Las teorías de cambio o Desarrollo Adulto
Después de haber pasado todo un capítulo para convencer a usted que la vida está fuertemente condicionada por los persistentes, duradera las características
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de los individuos, que pueden parecer contradictorios a un examen de los medios de vida de los adultos que van en la misma dirección o comparten patrones similares. Pero el hecho de que estos dos modos de mirar a la vida adulta son al mismo tiempo verdadero es uno de los puntos básicos que quiero qui ero hacer en este libro. Cada uno de nosotros puede entrar y desplazarse hasta la edad adulta en una trayectoria algo diferente, pero todas las trayectorias de adultos todavía pueden tener importantes elementos en común. Ambos somos todos iguales y todos diferentes. La búsqueda de los elementos comunes es el tema de los ocho capítulos de la siguiente sección. Antes de analizar los datos, sin embargo, quiero sentar las bases para hablar hablar de teorías de adultos adultos continuidad continuidad y cambio. cambio. CREO CREO QUE estas teorías fascinantes en sí mismas. Pero también nos sirven de punto de algunas de las cuestiones fundamentales que la investigación podría responder y para ilustrar la variedad de formas de pensar en la edad adulta.
Las variedades de teorías Hace veinticinco años, el debate de las teorías de desarrollo para adultos habría sido casi totalmente dominado por una teoría: Erik Erikson el modelo de desarrollo psicosocial. psicosocial. Erikson la visión es aún muy influyente, pero hoy se ha producido un verdadero florecimiento florecimiento de ideas, algunas de ellas claramente diferentes de opiniones de Erikson. La gran variedad de teorías existentes se forma un mejor marco para las posteriores si yo organizara los enfoques en varias dimensiones, como lo he hecho en la Figura 3-1. Cualquier esquema de categorización, y este es uno más, es inevitablemente una simplificación excesiva. Cada teoría contiene su propia combinación única de ideas. Pero todavía puedo utilizar las dos dimensiones se muestra en la Figura 3-1 como una base útil para organizar las opciones. La primera dimensión en la que las teorías pueden ser organizado es su importancia relativa en el desarrollo y cambio. La diferencia fundamental de que estoy utilizando los términos " desarrollo" y "cambio" en este libro, es que la teoría del desarrollo se supone que hay alguna a lguna meta o punto final hacia el que el adulto se mueve, y que este fin es potencialmente "mejor" o más madura de
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ego" como el estado final, acompañado por la sabiduría. Vaillant describe un continuo del desarrollo de inmaduros más formas maduras de mecanismos de defensa. Otros teóricos, como Levinson, o Pearlin, aunque está de acuerdo en que no hay cambios significativos en los años de la vida adulta, no ver los cambios que llevan a cualquier lugar que es más maduro, más integrado, o más sabio. Tu tía abuela Elsie es diferente a la nuestra en concreto, forma previsible; pero ella no es necesariamente necesariamente lo mejor (o peor), peor), más sabio sabio o más maduros. maduros. Tenga en cuenta que entre los de los teóricos que he indicado en la Figura 3-1 son varios los que caen en entre los puntos en el desarrollo y dimensión del cambio ? no es necesario afirmar una posición o la otra; se podría argumentar, por ejemplo, que ambos se producen producen bajo ciertas ciertas condiciones. condiciones.
