Handbook for Cogeneration and Combined Cycle Power Plants

HANDBOOK FOR COGENERATION AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS Second Edition

Dr. Meherwan P. Boyce, P.E.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION PREFACE

1. AN OVERVIEW OF POWER GENERATION Distributed Generation .............................................................................. Diesel and Gasoline Engines ................................................................... Natural Gas Reciprocating Engines ...................................................... Gas Turbines . ........................................................................................... Micro-Turbines ....................................................................................... Fuel Cell Technology ............................................................................... Solar Energy-Photovoltaic Cells ............................................................ BioMass Systems ....................................................................................... Wind Energy ............................................................................................ Cogeneration .............................................................................................. Cogeneration Qualifications ................................................................... Gas Turbine Cycle in Cogeneration Mode . .......................................... Combined Cycle Plants ................................................................................. Availability and Reliability .......................................................................... Properties of Gas Turbine Exhaust ............................................................. Steam Generation Calculations .............................................................. Gas Turbine Heat Recovery .......................................................................... Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems ..................................... Environmental Effects ............................................................................. Integrated Gasifier Combined Cycle Plants .................................................. Air Separation Unit .................................................................................... Residual Nitrogen Injection ....................................................................... Coal Gasifiers .............................................................................................. Carbon Capture and Sequestration . ......................................................... IGCC Plants — Commercial and Proposed Plants . ....................................

iii xv

1 17 21 21 21 22 23 27 27 27 29 34 35 39 44 46 47 47 50 50 50 53 53 54 57 59



TABLE OF CONTENTS • ix

Velocity-Stage, Curtis-Type Impulse Turbine........................................ 251 Pressure-Stage, Rateau-Type Impulse Turbine...................................... 251 Arc of Peripheral Admission to the Total Circumference..................... 254 General Flow Arrangement................................................................... 258 Single-Flow Single Casing Turbines....................................................... 259 Extraction Flow Turbine......................................................................... 259 Compound-Flow or Tandem Compound Turbine................................. 260 Cross Compound Turbine....................................................................... 260 Double-Flow Turbines............................................................................ 261 Steam Turbine Characteristics................................................................ 261 Features and Structure of Large Steam Turbines in Combined Cycle Plant Application............................................................................... 262 Features and Structure of HP and IP Nozzles and Blades......................... 263 HP and IP Nozzle Diaphragms................................................................ 266 Blades...................................................................................................... 268 Blade Attachments................................................................................. 271 Features and Structure of LP Blades........................................................... 272 Gland Seal System........................................................................................ 276 Interstage Seals....................................................................................... 277 End Seals.................................................................................................. 277 Required Material Characteristics............................................................... 278 Blade Materials............................................................................................ 280 Surface Treatments...................................................................................... 282 Steam Turbine Performance....................................................................... 282 Change in Main Steam Temperature.................................................... 286 Change in Main Steam Pressure............................................................ 288 Change in Steam Flow............................................................................ 288 Change in Reheat Steam Temperature................................................. 288 Change in Reheat Steam Pressure......................................................... 288 Change in Condenser Back Pressure...................................................... 293 Change due to Operational Hours........................................................ 295 Change in Power Factor......................................................................... 295

6. AN OVERVIEW OF PUMPS

297

Range of Operation................................................................................. 297 Pump Selection........................................................................................ 301 Pump Materials........................................................................................ 302 Types of Pumps............................................................................................. 305 Process Pumps..................................................................................................... 305 Sump Pumps............................................................................................. 305 Axial-Flow Pumps..................................................................................... 306 Turbine Pumps......................................................................................... 306 Regenerative Pumps................................................................................ 306 Gear Pumps.............................................................................................. 307 Screw Pumps............................................................................................ 307


