1

48.0

3.4

16.3

28.9

31.1

33.1

35.1

37.1

38.9

40.7

42.4

44.0

46.8

49.3

53.1

54.2

3.5

16.7

31.9

34.3

36.6

38.9

41.0

43.1

45.1

47.0

48.8

52.1

h55.0

51.4 57.4

59.4

60.9

3.6

17.0

35.1

37.8

40.3

42.8

45.2

47.5

49.8

51.9

53.9

57.7

61.0

63.9

66.3

68.1

3.7

17.3

38.6

41.5

44.3

47.0

49.7

52.3

54.8

57.1

59.4

63.7

67.5

70.8

73.6

75.9

3.8

17.7

42.2

45.4

48.5

51.5

54.5

57.3

60.1

62.7

65.3

70.1

74.4

78.2

81.4

84.1

3.9

18.0

46.0

49.5

52.9

56.3

59.5

62.7

65.7

68.7

71.5

76.9

81.7

86.0

89.7

92.9

4.0

18.3

50.1

53.9

57.7

61.3

64.9

68.4

71.7

75.0

78.1

84.1

89.5

94.3

102.3

4.1

18.7

54.4

58.6

62.7

66.7

70.6

74.4

78.1

81.7

85.1

91.7

97.7

b1 103.2

98.6 108.0

b112.3

4.2

19.0

59.0

63.5

68.0

72.3

76.6

80.8

84.8

88.7

92.5

99.8

106.5

112.5

118.0

122.8

4.3

19.3

63.8

68.7

73.5

78.3

82.9

87.5

91.9

96.2

100.4

108.3

115.7

122.5

128.6

134.0

4.4

19.7

68.8

74.2

79.4

84.6

89.6

94.5

99.4

104.0

108.6

117.3

125.4

132.9

139.7

145.8

4.5

20.0

74.1

79.9

85.6

91.2

96.6

102.0

107.2

112.3

117.3

126.8

135.7

143.9

151.5

158.3

4.6

20.3

79.7

85.9

92.1

98.1

104.0

109.8

115.5

121.0

126.4

136.8

146.5

155.5

163.9

171.4

4.7

20.7

85.6

92.3

98.9

105.4

111.8

118.0

124.1

130.1

136.0

147.2

157.8

167.7

176.9

185.3

4.8

21.0

91.7

98.9

106.0

113.0

119.9

126.6

133.2

139.7

146.0

158.2

169.7

180.5

190.6

199.8

4.9

21.3

98.1

105.9

113.5

121.0

128.4

135.6

142.8

149.7

156.6

169.7

182.2

194.0

204.9

215.1

5.0

21.7

104.9

113.1

121.3

129.4

137.3

145.1

152.7

160.2

167.6

181.8

195.3

208.0

220.0

231.0

5.1

22.0

111.9

120.7

129.5

138.1

146.6

154.9

163.2

171.2

179.1

194.4

209.0

222.8

235.7

247.8

5.2

22.3

119.2

128.7

138.0

147.2

156.3

165.2

174.0

182.7

191.2

207.6

223.3

238.2

252.2

265.3

5.3

22.7

126.9

136.9

146.9

156.7

166.4

176.0

185.4

194.6

203.7

221.3

238.2

254.2

269.4

283.6

5.4

23.0

134.8

145.6

156.2

166.7

177.0

187.2

197.2

207.1

216.8

235.7

253.8

271.0

287.3

302.7

5.5

23.3

143.1

154.5

165.8

177.0

188.0

198.9

209.6

220.1

230.5

250.6

270.0

288.5

306.0

322.6

5.6

23.7

151.8

163.9

175.9

187.7

199.4

211.0

222.4

233.6

244.7

266.2

286.9

306.7

325.5

343.4

5.7

24.0

160.7

173.6

186.3

198.9

211.3

223.6

235.7

247.7

259.4

282.4

304.5

325.6

345.8

365.0

5.8

24.3

170.1

183.7

197.2

210.5

223.7

236.8

249.6

262.3

274.8

299.2

322.7

345.3

366.9

387.5

5.9

24.7

179.7

194.2

208.4

222.6

236.6

250.4

264.0

277.5

290.8

316.7

341.7

365.8

388.9

410.9

6.0

25.0

189.8

205.0

220.1

235.1

249.9

264.5

279.0

293.2

307.3

334.8

361.4

387.1

411.7

435.1

6.1

25.3

200.2

216.3

232.2

248.1

263.7

279.2

294.5

309.6

324.5

353.6

381.9

409.1

435.3

460.3

6.2

25.7

211.0

228.0

244.8

261.5

278.0

294.4

310.5

326.5

342.3

373.1

403.1

432.0

459.8

486.5

6.3

26.0

222.1

240.0

257.8

275.4

292.8

310.1

327.2

344.0

360.7

393.3

425.0

455.7

485.2

513.6

6.4

26.3

233.7

252.6

271.3

289.8

308.2

326.4

344.4

362.2

379.8

414.2

447.8

480.2

511.5

541.6

6.5

26.7

245.6

265.5

285.2

304.7

324.0

343.2

362.2

380.9

399.5

435.9

471.3

505.6

538.7

570.7

6.6

27.0

258.0

278.9

299.6

320.1

340.4

360.6

380.6

400.3

419.9

458.3

495.6

531.8

566.9

600.7

6.7

27.3

270.8

292.7

314.4

336.0

357.4

378.6

399.6

420.4

441.0

481.4

520.7

559.0

596.0

631.8

6.8

27.7

283.9

306.9

329.8

352.4

374.9

397.2

419.3

441.1

462.7

505.3

546.7

587.0

626.1

663.9

6.9

28.0

297.5

321.6

345.6

369.4

393.0

416.4

439.5

462.5

485.2

529.9

573.5

616.0

657.2

697.1

7.0

28.3

311.6

336.8

361.9

386.9

411.6

436.1

460.5

484.6

508.4

555.4

601.2

645.9

689.3

731.3

7.2

29.0

340.9

368.6

396.1

423.5

450.6

477.6

504.3

530.8

557.0

608.7

659.2

708.5

756.5

803.1

7.4

29.7

372.1

402.4

432.4

462.4

492.0

521.5

550.8

579.8

608.5

665.2

720.8

775.0

827.9

879.3

7.6

30.4

404.2

437.1

469.9

502.4

534.8

566.9

598.7

630.4

661.7

723.6

784.3

843.7

901.6

958.1

7.8

31.2

437.2

472.8

508.3

543.6

578.6

613.4

648.0

682.3

716.4

783.6

849.6

914.3

977.4 1039.1

8.0

32.0

471.9

510.4

548.8

586.9

624.8

662.5

699.9

737.1

773.9

846.8

918.4

988.6 1057.3 1124.5

8.5

34.0

566.6

613.0

659.2

705.1

750.8

796.3

841.5

886.4

931.0 1019.3 1106.2 1191.7 1275.5 1357.7

9.0

36.0

673.2

728.4

783.4

838.1

892.6

946.9 1000.8 1054.5 1107.8 1213.5 1317.7 1420.4 1521.4 1620.5

9.5

38.0

792.3

857.4

922.2

986.8 1051.2 1115.2 1179.0 1242.4 1305.6 1430.7 1554.4 1676.3 1796.5 1914.8

10.0

40.0

924.7 1000.8 1076.6 1152.1 1227.4 1302.4 1377.1 1451.4 1525.4 1672.3 1817.5 1961.0 2102.6 2242.2

40

2

BRITISH STANDARDS


STEEL DESIGN

Steel transom moment of inertia Required moment of inertia of sill-split transom per unit weight of glass infill (qd,k), I ≥ 2 qd,k ×I1* + I2* Assumptions:

0.8

1. Estimated transom self-weight, 10kg/m × L

×h

0.2

2. Glass dead load is located 150mm from end support. 4

2

Minimum required moment of inertia, I* [cm ] per 0.5 kN/m 20mm glass weight Glass height, h [m] δlimit,

CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.3.2.2

Steel transom span, L [m] 1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

1.0

2.2

2.7

3.2

3.9

4.9

6.2

1.1

2.4

2.9

3.5

4.2

5.3

6.6

1.2

2.5

3.1

3.7

4.4

5.6

1.3

2.7

3.3

4.0

4.7

1.4

2.9

3.5

4.2

1.5

3.0

3.7

4.4

1.6

3.2

3.9

1.7

3.4

1.8

3.5

1.9

1.9

2.0

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

7.7

9.5

11.6

14.0

16.8

20.0

23.8

28.1

32.9

38.4

44.7

51.7

59.6

8.2

10.1

12.3

14.8

17.8

21.2

25.1

29.5

34.6

40.4

46.8

54.1

62.3

7.0

8.7

10.7

12.9

15.6

18.7

22.3

26.3

31.0

36.3

42.2

49.0

56.6

65.0

6.0

7.4

9.2

11.2

13.6

16.4

19.6

23.3

27.6

32.4

37.9

44.1

51.1

58.9

67.7

5.0

6.3

7.8

9.7

11.8

14.3

17.2

20.6

24.4

28.8

33.8

39.5

45.9

53.2

61.3

70.3

5.3

6.6

8.2

10.1

12.4

15.0

18.0

21.5

25.5

30.0

35.2

41.1

47.7

55.2

63.6

72.9

4.6

5.5

6.9

8.6

10.6

12.9

15.7

18.8

22.4

26.5

31.3

36.6

42.7

49.5

57.2

65.9

75.5

4.1

4.9

5.8

7.3

9.0

11.1

13.5

16.3

19.6

23.3

27.6

32.5

38.0

44.3

51.3

59.2

68.1

78.0

4.3

5.1

6.1

7.6

9.4

11.6

14.1

17.0

20.3

24.2

28.6

33.7

39.4

45.8

53.1

61.2

70.4

80.5

3.7

4.5

5.3

6.3

7.9

9.8

12.0

14.6

17.6

21.1

25.1

29.7

34.8

40.7

47.4

54.8

63.2

72.6

83.0

2.0

3.8

4.7

5.6

6.6

8.2

10.2

12.5

15.2

18.3

21.9

26.0

30.7

36.0

42.1

48.9

56.6

65.2

74.8

85.5

2.1

4.0

4.8

5.8

6.8

8.6

10.6

13.0

15.7

19.0

22.7

26.9

31.7

37.2

43.4

50.4

58.3

67.1

77.0

87.9

2.2

4.2

5.0

6.0

7.1

8.9

11.0

13.4

16.3

19.6

23.4

27.8

32.7

38.4

44.8

51.9

60.0

69.0

79.1

90.4

2.3

4.3

5.2

6.2

7.4

9.2

11.4

13.9

16.9

20.3

24.2

28.7

33.8

39.5

46.1

53.5

61.7

71.0

81.3

92.8

2.4

4.5

5.4

6.5

7.6

9.5

11.8

14.4

17.4

20.9

24.9

29.5

34.8

40.7

47.4

55.0

63.4

72.9

83.4

95.2

2.5

4.7

5.6

6.7

7.9

9.9

12.2

14.8

18.0

21.6

25.7

30.4

35.8

41.9

48.7

56.4

65.1

74.8

85.6

97.6

2.6

4.8

5.8

6.9

8.2

10.2

12.5

15.3

18.5

22.2

26.4

31.3

36.8

43.0

50.0

57.9

66.8

76.7

87.7

99.9

2.7

5.0

6.0

7.1

8.4

10.5

12.9

15.8

19.1

22.8

27.2

32.1

37.8

44.2

51.3

59.4

68.5

78.6

89.8 102.3

2.8

5.2

6.2

7.4

8.7

10.8

13.3

16.2

19.6

23.5

27.9

33.0

38.8

45.3

52.6

60.9

70.1

80.5

91.9 104.7

2.9

5.3

6.4

7.6

8.9

11.1

13.7

16.7

20.1

24.1

28.7

33.9

39.8

46.4

53.9

62.4

71.8

82.3

94.0 107.0

3.0

5.5

6.6

7.8

9.2

11.4

14.1

17.1

20.7

24.8

29.4

34.7

40.8

47.6

55.2

63.8

73.5

84.2

96.1 109.3

3.1

5.6

6.8

8.0

9.5

11.8

14.5

17.6

21.2

25.4

30.2

35.6

41.8

48.7

56.5

65.3

75.1

86.1

98.2 111.7

3.2

5.8

7.0

8.3

9.7

12.1

14.8

18.1

21.8

26.0

30.9

36.5

42.7

49.8

57.8

66.8

76.8

87.9 100.3 114.0

3.3

6.0

7.2

8.5

10.0

12.4

15.2

18.5

22.3

26.7

31.6

37.3

43.7

51.0

59.1

68.2

78.4

89.8 102.3 116.3

3.4

6.1

7.4

8.7

10.2

12.7

15.6

19.0

22.8

27.3

32.4

38.2

44.7

52.1

60.4

69.7

80.1

91.6 104.4 118.6

3.5

6.3

7.5

8.9

10.5

13.0

16.0

19.4

23.4

27.9

33.1

39.0

45.7

53.2

61.7

71.1

81.7

93.4 106.5 120.9

3.6

6.5

7.7

9.2

10.8

13.3

16.4

19.9

23.9

28.6

33.9

39.9

46.7

54.3

62.9

72.6

83.3

95.3 108.5 123.2

3.7

6.6

7.9

9.4

11.0

13.7

16.7

20.3

24.5

29.2

34.6

40.7

47.7

55.5

64.2

74.0

84.9

97.1 110.6 125.5

3.8

6.8

8.1

9.6

11.3

14.0

17.1

20.8

25.0

29.8

35.3

41.6

48.6

56.6

65.5

75.5

86.6

98.9 112.6 127.7

3.9

6.9

8.3

9.8

11.5

14.3

17.5

21.2

25.5

30.5

36.1

42.4

49.6

57.7

66.8

76.9

88.2 100.7 114.6 130.0

4.0

7.1

8.5

10.1

11.8

14.6

17.9

21.7

26.1

31.1

36.8

43.3

50.6

58.8

68.0

78.3

89.8 102.6 116.7 132.3

4.2

7.4

8.9

10.5

12.3

15.2

18.6

22.6

27.1

32.3

38.3

45.0

52.5

61.0

70.6

81.2

93.0 106.2 120.7 136.8

4.4

7.7

9.3

10.9

12.8

15.9

19.4

23.5

28.2

33.6

39.7

46.6

54.5

63.2

73.1

84.0

96.3 109.8 124.8 141.3

4.6

8.1

9.6

11.4

13.3

16.5

20.2

24.4

29.3

34.8

41.2

48.3

56.4

65.5

75.6

86.9

99.5 113.4 128.8 145.8

4.8

8.4

10.0

11.8

13.8

17.1

20.9

25.3

30.3

36.1

42.6

50.0

58.3

67.7

78.1

89.7 102.6 117.0 132.8 150.2

5.0

8.7

10.4

12.3

14.3

17.7

21.7

26.2

31.4

37.3

44.1

51.7

60.2

69.9

80.6

92.6 105.8 120.5 136.8 154.7

Additional moment of inertia for occupancy live load, I2*

Load 0.6 kN/m

3.2

4.1

5.1

6.3

8.1

10.4

13.0

16.2

19.8

24.1

29.0

34.7

41.1

48.4

56.7

65.9

76.2

87.7 100.4

1 kN

7.1

8.4

9.7

11.2

13.5

16.2

19.3

22.7

26.5

30.6

35.2

40.2

45.7

51.7

58.1

65.1

72.6

80.7

BRITISH STANDARDS

89.3

41


ALUMINIUM DESIGN

II-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.1

Properties of aluminium structures BS 8118-1:1991 Table 2.5

Mechanical properties of materials Form

All






26.6

2 710

70 000

26 600

0.30

Properties of aluminium Form Grade Chemical symbol

Temper

Sheet

Thickness [mm]

Yielding stress, po 2 [N/mm ]

Thermal coefficient, α [/˚C] -6

23·10

BS 8118-1:1991 Table 4.1 Local stress, Shear stress, HAZ-factor, pa pv kz 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ]

1200

AL99,0

H14

0.2 – 12.5

90

95

55

0.13

3103

AlMn1

H14

0.2 – 12.5

110

120

65

0.18

H18

0.2 – 3.0

150

150

90

0.2 – 6

125│175

155│200

75│105

0.35│0.24

5251

AlMg2

H22│H24

AlMg0,7Si

T6

≤ 25

160

175

95

0.50

6082

AlSi1MgMn

T6

≤ 15

255

275

155

0.50

7020

AlZn4,5Mg1

T6

≤ 40

280

310

170

0.60 /0.8

Extrusion 6063

A

B

A

Note: Tensile stress acting transversely to the axis of weld B Longitudinal stress, transverse compression or shear Properties of aluminium fasteners Form

Grade Chemical symbol

Tempering

Rivets

5056A AlMg5 5019

Diameter, d [mm]

0.2% Proof strength, f0.2 2 [N/mm ]

Tensile strength, fu 2 [N/mm ]

Limiting stress, pf 2 [N/mm ]

O,F│H22

≤ 25

-

255│280

145

H111

≤ 20

110

250

EN 1999-1-1

H14,H34

≤ 18

210

300

EN 1999-1-1

H111

≤ 20

80

180

EN 1999-1-1

H14/H34

≤ 18

180

240

EN 1999-1-1

AlSi1MgMn T4

≤ 20

110

205

EN 1999-1-1

T6

≤ 20

240

300

EN 1999-1-1

5056A AlMg5

H24

≤ 12

240

310

175

5754

AlMg3

-

≤ 10│≤ 20

230│180

270│250

(AL1)

EN 1999-1-1

5019

AlMg5

-

≤ 14│≤ 36

205│205

310│280

(AL2)

EN 1999-1-1

6082

AlSi1MgMn -

≤ 6│≤ 36

250│260

320│310

(AL3)

EN 1999-1-1

5754

6082

Bolts

BS 8118-1:1991 Table 6.1 & BS EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.4

AlMg5

AlMg3

BRITISH STANDARDS

Reference

BS 8118

BS 8118

43



Minimum profile thickness to prevent local buckling Bending resistance of members may be reduced by local buckling if the component elements are too slender. The section classification indicates the susceptibility of the profile to local buckling. Therefore, the designer should consider the slenderness of the individual elements comprising the section such that all elements are at least semi-compact or class 3. The table below summarizes the minimum required thickness of the elements of a non-welded aluminium profile. The requirements stated herein are not mandatory but serves as a guideline for an efficient extrusion design.

Minimum aluminium profile thickness BS 8118 Internal

Outstand

Alloy

I1

I2

I3

I4

I5

O1

O2

O3

O4

O5

6060-T6

b / 29.4

d / 34.6

d / 42

d / 53.5

d / 73.5

b / 9.4

d / 11

d / 13.4

d / 17

d / 23.4

6060-T66 b / 28.4

d / 33.4

d / 40.6

d / 51.6

d / 71

b/9

d / 10.6

d / 12.9

d / 16.4

d / 22.6

6063-T6

b / 27.5

d / 32.4

d / 39.3

d / 50

d / 68.8

b / 8.8

d / 10.3

d / 12.5

d / 15.9

d / 21.9

6063-T66 b / 25.9

d / 30.5

d / 37

d / 47.1

d / 64.8

b / 8.2

d / 9.7

d / 11.8

d / 15

d / 20.6

6005A-T6 b / 24.6

d / 28.9

d / 35.1

d / 44.7

d / 61.5

b / 7.8

d / 9.2

d / 11.2

d / 14.2

d / 19.6

6061-T6

b / 22.5

d / 26.4

d / 32.1

d / 40.8

d / 56.1

b / 7.1

d / 8.4

d / 10.2

d / 13

d / 17.9

6082-T6

b / 21.8

d / 25.6

d / 31.1

d / 39.6

d / 54.5

b / 6.9

d / 8.2

d / 9.9

d / 12.6

d / 17.3

7020-T6

b / 20.8

d / 24.5

d / 29.7

d / 37.8

d / 52

b / 6.6

d / 7.8

d / 9.4

d / 12

d / 16.5

Definition of symbols

Internal elements – both ends are connected to another elements. Outstand elements – only one end is connected to another element. Í1/O1 – Horizontal element (i.e., uniform compression stress gradient) I2/O2 – Vertical element with both ends way above or below c.g. (i.e., non-uniform trapezoidal stress gradient) I3/O3 – Vertical element with one end exactly at the c.g. (i.e., non-uniform triangular stress gradient) I4/O4 – Vertical element with one end below c.g. and the other above but not in the exactly in the middle (i.e., non-uniform reversal stress gradient) I5/O5 – Vertical element with c.g. exactly at the middle. (i.e., non-uniform symmetric reversal stress gradient)

44

BRITISH STANDARDS


ALUMINIUM DESIGN

Determining effective thickness of compression element under local buckling Action Data

Values b t po ε = 250 po

Slenderness ratio

BS 8118-1:1991 Cl. 4.3

Notes

Clause

Width of critical element, [mm] Width of critical element, [mm] Tensile yield strength of alloy, [N/mm2] Yield point constant, [-]

4.3.2.3 Table 4.1 4.3.4.2

Slenderness ratio, [-]

4.3.2.2

Uniformly Compressed Element: a) Unreinforced Element:

( β ε ) = (1 ε ) × ( b t ) b) Singly-reinforced Internal Element: h =1

1 + 2.5(c t c - 1)2 (b t ) 

Table K.1

c) Doubly-reinforced Internal Element: h =1

1 + 4.5(c t c - 1) (b t )  2

d) Reinforced Outstand Element: h =1

Note: tc must be less than or equal to t for best results.

1 + 0.1(c t c - 1)  2

(β ε ) = (h ε ) × (b t ) Non-uniform stress gradient: yc yo a) for yc/yo ≤ -1.0 g = 0.80 (1 - y o y c )

Slenderness ratio, [-]

4.3.2.3

Dist. to n.a. of more heavily compressed edge, [mm] Dist. to n.a. of other edge, [mm]

b) for yc/yo > -1.0 g = 0.70 + 0.30(y o y c )

g for element mostly in compression, [-]

(β ε ) = ( g ε ) × ( b t )

g for element mostly in tension, [-] Slenderness ratio, [-]

Internal element

Outstand element

Element Classification: a) for (β/ε) ≤ 18, and b) for 18 < (β/ε) ≤ 22: k L = 1.0 b) for (β/ε) > 22: k L = 32 / (β ε) - 220 / (β ε)2 Element Classification: a) for (β/ε) ≤ 6, and b) for 6 < (β/ε) ≤ 7:

Fully compact element, no local buckling. Semi-compact element, no local buckling.

Table K.1

4.3.2.2 4.3.3.4 Table 4.3

Slender element, critical to local buckling. Table K.1 Fully compact element, no local buckling. Semi-compact element, no local buckling.

4.3.3.4 Table 4.3

k L = 1.0

c) for 7 < (β/ε) ≤ 12.1: k L = 11 / (β ε) - 28 / (β ε)2 d) for (β/ε) > 12.1: k L = 105 / (β ε)2

Effective thickness

t eff = k L × t

BRITISH STANDARDS

Slender element, critical to local buckling. Table K.1 Highly slender element, very critical to local buckling. Effective thickness, [mm]

4.3.4.1

45



Aluminium mullion moment of inertia Required moment of inertia of a split mullion per unit wind load (qd,k) I ≥ qW,k×I* 4

- per split mullion

2

CWCT:2005 Cl. 3.5.2.2

Minimum required moment of inertia, I [cm ] per 1.0 kN/m wind load Aluminium mullion spacing, b [m]

δlimit,

Span, h [m]

[mm]

1.5

10.0

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.4

4.3

4.1

3.9

3.4

2.7

2.0

1.2

0.6

1.6

10.3

5.6

5.8

5.9

6.0

6.0

6.0

5.9

5.8

5.6

5.0

4.3

3.4

2.5

1.6

1.7

10.7

7.1

7.4

7.6

7.8

7.9

7.9

7.9

7.8

7.6

7.1

6.3

5.4

4.3

3.1

1.8

11.0

8.8

9.3

9.6

9.9

10.1

10.2

10.2

10.2

10.1

9.6

8.8

7.8

6.6

5.3

1.9

11.3

10.9

11.4

11.9

12.3

12.6

12.8

13.0

13.0

13.0

12.6

11.9

9.6

8.1

2.0

11.7

13.2

13.9

14.5

15.1

15.5

15.9

16.1

16.3

16.3

16.1

h15.5

10.9 14.5

13.2

11.6

2.1

12.0

15.8

16.7

17.5

18.2

18.8

19.3

19.7

20.0

20.2

20.2

19.7

18.8

17.5

15.8

2.2

12.3

18.8

19.9

20.9

21.8

22.6

23.3

23.9

24.3

24.6

24.9

24.6

23.9

22.6

20.9

2.3

12.7

22.0

23.4

24.7

25.8

26.8

27.7

28.5

29.1

29.6

30.2

30.2

29.6

28.5

26.8

2.4

13.0

25.7

27.3

28.9

30.3

31.5

32.7

33.7

34.5

35.2

36.1

36.5

36.1

35.2

33.7

2.5

13.3

29.8

31.7

33.5

35.2

36.7

38.1

39.4

40.5

41.4

42.8

43.5

43.5

42.8

2.6

13.7

34.2

36.5

38.6

40.6

42.5

44.2

45.8

47.1

48.3

50.2

51.4

51.71

51.4

2.7

14.0

39.1

41.7

44.3

46.6

48.8

50.9

52.8

54.5

56.0

58.4

60.1

60.9

60.9

60.1

2.8

14.3

44.4

47.5

50.4

53.2

55.8

58.2

60.4

62.5

64.3

67.4

69.7

71.0

71.5

71.0

2.9

14.7

50.2

53.7

57.1

60.3

63.3

66.1

68.8

71.2

73.4

77.3

80.2

82.1

83.1

83.1

3.0

15.0

56.5

60.5

64.3

68.0

71.5

74.8

77.9

80.7

83.4

88.0

91.7

94.3

95.9

96.4

3.1

15.3

63.3

67.8

72.2

76.3

80.3

84.1

87.7

91.0

94.2

99.7

104.1

107.5

109.8

111.0

3.2

15.7

70.6

75.7

80.6

85.3

89.9

94.2

98.3

102.2

105.8

112.3

117.7

121.9

125.0

126.9

3.3

16.0

78.4

84.1

89.7

95.0

100.2

105.1

109.8

114.2

118.4

125.9

132.3

137.5

141.4

144.1

3.4

16.3

86.8

93.2

99.4

105.4

111.2

116.7

122.0

127.1

131.9

140.5

148.0

154.3

159.2

162.7

3.5

16.7

95.8

102.9

109.9

116.6

123.0

129.2

135.2

140.9

146.3

156.3

165.0

172.3

178.3

182.8

3.6

17.0

105.4

113.3

121.0

128.4

135.6

142.6

149.3

155.7

161.8

173.1

183.1

191.7

198.8

204.4

3.7

17.3

115.7

124.4

132.8

141.1

149.1

156.8

164.3

171.4

178.3

191.1

202.4

212.4

220.8

227.6

3.8

17.7

126.5

136.1

145.4

154.6

163.4

172.0

180.3

188.2

195.9

210.2

223.1

234.5

244.2

252.3

3.9

18.0

138.1

148.6

158.8

168.9

178.6

188.1

197.2

206.1

214.6

230.6

245.1

258.0

269.2

278.8

4.0

18.3

150.3

161.8

173.0

184.0

194.7

205.1

215.2

225.0

234.4

252.2

268.4

283.0

295.9

306.9

4.1

18.7

163.2

175.7

188.0

200.0

211.8

223.2

234.3

245.0

255.4

275.1

293.2

309.5

324.1

336.8

4.2

19.0

176.9

190.5

203.9

217.0

229.8

242.3

254.4

266.2

277.6

299.3

319.4

337.6

354.0

368.5

4.3

19.3

191.3

206.1

220.6

234.8

248.8

262.4

275.7

288.6

301.1

324.9

347.1

367.4

385.7

402.0

4.4

19.7

206.4

222.5

238.2

253.7

268.8

283.6

298.1

312.1

325.8

351.9

376.3

398.7

419.2

437.5

4.5

20.0

222.4

239.7

256.7

273.5

289.9

305.9

321.6

336.9

351.8

380.4

407.1

431.8

454.4

474.9

4.6

20.3

239.1

257.8

276.2

294.3

312.0

329.4

346.4

363.0

379.2

410.3

439.5

466.6

491.6

514.3

4.7

20.7

256.7

276.8

296.6

316.1

335.3

354.0

372.4

390.4

408.0

441.7

473.5

503.2

530.7

555.8

4.8

21.0

275.1

296.7

318.0

339.0

359.6

379.9

399.7

419.1

438.1

474.7

509.2

541.6

571.7

599.4

4.9

21.3

294.4

317.6

340.5

363.0

385.2

406.9

428.3

449.2

469.7

509.2

546.7

581.9

614.8

645.2

5.0

21.7

314.6

339.4

363.9

388.1

411.9

435.2

458.2

480.7

502.8

545.4

585.9

624.1

659.9

693.1

5.1

22.0

335.6

362.2

388.4

414.3

439.8

464.8

489.5

513.7

537.4

583.2

626.9

668.3

707.2

743.4

5.2

22.3

357.6

386.0

414.0

441.7

468.9

495.7

522.1

548.0

573.5

622.8

669.8

714.5

756.6

795.9

5.3

22.7

380.6

410.8

440.7

470.2

499.3

528.0

556.2

583.9

611.2

664.0

714.6

762.7

808.2

850.8

5.4

23.0

404.5

436.7

468.5

500.0

531.0

561.6

591.7

621.3

650.5

707.1

761.3

813.0

862.0

908.1

5.5

23.3

429.4

463.6

497.5

531.0

564.0

596.6

628.7

660.3

691.4

751.9

810.0

865.5

918.1

967.9

5.6

23.7

455.3

491.7

527.6

563.2

598.3

633.0

667.2

700.9

734.0

798.6

860.7

920.1

976.6 1030.2

5.7

24.0

482.2

520.8

559.0

596.7

634.0

670.9

707.2

743.1

778.3

847.1

913.4

976.9 1037.5 1095.0

5.8

24.3

510.2

551.1

591.5

631.6

671.1

710.3

748.9

786.9

824.4

897.6

968.2 1036.0 1100.8 1162.5

5.9

24.7

539.2

582.5

625.3

667.7

709.7

751.1

792.1

832.4

872.3

950.0 1025.2 1097.4 1166.6 1232.6

6.0

25.0

569.4

615.1

660.4

705.2

749.6

793.5

836.9

879.7

921.9 1004.4 1084.3 1161.2 1235.0 1305.4

6.2

25.7

632.9

683.9

734.4

784.5

834.0

883.1

931.6

979.5 1026.8 1119.4 1209.2 1295.9 1379.4 1459.4

6.4

26.3

701.1

757.7

813.8

869.4

924.5

979.1 1033.1 1086.5 1139.3 1242.7 1343.3 1440.6 1534.5 1624.8

6.9

28.0

892.6

964.9 1036.8 1108.1 1178.9 1249.1 1318.6 1387.5 1455.7 1589.8 1720.6 1848.0 1971.6 2091.2

7.0

28.3

934.7 1010.5 1085.8 1160.6 1234.8 1308.4 1381.4 1453.7 1525.2 1666.1 1803.6 1937.7 2067.8 2193.9

46

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

b

2.8

3.0

b

41.4 50.2

2

BRITISH STANDARDS


ALUMINIUM DESIGN

Aluminium transom moment of inertia Required moment of inertia of sill-split transom per unit weight of glass infill (qd,k), I ≥ 2 qd,k ×I1* + I2* Assumptions:

0.8

0.2

1. Estimated transom self-weight, 5kg/m × L ×h

2. Glass dead load is located 150mm from end support. 4

2

CWCT:2005 Cl. 2.3.2.2

Minimum required moment of inertia, I* [cm ] per 0.5 kN/m 20mm glass weight Glass height, h [m]

Aluminium transom span, L [m] 1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.0