F igura igura 3-1. Esta 3-1. Esta ventana de dos dimensiones, en la que el desarrollo versus cambio como una dimensión y etapa versus nonstage teorías como el otro, nos permite contrastar varias de las principales teorías del desarrollo. (Los números entre paréntesis indican el orden en que estas
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poco arriesgado arriesgado título título de organización, ya que el término término "etapa" se utiliza utiliza para describir varios conceptos diferentes. Más en general, las etapas hacen referencia a secuencias de experiencias o sucesos en el tiempo, como la familia las etapas del ciclo de vida he mencionado brevemente en el Capítulo 1. Más concretamente (y más comúnmente en las teorías psicológicas), las etapas implican sistemática, secuencial, cambios cualitativos en algunas habilidades subyacentes o estructura psíquica. Cuando Jean Piaget habla de las etapas de desarrollo cognitivo de los niños, por ejemplo, que no significa simplemente que los niños aprendan a sumar y a restar antes de aprender a multiplicar y dividir, sino que la capacidad de multiplicar y dividir requiere fundamentalmente diferentes entendimientos, la lógica o las estructuras mentales . Cada etapa se considera como un todo estructural, tiene su propia lógica. La mayoría (pero no todas) las teorías del desarrollo para adultos hacer supuestos similares similares sobre la naturaleza de los cambios en la edad adulta. Etapa los teóricos también difieren en la medida en que sostienen que los distintos estadios son relacionadas con la edad. Las etapas de Levinson están fuertemente conectadas a edades determinadas, por ejemplo, mientras que no son de Loevinger. En el otro extremo del espectro están los teóricos que no ver las etapas de desarrollo para adultos, en cualquier sentido del término. Sociólogo Orville Brim representa este anti-etapa punto de vista bien cuando dice que "las teorías son un poco como horóscopos. Son lo suficientemente vaga para que todo el mundo pueda ver algo de sí mismo mismo en ellos. Es por por eso que es tan popular". popular". La opinión contraria es que no hay etapas de madurez no comparte "crisis", no "integridad" en la vejez no sólo la constante cambio o evolución. Entre estos dos extremos se encuentran una serie de teóricos que sostienen que hay secuencias pero no las etapas. Es decir, que no existe puede ser ordenada, previsible secuencias de experiencias o los cambios en la edad adulta, pero estos cambios no pueden ser integrados en, comparte las estructuras internas o externas. Cuando estas dos dimensiones, como algunas combinaciones son obviamente más comunes que otros. (De hecho, no puedo pensar en una teoría 1:
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sin compartir las etapas o secuencias.) En el momento, las teorías del desarrollo son, probablemente, el más común y el más influyente. Pero muchos de los actuales intentos de integración teórica, como el de Baltes & Bielby Perun y está clasificado y las teorías de mentira en el medio. Debido a la posición dominante de la etapa y el desarrollo las teorías, permítanme que comience el examen detallado de estas teorías en la parte superior izquierda y, a continuación, trabajar mi camino lentamente hacia las teorías que se encuentran en el centro. (La secuencia en que se uso está indicado en la Figura 3-1 con los números entre paréntesis después de cada nombre del teórico.)
Etapa de Desarrollo teorías de la edad adulta Erik Erikson la teoría del desarrollo de la identidad 1950 Teoría de Erikson, 1959; 1980; Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986; Evans, 1969) ha sido sin duda el más influyente opinión de desarrollo para adultos propuestas hasta la fecha. Hay restos de esta teoría en cualquier otra teoría de las etapas de la edad adulta, y su terminología ha sido adoptado ampliamente. Propone que desarrollo psicosocial continúa a través de la toda la vida, como resultado de la interacción entre las unidades interiores y sus instintos y cultural exterior y las demandas sociales. Para Erikson, un concepto clave es la progresiva y gradual aparición de un sentido de identidad. Erikson declaró explícitamente que el desarrollo desarrollo es un problema básico, incorporado en el " plan de la tierra" que conforma una secuencia de " posibilidades de interacción significativa" significativa" con aquellos alrededor del niño o del adulto. Para desarrollar una completa, estable identidad, el individuo debe desplazarse y resolver con éxito ocho "crisis" o "dilemas" en el transcurso de la vida (véase el Cuadro 3.1 ) .Cada dilema surge como el niño o adulto es cuestionada por nuevas relaciones, nuevas tareas, o exigencias. La cuarta etapa de "industria frente a
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Cada dilema o etapa se define por un par de opuestos a las posibilidades, uno de los cuales describe el resultado óptimo de este dilema, y el otro el potencial negativo o menos resultado saludable, como la confianza o desconfianza, o integridad versus desesperación. En En sus escritos posteriores . Erikson también habló sobre el potencial de una buena resolución de cada dilema, como se puede ver en la Tabla Tabla 3.1 .
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TABLA 3. 1 .Erik .Erik Erikson de las etapas del desarrollo psicosocial.