vi • COGENERATION AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS

2. CYCLES

61

Combined Cycle Plant Operation ............................................................... 61 The Brayton Cycle ....................................................................................... 61 Inlet Cooling Effect . ................................................................................ 63 Regeneration Effect . ............................................................................ 70 Increasing the Work Output of the Simple Cycle Gas Turbine ..................................................................................................... 74 Intercooling and Reheat Effects ............................................................. 75 Injection of Compressed Air, Steam, or Water for Increasing Power ............................................................................... 77 Combination of Evaporative Cooling and Steam Injection ................................................................................................... 81 Advanced Gas Turbine Cycles .................................................................... 81 Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle . .................................................. 81 Actual Cycle Analysis ................................................................................... 84 The Simple Cycle ..................................................................................... 84 The Split-Shaft Simple Cycle . .................................................................. 86 The Regenerative Cycle ........................................................................... 87 The Intercooled Simple Cycle .................................................................. 89 The Reheat Cycle ..................................................................................... 89 The Intercooled Regenerative Reheat Cycle .......................................... 91 The Steam Injection Cycle ....................................................................... 91 The Evaporative Regenerative Cycle .................................................. 100 The Brayton-Rankine Cycle ................................................................... 100 Summation of Cycle Analysis ................................................................... 104 A General Overview of Combined Cycle Plants ........................................ 104

3. PERFORMANCE AND MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT STANDARDS Major Variables of a Combined Cycle Power Plant ................................. Plant Location and Site Configuration .............................................. Plant Type ........................................................................................... Plant Size and Efficiency ...................................................................... Type of Fuel .......................................................................................... Types of HRSG . ..................................................................................... Types of Condensers ............................................................................ Enclosures .............................................................................................. Plant Operation Mode: Base or Peaking ............................................. Start-up Techniques . ............................................................................ Performance Standards ........................................................................... ASME, Performance Test Code on Overall Plant Performance............ ASME, Performance Test Code on Test Uncertainty: Instruments and Apparatus ...................................................................................... ASME, Performance Test Code on Gas Turbines . ...............................

117 119 119 122 122 128 128 129 130 130 131 131 131 132 132


TABLE OF CONTENTS • vii

ASME, Performance Test Code on Gas Turbine Heat Recovery Steam Generators ............................................................................... ASME, Performance Test Code on Steam Turbines .......................... ASME, Performance Test Code on Steam Condensing Apparatus . ............................................................................................ ASME, Performance Test Code on Atmospheric Water Cooling Equipment . .......................................................................................... ISO, Natural Gas — Calculation of Calorific Value, Density and Relative Density .............................................................................. Table of Physical Constants of Paraffin Hydrocarbons . .................... Mechanical Parameters ............................................................................ API Std 616, Gas Turbines for the Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services ...................................................................... API Std 618, Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services ...................................................... API Std 619, Rotary-Type Positive Displacement Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services . ........................ API Std 613 Special Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services ...................................................... API Std 677, General-Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services ...................................................... API Std 614 , Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control-Oil Systems and Auxiliaries for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services .............................................................................. ANSI/API Std 610 Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum, Heavy Duty Chemical and Gas Industry Services . .............................. API Publication 534, Heat Recovery Steam Generators . ..................... API RP 556, Fired Heaters & Steam Generators ................................. ISO 10436:1993 Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries — General Purpose Steam Turbine for Refinery Service ..................................................................................... API Std 671, Special Purpose Couplings for Petroleum Chemical and Gas Industry Services ...................................................... ANSI/API Std 670 Vibration, Axial-Position, and Bearing-Temperature Monitoring Systems .......................................... API Std 672, Packaged, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services .................................................................................. API Std 681, Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps and Compressors .............. Gas Turbine ............................................................................................... Gears ............................................................................................................ Lubrication Systems ................................................................................... Vibration Measurements ........................................................................... Specifications ............................................................................................

