Final-health Law (1)

IMPORTANCE OF DNA PROFILING AND GENETIC INFORMATION FOR STATE AGENCIES SUB: HEALTH LAW

IMPORTANCE O OF DNA DNA PROFILING AND G GENETIC ROFILING A INFORMATION F FOR S AGENCIES STATE A

SUB: HEALTH L LAW

Submitted To: Mr. Kumar Gaurav

Submitted By: Kritya Si!a 1t! Sem" Sem" #t! ye$%" ye$%" Ro&& No'( )*+ B'A' LL'B' ,HONS'-

CHANAK"A NATIONAL NATIONAL LAW UNI#ERSIT" UNI#ER SIT"

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CHANA/0A NATIONAL LAW UNIERSIT0

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TABLE TABLE OF CONTENTS

RESEARCH METHODOLOG"

OB=ECT AND AREA OF RESEARCH INTORDUCTOR0 >UESTIOS 1' <' +' *' #' @' )'

W!$t i6 DNA 8%oi&i.4? W!$t i6 4e.eti7 i.o%m$tio.? Ho2 $%e t!e6e t2o im8o%t$.t o% 6t$te $4e.7ie6? W!$t $%e t!e i.te%.$tio.$& de5e&o8me.t6? W!$t i6 t!e 6t$tu6 o I.di$? Ho2 7!$.4e6 7$. be do.e i. I.di$? W!$t $%e t!e Re&$ted P%o5i6io.6 u.de% I.di$. L$2? L$2?

FORENSIC SCIENCE SCIENCE EIDENCE EIDENCE IN IN >UESTIONS >UESTIONS •• •• •• ••

What was was the the evidence? the evidence? evidence? was the What did the Court Court of did the the Court of Appeal Appeal say? say? What did v T T decide? did R. R. v decide? What is to be be done? done? is to

THE IMPORTANCE IMPORTANCE OF OF DNA DNA EIDENCE EIDENCE TO TO =URIES =URIES IN IN CRIMINAL CRIMINAL TRIALS TRIALS • •

Method Method Results Results

TABULAR OR GRAPHIC MATERIAL SET FORTH AT THIS POINT IS NOT DISPLA0ABLE LCN DNA DNA ANA ANAL0SIS AND OPINION OPINION ON ON TRANSFER: TRANSFER: R' R'   REED REED AND AND REED REED ANAL0 L0SIS SIS AND •• ••

opinion relating relating to to transfer transfer of Expert Expert opinion opinion relating to transfer of !A !A Conclusion

METHOD AND AND APPLICATIONS APPLICATIONS OF OF DNA DNA FINGERPRINTING: FINGERPRINTING: A A GUIDE GUIDE FOR FOR THE THE NON( SCIENTIST THE TECHNI>UE THE TECHNI>UE TECHNI>UE LOW TEMPLATE LOW TEMPLATE TEMPLATE DNA TEMPLATE DNA DNA • • •

An exa"ple#the $roughton retrial retrial An exa"ple#the %egal %egal fra"ewor& fra"ewor& Conclusion

WH0 EOLUTIONAR0 EOLUTIONAR0 BIOLOG0 BIOLOG0 IS IS ,SO ,SO FARFAR- IRR IRRELEANT TO LEGAL LEGAL REG REGULATION IRRELEA ELEANT NT TO REGULAT ULATION ION CHANA/0A NATIONAL LAW UNIERSIT0

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I' INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION: THE THE NET INTERDISCIPLINAR0 WAE? INTERDISCIPLINAR0 WAE? II' WH0 WH0 IS IS THE THE CAUSAL CAUSAL ETIOLOG0 ETIOLOG0 OF OF BEHAIOR BEHAIOR RELEANT TO LAW? LAW? RELEANT TO A. 'roble"s for the 'lasticity of $ehavior $ehavior Rationale Rationale $. 'roble" for the iscovery Rationale III' DOES DOES THE THE EISTING EISTING SCIENCE SCIENCE SUPPORT SUPPORT THE THE PROFFERED PROFFERED ETIOLOGICAL ETIOLOGICAL ACCOUNTS? A. There(s More to Evolution than !atural )election* A %oo& at the $iology $. $est Explanations+ Explanations+ or the 'roble" of ,ntological 'arsi"ony 'arsi"ony C. Why it Matters Matters Whether !atural !atural )election is at Wor& . %evels of Explanation Explanation I' I' =ONESS =ONESS DEFENSE DEFENSE OF OF THE THE RE RELEANCE OF EOLUTIONAR0 EOLUTIONAR0 BIOLOG0 BIOLOG0 RELEA LEANCE NCE OF A. -s There a  /u"an $ehavioral $iology0 $iology0 ? $. Evolution and !atural !atural )election C. The Case of Rape Rape ' CONCLUSION CONCLUSION THE =USTIFIABILIT0 THE =USTIFIABILIT0 =USTIFIABILIT0 OF =USTIFIABILIT0 OF OF RACIAL OF RACIAL RACIAL CLASSIFICATION RACIAL CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION AND AND GENERALISATIONS AND GENERALISATIONS GENERALISATIONS IN GENERALISATIONS IN IN CONTEMPORAR0 CLINICAL CLINICAL AND AND RESEARCH RESEARCH PRACTICE PRACTICE 1. -ntroduction 2. Race are are a a biological biological and and social social category category 3. The The uses uses of of race in bio"edical bio"edical research and practice race in research and practice 4. Racial generali5ations and individual generali5ations and individual patients patients 6. Racial generali5ations+ racial groups+ and the of race generali5ations+ racial groups+ and the public perception of race 7. !on#racial genetic genetic stereotyping CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPH0


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RESEARCH METHODOLOG" Aim$ a% O&'()tiv($: IMPORT ANCE E OF DNA T!e $im o t!e 8%o9e7t 8%o9e7t i6 to 8%e6e. 8%e6e.tt $ det$i& det$i&ed ed 6tudy o t!e to8i7 to8i7 * IMPORTANC IMPORTA IMPOR TANCE NCE

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FORENSIC SCIENCE E#IDENCE IN 6UESTIONS Ho2 6!ou&d o%e.6i7 67ie.ti6t6 $.d ot!e% e8e%t 2it.e66e6 8%e6e.t t!ei% e5ide.7e i. 7ou%t? W!$t 3i.d6 $.d u$&ity o d$t$ 7$. e8e%t6 8%o8e%&y d%$2 o. i. o%mu&$ti.4 t!ei% 7o.7&u6io.6? I. $. CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

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R. v T <1 <1 EWCA C%im <*+ <11 1 C%' A88' R' ' Ada"s 8!o.19 1@ 8!o.19 1@ < C%' A88' R' *@) CA ,C%im Di5- 1@ C%im' L'R'  Ada"s 8!o.29 1 8!o.29 1 1 C%' A88' R' +)) CA ,C%im Di5-' Fo% di67u66io." 6ee P' Robe%t6 $.d A' u73e%m$." Cri"inal Evidence+ <.d Evidence+ <.d ed. ,Oo%d: OUP" <1-" 88'1#(1@+' * See I' E5ett et $&" K E8%e66i.4 E5$&u$ti5e E5$&u$ti5 e O8i.io.6: A Po6itio. St$teme.t ,<11- #1 )cience : ;ustice 1 ;ustice 1 C' Be%4e%" Be%4e%" =' Bu73&eto." C' C!$m8od" I' E5ett $.d G' =$736o." K E5ide.7e E5$&u$tio.: A Re68o.6e to t!e A88e$& Cou%t =ud4me.t i. R 5 T ,<11- #1 )cience : ;ustice ,o%t!7omi.4-' ;ustice ,o%t!7omi.4-' # Com8$%e" e'4' allagher e'4' allagher << << EWCA C%im 1+ <+ 1 C%' A88' R' 1< << C%im' L'R' <1" %e&$ti.4 to t!e $dmi66ibi&ity $dmi66ibi&ity o e$%(8%i.t e5ide.7e' +

CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

11


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LCN DNA DNA ANAL"SIS ANAL"SIS AND AND OPINION OPINION ON ON TRANSFER: TRANSFER: R. R. # REED AND AND REED REED Lo2 Co8y Numbe% DNA ,LCN,LCN- $.$&y6i6 !$6 $7ui%ed $ !i4! 8%oi&e i. o%e.6i7 7i%7&e6" but !$6 4$i.ed mo%e $tte.tio. o&&o2i.4 9udi7i$& 7%iti7i6m o t!e te7!.iueJ6 %e&i$bi&ity i. t!e Om$4! Bomb t%i$&" R v /oey. 1 T!e T!e 9ud4me.t i. /oey 2$6 2$6 ui73&y ui73&y o&&o2ed by $ %e5ie2 %e5ie2 %e5ie 2 7o.du7ted o. be!$& o t!e .e2 Fo%e.6i7 Re4u&$to% ,C$ddy Re5ie2-"*@ 2!i7! 2!i7! 4$5e t!e te7!.iue $. $88$%e.t 7&e$. bi&& o !e$&t!' Ho2e5e%" t!e 7o.7&u6io.6 6et out i. t!e %e5ie2 !$5e $tt%$7ted 7%iti7i6m*) $.d $.d !$5e .ot &ed to $4%eeme.t $bout t!e 4e.e%$& u6e o LCN $.$&y6e6' T!e 9ud4me.t o t!e Cou%t o $.$&y6e6'* T!e A88e$& i. R v Reed and de$&6 2it! t2o i66ue6' T!e i%6t i6 t!e $dmi66ibi&ity o e5ide.7e o Reed and Reed Reed * de$&6 t!i6 ty8e o $.$&y6i6' T!e 6e7o.d" $.d 8e%!$86 mo%e 7o.te.tiou6" i66ue 7o.7e%.6 2!et!e% $. e8e%t 2it.e66 ou4!t to be 8e%mitted to 8%o5ide $. o8i.io. $6 to t!e &i3e&i!ood $.d me$.6 by 2!i7! DNA mi4!t mi4!t !$5e bee. t%$.6e%%ed to t!e 8&$7e 8&$7e 2!e%e it 2$6 di67o5e%ed' T!e te7!.iueJ6 8%o8o.e.t6 7&$im to obt$i. %e&i$b&e DNA 8%oi&e6 %om %om $mou.t6 $mou.t6 o o DNA 2e&& be&o2 t!e $mou.t6 %e7omme.ded by t!e m$.u$7tu%e% o t!e 3it6 t!$t $%e u6ed to 8%odu7e %e8%odu7ib&e STR 8%oi&e6'# STR STR 6t$.d6 o% S!o%t T$.dem Re8e$t6' T!e6e $%e 6!o%t &e.4t!6 o DNA DNA t!$t !$5e" du%i.4 e5o&utio." be7ome &i.3ed &i3e t!e 7$%%i$4e6 o $ t%$i.((t$.dem&y' We i.!e%it o.e 6et o 7$%%i$4e6 %om e$7! 8$%e.t $t e$7! DNA $%e$ $%e$ ,&o7u6-' T!e%e $%e te. &o7i t!$t $%e *@

<) NICC * 6ee R' P$tte.de." Noti7ebo$%d" Noti7ebo$%d" ; I.te4%ity o DNA E5ide.7e((U.ited /i.4dom ,<- 1<' EP

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=' Gi&de%" R' /o88&" I' /o%.ie&d" D' /%$.e" L' Mue&&e% $.d W' T!om86o." ; Comme.t6 o. t!e Re5ie2 o Lo2 Co8y Numbe% Te6ti.4 Te6ti.4'' Lette% to t!e Edito% ,<- <+ I.t = Le4$& Med #+#' * B' Budo2&e" A' =' Ei6e.be%4 $.d A' 5$. D$$&" ; $&idity o Lo2 Co8y Numbe% Ty8i.4 $.d A88&i7$tio.6 to Fo%e.6i7 S7ie.7e S7ie.7e ,<- # C%o$t Med = <)' * < EWCA C%im <@" <1 1 C% A88 R <+' # P' Gi&&" =' W!it$3e%" C' F&$m$." N' B%o2. $.d =' Bu73&eto." ; A. I.5e6ti4$tio. o t!e Ri4o% o I.te%8%et$tio. Ru&e6 o% STR6 De%i5ed De%i5ed %om Le66 t!$. 1 84 o DNA ,<- 11< Fo%e.6i7 Fo%e.6i7 S7i I.t 1)' CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