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

3.0

δlimit,

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

1.0

5.6

6.8

8.1

9.6

11.9

14.7

18.0

21.8

26.2

31.2

37.0

43.6

51.0

59.4

68.9

79.5

91.4 104.7 119.4

1.1

6.1

7.4

8.8

10.3

12.9

15.9

19.4

23.5

28.1

33.5

39.6

46.6

54.5

63.4

73.4

84.6

97.1 111.1 126.5

1.2

6.6

8.0

9.5

11.1

13.9

17.1

20.8

25.1

30.1

35.7

42.2

49.6

57.9

67.3

77.8

89.6 102.8 117.4 133.6

1.3

7.1

8.5

10.1

11.9

14.8

18.2

22.2

26.7

32.0

38.0

44.8

52.6

61.3

71.2

82.2

94.6 108.4 123.7 140.6

1.4

7.6

9.1

10.8

12.7

15.8

19.3

23.5

28.3

33.9

40.2

47.4

55.5

64.7

75.0

86.6

99.5 113.9 129.9 147.5

1.5

8.1

9.7

11.5

13.5

16.7

20.5

24.9

30.0

35.8

42.4

49.9

58.5

68.1

78.9

91.0 104.4 119.4 136.0 154.4

1.6

8.6

10.3

12.1

14.2

17.6

21.6

26.2

31.6

37.7

44.6

52.5

61.4

71.4

82.7

95.3 109.3 124.9 142.2 161.3

1.7

9.0

10.8

12.8

15.0

18.6

22.8

27.6

33.2

39.6

46.8

55.0

64.3

74.8

86.5

99.6 114.2 130.4 148.3 168.1

1.8

9.5

11.4

13.5

15.8

19.5

23.9

29.0

34.8

41.4

49.0

57.6

67.2

78.1

90.3 103.9 119.0 135.8 154.3 174.8

1.9

10.0

12.0

14.1

16.5

20.5

25.0

30.3

36.4

43.3

51.2

60.1

70.1

81.4

94.1 108.1 123.8 141.2 160.4 181.6

2.0

10.5

12.5

14.8

17.3

21.4

26.2

31.7

38.0

45.2

53.4

62.6

73.0

84.7

97.8 112.4 128.6 146.6 166.4 188.3

2.1

11.0

13.1

15.5

18.1

22.3

27.3

33.0

39.6

47.0

55.5

65.1

75.9

88.0 101.6 116.6 133.4 151.9 172.4 195.0

2.2

11.5

13.7

16.1

18.8

23.3

28.4

34.4

41.2

48.9

57.7

67.6

78.8

91.3 105.3 120.9 138.1 157.3 178.4 201.6

2.3

11.9

14.2

16.8

19.6

24.2

29.5

35.7

42.7

50.8

59.9

70.1

81.7

94.6 109.0 125.1 142.9 162.6 184.3 208.2

2.4

12.4

14.8

17.5

20.4

25.1

30.7

37.0

44.3

52.6

62.0

72.6

84.6

97.9 112.8 129.3 147.6 167.9 190.3 214.8

2.5

12.9

15.4

18.1

21.1

26.1

31.8

38.4

45.9

54.5

64.2

75.1

87.4 101.2 116.5 133.5 152.4 173.2 196.2 221.4

2.6

13.4

15.9

18.8

21.9

27.0

32.9

39.7

47.5

56.3

66.3

77.6

90.3 104.4 120.2 137.7 157.1 178.5 202.1 228.0

2.7

13.9

16.5

19.4

22.7

27.9

34.0

41.1

49.1

58.2

68.5

80.1

93.1 107.7 123.9 141.9 161.8 183.8 208.0 234.5

2.8

14.3

17.1

20.1

23.4

28.9

35.2

42.4

50.7

60.0

70.6

82.6

96.0 110.9 127.6 146.0 166.5 189.0 213.8 241.1

2.9

14.8

17.6

20.8

24.2

29.8

36.3

43.7

52.2

61.9

72.8

85.1

98.8 114.2 131.3 150.2 171.2 194.3 219.7 247.6

3.0

15.3

18.2

21.4

25.0

30.7

37.4

45.1

53.8

63.7

74.9

87.5 101.7 117.4 134.9 154.4 175.8 199.5 225.5 254.1

3.1

15.8

18.8

22.1

25.7

31.7

38.5

46.4

55.4

65.6

77.1

90.0 104.5 120.6 138.6 158.5 180.5 204.7 231.4 260.6

3.2

16.3

19.3

22.7

26.5

32.6

39.6

47.7

56.9

67.4

79.2

92.5 107.3 123.9 142.3 162.7 185.2 210.0 237.2 267.1

3.3

16.7

19.9

23.4

27.2

33.5

40.7

49.0

58.5

69.2

81.3

94.9 110.2 127.1 145.9 166.8 189.8 215.2 243.0 273.5

3.4

17.2

20.5

24.1

28.0

34.4

41.9

50.4

60.1

71.1

83.5

97.4 113.0 130.3 149.6 170.9 194.5 220.4 248.8 280.0

3.5

17.7

21.0

24.7

28.8

35.4

43.0

51.7

61.6

72.9

85.6

99.9 115.8 133.6 153.3 175.1 199.1 225.6 254.6 286.5

3.6

18.2

21.6

25.4

29.5

36.3

44.1

53.0

63.2

74.7

87.7 102.3 118.6 136.8 156.9 179.2 203.7 230.8 260.4 292.9

3.7

18.7

22.2

26.0

30.3

37.2

45.2

54.4

64.8

76.6

89.9 104.8 121.4 140.0 160.5 183.3 208.4 235.9 266.2 299.3

3.8

19.1

22.7

26.7

31.0

38.1

46.3

55.7

66.3

78.4

92.0 107.2 124.3 143.2 164.2 187.4 213.0 241.1 272.0 305.7

3.9

19.6

23.3

27.4

31.8

39.1

47.4

57.0

67.9

80.2

94.1 109.7 127.1 146.4 167.8 191.5 217.6 246.3 277.7 312.1

4.0

20.1

23.9

28.0

32.5

40.0

48.5

58.3

69.5

82.1

96.3 112.1 129.9 149.6 171.5 195.6 222.2 251.5 283.5 318.5

4.2

21.0

25.0

29.3

34.1

41.8

50.8

61.0

72.6

85.7 100.5 117.0 135.5 156.0 178.7 203.8 231.4 261.8 295.0 331.3

4.4

22.0

26.1

30.6

35.6

43.7

53.0

63.6

75.7

89.4 104.7 121.9 141.1 162.4 186.0 212.0 240.6 272.1 306.5 344.1

4.6

23.0

27.2

31.9

37.1

45.5

55.2

66.3

78.8

93.0 109.0 126.8 146.7 168.8 193.2 220.2 249.8 282.3 317.9 356.8

4.8

23.9

28.4

33.3

38.6

47.3

57.4

68.9

81.9

96.7 113.2 131.7 152.3 175.2 200.4 228.3 259.0 292.6 329.4 369.5

5.0

24.9

29.5

34.6

40.1

49.2

59.6

71.5

85.1 100.3 117.4 136.6 157.9 181.5 207.7 236.5 268.1 302.8 340.8 382.2

3.0

3.0

3.0

Additional moment of inertia for occupancy live load, I2*

Load 0.6 kN/m

9.6

12.3

15.3

18.8

24.4

31.1

39.1

48.5

59.5

72.4

1 kN

21.4

25.1

29.2

33.5

40.6

48.7

57.9

68.0

79.4

91.9 105.6 120.7 137.1 155.0 174.4 195.3 217.8 242.0 267.9

BRITISH STANDARDS

87.1 104.1 123.4 145.3 170.0 197.7 228.7 263.1 301.3

47


GLASS DESIGN

II-6 GLASS DESIGN 6.1

Properties of glass

Mechanical properties of glass Form Density, Unit weight, γ ρ [kN/m³] [kg/m³] All Note:

24.5 †

2 500


Modulus of rigidity, G 2 [N/mm ]

70 000

30 000

IStructE:1999 Table 2.2 Poisson’s Thermal ratio, ν coefficient, α [-] [/˚C] 0.22

†

-6

8·10

BS 6262, 5.5.5.

Toughened glass maximum ratio 7:1 acc. to BS 952-1:1995 cl. 4.1.1.

6.2

Structural sealant glazing (SSG) BS 6262-6:2005 cl.4.2.2: The glazing should be designed in such a way that the sealant is only subjected to short duration tensile forces, e.g. wind suction or live loads. Dead loads or sustained loads should be supported by other means, e.g. setting blocks to carry the glass weight. The design of the glazing should eliminate shear stresses on the structural sealant.

6.3

Overhead glazing CIRIA C632:2005 ‘Guidance for glazing at height’ cl. 2.4.1 states “sloping glazing…apply to glass at any angle to the vertical”. BS 5516-1 cl. 3.19 ‘sloping patent glazing having a slope of 75° or less from horizontal’. CWCT Standard for Slope Glazing Systems:1999 covers slope glazing whether used overhead as part of a roof or as a sloped façade. It includes all uses of glazing from horizontal to 15° from vertical. CWCT TU 10:2003 covers performance of glass in slope glazing systems that are between vertical and 15° of vertical. CWCT TN 68:2010 states ‘These definitions of vertical and sloping glazing differ from those used in BS 6262 and BS 5516 where vertical glazing is considered to include glazing up to 15º from true vertical. The distinction between vertical and sloping glazing in this Technical Note relates to the risk of glass falling from its frame after fracture. It is considered that gravity is likely to cause broken glass to fall at slopes within 15º of vertical.

6.4

Safety glass

Maximum area of Safety glass under imposed load

BRITISH STANDARDS

BS 6180:1999 Table 2

49

GLASS DESIGN 6.5


Balustrades

6.5.1 Balustrade without handrail [BS 6180:2011 cl. 8.1.2] In the event that a free-standing barrier is supplied without a handrail, each panel should be able to withstand the appropriate design load. Any individual point that is damaged and unable to meet the criteria should be replaced with interim guarding awaiting immediate replacement.

6.5.2 Balustrade requiring handrail [BS 6180:2011 cl. 8.5.2] Handrail is required where the balustrade protects a difference in level greater than 600mm. The handrail should be attached to the glass in such a manner that, should a glass panel fracture, the handrail will remain in position and will not fail if the design load is applied across the resulting gap.

50

BRITISH STANDARDS


GLASS DESIGN

6.5.3 Free-standing balustrades or juliet balconies Deflection of free-standing glass balustrade is limited to L/65 or 25 mm, whichever is smaller in acc. to BS 6180:2011 cl. 6.4.1. Glass stress is limited to the requirements of DIN. BS 6180:2011

Maximum height of barrier [m] (Max. wind load [kN/m²]) Barrier load ( ≤ 10 min. duration load) Glass Temper 0.36 kN/m 0.74 kN/m 1.5 kN/m

3.0 kN/m

10 mm

FT + frit FT

0.86 (1.1) "

0.60 (2.7) 0.60 (3.3)

0.33 (9.1) 0.42 (9.4)

12 mm

FT + frit FT

1.13 (0.8) "

0.79 (2.3) 0.79 (2.5)

0.47 (6.5) 0.55 (7.4)

15 mm / 16mm

FT + frit FT

1.44 (0.8) "

1.10 (1.8) "

0.74 (4.1) 0.77 (5.3)

0.37 (16.4) 0.54 (12.8)

19 mm / 20 mm

FT + frit FT

1.78 (0.8) "

1.57 (1.2) "

1.10 (2.9) 1.10 (4.9)

0.60 (10) 0.78 (9.8)

-

Laminated glass with PVB interlayer (G = 0.5 N/mm² @ 30°C)* 12.76 mm (PVB) 6/0.76/6

AN HS FT

0.50 (1.4) 0.50 1.00 (0.9) 0.93 1.08 (0.8) 1.08

0.58 (3.4) 0.45 " 0.77

0.30 (10) 0.22 0.33 (12) 0.38

0.21 (30)

17.52 mm (PVB) 8/1.52/8

AN HS FT

0.95 (0.8) 0.95 1.41 (0.8) 1.41 " "

0.33 (4.4) 0.33 0.91 (2.1) 0.80 " 1.18

0.52 (6.2) 0.39 " 0.68

0.22 (28) 0.44 (11) 0.34

21.52 mm (PVB) 10/1.52/10

AN HS FT

1.19 (0.8) 1.19 1.74 (0.8) 1.74 " "

0.58 (2.5) 0.58 1.41 (1.4) 1.26 1.50 (1.2) 1.50

0.23 (13) 0.23 0.80 (4.5) 0.62 " 0.80

0.38 (15) 0.31 0.48 (17) 0.48

25.52 mm (PVB) 12/1.52/12

AN HS FT

1.44 (0.8) 1.44 1.99 (0.8) 1.99 " "

0.97 (1.5) 0.97 1.82 (1.0) 1.81 " 1.82

0.35 (8.6) 0.35 1.15 (3.4) 0.89 " 1.15

0.60 (10) 0.44 0.68 (11) 0.68

31.52 mm (PVB) 15/1.52/15

AN HS FT

1.82 (0.8) 1.82 2.36 (0.8) 2.36 " "

1.78 (0.8) 1.78 2.31 (0.8) 2.31 " "

0.59 (5.1) 0.59 1.72 (2.3) 1.40 " 1.72

0.26 (23) 0.26 1.11 (5.4) 0.70 1.26 (5.0) 1.19

Laminated glass with SGP interlayer (G = 65.0 N/mm² @ 30°C)* 17.52 mm (SGP) 8/1.52/8

AN HS FT

1.12 (0.8) 1.06 1.67 (0.8) 1.41 " 1.67

0.68 (2.1) 0.51 1.39 (1.4) 0.80 " 1.38

0.32 (9.6) 0.25 0.97 (3.2) 0.39 0.97 (4.1) 0.68

0.50 (12) 0.68 (10) 0.34

21.52 mm (SGP) 10/1.52/10

AN HS FT

1.38 (0.8) 1.38 1.95 (0.8) 1.95 " "

1.03 (1.4) 0.81 1.80 (1.1) 1.26 " 1.80

0.50 (6.0) 0.39 1.33 (2.6) 0.62 1.33 (3.0) 1.06

0.23 (26) 0.76 (7.9) 0.31 0.93 (8.7) 0.53

22.28 mm (SGP) 10/2.28/10

AN HS FT

1.43 (0.8) 1.43 2.00 (0.8) 1.95 " 2.00

1.10 (1.3) 0.81 1.86 (0.8) 1.26 " 1.86

0.53 (5.7) 0.39 1.39 (2.5) 0.62 1.39 (2.9) 1.06

0.24 (25) 0.81 (7.4) 0.31 0.98 (8.2) 0.53

25.52 mm (SGP) 12/1.52/12

AN HS FT

1.64 (0.8) 1.64 2.21 (0.8) 2.21 " "

1.46 (1.0) 1.16 2.13 (0.8) 1.81 " 2.13

0.71 (4.2) 0.57 1.68 (2.3) 0.89 1.68 (2.4) 1.53

0.34 (17) 0.28 1.07 (5.6) 0.44 1.21 (6.6) 0.76

26.28 mm (SGP) 12/2.28/12

AN HS FT

1.69 (0.8) 1.69 2.26 (0.8) 2.26 " "

1.54 (0.8) 1.16 2.20 (0.9) 1.81 " 2.26

0.75 (4.0) 0.57 1.73 (2.2) 0.89 1.73 (2.3) 1.53

0.35 (17) 0.28 1.14 (5.2) 0.44 1.26 (6.4) 0.76

2.03 (0.8) 2.03 2.03 (0.8) 1.82 1.09 (2.7) 0.89 0.53 (11) 0.44 AN 2.59 (0.8) 2.59 2.59 (0.8) 2.59 2.08 (1.9) 1.40 1.64 (3.6) 0.70 HS " 2.08 1.65 (4.8) 1.20 FT " " " " Note: * According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016. Glass body temperature is max. 30°C since high temperature does not occur at the same time with maximum barrier or wind load. X Redundancy requirement BS 6180 cl. 8.1.2: In the event of a single ply of the laminate failing, the remaining element(s) of a toughened laminated design must be capable of withstanding the design loads (i.e., design barrier load or interim wind load of 0.80 kN/m²). Deflection is controlled by the full thickness. 31.52 mm (SGP) 15/1.52/15

BRITISH STANDARDS

51


GLASS DESIGN 6.6

Glass fins

6.6.1 Structural sealant for fins 2

BS6262-6:2005 Clause 5.3 consider 0.275 N/mm design stress for the sealant (i.e. FS = 3.0)

6.6.2 Design of glass fins IStructE:1999 (AS 1288:1994)

Glass fin design Action Data

Criteria

Properties

Values

Notes

Clause

L d b E = 69 GPa; G = 28.3 GPa [Rec. to use ASTM E1300] σallow

Glass fin unsupported span [mm] Glass fin depth [mm] Glass fin effective thickness [mm] Modulii of elasticity and rigidity of glass [N/mm²] Glass allowable stress [N/mm²]

H2

Mx

Calculated bending moment [kN·m]

Mx ≤ 1.0 min { M c ; M b }

Criteria

I y = d ⋅ b 3 12

Moment of inertia about major axis [mm ]

J=

Critical buckling moment

Moment capacity

db 3 3

4

Torsional inertia [mm ]

No intermediate buckling restraint: Critical buckling moment [kN·m] Free end y-y axis rotation:  3.6 d EI y   M cr = EI y GJ  1 − 0.7 L L GJ    Fixed end y-y axis rotation:  6.1 d EI y   M cr = EI y GJ  1 − 0.9 L L GJ    Continuously restrained fin:  π 2 d GJ  M cr =    EI y +  1.5 d    L  2 Mc =

M b ,Rd

52

b   1 − 0.63 d   

4

b⋅d2 ⋅ σ allow 6 = M CR 1.7

H2 H3 Table H2

H4

Bending capacity [kN·m] Buckling capacity [kN·m]

H1

BRITISH STANDARDS


GLASS DESIGN

6.6.3 Glass fin table Toughened Glass Fin (no int. buckling restraint) - Free end y-y axis rotation

IStructE:1999 (AS 1288:1994)

18 16

14

12

10

8

6

4

BRITISH STANDARDS

53

GLASS DESIGN


Toughened Glass Fin (no int. buckling restraint) - Fixed end y-y axis rotation

IStructE:1999 (AS 1288:1994)

18 16

14

12

10

8

6

4

54

BRITISH STANDARDS


STONE DESIGN

II-7 STONE DESIGN 7.1

Properties

7.1.1 Guide range of properties Properties of stone (for guidance only) Stone Density Flexural strength 2 [kg/m³] [N/mm ]

Comp. strength 2 [N/mm ]

Elastic modulus 2 [N/mm ]

Thermal expansion -6 [10 /K]

CWCT:1997 Porosity [%]

Granite

2600 – 3000

8 – 20

120 – 240

30 – 70

8 – 10

0.4 – 2.3

Sandstone

2200 – 2700

2.5 – 15

30 – 200

5 – 20

7 – 12

0.5 – 35

Limestone (high)

2200 – 2900

6 – 15

55 – 180

7

3 – 10

0.5 – 35

2 – 10

10 – 90 30 – 60

3 – 15

0.6 – 2.3

Limestone (low) Marble

CWCT:1997

Suggested regime of durability tests Test

Reference

Petrographic description

ASTM C295

Water absorption

ASTM C295

Igneous Granite

Sedimentary Limestone

Sandstone

Metamorphic Marble

Slate

Porosity Saturation coefficient Acid immersion Salt crystalisation Freeze Thaw

DIN 52104

Wetting drying

BS 680

Thermal stability

BRITISH STANDARDS

55


STONE DESIGN 7.2

Design of thin stone for cladding CWCT:1997

Statistical evaluation of the test result Action Data

Values

Measured values [N/mm ] Number of measured values [-]

s= ± V=

2

Mean value [N/mm ]

1 ∑ xi n i

∑ ( xi − x )

Clause 2

x1, x2 .., xi .., xn n x=

Method 1

Notes

2 2

Standard deviation [N/mm ]

n−1

Coefficient of variation [%]

100s

5.3.2.1

x

With aged-strength testing:

ASF = 1.4×FSF Values of variation factor, VF V [%] Granite Limestone Marble 0–5 2.0 3.0 2.5 5 – 10 2.5 3.5 3.0 10 – 20 3.0 4.0 3.5 > 20 3.5 4.5 4.0 Values of durability factor, DF Fraction of initial flexural strength* [%] 100% 75 – 95 60 – 75 < 60

5.3.2.1

Stone flexural safety factor [-]

FSF = VF×DF

DF 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8

Stone anchorage safety factor [-] Table 5.1

*Thermal cycling test (300 cycles) acc. to ASTM C 880: = (average after/average before) 100%

5.3.2.2

Without aged-strength testing: FSF Values of safety factor, FSF Granite Limestone 4.0 6.0 ASF = 1.4×FSF Method 2

56

FOS = K-factor Values of ks or K-factor n K-factor* 5 3.41 10 2.36 15 2.07 20 1.93 30 1.78 40 1.70 50 1.65 ∞ 1.645

Table 5.2

Stone flexural safety factor [-] Marble 5.0

Table 5.3

Stone anchorage safety factor [-] 5.3.3 *According to BS 2846: Part 3 and are specific to a confidence level of 95%.

Table 5.4

BRITISH STANDARDS


CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS

II-8 CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS 8.1

CWCT test methods for building envelopes C CWCT:2005 cl. 8.12.2

Standard sequence A (test pressure less than 600 Pa) No. Test 1

Air permeability

2

Infiltration

Test method

Old method

EN 12153

BS 5368-1

Exfiltration

3

Water penetration Static

EN 12155

BS 5368-2

4

Wind resistance

Serviceability

EN 12179

BS 5368-3 BS 6375-1

5

Air permeability

Infiltration

6 7

Exfiltration Water penetration* Static

8

Hose test

AAMA 501.2 AAMA 501.2 CWCT TN 41

9

Wind resistance

Safety

EN 12179

BS 5368-3

10

Impact (optional)

Soft body

EN 12600

BS 8200

Hard body

BS 8200

BS 8200

11

Notes

Dismantling

Recommended for propriety envelope tests

Inspection

Note: * Additional spray bar test according to EN 13051 may be required by wetting the outer surface of the building envelope without pressure difference applied across. Meeting this requirement is not a substitute for any other tests. C CWCT:2005 cl. 8.12.2

Standard sequence B (test pressure ≥ 600 Pa) No. Test 1

Air permeability

2

Test method Infiltration

Old method

Notes

EN 12153

BS 5368-1 Not applicable to rainscreens with separate backing wall

Exfiltration

3

Water penetration Static

EN 12155

BS 5368-2 Not applicable to open jointed system

4

Wind resistance

Serviceability

EN 12179

BS 5368-3 BS 6375-1

5

Air permeability

Infiltration

6 7

See step 1 & 2

Exfiltration Water penetration* Static

8

Dynamic

9

Hose test

See step 3 EN 13050

AAMA 501.1

AAMA 501.2 AAMA 501.2 Not applicable to open jointed system CWCT TN 41

10

Wind resistance

Safety

EN 12179

BS 5368-3

11

Impact (optional)

Soft body

EN 12600

BS 8200

Hard body

BS 8200

BS 8200

12

Rainscreen tests

Additional

13

Dismantling

Inspection

Recommended for propriety envelope tests

Wind load test on panels

Note: * Additional spray bar test according to EN 13051 may be required by wetting the outer surface of the building envelope without pressure difference applied across. Meeting this requirement is not a substitute for any other tests.

BRITISH STANDARDS

57


CURTAIN WALL, WINDOWS & DOORS 8.2

Impact Resistance of Wall Components [BS 8200] BBSEN BS 8200:1985 Table 2

Impacts on surfaces of the vertical enclosure to buildings Wall Description Category

Examples

A

Readily accessible to public and others with little incentive to exercise care. Prone to vandalism and abnormally rough use

External walls of housing and Zone of wall up public buildings in vandal prone to 1.5 m above areas pedestrian or floor level Walls adjacent to pedestrian thoroughfares or playing fields when not in category A

B

Readily accessible to public and others with little incentive to exercise care. Chances of accident occurring and of misuse

C

Accessible primarily to those with some incentive to exercise care. Some chance of accident occurring and of misuse

Walls adjacent to private open gardens. Back walls of balconies

D

Only accessible, but not near a common route, to those with high incentive to exercise care. Small chance of accident occurring or of misuse

Walls adjacent to small fenced decorative garden with no through paths

E

Above zone of normal impacts from people but liable 1.5 m to 6 m above pedestrian or floor level at to impacts from thrown or kicked objects location categories A and B

F

Above zone of normal impacts from people and not liable to impacts from thrown or kicked objects

Wall surfaces at higher positions than those defined in E above

Impact energy [N·m]: E = H×m×9.81m/sec2 where:

H = Height of fall [m] m = mass of impactor [kg] BBSEN BS 8200:1985 Table 3, 4

Test impact energy [Joules] Soft body impact

Category

Serviceability S1 A

Safety* S1

Hard body impact Serviceability H1

H2

Safety* H2

No test impact values are given. In each case the type and severity of vandalism needs to be carefully assessed and appropriate impact values determined.

B

120J

500J

-

10J

10J

C

120J

500J

6J

-

10J

D

Risk of impact is minimal and impact test values are therefore not appropriate.

E

120J

350J**

6J

-

10J

F

120J

350J**

3J

-

-

Note: *The wall should not have a reduced performance under impacts for safety. The results of tests should be defined as follows: Brittle materials: failure or no damage Other materials: damage to surface finish, indentation or no damage Where the damage is a dent, the depth of the dent should be quantified although the criterion for failure may be an aesthetic one only. The depth of indentation which is acceptable visually depends on the characteristics of the material, its finish and location. ** External surface only if access is required for cleaning and maintenance. Impactors Type Hard body Soft body

58

Description

BBSEN BS 8200:1985 Table 22 Diameter Approximate mass

H1

Steel ball

50 mm

0.5 kg

H2

Steel ball

62.5 mm

1.0 kg

S1

Canvas spherical/conical bag filled with 3 mm diameter glass spheres

400 mm

50 kg

Reference

BRITISH STANDARDS



Windows and Vents

8.3.1 Setting and location blocks Positions and number of setting and location blocks should be applied in accordance with BS 6262-0:1982. The materials used for setting and location blocks are the same. BS 6262-0:1982 Fig. 22

Setting and location block positions Window

Description 1

Window

Fixed light

Horizontal pivot

Fixed light (factory glazed)

Vertical pivot

Top hung

Vertical pivot (off centre)

Side hung or door

Vertical slider

Bottom hung

Horizontal slider

Tilt & Turn

Minimum position of blocks

Description

1

Note. The position of setting blocks for fixed lights should preferably be at quarter points but can be positioned as shown below. Minimum positions of blocks

BRITISH STANDARDS

59


RAINSCREEN CLADDING

II-9 RAINSCREEN CLADDING 9.1

Pressure-equalised system • Conditions for pressure-equalisation acc. to CWCT cl. 2.2.6.1

A > V/80 A = B×h+ H×v

- Area of vent

V = B×H×a

- Volume of cavity

Where:

B = Width of cladding panel H = height of cladding panel a = width of air-space v = Opening of vertical joint h = Opening of horizontal joint

• Conditions for pressure-equalisation acc. to DIN 18516-1 AF ≥ 0.75%·AW AF = Area of perimeter opening AW = Area of cladding panel

9.2

Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)

9.2.1 Glass fibre reinforced concrete (GRC/GFRC) 9.3

Subframes

9.3.1 Simplified rules for Z sheeting rail This section gives empirical rules for the design of certain commonly used members for which a full theoretical analysis may be impracticable or not justified. The design rules given in this section may be used as an alternative to the analytical methods. Members designed by a proven method need not conform to the empirical rules. The design rules in this section apply to all steels with a yield strength, Ys, of not less than 250 N/mm2. See Cl. 9.3 BS 5950-5. • The dimensions of a Z sheeting rail should be as follows: 100t ≥ overall depth ≥ L/45 Total width over both flanges ≥ L/60 Overall width of compression flange/thickness, B/t ≤ 35 Width of lip ≥ B/5 Where:

L is the span of the sheeting rail in millimetres (mm); B is the flange width in millimetres (mm); t is the thickness of the sheeting rail in millimetres (mm).

BRITISH STANDARDS

61



II-10ROOFS 10.1 Minimum Slope of Roofs and their Gutters [BS 6229 Cl. 7.3] To ensure that the minimum finished falls listed in Table 6 are achieved, allowance should be made for deflection of the structural members and decking under dead and imposed loads and for construction tolerances. The falls assumed for design should, therefore, be steeper than the recommended finished falls. The design falls should be determined by considering the overall and local deflections, the direction of falls and the type of roof covering. In the absence of a detailed analysis, a fall of twice the minimum finished fall should be assumed for design purposes. Minimum Finished Falls

BS 6229:2003 Table 6

62

BRITISH STANDARDS



II-11CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.1 Fastening bolts and screws Figure 11.1-1 Bolt symbols

11.1.1 Metric fasteners • Tensile area, Atb Thorough testing has shown that fasteners fail in tension at loads corresponding to those unthreaded parts with diameters approximately midway between their pitch diameters Dp and minor diameters Dmin. A tb = 0.7854 (D - 0.9743 ⋅ P) 2

- D p,min ≈ D maj - 0.9743 ⋅ P

• Shear area, Aesb The thread root area is the area of a circle with diameter equal to the basic minor diameter Droot. A esb = 0.7854 (D - 1.2269 ⋅ P) 2

- D root ≈ D maj - 1.2269 ⋅ P

Metric thread to ISO 724:1993 Size

Pitch

Major diameter P [mm] Dmaj [mm]

Pitch diameter Dp [mm]

Minor Thread root diameter diameter Dmin [mm] Droot [mm]

Shank area 2 Ab [mm ]

Tensile Thread root area area 2 2 Atb [mm ] Aes [mm ]

Section Modulus 3 Z [mm ]

M4

0.70

4.0

3.545

3.242

3.141

12.57

8.65

7.75

3.04

M5

0.80

5.0

4.480

4.134

4.019

19.63

13.99

12.68

6.37

M6

1.00

6.0

5.350

4.917

4.773

28.27

19.84

17.89

10.68

M8

1.25

8.0

7.188

6.647

6.466

50.27

36.13

32.84

26.54

M10

1.50

10.0

9.026

8.376

8.160

78.54

57.26

52.29

53.34

M12

1.75

12.0

10.863

10.106

9.853

113.10

83.24

76.25

93.91

M16

2.00

16.0

14.701

13.835

13.546

201.06

155.07

144.12

244.02

M20

2.50

20.0

18.376

17.294

16.933

314.16

242.30

225.19

476.65

M24

3.00

24.0

22.051

20.752

20.319

452.39

348.91

324.27

823.58

M30

3.50

30.0

27.727

26.211

25.706

706.86

555.30

518.98

1667.64

M36

4.00

36.0

33.402

31.670

31.093

1017.88

809.42

759.27

2951.13

M45

4.50

45.0

42.077

40.129

39.479

1590.43

1295.62

1224.11

6040.85

M52

5.00

52.0

48.752

46.587

45.866

2123.72

1744.44

1652.20

9472.67

M60

5.50

60.0

56.428

54.046

53.252

2827.43

2344.95

2227.22

14825.44

BRITISH STANDARDS

63


CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.1.2 Capacities of bolts and screws Capacities of metal fasteners BS 5950-1:2000

Capacity in Shear

Tension

Combined shear and tension Bearing

64

a) General Ps = A esb ×p s ≥ Fs b) Packing 4 t pa ≤ d 3  9d  Ps = A esb ×p s ×   8d+3t pa    c) Large grip lengths: for Tg > 5d  8d  Ps = A esb ×p s ×   3d+Tg    where: d = diameter of bolt tpa = total tickness of steel packing Tg = total tickness of connected plies Values of ps: ps = 160 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 ps = 375 N/mm2 for Grade 8.8 ps = 400 N/mm2 for Grade 10.9 ps = 0.4×Ub for other grades

6.3.2.1

Pt = A tb ×p t ≥ Ft Values of pt: pt = 240 N/mm2 pt = 560 N/mm2 pt = 700 N/mm2 pt = 0.7×Ub ≤ Yb

6.3.4.3 Table 34

Fs F + t Ps Pt

≤ 1.4

BS 8118-1:1991

Clause

6.3.2.2

6.3.2.3

Table 30

for Grade 4.6 for Grade 8.8 for Grade 10.9 for other grades 6.3.4.4

a) Bearing of bolt 6.3.3.2 Pbb = d×t p ×p bb ≥ Fb 6.3.3.3 b) Bearing of connected part Pbs = k bs ×d×t p ×p bs ≤ 0.5×k bs ×e×t p ×p bs where: tp = thickness of connected part, or for countersunk bolts, thickness of part minus half the depth of countersinking e = edge distance in the direction of load Values of kbs: kbs = 1.0 for standard holes 6.3.3.3 kbs = 0.7 for short slot & oversized holes kbs = 0.5 for long slot & kidney-shaped Values of pbb: pbb = 460 N/mm2 for Grade 4.6 pbb = 1000 N/mm2 for Grade 8.8 Table 31 pbb = 1300 N/mm2 for Grade 10.9 pbb = 0.7× (Yb+Ub) for other grades Values of pbs: pbs = 460 N/mm2 for S275 pbs = 550 N/mm2 for S355 Table 32 pbs = 670 N/mm2 for S460 pbs = 0.67× (Ys+Us) for other steel grades

Clause

VRS = α s ×K1 ×A esb × p f γ m ≥ V Values of αs: αs = 0.6 for aluminium bolts or rivets αs = 0.33 for aluminium bolts or rivets with test values of shear strength αs = 0.7 for steel bolts or rivets Values of K1: K1 = 1.0 for rivets K1 = 0.95 for close tolerance bolts K1 = 0.85 for normal tolerance bolts Value of γm: γm = 1.2 Values of pf for steel fasteners: pf = min. yield stress for steel fasteners pf = 0.5(f0.2+fu) ≤ 1.2 f0.2 for stainless steel Values of pf for aluminium fasteners: pf = 165 N/mm2 for bolts (6082 T6) pf = 175 N/mm2 for bolts (6061 T8) pf = 175 N/mm2 for bolts (5056A H24) pf = 140 N/mm2 for rivets (5154A H22) pf = 165 N/mm2 for rivets (6082 T6) pf = 155 N/mm2 for rivets (5056A H22)

6.4.2

PRT = α×A tb × p f γ m ≥ P Values of α: αs = 0.6 for aluminium bolts αs = 1.0 for steel bolts or rivets Note: Use of aluminium rivets in tension is not recommended.