133 134 134 135 135 135 136 136 138 138 138 139 139 139 140 140

140 140 140 141 141 141 146 148 149 151


viii • COGENERATION AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS

4. AN OVERVIEW OF GAS TURBINES

155

Industrial Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines ......................................................... 165 Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbines ............................................................... 168 Medium-Range Gas Turbines . ................................................................. 169 Small Gas Turbines ..................................................................................... 170 Major Gas Turbine Components . .............................................................. 173 Compressors . .......................................................................................... 173 Regenerators . ....................................................................................... 189 Combustors ..................................................................................... 190 Combustor Design Considerations.......................................................... 194 Typical Combustor Arrangements.......................................................... 195 Air Pollution Problems............................................................................. 196 Dry Low NOx Combustor......................................................................... 201 Catalytic Combustion............................................................................... 208 Features of Catalytic Combustion........................................................... 208 Catalytic Combustor Design.................................................................... 211 Turbine Expander Section............................................................................ 212 Radial-Inflow Turbine.............................................................................. 214 Mixed-Flow Turbine................................................................................. 215 Axial-Flow Turbines................................................................................. 215 Impulse Turbine....................................................................................... 219 The Reaction Turbine.............................................................................. 222 Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts............................................................. 225 Turbine Blade Cooling Design................................................................ 227 Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics................................................................ 231 Instrumentation and Controls.......................................................................................237

5. AN OVERVIEW OF STEAM TURBINES

239

Introduction................................................................................................. 239 Non-Condensing Cycle............................................................................ 239 Condensing Cycle.................................................................................... 239 The Rankine Cycle........................................................................................ 240 Heat Rate and Steam Rate.....................................................................243 Turbine Component Efficiency..............................................................243 Mechanical Efficiency.............................................................................244 The Regenerative - Reheat Cycle...........................................................244 Steam Turbine.........................................................................................246 Classifications of Steam Turbines........................................................... 247 Steam Flow Directions............................................................................ 247 Steam Passage Between Blades............................................................. 249 Turbine Stages in Series.......................................................................... 249 Single-Stage or Simple-Impulse Turbine............................................... 250 Multistage Impulse-Type Turbine.......................................................... 251 Velocity and Pressure Stage Combination............................................ 251


TABLE OF CONTENTS • ix

Velocity-Stage, Curtis-Type Impulse Turbine........................................ 251 Pressure-Stage, Rateau-Type Impulse Turbine...................................... 251 Arc of Peripheral Admission to the Total Circumference..................... 254 General Flow Arrangement................................................................... 258 Single-Flow Single Casing Turbines....................................................... 259 Extraction Flow Turbine......................................................................... 259 Compound-Flow or Tandem Compound Turbine................................. 260 Cross Compound Turbine....................................................................... 260 Double-Flow Turbines............................................................................ 261 Steam Turbine Characteristics................................................................ 261 Features and Structure of Large Steam Turbines in Combined Cycle Plant Application............................................................................... 262 Features and Structure of HP and IP Nozzles and Blades......................... 263 HP and IP Nozzle Diaphragms................................................................ 266 Blades...................................................................................................... 268 Blade Attachments................................................................................. 271 Features and Structure of LP Blades........................................................... 272 Gland Seal System........................................................................................ 276 Interstage Seals....................................................................................... 277 End Seals.................................................................................................. 277 Required Material Characteristics............................................................... 278 Blade Materials............................................................................................ 280 Surface Treatments...................................................................................... 282 Steam Turbine Performance....................................................................... 282 Change in Main Steam Temperature.................................................... 286 Change in Main Steam Pressure............................................................ 288 Change in Steam Flow............................................................................ 288 Change in Reheat Steam Temperature................................................. 288 Change in Reheat Steam Pressure......................................................... 288 Change in Condenser Back Pressure...................................................... 293 Change due to Operational Hours........................................................ 295 Change in Power Factor......................................................................... 295

6. AN OVERVIEW OF PUMPS

297

Range of Operation................................................................................. 297 Pump Selection........................................................................................ 301 Pump Materials........................................................................................ 302 Types of Pumps............................................................................................. 305 Process Pumps..................................................................................................... 305 Sump Pumps............................................................................................. 305 Axial-Flow Pumps..................................................................................... 306 Turbine Pumps......................................................................................... 306 Regenerative Pumps................................................................................ 306 Gear Pumps.............................................................................................. 307 Screw Pumps............................................................................................ 307