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$.$&y6ed i. t!e U.ited /i.4dom" 8&u6 o.e t!$t ide.tiie6 t!e 4e.de% o t!e 8e%6o.' T!e die%e.t &e.4t!6 o DNA $%e DNA $%e $%e 7$&&ed $&&e&e6' So 2e e$7! !$5e t2o $&&e&e6 ,o.e %om e$7! 8$%e.t- $t e$7! &o7u6 ,$%e$-' DNA 8%oi&i.4 i6 i6 e66e.ti$&&y t!e 8%o7e66 o ide.tiyi.4 t!e $&&e&e6 $&&e&e6 $t $t e$7! &o7u6 o $. $. i.di5idu$&' I. 6t$.d$%d DNA 8%oi&i.4 DNA 8%oi&i.4 8%oi&i.4 t!e t!e 8%o7e66 u6e6 e.ou4! DNA to DNA to to 8%odu7e t!e 6$me %e6u&t t!e e5e%y time t!e 6$m8&e i6 $.$&y6ed' Fo% t!$t %e$6o." it i6 .o%m$& i. 6t$.d$%d 8%oi&i.4 o.&y o.&y to %u. t!e 6$m8&e o.7e' T!e 8%ob&em6 be4i. 2!e. t!e %e6u&t6 %om t!e $.$&y6e6 o o6te.6ib&y t!e 6$me bio&o4i7$& m$te%i$& obt$ obt$i. i.ed ed %om %om 7%im 7%imee 6t$i 6t$i.6 .6 8%odu 8% odu7e 7e uit u ite e 5$%i$ 5$% i$b& b&e e %e6u %e6u&t &t6' 6' T!e T!e 5$%i$ 5$% i$b& b&e e %e6u %e6u&t &t66 $%e $%e t!e t!e 8%od u7e uite ui te 5$%i 5$ %i$b $b&e &e 5$%i 5$ %i$b $b&e &e 7o.6eue.7e o $ 6$m8&i.4 8!e.ome.o. 7$&&ed $ ; 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t e e7t o% 6to7!$6ti7 5$%i$bi&ity' 5$%i$bi&ity' A ee7t 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t i6 $ %$.dom 5$%i$tio. e8e7ted 2!e. $.$&y6i.4 $ 6$m8&e %om $ 5e%y 6m$&& 8o8u&$tio.' To $88%e7i$te 2!$t $ 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t i6" 7o.6ide% i you $63 o.&y 1 8eo8&e 2!$t te$m t!ey 6u88o%t' 0ou $%e u.&i3e&y to 4et $. $.62e% t!$t %e&e7t6 t!e 5ie26 o t!e 2!o&e 8o8u&$tio.' A63 $.ot!e% 4%ou8 o 1 8eo8&e $.d it i6 &i3e&y t!$t you 2i&& 4et $ die%e.t %e6u&t' T!e 6$m8&e 6ie o 8eo8&e i6 too 6m$&& to 4$i. $ %e&i$b&e %e8%e6e.t$tio. o t!e o5e%$&& 8o8u&$tio.J6 te$m &oy$&ty' &oy$&ty' I.deed" t2o 6m$&& 6$m8&i.46 o te$m 6u88o%te%6 $%e &i3e&y to 4i5e t2o die%e.t %e8%e6e.t$tio.6 o te$m &oy$&ty' Ho2e5e%" $63 1 mi&&io. 8eo8&e $.d you $%e mo%e &i3e&y to obt$i. $ mo%e $77u%$te 8i7tu%e o t!e t%ue .umbe% o 6u88o%te%6 o e$7! te$m' T!e 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t i6 e5ide.t i. t!e die%e.7e i. %e6u&t6 bet2ee. t!e t2o 6$m8&e6 o 1 8eo8&e' I. LCN 8%oi&i.4" $ 8$%ti7u&$% 8$%ti7u&$% e$m8&e e$m8&e o met!od6 o Lo2 Tem8&$te Tem8&$t Tem8&$te e 8%oi&i.4 ,t!e o o.e o t!e t!e met!od6 Tem 8&$te tem8&$te bei.4 t!e DNA m$te%i$& m$te%i$& t!$t o.e !$6 $t t!e be4i..i.4 o t!e 8%oi&i.4 8%o7e66-" t!e%e $%e 6o e2 mo&e7u&e6 o DNA $5$i&$b&e $5$i&$b&e i. t!e 6$m8&e t!$t t!e6e %$.dom o% 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t6 $88e$%' C%iti76 o t!e te7!.iue#1 7o.te.d 7o.te.d t!$t t!i6 %e.de%6 i.te%8%et$tio. u.%e&i$b&e $6 $ me$6u%e o 2!$t i6 i. t!e 6$m8&e' P%o8o.e.t6 $66e%t t!$t t!e dii7u&ty 7$. be 6u%mou.ted by 7ou.ti.4 o.&y $&&e&e6 ,$&&e& ,$&&e&e6 e6 $%e 7om8o.e. 7om8 o.e.t6 t6 o DNA DNA ty8e6- t!$t $%e ob6e%5ed i. $t &e$6t t2o %e8&i7$te $.$&y6e6 7om8o.e.t6 7om8o.e .t6 ,u6u$&&y 7$&&ed ; %u.6 -" %e4$%d&e66 o t!e .umbe% o %u.6'#< Sto7!$6ti7 ee7t ee7t $.d $.d t!e t!e $dmi66ibi&ity $dmi66ibi&ity o o LCN DNA $.$&y6i6 $.$&y6i6 T!e LCN DNA T!e i66ue o% t!e t!e Cou%t Cou%t o o A88e$& A88e$& A88e$& i. Reed and Reed 63 2$6 2$6 2!et!e%" i. &i4!t o t!e 7o.7e%.6 t!$t !$d bee. e8%e66ed $6 to t!e t!e #1

Fo% e$m8&e" B' Budo2&e" A' =' Ei6e.be%4 $.d A' 5$. D$$&"
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%e&i$bi&ity e5ide.7e o LCN DNA $.$&y6i6 $.$&y6i6 2$6 $dmi66ib&e i. 7%imi.$& %e&i$bi&i %e&i $bi&ity ty o t!e te7!.iue i. /oey+ e5ide.7e 8%o7eedi.46 i. E.4&$.d $.d W$&e6' T!e 7ou%t 2$6 6$ti6ied 6$ti6ied t!$t t!e t!e LCN te7!.iue 7$. be u6ed to obt$i. 8%oi&e6 t!$t $%e 7$8$b&e o %e&i$b&e i.te%8%et$tio. 2!e%e t!e u$.tity o DNA $5$i&$b&e $5$i&$b&e o% $.$&y6i6 i6 $bo5e t!e 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d' Co.6eue.t&y" $6 $.$&y6i6 o 6u7! u$.titie6 i6 u.&i3e&y to 6ue% %om 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t6" e5ide.7e o t!e %e6u&t6 2ou&d be $dmi66ib&e' T!e %e&i$bi&ity o LCN DNA $.$&y6i6 $.$&y6i6 i. 6u7! 7i%7um6t$.7e6 !$6 .e5e% %e$&&y bee. b ee. di68uted' di68uted' T!e $ut!o% 2$6 7$&&ed to 8%o5ide e8e%t te6timo.y o% t!e dee.7e i. /oey $.d $.d 8%odu7ed $ %e8o%t o% t!e $88e&&$.t i. Reed and $.d i. bot! 8%o7eedi.46 $73.o2&ed4ed !$5i.4 bee. i.5o&5ed Reed and Reed+ $.d Reed+ Reed+ $.d i. 7$6e6 i. 2!i7! t!e%e 2$6 .o 7%edib&e 7!$&&e.4e to t!e %e6u&t6 o LCN DNA $.$&y6i6' $.$&y6i6' Ho2e5e%" it doe6 .ot o&&o2 t!$t be7$u6e %e8%odu7ib& %e8%odu7ib&ee %e6u&t6 %e6u& t6 obt$i.ed 2it! 6ui7ie.t 6ui7ie.t $mou.t6 o DNA %e6u&t6 u6i.4 t!e LCN 8%o7e66 !$5e bee. $77e8ted t!$t t!i6 5$&id$te6 t!e u6e o t!e te7!.iue i. 7i%7um6t$.7e6 2!e%e 6to7!$6ti7 5$%i$bi&ity 7$u6e6 6e%iou6 i.te%8%et$tio.$& dii7u&tie6' T!e 7ou%t 2e.t o. to 7o.6ide% 7i%7um6t$.7e6 i. 2!i7! t!e $mou.t o DNA 2$6 2$6 6u7! t!$t o.e mi4!t e8e7t to 6ee 5$%i$b&e %e6u&t6 be7$u6e o 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t6" $.d i. 6o doi.4" ee7ti5e&y oe%i.4 $ dei.itio. o t!e 7o.7e8t o $ 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d' It ob6e%5ed t!$t ; t!e%e i6 .o $4%eeme.t $mo.4 67ie.ti6t6 $6 to t!e 8%e7i6e &i.e 2!e%e t!e 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d 6!ou&d be d%$2." but it i6 bet2ee. 1 $.d < 8i7o4%$m6 o DNA m$te%i$& m$te%i$& '#* It 6!ou&d be .oted" !o2e5e%" t!$t t!e 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d i6 de8e.de.t o. m$.y t!i.46" .ot 9u6t t!e $mou.t o DNA' I $&& ot!e% 5$%i$b&e6" 6u7! $6 t!e $.$&yti7$& met!od $.d t!e 6$m8&e" $%e 7o.6t$.t t!e. $ 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d 7$. be 8%e7i6e&y dei.ed i. te%m6 o t!e $mou.t o DNA' Ho2e5e%" Ho2e5e%" be7$u6e be7$u6e o t!e 8%e6e.7e 8%e6e.7e o t!e6e ot!e% 5$%i$b&e6" 5$%i$b&e6" u6i.4 t!e 6$me &o2 $mou.t o DNA m$y o% m$y .ot 8%odu7e 8 %odu7e $ 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t' T!e $mou.t me%e&y i.di7$te6 t!e 8o66ib&e o77u%%e.7e o t!e %e$& 8%ob&em" 2!i7! i6 5$%i$b&e %e6u&t6' Sto7!$6ti7 ee7t6 7$. be ob6e%5ed" but t!e 8%ob&em o 5$%i$b&e %e6u&t6 !$6 yet to be $dd%e66ed 6$ti6$7to%i&y' I. t!i6 %e4$%d" t!e 7ou%tJ6 7o.7&u6io. t!$t: $ 7!$&&e.4e to t!e 5$&idity o t!e met!od o $.$&y6i.4 Lo2 Tem8&$te DNA by t!e LCN 8%o7e66 8%o7e66 6!ou 6! ou&d &d &o .4e% 8e%mit itte ted d $t t%i$ t%i$&6 &6 2!e% 2!e%ee t!e t!e u$.t u $.tit ity y o DNA $.$&y $.$ &y6ed 6ed $bo5e t!e 6!ou& d .o &o.4e &o.4 e%% be 8e%m u$. $.ti tity ty $.$&y6 $.$& y6ed ed i6 $bo5e 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d o 1(< 8i7o4%$m6 i. t!e $b6e.7e o .e2 67ie.tii7 e5ide.7e  ## !$6 !$6 t!e 8ote.ti$& to 7$u6e 7o.6ide%$b&e mi6u.de%6t$.di.4 bei.4 b$6ed" .ot o. t!e %$.4e o $7to%6 t!$t #*

Ibid' $t )*' Ibid' $t )*iii-'

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I. $ %e7e.t %et%i$& $t Oo%d C%o2. Cou%t , R. v $roughton+ $roughton+ =u.e(=u&y <1-" $t 2!i7! t!e dee.d$.t" $. $.im$& %i4!t6 $7ti5i6t" 2$6 7o.5i7ted o 7o.68i%$7y to 7ommit $%6o." P%oe66o% D$5id B$&di.4 2$6 7$&&ed by t!e C%o2. to 4i5e e5ide.7e b$6ed o. LTDNA %e6u&t6 2!i7! !e !$d $.$&y6ed u6i.4 6ot2$%e t!$t !e !$d 2%itte.' He i6 P%oe66o% o 6t$ti6ti7$& 4e.eti76 $t $t U.i5e%6ity U.i5e%6ity Co&&e4e Lo.do." $.d $ 2e&&(3.o2. $.d i.te%.$tio.$&&y %e68e7ted e8e%t i. t!e ie&d o 6t$ti6ti7$& $.$& $. $&y6 y6i6 i6 o DNA %e6u&t6' He !$6 i. t!e 8$6t $&6o bee. $ 7%iti7 o t!e 6ub9e7ti5e $.$&y6i6 $.$&y6 $.$ &y6i6 $.$&y6i6 o o %e6u&t6" i. 8$%ti7u&$% i. %e&$tio. to t!e 2$y d%o8(out !$6 bee. r-/i,i1 %e6u&t6" bee. &$%4e&y &$%4e&y i4.o%ed i4.o%ed 2!e. 2!e. o%mu&$ti o%mu&$ti.4 .4 6t$ti6ti7 6t$ti 6ti76 e$m8&e $ates+ post -' 6t$ti6ti 6t$t i6ti76 766 ,6ee" o% e$m8&e -' T!e $&4o%it!m6 u.de%&yi.4 !i6 7om8ute% 7ode !$d bee. 8ub&i6!ed i. $ 8ee%(%e5ie2ed 9ou%.$&" 9ou%.$&"< $.d t!e 7ou%t de7ided t!$t !i6 met!od6 met!od6 !$d !$d bee. 6ui7ie.t&y 5$&id$ted to 8e%mit t!ei% i.t%odu7tio. i.to e5ide.7e' Hi6 e5ide.7e 4$5e 8o2e%u& t!ei% i.t%odu7tio. 6u88o%t to t!e C%o2.J6 7$6e t!$t t!e $77u6ed 2$6 t!e 8%i.7i8$& 6ou%7e o t!e LTDNA %om t!e 7%ime 67e.e' T!i6 2$6 6t%o.4&y di68uted by t!e dee.7e' L$u%e.7e Mue&&e%" P%oe66o% o e7o&o4y $.d e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y $t t!e U.i5e%6ity o C$&io%.i$" I%5i.e USA" 2$6 7$&&ed by t!e dee.7e' A&t!ou4! !e 7o.6ide%ed B$&di.4J6 $88%o$7! to be $ K