Aprox. Edad
Etapa
0-1 Años
I. Confianza Básica versus desconfianza
2- 3 años
II. Autonomía versus vergüenza y duda
4-5 Años
III. Iniciativa versus culpa
6-12 Años
IV Industria versus inferioridad
13-18 Años
V función identidad versus confusión
Fuerza potencial para ser adquirida
Descripción
El bebé debe formar un primero, amar, confiar, la relación con el Esperanza cuidador o riesgo persiste una sensación de desconfianza. El niño cobarde energías se dirigen al desarrollo de las habilidades físicas, incluyendo caminata y Se sosteniendo y control de los esfínteres. El niño aprende control pero pueden desarrollar vergüenza si no se manejan adecuadamente. El niño sigue a ser más asertiva, para tener más iniciativa, pero puede ser Fin coo fuerte y puede causar daño a los demás o los objetos, lo que lleva a la culpabilidad . El niño en edad escolar debe hacer frente a las exigencias de Competencia aprender aptitudes nuevas y complejas o riesgo un sentido de inferioridad. La adolescente o adulto joven) debe alcanzar un sentido de la identidad, Fidelidad tanto que es y lo que será, en varias áreas, como la ocupación, sexo, política y religión. El adulto joven debe riesgo la
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FUENTES: Erikson, 1950, 1959, 1980; Erikson, et al., 1986.
UNA " buena solución", sin embargo. No significa pasar totalmente a la aparentemente positiva al final de cualquiera de las continua Erikson describe. Un bebé puede tener demasiada confianza ; demasiado laboriosidad puede conducir a reducir virtuosismo; virtuosismo; demasiada cohesión identidad en la adolescencia puede puede resultar en el fanatismo. fanatismo. La mejor resolución resolución , en este punto punto de vista, es un equilibrio entre ambos. Otro punto clave de la teoría de Erikson que lleva acento es su afirmación chat estos dilemas/crisis se ven obligados a cada uno de nosotros a medida que avanzamos a través del ciclo de vida. A diferencia de algunas otras etapas los teóricos, como Loevinger, Erikson no creo que simplemente quedarse en un momento dado hasta que haya terminado, antes de pasar a la siguiente. El autor sostiene en cambio que cada persona es empujada a través de esta secuencia de dilemas de maduración biológica, por las presiones sociales, a las exigencias de los roles que asume. asume. No se puede quedar una persona de 20 20 años, hasta que quede bien de que en el próximo cumpleaños que son 21, y, a continuación, 22, si estás preparado o no. Y con el aumento de la edad hay nuevas demandas, nuevos di lemas. Cuando llegue a los 60 o 70, las tareas que no plenamente en cuenta permanecerá como problemas no resueltos, interfiriendo con su capacidad para encontrar la verdadera integridad. Teoría de Erikson, por consiguiente, pertenece pertenece en la esquina superior superior de este cuadrante del diagrama diagrama porque no sólo piensa que el resultado final de hacer frente a estos dilemas puede ser madurez y sabiduría, sino porque piensa que los tramos llega en aproximadamente la misma edad para todos nosotros y por lo tanto deben ser tratados con en secuencia, independientemente de lo bien o mal que
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identidades vinculadas: vinculadas: una identidad ocupacional (qué trabajo voy a hacer? ), el papel sexual o identidad sexual ( ¿cómo puedo ser un hombre o una mujer? ), y las identidades políticas y religiosas religiosas ( ¿qué creo ? ). Si estas identidades identidades no se han trabajado , y entonces el joven sufre de un sentido de confusión, un sentimiento de no saber qué o quién es. Fase 6, la intimidad versus aislamiento, se basa en la nueva identidad de la adolescencia. Erikson afirma: …Es sólo después de un razonable sentido de identidad se ha establecido que la verdadera intimidad con el otro sexo (o, en este caso, con cualquier otra persona o
incluso con uno mismo) es posible. Intimidad Sexual sólo es pan lo que tengo en mente.... La juventud que no está seguro de su identidad no se atreva a intimidad interpersonal; pero la más segura de sí misma que se convierte, más, la busca en forma de amistad , combate, liderazgo, amor e inspiración. (Erikson, 1959, p. 101).