• COGENERATION AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS

Centrifugal Pumps................................................................................... 307 Pump Application in Combined Cycle Power Plants.................................. 312 The IP-LP Circulating Pump..................................................................... 312 HP Feed Water Pumps............................................................................. 313 The HP Circulating Pump......................................................................... 314 Condenser Pumps.................................................................................... 314 Cooling Water Pumps.............................................................................. 314 Lubrication Pumps................................................................................... 314 Fuel Pumps............................................................................................... 315 7. HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATORS

317

Introduction ................................................................................................317 Design Considerations . ..............................................................................320 Multipressure Steam Generators ..........................................................320 Off-Design Performance .......................................................................322 Construction of the HRSG .....................................................................323 Casing of the HRSG . ..............................................................................324 Forced-Circulation System .....................................................................324 Back-Pressure Considerations (Gas Side) ..............................................324 Finned Tubing ........................................................................................324 Tube Materials .......................................................................................324 HRSG Design Requirements ..................................................................325 Economizers ...........................................................................................326 Evaporators ............................................................................................327 Attemperators .......................................................................................329 Desuperheaters ......................................................................................330 Deaerator ....................................................................................................333 Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems . ...............................335 Design Features .....................................................................................338 Once Through Steam Generators .........................................................342 HRSG Operational Characteristics . .......................................................344 HRSG Effectiveness ................................................................................346 Water Chemistry ....................................................................................346 Water Treatment Plants ........................................................................348 Chemical Storage and Dosing ...............................................................352 HRSG Chemical Cleaning .......................................................................352 Vibration and Noise . .............................................................................356 Filter Housing, Duct Work, and Insulation . .........................................357 Diverters, Silencers, and Burners ..........................................................360 HRSG Reliability and Durability ............................................................365

8. CONDENSERS AND COOLING TOWERS

367

Condensers .................................................................................................. 367 Types of Condensers .............................................................................. 369


TABLE OF CONTENTS • xi

Condensate Polisher Systems ................................................................ Available Condensate Polisher Technology .......................................... Condenser Fouling ...................................................................................... Cooling Towers . ..................................................................................... Design of Cooling Towers ..................................................................... Chemical Water Treatment for Cooling Towers ....................................... Cooling Tower Biological Control . ....................................................... Cooling Tower Scale Control ................................................................. Dispersants . ............................................................................................ Corrosion Inhibitors ............................................................................... Development of a Cooling Tower Treatment Program ......................

9. GENERATORS, MOTORS AND SWITCH GEARS

Motors ........................................................................................................ Constant Speed Motors ........................................................................ Alternating Current Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors ...................... Synchronous Alternating-Current Motors .......................................... Power-Factor Correction ...................................................................... Generator . ............................................................................................... Design Characteristics . ........................................................................ Switchgear ............................................................................................... Electrical Single Line Diagram ..................................................................

10. FUELS, FUEL PIPING AND FUEL STORAGE Fuel Specifications ................................................................................... Fuel Properties ......................................................................................... Heavy Fuels ................................................................................................ Cleaning of Turbine Components ............................................................ Turbine Wash ........................................................................................ Compressor Washing ............................................................................ Fuel Economics .......................................................................................... Heat Tracing of Piping Systems ................................................................ Types of Heat-Tracing Systems ............................................................ Choosing the Best Tracing System ....................................................... Storage of Liquids ................................................................................... Atmospheric Tanks ............................................................................. Elevated Tanks ...................................................................................... Open Tanks ......................................................................................... Fixed Roof Tanks . ................................................................................. Floating Roofs Tanks ............................................................................ Pressure Tanks . ..................................................................................... Calculation of Tank Volume ................................................................ Container Materials, Insulation and Support ....................................

371 376 381 383 385 389 390 390 391 391 392

395

395 396 396 397 398 399 402 417 423

425 427 430 442 446 446 448 449 450 452 458 459 459 460 460 460 461 461 461 464


HANDBOOK FOR COGENERATION AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS Second Edition

Dr. Meherwan P. Boyce, P.E.