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6i4.ii7$.t 6i4.i i7$.tt $d5$.7e 6t$ti6ti76 76 4e.e%$ted 4e.e%$ted 2e%e de8e.de.t de8e.de.t o. 6ub9e7ti5e 6ub9e7ti 5e 6i4.ii7$. $d5$.7e " !e 8oi.ted out t!$t t!e 6t$ti6ti 6ub9e7ti5e 6ub9e 7ti5e e6tim$te6 o 5$&ue6 o% d%o8(i. $.d d%o8(out' He ,$&o.4 2it! D$. /%$.e" P%oe66o% o Bio&o4i7$& S7ie.7e6" W%i4!t St$te U.i5e%6ity" D$yto." O!io USA" $&6o 7$&&ed by t!e dee.7e- 7o.6ide%ed t!$t t!e%e 2$6 .o 2$y t!e6e 5$&ue6 $77u %$te&y e6tim$ted' Mue&&e% demo.6t%$ted t!$t 5$ &ue6 7ou&d e5e% be $77u%$te&y by i.7%e$6i.4 t!e 8%ob$bi&ity o d%o8(out !$5i.4 o77u%%ed" t!e 6t$ti6ti76 $5ou%i.4 t!e C%o2.J6 !y8ot! !y8 ot!e6i e6i66 de7%e$ de7 %e$6ed 6ed ete.t o e5e.tu$ e5e. tu$&&y &&y be7omi.4 .4 8o6it 8o6 iti5e i5e&y &y e7u&8$to $to%y %y o t!e !y8ot!e6i de7%e$6 de7% e$6ed ed ( to t!e ete.t e5e.tu e5e .tu$&& $&&y y be7omi 8o6iti iti5e& 5e&y y e7u&8 dee.d$.t' Re$&i6ti7 5$&ue6 o% d%o8(i. $.d d%o8(out 2e%e !ot&y 7o.te6ted by t!e %e68e7ti5e e8e%t6" $.d it 2$6 $77e8ted t!$t 6u7! 5$&ue6 7ou&d o.&y be %ou4!&y e6tim$ted ( but t!i6 7$6e did i&&u6t%$te t!$t 6ub9e7ti5ity !$6 yet to be t$3e. out o t!i6 $%e$ o o%e.6i7 67ie.7e" $.d t!$t %e68e7ted e8e%t6 7$. 6ti&& die% 2ide&y $6 to t!e 7o%%e7t i.te%8%et$tio. to be 8&$7ed o. LTDNA %e6u&t6' W!$te5e% W!$te 5e% it6 8ote.ti$& 8ote.ti$& 6!o%t7omi.46" 6!o%t7omi.46" t!e $ut!o%6 7o.6ide% it &i3e&y t!$t t!e K B$&di.4 met!od met!od W!$te5e% $ut!o%6 7o.6ide% 2i&& 2i&& 6oo. 6oo. %e8&$7e %e8&$7 %e8 &$7ee t!e 8%im$7y 8%im$7y 4i5e. 4i5e. 4i5 e. to to t!e t!e o8i.io. o8i.io. o o8i.io. o t!e t!e %e8o%ti.4 %e8o%ti.4 %e8o%ti .4 67ie.ti6t" 67ie.t 67i e.ti6t i6t"" $.d $.d $6 $6 6u7! 6u7! 6u7 ! 8%$7titio.e%6 2i&& .eed to 4$i. $. u.de%6t$.di.4 o !i6 7om8ute% mode&" $.d o it6 8ote.ti$& 6t%e.4t!6 6t%e .4t!6 $.d 2e$3.e66e6' A&6o A&6 o o. t!e !o%io. ,t!ou4! ,t!ou4! ,t!ou4! %u&ed %u&ed i.$dmi66ib&e i.$dmi66ib&e i.$dmi66ib&e $6 i.6ui7ie.t&y i.6ui7i i.6ui7ie.t&y e.t&y 6t%e.4t!6 $.d 2e$3.e66e6' A&6o 5$&id$ted i. t!e B%ou4!to. t%i$&-" i6 $ 8%o8%iet$%y 7om8ute% 8%o4%$mme ,K T!e T%ue A&&e&e 7%e$ted by D% M$%3 Pe%&i. ,Di%e7to% o Cybe%4e.eti76 Co%8" Pitt6bu%4! USA-' T!e 2o%3i.46 o t!i6 8%o4%$mme %e&y o. 7om8&e m$t!em$ti7$& mode&6 $.$&y6i.4 $&& t!e d$t$ !o2e5e% m$%4i.$&" $.d it 7&$im6 to be $b&e to 8%o5ide me$.i.4u& 6t$ti6ti76 e5e. %om 7om8&e mitu%e6' P%oe66o% Mue&&e Mue &&e% 5oi%e di%e di%e to dete%m dete%mi.e i.e $dmi66 $dmi66ibi ibi&it &ity y i. t!e B%ou4!t B%o u4!to. o. %et%i$ %et%i$&&- de67%i de67%ibed bed t!e Mue&& e%% ,o. $ 5oi%e B%ou4! to. met!od6 $6 $. i.te%e6ti.4 $.d 8ote.ti$&&y im8o%t$.t $d5$.7e o% t!e ob9e7ti5e i.te%8%et$tio. o LTDNA" but !$d %e$& 7o.7e%.6 $6 to it6 o%e.6i7 u6e due 8%i.7i8$&&y to !i6 5ie2 t!$t it !$d yet to be 6ui7ie.t&y 5$&id$ted by 8ee% %e5ie2' %e5ie2' L(1a, /ram(3-r8

T!e $dmi66ibi&ity o DNA e5ide.7e e5ide.7e 2$6 i%6t $dd%e66ed by t!e Cou%t o A88e$& i. oheny i. oheny 1) oheny 1) 1) 1 C%'A88'R' +@ i. 2!i7! t!e Cou%t !e&d t!$t 2!e. $ddu7i.4 DNA e5ide.7e e5ide.7e e5ide.7e i. $ 7%imi.$& 7%imi.$& t%i$& t!e t!e e8e% e8 e%tt 6!ou 6!ou&d &d $&6o $&6o 8%o5i 8% o5ide dee !i6 !i6 7$&7 7$ &7u& u&$t $tio io.6 .6 o t!e t!e %$.d %$.dom om o77u% o77 u%%e %e.7 .7ee %$ti %$tio o $.d $. d t!e t!e e8e%t 8%o5 o5id ide 7$&7u 7$& 7u&$ &$ti tio.6 o.6 o77u%%e $.d 8%o6e7utio. 6!ou&d 8 8%o5ide %o5ide t!e dee.7e 2it! t!e me$.6 o 7$&7u&$tio. to $&&o2 $deu$te 67%uti.y 67%uti.y o t!e %e6u&t6' T!e e8e%t 6!ou&d e8&$i. t!e m$t7! bet2ee. t!e DNA 6$m8&e6" 6$m8&e6" but 6!ou&d .ot 4i5e t!ei% o8i.io. o. t!e 7!$.7e6 o t!e dee.d$.t !$5i.4 &et t!e 7%ime 6t$i.' 6t$i.'


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I. $ates <@ <@ EWCA C%im 1+# t!e Cou%t 7o.6ide%ed t!e 8o6itio. i. %e4$%d to 8$%ti$& 8%oi&e DNA e5ide.7e' e5ide.7e' It 2$6 7ommo. 4%ou.d t!$t $ 8$%ti$& 8%oi&e 2$6 &e66 6$ti6$7to%y t!$. $ u&&

8%oi&e" be7$u6e t!e i.o%m$tio. mi66i.4 %om $ 8$%ti$& 8%oi&e 7ou&d 8ote.ti$&&y e6t$b&i6! 7o.7&u6i5e&y t!$t t!e 8e%6o. u.de% i.5e6ti4$tio. !$d .ot 7o.t%ibuted to t!e 6$m8&e' T!e $88e&&$.t $%4ued t!$t t!e ee7t o t!e de7i6io. i. oheny 2$6 2$6 t!$t o.&y 6t$ti6ti7$& e5ide.7e 7ou&d 8%o8e%&y be 8&$7ed beo%e t!e 9u%y i. %e&$tio. to DNA $.$&y6i6" $.$&y6i6" $.d t!$t i. t!e 7$6e o $ 8$%ti$& 8%oi&e t!e i.$bi&ity to t$3e $77ou.t o t!e 8ote.ti$& e7u&8$to%y ee7t o mi66i.4 i.o%m$tio." o% K 5oid6 " i.5$&id$ted $.y m$t7! 8%ob$bi&ity' It 2$6 u%t!e% 6ubmitted t!$t it 2$6 i.$88%o8%i$te to i.5ite t!e 9u%y to $66e66 o% t!em6e&5e6 t!e e5ide.ti$& 5$&ue o $ 8$%ti$& 8%oi&e" $.d t!$t o t!e mi66i.4 5oid6" $6 it 2ou&d %eui%e t!em to 2ei4! u8 6omet!i.4 2!i7! 2$6 i.!e%e.t&y u.u$.tii$b&e' T!e Cou%t %e9e7ted t!e6e $%4ume.t6 $.d !e&d t!$t oheny t!$t oheny 2$6 oheny 2$6 2$6 .ot $ut!o%ity $ut!o%ity o% t!e 8%o8o6itio. 8%o8o6itio. t!$t o.&y o.&y m$t7! m$t7! 8%ob$b 8%o b$bi&i i&ity ty 7$& 7u&$ti $tio.6 o.6 2!i7! 2!i7! too3 too3 i.to i.to $77ou.t $77 ou.t 6t$ ti6ti 6ti7$& 7$& 5$&ue 5$&ue o e5e%y e5e%y 8%ob$bi b$bi&it &ity y 7$&7u& 7$&7u&$ tio.6 $77o u.t t!e 6t$ti 6t$ti6 ti7$& 8o66ibi&ity 2e%e $dmi66ib&e i. e5ide.7e" $.d 6t$ted t!$t i. 8%i.7i8&e t!e%e 2$6 .o %e$6o. 2!y e5ide.7e b$6ed o. $ 8$%ti$& 8%oi&e 6!ou&d .ot be $dmi66ib&e" 8%o5ided t!$t t!e 9u%y 2e%e m$de $2$%e o it6 &imit$tio.6 $.d 2e%e 4i5e. 6ui7ie.t e8&$.$tio. to e.$b&e t!em to e5$&u$te it' O5e% t!e &$6t 1 mo.t!6 Lo%d =u6ti7e T!om$6 !$6 8%e6ided o5e% $ 6e%ie6 o $88e$&6 i. 2!i7! t!e Cou%t !$6 $dd%e66ed $dmi66ibi&i $dmi66ibi&ity ty i66ue6 i66ue6 %e&$ti.4 to &o2 tem8&$te DNA' T!e mo6t im8o%t$.t de7i6i de7i6io. o. 2$6 i. Reed < < EWCA C%im C%i m <@ <@ <1 < 1 1 C%'A C%'A88' 88'R' R' <+' I. Reed t!e Cou%t C%im <1 7o.6ide%ed 7o.6ide%ed bot! t!e %e&i$bi&i %e&i $bi&ity ty $dmi66ibi& $dmi66ibi&ity ity o &o2 tem8&$te %e&i$bi&it %e&i$ bi&ity y $.d $.d $dmi66ibi&ity $dmi66ib i&ity tem8&$te DNA $.d t!e 8%o7edu%e o% dete%mi.i.4 dete%m i.i.4 $dmi66i bi&ity' y'' I. %e4$%d tem8&$t e DNA dete%mi.i. dete% mi.i.4 4 it6 $dmi66ibi&it $dmi66ibi&ity $dmi66ibi&i ty' %e4$%d %e4$% d to to t!e i%6t i%6t i66ue" i66ue" it 7o.7&uded t!$t &o2 tem8&$te tem8&$te 7ou&d be u6ed to obt$i. 8%oi&e6 8%oi&e6 7$8$b&e 7$8$b&e o %e&i$b&e %e&i$b&e i.te%8%et$ti i.te%8%et$tio. o. i t!e u$.tity u$.tit y o DNA t!$t u$.tity 7ou&d be $.$&y6ed 2$6 $bo5e t!e 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d: i- Lo2 Tem8&$t Tem8&$tee DNA 7$. 7$. be u6ed to obt$i. 8%oi&e6 7$8$b&e o %e&i$b&e i.te%8%et$tio. i i t!e t!e u$.tity o DNA t!$t t!$t 7$. be $.$&y6ed i6 $bo5e t!e 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d ( t!$t i6 to 6$y 2!e%e t!e 8%oi&e i6 u.&i3e&y to 6ue% %om 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t6 ,6u7! $6 $&&e&i7 d%o8 out me.tio.ed $t 8$%$4%$8! *- 2!i7! 8%e5e.t 8%o8e% i.te%8%et$tio. o t!e $&&e&e6' ii- T!e%e i6 .o $4%eeme.t $4%eeme.t $mo.4 67ie.ti6t6 67ie.ti6t66 $6 8%e7i6e &i.e 2!e%e t!e 6to7!$6ti 6to7!$6ti7 7 t!%e6!o&d t!%e6!o&d 67ie.ti6t $6 to t!e t!e 8%e7i6e 6to7!$6t 6to7!$6ti7 i7 6!ou&d be d%$2." but it i6 bet2ee. 1 $.d < 8i7o4%$m6' iii- Abo5e t!$t %$.4e" t!e LCN 8%o7e66 u6ed by t!e FSS 7$. 8%odu7e e&e7t%o8!o%eto4%$m6 2!i7! $%e 7$8$b&e o %e&i$b&e i.te%8%et$tio.' T!e%e m$y" o 7ou%6e" be die%e.7e6 bet2ee. t!e e8e%t6 o.