6.4.3

2

 V   P     +  P  RT   VRS 

Table 3.3 6.4.1

Table 6.1

6.4.5

2

≤ 1.0

a) Bearing of fastener 6.4.4 B RF = d f ×t×2× p f γ m ≥ V b) Bearing of connected part B RP = d f ×t×c× p a γ m where: df = diameter of fastener t = thickness of connected part, or for countersunk bolts, thickness of part minus half the depth of countersinking Values of c: c=2 when df/t ≤ 10 c = 20t/df when 10 < df/t < 13 c = 1.5 when df/t ≥ 13 Values of pa: pa = 110 N/mm2 for conn. part (1200H14) pa = 155 N/mm2 for conn. part (6060 T6) pa = 177 N/mm2 for conn. part (6063 T6) pa = 225 N/mm2 for conn. part (6005AT6) pa = 285 N/mm2 for conn. part (6082 T6) pa = 0.5(f0.2+fu) ≤ 1.2 f0.2 for other parts

BRITISH STANDARDS

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Thread stipping resistance Action Values


Notes

Dose & Schwarz Reference

Shear-tension coefficient

a) Fastener βB = 0.57 for aluminium b) Threaded part βM = 0.44 for aluminium βM = 0.58 for steel βM = 0.77 for stainless steel

Conservative values

Shear tension limit

a) Fastener τ mB = β B ×f uB γ m b) Threaded part τ mM = β M ×f uM γ m

where: Dose fuB = tensile strength of fastener fuM = tensile strength of threaded part γm = 1.2

αB = Strip-off diameter

Pull-out capacity

BRITISH STANDARDS

Schwarz

τ mM

(τ mB + τ mM )

d τ = D p +(0.5 − α B )

P ≤ D maj tan30°

FmB = α B × π×d τ ×t×τ mB 1.5

where: P = thread pitch of fastener Dp = pitch diameter of fastener Dmaj = major diameter of fastener

Dose

where: t = length of thread engagement

Dose

65


CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.2 Weld 11.2.1 Capacity of welds for steel design

Intermittent fillet welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of : - 16×thickness of thinner parent material or 300mm if it is in compression or shear. - 24×thickness of thinner parent material or 300mm if it is in tension. BS 5950-1:2000

Capacity of steel welds Type Data

Action

Notes

σ1, τ1, τ2 FL FTx 2 + FTy 2

FT =

a = 0.70×size of weld pw py Fillet weld

Clause

Factored stresses, normal and shear perpendicular to, and 6.8.7.3 2 shear stress parallel to, throat section, respectively [N/mm ] Design longitudinal force per unit length [N/mm] 6.8.7.1 Design tangential force per unit length [N/mm] Table 37 Throat size of weld [mm] Design strength of weld material (see Error! Reference 2 source not found.) [N/mm ] 2 Design strength of parent material [N/mm ]

Simple method: 6.8.7.2

σ12 +τ12 +τ 2 2 ≤ p w

Directional method: 2

 FL   FT    +   PL   PT  where: PL = a ⋅ p w

2

Longitudinal shear capacity per unit length Transverse capacity per unit length

PT = K ⋅ PL F θ = 45° − tan -1  Tx  FTy 

K = 1.25

Butt weld

66

6.8.7.3

≤ 1.0

1.5 1+cos 2 θ

σ12 +τ12 +τ 2 2 ≤ p y

  

Angle between the resultant transverse force FT the throat of the weld [°] Coefficient [-] Check for vector sum of stresses

6.9.3

BRITISH STANDARDS



11.2.2 Capacity of welds for aluminium design Intermittent welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of 10×t or 300mm if it is in compression or shear, 24×t or 300mm if it is in tension. BS 8118-1:1991

Capacity of aluminium welds Type Data

Factored resistance of weld σ1, τ1, τ2 2

2

S = Sa + Sb + Sc

2

θ t L le = L – 2×(weld width) lf (see Fig. 6.6) pw γm = 1.2

Values of te ¨

Values of gt Butt weld

Clause 2

Full and partial penetration J or U type te = t Partial penetration V or bevel type te = lesser of (0.75×t) or (t-3mm)

Factored stresses [N/mm ] Design axial, longitudinal and transverse loads [kN] Angle between line of weld and direction of load Thickness of the thinner part connected [mm] Length of weld [mm] Effective length of weld [mm] Effective length of fillet [mm] 2 Limiting stress of weld material [N/mm ] Material factor

(a) Full penetration weld (b) Partial penetration weld

Fig. 6.5

Fig. 6.4 6.9.3 (c)

Interaction 2

PR ) + ( Sb VR )

2

≤ 1.0

Fig. 6.3

Direct tension normal to line of weld PRFB = Lt e ( k z p a ) γ m PRTB = Lt ( k z p a ) γ m

Direct shear parallel to line of weld VRFB = VRTB = Lt p vz γ m Fillet weld

Tension capacity at the fusion boundary “F” [N] Tension capacity at the toe “T” [N] Shear capacity at the fusion boundary and toe [N]

6.9.3 (a) 6.9.3 (b) 6.9.2

Generally σ1 +3 ( τ +τ 2 2

Heat-affected zones (HAZs)

Fig. 6.2

2

σ1 +3τ 2 ≤ p w γ m Direct tensile force normal to line of weld lt PRB = e e p w γ m ≥ S 3 Oblique tensile force le t e PRB = pw γm ≥ S 1+2cos 2 θ

(Sa

Fig. 6.1

6.9.1

Generally 2

Heat-affected zones (HAZs)

6.9.1 Fig. 6.6 Table 6.2 Table 3.3 6.7.8

Leg (size) of weld [mm] Throat (effective size) of fillet weld [mm]

gl g t =0.707g l

6.9.1 Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.4

2 1

2

)

≤ pw γm

Load perpendicular to line of weld 0.85 le g t PRF = p w γ m ≥ Sa 2 Load parallel to line of weld 0.85 lf g t PRF = p w γ m ≥ Sc 3

Fig. 6.2

Interaction

6.9.3 (c)

(Sa

2

PR ) + ( Sb VR )

2

Fig. 6.6 6.7.9

≤ 1.0

Fig. 6.3

Direct tension normal to line of weld PRFF = Lg1 ( k z p a ) γ m PRTF = Lt ( k z p a ) γ m

Direct shear parallel to line of weld VRFF = Lg1 ( k z p v ) γ m VRTF = Lt ( k z p v ) γ m

BRITISH STANDARDS

6.9.3 (a) Tension capacity at the fusion boundary “F” [N] Tension capacity at the toe “T” [N] Shear capacity at the fusion boundary “F” [N] Shear capacity at the toe “T” [N]

6.9.3 (b)

67



11.3 Guide to welding Weld symbols

BS 499

Weld examples - plates

68

BRITISH STANDARDS



Weld examples – hollow sections

BRITISH STANDARDS

69


CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 11.4 Bracket 11.4.1 Top of slab fixing

BS 5950-1:2000

Design of TOS-fixed steel bracket Parts Data

Notes

Clause

Minimum plate thickness [mm] Width of plate [mm] Height of stiffener rib plate [mm] Cantilever arm of applied loads [mm] Outrigger distance to fixing/cast-in [mm] Unfactored gravity load [kN] Unfactored lateral load [kN] 2 Design strength of steel [N/mm ]

tp b hp Lf Lb Fg Fw py

Bracket Plate a) Simplified tp ≥

4 (1.4Fg L f ) ×103 b py

b) Exact 4 (1.4Fg L f ) ×103 1.4Fw + ≤ py b tp2 b tp Plate with welded stiffener ribs 1.4Fg L f ×103 1.4Fw ×103 + ≤ py 2  b+2h b − 2t p ) t p ( b   h b ( b − t p ) +  − t p   t p 2    Anchor

Reaction forces N Ed = 1.4Fg L f L b

Minimum plate thickness [mm]

4.2.5.2

Combined tension and moment

4.8.2.2

Combined tension and moment for U cross-section

4.8.2.2

Used as design axial, shear and resultant forces for anchor design [kN]

VEd = 1.4Fw FEd =

N Ed 2 + VEd 2

N  γ = tan -1  Ed   VEd 

Angle of incidence of FEd [°]

BS 8118-1:1991

Design of TOS-fixed aluminium bracket Parts

Notes

Clause

Minimum plate thickness [mm]

4.2.5.2

Combined tension and moment

4.8.2.2

Bracket Plate or extrusion a) Simplified tp ≥

4 (1.2Fg L f ) ×103 b ( p o 1.2 )

b) Exact 4 (1.2Fg L f ) ×103 1.2Fw p + ≤ o 2 b tp b tp 1.2

70

BRITISH STANDARDS


FAÇADE NOTES

PART III AMERICAN STANDARDS 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA


Table of Contents III-1 LOADS

5

1.1

Importance factor

5

1.2

Definitions

6

1.3

Dead load, D

6

1.4

Live load, L

7

1.5

Wind load, W

9

1.6

Notional load, N

14

1.7

Load combinations

15

III-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS

17

2.1

Deflection limits

17

2.2

Common structural movements

18

III-3 STEEL DESIGN

21

3.1

Properties of steel

21

3.2

Steel design

22

3.3

Bolted connections to AISC 360-10

29

3.4

Weld connections

32

III-4 STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN

35

4.1


35

4.2

Design of cold-formed stainless steel structural members

36

4.3

Test

36

4.4

Connections

37

III-5 ALUMINUM DESIGN

41

5.1


41

5.2

Allowable stress design

42

5.3

Moment of inertia tables

45

5.4

Thermally separated profiles

46

5.5

Fasteners

47

5.6

Metric fasteneners

48

5.7

Spaced thread fasteners

51

III-6 GLASS DESIGN

53

6.1

Properties

53

6.2

Glass design

54

AMERICAN STANDARDS

3


LOADS

III-1 LOADS 1.1

Importance factor ASCE 7:2010 Table 1.5-1 & 15-2 Wind Ice [ASCE 7 ‘05]* Risk Snow Seismic V= V> category Is Ie thickness - wind 85-100 100 Ii Iw mph mph

Importance factors by risk category of buildings and other structures

Use or Occupancy

Buildings and other structures that represent a low risk to human life in the event of failure

I

0.80

0.80

1.00

1.00

0.87

0.77

All buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III, and IV

II

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial risk to human life.

III

1.10

1.25

1.00

1.25

1.15

1.15

IV

1.20

1.25

1.00

1.50

1.15

1.15

Buildings and other structures, not included in Risk Category IV, with potential to cause a substantial economic impact and/or mass disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the event of failure. Buildings and other structures not included in Risk Category IV (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, hazardous waste, or explosives) containing toxic or explosive substances where their quantity exceeds a threshold quantity established by the authority having jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released. Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities. Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial hazard to the community. Buildings and other structures (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, or hazardous waste) containing sufficient quantities of highly toxic substances where the quantity exceeds a threshold quantity established by the authority having jurisdiction to be dangerous to the public if released and is sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released. Buildings and other structures required to maintain the functionality of other Risk Category IV structures. Note: The Importance Factors in ASCE 7-05 have been used to adjust the velocity pressure to different annual probabilities of being exceeded. ASCE 7-10 removed these factors and new wind speed maps are introduced for each of the risk categories I, II and III/IV also incorporating uniform recurrence interval wind speed contours throughout all geographic regions including hurricane prone regions. These changes directly affect calculation of unfactored wind loads. Revised load factors for wind in ASD and LRFD load combinations are coordinated to compensate for the new wind speeds, resulting in design velocity pressures that are very similar to those calculated using provisions of ASCE 7-05 for most U.S. regions. AMERICAN STANDARDS

5


LOADS 1.2

Definitions

Definition of loading capacities Category Load/strength Ultimate limit state (factored loads)

Definition

Tensile strength

the force required (usually minimum or average) to a member to the point where it breaks

Characteristic strength value of the strength below which only 5% of all test results would be expected (probability) to fail Yield strength

The load at which a member experiences a specified amount of permanent deformation

Proof load

the greatest load applied without straining it beyond the elastic limit (no evidence of deformation)

Service load Rated capacity (non-factored loads)

Devices with counter-mass

1.3

the minimum load a complete assembly can withstand before failure in a laboratory pull test when the product is NEW

Breaking load

the lowest breaking force when tested to destruction

Working load limit (WLL)

the maximum load, specified by the manufacturer following an assessment by a competent person, authorized to support when the product is new and when the pull is applied in-line, unless noted otherwise, with respect to the centreline of the member

Safe working load (SWL)

the breaking load divided by an appropriate factor of safety (usually ≥ 2.0) giving a ‘safe’ load that could be lifted or be carried. No additional safety factors required. Ceased to be used in American, ISO and European standards because of legal implications.

Maximum rated load

maximum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with, as specified by the manufacturer

Minimum rated load

minimum mass (kg) of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with, as specified by the manufacturer

Dead load, D

1.3.1 Self-weight, Sw Weight of facade shall be calculated with a contingency factor on top of the self-weight as calculated from the table below. Density of materials

Commentary on ASCE 7:2010 Density, γ [kg/m³]

Group

Material

Concrete

Normal weight

Density, γ [kg/m³]

Group

Material

Metal

Aluminium

2 700

Bronze

8 800

Light weight

Copper

8 900

Heavy weight

> 2 000

Iron, cast

7 200

Granite, basalt

1 550

Iron, wrought

7 700

Limestone, marble

1 520

Lead

11 400

Sandstone

1 310

Steel

7 880

Stainless Steel

Natural Stone

Wood

2 400 900 – 2 000

Timber

750

7 850

Plywood

580

Zinc

7 200

Particle board

720

Glass

Glass (annealed)

2 500

Fibre board

800

Insulation

Rockwool (Loose)

25

Rockwool (Medium)

51

PVC-U 250

1 400

Rockwool (Dense)

70

Terra Cotta

1 900

6

Plastic

ETFE film

-

AMERICAN STANDARDS


LOADS

Live load, L Facade shall be designed to carry and transmit safely all live loads acting on it to the primary structure through the supports.

1.4.1 Floor live load ASCE 7:2010 Table 4-1; IBC:2009 Table 1607.1

Live loads Description

Uniform load 2 [kN/m ]

Concentrated load* [kN]

Office use

2.40

8.9

Computer use

4.79

8.9

Fixed seats

2.87

-

Assembly areas and Lobbies, movable seats, platforms theaters Stage floors

4.79

-

7.18

-

4.79

-

Balconies and decks 1.5 times the live load for the occupancy served.

≤ 4.79

-

For maintenance access

1.92

1.33

First floor

4.79

-

Load Access floor systems

Dining rooms and restaurants

Catwalks Corridors

4.79

-

Operating rooms, laboratories

2.87

4.45

Patient rooms

1.92

4.45

Corridors above first floor

3.83

4.45

Reading rooms

2.87

4.45

Stack rooms

7.18

4.45


3.83

4.45

Light

6.00

8.9

heavy

11.97

13.4

Offices

2.40

8.9

Partitions (Cl. 4.3.2: additional live load)

0.72

-


3.83

8.9

Lobbies and first floor corridors

4.79

8.9

Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and similar uses

3.59

-

Dance halls and ballrooms

4.79

-

Gymnasiums, grandstands, viewing stands and bleachers

4.79

-

Stadiums and arenas with fixed seats

2.87

-

One- and two-family dwellings

1.92

-

Private rooms and corridors

1.92

-

Public rooms and corridors

4.79

-

-

1.33

Flat, pitched and curved roof

0.96

-

Fabric construction

0.24

-

4.79

-

Dining rooms and Restaurants Hospitals

Libraries

Manufacturing

Offices

Recreational

Residential

All other residential occupancies

All roof surfaces subject to maintenance work Roofs, Lr

-

Other floors, same as occupancy served except as indicated

Assembly or roof gardens 2

Note: * Cl. 4.4: Uniformly distributed over an area of 0.58 m (762mm×762mm).

AMERICAN STANDARDS

7


LOADS 1.4.2 Live load reduction Reduced uniform live load Action Values

Notes 2

2

Data

L0 ≤ 4.79 kN/m AT

Floor live load

 L = Lo  0.25 +  

Unreduced design live load [kN/m ] 2 Tributary area [m ] 2

KLL 4 4 3 2 2 2

All other members not identified, including: edge beams with cantilever slabs, cantilever beams, oneway slabs, two-way slabs, members without provisions for continuous shear transfer normal to their span

Reduced roof live load Action Values

1

ASCE 7:2010 Clause

Notes

L0 ≤ 0.96 kN/m

2

2

Lr = Lo R1 R2 ≥ 0.58 kN/m2 Reduction factor R1: Tributary area 2 AT ≤ 18.58 m 2 2 18.58 m < AT < 18.58 m

AT ≥ 18.58 m

4.7.2

Table 4-2

Interior beams

Roof live load

4.7.3

Reduced design live load [kN/m ]

  K LL AT  4.57

Live load element factor KLL: Element Interior columns Exterior columns without cantilever slab Edge columns with cantilever slab Corner columns with cantilever slab Edge beams without cantilever slabs

Data

ASCE 7:2010 Clause

2

Reduction factor R2: Roof pitch F ≤ 0.48 0.48 < F < 1.44 F ≥ 1.44

Unreduced design roof live load [kN/m ] 2

Reduced design live load [kN/m ]

4.8.2 4.8.2

KLL 1 1.2-0.011AT 0.6

KLL 1 1.2-0.05F 0.6

1.4.3 Barrier live loads ASCE 7:2010 cl. 4.5; IBC:2009 cl. 1607.7

Barrier live loads Category Handrails and guards Components

Sub-category One- and two-family dwellings All others Intermediate rails, balusters and panel fillers

Grab bars Passenger vehicle Condition 1 – at height of 457mm Condition 2 – at height of 686mm barrier systems

Load direction

Concentrated load

Uniform load -

Any (on top)

0.89 kN

Horizontal

0.22 kN**

-

Any

1.11 kN

-

Horizontal

26.70 kN

-

0.73 kN/m*

Note: * need not be considered for one- and two-family dwellings, factory, industrial, and storage occupancies, in areas that are not accessible to the public and that serve an occupant load not greater than 50. 2 ** Uniformly distributed over an area of ≤ 0.093 m (305mm×305mm). 8

AMERICAN STANDARDS


LOADS

Wind load, W

1.5.1 Exposure categories To assign an exposure category, a ground surface roughness within each 45° sector shall be determined for a distance upwind of the site. ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26.7.2

Ground surface roughness Surface Roughness

Description

B

Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.

C

Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than 9.1 m. This category includes flat open country and grasslands.

D

Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category includes smooth mud flats, salt flats, and unbroken ice.

Exposure categories Exposure Roof category height B

ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26.7.3 Illustration

Description

h ≤ 9.1 m Surface roughness B prevails in upwind direction ≥ 457 m h > 9.1 m Surface roughness B prevails in upwind direction ≥ max{792 m; 20 Hr}

C

Where Exposures B or D do not apply

D

Surface roughness D prevails in upwind direction ≥ max{1,524 m; 20 Hr} Surface roughness B or C immediately upwind ≤ max{183 m; 20 Hr}

1.5.2 Buildings OPEN BUILDING - Each wall having at least 80 percent opening: Aoi ≥ 0.8 Ai PARTIALLY ENCLOSED BUILDING – The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure (1) exceeds by more than10% the sum of the areas of openings in the balance of the building 2 envelope (walls and roof), (2) exceeds 0.37 m or 1% of the area of that wall and the percentage of openings in the balance of the building envelope does not exceed 20 percent: 1. Aoi > 0.1(AoT - Aoi) 2. Aoi > min{ 0.37 m2; 0.01Ai}; (AoT - Aoi) ≤ 0.20 ENCLOSED BUILDING – where open or partially enclosed buildings do not apply. where: 2

Aoi = area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure [m ] 2

Ai = area of the wall that receives positive external pressure [m ] 2

AoT - Aoi = sum of areas of openings in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) [m ]

AMERICAN STANDARDS

9


LOADS

1.5.3 Wind loads on Main Wind Force Resistings Systems (MWFRS) Wind load on MWFRS Action Values Velocity pressure

h z V [m/s] = [kph]/3.6 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz: Exposure Kz 2.01 ( z 365.76 )

27

C

2.01 ( z 274.32 )

2 9.5

D

2.01 ( z 213.36 )

2 11.5

B

K zt = 1.0

≥ 0.57

(conservatively)

Table 27.3-1

Velocity pressure exposure coefficient [-]

Fig. 26.8-1

Wind directionality factor [-]

Table 26.6-1

2

Velocity pressure [N/m ]

27.3.2 26.9.4

Rigid building or other structures: G = 0.85 (conservatively) Flexible or dynamically sensitive structures: See Cl. 26.9.5 qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = h) qi = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = zi)

Cp Internal pressure coefficient,(GCpi): Building

(GCpi)-

26.9.5 Velocity pressure considering mean roof 27.4.1 height and the level of the highest opening 2 (zi), respectively [N/m ] Fig. 27.4-1 through 3 External pressure coefficient [-]

(GCpi)+

Table 26.11-1

Enclosed - 0.18 + 0.18 Partially enclosed - 0.55 + 0.55

Internal pressure coefficient [-]

( ) + − qi ( GC pi ) − p− = qh ( GC p ) − qi ( GC pi ) − +

Positive design wind pressure [N/m ]

p+ = q z GC p

Free roof

Topographic factor [-]

≥ 1.03

(for MWFRS) q z = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2

Enclosed & partially enclosed buildings

Mean roof height or ht. of structure [mm] 26.3 Height above ground level [m] Basic wind speed, 3-sec. gust at 10m above Fig. 26.5-1 ground [m/s]

≥ 0.85

K d = 0.85

Gust-effect factor

ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 27 Clause

Notes

qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = h)

Net pressure coefficient, CN: Open building Reference Monoslope free roofs

Fig. 27.4-4

Pitched free roofs

Fig. 27.4-5

Troughed free roofs

Fig. 27.4-6

Free roofs

Fig. 27.4-7

27.4.1, & 27.4.2

2

2

Negative design wind pressure [N/m ] 2

Velocity pressure [N/m ] Fig. 27.4-4 through 7

Net pressure coefficient [-]

2

Net design wind pressure [N/m ]

27.4.3

External pressure coefficient [-] 2 Positive design wind pressure [N/m ] 2 Negative design wind pressure [N/m ]

Fig. 27.4-1

p+/ − = qhGC N

Roof overhangs

Cp p+ = qhGC p

(

p− = qhG C p − 0.8

Parapets

)

q p = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2

Combined net pressure coefficient, (GCpn): Parapet (GCpn) Windward +1.5 Leeward -1.0

(

p p = q p GC pn

10

27.4.4

Velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the 27.4.5 2 parapet [N/m ]

) AMERICAN STANDARDS


LOADS

1.5.4 Wind load on signs, lattice frameworks and trusses Wind load on other structures Action Values Velocity pressure

h z V [m/s] = [kph]/3.6 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz: Exposure Kz B

2.01 ( z 365.76 )

C

2.01 ( z 274.32 )

D

2.01 ( z 213.36 )

27

2 9.5

≥ 0.85

2 11.5

≥ 1.03

(conservatively) Wind directionality factor, Kd: Structure type Walls, signs & lattice frameworks Triangular, square, Trussed rectangular towers Other sections

Gust-effect factor

Freestanding solid walls & Solid signs

Kd 0.85

Velocity pressure exposure coefficient [-]

Fig. 26.8-1

Wind directionality factor [-]

Table 26.6-1

2

Velocity pressure [N/m ]

 solid area  ε =  > 0.70 gross area   qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 (where z = h)

1.5

F = qhGC f As ⋅ k  solid area   ≤ 0.70 ε = gross area   Force coefficient, Cf:

ε

29.3.2 26.9.4

Force coefficient, Cf: Cross-section

Criterion for solid walls and signs [-] 2

1.2 1.3 1.5

Fig. 29.4-1

Velocity pressure [N/m ] Force coefficient [-] 2 Gross area of the solid wall or sign [m ] Reduction factor [-] Design wind force [N]

29.3.2 Fig. 29.4-1 29.4.1 Fig. 29.4-1 29.4.1

Criterion for open signs [-]

Fig. 29.5-2

Force coefficient [-]

0.8 0.9 1.1

29.5 29.4.1 2

Projected normal area [m ] Design wind force [N]

Force coefficient [-]

Fig. 29.5-3

Projected normal area [m2] Design wind force [N]

29.5 29.4.1

Cf

Square

4 ε 2 − 5.9ε + 4

Triangle Af F = q z GC f A f

3.4ε 2 − 4.7 ε + 3.4

AMERICAN STANDARDS

26.9.5

Flat-sided Rounded, D q z members ≤ 5.3 > 5.3

< 0.1 2.0 0.1 - 0.29 1.8 0.3 - 0.70 1.6 Af F = q z GC f A f

Table 29.3-1

0.95

2

Rigid building or other structures: G = 0.85 (conservatively) Flexible or dynamically sensitive structures: See Cl. 26.9.5

k = 1 − (1 − ε )

Trussed towers

Fig. 29.4-1 29.3 Fig. 26.5-1

0.85

Cf As

Open signs & Lattice frameworks

Height or free-standing wall [mm] Height above ground level [m] Basic wind speed, 3-sec. gust at 10m above ground [m/s] Topographic factor [-]

≥ 0.57

K zt = 1.0

q z = 0.613K z K zt K d V


Notes

11


LOADS 1.5.5 Wind loads on Components and cladding (C & C) Wind load on C & C Action Values Velocity pressure

Mean roof height or ht. of structure [m] 26.3 Height above ground level [m] Basic wind speed, 3-sec. gust at 10m Fig. 26.5-1 above ground [m/s] Topographic factor [-] Table 30.3-1

h z V [m/s] = [kph]/3.6 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz: Exposure Kz B

2.01 ( z 365.76 )

C

2.01 ( z 274.32 )

D

2.01 ( z 213.36 )

27

≥ 0.70

2 9.5

≥ 0.85

2 11.5

≥ 1.03

Kzt = 1.0 (conservatively) Kd = 0.85 (for Components & cladding) q z,h = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2 Internal Pressure

Enclosed building Partially enclosed

(GCpi) = +/- 0.18 (GCpi) = +/- 0.55

Enclosed Low-rise building, h ≤ 18.3 m: & partially External pressure coefficient,(GCp): enclosed Zone (GCp) for Area [m2] buildings Roof ≤ 0.9 0.9 < A < 9.3 0.2968 − 0.1 log A 1, 2, 3 +0.3 1


Notes

Fig. 26.8-1 Table 26.6-1 30.3.2

Internal pressure coefficient [-]

Table 26.11-1

Gable roofs, θ ≤ 7°

Fig. 30.4-1 through 7

≥ 9.3 +0.2

-1.0

0.1 log A − 0.9968

-0.9

2

-1.8

0.7 log A − 1.7778

-1.1

3

-2.8

1.7 log A − 2.746

-1.1

Walls ≤ 0.9

Velocity pressure exposure coef. [-] Wind directionality factor [-] 2 Velocity pressure [N/m ]

4,5

+1.0

0.9 < A < 46.5 0.9944 − 0.1766 log A

4

-1.1

0.1766 log A − 1.0944

-0.8

5

-1.4

0.3531 log A − 1.3888

-0.8

Fig. 30.4-1

≥ 46.5

30.4.2

+0.7

a = min {0.1B; 0.1L; 0.4h} p+ = qh  GC p  p− = qh  GC p 

( (

) + − ( GC pi ) −  ) − − ( GC pi ) + 

High-rise building, h > 18.3 m: External pressure coefficient,(GCp): Zone (GCp) for Area [m2] Roof ≤ 0.9 1

-1.4

0.9 < A < 46.5 0.2943 log A − 1.3906

2

-2.3

0.412 log A − 2.2869

-1.6

3

-3.2

0.5297 log A − 3.1832

-2.3

Walls ≤ 1.9 +0.9

1.9 < A < 46.5 0.9578 − 0.2146 log A

4

-0.9

0.1431 log A − 0.9385

-0.7

5

-1.8

0.5723 log A − 1.9541

-1.0

4, 5

a = min {0.1B; 0.1L} ≥ 0.9m

( )+ ( )− p− = qh ( GC p ) − qh ( GC pi ) − + p+ = q z GC p

12

Fig. 30.6-1

− qh GC pi

≥ 46.5 -0.9

≥ 46.5 +0.6

Fig. 30.6-1

Local corner zone [m] Design wind pressure, acc. to cl. 30.2.2 2

2

minimum 0.77 kN/m [N/m ]

30.6.2

AMERICAN STANDARDS


LOADS ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 26 & 27 Clause

Wind load on C & C Action Values

Notes

Velocity pressure

Velocity pressure considering roof/parapet 2 height [N/m ]

Gust-effect factor

Free roof

Parapets

qh = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2

26.9.4

Rigid building or other structures: G = 0.85 (conservatively) Flexible or dynamically sensitive structures: See Cl. 26.9.5 Net pressure coefficient, CN: Open building Monoslope free roofs Pitched free roofs Troughed free roofs p+/ − = qhGC N

Reference Fig. 30.8-1 Fig. 30.8-2 Fig. 30.8-3

26.9.5

Fig. 30.8-1 through 3

Net pressure coefficient [-]

2

( GC p ) 4 + ,5 + ( GC p ) 4 − ,5 − ( GC p ) 2 − ,3 − Windward parapet: pw = q p  GC p − GC p 4 + ,5 +  Leeward parapet: pl = q p  GC p − GC p  4 + ,5 +

(

)

(

) 2 − ,3− 

(

)

(

)4 − ,5 − 

30.3.2


30.8.2

Positive external pressure coeff. for walls

Fig. 30.4-1 or

Negative external pressure coeff. for walls

Fig. 30.6-1

Negative external pressure coeff. for roofs

Fig. 30.4-2

2

Fig. 30.9-1


1.5.6 Air-Permeable Cladding [ASCE 7 C30.1.5] The design wind pressures derived from Chapter 30 represent the pressure differential between the exterior and interior surfaces of the exterior envelope (wall or roof system). Because of partial air-pressure equalization provided by air-permeable claddings, the components and cladding pressures derived from Chapter 30 can overestimate the load on air-permeable cladding elements. The designer may elect either to use the loads derived from Chapter 30 or to use loads derived by an approved alternative method. If the designer desires to determine the pressure differential across a specific cladding element in combination with other elements comprising a specific building envelope assembly, appropriate full-scale pressure measurements should be made on the applicable building envelope assembly, or reference should be made to recognized literature (Cheung and Melbourne 1986, Haig 1990, Baskaran 1992, Southern Building Code Congress International 1994, Peterka et al. 1997, ASTM 2006, 2007, and Kala et al. 2008) for documentation pertaining to wind loads.

1.5.7 Wind tunnel testing Wind tunnel test result limitations Action Permissible reduction MWFRS

The overall principal loads in the x and y directions are not to be less than 80 % of that calculated with Part 1 of Chapter 27 or Part 1 of Chapter 28.