TABLE OF CONTENTS • xiii

Condenser Calculations ............................................................................ Performance Curves . ................................................................................ Performance Computations ................................................................... General Governing Equations . ......................................................... Gas-Turbine Performance Calculation . .............................................. Heat-Recovery Steam Generator ........................................................ Steam Turbines ........................................................................................... Plant Losses .......................................................................................... Nomenclature ...........................................................................................

14. MAINTENANCE TECHNIQUES Philosophy of Maintenance ...................................................................... Maximization of Equipment Efficiency and Effectiveness .................... Organization Structures ............................................................................ Performance-Based Total Productive Maintenance Program .......... Implementation of a Performance-Based Total Productive Maintenance ....................................................................................... Maintenance Department Requirements ......................................... Spare Parts Inventory ......................................................................... Inspections ........................................................................................... Condition and Life Assessment .......................................................... Redesign for Higher Machinery Reliability ........................................ Maintenance Scheduling . .................................................................. Maintenance Communications ............................................................

15. COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT PROBLEMS Gas Turbines ............................................................................................. Inlet Filtration Problems . .................................................................... Evaporative Cooling ............................................................................ Axial Flow Compressor ........................................................................ Inlet Guide Vanes ................................................................................ Compressor Blades . ............................................................................. Diaphragms .......................................................................................... Diaphragm Seals .................................................................................. Diaphragm Contact ............................................................................. Compressor Problems and Failures ..................................................... Compressor Vanes and Blades ............................................................ Cooling Air Contamination ................................................................. Combustion Systems ............................................................................ Diffusion-Type Combustors . ............................................................... Dry Low-NOx Combustors . .................................................................. Dynamic Combustion Monitors .......................................................... Transition Piece . ..................................................................................

546 546 548 549 554 564 567 571 572

575 575 577 580 580 580 583 588 589 589 590 598 599

603 603 606 607 607 611 611 611 615 615 615 616 631 634 637 641 648 650


xiv • COGENERATION AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS

Axial Flow Turbines ............................................................................. Turbine Blades ..................................................................................... Wheel Space . ....................................................................................... Exhaust Manifold . ............................................................................... Gas Turbine Expansion Joint Failures ................................................. Heat Recovery Steam Generators ............................................................ Failures Experienced in HRSGs ............................................................ Chemical Sampling and Analysis ............................................................. Man Service Platforms . ............................................................................ Freeze Protection ..................................................................................... Steam Turbine .......................................................................................... HP Turbine Section ................................................................................... IP Turbine Section . ................................................................................... LP Turbine Section .................................................................................... Foreign Object Damage/Domestic Object Damage . .............................. Gland Seal Systems ................................................................................... Lubrication System Failures ..................................................................... Bearings . .............................................................................................. Gears .........................................................................................................