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t!e i.te%8%et$tio." o% e$m8&e $6 to 2!et!e% t!e 4%e$te% .umbe% o $m8&ii7$tio.6 u6ed i. t!i6 8%o7e66 !$6 i. t!e 8$%ti7u&$% 7i%7um6t$.7e6 8%odu7ed $%te$7t6 $.d t!e ee7t o o  6u7! $%te$7t6 o. t!e i.te%8%et$ti i.te%8%et$tio.' o.' C$%e m$y $&6o be .eeded i. i.te%8%et$t i.te%8%et$tio. io. 2!e%e t!e t!e LCN 8%o7e66 i6 u6ed u6ed o. &$%4e% u$.titie6 t!$. t!$t o% 2!i7! it i6 .o%m$&&y u6ed' Ho2e5e% $ 7!$&&e.4e to t!e 5$&idity o t!e met!od o $.$&y6i.4 Lo2 Tem8&$te DNA by t!e LCN 8%o7e66 6!ou&d .o &o.4e% be 8e%mitted 8 e%mitted $t t%i$ t%i$&6 &6 2!e% 2!e%ee t!e t!e u$.t u$ .tit ity y o DNA $.$&y6ed $.$&y6ed i6 $bo5e $bo5e t!e t!e 6to7!$6ti7 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d o 1(< u$. u $.ti tity ty 8i7o4%$m6 i. t!e $b6e.7e o .e2 67ie.tii7 e5ide.7e' A 7!$&&e.4e 6!ou&d o.&y be 8e%mitted 2!e%e .e2 67ie.tii7 e5ide.7e i6 8%o8e%&y 8ut beo%e t!e t%i$& 7ou%t $t $ P&e$ $.d C$6e M$.$4eme.t He$%i.4 ,PCMH- o% ot!e% 8%e(t%i$& !e$%i.4 o% det$i&ed 7o.6ide%$tio. by t!e 9ud4e i. t!e 2$y de67%ibed $t 8$%$4%$8!6 1< $.d o&&o2i.4 be&o2' i5- A6 A 6 2e !$5e me.tio.ed me.ti o.ed"" it i6 .o2 t!e 8%$7ti7e 8%$7ti7e o t!e FSS to u$.tiy u$.ti u$.tiy y t!e t!e $mou.t $mou.t $mou.t o DNA A6 me.tio.ed" beo%e te6ti.4' T!e%e 6!ou&d be .o dii7u&ty t!e%eo%e i. $67e%t$i.i.4 t!e u$.tity $.d t!u6 2!et!e% it i6 $bo5e t!e %$.4e %$.4e 2!e%e 2!e%e it it i6 i6 $77e8ted $77e8ted t!$t t!$t 6to7!$6ti7 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t6 ee7t6 6!ou&d .ot 8%e5e.t 8%o8e% i.te%8%et$tio. o $ 8%oi&e' 5- T!e%e m$y be 7$6e6 2!e%e %e&i$.7e i6 8&$7ed o. $ 8%oi&e obt$i.ed 2!e%e t!e u$.tity o DNA $.$&y6ed i6 2it!i. t!e %$.4e o 1(< 8i7o4%$m6 2!e%e t!e%e i6 di6$4%eeme.t o. t!e 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d o. t!e 8%e6e.t 6t$te o t!e 67ie.7e' We 2ou&d $.ti7i8$te t!$t 6u7! 7$6e6 2ou&d be %$%e $.d t!$t" i. $.y e5e.t" 67ie.t 67ie.tii ii7 7 di6$4%ee di6$4% di6$4%eem eeme.t e.tt 2i&& %e6o&5ed ed $6 t!e 67ie.7 67i e.7e e o DNA e5e.t" t!e 67ie.ti 67ie. tii7 i7 di6$4 %eeme. me.t 2i&&& be 2i& be %e6o&5 67ie.7e e.7e r-/i,i1 de5e&o86' de5e&o86' I 6u7! $ 7$6e $%i6e6" e8e%t e5ide.7e mu6t be be 4i5e. 4i5e. $6 $6 to to 2!et!e% 2!et!e% i. i. t!e t!e

8$%ti7u&$% 7$6e" $ %e&i$b&e i.te%8%et$tio. 7$. be m$de' We 2ou&d $.ti7i8$te t!$t 6u7! e5ide.7e 2ou&d be 4i5e. by 8e%6o.6 2!o $%e e8e%t i. t!e 67ie.7e o DNA $.d $.d 6u88o%ted by t!e &$te6t %e6e$%7! o. t!e 6ub9e7t' We 2ou&d .ot $.ti7i8$te t!e%e bei.4 $.y $tt$73 o. t!e 4ood $it! o t!o6e 2!o 6ou4!t to $ddu7e 6u7! e5ide.7e ,$t 8$%$')*-' T!e Cou%t i. Reed $&6o $&6o em8!$6i6ed t!$t it 2$6 e66e.ti$& t!$t t!e 7ou%t ee%7i6e it6 8o2e%6 o 7$6e m$.$4eme.t to e6t$b&i6! $ i%m de4%ee o 7o.t%o& o5e% t!e $dmi66ibi&ity o &o2 tem8&$te tem8&$te DNA e5ide.7e' T!e e5ide.7e o t!e 8o66ibi&itie6 $.d t!e e5$&u$tio. o t!e e5ide.7e mu6t be 7&e$%&y 6et out i. u&& i. t!e te%m6 i. 2!i7! it 2$6 to be 4i5e.' W!e%e t!e%e 2$6 $ 7!$&&e.4e to it6 $dmi66ibi&ity" t!e 7ou%t !$d to %u&e o. t!e i66ue o $dmi66ibi&ity i. $d5$.7e" o% $t t!e out6et o t!e t%i$&: I. 7$6e6 i.5o&5i.4 DNA e5ide.7e: e5ide.7e:


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i- It i6 8$%ti7u&$%&y im8o%t$.t to e.6u%e t!$t t!e ob&i4$tio. u.de% Ru&e ++'+,1-,- $.d ,4- o t!e C%imi.$& P%o7edu%e Ru&e6 i6 o&&o2ed $.d $&6o t!$t" 2!e%e 8%o8o6itio.6 $%e to be $d5$.7ed $6 8$%t o $. e5$&u$ti5e o8i.io. ,'-" t!$t e$7! 8%o8o6itio. i6 68e&t out 2it! 8%e7i6io. i. t!e e8e%t %e8o%t' ii- E8e%t %e8o%t6 mu6t" $te% e$7! !$6 bee. 6e%5ed" be 7$%eu&&y $.$&y6ed by t!e 8$%tie6' W!e%e $ di6$4%eeme.t i6 ide.tiied" t!i6 mu6t be b%ou4!t to t!e $tte.tio. o t!e t!e 7ou%t' 7ou%t' iii- I t!e %e8o%t6 $%e $5$i&$b&e beo%e t!e PCMH" t!i6 6!ou&d be do.e $t t!e PCMH but i t!e %e8o%t6 !$5e .ot bee. 6e%5ed by $&& 8$%tie6 $t t!e time o t!e PCMH ,$6 m$y ote. be t!e 7$6e-" it i6 t!e duty o t!e C%o2. $.d t!e dee.7e to e.6u%e t!$t t!e .e7e66$%y 6te86 $%e t$3e. to b%i.4 t!e m$tte% b$73 beo%e t!e 9ud4e 2!e%e $ di6$4%eeme.t i6 ide.tiied' i5- It 2i&& t!e. i. t!e o%di.$%y 7$6e be .e7e66$%y o% t!e 9ud4e to ee%7i6e !i6 8o2e%6 u.de% Ru&e ++'@ $.d m$3e $. o%de% o% t!e 8%o5i6io. o $ 6t$teme.t' 5- We 2ou&d $.ti7i8$te" e5e. i. 6u7! $ 7$6e" t!$t ' mu7! o t!e 67ie.7e %e&$ti.4 to DNA 2i&& 2i&& be 7ommo. 4%ou.d' T!e e8e%t6 6!ou&d be $b&e to 6et out i. t!e 6t$teme.t u.de% Ru&e ++'@ i. 7&e$% te%m6 o% u6e $t t!e t%i$& t!e b$6i7 67ie.7e t!$t i6 $4%eed" i. 6o $% $6 it i6 .ot 7o.t$i.ed i. o.e o t!e %e8o%t6' T!e e8e%t6 mu6t t!e. ide.tiy 2it! 8%e7i6io. 2!$t i6 i. di68ute ( o% e$m8&e" t!e m$t7! 8%ob$bi&ity" t!e i.te%8%et$tio. o t!e e&e7t%o8!o%eto4%$m6 o% t!e e5$&u$ti5e o8i.io. t!$t i6 to be 4i5e.' 5i- I t!e o%de% $6 to t!e 8%o5i6io. o t!e 6t$teme.t u.de% Ru&e ++'@ i6 .ot ob6e%5ed $.d i. t!e $b6e.7e $b6e.7e o $$ 4ood %e$6o." t%i$& 9ud4e 6!ou&d 7o.6ide% 7o.6ide% 7$%eu&&y %e$6o." t!e. t!e t!e t%i$& 7$%eu&&y 2!et!e% to ee%7i6e ee%7i6e ee%7i 6e t!e 8o2e% to %eu6e 8e%mi66io. to t!e 8$%ty 2!o6e e8e%t i6 i. de$u&t to 7$&& t!$t e8e%t to 4i5e e5ide.7e' I. m$.y 7$6e6" t!e 9ud4e m$y 2e&& ee%7i6e t!$t 8o2e%' A $i&u%e to i.d time o% $ meeti.4 be7$u6e o 7ommitme.t6 to ot!e% m$tte%6" $ 7ommo. 8%ob&em 2it! m$.y e8e%t6 $6 2$6 e5ide.t i. t!i6 $88e$&" i6 .ot to be t%e$ted $6 $ 4ood %e$6o. ,$t 8$%$'1+1-' I. $roughton <1 EWCA C%im #*" $ 7$6e 7o.7e%.i.4 t!e 7o.6ide%$tio. o o &o2 &o2 tem8&$te tem8&$te DNA ,K ,K LTDNA LTDNA -" t!e Cou%t e5ide.7e i. Cou%t 7o.6ide%ed t!e 8o6itio. $6 to to t!e $dmi66ibi&ity o DNA e5ide.7e

7$6e6 2!e%e t!e u$.tity u$.tity o DNA %e7o5e%ed %e7o5e%ed 2$6 6o &o2 $6 to be be&o2 t!e 6to7!$6ti7 t!%e6!o&d' T!e Cou%t %e7o4.i6ed t!$t $t 5e%y &o2 &e5e&6 o DNA t!e t!e d$.4e%6 8%e6e.ted by t!e 8o66ibi&ity 8o66ibi&ity o o 6to7!$6ti7 ee7t6 $%e i.7%e$6ed' It u%t!e% %e7o4.i6ed t!$t t!e%e 2i&& be o77$6io.6 2!e%e t!e 8%oi&e6 4e.e%$ted $%e u.%e&i$b&e $.do% 55$&ue $&ue mo%e deb$t$b&e' ddeb$t$b&e' eb$t$b&e' Ho2e5e% itit did $. do% t!e 8%ob$ti5e 5$&ue d id .ot CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