Components Pressures shall not be less than 80 % of those calculated for Zone 4 for walls and Zone 1 for roofs using the and procedure of Chapter 30. Cladding**

ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 31 Absolute minimum reduction* Clause 50 %

31.4.3

65 %

Note: *1. There were no specific influential buildings or objects within the detailed proximity model. 2. Loads and pressures from supplemental tests for all significant wind directions in which specific influential buildings or objects are replaced by the roughness representative of the adjacent roughness condition, but not rougher than exposure B, are included in the test results. ** Zone 5 pressures may be reduced based on the percent reduction of Zone 4 and Zones 2 & 3 pressures may be reduced based on the percent reduction of Zone 1. See commentary of Chapter 31.

AMERICAN STANDARDS

13


LOADS 1.5.8 Load combination for continuous corner cladding Wind load patterns for corner cladding

1

2

1.6

100 %

100 %

3

4

75 %

80 %

75 %

80 %

5

60 %

6

60%

60%

60 %

Notional load, N

1.6.1 Load path connections All parts of the structure between separation joints shall be interconnected to form a continuous path to the lateral force-resisting system, and the connections shall be capable of transmitting the lateral forces induced by the parts being connected. Any smaller portion of the structure shall be tied to the remainder of the structure with elements having strength to resist a force of not less than 5% of the portion’s weight.

1.6.2 Lateral forces Static lateral force applied independently in each of two orthogonal directions at all levels: Fx = 0.01 Wx Where: Fx = the design lateral force applied at story x and Wx = the portion of the total dead load of the structure,D, located or assigned to level x.

14

AMERICAN STANDARDS


LOADS

Load combinations ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 2.4

Allowable stress design, Ra (ASD) Basic combinations

Vertical facade

Sloped façade or overhead glazing

1

D

D

D

2

D+L

D+L

-

3

D + (Lr or S or R)

-

D + Lr

4

D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)

-

-

5

D + (0.6W* or 0.7E)

D + 0.6W*

D + 0.6W*

6

D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W*) + 0.75(Lr or S or R) D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W*) D + 0.75Lr + 0.75(0.6W*)

7

D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S

-

-

0.6D + (0.6W* or 0.7E)

-

0.6D + 0.6W

Note: * 1.0W in ASCE 7-05. ASCE 7:2010 Cl. 2.3

Load and resistance factor design, Ru (LRFD) Basic combinations

Vertical facade

Sloped façade or overhead glazing

1

1.4D

1.4D

1.4D

2

1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

1.2D + 1.6L

-

3

1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L* or 0.5W**)

-

1.2D + 1.6Lr + 0.5W** 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.5W**

4

1.2D + 1.0W*** + 0.5L* + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

1.2D + 1.0W***

1.2D + 1.0W*** + 0.5S

5

1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L* + 0.2S

-

-

6

0.9D + 1.0W***

-

0.9D + 1.0W***

-

-

7

0.9D + 1.0E *

2

Note: Cl. 2.3.2: 0.5L for L ≤ 4.79 kN/m areas not for public assembly, 1.0L otherwise. ** 0.8W in ASCE 7-05. *** 1.6W in ASCE 7-05.

AMERICAN STANDARDS

15



III-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 2.1

Deflection limits

Deflection limits for curtain walling Standard Component AAMA TIR-A11:2004

Description

Limit

Clause

H ≤ 4.11 m

L/175

3.0

4.11 m < H < 12 m

H/240 + 6.35 mm

12 m < H

See note 1

Framing members

IBC:2009

Framing member for each individual glass Interior glazing – differential deflection of two adjacent unsupported edges under 0.73 kN/m at 1067 mm above FFL

L/175 or 19.1 mm

2403.3

glass thickness

2403.4

ASTM E 1300

Glass edge support

AAMA Skylights and sloped glazing, 1987

IGU

( Lg

100

)

2

Other glass types

( Lg

100

)

2

L/175

Structural glass Author: Mic Paterson facades and enclosures. 2011

63.5 42.3

L/50

Deflection limits Standard Component AISC 360:2010

5.2.4

Limit

Clause

D+L D+0.5L (Short term def.) (Long term def.)

-

Floor span (reduced live load)

L/360

-

Roof span

L/240

-

Cantilevers

L/150

-

Loading

IBC:2009*

L

S or W**

D+L

Floor members

L/360

-

L/240

Roof members Supporting plaster ceiling Supporting nonplaster ceiling Not supporting ceiling Supporting formed metal roofing

L/360 L/240 L/180 L/150

L/360 L/240 L/180 -

L/240 L/180 L/120 -

Exterior walls and interior partitions With brittle finishes With flexible finishes Supporting formed metal sheeting

-

L/240 L/120 L/90

-

Formed metal sheet roofing/siding

-

L/60

L/60

Aluminum members Supporting edge of glass Not supporting edge of glass Aluminum panels Aluminum sandwich panels

-

L/175 L/60 L/60 L/120

L/175 L/60 L/60 L/120

Loading

L3

Table 1604.3

Note: *For cantilever members, L shall be taken as twice the length of the cantilever. **Wind load is permitted to be taken as 0.7 times the “components and cladding” loads for the purpose of determining deflection limits herein.

AMERICAN STANDARDS

17


DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 2.2

Common structural movements Building envelopes have to accommodate movement of their components and of the supporting structure, and to make this possible building structures have to be sufficiently stiff.

Allowable storey drift Type

Drift limit Risk category

ASCE 7:2010

Structures, other than masonry shear wall structures, 4 stories or less , with interior walls, partitions, ceilings, and exterior wall systems that have been designed to accommodate the story drifts

I or II

III

IV

h/40

h/50

h/67

Masonry cantilever shear wall structures

h/100

Other masonry shear wall structures

h/150

All other structures

h/50

For cladding design and other design requirements AISC 360:2010 Total or interstorey drift*

Recommended Static Test Method for Evaluating Curtain Wall and Storefront Systems Subjected to Seismic and Wind Induced Interstory Drifts

h/67

Table 12.12-1

h/100

h/100

12.14.8.5

H (or h) / 400 - 500

Absolute interstory drift limit** to avoid damage on nonstructural partitions, cladding and glazing. AAMA 501.4: 2000

Clause

L4

10 mm h/100 unless otherwise stated

7.2.5

Note: * ASCE Task Committee on Drift Control of Steel Building Structures, 1988. ** Cooney and king, 1988; Freeman, 1977. Structural movements Type Movement Column shortening

Steel construction

Common values

Clause

Differential column shortening may be a consideration in design and AISC 303:2005 construction. In some cases, it may occur due to variability in the Cl. 7.13 accumulation of dead load among different columns (see Figure C– 7.1). In other cases, it may be characteristic of the structural system that is employed in the design. Consideration of the effects of differential column shortening may be very important, such as when the slab thickness is reduced, when electrical and other similar fittings mounted on the Structural Steel are intended to be flush with the finished floor and when there is little clearance between bottoms of beams and the tops of door frames or ductwork.

Concrete construction Settlement Thermal movement

18

Steel

0.2mm/m per 15°C

AISC 303:2005 Cl. 7.13

AMERICAN STANDARDS



AISC 303:2005 Fig. C-7.5. Exterior steel column plumbness tolerances normal to building line.

AMERICAN STANDARDS

19


STEEL DESIGN

III-3 STEEL DESIGN 3.1

Properties of steel AISC 360:2010 Table B4.1b

Material constants of structural steel Form

All






77.0

7 850

200 000

81 000

0.30

-6

12·10

ASTM A6:2002

Characteristic values of structural steel Structural shapes

Preferred ASTM Material Standard

Yield strength, Fy 2 [N/mm ]

Tensile strength, Fu 2 [N/mm ]

345

448

A242 Grade 50 a A529 Grade 50 b A572 Grade 42, 50, 55 c A588 Grade 50 b A913 Grade 50, 60, 65, 70

345

448

A36 Grade 36, c A242 Grade 50 a A529 Grade 50 b A572 Grade 42, 55 c A588 Grade 50 b A913 Grade 50, 60, 65, 70 b A992

248

400

A242 Grade 50 a A529 Grade 50 b A572 Grade 42, 50, 55 c A588 Grade 50 b A913 Grade 50, 60, 65, 70

Grade B

317

400

Grade C

345

427

A501 Grade 36 b A618 Grade I, II and III c A847 Grade 50

Grade B

290

400

Grade C

317

427

Grade B

240

414

N/A

248

400

A242 Grade 50 d A514 Grade 100 a A529 Grade 50, 55 b A572 Grade 42, 50, 55, 60, 65 c A588 Grade 50 e A852 Grade 70

b

W

A992

HP

A572

S, M, C, MC & L

A36

HSS (Rectangular and square)

A500

HSS (Round)

A500

b

a

a

Pipe

A53

Plates and bars

A36

a b

Grade 50

345

448

a

Grade 30

205

340

Grade 40

275

380

Grade 50

345

450

A572

Sheets

Grade 50

a

a

A570


Other Applicable ASTM Material Standards c

a

c

a

c

b

b

A606 , A607

a

Note: Carbon steel b High-stregth, low-alloy steel c Corrosion-resistant, high-stregth, low-alloy steel d Quenched and tempered alloy e Quenched and tempered low-alloy

AMERICAN STANDARDS

21


STEEL DESIGN 3.2

Steel design

3.2.1 Tension and Compression Members AISC 360:2010

Design for Tension and Compression Members Mode Tension

Values Pu

φ t Pn

Notes Pa (ASD) ≤ 1.0 Pn Ω t

(LRFD);

General: Pn = Ag F y

D2

Tensile yielding in the gross section [kN] φt = 0.90 (LRFD); Ω t = 1.67 (ASD)

Pn = Ae Fu

Tensile rapture in the net section [kN] φt = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω t = 2.00 (ASD)

where: Ae = U ⋅ An

Net effective area to account for shear lag

Pin-connected: Pn = (2t ⋅ be )Fu Pn = Asf ⋅ 0.6 Fu

D3 Table D3.1

Tensile rapture on the net effective area [kN] Shear rapture on the effective area [kN] φt = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω t = 2.00 (ASD)

where: be = 2t + 16mm ≤ ( b − d h ) 2 Asf = 2t ( a + d 2 )

Compression

Clause

Pu Pa (LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 Pn Ω c φc Pn

Local Squashing: Pn =Ag F y

Effective width [mm] 2 Area on the shear failure path [mm ]

D5.1

φc = 0.90 (LRFD); Ω c = 1.67 (ASD)

E1

Design compressive strength [kN]

E3

Flexural Buckling*: Pn = Ag Fcr Q = Qs Qa

S ≤ S1: KL rz ≤ 4.71 E QFy Fe =

π 2E

2

( KL rz )

Fcr = 0.658

Elastic buckling stress [N/mm ]

2

( QF y

Fe

) QF

2

Critical buckling stress [N/mm ] y

S > S1: KL rz > 4.71 E QFy Fcr =

Selected sections: Section KL rz

0.877 π 2 E

( KL rz )

2

Rect.

Slenderness limit, 4.71√(E/Fy): Grade A36 A53 A500 A572 S235 S275 S355

Fy 2 [N/mm ] 248 240 290 317 345 235 275 355

4.71

E Fy

133.8 136.0 123.7 118.3 113.4 137.4 127.0 111.8

Circular

Fe

Fcr

12KL Eb 2 Eb 2 0.8225 0.7214 2 b ( KL ) ( KL ) 2

4KL D

2.4674

Effective length factor, K: 0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0

ED 2

( KL ) 2 1.2

2.1639

1.5

ED 2

( KL ) 2

2.0

2.0

Note: *Applicable to single angle with b/t ≤ 20 with rz being the radius of gyration about the minor principal axis.

22

AMERICAN STANDARDS


STEEL DESIGN

Reduction Factor for Compression Elements Subject to Axial compression Unstiffened Elements

AISC Table B4.1a & Cl. E7.1 & 2

Qs

S

S ≤ S1

S1 < S < S2

S1

S ≥ S2

S2

E7.1

Rolled sections b t

1.0

0.56

E Fy

 b  Fy 1.415 − 0.74   t E

1.03

E Fy

1.0

0.64

Ekc Fy

 b  Fy 1.415 − 0.65    t  Ekc

1.17

Ekc Fy

1.0

0.45

E Fy

 b  Fy 1.34 − 0.76   t E

0.91

E Fy

1.0

0.75

E Fy

 b  Fy 1.908 − 1.22   t E

1.03

E Fy

0.69 E 2

b   Fy t

(a)

Built-up sections

kc =

4

b t

0.9 Ekc 2

b   Fy t

(b)

h tw

Angles & Other elements b t

Tees

d t

0.53E 2

b   Fy t

0.69 E 2

b   Fy t

Rect. and round bars

(c)

(d)

E3

Q = 1.0 Qa = Ae Ag

Ae is calculated based on reduced effective width, be

Stiffened Elements S Doubly symmetrical

S ≤ S1

E7.2

S1 < S

S1

h tw

1.0

1.49

E Fy

b t

1.0

1.40

E Fy

b t

1.0

1.49

E Fy

b t

1.0

1.40

E Fy

D t

1.0

E  0.34 E  1 − ≤b Fcr  ( b t ) Fcr  Fcr is calculated based on Q = 1.0

be = 1.92t

Cover plates

Other Elements

Box sections

(a)

be = 1.92t

E  0.34 E  1 − ≤b Fy  ( b t ) F y  

(b)

Round HSS

AMERICAN STANDARDS

0.11

E Fy

Q=

0.038 E 2 + Fy ( D t ) 3

(c)

23


STEEL DESIGN 3.2.2 Flexural members

AISC 360:2010 Table B4.1b & Cl. F

Design of Flexural Members Mu

Bending

φb M n

(LRFD);

Ma (ASD) ≤ 1.0 Mn Ωb

S

Mn for S ≤ S1

Lb

M p = Z y Fy

b t

Mp

I & C, LTB

L p = 1.76rz

Square or Rect. HSS Flange local buckling

Z z F y ≤ 1.6 S z F y

-

E Fy

0.38

-

E Fy

T & Double Angles Flange in comp., LTB

F3.2

-

F6.1

   S   1 −  1 − 0.7 y   1.61 b t − 0.61   M p    Z y   E Fy    

F6.2

-

F7.1

b t

Mp

1.12

E Fy

  S   1 −  1 − y   3.57   Z y     

h t

Mp

2.42

E Fy

  S   1 −  1 − y   0.305   Z y     

-

Mp

D t

Mp

-

M p ≤ 1.6 S y F y bf

Web in comp., LTB

M p ≤ 1.6 S y F y

-

S y Fy

d tw

S y Fy

Lb d

M p ≤ 1.6 S y F y

t

24

   S   1 −  1 − 0.7 y   1.61 b t − 0.61   M p    Z y   E Fy    

Mp

2t f

Rectangular bars

F2.2

-

Flange local buckling

Web local buckling

  S y   Lb − L p   C b  1 −  1 − 0.7  M p   Z y   Lr − L p     

Mp

-

Web local buckling

Round HSS Local buckling

E Fy

b t

0.38

2

0.31

E Fy

S Z

 − 0.738   M p  E Fy  ht

E Fy   + 1 M p  0.021 ( D t )  

Lb

(

F7.3

Lb

(

F8.2

)

1 + B 2 + B ; B = 2.3

  S  1 −  1 − 0.7 yc   Zy 

π EI z GJ

-

0.08

F7.2

F8.1

π EI z GJ

E Fy

0.84

 − 4.0   M p  E Fy  b t

-

-

0.38

F1

Mn for S1 < S < S2

S1

Flange local buckling

Bending about minor axis Flange local buckling

φb =0.90 (LRFD); Ω b = 1.67 (ASD)

d Lb

Iz J

  b f 2t f − 0.61   M p   1.61   E Fy   

)

1 + B 2 − B ; B = 2.3

E Fy

 d  2.55 − 1.84 t  w

Fy   S y Fy E  

E Fy

  L d  Fy  C b  1.52 − 0.274  b2   S y Fy  t  E  

d Lb

Iz J

F9.1 F9.2 F9.3 F9.1 F9.2 F9.4

F11

AMERICAN STANDARDS


STEEL DESIGN AISC 360:2010 F1 & Comm. F1

LTB Modification factor Mode Laterally braced at Lb

Values Cb =

Notes

Clause F1

12.5 M max Rm 2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M C

Doubly symmetric section: Rm = 1.0 Singly symmetric section: a) Single curvature bending Rm = 1.0 b) Reverse curvature bending  I zTop  Rm = 0.5+2    Iz 

Continuously braced laterally on one flange

C-F1

Moment at the end of the unbraced length that gives the largest compressive stress in the bottom flange [kN·m] C-F1 Moment at other end of the unbraced length [kN·m] Moment at the middle of the unbraced length [kN·m]

Mo M1 MCL Laterally braced flange in compression:

Case 1A: Negative M1  M CL 2 M  8 C b = 3.0 −  1  −   3  M o  3  ( M o + M 1 )  Case 1B: Positive M1 C b = 3.0 −

Fig. CF1.4 Case 1A: Negative M1

Case 1B: Positive M1

2 M 1 + 8 M CL 3M o

Fig. CF1.5

Laterally braced flange in tension:

Case 2A: Both end moments are positive or zero Case 2A: Both end moments are positive or zero ( M o + 0.6 M 1 ) C b = 2.0 − M CL Case 2B: One end moment is negative (Mo) ( 0.165 M o + 2 M 1 − 2 M CL ) Cb = 0.5 M 1 − M CL Case 2C: Both end moments are negative ( M o + M 1 ) 0.165 + M 1  C b = 2.0 −   M CL 3M o  

AMERICAN STANDARDS

Case 2B: One end moment is negative (Mo)

Case 2C: Both end moments are negative

25


STEEL DESIGN 3.2.3 Shear

AISC 360:2010

Design of members in shear Mode Shear

Values Vu Va (LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φvVn Vn Ω v

Notes

Clause

φv =0.90 (LRFD); Ω v = 1.67 (ASD)

G1

Webs: Vn = C v Aw 0.6F y

G2.1

Shear coefficient, Cv: Sect.

Aw

I,C,T

htw

L Rect. HSS

Slenderness

1.0

h tw ≤ 1.10 kv E Fy

bt

bt

Nominal shear strength [kN]

Cv

Web shear coefficient [-]

> 1.10 kv E Fy

1.10 kv E Fy

≤ 1.37 kv E Fy

h tw

> 1.37 kv E Fy

1.51kv E

G4 G5

( h tw )2 Fy

2ht h t

Shear buckling coefficient, kv: Webs

kv

No transverse stiffener

I or C: h tw < 260

5.0

Rect. HSS T, L

5.0 1.2

 260  a h > 3.0 or    h tw 

With transverse stiffeners

Other a/h

Round HSS: Vn = Ag 0.5Fcr 1.60E 5

( Lv

a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners [mm]

2

D)( D t )4

G5 G4

5.0

5+

G2.1

5

( a h )2 Nominal shear strength [kN] Lv = distance from maximum to zero shear force [mm]

For Lv ≤ 4.21 ⋅ D D t : Fcr =

G2.1

Shear buckling coefficient [-]

G6

2

Critical buckling stress [N/mm ]

For Lv > 4.21 ⋅ D D t : Fcr =

0.78E 3

( D t)2

26

AMERICAN STANDARDS


STEEL DESIGN

3.2.4 Torsion AISC 360:2010

Design of members in torsion Mode Torsion

Hollow sections

Values

Notes

Clause

Tu Ta (LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φT Tn Tn Ω T

φT =0.90 (LRFD); Ω T = 1.67 (ASD)

Tn = C ⋅ Fcr

Nominal torsion strength [kN·m]

H3.1

Torsional constant [mm³]

H3.1

Round HSS 2

C = π (D − t) t 2 Fcr

  = max   

1.23E 5

( L D) ( D t )4

 0.60E  ; ≤ 0.6 F y 3   2 ( D t ) 

Critical stress [N/mm²]


Rectangular HSS C = 2 ( B − t ) ( H − t ) t − 4.5 ( 4 − π ) t 3

Critical stress [N/mm²] Limiting slenderness:

For h t ≤ 2.45 E Fy : Fcr = 0.6 F y

For 2.45 E Fy < h t ≤ 3.07 E Fy : Fcr =

(

0.6F y 2.45 E F y

)

(h t)

For 3.07 E Fy < h t ≤ 260 : Fcr =

Other sections

0.458π 2 E

( h t )2

Rectangular section

A500 A36 A572 S235 S275 S355

317 248 345 235 275 355

2.45

E E 3.07 Fy Fy

61.54 69.58 58.99 71.47 66.07 58.15

77.11 87.18 73.92 89.56 82.79 72.87

2

H3.3


bt 2 3 1+0.6095

Fy

Nominal torsion strength [kN·m]

Tn = C ⋅ 0.6 F y

C=

Grade

H3.1

3

t t t t + 0.8865   − 1.8023   + 0.91   b b b     b

4

OR

C 1 = α 1 bc 2 ;

C 2 = α 2 bc 2

Multiple rectangular sections C i = α i bi t i 2

K i = β i bi t i 3

(

K = ∑ β i bi t i 3 C=

)

Ci K Ki

Individual torsional constant [mm³] 4 Individual shear constant [mm ] 4 Total shear constant [mm ] Total trsional constant [mm³]

Source: Aircraft Structures by J. Perry & J.J. Azar

AMERICAN STANDARDS

27


STEEL DESIGN 3.2.5 Cobined forces

AISC 360:2010

Combined forces and torsion Mode

Values

Axial and Flexure

Doubly and singly symmetric members When Pu φc,t Pn ≥ 0.2 M uy Pu 8  M ux + +   φc ,t Pn 9  φb M nx φb M ny When Pu φc,t Pn < 0.2

Notes

 M ay Pa 8  M ax  (LRFD); +  +   Pn Ω c ,t 9  M nx Ω b M ny Ω b 

Clause

  (ASD) ≤ 1.0  

H1

H1

1  Pu  2  φc ,t Pn

 M uy  M ay M ux M ax 1  Pa + (LRFD); + (ASD) ≤ 1.0  +  +  2  Pn Ω c ,t  M nx Ω b M ny Ω b  φb M nx φb M ny Unsymmetric members M uy M ay Pu M ux Pa M ax + + (LRFD); + + (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φc ,t Pn φb M nx φb M ny Pn Ω c ,t M nx Ω b M ny Ω b

Shear, Axial and Flexure

28

2

2

 V  Va Pu Mu Pa Ma Ta  T  + +  u + r  (LRFD); + + +  (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φc ,t Pn φb M n  φvVn φT Tn  Pn Ω c ,t M n Ω b  Vn Ω v Tn Ω T 

H2 H3.2

AMERICAN STANDARDS


STEEL DESIGN

Bolted connections to AISC 360-10

Characteristic values of fasteners ASTM Grade | Group EN Equivalent

AISC 360:2010 Table J3.2 Proof stress, 2 Fy [N/mm ]

Tensile strength, 2 Fu [N/mm ]

-

A307M | 4.6

- | 240

414 | 400

A

A325M | 8.8

586 | 640

827 | 800

B

A490M | 10.9

827 | 900

1034 | 1000

3.3.1 Dimensions and Distances Maximum Size of Bolt Holes [mm]

AISC 360:2010 Table J3.3M

Bolt Diameter d [mm]

Standard [Diameter]

Oversize [Diameter]

Short-Slot [Diameter×Length]

Long-Slot [Diameter×Length]

M16

18

20

18 × 22

18 × 40

M20

22

24

22 × 26

22 × 50

M22

24

28

24 × 30

24 × 55

M24

27

30

27 × 32

27 × 60

M27

30

35

30 × 37

30 × 67

M30

33

38

33 × 40

33 × 75

≥ M36

d+3

d+8

(d + 3) × (d + 10)

(d + 3) × 2.5·d

Minimum Edge Distance and Spacing [mm] Bolt Diameter d [mm]

AISC 360:2010 Table J3.4M & 3.5M

Standard [Diameter]

Oversize [Diameter]

Short-Slot* Long-Slot* [Diameter×Length] [Diameter×Length]

M16

1.375·d = 22

1.375·d + 2 = 24

1.375·d + 3 = 25

2.125·d = 34

M20

1.300·d = 26

1.300·d + 2 = 28

1.300·d + 3 = 29

2.050·d = 41

M22

1.273·d = 28

1.273·d + 2 = 30

1.273·d + 3 = 31

2.023·d = 45

M24

1.250·d = 30

1.250·d + 3 = 33

1.250·d + 3 = 33

2.000·d = 48

M27

1.259·d = 34

1.259·d + 3 = 37

1.259·d + 5 = 39

2.009·d = 54

M30

1.267·d = 38

1.267·d + 3 = 41

1.267·d + 5 = 43

2.017·d = 61

M36

1.278·d = 46

1.278·d + 3 = 49

1.278·d + 5 = 51

2.028·d = 73

> M36

1.25·d

1.25·d + 3

1.25·d + 5

2·d

Minimum Spacing [Clause J3.3] 2.67d but 3·d is preferred

Note: * Long axis perpendicular to edge of slot. For long axis parallel to edge, use min. edge distances for standard holes. Maximum Edge Distance and Spacing [mm]

AISC 360:2010 J3.5 Maximum distance*

Maximum edge distance

12·tp ≤ 150 mm

Maximum spacing

Painted members or unpainted members not subject to corrosion

24·tp ≤ 305 mm

Unpainted members of weathering steel subject to atmospheric corrosion

14·tp ≤ 180 mm

Note: * tp is the thickness of the thinner connected part

AMERICAN STANDARDS

29


STEEL DESIGN 3.3.2 Metric thread to ISO 724

ISO 724:1993

Metric screw thread Height of fundamental triangle 3 P ≈ 0.866254P 2

H = P sin(60°) =

Basic minor diameter d 1 = D1 = d − 2

5 5 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P 8 8

Basic pitch diameter d 2 = D2 = d − 2

3 3 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P 8 8

Nominal area Ab = 0.7854 d 2

Size

Pitch

Major Minor Pitch diameter diameter diameter P [mm] d, D [mm] d1, D1 [mm] d2, D2 [mm]

Nominal area 2 Ab [mm ]

M4

0.70

4.0

3.24

3.54

12.57

M5

0.80

5.0

4.13

4.48

19.64

M6

1.00

6.0

4.92

5.35

28.27

M8

1.25

8.0

6.65

7.19

50.27

M10

1.50

10.0

8.38

9.03

78.54

M12

1.75

12.0

10.11

10.86

113.10

M16

2.00

16.0

13.84

14.70

201.06

M20

2.50

20.0

17.29

18.38

314.16

M24

3.00

24.0

20.75

22.05

452.39

M30

3.50

30.0

26.21

27.73

706.86

3.3.3 Bolt design Design resistance of bolts in bearing-type connections Mode Criteria

Values Ru

φ Rn Tension Shear

AISC 360:2010 J3

Notes (LRFD);

Ra (ASD) ≤ 1.0 Rn Ω

Clause

φ = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω = 2.00 (ASD) Tensile strength [N]

Rnt = Ab ( 0.75Fu )

J3.6

Threads not excluded from shear planes: Rnv = Ab ( 0.45Fu ) Shear strength [N]

J3.6

Threads excluded from shear planes: Rnv = Ab ( 0.563Fu ) Fillers with t >6mm: k = 1 − 0.0154 ( t − 6 ) ≤ 0.85 Combined Tension and Shear Bearing

30

Rut

φ Rnt

+

Ruv

φ Rnv

(LRFD);

Shear strength reduction factor for thick fillers

Rat Rav + (ASD) ≤ 1.3 Rnt Ω Rnv Ω

J5.2 Comm. J3.7

Bearing strength at bolt holes (where deformation at J3.10 bolt hole at service load is a design consideration, otherwise increase by a factor of 1.25) [N] Long-slotted hole with slot perpendicular lc = Clear distance, in the direction of the force, between the edge of the hole and the edge of an to direction of force: adjacent hole or edge of the material [mm] Rnb = 1.0lc ⋅ t ⋅ Fu ≤ 2.0d ⋅ t ⋅ Fu Standard, oversized and short-slotted holes: Rnb = 1.2lc ⋅ t ⋅ Fu ≤ 2.4d ⋅ t ⋅ Fu

AMERICAN STANDARDS


STEEL DESIGN AISC 360:2010 J3.6

Steel bolt strength table [LRFD] Grade

A307M / 4.6

Size

Fu 2

[N/mm ] 400

M6

A570

340

A36 / A500

400

M20

M24

M30

78.54

113.1

201.1

314.2

452.4

1017.9

φRnt [kN]

6.36

11.31

17.67

25.45

45.24

70.7

101.8

229.0

3.82

6.79

10.60

15.27

27.14

42.41

61.07

137.41

(4.77)

(8.49)

(13.27)

(19.10)

(33.96)

(53.06)

(76.41)

(171.92)

12.72

22.62

35.34

50.90

90.48

141.4

203.6

458.0

7.63

13.57

21.21

30.54

54.29

84.82

122.15

274.83

(9.55)

(16.98)

(26.53)

(38.21)

(67.92)

(106.12)

(152.82)

(343.84)

15.90

28.28

44.18

63.62

113.10

176.72

254.47

572.56

9.54

16.97

26.51

38.17

67.86

106.03

152.68

343.53

(11.94)

(21.23)

(33.16)

(47.76)

(84.90)

(132.65)

(191.02)

(429.80)

3.67

4.90

6.12

7.34

9.79

12.2

14.7

18.4

4.32

5.76

7.20

8.64

11.52

14.4

17.3

21.6

4.86

6.48

8.10

9.72

12.96

16.2

19.4

24.3

3.89

5.18

6.48

7.78

10.37

13.0

15.6

19.4

φRnv [kN]

1000

M16

50.27

φRnt [kN] A490M / 10.9

M12

28.27

Ab [mm ]

φRnv [kN]

800

M10

2

φRnt [kN] A325M / 8.8

M8

φRnv [kN]

Bearing φRnb / t [kN/mm]

A572

450

S235

360

S275

430

4.64

6.19

7.74

9.29

12.38

15.5

18.6

23.2

S355

510

5.51

7.34

9.18

11.02

14.69

18.4

22.0

27.5

Note: * Values in () are for threads excluded from shear planes

AISC 360:2010 J3.6

Steel bolt strength table [ASD] Grade

A307 / 4.6

Size

Fu 2

[N/mm ] 400

M6

800

1000

A570

340

A36 / A500

400

M12

M16

M20

M24

M30

28.27

50.27

78.54

113.1

201.1

314.2

452.4

1017.9

Rnt/Ω [kN]

4.24

7.54

11.78

16.97

30.16

47.12

67.86

152.68

2.54

4.52

7.07

10.18

18.10

28.27

40.72

91.61

(3.18)

(5.66)

(8.84)

(12.74)

(22.64)

(35.37)

(50.94)

(114.61)

8.48

15.08

23.56

33.93

60.32

94.25

135.72

305.36

5.09

9.05

14.14

20.36

36.19

56.55

81.43

183.22

(6.37)

(11.32)

(17.69)

(25.47)

(45.28)

(70.75)

(101.88)

(229.23)

10.60

18.85

29.45

42.41

75.40

117.81

169.65

381.71

6.36

11.31

17.67

25.45

45.24

70.69

101.79

229.02

(7.96)

(14.15)

(22.11)

(31.84)

(56.60)

(88.44)

(127.35)

(286.53)

2.45

3.26

4.08

4.90

6.53

8.16

9.79

12.24

2.88

3.84

4.80

5.76

7.68

9.60

11.52

14.40

3.24

4.32

5.40

6.48

8.64

10.80

12.96

16.20

2.59

3.46

4.32

5.18

6.91

8.64

10.37

12.96

Rnv/Ω [kN]

Rnv/Ω [kN] Rnt/Ω [kN]

A490 / 10.9

M10

Ab [mm ]

Rnt/Ω [kN] A325 / 8.8

M8

2

Rnv/Ω [kN]

Bearing Rnb/Ω / t [kN/mm]

A572

450

S235

360

S275

430

3.10

4.13

5.16

6.19

8.26

10.32

12.38

15.48

S355

510

3.67

4.90

6.12

7.34

9.79

12.24

14.69

18.36


AMERICAN STANDARDS

31


STEEL DESIGN 3.4

Weld connections AWS D1.1:2004 Table 3.1 Yield strength Tensile strength 2 2 FEXX[N/mm ] [N/mm ]

Electrode Classification Base Metal

Electrode Classification

A36 [≤ 20mm], A53, A500 A36 [> 20mm], A572, A992

SMAW: Other processes:

E60XX

330

414

E70XX

400

480

E7015, E7016, E7018, E7028 E70XX

3.4.1 Minimum weld size AISC 360:2010 Table J2.3 & J2.4

Weld size limits Material thickness of thinner part joined [mm]

Partial-joint-penetration groove weld Minimum effective throat

3≤t≤ 5

Fillet weld Minimum weld size

Maximum weld size

2

2

t

5
3

3

6 < t ≤ 13

5

5

13 < t ≤ 19

6

6

19 < t ≤ 38

8

8

38 < t ≤ 57

10

8

57 < t ≤ 150

13

8

150 < t

16

8

t – 2mm

AISC 360:2010 J2

Design resistance of welds Mode Criteria

Values Ru

φ Rn Fillet weld

Partial-JointPenetration Groove weld

32

(LRFD);

Notes

Clause

φ = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω = 2.00 (ASD)

J2.4

Ra (ASD) ≤ 1.0 Rn Ω

Rn = a ⋅ le ⋅ 0.6FEXX where: a = min {0.707s; 0.25l } Rn = a ⋅ le ⋅ 0.6FEXX Effective size, a: J or U a = depth 60° or V 45° or V a = depth – 3mm

Effective throat [mm] Tension & compression φ = 0.80 (LRFD); Ω = 1.88 (ASD) Shear φ = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω = 2.00 (ASD)

Table J2.5 Table J2.1

AMERICAN STANDARDS


STEEL DESIGN

3.4.2 AWS Welding symbols

AMERICAN STANDARDS

33

STEEL DESIGN

34


AMERICAN STANDARDS


STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN

III-4 STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN 4.1


Material constants of stainless steel Density γ [kN/m³]

Unit weight ρ [kg/m³]

Modulus of rigidity G = E/[2(1+ν)] 2 [N/mm ]

Poisson’s ratio ν [-]

Thermal coefficient α [/˚C]

77.0

7 850

77 000

0.30

16·10

ASTM A666:2000 Table 2 & 3

Characteristic values of stainless steel (Annealed) Type EN Designation

304

1.4301

316

1.4401

Yield strength 2 Fy [N/mm ]

Tensile strength 2 Fu [N/mm ]

205

515

304L 1.4306, 1.4307

-6

170

Free 180° Bend radius t ≤ 1.3 mm

485

316L 1.4404, 1.4435

t ≤ 4.8 mm

t

t

t

2t

t

2t

t

2t

ASCE 8:2002 Table A1 & B

Work hardened condition 2

Yield strength, Fy [N/mm ] | n* Initial modulus Shear yield Tensile of elasticity Strength, strength, 2 Longitudinal Transverse Transverse Longitudinal Fyv [N/mm2] Fu [N/mm2] E0 [N/mm ] tension tension comp. comp.