Intimidad es "la capacidad de fundir su identidad con alguien sin temor a que te vas a perder algo usted mismo" mismo" (Erikson, en Evans, Evans, 1969). Muchos jóvenes, jóvenes, Erikson, el error de pensar que se encuentra su identidad en una relación, pero en su opinión, sólo aquellos que ya han formado (o están en vías de formación) una identidad clara que puede entrar con éxito la fusión de las identidades que él llama intimidad. Para aquellos cuyas identidades son débiles o no, las relaciones seguirán siendo poco profundo, y el joven experimenta una sensación de aislamiento o soledad. A pesar de que en su primera descripción los iones de las etapas, Erikson había asumido que todo el mundo pasa a través de estas etapas en el mismo orden, en escritos posteriores (Erikson, (Erikson, 1968) sugiere que esta secuencia de formación de la identidad y de la intimidad puede no ser cierto para muchas mujeres para las
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Cualquiera que sea la resolución de la controversia sobre el momento de la intimidad, no es razonablemente buena acuerdo que tanto para el hombre y la mujer, hay una fase posterior, la Fase 7 en el desarrollo de la modelo, generativity versus estancamiento. Un adulto en esta etapa toma su lugar en la sociedad y contribuye en el desarrollo de la próxima generación o añade a la sociedad de alguna manera. Erikson afirma: Entendemos que la edad adulta media responsabilidad generativa para el "mantenimiento del mundo" en términos de la relación entre reinos de personas, productos, y de los ideales. Por lo tanto, es la responsabilidad res ponsabilidad de cada generación de adultos, nutrir y guiar a los personas que tendrá éxito cuando sean adultos, así como de desarrollar y mantener las instituciones de la sociedad y de los recursos naturales sin que las sucesivas generaciones no serán capaces de sobrevivir. (Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986, pág. 73-74 73-74 73-74)
El cojinete y la crianza de los niños es sin duda un elemento clave en el desarrollo de la vista de generativity, pero no es el único elemento. Que actúa como mentor de colegas más jóvenes, haciendo obras de caridad en la sociedad de estos también son parte de generativity. Aquellos adultos que no puede conseguir una sensación satisfactoria de generativity puede experimentar una sensación de estancamiento. Erikson utiliza también el término "autoabsorción" para describir la cara de generativity. Erikson la parte final de la etapa del ego es integridad versus desesperación. Mejor puedo describir el uso de la palabras palabras elocuentes: elocuentes: Sólo él, que de alguna manera bas cuidado de las cosas y las personas y se ha adaptado el mismo (0 triunfos y decepciones de ser, por necesidad, en el iniciador de los otros y el generador de las cosas y las ideas y sólo él puede ir creciendo el fruto de las siete etapas. No conozco una mejor palabra que integridad. (1959, p. 104)
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Pero la mayor victoria ha sido poder vivir conmigo misma , a aceptar mis defectos y los de los demás. Estoy muy lejos de el ser humano hu mano me gustaría ser. s er. Pero he decidido que no estoy tan mal después de todo. (Klein, 1989, pág. 6)
Erikson sostiene que este sentido de integridad debe ser construida sobre la base del éxito en la resolución de todas las crisis y los dilemas que vinieron antes. Los adultos que no pueden lograr un sentido de integridad, tal vez porque se lleve adelante un residuo de desconfianza, la culpa, la difusión, el aislamiento, o la auto-absorción de anteriores etapas, experimentan una sensación de desesperación. Sienten que el tiempo es demasiado corto, o que su vida ha sido un fracaso, o que desean que la tenía que hacer de nuevo. Un punto clave implícita aquí es que, en opinión de Erikson, estas etapas y se afectan mutuamente. La resolución de cualquier persona sin éxito etapa deja la persona con "asuntos pendientes", pendientes", los conflictos sin resolver, que se arrastran a la siguiente etapa, por lo que es más difícil de resolver la siguiente etapa con éxito. Por lo tanto, Erikson propone una serie de etapas que son no sólo inevitable y en una secuencia fija sino que además son acumulativos.