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$77e8t t!$t t!e6e 2e%e %e$6o.6 o% %u&i.4 out LTDNA e5ide.7e i. 6u7! 7$6e6 $&to4et!e%' T!e Cou%t did %e7o4.i6e t!$t i. t!e $88e&&$.tJ6 7$6e t!e 8%oi&e6 !$d bee. de%i5ed %om u.u$&iied 6$m8 6$m8&e &e66 o DNA o &e66 t!$. 184 $.d t!$t t!i6 !$d %$i6ed e.ti%e&y &e4itim$te 4%ou.d6 o% 67ie.tii7 di68ute 2!i7! t!e $88e&&$.t !$d bee. %i4!t i. te6ti.4 beo%e t!e 9ud4e' I. Weller <1 <1 EWCA C%im 1# Lo%d =u6ti7e T!om$6 %ei.o%7ed t!e .e7e66ity i. e5e%y DNA 7$6e o% t!e%e to be det$i&ed 7o.6ide%$tio. by t!e 8$%tie6 $.d t!e 9ud4e o t!e DNA e5ide.7e e5ide.7e $.d %ei.eme.t %ei.eme.t o t!e i66ue6 i66ue6 i. di68ute' di68u di68ute t!$t DNA 2$6 t!e DNA o $ di68utte' e' W!e%e t!e%e 2$6 .o .o di68ute 8$%ti7u&$% 8e%6o." it 2$6 e66e.ti$& t!$t t!$t be o%e t!e 9u%y t!$t 2$6 8ut 8u t beo%e 9u%y $6 $dmitted $.d $.d $4%eed e8e%t e5ide.7e' e5ide. 7e' T!$t 2ou&d e.$b&e t!e 9u%y to 8e%o%m 8e%o%m it6 e66e.ti$& e66e.ti$& u.7tio. u.7tio. o $66e66i.4 $66e66i.4 2!$t 2$6 i. e5ide.7e' i66ue 2it!out bei.4 t%oub&ed by m$tte%6 t!$t 2e%e .ot' T!e Cou%t i. Weller $&6o e8e%t6 i. $&6o ide.tiied t!e im8o%t$.7e o t!e 8%$7ti7$& e8e%ie.7e o DNA e8e%t6 &o2 tem8&$te 7$6e6' T!e Cou%t o A88e$& !e&d t!$t $ 7ou%t i. $66e66i.4 2!et!e% t!e%e 2$6 $ 6ui7ie.t&y %e&i$b&e 67ie.tii7 b$6i6 o% e8e%t e5ide.7e to be 4i5e. $.d $ 9u%y i. e5$&u$ti.4 e5ide.7e 2ou&d be e.tit&ed to t$3e i.to $77ou.t t!e e8e%ie.7e o e8e%t6' It 2$6 .oted t!$t e8e%t6 ote. o .e7e66ity %e&ied o. u.8ub&i6!ed 8$8e%6 $.d t!ei% o2. 8%$7ti7$& e8e%ie.7e' I. $ 9ud4me.t 2!i7! 2$6 7%iti7$& o t!e &$73 o 8%$7ti7$& e8e%ie.7e o t!e DNA e8e%t e8e%t i.6t%u7ted by t!e $88e&&$.t $88e&&$.t it 2$6 ob6e%5ed ob6e%5e d t!$t $. $tt$73 $tt$7 3 o. t!e %e&i$bi&ity %e&i$b i&ity tem8&$t e DNA e5ide.7e ob6e%5ed $tt$73 %e&i$bi&it y o &o2 tem8&$te tem8&$te ,7o.7e%.i.4 t%$.6e% i. t!i6 7$6e- %u. 8u%e&y by %ee%e.7e to 8ub&i6!ed 8$8e%6 $.d 2it!out t!e 8%$7ti7$& e8e%ie.7e e8e %ie.7e u8o. 2!i7! ot!e%6 oot!e%6 t!e%6 !$d %e$7!ed $ 9ud4me.t" 2$6 2 $6 &i3e&y 2$6 &i3e&y to $i&' $i&' Lo%d =u6ti7e T!om$6 6t$ted t!$t 7ou%t6 6!ou&d &oo3 to %e$&&y e e88e%ie.7ed e%ie.7ed e8e%t6 i. 6u7! 7$6e6' Mo%e 4e.e%$& 8%i.7i8&e6 $.d 8%$7ti7$& 4uid$.7e o% t!e m$.$4eme.t $.d 8%e6e.t$tio. o 7om8&e 67ie.t 67ie.tii ii77 $.d medi7$& medi7$& e5ide.7 e5ide.7ee 2e%e 2e%e 6et do2. by t!e Cou%t o A88e$ A88e$&& i. /enderson <1 EWCA C%im 1<@ <1 < C%'A88'R' <*' I. $ !e$%i.4 o t!%ee 9oi.ed $88e$&6 i.5o&5i.4 6!$3e. b$by 6y.d%ome" t!e Cou%t o A88e$& 4$5e det$i&ed 4uid$.7e o. t!e m$.$4eme.t o e8e%t e5ide.7e $.d o. t!e 7o.te.t o t!e 6ummi.4 u8' T!e Cou%t 6ou4!t to $dd%e66 t!e 8%ob&em o !o2 to m$.$4e e8e%t e5ide.7e 6o t!$t $ 9u%y 7ou&d be di%e7ted i. $ 2$y 2!i7! 2ou&d" 6o $% $6 8o66ib&e" e.6u%e t!$t $.y 5e%di7t t!ey %e$7!ed 2$6 9u6tiied o. $ &o4i7$& b$6i6' Co.7&udi.4 t!$t $ 9u%y 7ou&d o.&y $88%o$7! 7o.&i7ti.4 e8e%t e5ide.7e i t!$t e5ide.7e 2$6 m$%6!$&&ed $.d 7o.t%o&&ed beo%e it 2$6 8%e6e.ted to t!e 9u%y" t!e Cou%t %ei.o%7ed t!e 5ie26 o t!e Cou%t e8%e66ed i. Reed $.d $.d em8!$6i6ed t!e .eed o% 7om8&i$.7e 2it! t!e %'++ %e4ime 7o.t$i.ed i. t!e C%imi.$& P%o7edu%e Ru&e6' But /enderson J6 J6 4%e$te% im8o%t$.7e o% DNA 7$6e6 7$6e6 2$6 i. %e&$tio. to CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

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t!e Cou%tJ6 7omme.t6 i. %e4$%d to t!e 6ummi.4 u8' W!i&6t 68e7ii7$&&y di%e7ted to2$%d6 6!$3e. b$by 6y.d%ome 7$6e6" t!e Cou%tJ6 ob6e% 5$tio.6 8&$i.&y !$5e $88&i7$tio. to 2ide% 7$6e6 i.5o&5i.4 7o.6ide%$tio. o 7om8&e $.d de5e&o8i.4 67ie.tii7 e5ide.7e' Fi%6t&y" t!e Cou%t 6t$ted t!$t i. 7$6e6 2!e%e de5e&o8i.4 medi7$& 67ie.7e 2$6 %e&e5$.t" t!e 9u%y 6!ou&d be %emi.ded t!$t 68e7i$& 7$utio. 2$6 .eeded 2!e%e e8e%t o8i.io. e5ide.7e 2$6 u.d$me.t$& to t!e 8%o6e7utio. $.d 6e7o.d&y" t!e Cou%t e&t t!$t $ 9u%y .eeded di%e7tio.6 o. !o2 to $88%o$7! 7o.&i7ti.4 e8e%t e5ide.7e $.d t!$t t!e 9ud4e 6!ou&d 4uide t!em by ide.tiyi.4 t!o6e %e$6o.6 2!i7! 2ou&d 9u6tiy eit!e% $77e8ti.4 o% %e9e7ti.4 $.y 7o.&i7ti.4 e8 e%t o8i.io. o. 2!i7! eit!e% 6ide %e&ied' e8e%t C-),u$i-

T!ou4! it t$3e6 6ome u.7o5e%i.4" t!e deb$te 2it!i. t!e o%e.6i7 7ommu.ity o5e% t!e u6e $.d %e&i$bi&ity o LTDNA 6ti&& %$4e6" %$4e6 "+ e68e7i$&&y i. t!e USA' USA'* T!e%e" t!e $dmi66ibi&ity o LTDNA ,6ometime6 %ee%%ed to $6 K tou7! DNA " K &o2 7o8y DNA o% K &o2(&e5e& &o2(&e5e& DNA - i. 7%imi.$& 7$6e6 !$6 bee. $% mo%e 7o.t%o5e%6i$& t!$. i. t!e U/' Emi.e.t e8e%t6 i.7&udi.4 D% B%u7e Budo2&e ,De8$%tme.t o Fo%e.6i7 $.d I.5e6ti4$ti5e Ge.eti76" U.i5e%6ity o No%t! Te$6 He$&t! S7ie.7e Ce.te%" Fo%t Wo%t!" Te$6" USA $.d e !e$d o t!e FBIJ6 DNA &$bo%$to%y&$bo%$to%y- !$5e 68o3e. out $4$i.6t t!e o%e.6i7 u6e o LTDNA $6 e5ide.7e i. 7%imi.$& t%i$&6# '' P%oe66o%6 /%$.e $.d Mue&&e% 7o.ti.ue to be 67e8ti76" $.d b%o$d&y t$3e t!e 5ie2 t!$t K it o% 8u%8o6e @ 6!ou&d 6!ou&d me$. &imiti.4 t!$t 8u%8o6e to t!e 4e.e%$ti.4 o i.te&&i4e.7e &e$d6' US 7ou%t6 !$5e %e7e.t&y t$3e. die%i.4 $.d 7o.t%$di7to%y $88%o$7!e6 to $dmi66ibi&ity' T!e de7i6io.6 3.o2. to t!e $ut!o%6 !$5e bee. %om 7ou%t6 eui5$&e.t to ou% C%o2. Cou%t" .ot $88e&&$te de7i6io.6" $.d t!ey $%i6e %om &iti4$tio. 2it!i. t!e 6t$te" $6 o88o6ed to ede%$&" 7ou%t 6y6tem' I. $ 7$6e beo%e $ Ne2 0o%3 7ou%t") LCN LCN e5ide.7e 2$6 %u&ed $dmi66ib&e" 2!i&e i. C$&io%.i$ t!e t!e 7ou%t 2$6 7o.7e%.ed 2it! t!e d$.4e%6 i.!e%e.t i. LTDNA(6t$ti.4 LTDNA(6t$ti.4 t!$t K b$6ed o o.. t!e e5ide.7e beo%e t!e 7ou%t" t!$t t!e%e i6 .o 4e.e%$& $77e8t$.7e i. t!e 67ie.tii7 7ommu.ity $6 to t!e 8%o7edu%e6 to be u6ed o.7e youJ%e de$&i.4 2it! $ LCN 6$m8&e" t!e%eJ6 .o 4e.e%$& $77e8t$.7e $6 to !o2 to i.te%8%et t!e %e6u&t6 t!$t you 2ou&d 4et 2!e. you be4i. 2it! $ LCN 6$m8&e" $.d t!e%eJ6 .o 4e.e%$& $77e8t$.7e $6 to t!e 6t$ti6ti 6t$ti6ti76 76 t!$t 7$. be $88&ied to t!o6e %e6u&t6' %e6u&t6' T!e 7ou%t 2e.t o. to %u&e t!e te6t %e6u&t6 %e6u&t6 i. t!$t 7$6e i.$dmi66ib&e' I. t!i6 9u%i6di7tio." 7!$&&e.4e6 to $dmi66ibi&ity 2i&& .o2 be %e&$ti5e&y %$%e" 4i5e. t!e 4uid$.7e %om t!e Cou%t o A88e$& i. Reed. But But i LTDNA e5ide.7e e5ide.7e i6 i6 to to be 8%o8e%&y u.de%6tood u.de%6tood by 9u%ie6 $.d .ot 4i5e. u.due 2ei4!t i. $ 8$%ti7u&$% 7$6e" t!e. &$2ye%6 2i&& .eed to u.de%6t$.d t!e CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

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WH" E#OLUTIONAR" BIOLOG" IS 9SO FAR IRRELE#ANT TO LEGAL REGULATION E5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y ( o%" mo%e 8%e7i6e&y" t2o ,8u%8o%ted- $88&i7$tio.6 o D$%2i.J6 t!eo%y o e5o&utio. by .$tu%$& 6e&e7tio." .$me&y" e5o&utio.$%y 86y7!o&o4y $.d 2!$t !$6 bee. 7$&&ed !um$. be!$5io%$& bio&o4y ( i6 i6 o. t!e 7u68 o be7omi.4 be 7omi.4 t!e .e2 %$4e $mo.4 &e4$& 67!o&$%6 67!o&$%6 &oo3i.4 o% i.te%d i.te%di67 i67i8& i8&i.$ i.$%y %y i.6i4! i.6i4!t6 t6 i.to i.to t!e &$2' &$2' We $%4ue $%4ue t!$t t!$t $6 t!e $7tu$& $7tu$& 67ie.7e 67i e.7e 6t$.d6 tod$y tod$y"" 67ie.7 e 6t$.d6 e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y oe%6 .ot!i.4 to !e&8 2it! ue6tio.6 $bout &e4$& %e4u&$tio. o be!$5io%' O.&y 6y6tem$ti7 mi6%e8%e6e.t$tio.6 o% &$73 o u.de%6t$.di.4 o t!e %e&e5$.t bio&o4y" to4et!e% 2it! $%(%e$7!i.4 $.$&yti7$& $.d 8!i&o6o8!i7$& 7o.u6io.6" !$5e &ed $.yo.e to t!i.3 ot!e%2i6e' E5o&utio.$%y $77ou.t6 $%e etio&o4i7$& $77ou.t6 o !o2 $ t%$it e5o&5ed' We $%4ue t!$t $. $77ou.t o 7$u6$& etio&o4y 7ou&d be %e&e5$.t to &$2 i ,1- t!e $77ou.t o 7$u6$& etio&o4y i6 67ie.tii7$&&y 2e&&(7o.i%med" $.d ,<- t!e%e i6 $. e8&$.$tio. o !o2 t!e 2e&&(7o.i%med etio&o4y be$%6 o. o. ue6tio.6 ue6tio.6 o de5e&o8me.t de5e&o8me.t de5e&o8 me.t ,2!$t ,2!$t 2e 7$&& 7$&& t!e t!e E.5i%o.me.t$& E.5i%o.me.t E.5i% o.me.t$& $& G$8 G$8 Ob9e7tio.-' Ob9e7tio.-' We Ob9e7tio.-' We t!e. t!e. 6!o2 6!o2 t!$t t!$t t!e $77ou.t6 $77ou.t $77 ou.t66 o o 7$u6$& 7$u6$& 7$u 6$& etio&o4y etio&o eti o&o4y 4y t!$t t!$tt mi4!t t!$ mi4!t mi4 !t be be %e&e5$.t %e&e5$. %e& e5$.tt $%e $%e .ot .ot%emote&y %emote %em ote&y &y 2e&&(7o.i%med 2e&&(7 2e& &(7o. o.i%m i%med ed by by 67ie.tii7 6t$.d$%d6' We $%4ue" i. 8$%ti7u&$%" t!$t ,$- e5o&utio.$%y 86y7!o&o4y i6 .ot e.tit&ed to $66ume $66ume 6e&e7t 6e&e7tio. io.i6t i6t $77ou.t $77 ou.t6 !um$. be!$5i be! $5io%6 o%6" $66 um8tio tio.6 .6 .e7e66$ .e7e 66$%y %y o% t!e $77o u.t66 o !um$. be!$5io be!$ 5io%6" %6"" ,b- t!e $66um8 $66um $6 6um8ti 8tio.6 o.6 .e7e66 .e7 e66$%y $%y 6e&e7tio.i6t $77ou.t6 to be t%ue $%e .ot 2$%%$.ted by 6t$.d$%d 7%ite%i$ 7%ite%i$ o% t!eo%y 7!oi7e" $.d ,7o.&y o.&y 7o.u6i 7o. u6io.6 o.66 $bout $bo utt &e5e&6 &e5e&6 o e8&$. e8&$.$ti $tio. o. o !um$. !um$. be!$5io be!$ 5io% 7%e$te t!e $88e$% $88 e$%$.7 $.7e e t!$t t!$t 7o.u6 7o. u6io. io.6 $bou be!$5i be! $5io% o%% 7%e$te $88e$%$ $88e $%$.7e .7e u.de%6 u.de%6t$. t$.di. di.4 4 t!e bio&o4 bio&o4y y o be!$5io be!$ 5io% im 8o%t$. t$.t' t'' We $&6o $&6o .ote .ote t!$t t!$t .o %e68o. %e6 8o.6e 6ee to t!e be!$5i be! $5io% o%% i6 im8o% im8o%t 8o%t$.t $.t' %e68o.6 E.5i%o.me.t$& G$8 Ob9e7tio. !$6 bee. 8%oe%ed' I. t!e 7o.7&udi.4 6e7tio. o t!e $%ti7&e" 2e tu%. di%e7t&y to t!e 2o%3 o O2e. =o.e6" $ &e$di.4 8%o8o.e.t o t!e %e&e5$.7e o e5o&utio.$%y CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