Type

Cold working

304, 316

Annealed

193 100

205 | 8.31

205 | 7.78

205 | 8.63

190 | 4.10

115

515

1/16 Hard

193 100

310 | 8.31

310 | 7.78

310 | 8.63

280 | 4.10

170

550

1/4 Hard

186 200

515 | 4.58

515 | 5.38

620 | 4.76

340 | 4.58

285

860

1/2 Hard

186 200

760 | 4.21

760 | 6.71

825 | 4.54

445 | 4.22

385

1 035

Note: *coefficient n used for Modified Ramberg-Osgood equation

4.1.1 Modified Ramberg-Osgood Equation i. Secant modulus

Es =

σ = ε

E0  σ n -1  1 + 0.002 E0  n  F   y 

ii. Tangent modulus

Et =

dσ = dε

E0 Fy   

n -1

σ Fy + 0.002nE0   Fy  E 1 η = s = E0  σ n -1  1 + 0.002 E0  n  F   y 

  

σ Fy + 0.002nE0   Fy 

iii. Plasticity reduction factor

η =

Et = E0

AMERICAN STANDARDS

Fy n -1

- Stiffened compression element

- For unstiffened compression element

35


STAINLESS STEEL DESIGN 4.2

Design of cold-formed stainless steel structural members

Safety factors for design of cold-formed stainless steel structural members

ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 3 & Table D

Φ [LRFD]

Ω [ASD]

Yielding

0.85

1.85

3.2

Bending only – yielding and buckling

0.90

1.85

3.3.1

Shear only – shear yielding

0.95

1.64

Shear only – shear buckling

0.85

1.85

For single unreinforced webs

0.70

2.00

For I-beams

0.70

2.20

Compression members

Concentrically loaded - column buckling

0.85

2.15

3.4

Corrugated sheets

Arc-and-tangent – against yielding

0.90

1.85

3.7

-

1.85

Fusion weld - ultimate test value of welds

0.55

2.50

Resistance weld - ultimate test value of welds

0.60

2.50

5.2.3

Spacing and edge distance – sheet shearing

0.70

2.40

5.3.1

Tension on net section

0.70

2.40

5.3.2

Bearing on connections

0.65

2.40

5.3.3

Bolt shear

0.65

3.00

5.3.4

Bolt tension

0.75

3.00

5.3.4

Mode

Failure mode

Tension member

Flexural members

Web crippling

Fusion weld - yielding of base metal Welds

Bolted connections

4.3

3.3.2

3.3.4

5.2

Test

Test for determining structural performance of cold-formed stainless steel Mode Criteria

Values Ru

φ Rp Data

Clause

Rp =

ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 6.2

Notes

Clause

≤ 1.0

∑ Ri

Average value of all test results

n C P = ( n − 1) ( n − 3 )  2 2 2 2  − β o V M +VF + C PV P +VQ  

φ = 1.5 ( M m Fm Pm ) e 

Resistance factor [-]

Values: Mm

1.1

Yield & tensile strength

Mean value of material factor

Fm

1.0

Structural members and connections

Mean value of fabrication factor

3.0

Structural members

4.0

Connections

0.1

Yield strength of stainless steel

βo VM

VF VQ 36

0.05

Coefficient of variation of Tensile strength of stainless steel material factor

0.05

Structural members and bolted connections

0.15

Welded connections

0.21

Target reliability

Coefficient of variation of fabrication factor Coefficient of variation of load effect AMERICAN STANDARDS



Connections

4.4.1 Bolt connections Mechanical properties of stainless steel bolts, screws and studs Diameter, Yield strength, Alloy Group Stainless steel Condition* 2 Fy [N/mm ] d [mm] 1

304, 304L

2

316, 316L

3

321, 347

A2, A4

ASTM F593:2002 Table 2 Tensile strength, 2 Fu [N/mm ]

AF

al

137.9

413.7

A

all

206.8

482.6

≤ 16

413.7

655.0

≥ 20

275.8

551.6

CW

50

-

-

210

500

70

-

-

450

700

80

-

-

600

800

Note: *AF - Headed and rolled from annealed stock and then reannealed. A - Machined from annealed or solution-annealed stock thus retaining the properties of the original material, or hot-formed and solution-annealed. CW - Headed and rolled from annealed stock thus acquiring a degree of cold work; sizes 20mm and larger may be hot worked and solution-annealed. Maximum Size of Bolt Holes [mm] Bolt Diameter Standard d [mm] [Diameter]

Oversize [Diameter]

Short-Slot [Diameter×Length]

ASCE 8:2002 Table 5 Long-Slot [Diameter×Length]

≤ M12

d + 0.8

d + 1.6

(d + 0.8) × (d + 6.3)

(d + 0.8) × 2.5·d

≥ M16

d + 1.6

d + 3.2

(d + 1.6) × (d + 6.3)

(d + 1.6) × 2.5·d

ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 5

Design resistance of bolts in Bearing-Type Connections Mode Tension

Shear

Values

Notes

Clause

Pnt = k s Ab ( 0.75Fu )

Tensile strength of bolt [N] φt = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω t = 3.00 (ASD)

5.3.4

ks = 0.9 for ≤ M12 ks = 1.0 for ≥ M16 Threads in shear plane: Pnv = k s Ab ( 0.45Fu ) No threads in shear plane: Pnv = k s Ab ( 0.6Fu )

Shear strength of bolt [N] φv = 0.65 (LRFD); Ω v = 3.00 (ASD)

5.3.4

f v = Puv Ab Combined shear and Threads in shear plane: tension Pnt′ = k s Ab ( 0.5625Fu − 2.4 f v ) ≤ Pnt No threads in shear plane: Pnt′ = k s Ab ( 0.9375Fu − 1.9 f v ) ≤ Pnt

Edge distance

Bearing

Pn = t e Fu ; e ≥ 1.5d

Single shear: Pnb = d t ( 2.0Fu ) Double shear: Pnb = d t ( 2.75Fu )

AMERICAN STANDARDS

2

5.3.4

Shear stress [N/mm ] 2

Reduced tensile stress [N/mm ]

Shear strength of the connected part [N]

5.3.1

φt = 0.70 (LRFD); Ω t = 2.40 (ASD) Edge distance [mm] Bearing strength at bolt holes [N] φb = 0.65 (LRFD); Ω b = 2.40 (ASD)

5.3.3

37



ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 5

Stainless steel bolt strength table [LRFD] Grade / Condition

1 (304, 304L)

2 (316, 316L)

3 (321, 347)

- AF

Size

Fu [N/mm2]

586

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

Ab [mm ]

12.57

19.64

28.27

50.27

78.54

113.10

201.06

214.16

ks

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

1.00

1.00

φRnt [kN]

3.73

5.83

8.39

14.91

23.30

33.55

66.27

70.59

1.94

3.03

4.36

7.75

12.12

17.45

34.46

36.71

(2.59)

(4.04)

(5.81)

(10.34)

(16.15)

(23.26)

(45.95)

(48.94)

3.29

5.14

7.40

13.16

20.56

29.60

58.47

62.28

1.71

2.67

3.85

6.84

10.69

15.39

30.40

32.39

(2.28)

(3.56)

(5.13)

(9.12)

(14.25)

(20.52)

(40.54)

(43.18)

4.17

6.51

9.37

16.67

26.04

37.50

74.08

78.90

2.17

3.39

4.87

8.67

13.54

19.50

38.52

41.03

(2.89)

(4.52)

(6.50)

(11.56)

(18.06)

(26.00)

(51.36)

(54.71)

4.45

6.96

10.02

17.81

27.83

40.08

79.17

84.33

2.32

3.62

5.21

9.26

14.47

20.84

41.17

43.85

(3.09)

(4.83)

(6.95)

(12.35)

(19.30)

(27.79)

(54.89)

(58.47)

8.42

13.15

18.93

33.66

52.58

75.72

134.61

143.38

7.93

12.38

17.82

31.70

49.52

71.3

126.8

135.0

8.99

14.04

20.21

35.94

56.16

80.9

143.8

153.1

14.05

21.96

31.61

56.20

87.81

126.4

224.8

239.4

16.91

26.43

38.04

67.64

105.68

152.2

270.5

288.2

2

φRnv [kN] φRnt [kN]

-A

517


- CW

655


A2 / A4

70

700

304 / 316

O

515

304L / 316L

O

485

1/16 Hard 304 / 316 1/4 Hard 304L / 316L 1/2 Hard

φRnv [kN]

Bearing φRnb / t [kN/m]

550 860 1035


ASCE 8:2002 Cl. 5

Stainless steel bolt strength table [ASD] Grade / Condition

1 (304, 304L)

2 (316, 316L)

3 (321, 347)

- AF

Size

Fu 2

[N/mm ] 586

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

Ab [mm ]

12.57

19.64

28.27

50.27

78.54

113.10

201.06

214.16

Rnt/Ω [kN]

1.66

2.59

3.73

6.63

10.36

14.91

29.46

31.37

0.99

1.55

2.24

3.98

6.21

8.95

17.67

18.82

(1.33)

(2.07)

(2.98)

(5.30)

(8.28)

(11.93)

(23.56)

(25.10)

1.46

2.28

3.29

5.85

9.14

13.16

25.99

27.68

0.88

1.37

1.97

3.51

5.48

7.89

15.59

16.61

(1.17)

(1.83)

(2.63)

(4.68)

(7.31)

(10.53)

(20.79)

(22.14)

1.85

2.89

4.17

7.41

11.57

16.67

32.92

35.07

1.11

1.74

2.50

4.45

6.94

10.00

19.75

21.04

(1.48)

(2.32)

(3.33)

(5.93)

(9.26)

(13.33)

(26.34)

(28.05)

1.98

3.09

4.45

7.92

12.37

17.81

35.19

37.48

1.19

1.86

2.67

4.75

7.42

10.69

21.11

22.49

(1.58)

(2.47)

(3.56)

(6.33)

(9.90)

(14.25)

(28.15)

(29.98)

5.39

8.43

12.13

21.57

33.71

48.54

86.29

91.91

5.08

7.94

11.43

20.32

31.74

45.71

81.26

86.56

5.76

9.00

12.96

23.04

36.00

51.84

92.15

98.16

9.01

14.08

20.26

36.03

56.29

81.06

144.09

153.48

10.84

16.94

24.38

43.36

67.74

97.55

173.41

184.71

2


-A

517


- CW

655


A2 / A4

70

700

304 / 316

O

515

304L / 316L

O

485

1/16 Hard 304 / 316 1/4 Hard 304L / 316L 1/2 Hard

550 860 1035

Rnv/Ω [kN]

Bearing Rnb/Ω / t [kN/mm]


38

AMERICAN STANDARDS



4.4.2 Welded connections ASCE 8:2002 cl. 5.2

Design resistance of welds Mode

Values

Data

Criteria

Notes

Clause

L

Length of weld [mm]

5.2.1

t tw = 0.707w

Thickness of thinnest welded sheet [mm]

Fua

Tensile strength of base metal at its annealed state [N/mm²]

FXX

Strength level designation in AWS electrode classification [N/mm²]

Effective throat [mm]

Pu Pa (LRFD); (ASD) ≤ 1.0 φ Pn Pn Ω

Fillet weld Longitudinal loading For L/t < 30: 0.009 L   Pn =  0.7 −  tLFua ≤ 0.75t w LFXX t   For L/t ≥ 30: Pn = 0.43tLFua ≤ 0.75t w LFXX

φ = 0.55 (LRFD); Ω = 2.50 (ASD)

5.2.2

Nominal strength of fillet weld [N]

Transverse loading Pn = tLFua ≤ 1.18t w LFXX Groove Welds in Butt Joints

φ = 0.60 (LRFD); Ω = 2.5 (ASD) Pn = tLFua

AMERICAN STANDARDS

5.2.1

Nominal strength of groove weld [N]

39


ALUMINUM DESIGN

III-5 ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.1


Material constants of aluminium Form Density, Unit weight, ρ [kg/m³] γ [kN/m³] 300 & 600 series 5005

26.6

Modulus of elasticity, E 2 [N/mm ]



69 600

26 165

0.33

2 700

Sheet

Characteristic values of aluminium 2 Bolted/riveted [N/mm ] Thickness Grade Temper [mm] Fty Fcy Ftu Fsu O

Ftuw

Fsuw

< 2.0

2-3

>3 - 6

0

0

t

0

0.5t

t

t ≤ 50

35

35

95

70

3003 H12

t ≤ 50

85

70

120

75

H14

t ≤ 25

115

95

140

85

0

t

1.5t

O

t ≤ 50

35

35

105

62

0

0

t

5005 H32

t ≤ 50

85

75

120

75

0

0.5t

t

H34

t ≤ 25

105

95

140

85

0

t

1.5t

O

t ≤ 80

65

66

170

110

0

0.5t

t

All

160

145

215

130

t

1.5t

1.5t

t ≤ 4.0

200

180

255

85

85

t ≤ 9.5

240

6005 T5

t ≤ 25

T6

35

35

35

35

95

105

70

62

65

65

170

110

150

-

-

-

-

2t

2.5t

3.5t

150

95

85

85

150

95

0

t

t

240

290

185

105

105

165

105

2t

2.5t

4t

240

240

260

165

90

90

165

105

-

-

-

t ≤ 15

140

140

170

100

150

195

120

50

-

150

80

-

t ≤ 25

50

-

T66

50

-

-

-

6061 T6, T651

All

240

240

260

165

80

80

165

105

-

-

-

T5

t ≤ 12.5

110

110

150

90

170

205

130

75

-

170

115

-

all

55

-

T6

55

-

-

-

6066 T6, T651

all

310

310

345

185

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

t ≤ 20

305

295

345

195

165

165

275

155

-

-

-

5052 H32 H36 6061 Extrusion

Fcyw

-6

23·10

ADM:2005 Table 3.3-1M 90° bend radius*

2

Welded [N/mm ] Ftyw

ADM:2005 cl. 3.1 Coef. of linear thermal exp., α [/˚C]

6060

6063

0 T6, T651

7005 T53

Note: * Atlas Steels Aluminium Alloy Data Sheet.

AMERICAN STANDARDS

41


ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.2

Allowable stress design

5.2.1 Partial safety factors ADM:2005 Table 3.4-1

ASD safety factors Ultimate strength

nu = 1.95

Yield strength

ny = 1.65

Appearance of buckling

na = 1.20 ADM:2005 Table 3.3-3, 3.3-4

Formulas for buckling constants Temper –T5, –T6, –T7, –T8, or –T9

Stress type

Intercept

Temper –O, –H, –T1, –T2, –T3, or –T4

Slope

Compression in  Fcy   Bc = Fcy  1 + columns and  15510  beam flanges  

Dc =

3 F   Axial cy  compression in B p = Fcy  1 +  21.7  flat elements  

Dp =

Axial 5   compression in B = F  1 + Fcy  t cy curved  12.8    elements

Dt =

Intersection

Bc 10

Bc E

Bp

Bp

10

Bt 4.5

E

Bt E

3

C c = 0.41

C p = 0.41

Bc Dc

Dp

Bending 5   compression in B = 1.5F  1 + F y  tb y curved  12.8    elements

Btb E

3 F  Fty  ty 1+  21.2  3  

 Fcy   Fcy  1 +  6900   

Bc 20

6Bc E

2Bc 3Dc

Bp

6B p

2B p

20

E

3D p

Bt E

Ct ∗

Bt 3.7

3 F   cy  Bbr 1.3Fcy  1 +  13.3  20  

Bs 10

3

Bs E

 B − Bt  5 F   y C tb =  tb  1.5F  1 +  Btb y D − D t   tb  8.5  2.7  

C s = 0.41

3 F  Fty  ty 1+  14.2  3  

Bs Ds

Bs 20

 Btb − Bt     Dtb − Dt 

Btb E

3

2

2Bs 3Ds

6Bs E

k 2 = 2.27

k1 = 0.35

k1 = 0.50

k 2 = 2.27

k 2 = 2.04

ADM:2005 Table 3.3-4

Buckling constants Bc

6Bbr 2B br E 3D br

k1 = 0.35

Ultimate strength of flat elements in bending

Alloy

3

2

B Dtb = tb 2.7

Ds =

Ultimate strength of flat elements in compression

Intersection

5 F   cy  Fcy  1 +  8.5   

Ct ∗

6Bbr 2Bbr E C br = 3D br

Bs =

Slope

3 F   cy  Fcy  1 +  14.5   

Bp

Bbr 3 F  Bending  cy  Dbr = 20 compression in Bbr = 1.3Fcy  1 +  13.3  flat elements  

Shear in flat elements

Intercept

Dc

Cc

Bp

Dp

Cp

Bt

Dt

Ct

Bbr

Dbr

Cbr

Btb

Dtb

Ctb

Bs

Ds

Cs

6061 T6

269.85 1.68 65.84 308.73

2.06 61.56 296.11 10.66

141 457.78 4.55 67.12 444.16 30.51 55.63 179.07 0.91 80.82

6063 T5

119.26 0.49 99.04 134.29

0.59 93.34 132.00 3.63

275 194.52 1.26 102.96 198.00 10.39 95.29

6063 T6

187.80 0.98 78.57 213.40

1.18 74.04 207.10 6.62

189 313.05 2.57 81.21 310.64 18.94 70.63 123.73 0.52 97.56

42

77.82 0.26 122.61

AMERICAN STANDARDS


AMERICAN STANDARDS

ALUMINUM DESIGN

43


ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.2.2 Allowable compressive stress for 6063-T6 Extrusions

ADM:2005 Tables 3.3-3 & 3.4-3

Allowable compression stress, F/ny

2

Allowable stress, F/ny [N/mm ]

Member/ Mode Element Column All buckling

S ≤ S1

S

S1

S1 < S < S2

kL r

-

b t

103.03

2.08 109.44 − 3.09

Column One edge supported – not flat buckling about a symmetry b t elements axis

103.03

2.08 109.44 − 3.09 b t

One edge supported – buckling about a symmetry axis

0

96.31 − 0.50

Clause S ≥ S2

S2

78.57 352269  kL   r 

kL r b t

2

12.41 879.7 b t

3.4.8

14.52 13544  b  t

Both edges supported

b t

103.03

6.62 109.44 − 0.97

Column Both edges supported curved elements

Rb t

103.03

0.87 106.20 − 3.39 Rb t

b t

2

3.4.8.1

39.56 2804 b t 189.00

3.4.9

26970592 Rb t

( 35 +

3.4.7

Rb t

)

2

3.4.10

599498

Lb

Single web shapes

ry C b

Round or oval tubes BEAM LTB

Solid rectangular and round sections

Rb t

Tension edge supported, compression edge free

Beam element Both edges supported bending in own plane Both edges supported - with long. stiffener

SHEAR Both edges supported unstiffened in flat element 44

21.80 113.82 − 0.49

120.54

34.81 188.27 − 11.48 Rb t

ry C b

94.28  Lb   ry C b  103.05

   

2

3.4.11

26970592 Rb t

( 35 +

Rb t

)

2

3.4.12

78699

2Lb S c Cb I y J

BEAM element Both edges uniform supported compres Curved element - both sion edges supported

103.03

Lb 133.94 Cbd

d t

Tubular shapes

One edge supported

Lb

103.03

b 15.57 189.73 − 3.58 t

128.87

35.31  d  t

  

2

3.4.13

162624

2Lb Sc

113.82 − 0.95

Lb Cb d

C b I y J 2411.4  2Lb S c   Cb I y J 

   

2

3.4.14

b t

103.03

7.21 129.33 − 3.65

b t

12.41 1039.6 b t

3.4.15

b t

103.03

22.99 129.33 − 1.14 b t

39.56 3313.8 b t

3.4.16

Rb t

120.54

1.53 125.52 − 4.01 Rb t

189.00

b t

133.94

10.23 189.73 − 5.45

h t

133.94

35.82 h 189.73 − 1.56m m t

h t

133.94

123.51 189.73 − 0.45

h t

59.48

39.35 74.99 − 0.39

h t

b t

h t

31874336 Rb t

(

35 + Rb t

23.20 33985  b  t 60.9 m

5771 m

)

2

3.4.16. 1

2

3.4.17

h t

3.4.18

210.02 19900 h t 78.05 266443  h  t

3.4.19 2

3.4.20

AMERICAN STANDARDS


ALUMINUM DESIGN

Moment of inertia tables

5.3.1 Minimum required moment of inertia of a split-mullion Use the table below to estimate the required moment of inertia of a split mullion per unit wind load (qd,k), I ≥ qW,k×I* - per split mullion 4

2

AAMA TIR-A11:2004

Minimum required moment of inertia, I [cm ] per 1.0 kN/m wind load Aluminium mullion spacing, b [m]

δlimit,

Span, h [m]

[mm]

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.0

3.0

17.1

49.4

52.9

56.3

59.5

62.5

65.4

68.1

70.6

73.0

77.0

80.2

82.5

83.9

84.4

3.1

17.7

54.8

58.7

62.5

66.1

69.5

72.8

75.9

78.8

81.5

86.3

90.1

93.1

95.1

96.1

3.2

18.3

60.5

64.8

69.1

73.1

77.0

80.7

84.2

87.5

90.7

96.2

100.8

104.5

107.1

108.7

3.3

18.9

66.5

71.4

76.1

80.6

85.0

89.2

93.1

96.9

100.4

106.8

112.2

116.7

120.0

122.3

3.4

19.4

73.0

78.4

83.6

88.6

93.5

98.1

102.6

106.8

110.8

118.2

124.5

133.8

136.8

20.0

79.8

85.8

91.5

97.1

102.5

107.7

112.7

117.4

121.9

130.2

h137.5

129.7

3.5

143.6

148.6

152.3

3.6

20.6

87.1

93.6

100.0

106.1

112.1

117.8

123.4

128.7

133.7

143.0

151.3

158.4

164.3

168.9

3.7

21.1

94.8

101.9

108.9

115.7

122.2

128.6

134.7

140.6

146.2

156.6

166.0

174.1

181.0

186.6

3.8

21.7

102.9

110.7

118.3

125.7

132.9

139.9

146.7

153.1

159.4

171.0

181.5

190.8

198.7

205.3

3.9

22.3

111.5

120.0

128.3

136.4

144.3

151.9

159.3

166.4

173.3

186.2

197.9

208.4

217.5

225.1

4.0

22.9

120.5

129.8

138.8

147.6

156.2

164.5

172.6

180.5

188.0

202.3

215.3

227.0

237.3

4.1

23.4

130.0

140.0

149.8

159.4

168.7

177.8

186.6

195.2

203.5

219.2

233.6

246.61

258.2

4.2

23.9

140.9

151.8

162.4

172.8

183.0

193.0

202.7

212.1

221.2

238.5

254.4

269.0

282.0

293.5

4.3

24.3

152.4

164.2

175.7

187.1

198.2

209.0

219.6

229.9

239.9

258.9

276.5

292.7

307.3

320.3

4.4

24.7

164.5

177.2

189.8

202.1

214.2

226.0

237.5

248.7

259.6

280.4

299.8

317.7

334.0

348.6

4.5

25.1

177.2

191.0

204.6

217.9

231.0

243.8

256.3

268.5

280.4

303.1

324.4

344.1

362.1

378.4

4.6

25.5

190.5

205.4

220.1

234.5

248.6

262.5

276.0

289.3

302.2

326.9

350.2

371.8

391.7

409.8

4.7

25.9

204.6

220.6

236.4

251.9

267.2

282.1

296.8

311.1

325.1

352.0

377.3

401.0

422.9

442.9

4.8

26.4

219.3

236.5

253.5

270.2

286.6

302.7

318.6

334.0

349.2

378.3

405.8

431.7

455.7

477.7

4.9

26.8

234.6

253.1

271.4

289.3

307.0

324.3

341.4

358.0

374.4

405.9

435.7

463.8

490.0

514.2

5.0

27.2

250.7

270.5

290.1

309.3

328.3

346.9

365.2

383.2

400.7

434.7

467.0

497.5

526.0

552.5

5.1

27.6

267.5

288.7

309.6

330.2

350.5

370.5

390.2

409.4

428.3

464.9

499.7

532.7

563.7

592.5

5.2

28.0

285.1

307.7

330.0

352.1

373.8

395.2

416.2

436.9

457.1

496.4

534.0

569.5

603.1

634.4

5.3

28.4

303.4

327.5

351.3

374.8

398.0

420.9

443.4

465.5

487.2

529.4

569.7

608.0

644.2

678.2

5.4

28.9

322.5

348.1

373.5

398.6

423.3

447.7

471.7

495.4

518.6

563.7

606.9

648.2

687.2

724.0

5.5

29.3

342.3

369.6

396.6

423.3

449.7

475.6

501.2

526.5

551.2

599.5

645.8

690.0

732.0

771.7

5.6

29.7

363.0

392.0

420.7

449.0

477.1

504.7

532.0

558.8

585.2

636.7

686.2

733.6

778.7

821.3

5.7

30.1

384.5

415.2

445.7

475.8

505.6

534.9

563.9

592.5

620.6

675.5

728.3

778.9

827.3

873.1

5.8

30.5

406.8

439.4

471.7

503.6

535.2

566.3

597.1

627.5

657.4

715.7

772.0

826.1

877.8

926.9

5.9

30.9

430.0

464.5

498.6

532.5

565.9

599.0

631.6

663.8

695.5

757.6

817.5

875.1

930.3

982.9

6.0

31.4

454.0

490.5

526.6

562.4

597.8

632.8

667.4

701.5

735.2

801.0

864.6

926.0

984.8 1041.0

6.1

31.8

479.0

517.5

555.6

593.4

630.9

667.9

704.5

740.6

776.3

846.0

913.6

978.8 1041.4 1101.3

6.2

32.2

504.8

545.4

585.7

625.6

665.1

704.3

742.9

781.1

818.9

892.7

964.3 1033.5 1100.1 1163.9

6.3

32.6

531.5

574.3

616.8

658.9

700.6

741.9

782.8

823.1

863.0

941.1 1016.9 1090.2 1160.9 1228.8

6.4

33.0

559.2

604.3

649.0

693.4

737.4

780.9

824.0

866.6

908.6

991.2 1071.3 1149.0 1223.9 1295.9

6.5

33.4

587.8

635.3

682.4

729.1

775.4

821.2

866.6

911.5

955.9 1043.0 1127.7 1209.8 1289.1 1365.5

6.6

33.9

617.4

667.3

716.8

765.9

814.7

862.9

910.7

958.0 1004.7 1096.6 1185.9 1272.7 1356.6 1437.5

6.7

34.3

647.9

700.4

752.4

804.0

855.3

906.0

956.3 1006.0 1055.2 1151.9 1246.1 1337.7 1426.3 1511.9

6.8

34.7

679.5

734.5

789.1

843.4

897.2

950.5 1003.3 1055.6 1107.4 1209.1 1308.3 1404.8 1498.4 1588.8

6.9

35.1

712.1

769.8

827.1

884.0

940.4

996.4 1051.9 1106.8 1161.2 1268.2 1372.6 1474.2 1572.8 1668.2

7.0

35.5

745.6

806.1

866.2

925.9

985.1 1043.8 1102.0 1159.7 1216.8 1329.1 1438.9 1545.8 1649.6 1750.2

7.2

36.4

816.0

882.3

948.1 1013.6 1078.5 1143.0 1206.9 1270.3 1333.1 1456.8 1577.7 1695.7 1810.6 1922.0

7.4

37.2

890.6

963.1 1035.1 1106.7 1177.7 1248.3 1318.3 1387.8 1456.6 1592.3 1725.2 1855.0 1981.6 2104.6

7.6

38.0

969.7 1048.7 1127.2 1205.3 1282.9 1359.9 1436.4 1512.2 1587.5 1735.9 1881.5 2023.9 2162.9 2298.3

7.8

38.9

1053.3 1139.2 1224.6 1309.6 1394.0 1477.9 1561.2 1643.9 1726.0 1887.9 2046.9 2202.7 2354.9 2503.4

8.0

39.7

1141.6 1234.8 1327.6 1419.8 1511.5 1602.6 1693.2 1783.0 1872.3 2048.6 2221.8 2391.6 2557.9 2720.2

8.5

41.8

1383.8 1497.0 1609.8 1722.0 1833.6 1944.6 2055.0 2164.6 2273.6 2489.2 2701.5 2910.2 3115.0 3315.6

9.0

43.9

1658.1 1794.0 1929.4 2064.3 2198.5 2332.1 2464.9 2597.1 2728.5 2988.8 3245.5 3498.4 3747.1 3991.3

9.5

45.9

1966.4 2128.0 2288.9 2449.2 2608.9 2767.9 2926.1 3083.6 3240.2 3550.9 3857.7 4160.4 4458.7 4752.3

10.0

48.0

2311.0 2501.0 2690.5 2879.3 3067.5 3254.9 3441.5 3627.3 3812.2 4179.2 4542.2 4900.8 5254.7 5603.5

AMERICAN STANDARDS

b

246.1

b

2 268.3

45


ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.4

Thermally separated profiles

Structural performance of composite thermal barrier framing system (Simplified) Mode Member

Thermal break

Values

Clause 7.5.3

D = h − ( c11 + c22 )

Unsupported span of the member [mm] Effective shear area of aluminium [mm²] Modulus of elasticity of the member [N/mm²] Distance between centroid axes [mm]

Gc b, Dc

Design shear modulus of thermal separator [N/mm²] Width and depth of thermal break (core), respectively [mm]

7.5.3

L A ≈ 0.4(a1+a2) E

c = Gc ( b Dc ) =

Moment of inertia & constants

∆F ∆δ ⋅ L

Elasticity constant (may be determined from test) [N/mm/mm] Lower bound on I’e (non-composite) [N/mm²] Transfer inertia [N/mm²] Upper bound on I’e (full composite) [N/mm²]

I o = I o1 + I o 2 I c = a1 a 2 D

2

( a1 + a 2 )

I = Io + Ic ID 2 c I c Dc

Gp =

C y = Gp

7.5.4

Geometric and core material parameter [N] Buckling slope formula

( EI o )

Complementary constant

r = L Cy 2

Uniformly loaded beam

AAMA TIR-A8:2004

Notes

Table 5 Table 3

EI o I c

D0 =

2

Gp I

D1 = −

D2 =

LI c L3 − 2G p I 24 EI

Ic 2G p I

L 12 EI 1 D4 = − 24 EI D3 =

F1 = −

Effective moment of inertia

Ic

(

C y G p I 1 + e 2r

D4 L4 D3 L3 D2 L2 D1 L Unit deformation [mm] + + + D0 + 2F1 e r + 16 8 4 2 L4 4 Effective moment of inertia without shear deformation [mm ] Ie = 76.8 Ey Ie 4 Eff. moment of inertia considering shear deformation [mm ] I e′ = 1 + 25.6 I e L2 A y=

(

Section modulus

(

Se 2 =

46

)

y ′′ = 3D4 L2 + 3D3 L + 2 D2 + 2C y F1 e r S e1 =

Shear flow per unit load

Table 5

)

1 1 − EI o y ′′ + Ec22 y ′′ a2 D

Effective section modulus at face 2 [mm ]

Vc = L 2 − EI o y ′′′ qc = Vc D

7.5.5

2

Effective section modulus at face 1 [mm ]

(

7.5.4

7.5.6

) L8

1 1 − EI o y ′′ + Ec11 y ′′ a1 D

y ′′′ = 6 D3 + C y 1.5 F1 1 − e 2r

7.5.4

3

3

7.5.7

) Shear resisted by thermal break per unit load [N/(N/mm)] Shear flow per unit load [(N/mm)/(N/mm)]

AMERICAN STANDARDS


ALUMINUM DESIGN

Fasteners

5.5.1 Materials for fasteners Mechanical properties of stainless steel fasteners Material

Alloy Group

Steel

Stainless steel

Description

Condition*

AAMA-TIR-A9:1991 Tables 23 - 28 Yield strength, Tensile strength, 2 2 Fy [N/mm ] Fu [N/mm ]

SAE

Grade 2

204.1

510.2

SAE

Grade 5

331.0

827.4

A 307

137.9

413.7

A 325

303.4

827.4

A 490

372.3

1 034.2

AF

345

586

A

207

517

1

304, 304L

2

316, 316L

CW

448

690

3

321, 347

SH

655

827

4

430, 430F

A

241

483

5

410, 416

H

620

758

HT

827

1103

Grade 50

210

500

Grade 70

450

700

Grade 80

600

800

A2 / A4

Note: *AF - Headed and rolled from annealed stock and then reannealed. A - Machined from annealed or solution-annealed stock thus retaining the properties of the original material, or hot-formed and solution-annealed. CW - Headed and rolled from annealed stock thus acquiring a degree of cold work; sizes 20mm and larger may be hot worked and solution-annealed.