653 662 671 672 676 677 680 689 690 691 692 694 699 702 706 708 709 715 722

APPENDIX A

725

APPENDIX B

729

BIBLIOGRAPHY

731

INDEX

747

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

761


PREFACE

A Handbook for Cogeneration and Combined Cycle Power Plants discusses the design, fabrication, installation, operation, and maintenance of combined cycle power plants. The book has been written to provide an overall view for the experienced engineer working in a specialized aspect of the subject and for the young engineering graduate or undergraduate student who is being exposed to the field of power plants for the first time. The book has proven to be very useful as a textbook for undergraduate and graduate courses as well as for in-house company training programs related to power generation, and I believe that the new edition will further extend the knowledge of the engineer in this field. The second edition is not only an updating of the technology, which has taken great leaps forward since the year 2001, but I have also rewritten the introductory chapter to bring the reader new information in the power industry, especially carbon sequestration technology, which will be a topic of great interest in the years to come. The power industry has, in the past 8 years, embraced the combined cycle power plants and, with the new high-efficiency advanced gas turbines, is at the center of this growth segment of the industry. This has led to the rewriting of the following chapters: Chapter 1, “An Overview of Power Generation”; Chapter 5, “Steam Turbines”; Chapter 7, “Heat Recovery Steam Generators”; and Chapter 8, “Condensers and Cooling Towers.” A new chapter has been introduced, Chapter 15, “Case Histories of Problems Encountered in Cogeneration and Combined Cycle Power Plants.” This is an extensive treatise on the many problems associated with the combined cycle power plants and some of the solutions that have achieved higher efficiencies and reliability. This chapter explains in depth the problems encountered and with 145 figures fully illustrates the many failures encountered in cogeneration and combined cycle power plant applications. This book has been used extensively by engineers in the industry, and I have used it in the many courses I have taught in this area. The suggestions from these engineers have guided me in my writing of the second edition of this book. The new chapters have been written with an eye toward the new issues both from a technical and legal point of view in the operating of power plants. In this new edition, I have introduced extensive sections on the chemical treatment of the water used in combined cycle power plants. The chemistry sections and related information have been provided by David Addison of Thermal Chemistry Limited, New Zealand. I have also used many topics that have been well researched by the Electric Power Research Institute in its many publications.


xvi • COGENERATION AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS

Cogeneration and combined cycle power plants are not new, but with major improvements in all of the building blocks such as power plant, gas turbines, HRSGs, steam turbines, and condensers, an update of the book was necessary. Technology efficiencies in the mid-1950s are common today, and with a little bit of ingenuity, efficiencies in the low 1960s will be possible. With emphasis on CO2 reduction, these high efficiencies will make it possible to achieve the lofty goals of greenhouse gas reductions. These high efficiencies have totally revolutionized the industry, making the old steam plants a thing of the past. The use of cogeneration and combined cycle power plants in all industries, and in the power generation field, has mushroomed in the past few years. It is to these users and manufacturers of cogeneration and combined cycle power plants that this book is directed. The book, with its new chapter on case histories, will give the manufacturer a glimpse of some of the major problems associated with his equipment in the field and help the user to achieve maximum performance efficiency and high availability for his plant. I have been involved in the research, design, operation, and maintenance of various types of combined cycle power plants since the early 1960s. I have also taught courses at the graduate and undergraduate level at the University of Oklahoma and Texas A&M University, and now, in general, to the industry for the past 30 years. I have taught over a hundred courses to 3000 students from over 400 corporations around the world. The enthusiasm of the students associated with these courses gave me the inspiration to undertake this endeavor of updating the book. The many courses I have taught over the past 37 years have been an educational experience for me as well as for the engineers who have participated in these courses. The Texas A&M University Turbomachinery Symposium, which I had the privilege to found and chair for seven years and which is now in its 38th year, is a great contributor to the operational and maintenance sections of this book. The discussions and consultations that resulted from my association with highly professional individuals have been a major contribution to both my personal and professional life as well as to this book. In this book, I have tried to assimilate the subject matter of various papers, and sometimes diverse views, into a comprehensive, unified treatment of combined cycle power plants. Many illustrations, curves, and tables are employed to broaden the understanding of the descriptive text. Mathematical treatments have been deliberately held to a minimum so that the reader can identify and resolve any problems before he is ready to execute a specific design. In addition, the references direct the reader to sources of information that will help him to further investigate and solve his specific problems. It is hoped that this book will serve as a reference text after it has accomplished its primary objective of introducing the reader to the broad subject of combined cycle power plants. I wish to thank the many engineers whose published work and discussions have been a cornerstone to this work. Lastly, I wish to acknowledge and give special thanks to my wife, Zarine, for her readiness to help and her constant encouragement throughout this project. I also would like to thank my assistants Donna Masters and Shannon Reynolds for the many hours they have spent in helping me put this new edition together.


PREFACE • xvii

I sincerely hope that this new edition will be educational and interesting to read as it was for me to write and that it will be a major reference in the fastgrowing field of cogeneration and combined cycle power plants.

MEHERWAN P. BOYCE HOUSTON, TEXAS September 2009



Handbook for Cogeneration and Combined Cycle Power Plants

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