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bio&o4y to &$2" $.d 6!o2 doe6 6!o2 t!$t !e !e d oe6 .ot 7ome to te%m6 2it! $.y o t!e u.d$me.t$& 8%ob&em6 ide.tiied i. t!i6 $%ti7&e' I. INTRODUCTION: THE NE;T INTERDISCIPLINAR" WA#E2

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!$5e t!e &$6ti.4 8o2e% $.d im8$7t o" 6$y" &$2 $.d e7o.omi76" o% 2i&& it 4o t!e 2$y o de7o.6t%u7t de7o.6t%u7tio.i6 io.i6m m $.d Studie6 ,CLS-" bot! o 2!i7! $ded %om t!e 67e.e i. t%u7tio.i6m io.i6m $.d C%iti7$& C%iti7$& Le4$& Studie6 C%iti7$& %ou4!&y $ de7$de o% &e66? We 6!$&& $%4ue t!$t" i t!e 67ie.tii7 me%it6 !$5e $.yt!i.4 to do 2it! it" t!e t!e K &$2 &$2 $.d $. d e5o& e5 o&ut utio io.$ .$%y %y bio&o4y bio&o4 o4y y $.d e5o e5o&u &uti tio.$ o.$%y bio& 

$d $d 6!ou 6!ou&d &d !$5e !$5e $ 6!e& 6!e& &ie &ie $t &e$6 &e$6tt $6 6!o%t 6!o%tt $6 6!o%

de7o.6t%u7tio.J6' I.deed" 2it! e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y" 2e m$y $&%e$dy !$5e !it t!e e7e66e6 to 2!i7! t!e &e4$& $7$demy i6 6ometime6 8%o.e' =o!. M7Gi..i6" o% e$m8&e" te&&6 u6 t!$t e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y 6u88o%t6 t!e 5i6io. o !um$. .$tu%e $77e8ted by t!e Fou.di.4 F$t!e%6"* $ $ 7&$im 6o i.7%edib&e t!$t it 7ou&d .ot $7tu$&&y be utte%ed i. %o.t o $.yo.e 2!o 3.e2 $.yt!i.4 $bout t!e %e&e5$.t 67ie.7e' 67ie.7e'# E$m8&e6 &i3e t!i6" $&$6" 7ou&d be mu&ti8&ied' @ Not 6i.7e 6i.7e t!e t!e !eyd$y t!e !eyd$y o t!e t!e C%iti7$& C%iti7$& Le4$& C%iti7$& Le4$& Studie6 i.$tu$tio. 2it! Ri7!$%d Ro%ty $.d T!om$6 /u!. ,.ot to me.tio. Niet67!e- !$6 $.ot!e% di67i8&i.e bee. 6o m$.4&ed i. t!e 8$4e6 o t!e &e4$& 9ou%.$&6' 9ou%.$&6')

II. WH" IS THE CAUSAL ETIOLOG" OF BEHA#IOR RELE#ANT TO LAW2

E5o&utio.$%y $77ou.t6 o !um$. be!$5io% $%e $77ou.t6 o t!e 7$u6$& etio&o4y o be!$5io%" t!$t i6" t!ey 8u%8o%t 8u%8o%t to te&& u6 2!$t t!e 7$u6$& o%i4i. o%i 4i. 8$tte%. o be!$5i o%% 2e 6ee beo%e u6' o%i4 i. i6 o 6ome 8$tte%. o be!$5io% be!$5io Amo.4 t!e mo6t i.te%e6ti.4 $77ou.t6 o 6u7! be!$5io%6 $%e o.e6 2!i7! 7&$im t!$t t!e%e 2$6 6t%o.4 6t% o.4 selection 8%e66u%e adaptations+ i'e'" t%$it6 t!$t 6t%o. 6t %o.4 4 selection 8%e66u%e o% $ 8$%ti7u&$% 8$%ti7u&$% t%$it" m$3i.4 m$3i.4 6u7! t%$it6 adaptations+ e.!$.7e %e8%odu7ti5e it.e66' Co.6ide% $ 6e&e7tio.i6t $77ou.t o %$8e" &i3e t!$t 2!i7! !$6 ou.d 6ome $5o% $mo.4 t!o6e 2!o t!i.3 e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y %e&e5$.t to &e4$& %e4u&$tio.'1+ R$8e 6eem6 to be $. i.e8&i7$b&e !um$. be!$5io% u.ti& 2e u.de%6t$.d it6 etio&o4y" 6o t!e $%4ume.t 4oe6' 4oe6' At $. e$%&ie e$%&ie%% 6t$4e 6t $4e !um$. e5o&uti e5o& utio." o."" 2!$t 2!$t e5o&ut e5o&utio. io.$%y $%y 86y7!o& 86y7!o&o4i o4i6t6 6t6 7$&& 7$&& K t!e 6t$ 4e o !um$. e5o&ut e5o &utio. io."


*


e.5i%o.me.t e.5i%o.me.t o e5o&utio. e5o&utio.$%y $%y $d$8t$tio. $d$8t$t io. ,EEA-" ,EEA-"1* !um$. m$&e6 2it! $ 4%e$te% 8%o8e.6ity to $d$8t$tio. %$8e em$&e6 &et mo%e o68%i.4' T!e te.de.7y to %$8e em$&e6 i6 t$3e. by t!e6e e5o&utio.$%y 86y7!o&o4i6t6 to be $ !e%it$b&e t%$it' Si.7e %$8i.4 be!$5io% &e$d6 to mo%e o68%i.4" t!e 4e.eti7 di68o6itio. to %$8e 2i&& 68%e$d t!%ou4! t!e 8o8u&$tio.' T!u6 t!e 8%e6e.t d$y %eue.7y o %$8e be!$5io% i. t!e 8o8u&$tio. i6 t!e %e6u&t o .$tu%$& 6e&e7tio.' 6e&e7tio.'1#

III. 0ONESS DEFENSE OF THE RELE#ANCE OF E#OLUTIONAR" BIOLOG"

=o.e6 !$6 bee. t!e &e$di.4 &e$di.4 8%o8o.e.t o &e4$& %e4u&$ti %e4u&$tio. o. b$6ed o. $ K bio&o4i7$& bio&o4i 7$& $88%o$7! to bio&o4i7 $& $88%o$7! !um$. bei.46" $.d t!e 7&$im6 !e !$6 6ometime6 m$de o. it6 be!$& $%e" $6 2e !$5e 9u6t 6ee." uite et%$o%di.$%y et%$o%d i.$%y'' U.&i3e U.&i3e t!e 8o&iti7$&&y 8o&iti7$& &y moti5$ted moti5$ted 67!o&$%6 et%$o%di.$%y' 8o&iti7$&&y 67!o&$%6 2!o 2!o !$5e 9um8ed o. t!e bio&o4y b$.d2$4o." =o.e6J6 8%oe66ed 7ommitme.t i6 o o.&y .&y to 4ood 67ie.7e' O.e 2ou&d e8e7t" t!e." t!$t i $.yo.e 7o.%o.t6 t!e 8%ob&em6 2e !$5e %e!e$%6ed" it 2ou&d be !im' 0et =o.e6J6 6eem6 to 6ide6te8 t!e u.d$me.t$& 8%ob&em6 2e !$5e %e5ie2ed t!%ou4!out !i6 2o%3' I. $7t" 2e t!i.3 =o.e6 em8&oy6 t2o mi6&e$di.4 %!eto%i7$& de5i7e6" 2!i7! ob67u%e t!e ete.t to 2!i7! t!e%e i6 .o 4ood 67ie.7e i. t!e oi.4 o% !i6 7&$im6' The Case of Rape Rape

A&& t!e 8%ob&em6 2e !$5e 9u6t 7$.5$66ed 7ome to t!e o%e i. =o.e6J6 %e5ie2 11 o t!e 2ide&y di67%edite di67%edited d A !atural /istory of Rape by by R$.dy T!o%.!i&& $.d C%$i4 P$&me%" $ boo3 t!$t !$6 !$6 bee. 7$&&ed $ K $i%y t$&e

by $ &e$di.4 e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4i6t bio&o4i6tt1<  de67%ibed by $ &e$di.4 bio&o4i6

8!i&o6o8!e% o bio&o4y $6 KK 8%ete.di.4 to 67ie.tii7 %i4o%" 2!e. it !$6 .o.e 1+ $.d $.d de67%ibed by $.ot!e% di6ti.4ui6!ed !i6to%i$. $.d 8!i&o6o8!e% o bio&o4y $6 m$%3ed by K 4&$%i.4 &$26 i. t!e 67ie.7e' 1* =o.e6" i. 7o.t%$6t" i.d6 ei4!t K 8%i.7i8$& 6t%e.4t!6 i. t!e boo3" $.d o.&y o.&y t2o 2e$3.e66e6 ,8e%t$i.i.4 to t%i5i$ &i3e K to.e -' Odd&y" =o.e6J6 di67u66io. o K 2e$3.e66e6 &$%4e&y tu%.6 i.to $ u%t!e% dee.6e o T!o%.!i&& $.d P$&me% ( i.deed" $te% t$&3i.4 b%ie&y $bout to.e $.d 6ty&i6ti7 m$tte%6" =o.e6 ui73&y $66u%e6 t!e %e$de%: I i.d it 7&e$% t!$t m$.y 7omme.t$to%6 e%5e.t&y be&ie5e t!$t T!o%.!i&&  P$&me%J6 A !atural /istory of Rape mu6t mu6t be $b6o&ute&y %idd&ed 2it! &o4i7$& $.d $7tu$& 2e$3.e66e6' I 7$. 7$. 6ee 6ee !o2 !o2 8eo8&e" .e2 to t!e 6ub9e7t" mi4!t t!i.3 t!i6' But it i6 6im8&y 6im8&y u.t%ue' u.t%ue'1# U.o%tu.$te&y" m$.y o t!o6e .ot .e2 to t!e 6ub9e7t t!i.3 t!i6' He%e2it! =e%%y Coy.e" $.