AMERICAN STANDARDS

47


ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.6

Metric fasteneners

5.6.1 Hole Dimensions and Distances Maximum size of bolt holes [mm]

AAMA TIR-A9:1991 Table 1

Bolt Diameter d [mm]

Standard [Diameter]

Oversize [Diameter]

Short-Slot* [Diameter × Length]

Long-Slot* [Diameter × Length]

< M12

d+1

d+2

(d + 1) × (d + 6)

(d + 1) × (50 - d)

≥ M16

d+2

d+3

(d + 2) × (d + 6)

(d + 2) × (50 - d)

Note: * Slots longer than these dimensions may be used for expansion or anchor alignment purposes with appropriate engineering analysis or testing.

5.6.2 Metric thread to ISO 724 ISO 724:1993

Metric screw thread Height of fundamental triangle H = P sin(60°) =

3 P ≈ 0.866254P 2

Basic minor diameter d1 = d − 2

5 5 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P 8 8

Basic pitch diameter d2 = d − 2

3 3 3 H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P 8 8

Tensile stress area ≤ M24 A(S) = 0.7854 ( d − 0.9382 P )

2

Thread root area ≤ M24 A(R) = 0.7854 ( d − 1.2269P )

2

Thread-stripping area (Internal thread - nut) 1  1 TSA(I) = π d min  + ( d min − d 2 ,max )  2 3  

Thread-stripping area (External thread - bolt) 1 1  TSA(E) = π D1,max  + d 2,min − D1 ,max )  ( 2 3  

Size

Bolt

Pullout

Screw chase

Pitch

Major dia.

Minor dia.

Pitch dia.

P [mm]

D [mm]

d1 [mm]

d2 [mm]

Tensile stress, A(S) 2 [mm ]

Thread root, A(R) 2 [mm ]

TSA(I) 2 [mm /mm]

TSA(E) 2 [mm /mm]

α [°]

M4

0.70

4.0

3.24

3.54

8.80

7.75

9.58

6.87

71.7

0.28

3.60

M5

0.80

5.0

4.13

4.48

14.21

12.68

12.57

9.09

68.5

0.27

3.85

M6

1.00

6.0

4.92

5.35

20.17

17.89

16.50

11.59

69.9

0.27

4.31

M8

1.25

8.0

6.65

7.19

36.68

32.84

24.35

16.96

67.6

0.26

4.82

M10

1.50

10.0

8.38

9.03

58.10

52.29

33.37

23.03

66.2

0.26

5.28

M12

1.75

12.0

10.11

10.86

84.42

76.25

43.60

29.75

65.3

0.25

5.70

M16

2.00

16.0

13.84

14.70

156.91

144.12

62.83

43.46

60.3

0.23

6.09

M20

2.50

20.0

17.29

18.38

245.17

225.19

90.33

61.11

60.3

0.23

6.81

M24

3.00

24.0

20.75

22.05

353.04

324.27

122.54

81.49

60.3

0.23

7.46

M30

3.50

30.0

26.21

27.73

561.38

518.99

170.81

113.25

58.2

0.22

8.06

48

Re sec(c) [-] [-]

AMERICAN STANDARDS


ALUMINUM DESIGN

5.6.3 Metric fastening design AAMA TIR-A9:1991 + Addendum 2000

Metal curtain wall fasteners (UNC threads) Mode

Values

Notes

Area

For ≤ M24 (stainless steel); ≤ M16 (steel): A( S ) = 0.7854 ( d − 0.9382 P )

2

For bigger bolts and screws: A( S ) = A( R ) = 0.7854d 2

2

Ft = A(S) ⋅ min 0.75F y ; 0.4Fu

Shear

 0.75  0.4 Fv = A(R) ⋅ min  Fy ; Fu  3 3  

Combined Tension and Shear

 Pt   Ft

Bearing

2

}

Tensile strength [N] Shear strength [N]

2

  Pv   +  ≤ 1.0   Fv 

Bearing on steel: Fb = 1.2 d t Fu Correction factors: Edge distance, e < 2.4d e/2d Countersunk head 1- tk/2t Long slot 1/1.2 Bearing on aluminum: Fb = d t Fby 1.65 ; Fby ≥ 1.6F y Correction factors: Edge distance, e < 2d Countersunk head Long slot

Pullout

Tensile stress area [mm ] 2 Thread root area [mm ] Tensile and shear stress area [mm ]

Tension

{

6 2

2

A( R ) = 0.7854 ( d − 1.2269 P )

Clause

Failure mode

e/2d 1- tk/2t 1/1.5

Thickness

Allowable bearing force [kN] Values of Fby acc. to The Aluminum Association, Specifications for aluminum structures, 3rd Edition. Alloy Fby ≈ (Fy + Fu)/1.5 156.7 5052 O 3003 H14, 5005 H34 165.5 6061 T6 386.1 6063 T5 165.5 6063 T6 275.8 Minimum Distances: Minimum Distances Edge Spacing Steel 1.5D 3D Aluminum 1.5D 2.5D

2mm ≤ t ≤ 3mm

F p = 0.665

3mm < t ≤ 6mm

F p = 1.2d ( 6 − t )

Yield

Transition

π

F p = 0.560

Shear strength 6mm < t ≤ 10mm

Fp =

t 3P

3

π 3

dt dt

7

Addendum

Pull-out strength

1.5mm ≤ t < 2mm

6

Fty 3 Fty 3

Fty 3

TSA( I )

+

≈ 0.3386 d t Fty ≈ 0.4020 d t Fty

F 1.16 TSA( I ) ( t − 3 ) tu P 3

Ftu 3

Note: * Values can be increased by 1/3 stress under wind loads. Whether or not to use the increase is left to the discretion of the structural engineer on the job.

AMERICAN STANDARDS

49


ALUMINUM DESIGN 5.6.4 Screw chase

AAMA TIR-A9:1991 + Addendum 2000

Metal curtain wall fasteners (UNC threads) Mode

Values

Data

 d1    d 

α = 2 cos −1 

 π  d 2 α − sin α  180   Re = 2 2 π d − d1

(

Notes

Clause

Angle defining limits of screw engagement in screw chase [°]

12

Ratio of engaged thread area to total thread area [-]

)

Pull-out

F p′ = Re F p

Pull-out strength with Addendum 2000 [N]

Sliding friction

t T f = 0.47

Thickness of screw engagement to screw chase [mm] Tightening torque [N·mm] Coef. of friction for mild steel on aluminum [-]

2

sec ( c ) =

SF =

 12 ( d − d 1 )  + ( 8.5 P ) 12 ( d − d 1 )

Re  T  2.34  d 2

2

  P + π d 2 f sec ( c )  t   π d 2 − P f sec ( c )  P

Sliding friction strength [N]

5.6.5 Metric fastener design tables AAMA-TIR-A9:1991

Fastener strength table [ASD] Size

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

2

8.80

14.20

20.20

36.70

58.10

84.40

156.90

245.20

2

[N/mm ] A(R) [mm ]

7.80

12.70

17.90

32.80

52.30

76.30

144.10

225.20

510.2

Ft [kN]

1.35

2.17

3.09

5.62

8.89

12.92

24.02

37.53

204.1

Fv [kN]

0.69

1.12

1.58

2.90

4.62

6.74

12.74

19.90

827.4

Ft [kN]

2.18

3.53

5.01

9.11

14.42

20.95

38.95

60.87

331.0

Fv [kN]

1.12

1.82

2.57

4.70

7.50

10.94

20.65

32.28

A307 (4.6)

400.0

Ft [kN]

1.21

1.96

2.79

5.06

8.01

11.64

21.64

33.82

183.9

Fv [kN]

0.62

1.01

1.43

2.61

4.16

6.08

11.47

17.93

A325 (8.8)

800.0

Ft [kN]

2.82

4.54

6.46

11.74

18.59

27.01

50.21

78.46

586.1

Fv [kN]

1.44

2.35

3.31

6.06

9.66

14.10

26.62

41.61

A490 (10.9)

1000.0

Ft [kN]

3.52

5.68

8.08

14.68

23.24

33.76

62.76

98.08

827.4

Fv [kN]

1.80

2.93

4.13

7.57

12.08

17.62

33.28

52.01

586

Ft [kN]

2.06

3.33

4.73

8.60

13.62

19.78

36.78

57.47

345

Fv [kN]

1.06

1.72

2.42

4.44

7.08

10.33

19.50

30.48

517

Ft [kN]

1.37

2.20

3.14

5.70

9.02

13.10

24.36

38.07

207

Fv [kN]

0.70

1.14

1.60

2.94

4.69

6.84

12.92

20.19

655

Ft [kN]

2.31

3.72

5.29

9.62

15.22

22.11

41.11

64.24

827

Fv [kN]

1.18

1.92

2.71

4.96

7.91

11.54

21.80

34.07

700

Ft [kN]

2.46

3.98

5.66

10.28

16.27

23.63

43.93

68.66

450

Fv [kN]

1.26

2.05

2.89

5.30

8.45

12.33

23.29

36.41

Fu Material / Condition

Fy

A(S) [mm ] 2

Grade 2 SAE

Steel

Grade 5

Stainless steel

ASTM (EN)

1 (304, 304L) 2 (316, 316L) 3 (321, 347)

A2 / A4

50

- AF -A - CW 70

AMERICAN STANDARDS


ALUMINUM DESIGN

Spaced thread fasteners

5.7.1 Spaced thread fastener design AAMA TIR-A9:1991 + Addendum 2000

Metal curtain wall fasteners (Spaced threads) Mode

Values

Notes

Clause 2

Area

A( R ) = 0.7854d 1 2

Thread root area [mm ]

9

Tension

Ft = A(R) ⋅ 0.4Fu

Tensile strength [N]

9

Shear

Fv = A(R) ⋅ 0.4

Shear strength [N]

9

Combined

( Pt

Bearing

2

3 Fu

6

2

Ft ) + ( Pv Fv ) ≤ 1.0

Bearing on steel: Fb = 1.2 d t Fu Correction factors: Edge distance, e < 2.4d e/2d Countersunk head 1- tk/2t Long slot 1/1.2 Bearing on aluminum: Fb = d t Fby 1.65 ; Fby ≥ 1.6F y Correction factors: Edge distance, e < 2d Countersunk head Long slot

Pullout

e/2d 1- tk/2t 1/1.5

Thickness

Failure mode

1mm ≤ t < 2mm Yield

2mm ≤ t ≤ 2P 2P < t ≤ 4P

Transition Shear strength

4P < t ≤ 8mm

Allowable bearing force [kN] 6 Values of Fby acc. to The Aluminum Association, Specifications for aluminum structures, 3rd Edition. Alloy Fby 3003 H14, 5005 H34 165.5 6061 T6 386.1 6063 T5 165.5 6063 T6 275.8 7 Minimum Distances: Minimum Distances Edge Spacing Steel 1.5d 3d Aluminum 1.5d 2.5d Addendum

Pull-out strength F p = 0.560 π

3 d t Fty 3 ≈ 0.3386 d t Fty

π

F p = 0.665

3

dt

F p = 1.2d ( 4 P − t ) F p = 0.9

π 3

d t

Fty 3 Fty 3

≈ 0.4020 d t Fty + 3.26d ( t − 2 P )

Ftu 3

Ftu ≈ 0.544 d t Ftu 3

Note: * Values can be increased by 1/3 stress under wind loads. Whether or not to use the increase is left to the discretion of the structural engineer on the job. AAMA-TIR-A9:1991

Self-tapping screw strength table [ASD] Size Alloy

Condition

Stainless steel

Steel

Grade 2 SAE Grade 5 1 (304, 304L)

- AF

2 (316, 316L)

-A

3 (321, 347)

- CW

A2 / A4

70

AMERICAN STANDARDS

k [mm]

ST 2.9

ST 3.5

ST 3.9

ST 4.2

ST 4.8

ST 5.5

ST 6.3

2.08

2.51

2.77

2.95

3.43

3.99

4.70

A(R) [mm ]

3.40

4.95

6.03

6.83

9.24

12.50

17.35

P [mm]

1.10

1.30

1.30

1.40

1.60

1.80

1.80

2

Ft [kN]

0.69

1.01

1.23

1.39

1.89

2.55

3.54

Fv [kN]

0.40

0.58

0.71

0.80

1.09

1.47

2.04

Ft [kN]

1.13

1.64

2.00

2.26

3.06

4.14

5.74

Fv [kN]

0.65

0.95

1.15

1.31

1.77

2.39

3.32

Ft [kN]

0.80

1.16

1.41

1.60

2.17

2.93

4.07

Fv [kN]

0.46

0.67

0.82

0.92

1.25

1.69

2.35

Ft [kN]

0.70

1.02

1.25

1.41

1.91

2.59

3.59

Fv [kN]

0.41

0.59

0.72

0.82

1.10

1.49

2.07

Ft [kN]

0.89

1.30

1.58

1.79

2.42

3.28

4.55

Fv [kN]

0.51

0.75

0.91

1.03

1.40

1.89

2.62

Ft [kN]

0.95

1.39

1.69

1.91

2.59

3.50

4.86

Fv [kN]

0.55

0.80

0.97

1.10

1.49

2.02

2.80

51


GLASS DESIGN

III-6 GLASS DESIGN 6.1

Properties

6.1.1 Glass ADM:2005 cl. 3.1

Glass constants Density γ [kN/m³]

Unit weight ρ [kg/m³]

Modulus of elasticity E 2 [N/mm ]

Modulus of rigidity G = E/[2(1+ν)] 2 [N/mm ]

Poisson’s ratio ν [-]

Coef. of thermal exp. α [/˚C]

24.5

2 500

71 700

29 400

0.22

9·10

-6

6.1.2 Interlayer Laminated glass interlayer Shear Modulus [N/mm²] Interlayer

PVB Polyvinyl Butyral

SG Sentryglas

Thickness [mm]

[mils] [mm]

xx.1 xx.2 xx.3 xx.4 15 30 45 60 0.38 0.76 1.14 1.52

[mils] [mm]

35 60 90 120 0.89 1.52 2.28 3.05

Temp.

Load Duration 3s

1m

10 m

1 hr

24 h

1 mo

10 yr

30°C

0.97

0.75

0.5

0.44

0.28

0.07

0.05

50°C

0.44

0.29

0.09

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

30°C

141

110

65*

59.9

49.7

11.6

5.31

50°C

26.4

11.3

4.0*

4.0

2.82

2.18

2.0

60°C

8.18

3.64

2.0*

1.7

1.29

1.08

0.97

80°C

1.32

0.83

0.4

0.32

0.25

0.21

0.18

Note: *According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016.

6.1.3 Laminated glass effective thickness ASTM E1300:2009a

Laminated glass effective thickness Mode Data

Effective thickness

Values

Notes Glass ply 1 & 2 minimum thickness [mm] Interlayer thickness [mm] 2 Glass young’s modulus [N/mm ] 2 Interlayer storage shear modulus [N/mm ]

h1 = h2 hv E= 71 700 N/mm2 G

Γ =

1 Eh h 1 + 4.8 1 2 v Gb

I s = h1 ( h1 + hv )

2

Shear transfer coefficient [-]

AMERICAN STANDARDS

X11

2

hef ,w = 3 2 ⋅ h13 + 12 Γ I s hef ,σ =

Clause

hef3 ,w h1 + Γ ( h1 + hv )

Effective thickness for glass deflection [mm] Effective thickness for glass stress [mm]

53


GLASS DESIGN 6.2

Glass design

6.2.1 Stress design Glass Design (Failure prediction model) Method LOAD CHART

Values Pb = 0.008 d

ASTM E1300:2012 Notes

Clause

Probability of breakage [-] Duration of load [sec]

3.2.8.2 2

Uniform lateral load (3 second gust) [kN/m ] Equivalent 3 sec. load of a di second duration qi load. Equivalent 3 sec duration load: Values of n & LDF: q3 = ∑ ( qi LDF ) Type n 3 s 10 m 1 h 24 h 30day 1 yr ∞ 1 AN 16 1.00 0.72 0.64 0.53 0.43 0.36 0.31 LDF = ( 3 d i ) n HS 32 1.00 0.85 0.80 0.72 0.65 0.60 0.53 FT 48 1.00 0.89 0.86 0.80 0.75 0.71 0.66 Criteria: q3 ≤ LR

Single glass LR = NFL × GTF Insulating glass (IG) Lite No. 1 LR1 = NFl1 × GTF1 × LS1 Lite No. 2 LR2 = NFl2 × GTF2 × LS2 where:

( LS 2 = ( t

LS1 = t 1 3 + t 2 3

STRESS ANALYSIS

3 1

+ t23

) )

t13 t2 3

Allowable stress 1

54

Lite GTF No.1

Insulating glass (IG) Lite No. 2 AN HS FT GTF1 GTF2 GTF1 GTF2 GTF1 GTF2 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.9 1.0 3.8 1.9 1.0 1.8 1.8 1.9 3.8 3.8 1.0 3.8 1.9 3.6 3.6

AN 1.0 HS 2.0 FT 4.0 Values of NFL: Monolithic Support Figure 4-side A1.1 - A1.12 3-side A1.13 - A1.24 2-edge A1.25 1-edge A1.26

 Pb =  k ( d 3 )7 

n

7  A 

Allowable stress [N/mm²] AN Surface stress HS FT AN Clean cut HS edges FT AN Edge Seamed HS stress edges FT AN Polished HS edges FT

Tables 1, 2 & 3

Laminated Support Figure 4-side A1.27 - A1.33 3-side A1.34 - A1.40 2-edge A1.41 1-edge A1.42

Surface flaw parameter Glass surface area

K A

σ allowable

Values of GTF: Single glass

X5

X6

3s 23.3 46.6 93.1 16.6 n/a n/a 18.3 36.5 73.0 20.0 36.5 73.0

10 m 16.8 39.6 82.8 11.9 n/a n/a 13.2 30.9 65.3 14.4 31.0 65.0

1h 14.9 37.3 80.1 10.0 n/a n/a 11.7 29.2 63.0 12.8 29.2 62.8

∞ 7.2 24.7 61.4 5.1 n/a n/a 5.7 20.3 49.4 6.2 19.3 48.2

X6

X7 [ASTM E2751 Table 1]

AMERICAN STANDARDS


GLASS DESIGN

6.2.2 Deflection ASTM E1300:2012

Centre of glass deflection Mode Data

Deflection

Values a b E= 71 700 N/mm2

{

x = ln ln  q ( ab ) 

2

Notes

Clause

Long dimension [mm] Short dimension [mm] Interlayer thickness [mm]

X1.1 X1.1

}

Et 4  

2

a a a r0 = 0.53 − 3.83   + 1.11   − 0.0969   b b     b 2

3

a a a r1 = − 2.29 + 5.83   − 2.17   + 0.2067   b b b 2

3

a a a r2 = 1.485 − 1.908   + 0.815   − 0.0822   b b b

w = t⋅e

3

( r0 + r1 x + r2 x 2 )

AMERICAN STANDARDS

55


FAÇADE NOTES

ANNEX

DESIGN AIDES 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA


Table of Contents A

GLASS

5

A.1

Glass dead load holders

5

A.2

Glass deflection

6

B

WINDOWS AND DOORS

7

B.1

Sliding doors

7

B.2

Design of window sash

8

C

CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS

9

C.1

Schüco stick system

9

C.2

Raico stick system

13

C.3

Raico glass chairs

15

D

ALUMINIUM

17

D.1

Aluminium Extrusion Guidelines

17

D.2

Aluminium Mechanical Properties

18

D.3

Aluminium temper designation

23

E

FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS

27

E.1

Snap-fit design

27

E.2

Serrated washer

27

E.3

Sleeve sizes

27

E.4

List of fasteners

28

E.5

Group of fasteners

32

E.6

Screw channels

34

E.7

Spring pin

40

E.8

Lifting tools

41

F

ANCHORS

45

F.1

HILTI Anchor Selector

45

F.2

HILTI concrete anchor approvals

48

F.3

HALFEN Cast-in channel

51

F.4

HILTI Cast-in channels

56

G

FORMULAS

57

G.1

Conversion

57

G.2

Stresses

58

G.3

Cross-sectional property formulas

59

G.4

Beam formulas

63

G.5

Arc formulas

69

G.6

Cable structures

71

DESIGN AIDES

3


A

Glass

A.1

Glass dead load holders

GLASS

Dead load for glass holders Values General

Figures

W = γgA A = bh − ( b − b1 ) ( h − h1 ) 2

b 2 h − ( b − b1 )

x =

3

2A

( b − b1 )

2

  

+ ( h − h1 )

 90° − θ  e x = b1 + a ⋅ tan    2  Pg 1 = W ( b − x − e x ) ( S − a − a s )

s

a

Pg1 ex

g1

)

+ Pg 2 sin θ

Pgh

b1

 h − h1    b − b1  = ( b − a − a s cos θ ) cos θ

a

Pg2

θ = tan −1  sx

sy = Pg 1 =

(

sx + s y

x

W

( h − h1 − a − as sin θ ) sin θ W (b − x − a )

a

s

Case 2: b1 > 160mm; x ≤ (a + b - b1 )

(P

a

Pg 2 = W cos θ − Pg 1

Pgh =

x

W

2

h1

 h − h1  b − b1

θ = tan −1  S=

( h − h1 )

h1

Case 1: b1 ≤ 160mm

2

)

Pg1

a

Pg 2 = W − Pg 1 sin θ Pgh = Pg 1 cos θ

Pgh

a

b1

Pg2

Pg 1 = W ( b − x − a ) ( b1 − a − a s ) Pg 2 = W − Pg 1 x

W

a

as

b1

Pg2

Case 4:

h1

Case 3: b1 > 160mm; x > (a + b - b1 )

Pg1

Pg 1 = W ( x − a ) ( b1 − 2a ) Pg 2 = W − Pg 1 h

x

h1

W

a

a b Pg1

DESIGN AIDES

Pg2

5


GLASS A.2

Glass deflection

Minimum roof slope to prevent ponding Action

Values

Data

L δD

Minimum slope

C≈L Ro

Notes

Clause

Glass dimension along flow direction, [mm] Dead load deflection of glass, [mm] C2 δD = + 8δ D 2

 C    2 Ro  C 180 ≈ × 2Ro π

α = sin -1 

Chord length, [mm] α

R -δ O

Radius of curvature, [mm] Required minimum slope, [°]

R

D

slope

O

C δ

α

D

Edge slippage of simply supported glass Action

Values

Notes

Clause

Data

L δ

Glass dimension along slip direction, [mm] Maximum centre of glass deflection, [mm]

Edge slip

 L 180  = 1 – cos  ×  Ro π   2 Ro  L  ∆ = L – 2 Ro sin    2 Ro 

Solve equation to determine radius of curvature, [mm]

δ

Ro L

Edge slippage, [mm] δ ∆

6

DESIGN AIDES


B

Windows and Doors

B.1

Sliding doors

WINDOWS AND DOORS

In the analyis of sliding door framing profiles, combine the central mullions and apply the appropriate lateral loads on both the fixed and the sliding panels.

To ensure airtightness at the sliding interface, the mullion moment of inertias of the fixed panel should be greater than that of the sliding panel, IF2 ≥ IF1

DESIGN AIDES

7


WINDOWS AND DOORS B.2

Design of window sash

Structural design of window frame Action Forces

Values

Notes

Clause

Wt = γ g BH

V = Wt H = Wt ( B 2 − a )

( H − a)

a = 100 mm c = 200 mm Side hung

Vertical member, M1

a

H ⋅ a ⋅ h ( H + a ) 3h ( H + a )

Iz ≥

H

27 H ⋅ E ⋅ 3mm 1.35 H ⋅ a ⋅ h Wz ≥ H ⋅ fy γ M1 Vertical member, M2 5 ( qw B 2 ) y 4 Iy ≥ 384 E ⋅ y 180

Wy ≥ Iz ≥

Wt

e

z

H

1.5 ( qw B 2 ) y 2

M1

M2

y

8 fy γ M1

H ⋅ c3 3E ⋅ c 180

V

1.35 ( H ⋅ c + V ⋅ e )

Wz ≥

c

fy γ M1

T

Horizontal member, T

Iz ≥

c

V ⋅ a ⋅ b ( B + a ) 3b ( B + a ) 27 B ⋅ E ⋅ min { B 180 ; 3mm}

Wz ≥

a

B

1.35V ⋅ a ⋅ b B ⋅ fy γ M1

Top hung Vertical member, M1 Iy ≥ without struts

Wy ≥ Horizontal member, T V ⋅ a 3B 2 − 4a 2 Iz ≥ 48 E ⋅ min { B 180 ; 3mm}

(

Wz ≥ Top hung with struts

)

1.35V ⋅ a 2 fy γ M1

Vertical member, M1 Iy ≥

Wy ≥ Horizontal member, T V ⋅ a 3B 2 − 4a 2 Iz ≥ 48 E ⋅ min { B 180 ; 3mm}

(

Wz ≥

)

1.35V ⋅ a 2 fy γ M1

Bottom hung

8

DESIGN AIDES


C

Curtain Wall Systems

C.1

Schüco stick system


+

+

FW 50

Profile No.

BT

W

A

Iy

Iz

W el,y W el,z W pl,y W pl,z

[mm]

[kg/m]

[cm2]

[cm4]

[cm4]

[cm3]

[cm3]

[cm3]

[cm3]

It

Wt

[cm4]

[cm3]

FW 60+

Profile No.

Schüco BT

W

A

Iy

Iz

W el,y W el,z W pl,y W pl,z

[mm]

[kg/m]

[cm2]

[cm4]

[cm4]

[cm3]

[cm3]

[cm3]

[cm3]

It

Wt

[cm4]

[cm3]

-

1.3

4.8

10.8

4.2

4.3

1.8

6

3.7

1.2

0

324 680

-

1.5

5.5

19.0

5

6.3

2

8.6

4.3

0.7

322 250

50

2.1

7.6

31.3

19.3

8.2

7.7

13.3

10.2

18.5

6.8

324 010

50

2.4

8.9

35.1

35

8.8

11

15.7

15

28.2

6.1

322 260

65

2.2

8.1

55.5

22.8

12.6

9.1

18.7

11.6

29.6

9.3

324 020

65

2.6

9.7

63.1

42.3

13.7

14.1

22.3

17.5

47.9

12.8

322 270

85

2.5

9.3

108.3

28.1

19.9

11.3

28.9

14

46.3

13

324 030

85

3.1

11.3

124.3

53.3

21.9

17.8

34.3

21.6

79.5

18.7

322 280

105

2.6

9.8

167.1

32.4

27

13

36.6

15.7

62.1

16.7

324 040

105

3.3

12.2

195.1

62.4

30.1

20.8

44.2

24.6 110.6

24.3

322 290

125

3.1

11.3

278.5

38.4

37.2

15.4

51.6

18.5

80.5

20.3

324 050

125

3.8

14.2

325.1

74.4

41.7

24.8

62

29.2 144.4

26.2

322 300

150

3.3

12.3

423.6

44.4

48.9

17.7

66.1

20.9 102.1

26.3

324 060

150

4.2

15.7

500.4

86.8

55.6

28.9

80.3

33.5 186.9

32.6

322 310*

175

3.9

14.5

661.9

52.8

66.8

21.1

88.7

24.7 122.9

17.5

324 070

175

5.0

18.4

787.0 103.1

81.3

34.4 108.6

39.5 224.8

20.9

326 250

175

4.8

17.6

730.0

68.2

75.9

27.3 101.8

31.6 161.3

17.3

324 080

200

5.4

19.9 1,083.1 115.6

99.8

38.5

43.9

267

23.2

326 030

200

5.2

19.1 1,008.9

76.7

92.1

30.7 124.3

35.2 190.3

19.2

324 090

225

5.8

21.4 1,445.4 128.1 119.9

42.7 157.8

48.3 312.8

28.5

336 230

225

5.6

20.7 1,352.3

85.3 110.4

34.1 149.2

38.9 222.5

25.7

336 270

250

6.2

23 1,876.3 140.7 140.7

46.9 185.6

52.7 358.3

336 240

250

6.0

22.2 1,759.1

93.8 129.9

37.5

42.5 253.6

25.2

324 220

85

4.0

14.9

322 520

65

2.8

10.2

68.1

40.3

14.8

7.9

23.6

16.2

31.4

10.6

322 510

85

3.7

13.6

173.9

81.1

28.9

12.8

44.4

25.5

82.5

11.8

322 500

105

3.5

13

209.5

61.5

29.2

13.9

47.1

23.6

3.3

323 420

65 - 250

1.7

6.3

53.6

18.2

9

4.9

15.9

9

323 430

65 - 250

1.8

6.7

68.6

20.7

11

5.5

18.8

323 440

65 - 250

1.6

5.9

39.8

19.2

7.4

4.9

13

323 940

85

2.0

7.4

71.5

6.5

13.3

2.9

923 950

85

1.6

5.8

42.5

6.5

8.9

2.3

323 960

105

2.2

8.2

119.2

7.4

18.4

323 970

105

1.8

6.6

76.7

7.3

13.3

323 980

125

2.5

9.1

182.7

8.3

323 990

125

2.0

7.4

124.2

8.1

326 010

150

2.7

10.1

287.8

326 020

150

2.3

8.5

204.7

323 040

85

2.5

9.1

323 050

105

2.6

9.6

323 060

125

3.0

328 640

150

3.3

328 650

175

328 660

176

Standard

323 540

168.2 108.4

132

28

17.5

45.1

0.8

30.9

33

97.6

11.8

65 - 250

1.7

6.3

53.6

18.2

9

4.9

15.9

9

26.2

4.9

65 - 250

1.8

6.7

68.6

20.7

11

5.5

18.8

10.5

29.6

8.8

0

323 440

65 - 250

1.6

5.9

39.8

19.2

7.4

4.9

13

8.9

23.5

4

26.2

4.9

324 100

85

2.4

8.8

81.7

11.1

15.4

3.8

23.2

8.3

6.8

2.6

10.5

29.6

8.8

324 110

85

1.9

7.2

49.6

12

10.3

3.3

16.9

7.7

5.3

2.4

8.9

23.5

4

324 120

105

2.7

10

136.9

12.7

21.8

4.3

32.5

9.6

11

2.7

19.7

5.9

4.8

1.7

324 130

105

2.3

8.4

91.0

13.4

15.7

3.7

24.7

9

9.2

4.1

14.1

5.2

3.8

2.7

324 140

125

3.1

11.3

212.1

14.3

28.9

4.8

43.1

11

15.5

5.9

3.3

27.3

6.7

7.5

2.4

324 150

125

2.6

9.7

149.3

14.7

22

4

33.8

10.2

13.6

5.4

2.6

20.3

6

6.3

3.8

324 160

150

3.5

12.8

337.9

16.2

39.2

5.3

58.1

12.6

20.7

8.1

24.1

3.7

35.9

7.6

10.2

3.6

324 170

150

3.0

11.2

249.7

16.3

31.2

4.4

46.9

11.8

19.1

8.7

18.4

2.9

27.3

6.8

0.6

0

324 180

85

3.0

11.2

122.7

51.4

21.4

17.1

33.9

21

76.5

18.3

9.4

32.3

4.1

47.8

8.6

13.6

6.8

324 190

105

3.2

12

192.7

60.6

29.5

20.2

43.6

24 107.1

23

9.1

25.5

3.2

37.3

7.8

12.3

7.7

324 200

125

3.8

14.1

320.8

72.6

40.9

24.2

61.2

28.7 141.2

23.2

106.9

26.8

19.5

10.7

28.6

13.5

44.2

12.7

28.3

165.0

31.1

26.5

12.4

36.2

15.2

59.9

16

11.2

274.6

37.1

36.4

14.8

51

18

78.5

20.3

12.2

418.1

43

47.8

17.2

65.2

20.4 100.1

21.4

4.5

16.8

687.4

64.4

69.9

25.8

96.3

29.8

163

27.6

200

4.9

18.3

950.9

72.9

86.2

29.1 117.7

33.4 193.2

322 720

85

2.1

7.9

39.5

11.7

12.1

5.2

322 730

105

2.5

9.4

74.9

14.3

16.7

201 216

105

4.1

5.2

49.1

8.3

11.4

322 740

125

2.8

10.4

120.4

16.4

201 217

125

4.6

5.8

80.7

9.3

322 750

150

3.2

11.9

227.6

322 760*

175

3.6

13.4

326 270

175

2.8

10.3

326 050

200

3.1

336 250

225

336 260

250

323 270

Mullion

Faceted Out

Installation

Corner

323 420 323 430

324 210

150

4.2

15.6

494.0

85

54.5

79.4

33 183.5

28.2

324 990

175

4.7

17.5

741.5

97.3

74

32.4 102.9

37.3 228.4

33.2

327 010

200

5.1

19 1,021.9 109.7

91.1

36.6 125.2

41.7 271.1

42.6

327 020

225

5.6

20.6 1,365.6 122.3 109.7

40.8

150

46.1 315.5

59.3

336 290

250

6.0

22.1 1,773.8 134.8 129.6

44.9 176.7

50.5 360.9

44.9

32.4

324 300

85

2.2

8.1

41.4

13.9

12.5

5.2

16.8

9.4

2.5

0

324 310

105

2.6

9.7

78.5

16.5

17.3

6.2

25

11.4

25.4

10

8.6

2.3

0

6.4

24

10.6

25.4

9.1

3.7

14.6

6.2

0.4

0

21.5

7.3

31.2

12.1

32.7

11.3

15.5

4.2

19.7

7

0.4

0

19.2

34.2

8.5

47.1

14.1

42.8

344.1

22

42.4

9.8

60.3

16.1

282.3

14.9

33.8

6.9

48.5

11.5

11.3

404.9

16.6

41.1

7.7

59.6

12.8

3.3

12.2

560.3

18.3

49.6

8.5

71.6

14.1

46.9

11.8

324 420

22

1.4

3.6

13.2

753.1

20

59.2

9.3

85.3

15.3

53.3

13.5

324 430

40

1.7

85

0.4

1.6

2.2

0.2

1.3

0.2

1.7

0.5

0.1

0

324 440

50

2.0

7.3

323 280

105

0.6

2.3

7.5

0.3

2.7

0.3

3.7

0.7

0.1

0

324 450

65

2.2

323 290

125

0.8

3.1

17.4

0.4

4.7

0.3

6.4

0.9

0.1

0

324 460

85

2.6

323 550

-

1.0

3.8

10.7

3.9

4.3

2

5.5

2.9

0.4

0

324 470

105

Reinforcement

16.1

324 320

125

2.9

10.7

125.8

18.6

22.3

7

32.4

12.9

2.6

0

324 330

150

3.3

12.2

236.9

21.4

35.2

8.1

48.7

14.9

2.3

0 0

175

3.7

13.6

357.5

24.2

43.6

9.1

62.3

16.9

2.4

324 350

200

4.1

15.1

519.3

27

54

10.2

77.6

18.9

2.5

0

14.3

324 360

225

4.5

16.5

727.6

29.8

66.2

11.2

94.8

21

2.6

0

52.8

17.7

324 690

-

1.3

4.8

21.0

5.4

7

2.6

8.8

4.2

0.1

0.2

34.4

8.7

324 400

0

0.7

2.6

6.1

0.4

2

0.4

3.2

0.7

0.1

0.2

40.3

15.9

324 410

16

1.3

4.7

16.4

3.4

5.4

1.8

7.4

3.3

5.2

2.7

5.1

19.4

5.9

6.5

2.8

8.4

4.6

9.3

3.7

6.2

28.4

19

9.5

6.6

11.6

9.7

26.4

7

33.5

32.9

11.1

9.4

13.5

14.2

38.2

8.9

8.3

58.5

41

13.9

13.7

20.1

16.1

56.7

11.7

9.5

107.4

51

20.7

17

28.9

19.6

85.2

15.4

2.9

10.7

175.2

61.1

28.4

20.4

39.1

23.2 115.9

19.2

Level 1

324 340

0

0.6

2.4

3.6

0.4

1.4

0.3

2.3

0.7

0.1

0.1

324 480

125

3.3

12.1

270.9

71.3

37.4

23.8

51.4

26.8 149.9

22.9

322 380

16

1.1

3.9

8.9

3

3.6

1.7

4.9

2.8

3.8

2.2

324 490

150

3.7

13.7

419.1

83.8

49.5

27.9

67.6

31.2 187.2

27.6

322 460

22

1.1

4.2

10.4

5.1

4.1

2.5

5.6

3.8

6.6

3.1

324 500

175

4.1

15.2

610.3

96.4

62.8

32.1

85.7

35.6

323 840

40

1.4

5

16.0

14.7

5.8

5.9

7.8

7.4

17.2

5.8

326 940

200

4.5

16.8

849.0

109

77.5

36.3 105.7

322 390

50

1.6

5.9

28.0

17.1

8.2

6.9

11.9

8.5

0.9

0

324 370

50

2.1

7.8

33.9

25.7

9.4

8.6

14.6

12.1

26.7

6

322 400

65

1.8

6.5

49.4

20.8

12

8.3

16.5

10

35

9.9

324 550

50

1.3

4.9

24.8

9.9

6.9

3.3

10.2

6.3

0.1

0.1

322 410

85

2.0

7.4

89.3

25.6

17.6

10.2

23.5

12

50.4

13.1

324 560

50

1.2

4.6

23.6

8

6.6

2.7

9.5

5.3

0.1

0.2

322 420

105

2.2

8.2

144.0

30.4

23.8

12.2

31.3

14

65.5

16.3

324 510

85

2.6

9.5

100.6

48.1

19.1

16

28.1

18.7

77.3

14.3

322 430

125

2.5

9.2

221.1

35.3

31.1

14.1

40.9

16.1

82.5

19.5

322 440

150

2.8

10.5

354.5

42

41.5

16.8

55.2

19 106.9

23.5

322 450

175

3.1

11.6

509.4

48

52

19.2

69

21.5 128.3

27.5

322 490

50

1.6

5.8

25.5

14.6

7.7

5.8

10.6

7.9

16.4

5.8

80×50×3

322 630

50

1.1

4.1

21.3

5.4

6.2

2.4

8.6

4.1

0.1

0.1

336 090

322 640

50

1.0

3.8

19.7

4.4

5.4

1.9

7.6

3.5

0.1

0.1

322 330

85

2.0

7.5

84.6

24

16.4

9.6

22.9

11.4

45.6

10.2

322 340

105

2.2

8.3

138.4

28.8

22.7

11.5

30.8

13.4

60.5

14.4

322 350

125

2.5

9.3

215.2

33.8

30.1

13.5

40.7

15.6

77.6

17.4

18.4 101.6

21.1

322 360

150

2.9

10.6

347.6

40.4

40.6

16.1

55

80×40×2

105 - 175

3.5

4.5

37.4

12.7

9.3

6.4

11.6

7.2

29.3

351 980

125 - 175

3.3

12.4

194.0

40.1

30.9

17.8

43.3

21.3

2.9

0

100×40×3 125 - 175

6.1

7.8

92.3

21.7

18.5

10.8

23.7

12.4

58.8

21.4

120×40×3 150, 175

7.1

9

148.0

25.7

24.7

12.8

32.2

14.6

74.2

25.8

150×40×3

8.5

10.8

266.1

32

35.5

16

47

17.9

97.9

32.5

175

DESIGN AIDES

Level 2

Transom

322 370

Reinf.

Installation Reinf.

Level 2

Transom

Level 1

Reinforcement

Faceted Out

Mullion

Corner

Standard

FW 50+

FW 60

229

32.2

40 271.5

36.9

324 520

105

2.9

10.8

166.8

58.1

26.7

19.4

38.2

22.2 107.6

18.1

324 530

125

3.3

12.2

261.1

68.4

35.8

22.7

50.7

25.9 141.6

21.8

150

3.7

13.7

407.7

80.9

47.8

27

66.9

30.3 177.2

25.9

105 - 200

5.7

7.2

61.1

29.4

15.3

11.8

18.8

13.6

64.8

21.6

125 - 200

3.4

12.6

201.5

55.6

32.4

21.4

44.7

25.2

3

0

100×50×3 125 - 200

6.6

8.4

106.5

36.1

21.3

14.4

26.7

16.4

88.3

27.2

120×50×3 150 - 200

7.5

9.6

168.0

42

28.1

17

35.7

19.3

112

32.8

150×50×5 175, 200

8.9

11.4

298.5

52.6

39.8

21.1

51.4

23.5 149.9

41.4

324 540

11.8

9



+

FW 50

10

DESIGN AIDES



+

FW 60

DESIGN AIDES

11


CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS +

Schüco

FW 50 S +

Level 1 L. 2

Transom

Installation

Mullion

I&T

FW 50

12

Profile No.

BT [mm]

Iy

W

A

[kg/m]

[cm ]

2

Iz 4

[cm ]

Wel,y 4

[cm ]

322 530

85

3.0

11

122.8

15.4

322 540

125

3.6

13.4

311.2

322 550

175

4.4

16.4

700.8

323 870

250

7.2

26.8 2,029.2

160 790

125

3.5

12.9

337.5

3

[cm ]

Wel,z 3

[cm ]

Wpl,y 3

[cm ]

21.7

6.2

33.9

16.3

41

6.5

59.2

17.4

69.6

7

97.1

16.8

144

6.7

207

13.6

43.4

5.4

60.2

Wpl,z 3

[cm ]

10.7

It

Wt 4

[cm ]

3

[cm ]

6.2

2.9

12

9.3

4.1

13.9

13.7

5

13.2

5.4

4.7

11.1

14.7

6.6

322 580

85

2.4

8.9

78.6

9.5

14.5

3.8

22.1

7.3

5.9

2.7

322 570

125

3.1

11.3

215.4

10.4

28.1

4.1

43

8.7

9

4.2

322 560

175

3.9

14.3

518.5

11.5

50.3

4.6

76.3

10.5

13.4

4.9

326 870

85

1.8

6.7

50.9

5

8.8

2.4

15

4.5

1.9

1.1

326 860

85

1.3

4.7

29.5

2.1

6.6

1.1

10.2

2.5

0.8

0.4

326 630

125

2.2

8.3

140.1

5.2

17.1

2.5

28.6

5

2.6

1.8

326 640

125

1.6

6.1

91.1

2.5

13.7

1.4

20.9

3.2

1.4

0.7

326 890

175

2.8

10.3

339.7

5.5

30.7

2.6

51.8

5.8

3.6

2.4

326 880

175

2.3

8.5

244.8

3

26.8

1.8

40.2

4

2.5

1.1

322 370

0

0.6

2.4

3.6

0.4

1.4

0.3

2.3

0.7

0.1

0.1

322 380

16

1.1

3.9

8.9

3

3.6

1.7

4.9

2.8

3.8

2.2

326 900

50

1.4

5.3

20.9

4.6

6

1.8

9.4

4

3.1

1.5

326 920

85

2.6

9.8

193.8

11.3

24.7

4.5

38.4

8.4

12

4.7

323 900

125

2.1

7.8

69.8

10.5

12.3

4.2

19.6

7.2

9.3

3.6

323 910

85

2.9

10.6

116.0

38.9

21.9

7.8

31.9

16.1

9.4

2.8

323 920

125

3.3

12.4

292.7

42.9

40.5

8.2

55.3

17.6

12.1

3.9

323 930

175

3.8

14.1

634.6

46.4

65.8

8.7

86.1

18.9

15.2

7.8

326 910

85

2.2

8.3

69.9

9.2

12.6

3.7

20.1

6.9

7

3.5

336 100

125

2.7

9.9

189.4

9.9

24.1

4

38

8

9.6

5.7

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES C.2


Raico stick system

Right-angled profiles

Expansion Profiles

Right-Angled Profiles

+

THERM 50

+

THERM 56

Expansion Profiles

+

THERM 50

+

THERM 56

DESIGN AIDES

13



Insertion Profiles for CW 50 and 56

T-Profile

14

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES C.3


Raico glass chairs

Raico glass chair Description

Detail

Variante 1: ≤ 400 kg




DESIGN AIDES

15


D

ALUMINIUM

Aluminium

Alloy Deisgnations

D.1

Aluminium Extrusion Guidelines The figure below shows maximum profile dimensions for the largest Swedish press of Sapa.

Note: The entire cross section of the desired profile must fit within the bold line. .

Sapa Design Manual

Recommended Wall Thickness, [mm] t = 2.0+Ø/125 t ≈ 1.5+Ø/133

t ≈ 1.0+Ø/129 t ≈ 0.8+Ø/148

Circumscribing Circle [mm] • Legend:

DESIGN AIDES

Solid (open) profiles 6060 / 6063 6005A 6082

Hollow (closed) profile 6060 / 6063 6005A 6082 17

FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS D.2

Aluminium Mechanical Properties

Aluminium Sheets/Plates

18


EN 485-2:2008

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Aluminium Sheets/Plates

DESIGN AIDES

ALUMINIUM EN 485-2:2008

19

FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS Aluminium Sheets/Plates

20

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES EN 485-2:2008

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Aluminium Extrusions

DESIGN AIDES

ALUMINIUM EN 755-2:2008

21

FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS Aluminium Extrusions

22

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES EN 755-2:2008

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES D.3

ALUMINIUM

Aluminium temper designation

Temper Descriptions to BS EN 515 Temper Description F

As fabricated (no mechanical property limits specified).

O

Annealed - products achieving the required annealed properties after hot forming processes may be designated as O temper.

O1

Thermally treated at approximately the same time and temperature required for solution treatment and slow cooled to room temperature (formerly designated as T41).

O2

Thermomechanically processed to enhance formability, such as required for super-plastic forming (SPF).

O3

Homogenized.

H12

Strain-hardened - ¼ hard.

H14

Strain-hardened - ½ hard.

H16

Strain-hardened - ¾ hard.

H18

Strain-hardened - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).

H19

Strain-hardened - extra hard.

Hxx4

Applies to embossed or patterned sheet or strip, fabricated from the corresponding Hxx temper.

Hxx5

Strain-hardened - applies to welded tubes.

H111

Annealed and slightly strain-hardened (less than H11) during subsequent operations such as stretching or levelling.

H112

Slightly strain-hardened from working at an elevated temperature from a limited amount of cold work (mechanical property limits specified).

H116

Applies to aluminium-magnesium alloys with a magnesium content of 4% or more and for which mechanical property limits and exfoliation corrosion resistance are specified.

H22

Strain-hardened and partially annealed - ¼ hard.

H24

Strain-hardened and partially annealed - ½ hard.

H26

Strain-hardened and partially annealed - ¾ hard.

H28

Strain-hardened and partially annealed - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).

H32

Strain-hardened and stabilized - ¼ hard.

H34

Strain-hardened and stabilized - ½ hard.

H36

Strain-hardened and stabilized - ¾ hard.

H38

Strain-hardened and stabilized - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).

H42

Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - ¼ hard.

H44

Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - ½ hard.

H46

Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - ¾ hard.

H48

Strain-hardened and painted or lacquered - 4/4 hard (fully hardened).

W

Solution heat-treated (unstable temper). The period of natural ageing (W2h..) may also be specified.

W51

Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring). The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

W510

Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruted rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube). The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

W511

Same as W510 except minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.

W52

Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1- 5%.

DESIGN AIDES

23



W54

Solution heat-treated (unstable temper) and stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die (die forging).

T1

Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged.

T2

Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked and naturally aged.

T3

Solution heat-treated, cold worked and naturally aged.

T31

Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 1% and naturally aged.

T351

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after

T3510

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

T3511

Same as T3510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.

T354

Solution heat-treated stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and naturally aged.

T36


T37


T39

Solution heat-treated and cold worked to an appropriate degree to achieve the specified mechanical properties. Cold work may be carried out before or after natural ageing.

T4

Solution heat-treated and naturally aged.

T42

Solution heat-treated and naturally aged. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated from any temper by the user.

T451

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

T4510

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and naturally aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

T4511


T452

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and naturally aged.

T454

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and naturally aged.

T5

Cooled from an elavated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged.

T51

Cooled from an elavated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged in underageing conditions to improve formability.

T56

Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged - mechanical property level higher than T5 achieved through special control of the process (6000 series alloys).

T6

Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged.

T61

Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions to improve formability.

T6151

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate) and then artificially aged in underageing conditions to improve formability. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

T62

Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated from any temper by the user.

T64

Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions (between T6 and T61) to improve formability.

T651

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

24

DESIGN AIDES


ALUMINIUM

T6510

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

T6511


T652

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artificially aged.

T654

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially aged.

T66

Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged - mechanical property level higher than T6 achieved through special control of the process (6000 series alloys)..

T7

Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged.

T73

Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.

T732

Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated from any temper by the user.

T7351

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

T73510 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance. The products receive no further straightening after stretching. T73511 Same as T73510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances. T7352

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artifi-cially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.

T7354

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially overaged in order to achieve the best stress corrosion resistance.

T74

Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged (between T73 and T76).

T7451

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially overaged (between T73 and T76). The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

T74510 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar shapes and tube 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged (between T73 and T76). The pro-ducts receive no further straightening after stretching. T74511 Same as T74510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances. T7452

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artifi-cially overaged (between T73 and T76).

T7454

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially overaged (between T73 and

T76

Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance.

T761

Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistan-ce. (applies to 7475 sheet and strip).

T762

Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistan-ce. Applies to test material heat-treated from annealed or F temper or to products heat-treated from any tem-per by the user.

T7651

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 0.5% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance. The products recieve no further straightening after

DESIGN AIDES

25



T76510 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoli-ation corrosion resistance. The products receive no further straightening after stretching. T76511 Same as T76510 except that minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances. T7452

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artifi-cially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance.

T7454

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking in the finish die and then artificially overaged in order to achieve a good exfoliation corrosion resistance.

T79

Solution heat-treated and then artificially overaged (very limited overageing).

T79510 Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, shapes and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially overaged (very limited overageing). The products receive no further straightening after stretching. T8

Solution heat-treated, cold worked and then artificially aged.

T82

Solution heat-treated by the user, controlled stretched with a minimum permanent set of 2% and then artificially aged (alloy 8090).

T832

Solution heat-treated, cold worked a controlled specific amount and then artificially aged (applies to 6063 drawn tube).

T841

Solution heat-treated, cold worked and then artificially underaged (sheet and strip in alloys 2091 and 8090).

T851

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for sheet, 1.5% to 3% for plate, 1% to 3% for rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1% to 5% for hand or ring forging and rolled ring) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

T8510

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by controlled stretching (permanent set 1% to 3% for extruded rod, bar, profiles and tube, 0.5% to 3% for drawn tube) and then artificially aged. The products receive no further straightening after stretching.

T8511

Same as T8510 except for minor straightening is allowed after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.

T852

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by compressing to produce a permanent set of 1% to 5% and then artifi-cially aged.

T854

Solution heat-treated, stress-relieved by restriking cold in the finish die and then artificially aged.

T86

Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 6% and then artificially aged.

T87

Solution heat-treated, cold worked approximately 7% and then artificially aged.

T89

Solution heat-treated, cold worked to an appropriate degree to achieve the specified mechanical properties and then artificially aged.

T9

Solution heat-treated, artificially aged and then cold worked.

26

DESIGN AIDES


E

Fasteners & Connections

E.1

Snap-fit design


Formulas are derived from theory of cantilever beam with concentrated load (also conforms to BASF design). http://snapfit4.cmg.net/SnapFit/workspace.jsp

Design resistance of aluminium structures Perpendicular force [N]

Mating force

Uniform beam bt 3 E P= Y 4L3 Tapered beam bt 3 E P= Y 6.52L3

( µ + tan α ) ( 1 − µ ⋅ tan α ) ( µ + tan α´ ) P 1 ( − µ ⋅ tan α´ )

W = P

Push-on force [N]

W´ =

Pull-off force [N]

values of µ: 0.6 0.3

E.2

Uniform beam

Tapered beam

Coefficient of friction [-] Raw surface Anodised surface

Serrated washer Additional tension due to serration angle (θ) of washer and friction (µ): Ft´ = Fv/tan(θ+φ)

F´t

-1

φ = tan (µ)

N θ+φ

Fv

http://www.engineershandbook.com/Tables/frictioncoefficients.htm Static Sliding

Frictional coefficients Material

Material

Aluminium

Dry

Greasy

Dry

Greasy

Aluminium

1.05-1.35

0.3

1.4

-

Aluminium

Steel (mild)

0.61

-

0.47

-

Steel (mild)

Steel (mild)

0.74

-

0.57

0.09-0.19

Steel (hard)

Steel (hard)

0.78

0.05-0.11

0.42

0.029-0.12

Cast iron

Cast iron

1.1

0.15

0.07

Nylon

Nylon

0.15-0.25

E.3

Sleeve sizes

Sleeve sizes Bolt size

1.4301/1.4404

6060 T6

Screw size

1.4301/1.4404

6060 T6

M4

-

Ø8×1.5

ST 2.9

Ø6×1.0*

-

M5

Ø8×1.0*

Ø10×2.0

ST 3.5

Ø6×1.0*

Ø7×1.5

M6

Ø10×1.5

-

ST 3.9

Ø8×1.5*

Ø7×1.5

M8

Ø12×1.5

Ø12×1.5

ST 4.2

Ø8×1.5*

Ø8×1.5

M10

Ø15×2.0*

Ø15×1.5

ST 4.8

Ø8×1.5*

Ø8×1.5

M12

Ø17.2×2.3

Ø16×1.5

ST 5.5

-

Ø10×2.0

M16

Ø21.3×2.0

Ø20×1.5

ST 6.3

Ø10×1.5

Ø13×3.0

M20

Ø26.9×2.6

-

DESIGN AIDES

27

FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS E.4

28


List of fasteners

DESIGN AIDES


DESIGN AIDES


29



Bolts and screws commonly used in façade construction Metric thread bolts and screws Reference

Figure

Description

ISO 4014 DIN 931

Hexagonal head bolts

ISO 4017 DIN 933

Hexagonal head screws

ISO 4762 DIN 912

Hexagonal socket head cap screws

DIN 6912

Hexagonal socket thin head cap screws with pilot recess for wrench key

ISO 10642 DIN 7991

Hexagonal socket countersunk head screws

ISO 7046 DIN 965

Cross recessed countersunk head screws

DIN 7500

Thread rolling screws for ISO metric thread D+SHB C-Z M-Z M

ISO 8752 DIN 1481

Spring-type straight pins, slotted, heavy duty

ISO 2338 DIN 7

Parallel pins, of unhardened steel and austenitic stainless steel

ISO 4026 DIN 913

Hexagonal socket set screws with flat point

DIN 975

Threaded rod

30

DESIGN AIDES



Spaced thread screws Reference

Figure

Description

ISO 1479 DIN 7976

Hexagonal head tapping screws

ISO 14585 DIN 7504

Hexalobular socket pan head tapping screws

ISO 14586

Hexalobular socket countersunk head tapping screws

ISO 7049 DIN 7981

Cross recessed pan head tapping screws

ISO 7050 DIN 7982

Cross recessed countersunk head tapping screws

ISO 15480 DIN 7504

Hexagonal washer head drilling screws with tapping screw thread

ISO15482 DIN 7504

Cross recessed raised pan head drilling screws with tapping screw thread

DIN 571

Cross recessed raised countersunk head drilling screws with tapping screw thread Hexagonal head wood screws

DESIGN AIDES

31



Group of fasteners

Group of fasteners in tension or shear Fastener Layout Shear

Tension

Fv1 =

M ⋅ y1 y1 +y2 2 + ...yn 2

Fvn =

M ⋅ yn y1 2 +y2 2 + ...yn 2

Fv1 = Fv2 = Fv3 =

Fv1 =

Ft1 =

M ⋅ y1 y1 2 +y2 2 + ...yn 2

Ftn =

M ⋅ yn y1 +y 2 2 + ...yn 2 2

2

x'1 = ( 2 x1 + x 2 ) 3

M ⋅ ( 2x 1 +x 2 )

(

2

2 x1 +x1 x 2 + x 2

2

)

x' 2 = ( x1 − x 2 ) 3 x' 3 = ( x1 + 2 x 2 ) 3

M ⋅ x1 − x 2 2

(

)

2 x1 2 +x1 x 2 + x 2 2

)

2

2 x1 +x1 x 2 + x 2 M ⋅ ( x1 +2x 2 )

(

x'1 = ( 3 x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 ) 4

M ⋅ x'1 x'1 +x' 2 2 + x' 3 2 + x'4 2 2

x' 2 = ( − x1 + 2 x 2 + x3 ) 4 x' 3 = ( x1 + 2 x2 − x3 ) 4 x'4 = ( x1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x3 ) 4

Group of fasteners in shear Fastener Layout

Shear X component Fvx =

Shear Y components

M⋅y

(

2

2 x +y

2

Fvy =

)

Fvx1 = Fvx2 Fvx1 =

Fvy1 =

M⋅y 2x 2 +3y 2

Fvy1 =

M ⋅ 3y  8 ( x1 +x 1 x 2 +x 2  2

2

) +9y

2

 

Fvy2 = Fvy3 =

32

(

2 x 2 +y 2

)

M⋅x 2x 2 +3y 2

Fvy2 = 0

Fvx1 = Fvx2 = Fvx3 Fvx1 =

M⋅x

M ⋅ ( 2x 1 +x 2 )

 8 ( x1 +x 1 x 2 +x 2 2 ) +9y 2    M ⋅ x1 − x 2 2

 8 ( x1 2 +x1 x 2 +x 2 2 ) +9y 2    M ⋅ ( x1 +2x 2 )  8 ( x1 2 +x1 x 2 +x 2 2 ) +9y 2   

DESIGN AIDES



Fvx1 = Fvx2 Fvx1 =

Fvy1 =

(

2 x 1 2 +x 2 2 +2y 2

)

Fvy2 =

M⋅y 2x1 2 +2x 2 2 +5y 2

(

(

2

2 x1 +x 2 2 +2y 2

M⋅y

Fvx1 = Fvx2 = Fvx3 Fvx1 =

M ⋅ x1 2

)

M ⋅ x2 2 x1 +x 2 2 +2y 2

Fvy1 =

M ⋅ x1 2x 1 +2x 2 2 +5y 2

Fvy2 =

M ⋅ x2 2x1 2 +2x 2 2 +5y 2

)

2

Fvy3 = 0

Fvx1 = Fvx2 = ... Fvxn Fvx1 =

Fvy1 =

(

2 x1 2 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2

)

Fvy2 =

(

(

2

(

2

2 x 1 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2

M⋅y

Fvyn =

M ⋅ x2 2 x1 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2 2 x 1 +x 2 2 +...x n 2 +n ⋅ y 2

M⋅y 4x 2 +3y 2

Fvy1 =

)

M⋅x 4x 2 +3y 2

Fvy2 = 0

Fvx1 = Fvx2

Fvy1 = Fvy3 M⋅y

(

4 x1 2 +x 2 2 +y 2

)

Fvx3 = Fvx4 = 0

Fvy1 =

Fvx1 = Fvx2 = Fvx3 M⋅y 4x1 2 +4x 2 2 +5y 2

Fvx4 = Fvx5 = 0

M ⋅ x1

(

4 x 1 2 +x 2 2 +y 2

)

Fvy2 = Fvy4 Fvy2 =

Fvx1 =

)

M ⋅ xn

Fvx3 = 0

Fvx1 =

)

Fvy1 = Fvy3

Fvx1 = Fvx2 Fvx1 =

M ⋅ x1 2

M ⋅ x2

(

4 x1 2 +x 2 2 +y 2

)

Fvy1 = Fvy4 Fvy1 =

M ⋅ x1 4x1 2 +4x 2 2 +5y 2

Fvy2 = Fvy5 Fvy2 =

M ⋅ x2 4x1 2 +4x 2 2 +5y 2

Fvy3 = 0

DESIGN AIDES

33



Screw channels Screw channel with self-tapping screws ST4.8×30 / A2 Lindner AG appointed Labor für Stahl und Leichtmetallbau, Hochschule München to conduct a test on the design shear and tension loads of screw channels. ST4.8×32mm A2 with DIN912 head is used. The following characteristic and design values at 5% fractile test values are obtained from the official report Doc. Nr. 2009-2037.

Screw channel capacities [kN] Base extrusion Screw channel Incidence type angle Fv,k Fv,d Ft,k

F+45°

3.4

2.56

F0°

4.6

3.46

F-45°

5.6

4.21

1.35

2.0

a) 0° < α < +45°

1.50

Fα

6.8

3.5

2.63

3.6

2.71

5.1

3.83

Fα α

α

1.8

Interaction formula

α

Fα

F+90°

Anodised extrusion Fv,k Fv,d Ft,k

Fα

α

6.8

F0°

Fα =

 2 ⋅ F0°  cos ( α ) +  − 1  sin ( α )  F   +45° 

b) +45° < α < +90° α

3.68

4.9

3.68

F+90°

1.8

1.35

1.9

1.43

α

Fα α

α

4.9

α

F-90°

Fα =

α

2.56

F0°

3.7

2.78

F-45°

5.5

4.14

3.1

2.33

3.0

2.26

6.0

4.51

7.6

c) -45° < α < 0° α

α

8.3

α

3.4

α

F+45°

F+90°  2 ⋅ F+90°  − 1  cos ( α ) + sin ( α )    F+45° 

Fα

F-90°

5.1

3.83

5.2

F

3.91 Fα =

F+90°

2.8

2.11

2.8

2.11

F+45°

1.8

1.35

1.9

1.43

F0°

2.8

2.11

2.8

2.11

Fα

F0°  2 ⋅ F0°  cos ( α ) −  − 1  sin ( α )  F   −45° 

d) -90° < α < -45°

F-45°

7.7

5.9

4.44

6.2

Fα

4.66 Fα =

F-90°

4.3

3.23

5.3

3.98

α

7.6

α

α

Fα α

F

Fα

F−90°  2 ⋅ F−90°  − 1  cos ( α ) − sin ( α )    F−45° 

Note: Material factor γM = 1.33 is used for the design values according to DIN 1055-100 Basis of structural design.

34

DESIGN AIDES



Screw channel with metric screw M5×25 / A2 Test conducted on 02.11.2011 by GBD LAB GmbH, Austria.