#


e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4i6t $t t!e U.i5e%6ity o C!i7$4o: U.o%tu.$t U.o%tu.$te&y e&y"" e5o&utio.$%y e5o&utio.$%y 86y7!o&o4i6 86y7!o&o4i6t6 t6 %outi.e&y %outi.e&y 7o.u6e 7o.u6e t!eo%y 68e7u &$tio.' .' U.&i3e U.&i3e t!eo%y $.d 68e7u&$tio 68e7u&$tio.' 68e7u& $tio.' bo.e6" be!$5io% doe6 .ot o66i&ie" $.d u.de%6t$.di.4 it6 e5o&utio. ote. i.5o&5e6 7o.7o7ti.4 6to%ie6 t!$t 6ou.d 8&$u6ib&e but $%e !$%d to te6tI e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y i6 $ 6ot 67ie.7e" t!e. e5o&utio.$%y 86y7!o&o4y i6 it6 &$bby u.de%be&&yBut t!e 8ub&i7 7$. be o%4i5e. o% t!i.3i.4 t!$t e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y i6 eui5$&e.t to e5o&utio.$%y 86y7!o&o4y' Boo36 by D$.ie& De..ett" E'O' Wi&6o." $.d Ste5e. Pi.3e% !$5e 6o&d b%i63&y" $.d e5o&utio.$%y 86y7!o&o4y domi.$te6 t!e medi$ 7o5e%$4e o t!e 67ie.7e o e5o&utio.'I. 5ie2 o t!e 67ie.tii7 6!$3i.e66 o mu7! o t!e 2o%3" it6 8o8u&$%ity mu6t %e6t 8$%t&y o. 6ome de6i%e o% $ 7om8%e!e.6i5e ; 67ie.tii7 67ie.tii7 e8&$.$tio. o !um$. be!$5io%' He.7e t!e e7iteme.t(($.d t!e u%o% ((t!$t !$6 4%eeted t!e 8ub&i7$tio. o R$.dy T!o%.!i&& $.d C%$i4 P$&me%J6 boo3' R$8e" t!ey $%4ue" 2$6 $5o%ed by .$tu%$& 6e&e7tio. to 4i5e 6eu$&&y di68o66e66ed m$&e6 t!e 7!$.7e to !$5e 7!i&d%e." o% m$&e6 2it! m$te6 t!e 7!$.7e to !$5e et%$ 7!i&d%e.' Not o.&y doe6 $. e5o&utio.$%y $88%o$7! $77o%di.4 to t!e $ut!o%6 4e.e%$te .e2 3.o2&ed4e t!$t 7ou&d be u6ed to de7%e$6e t!e i.7ide.7e o %$8e 6ome o t!e 8%o8o6$&6 8ut o%t! by i.di5idu$& u.i.o%med by e5o&utio.$%y t!eo%y m$y $7tu$&&y i.7%e$6e it' Ho2e5e% to $ 67ie.ti6t" t!e 67ie.tii7 e%%o%6 i. t!i6 boo3 $%e $% mo%e i.&$mm$to%y t!$. $%e it6 ideo&o4i7$& im8&i7$tio.6' Li3e 6o mu7! o e5o&utio.$%y 86y7!o&o4y" T!o%.!i&& $.d P$&me%J6 boo3 i6 utte%&y &$73i.4 i. 6ou.d 67ie.tii7 4%ou.di.4' Mo%eo5e%" t!e $ut!o%6 u6e %!eto%i7$& t%i736 t!$t mi6&e$d t!e 4e.e%$& %e$de% $bout t!ei% $%4ume.t6' O.7e it6 67ie.tii7 2e$3.e66e6 $%e %e7o4.ied" The !atural /istory /istory of Rape Rape be7ome6 o.e mo%e 6o7iobio&o4i7$& 6o7iobio&o4i7$& ;; 9u6t(6o 9u6t(6o 6to%y ( t!e t!e 3i.d 3i.d o o t$&e t$&e t$&e t!$t e5o&utio.i6t6 62$8 o5e% $ e2 bee%6 $t t!e $7u&ty 7&ub' Su7! 6to%ie6 do .ot u$&iy $6 67ie.7e" $.d t!ey do .ot de6e%5e t!e $66e.t" o% e5e. t!e %e68e7t" o t!e 8ub&i7' So" too" E&i6$bet! L&oyd" $ &e$di.4 !i6to%i$. $.d 8!i&o6o8!e% o bio&o4y $t I.di$.$ U.i5e%6ity" 2%ite6: T!o%.!i&&  P$&me% 2$.t to i.e% i.o%m$tio. $bout t!e 6e&e7tio. 8%e66u%e %om t!e K de6i4. o $ t%$it" $.d to $66ume t!$t t!e o.&y %e&e5$.t e5o&utio.$%y o%7e 6!$8i.4 t!e t%$it 2$ 6 .$tu%$& t%$it 2$6 t%$it 2$6 6e&e7tio.' T!i6 i6 .ot t!e 2$y e5o&utio.$%y $.$&y6i6 i6 ty8i7$&&y do.e' Fi%6t" T!o%.!i&& $.d P$&me% 6im8&y $66ume t!$t %$8e be!$5io% 7o.6titute6 $ 6i.4&e" 4e.ui.e t%$it' I. $7t" t!e 6t$.d$%d6 o e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y %eui%e t!$t t!ey i.de8e.de.t&y e6t$b&i6! t!i6 $66um8tio.'' E6t$b&i6!i.4 t!$t %$8e i6 $ 6i.4&e t%$it 7ou&d 8e%!$86 be $ 8%ob&em be7$u6e o it6 2ide 5$%iety o ty8e6 o o77u%%e.7e6 ( be7$u6e" i. ot!e% 2o%d6" t!e m$9o%ity o %$8e 5i7tim6 $%e b$bie6" me." $.im$&6" CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

#1


8o6tme.o8$u6$& 2om$." et7' I. $dditio." T!o%.!i&& $.d P$&me% oe% .o 6tudie6 o t!e i.!e%it$.7e o %$8i.4 be!$5io%' O.e $&6o .eed6 to 6!o2 t!$t t!e t%$it is $. is $. $. $d$8t$tio.' T!e%e $%e $ .umbe% o 2$y6 to do t!i6T!o%.!i&& $.d P$&me% do .ot $d!e%e to $.y o t!e6e 6t$.d$%d mode6 o 7o.i%m$tio.I. $7t" .o2!e%e i. t!e boo3 do t!e $ut!o%6 8%e6e.t e5ide.7e %e4$%di.4 eit!e% %e&e5$.t det$i&6 o t!e 8$6t e5o&utio.$%y e.5i%o.me.t o% 7om8$%i6o.6 2it! ou% 7&o6e6t %e&$ti5e6' No% do t!ey di67u66 6e%iou6&y t!e 8o66ibi&ity t!$t %$8e it6e& i6 .ot $ 6i.4&e t%$it'A77o%di.4 to t!e u6u$& e5o&utio.$%y 6t$.d$%d6 o e5ide.7e %e4$%di.4 demo.6t%$tio. t!$t $ t%$it i6 $. $d$8t$tio." T!o%.!i&& $.d P$&me% $i& %$t!e% 68e7t$7u&$%&y' T!ey begin by $66umi.4 t!$t %$8e i6 $ 6i.4&e t%$it" $.d t!$t t!i6 t%$it i6 $. $d$8t$tio." $.d t!ey %e$6o. b$732$%d6 %om t!e%e' Need&e66 to 6$y" t!i6 u.de%mi.e6 t!ei% %e8e$ted 7&$im6 t!$t t!ey $%e ddoi.4 oi.4 4ood 67ie.7e'1@ T!i6 $88e$%6 to be 2!$t mo6t bio&o4i6t6 $.d 8!i&o6o8!e%6 o bio&o4y t!i.3" but you 2ou&d .e5e% 3.o2 t!i6 %om %e$di.4 O2e. =o.e6 2!o $66u%e6 u6 t!$t t!e 7%iti76 o T!o%.!i&& $.d P$&me% K 6im8&y 6im8 &y !$d.Jt $.y 7&ue $bout bio&o4y 7$. i.&ue.7e i.&ue.7e be!$5io% be!$5io% 4e.e%$&&y 4e.e%$ 6im8&y $bout !o2 bio&o4y 4e.e%$&&&y &y $.d t!$t it i6 $ mi6t$3e to i4.o%e t!e K b$6i7 $.d 67ie.tii7$&&y %obu6t %obu6t 3.o2&ed4e o e5o&utio.$%y 8%o7e66e6 8%o7e66e6 t!$t be$%6 o. %$8e be!$5io% '1) But" $6 2e !$5e $%4ued t!%ou4!out" t!e%e i6 .o 6u7! 3.o2&ed4e' T!i6 i6 t!e mi6%e8%e6e mi6% e8%e6e.t$ti .t$tio. o. $t t!e 7e.te% o =o.e6J6 2o%3' A.d A.d be7$u6e it i6 $ mi6%e8%e6e.t mi6%e8%e6e.t$tio." $tio." it mi6%e8%e6 mi6 %e8%e6e.t$ti e.t$tio. 6!ou&d be $t$& to t!e K e5o&utio.$%y &$2 mo5eme.t' e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y $.d &$2 e5o&utio.$%y

I#. I#. CONCLUSION

Re6e$%7! o. t!e e5o&utio.$%y me7!$.i6m6 t!$t $77ou.t o% !um$. be!$5io% i6 $. im8o%t$.t $%e$ o 6tudy" $.d 2e !o8e $.d e8e7t it 2i&& 7o.ti.ue' S8e7u&$tio. ote. 8&$y6 $. $. im8o%t$.t im8o%t$.t %o&e %o&e i. i. t!e de5e&o8me.t o 67ie.7e" but" to to d$te" d$te" t!e%e t!e%e !$6 !$6 bee. bee. $% $% mo%e mo%e 68e7u&$tio. 68e7u&$tio.t!$. t!$.2e&&(7o.i%med 2e&&(7o.i%med !y8ot!e6e6 $bout 7o4.iti5e e5o&utio. ( =o.e6J6 mi6%e8%e6e.t$tio.6 .ot2it!6t$.di.4' T!$t me$.6" 6o $%" t!$t u.&e66 2e $%e i.te%e6ted i. t!e &e4$& .i7etie6 o d$i%y !u6b$.d%y $.d &$7to6e to&e%$.7e" e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y !$6 .ot!i.4 to oe% to t!e &$2' A6 =o.e6 !im6e& !$6 .oted" K t!e $5o%ed 8e%68e7ti5e o. t!e 7$u6e6 o !um$. be!$5io% ote. %e&e7 %e&e7t6 t6 e8!eme e8! eme%$& %$& e.t!u6i$6 i$6m6 m6 2$ted 2$ted o. t!e 8o&iti76 8o&it i76 o mome.t ' e8!eme% e8!e me%$& $& e.t!u6 8o&iti76 8o&it o t!e mome.t' mome.t mom e.t'

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It i6 8o66ib&e t!$t mo6t o t!e medi7$& %e&e5$.t $&&e&e6 ide.tiied by 4e.omi7 medi7i.e 2i&& !$5e too &itt&e &itt&e $66o7i $66o7i$ti $tio. o. 2it! 2it! 6o7i$& 6o7i$&&y &ydei dei.ed .ed %$7i$& %$7i$& 4%ou86 4%ou86 to 6u88o% 6u88o%tt %$7i$& %$7i$& 6te%e 6t e%eoty oty8i.4 8i.4 6te%eo 6te %eoty ty8i. 4 $.d 4e.e%$&i$tio." 8$%ti7u&$%&y i t!ey 7ou&d be 4%ou8ed i.to $ 6m$&& .umbe% o di6ti.7t 4e.eti7 8%oi&e6 t!$t !$5e o.&y 2e$3 7o%%e&$tio.6 2it! %$7e' But oo 4e.eti7$&&y But t!e de5e&o8me.t d e5e&o8me.t $.d u6e o 4e.eti7$&&y b$6ed 4%ou86 mi4!t %$i6e 6i4.ii7$.t 8%ob&em6 o 6te%eoty8i.4 $.d o5e%4e.e%$&i$tio. e5e. i it %edu7ed %e&i$.7e o. %$7i$& 7$te4o%ie6' T!e 8%omi6e o $ 7om8&ete&y i.di5idu$&ied medi7i.e i6 i&&u6o%y' i&&u6o%y' A6 P$%3e%" P$%3e%" et $&' $&' 8oi.t 8oi.t out: W!i&e W!i&e it6 8%o8o.e.t6 i.iti$&&y i.iti$&&y 7&$imed 7&$im ed t!$t ; 8e%6o.$&i 8e%6o .$&ied ed %e8&$7e t!e ;; o.e( 7&$imed 8e%6o.$&ie 8e%6o. $&ied d medi7i.e 2ou&d %e8&$7e 6ie 6i e( (it it6( 6($& $&& & 6ie( e(i it6 t6($ ($&& &&

8$%$ 8$%$di di4m 4m o d%u4 d%u4 de5e& de5 e&o8m o8me. e.t $. d u6$4e u6 $4e" .o 2 6eem 6eem66 mo%e mo%e &i3e &i 3e&y &y t!$t de5e&o8 o8me me.t .tt $.d $.d u6$4 e"" it .o2 .o2 &i3e& y t!$t

8!$%m$7o4e.eti76 2i&& te.d to di%e7t d%u46 to2$%d 4e.eti7$&&y(dei.ed 44e.eti7$&&y(dei.ed e.eti7$&&y(dei.ed groups  i you &i3e" ; o( t!e(8e4 medi7i.e %$t!e% t!$. i.di5idu$&&y i.di5i du$&&y ; be68o3e i.di5idu$&&y be68o3e medi7i.e'<+ At be6t" 8!$%m$7o4e.eti76 7$. im8%o5e t!e 4%ou8 4e.e%$&i$tio.6 o. t!e b$6i6 o 2!i7! d%u4 de5e&o de5e&o8me 8me.t .t $.d t%e$tm t%e $tme.t e.tt de7i6io de7i 6io.6 .6 $%e m$de' m$de' It 7$..ot 7$..ot !o8e e&i mi.$te .$te 4%ou8(b$6 b$6ed ed t%e$t t% e$tme. me.t de7i6i de7 i6io.6 o.6 !o8e to e&imi e&imi. $te 4%ou8( 4e.e%$&i$tio.6 $&to4et!e%" but it 7$. %e8&$7e mo%e 6ti4m$tii.4 $.d &e66 $77u%$te 4e.e%$&i$tio.6 2it! mo%e be.i4. $.d 7&i.i7$&&y 7&i.i7$&&y u6eu& o.e6' O. t!e ot!e% !$.d" t!e 4%e$te% $77u%$7y o 4e.eti7 4e.eti7 $.d it6 it6 4%e$ 4%e$te te%% $77e $77e8t 8t$bi $bi&i &ity ty" 7o m8$% $%ed ed to %$7i %$7i$& $& r-/i,i1 " 7ou& 7ou&d d e$6i e$6i&y &y &e$d &e$d to r-/i,i1 " $.d 8t$b $bi& i&it ity y" 7om8 7om8$% 7om 8$%ed o5e%%e&i$. o5e%%e&i$.7e' 7e' P!y6i7i$.6 P!y6 %e&u7t$.t to t$&3 to t!ei% 8$tie.t6 8$tie.t6 o% 8e%6o.$& o% i.$.7i$& i.$.7i$& %e$6o.6 2i&& P!y6ii7i$.6 7i$.6 %e&u7t$.t !$5e $ bette% e7u6e o% doi.4 &e66 t$&3i.4' T!ey m$y i.d it e$6y to 7o.5i.7e t!em6e&5e6 t!$t t!e i.o%m$tio. yie&ded by 4e.eti7 te6ti.4 m$3e6 t!ei% 8$tie.t6J o2. ob6e%5$tio.6 o% e8e%ie.7e6 &e66 im8o%t$.t' Mo%eo5e%" $&t!ou4! medi7$& 4e.e%$&i$tio.6 b$6ed o. .o.(%$7i$& 4e.eti7 4%ou86 m$y be &e66 CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

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i.$77u%$te $.d i.5idiou6" t!ey 2i&& 6ti&& &e.d t!em6e&5e6 to e$44e%$tio. $.d 7$%i7$tu%e' Co.6ide% t!e 7$%e&e66 u6e o 6u7! %e7e.t bio86y7!o&o4i7$& 7$te4o%ie6 $6 t!e ; Ty8e A 8e%6o.$&ity ' To be 6ub9e7t to 8o8u&$% 6te%eoty8i.4" o 7ou%6e" $ 4e.eti7 8%oi&e mu6t !$5e $t &e$6t 6ome %ou4! 7o%%e68o.de.7e to ob6e%5$b&e !e$&t! $.d !e$&t!(%e&$ted 7!$%$7te%i6ti76' But I 6u68e7t 2e $&%e$dy !$5e $ &$%4e .umbe% o i.o%m$& 6te%eoty8e6" e'4' t!e ot!e%2i6e !e$&t!y i.di5idu$& 7!%o.i7$&&y $&i7ted 2it! mi&d o% mi.o% i.di68o6itio.6" 2!i7! $%e &i3e&y to $7ui%e 68u%iou6 7%edibi&ity by t!ei% $66o7i$ tio. 2it! 4e.eti7 4e.eti7 ; ty8e6 ty8e6 ' W!i&e W!i&e 8!y6i7i$.6 8!y6i7i$.6 m$y %e6i6t %e6i6 6te%eoty8 6te%eoty8i.4" i.4" $ t!ei% $66o7i$tio. $66o7i$tio. %e6i6tt 6u7! 7%ude 7%ude 6te%eoty8i.4" 6te%eoty 8i.4" 4e.e%$ 4e.e%$tio tio. . o %e6e$% %e6e$%7! 7! o. de7i6io de7i 6io. . m$3i. m$ 3i.4 4 u.de% u.d e%% u.7e%t$ u.7e%t$i.t i.ty y 6u44e6 6u44e6t6 t6 t!$t t!$t 8%oe6 8%oe66io 6io.$& .$& e%$ti o. de7i6i de7 i6io. o. m$3i.4 m$3 i.4 u.de o5e%%e&i$.7e o. 4e.eti7 r-/i,i1 2i&& 2i&& o.&y be mo%e e6ote%i7" .ot &e66 6i4.ii7$.t'<* T!e ete.t to 2!i7! 4e.eti7$&&y b$6ed 4%ou8i.4 i6 be.i4. $.d 7&i.i7$&&y u6eu& 2i&& de8e.d o. m$.y m$. y ot!e% ot!e% $7to% $7to%66 be6ide be6ide66 t!ei% t!ei% o5e%&$8 o5e% &$8 2it! %$7i$& %$7i$& 7$te4o 7$te4o%ie %ie66 $.d t!ei% t!ei% 6u67e8 6u67e8tib tibi&i i&ity ty to m$.y o5e%&$ o5e %&$8 8 2it! 6te%eoty8i.4 $.d o5e%4e.e%$&i$tio.' Amo.4 ot!e% $7to%6 2i&& be t!e 7o%%e&$tio.6 t!$t $%e ou.d bet2ee. 5$%iou6 $&&e&e6 $66o7i$ted 2it! di6e$6e 6u67e8tibi&ity $.d d%u4 %e68o.6i5e.e66' Ge.eti7 4%ou8i.4 2i&& be mo%e be.i4. to t!e ete.t t!$t t!ey $%e NOT 4e.e%$&&y 8%edi7ti5e o !e$&t! o% t%e$t$bi&ity t%e$t$bi& t%e$ t$bi&ity ity to t!e ete.t t!$t t!$t i.di5idu$&6 i.di5idu$&6 2it! i.di5idu$&6 2it! 6ome 6ome 6u67e8tibi&itie6 6u67e8tibi&iti 6u67e8tibi &itie6 e6 &$73 ot!e%6" 6o t!$t t!$t t!e t!e 8o66e66io. o $.y 6i.4&e $&&e&e 7$..ot 6e%5e $6 $ 8%oy o% 8oo% o5e%$&& o 5e%$&& !e$&t! 8%o68e7t6' T!o6e 4e.eti7 4%ou86 2i&& be mo%e 7&i.i7$&&y u6eu& i t!ey $%e mo%e 8%edi7ti5e" $.d i t!ei% i.te%$7tio.6 2it! 2it! ot!e% ot!e% 4e.eti7 4e.e ti7 5$%i$tio. io.66 ,e8i4e ,e8i4e.et .eti76 i76-- do .ot 8%e7&u 8%e7&ude de %e&i$b %e&i$b&e &e 4e.e%$ 4e.e%$&i &i$ti $tio.6 o.6 $bout $bou 4e.eti 7 5$%i$t e%$&i $tio.6 $boutt 8$%ti7u&$% !e$&t! ee7t6'

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Re6e$%7! o. t!e e5o&utio.$%y me7!$.i6m6 t!$t $77ou.t o% !um$. be!$5io% i6 $. im8o%t$.t $%e$ o 6tudy" $.d 2e !o8e $.d e8e7t it 2i&& 7o.ti.ue' S8e7u&$tio. ote. 8&$y6 $. $. im8o%t$.t im8o%t$.t %o&e %o&e i. i. t!e de5e&o8me.t o 67ie.7e" but" to to d$te" d$te" t!e%e t!e%e !$6 !$6 bee. bee. $% $% mo%e mo%e 68e7u&$tio. 68e7u&$tio.t!$. t!$.2e&&(7o.i%med 2e&&(7o.i%med !y8ot!e6e6 $bout 7o4.iti5e e5o&utio. ( =o.e6J6 mi6%e8%e6e.t$tio.6 .ot2it!6t$.di.4' T!$t me$.6" 6o $%" t!$t u.&e66 2e $%e i.te%e6ted i. t!e &e4$& .i7etie6 o d$i%y !u6b$.d%y $.d &$7to6e to&e%$.7e" e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y !$6 .ot!i.4 to oe% to t!e &$2' A6 =o.e6 !im6e& !$6 .oted" Kt!e $5o%ed 8e%68e7ti5e o. t!e 7$u6e6 o !um$. be!$5io% ote. %e&e7 %e&e7t6 t6 e8!eme e8!e me%$& %$& e.t!u6 e.t!u6i$6 i$6m6 m6 2$ted 2$ted o. t!e 8o&it 8o& iti76 i76 mome.t' ' We 6u68e7t 6u6 8e7tt t!i6 t!i6 e8!eme%$& 8o&iti 76 o t!e mome.t 6u68e7 6umm$%ie6 $t &e$6t 8$%t o t!e 7u%%e.t $67i.$tio. 2it! K&$2 $.d e5o&utio.$%y e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y" bio&o4y" 2!i7! 8e%mit6 t!e 8$ti.$ o 67ie.7e to be e.&i6ted e .&i6ted o o.. be!$& o 5$%iou6 !obby !o%6e6 !o %6e6 o t!e %i4!t: 8eo8&e CHANA/0A NATIONAL LA LAW UN UNIERSIT0

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$%e K 6e&i6!" e5e%yt!i.4" .$tu%e .$tu%e 8ut6 &imit6 o. uto8i$. $68i%$tio. $68i%$tio.6" 6" $.d t!e 6e&i6!" &$2 7$.Jt 7!$.4e e5e%yt!i.4" &i3e' Pe%!$86 $&& o t!e6e $%e t%ue" but %i4!t .o2 e5o&utio.$%y bio&o4y oe%6 .o 6u88o%t to $.y o t!em' But Ke8!eme%$& e.t!u6i$6m6 2$ted o. t!e 8o&iti76 o t!e mome.t !$5e m$de t!e 67ie.7e i%%e&e5$.t' We !o8e to %emi.d 8eo8&e t!$t t!e 67ie.7e i6 %e&e5$.t" i.deed" 7%u7i$&" $.d t!$t" 6o $%" t!e .eeded 67ie.7e i6 .ot t!e%e' I. time" $.d 6t$%ti.4 6t$%t i.4 2it! $% mo%e 3.o2&ed4e 3.o2&ed4 e t!$. 2e 7u%%e.t&y !$5e $bout !um$. 86y7!o&o4y 86y7!o&o4y 6t$%ti.4 3.o2&ed4e $.d 6o7i$& dy.$mi76" e5o&utio.$%y met!od6 m$y be $88&ied to !um$. be!$5io% $6 %i4o%ou6&y $6 t!ey $%e $88&ied to .o.(be!$5io%$& t%$it6 $.d .o.(!um$. be!$5io%' But i. t!$t 7$6e" 2e 2i&& $&%e$dy !$5e det$i&ed 3.o2&ed4e $bout t!e 8&$6ti7ity o be!$5io% $.d t!u6 2i&& 2i&& i.d i.d out 2!i7! be!$5io%6 $%e dii7u&t o% im8o66ib&e im8o66ib&e to 7!$.4e t!e o&d($6!io.ed em8i%i7$& 2$y'

T!ou4! it t$3e6 6ome u.7o5e%i.4" t!e deb$te 2it!i. t!e o%e.6i7 7ommu.ity o5e% t!e u6e $.d %e&i$bi&ity o LTDNA 6ti&& %$4e6" e68e7i$&&y i. t!e USA' T!e%e" t!e $dmi66ibi&ity o LTDNA ,6ometime6 %ee%%ed to $6 Ktou7! DNA " K &o2 7o8y DNA o% K &o2(&e5e& &o2(&e5e& DNA - i. 7%imi.$& 7$6e6 !$6 bee. $% mo%e 7o.t%o5e%6i$& t!$. i. t!e U/' Emi.e.t e8e%t6 i.7&udi.4 D% B%u7e Budo2&e ,De8$%tme.t o Fo%e.6i7 $.d I.5e6ti4$ti5e Ge.eti76" U.i5e%6ity o No%t! Te$6 He$&t! S7ie.7e Ce.te%" Fo%t Wo%t!" Te$6" USA $.d e !e$d o t!e FBIJ6 DNA &$bo%$to%y&$bo%$to%y- !$5e 68o3e. out $4$i.6t t!e o%e.6i7 u6e o LTDNA $6 e5ide.7e i. 7%imi.$& t%i$&6' P%oe66o%6 /%$.e $.d Mue&&e% 7o.ti.ue to be 67e8ti76" $.d b%o$d&y t$3e t!e 5ie2 t!$t Kit o% 8u%8o6e 6!ou&d me$. &imiti.4 t!$t 8u%8o6e to t!e 4e.e%$ti.4 o i.te&&i4e.7e &e$d6' US 7ou%t6 !$5e %e7e.t&y t$3e. die%i.4 $.d 7o.t%$di7to%y $88%o$7!e6 to $dmi66ibi&ity' T!e de7i6io.6 3.o2. to t!e $ut!o%6 !$5e bee. %om 7ou%t6 eui5$&e.t to ou% C%o2. Cou%t" .ot $88e&&$te de7i6io.6" $.d t!ey $%i6e %om &iti4$tio. 2it!i. t!e 6t$te" $6 o88o6ed to ede%$&" 7ou%t 6y6tem' I. $ 7$6e beo%e $ Ne2 0o%3 0o%3 7ou%t" LCN e5ide.7e 2$6 %u&ed $dmi66ib&e" 2!i&e i. C$&io%.i$ t!e 7ou%t 2$6 7o.7e%.ed 2it! t!e t!e d$.4e%6 i.!e%e.t i. LTDNA(6t$ti.4 t!$t K b$6ed o. t!e e5ide.7e beo%e t!e 7ou%t" t!$t t!e%e i6 .o 4e.e%$& $77e8t$.7e i. t!e 67ie.tii7 7ommu.ity $6 to t!e 8%o7edu%e6 to be u6ed o.7e youJ%e de$&i.4 2it! $ LCN 6$m8&e" t!e%eJ6 .o 4e.e%$& $77e8t$.7e $6 to !o2 to i.te%8%et t!e %e6u&t6 t!$t you 2ou&d 4et 2!e. you be4i. 2it! $ LCN 6$m8&e" $.d t!e%eJ6 .o 4e.e%$& $77e8t$.7e $6 to t!e 6t$ti6ti 6t$ti6ti76 76 t!$t 7$. be $88&ied to t!o6e %e6u&t6' %e6u&t6' T!e 7ou%t 2e.t o. to %u&e t!e te6t %e6u&t6 %e6u&t6 i. t!$t 7$6e i.$dmi66ib&e'


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I. t!i6 9u%i6di7tio." 7!$&&e.4e6 to $dmi66ibi&ity 2i&& .o2 be %e&$ti5e&y %$%e" 4i5e. t!e 4uid$.7e %om t!e Cou%t o A88e$& i. Reed. i. Reed. But Reed. But But i LTDNA e5ide.7e e5ide.7e i6 i6 to to be 8%o8e%&y u.de%6tood u.de%6tood by 9u%ie6 $.d .ot 4i5e. u.due 2ei4!t i. $ 8$%ti7u&$% 7$6e" t!e. &$2ye%6 2i&& .eed to u.de%6t$.d t!e &imit$tio.6 $.d 6!o%t7omi.46 o t!i6 ty8e o e5ide.7e' I.deed .ot $&& DNA e5ide.7e e5ide.7e i6 eu$&' Bot! $t Dou4!ty St%eet C!$mbe%6' T!ey 2e%e i.6t%u7ted o. be!$& o t!e dee.7e i. i. t!e t!e B%ou4!to. t%i$&6 $.d $88e$&'

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