F0,k

F//,k F90,k

F//,k

DESIGN AIDES

F0,k

F90,k

35



Fastener approvals Blind rivet, Ø4.8 mm AlMg2.5 (EN AW-5052)

DIBt Z-14.1-537

Pull-out capacity by local bending of aluminium around screw head

DIBt Z-14.1-537

36

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Self-drilling screw, Pan-head ST4.8 (1.4301)

DESIGN AIDES

FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS DIBt Z-14.1-537

37


38


DESIGN AIDES



Self-drilling screw, Hexagonal head JT4-4-4.8×L/JT9-4-4.8×L (1.4301)

DIBt Z-14.1-537

Self-drilling screw, Hexagonal head JT4-6-5.5×L/JT9-6-5.5×L (1.4301)

DIBt Z-14.1-537

DESIGN AIDES

39



Spring pin

Slotted spring pin

ISO 8752 Table 1

Note: Applies to steel (St) and martensitic (C) corrosion resistant steel products only. For austenitic (A) stainless steel pins no double shear strength are specified.

40

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES E.8


Lifting tools Shackles [EN 13889] Sample designation: 9.5mmØ / EN 13889 – Grade 6 – 0.75 ton D (or B) W (or X)

*

Note: *Appropriate factor of safety (2.0 to 4.0) should be considered to determine the working load limit WLL.

DESIGN AIDES

41


FASTENERS & CONNECTIONS Schackle [Federal Specification RR-C-271 F] Sample designation: 3/8” / RR-C-271F, Type IV A, Grade A

*

Note: *Appropriate factor of safety (2.0 to 4.0) should be considered to determine the working load limit WLL. 42

DESIGN AIDES



Eye bolt [DIN 580]

Swivel hoist [CROSBY SS-125M]

DESIGN AIDES

43


F

Anchors

F.1

HILTI Anchor Selector

DESIGN AIDES

ANCHORS

45

ANCHORS

46


DESIGN AIDES


DESIGN AIDES

ANCHORS

47

ANCHORS F.2

HILTI concrete anchor approvals

Stud anchor HST

48

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ETA - 98/0001:2013

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Screw anchor HUS 6/8/10/14

DESIGN AIDES

ANCHORS ETA – 08/0307:2013

49

ANCHORS Wedge anchor DBZ 6

50

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ETA – 06/0179:2011

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES F.3

ANCHORS

HALFEN Cast-in channel

HALFEN cast-in channels

DESIGN AIDES

B 13-E

51


ANCHORS HTA Product Range and Dimensioning

B 13-E

HR-Q CF HR-Q HR-Q CF HR CF HR CF CF CF

52

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES T-BOLT

DESIGN AIDES

ANCHORS B 13-E

53

ANCHORS

54


DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES T-BOLT with nib

DESIGN AIDES

ANCHORS B 13-E

55

ANCHORS F.4

56


HILTI Cast-in channels

DESIGN AIDES


G

FORMULAS

Formulas

G.1 Conversion Sheet Metal Guage

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

4

[in.]

.018

.024

.030

.036

.048

.060

.075

.090

.105

.120

.135

.150

.164

.180

.194 .224

[mm]

.46

.61

.76

.91

1.2

1.5

1.9

2.3

2.7

3

3.4

3.8

4

4.6

4.9

5.7

Fasteners #6

#8

#10

#12

#14

1/4" 5/16"

[in.]

.138

.164

.190

.216

.250

.250 0.313 0.375 0.50 0.625 0.75 0.875 0.938

[mm]

3.5

4.2

4.8

5.5

6.3

Number

DESIGN AIDES

6

8

3/8"

10

1/2"

12

5/8"

16

3/4"

20

7/8"

22

15/16" 1-1/4" 1-3/16"

24

1.063

1.181

27

30

57


FORMULAS G.2 Stresses Principal stresses Stresses Type

Action

Von Mises stress

Notes Design stress is typically maximum surface stress (simple loading) or Von Mises stress (complex loading conditions). The Von Mises yield criterion states that yielding occurs when the Von Mises, σv stress exceeds the yield strength in tension.

(σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + (σ 1 − σ 3 ) 2

σv =

2

where: σ1, σ2, σ3, are principal stresses

???

σ =

σ xx + σ yy 2

 σ xx − σ yy +  2 

Glass stress

2

 2  + τ xy 

Torsional Stress Aircraft Structures J. Perry and J. J. Azar

Torsion of Rectangular cross-section Type

Action

Rectangular section

(J r ) (J r ) τ=

2

Non-linear torsional constant [mm³]

= α 1 bc 2 = α 2 bc 2

T J r T

Torsion stress [N/mm²]

( )

θ= Multiple rectangular sections

1

Notes

Torsional rotation [rad]

β Gbc

(J r )

i

3

Individual torsional constant [mm³]

= α i bi t i 2

4

Individual shear constant [mm ]

K i = β i bi t i 3

(

K = ∑ β i bi t i 3

τi =

T J r

( )

)

Ki K

58

J r 

  = 1

Individual shear stress

i

T θ= G⋅K Constants

4

Total shear constant [mm ]

Torsional rotation [rad] bc 2 3 2

1+0.6095

3

c c c c + 0.8865   − 1.8023   + 0.91   b b b b

4

DESIGN AIDES


FORMULAS

G.3 Cross-sectional property formulas Section Properties – Solid Cross Sections Shape Area Centroid Moment of inertia Rectangle A=bd bd 3 Iy = 12 b3 d d y Iz = 12 Triangle

A=

bd 2

z=

d 3

d z

y

Spandrel d

A= n°

y

bd n+1

y

z

Circle

A=

d

πD 2 4

b n+1 d z= n+1 y=

-

Section Modulus bd 2 Zy = 6

Plastic Modulus bd 2 4 b2d Sz = 4 Sy =

b2d 6

Zz =

Iy =

bd 3 36

Iz =

b3 d 36

Iy =

bd 3 (n+1)12

Zy =

bd 2 (n+2)6

Iz =

b3 d (n+1)12

Zz =

b2d (n+2)6

I=

πD 4 64

bd 2 24 b2d Zz = 24 Zy =

Z=

Torsional Inertia/Constant

πD 3 32

Sy =

8bd 2 81

Sz =

8b 2 d 81

S=

J=

D3 6

J=2I= C=

y

Semi-circle

A=

y d

πD 2 8

y=

πD 4 128 I z =0.0069D 4

2d 3π

Iy =

 b b5   1 − 0.63 +0.052 5  d d  

db 3 3

πD 4 32

2J πD 3 = D 16

πD 3 64 Zz =0.0138D3 Zy =

y

Section Properties – Hollow Cross Sections Shape Area Moment of inertia

RHS

A=BD-(B-2t)(D-2T) T y

t

CHS

A=

π[D 2 -(D-2t) 2 ] 4

BD3 -(B-2t)(D-2T)3 12 3 B D-(B-2t)3 (D-2T) Iz = 12 Iy =

I=

π[D 4 -(D-2t) 4 ] 64

t

D

y

Section

Zy =

2I y

D 2I Zz = z B

Z=

2I D

Plastic Modulus

D  S y =BT(D-T)+2t  -T  2  B  Sz =Dt(B-t)+2T  -t  2 

S=

D3 -(D-2t)3 6

2

2

Torsional Inertia/Constant Error! Reference source not found. 2(B-t) 2 (D-T) 2 t 1 J= (B-t)+(D-T) C=2(B-t)(D-T)t

J=2I= C=

2

π[D 4 -(D-2t) 4 ] 3 32

2J π[D 4 -(D-2t) 4 ] 3 = D 16D

1

Note: Salmon and Johnson 1980 - resolved and omitting the effect of corner radius. 2 Salmon and Johnson 1980, Seaburg and Carter 1997 - resolved and omitting the effect of corner radius. 3

Stelco 1981, Seaburg and carter 1997

DESIGN AIDES

59


FORMULAS

Section Properties – Structural Cross Sections Shape

Area

Centroid

I-beam

A=2BT+(D-2T)t

-

Section Modulus

BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2T)3 12 2B3 T+(D-2T)t 3 Iz = 12 Iy =

z

T

D

Moment of inertia

y

t

Torsional Inertia/Constant Error! Reference source not found.

Plastic Modulus 2

Zy =

BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2T)3 6D

D  S y =BT(D-T)+  -T  t 2 

J=

Zz =

2B3 T+(D-2T)t 3 6B

Sz =

B2 T  D  t 2 +  -T  2 2 2

C=

2BT 3 +(D-T)t 3 3

B3 (D-T) 2 T 24

1

2

B

Channel

y=

T

y

D

A=2BT+(D-2T)t

2B2 T+(D-2T)t 2 2 [ BT+(D-2T)t ]

t

A=BT+(D-T)t z

z=

T

Dz

BT 2 +(D+T)(D-T)t 2 [ BT+(D-T)t ]

y

t

Angle w

d

tz y

A=(b+d-t)t z

v y

BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2T)3 12

Iz =

2B3 T+(D-2T)t 3 B   t +2BT  -y  +(D-2T)  y-  t 12 2   2

Zy =

D

Zz =

Iz B-y

2

y

Tee

2I y

Iy =

y=

b 2 +(d-t)t 2(b+d-t)

2

z=

T

b

 2K  1 α= tan -1   2  Iy-Ix  K= 1

bd(b-t)(d-t)t 4(b+d-t) 2

d +(b-t)t 2(b+d-t)

2

BT 3 +t(D-T)3  T  D+T  +BT  z-  +(D-T)t  z 12 2 2     Iy 2I B3 T+(D-T)t 3 Iz = Zy = Zz = z 12 D-z B Iy =

Iy =

t(d-z)3 +bz 3 -(b-t)(z-t)3 3 3

2

α

2

Iz =

3

t(b-y) +dy -(d-t)(y-t) 3

Zy =

3

Zz =

I v =I y cos 2 α+I z sin 2 α-Ksin2α  t  t v=  z-  sinα+  y-  cosα I w =I y sin 2 α+I z cos 2 α+Ksin2α  2  2  t  t w=  z-  cosα-  y-  sinα I y +I z =I v +I w 2    2 3

Iy

2

D  S y =BT(D-T)+  -T  t 2 

J=

 t Sz =(B-y) 2 T+2y 2 T+(D-2T)  y-  t  2

Sz =

Zw =

Iw (b-y)coα-ysinα

3

 t 2  B-  (D-T) t 2  C= 13

4

3

B 2 T+(D-T)t 2 4

 T 3 Dt 3 2 B T  2  C= + 144 36

-

5

 t  t  3  b-   d-  t 2  2  ≈ 0 for small t J=  3

Iz (b-y) Iz (d-z)cosα+zsinα

3

3

t  T bT 3 +(D-T)t 3 S y =BT  z-  +  (D-z) 2 +(z-T) 2  ≈ 0 for small t J= 2 3  2

(d-z)

Zv =

( 2B-t ) T 3 +(D-T)t 3

 t 3  t 3  3  b-  +  d-   t  2   2   C=  36

4

5

Note: Galambos 1968. Galambos 1968, Picard and Beaulieu 1991. SSRC 1998. Galambos 1968 and, SSRC 1998 – simplified. Bleich 1952, Picard and Beaulieu 1991

DESIGN AIDES

61


FORMULAS Section Properties – Thin-wall Cross Sections Shape

Area

Centroid

C

A= [ D+2(B-t) ] t

D  B2 +  -t  t 2  y= D+2(B-t)

z

t

t D

y

Moment of inertia

Iy =

Section Modulus Shear Centre

BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2t)3 12 3

Zy =

2I y D

2

3

Zz =

Iz =

(D-2t)t +2B t  t B  +t(D-2t)  y-  +2Bt  -y  12  2 2 

Iy =

BD 3 -(B-2t)(D-2t)3 -t(D-2c)3 12

Iz B-y

e=

3B 2 6B+D

Torsional Inertia/Constant Error! Reference source not found. J=

[ D+2(B-t)] t 3 3 B d t  2+3 B D    12  1+6 B D  3

2

C=

2

y

Lipped C

A= [ D+2(B+c-2t) ] t

z

c

t D

t

D  B 2 +  -t  t+(c-t) ( 2B-t ) 2  y= D+2(B+c-2t)

2I y D

Iz B-y

Zz =

2

Iz =

y

Zy =

e=

2

BD 2 ct  1 B 2c 2   +  I y  2 4c 3D 2 

(D+2c-4t)t 3 +2B3 t t  t B   +t(D-2t)  y-  +2Bt  -y  +2(c-t)t  B-y-  12 2 2 2      

J=

[ D+2(B+c-2t)] t 3 3 2

2

C=

B t ( 4c3 +3D2 c-6Dc2 +BD 2 ) -I y e2 6

y

A= [ D+2(B-t) ] t

z

-

BD 3 -(B-t)(D-2t)3 12 (D-t)t 3 +8B3 t Iz = 12

t y

D

t

Z Lipped Z

A= [ D+2(B+c-2t) ] t

-

Iy =

z

t

BD 3 -(B-2t)(D-2t)3 -t(D-2c)3 12 3

y

Iz =

t c

U

Refer to C shape

Zy =

Iy =

3

Zy =

(D+2c-3t)t +8B t  t +2(c-t)t  B-  12  2

2I y D

2I y D

Zz =

Iz B

-

Zz =

Iz B

-

J=

2

J=

[ D+2(B-t)] t 3 3

[ D+2(B+c-2t)] t 3 3

 c +D 2 ( B 2 +2BD+4Bc+6Dc )    2 2 B 2 t  +4c ( 3BD+3D +4Bc+2Dc )  C= 12 2B+D+2c 2

(interchange y and z axes)

y

z t

Omega D

y

z t

62

A= [ B+2(D+c-2t) ] t

t

z

B  D 2 +  -t  t+(c-t) ( 2D-t ) 2  z= B+2(D+c-2t)

2 2 2 [ B+2(D+c-2t)] t 3 (B+2c-4t)t 3 +2D 3 t t  t D   +t(B-2t)  y-  +2Dt  -y  +2(c-t)t  D-y-  J= 12 2 3  2 2   2 3 3 3 2 2 I D t   B D+t(B+2c-2t) -(D-t)(B-2t) Iz B Dct 1 D 2 c y 3 2 2 2 2 Iz = Zy = e= Z =  +  C= 6 ( 4c +3B c-6Bc +B D ) -I y e 12 D-z z B I y  2 4c 3 B 2  +c-t 2

Iy =

DESIGN AIDES


FORMULAS

G.4 Beam formulas Simple beam formulas Case

Moment PL M max = 4

M max =

Deflection PL3 δ max = 48 ( EI )

Pab L

M max = Pa

when n is odd: PL(n 2 − 1) M max = 8n when n is even: nPL M max = 8 M1 = M2 =

[ P1 (L − a)+P2 c] a

Reactions R1 = R 2 =

δ max =

Pab(L+b) 3a ( L + b) 27 ( EI ) L

δ max =

Pa ( 3L2 -4a 2 ) 24 ( EI )

when n is odd: PL3  1  1 1 δ max =  n −  3 −  1 − 2 192 ( EI )  n  2 n

R1 =

  

L [ P2 (L − c)+P1a ] a

M max =

L

M max =

wL 8

w ( 3L2 -4a 2 ) 24

M max = 0.06415wL2 @ x = 0.5774L

Pb Pa ; R2 = L L

R1 = R 2 = P

when n is even: PL3  1 4  δ max = n 3 − 1 +  192 ( EI )  2  n 2   -

2

R1 = R 2 =

P1 (L-a)+P2 c L P2 (L-c)+P1a R2 = L

5wL4 384 ( EI )

R1 = R 2 =

δ max =

2 4 wL4  a a   25-40   +16    1920 ( EI )  L  L  

R1 = R 2 =

wL4 ( EI )

(n − 1)P 2

R1 =

δ max =

δ max = 0.00652

P 2

R1 =

wL 2 w ( L-a ) 2

wL wL R2 = 6 3

@ x = 0.5193L 2

M max =

wL 12

wa 2 2 2L-a ) 2 ( 8L a @x= ( 2L-a ) 2L M max =

δ1

δ2

0≤x≤a

a ≤ x ≤ (a+b)

δ1

δ2

0≤x≤a

a ≤ x ≤ (a+b)

δ1 =

2 2  wx  a ( 2L-a )   24 ( EI ) L  -2ax 2 (2L-a)+Lx 3 

δ2 =

wa 2 ( L − x )  4Lx-2x 2 -a 2  24 ( EI ) L 

R1 = R 2 =

wL 4

wa ( 2L-a ) 2L wa 2 R2 = 2L R1 =

 4aL  wb ( b+2c ) x  2a ( 2L-a ) +b(b+2c)-2x 2  wb wb ( 2c+b )  R1 = δ = ( 2c+b )  1 +b 2c+b ( ) 2L 24 EI L ( )   M max = 8L2    b ( b+2c ) x   2a(2L-a) 4  w ( x-a ) +  b  2  @ x = a+ 2c+b ( ) L wb ( 2a+b )     +b(b+2c)-2x   2L R2 = δ2 =  2L 24 ( EI )

M max =

10wL2 96

δ max =

Ma = +

Moa M b Mb = - o L L

δx =

M = Mo

DESIGN AIDES

wL4 120 ( EI )

δ max =

4wL4 384 ( EI )

 M o  3a 2 x3  − 2L  x −   6a − 6 ( EI )  L L 

δ max =

M o L2 8 ( EI )

R1 = R 2 =

R1 = +

wL 3

Mo M R2 = - o L L

-

63


FORMULAS Fixed-end beam formulas Case Moment PL M max = M A = M B = 8 PL M centre = 8

B

A

L/2

L/2

Pab 2 max. when a < b L2 Pa 2 b M B = - 2 max. when a > b L 2Pa 2 b 2 @ point of load MP = L3 MA = -

B

A

a

b

MA = MB = A

B

a

MP =

a L

Pa(L − a) L

MA = MB = -

PL(n 2 − 1) 12n

B L n

L n

L n

L n

L n

B

M centre =

L

MA = B

A

L/2 L

MA = B

5wL2 192

2aL , for a > b 3a+b

δP =

Pb 2 (3a+b) L3 Pa 2 R B = 3 (3b+a) L

Pa 3 b 3 @ point of load 3 ( EI ) L3

δ max =

2 3 PL3   a  a  3   − 4    24 ( EI )   L   L  

RA = RB = P

when n is odd: PL3  1  1  1 δ max =  n −  1 −  1 − 2 192 ( EI )  n  2 n

δ max =

  

wL4 384 ( EI )

RA = RB =

wL 2

wx 2 2 (L − x ) 24 ( EI )

δ centre =

wL4 768 ( EI )

RA =

δ centre =

wL4 768 ( EI )

RA =

7wL4 3840 ( EI )

RA = RB =

wL 4

RA = RB =

wL 3

wL 8 3wL RB = 8 wL 6 wL RB = 3

wL2 20

MA = MB = -

5wL2 96

δ centre =

MA = MB = -

wL2 15

δ max =

B

L/2

@x=

P 2

RA =

11wL2 192

wL2 30

w A

2Pa 3 b 2 3 ( EI ) (3a+b) 2

δ=

M max = M B = -

L

wL2 12

wL2 24

M max = M B = -

A

RA = RB =

when n is even: PL3   1  4  1   δ max =  3 −  1+  n − 2  n −   192 ( EI )   2  n 2   n   M max = M A = M B = -

A

Reactions

δ max =

Pa 2 @ point of load L

(n-1) forces

A

Deflection PL3 δ max = 192 ( EI )

L/2 L

B

A

3wL2 80 Mb  3a  Ma  3b  MA =  -1  M B =  -1  L  L  L  L 

2wL4 384 ( EI )

M centre = M B

A

a

2 a   a a  M A ' = M  1 −  1 − 3   +6     L    L   L  

b L

∆

A B

L

64

6(EI)∆ L2 6(EI)∆ MB = L2 MA = -

δM

a ML2   L =

2

a  1 −   L 2(EI)

2

M A -M A '  2a  1 −  R A = R B = a L 

@ load -

12(EI)∆ L 12(EI)∆ RB = L RA =

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Cantilever beam formulas Case Moment M max = PL θ

FORMULAS

Deflection & rotation PL3 PL2 δ= θ= 3 ( EI ) 2 ( EI )

δ

Reactions R=P

L

M max = Pa θ

δ=

Pa 2 PL2 ( 3L-a ) θ = 6 ( EI ) 2 ( EI )

R=P

δ

a

M max =

wL2 2

δ=

wL4 wL3 θ= 8 ( EI ) 6 ( EI )

R = wL

M max =

wa 2 2

δ=

wa 4  4b   1+  8 ( EI )  3a 

R = wa

wa ( 8a 3 +18a 2 b+12ab 2 +3b 3 )

R = wb

δ

θ L

δ a

b

δ a

 b M max = wa  a+   2

δ=

 b M max = wa  a+   2

δ=

24 ( EI )

b L

δ a

b

wa ( 8a 3 +18a 2 b+12ab 2 +3b 3 +12a 2 c+12abc+4b 2 c ) 24 ( EI )

c

R = wb 2

θ

4

3

M max =

wL 6

δ=

wL wL θ= 30 ( EI ) 24 ( EI )

R=

wL 2

M max =

wa 2 3

δ=

wa 4  5b   1+  15 ( EI )  4a 

R=

wa 2

M max =

2wL2 3

δ=

11wL4 60 ( EI )

R=

wL 2

R=

wb 2

δ

L

δ a

b

δ

δ a

 2b  M max = wb  a+  3  

δ=

wb ( 20a 3 +50a 2 b+40ab 2 +11b 3 ) 60 ( EI )

b

M θ

M max = M

δ=

ML2 ML θ= 2 ( EI ) ( EI )

R=

M L

δ=

Ma 2  2b   1+  2 ( EI )  a 

R=

M a

δ

L

M max = M δ a

Note: δ =

b

ML2 ML & θ= where M = moment at support and n = degree of moment curve. n+2 ( EI ) n+1 ( EI )

DESIGN AIDES

65


FORMULAS Propped cantilever beam formulas Case Moment

Deflection

M max- = M A = A

B

L/2

M max + =

L/2

B

a

δ max = 0.009317

Pab (b+L) 2L2

δ centre =

M max- = M A = B

M max + =

L

MA = C

A

a

B

2

δ max =

L

MA = C

a

B

b

A

B

b

3

3 ( EI ) ( 3L2 − b 2 )

δ max =

2

,@x=

a  2−  L  

2

δC =

wb 2  b 2−  8  L

2

δC =

wL4 , @ x = 0.4215L 185 ( EI )

wa 4 ( 6 − 12p+7p 2 − p3 ) 48 ( EI )

wL4 q 3 ( −q 4 +9q 2 − 14q+6 ) 48 ( EI )

B

wL2 15

δ max =

B

A

7wL2 120

δ max =

0.003wL4 , @ x = 0.598L ( EI )

wa 2 ( 3a 2 − 15aL+20L2 ) 120L2 w 3 Mx = RBx − (x − b) 6a MA = -

B

a

b

M max @ x = b+

B

66

b

wap 2 (4 − p) 8

M wb ( 2c+b ) + A 2L L MA wb RB = ( 2a+b ) − 2L L 2wL RA = 5 wL RB = 10 9wL 40 11wL RB = 40 RA =

RA =

2 wa  a ( 5L − a )  1 −   2  20L3 

RB =

wa 3 ( 5L − a ) 40L3

RA =

wb − RB 2

a2 a 1− 2L 5L

wb 2 (10L2 − 3b 2 ) 120L2 w 3 M x = R A x+M A − ( x − a ) 6b MA = -

A

RB =

wbq (6 − q2 ) 8 wb 3 RB = ( q − 6q+8 ) 8

0.00235wL4 , @ x = 0.447L ( EI )

M max = 0.0423wL2 @ x = 0.67L

A

wa 8 − p 2 ( 4 − p )  8 

RA =

M max = 0.0298wL2 @ x = 0.447L

MA = -

RA =

RA =

c

A

a

3wL 8 5wL RB = 8 RA =

wb 2 ( 6q − q3 − 4 ) 8 b where: q = L w M A = - 2 ( d 2 − c 2 )( 2L2 − c 2 − d 2 ) 8L

MA = -

Pa 2 (b+2L) 2L3 Pb RB = (3L3 − b 2 ) 3 2L RA =

3L2 − b 2

9wL2 3 ,@x= L 128 8

wa 2 8

Reactions 5P RA = 16 11P RB = 16

2L ( L2 − b 2 )

MC =

L

a

wL2 8

Pb ( L2 − b 2 )

2 2   a wa 2  8 − p (4 − p)   MC = +4 − p ( 4 − p )  where: p = L 8  16  

b

A

7PL3 768 ( EI )

when a < 0.586 L:

δ max =

A

PL , @ x = 0.447L ( EI )

 Pa b b b  , @x=L  1 −  Pa b 6 ( EI ) 3L - a 3L-a   = (b+2L) @ load 2L3 when a > 0.586 L: 2

M max+

b

3PL 16

5PL @ centre 32

M max- = M A = A

3

RB =

w  L4 (11L − 15a ) +a4 ( 5L − a )  40bL3 

DESIGN AIDES

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Beam with one side over-hang Case Moment M max = A

C

B

Deflection

Pb ( L − b ) L

a

δC = −

C

B

L

MB = − A

C

B

L

9 3 ( EI )

wa 2 2

δC =

w

2

L2 − b 2 3

@x=

Pa 2 ( L+a ) 3 ( EI )

PaL2 9 3 ( EI )

B

RB =

RA =

@x=

L

RB =

Pb L P (L − b)

L Pb L P (L − b)

L

3

waL3 3p 3 + 4p 2 − 1 24 ( EI ) 

RA = RB =

2

L

3

RA =

a p= L

a

A

Pb ( L2 − b 2 )

δ max+ =

a

Reactions

 Pab  b2  2L+ − 3b  6 ( EI )  L 

δ max+ = M B = − Pa

A

δC = −

@ load

b L

FORMULAS

3

w ( L+a )( L − a ) 2L 2 w ( L+a ) 2L

4

M max =

wL 8

δC = −

waL 5wL ; δ max+ = 24 ( EI ) 384 ( EI )

RA = RB =

MB = −

wa 2 2

δC = −

wa 3 ( 4L+3a ) 24 ( EI )

RA = −

wL 2

a

A

C

B

δ max- = − Pa 2 M B = − Pa MA = A

B

C

Pa 2 M B = − Pa MA =

A

B

C

D

where: p =

A

B

L

b

L

C

D

a

b

3

δC =

PL3  a 2 a3  + ( EI )  4L2 3L3 

δC =

PL3 ( 4p 2 +6pq+3p+3q ) 12 ( EI )

δ max+ =

PaL2 L @x= 27 ( EI ) 3

B

C

a

L

M

 5 3p 2  R A = wL  −  4  8

MB = −

wa 2 2

δx =

wL4  2n 4 + ( 6p 2 − 5 ) n 3 − ( 6p 2 − 3 ) n 2   48 ( EI ) 

 3p 2 3 R B = wL  +p+  4 8  

x L

wa 2 4 wa 2 MB = − 2

δ max+ @ x = 15 − 18p 2 − 324p 4 − 156p 2 +33    δC =

wL4  p 2 ( 8p+6 ) q+6p 3 ( p+1)  48 ( EI ) 

δ max- = −

wL4 p 2 54 ( EI )

wa 2 12 wa 2 MB = − 6 M 2 MB = − M MA =

B

A

L

DESIGN AIDES

a

C

D

b

3Pa 2L 3a   R B = P 1 +   2L  RA = −

wL4 ( 8p 3 +6p 2 − 1) ( p+q ) − 2p 4   48 ( EI ) 

3wa 2 4L 3a   R B = wa  1 +  4L   RA = −

wa 2 4L wa  a  RB = 1 +  2  2L  RA = −

MA = A

3a   R A = − P 1 +  2L   3Pa RB = 2L

δC =

MA = B

L

w 2 ( L − 2a 2 ) 8

where: n =

A

18 3 ( EI )

@x=

MA = − D

a

a b ; q= L L

wa 2 L2

wa 2 2L wa RB = ( 2L+a ) 2L

δC =

M   4b   L ( a+b ) +a 2  2+    4 ( EI )  a  

δ max- = -

ML2 L @x= 27 ( EI ) 3

3Pa 2L 3a   R B = P 1 +   2L  RA = −

67


FORMULAS Continuous beam formulas Case Moment / Deflection A

B

L/2

L/2

C

L/2

L

L/3

A

L/3

C

L/3

B

L/2

6PL 5PL ; MP = @ load 32 32

RA = RC =

5P 11P ; RB = 16 8

M max = M B = -

PL 2PL ; M P1 = @ first load 3 9

RA = RC =

2P 8P ; RB = 3 3

L/2

B

L/3

M max = M B = -

L

A

L/3

L/3

C

MB = −

3PL 13PL @ load M max = 32 64

L/2 L

L

A

B

a

δ max- = −

C

M max

B

L

C

Pab ( L+a ) 4L2 Pab =  4L2 − a ( L+a )  4L2 

M max = M B = −

L

δ max = 0.00541

A

B

C

MB = −

More continuous beam formulas Three equal spans

68

RA =

13P 11P 3P ; RB = ; RC = − 32 16 32

0.96PL3 @ x = 0.48L 64 ( EI )

Pb  4L2 − a ( L+a )  4L3  Pa Pab  2L2 +b ( L+a )  ; R C = − 3 ( L+a ) RB = 2L3  4L

MB = −

b

A

Reactions

RA =

wL2 9wL2 ; M max+ = 8 128

wL4 @ x = 0.4215L ( EI )

wL2 49wL2 7L ; M max+ = @x= 16 512 16

RA = RC =

RA =

3wL 5wL ; RB = 4 8

7wL 5wL wL ; RB = ; RC = − 16 8 16

Four equal spans

DESIGN AIDES


FORMULAS

G.5 Arc formulas Circular arc formulas Diagram

Distance Ratio, N

Included angle, θ

B L

A

sin θ =

L R

cos θ = 1 –

Distance at tangent, L

Y

R

2RQ

R 2 ( N + 0.25 )

Radius, R

C N + 0.5

2Q ( N + 0.5 )

θ

R

Versine or middle ordinate, V

Approximate formulas for R > 5·x’: R y'

α≈

R–

1 4R 2 – C2 2

External distance, W

 N 2 + 0.25  R – 1   N  

A

QC L

B

R N

α

Ordinate at any point, Y x'2 2R

V–R+

C2 2R

R 2 – L2 R

C 2Q

2RQ – Q 2

L 2N 2

L2 + Q 2Q

R – CN

C L

R–

2

tan θ =

L 2

R – L2

69

R 2 – L2

C 2 – L2

C2 V + 8V 2

 R  1 – 

for

R C2 >5: V ≈ C 8R

for

R >5: W ≈ V C

for

R >5: A ≈ 4V C

L+

R 2 – X2

C2 – Q2

L N 2 + 0.25 N

2

x' R

DESIGN AIDES

cos θ =

R 2 – L2 2L

L2 + Q 2

2QN

RN N + 0.5

Offset from tangent, Q

C

y' ≈

V 2R

R+

R × θ (radians)

2

R > 5·x'

R2 – 0.25 C2

N + 0.25

X

R

L 2Q

2

V

θ 2

R – 0.25 2Q

Chord length, C

Q

W

Arc length, S

Expression

Q L

  2 N + 0.25 

N

2


FORMULAS

G.6 Cable structures Properties of cable materials Material


SCI Steel detailers manual Table 5.1 Ultimate tensile strength, Fu 2 [N/mm ]

Solid steel

210 000

400 - 2000

Strand

150 000

2000

Wire rope

112 000

2000

7 500

910

112 000

2800

Polyester fibres Aramid fibres

SCI Steel detailers manual 5.3.2.1

Elementary cable mathematics Mode Circular arc loaded radially

Catenary loaded vertically

Values

Tension [kN]

T = PR S2 d R = + 8d 2

Radius of cable [m]

WS 2 8d WS V = 2 H =

T =

Prestressed cable*

Notes

H 2 +V 2

Solve “T“ by iteration: T − T0 2T  SW = sin −1  EA SW  2T

 −1 

 S  L = 2 R sin −1    2R  (L− S) ε= S T = T0 + ε AE R= T W

Solve “d” by iteration: 4d 2 − 8 Rd + S 2 = 0

Note: *The straight cable (or flat fabric) is a special problem. To be straight, the cable must have an initial or prestress tension and theoretically zero weight. In order to carry load the cable must stretch and sag to a radius R.

DESIGN AIDES

71

Facade Notes

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