Jane Loevinger la teoría del desarrollo del Ego En contraste, las etapas Jane Loevinger propone en su teoría del desarrollo del ego (1976) son secuenciales y acumulativos pero no inevitable, que es la razón por la que se sitúa sitúa un poco más hacia el centro de la dimensión dimensión de las etapas/no etapas/no las etapas en la Figura 3-1. Ella propone diez fases desde el nacimiento hasta la edad adulta, cada edificio en el que precede. Sin embargo, en opinión de Loevinger, un cambio a la siguiente fase sólo se produce cuando una persona se ha completado el
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El bebé debe aprender a diferenciar de su entorno, para desarrollar objeto constancia. Bebé mantiene una relación simbiótica con la madre (o de otros grandes cuidador). Tarea importante es es a salir de esa Fase simbiótica simbiosis, a través de la lengua en la parte. El niño afirma su identidad separada, en parte por dar rienda suelta a los impulsos. Otros se valoran en términos de lo que Etapa impulsiva puede dar. Los que se quedan demasiado demas iado tiempo en esta fase puede ser "incontrolable" o " incorregibles". incorregibles ". El niño aprende el auto-control de los impulsos, anticipando inmediata y a corto plazo las recompensas o castigos. El niño Auto-protección etapa entiende existencia de normas sino que trata siempre de maximizar su propia ganancia. Algunos adultos función en esta etapa. Niño o adulto identifica su propio bienestar con la del grupo modelo y a los intentos de su comportamiento a lo largo de las líneas del grupo las expectativas. En esta etapa las personas tienden a ser insensible a las diferencias Etapa conformista individuales, de ser muy estereotipados en respuesta, en particular sobre las funciones de los sexos. sex os. Vida Interior se ve en blanco y negro: feliz/triste, bueno/malo. Este es un nivel de transición entre etapas conformista y conciencia. La auto-conciencia aumenta a medida Individuo Presocial etapa
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FUENTE: Loevinger, 1976
Las diez fases o niveles se muestran en la Tabla 3.2 . Loevinger sugiere que casi todos los adultos con éxito a través de los tres primeros tramos. A continuación, algunos se atascan en el auto-protección,mientras que otros a la etapa conformista y no más. La mayoría de los adultos, sin embargo, alcanzar al menos la transición que ella llama la auto-consciente , y muchos van más allá de esta etapa de la conciencia o más. Los cuatro tramos finales son especialmente interesantes para el estudio de la edad adulta. La conciencia es en realidad etapa definida por el surgimiento de un conjunto de auto-elegido y auto-evaluación. Por lo tanto, es en cierta forma como de la etapa de " identidad versus difusión", excepto por el hecho de que Loevinger sostiene que la transición a la etapa de conciencia se produce a menudo bien pasado la adolescencia, si es que ocurre. Otro aspecto de la conciencia es la capacidad de ver a otras personas en el complejo y tridimensional , en contraste con los estereotipos y la mayor de dos dimensionalidad dimensionalidad de las relaciones de las fases anteriores. "Con la mejor comprensión de las opiniones de otros, la reciprocidad en las relaciones interpersonales interpersonales es posible" ( p. 22). Un adulto en esta etapa ya no sería sería describir
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de su pedestal o realizado su padre había sido un fracaso en su negocio, pero ama tanto más profundamente su aceptación de sus defectos y carencias. Otra de las claves de esta etapa es la aceptación de la realidad de los conflictos y paradoja en vidas humanas. El adulto autónomo ya no ve el mundo en términos de opuestos (bueno y malo, correcto e incorrecto) como la persona tiende a conciencia; más bien, él ve gradaciones, excepciones, complejidades. complejidades. La etapa más alta de este modelo es la etapa integrado. En la superficie, es algo así como la etapa de Erikson integridad del ego, pero Loevinger piensa que es una etapa más desarrollados de integridad. El integrado. Persona llega a una reconciliación personal de los conflictos examinados en la fase autónoma y de la búsqueda de lo inalcanzable. Loevinger la teoría se ha convertido en cada vez más influyente en los últimos 10 años por varias razones. En primer lugar, el hecho de que las etapas no están vinculadas a determinadas edades puede ser una verdadera fuerza. Como información empírica acerca de desarrollo para adultos ha crecido, se ha convertido en cada vez más claro que el estricto relacionadas con la edad, aunque atractiva, son muy difíciles de encontrar en la vida real. Los adultos de
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consolidación, como Vaillant ve, tienen el propósito de establecer su propia competencia, en el dominio de las embarcaciones, de adquirir mayor estatus, o una reputación positiva. A pesar de que su reconocimiento de estas etapas, sin embargo, Vaillant la teoría es en muchos aspectos aspectos más de Loevinger de Erikson's. Erikson's. Como Loevinger, Loevinger, Vaillant describe una dirección en la cual el crecimiento o el desarrollo puede ocurrir pero no se supone que todo el mundo se mueve la misma distancia en este sentido. En particular, Vaillant se ha interesado en los posibles cambios progresivos en las formas en que los adultos a adaptarse psicológicamente psicológicamente a las pruebas y tribulaciones que enfrentan. La principal forma de adaptación que analiza es el mecanismo de defensa. Freud utilizó la frase " mecanismos de defensa" para describir un conjunto de estrategias e inconsciente para tratar la ansiedad. Toda persona tiene algo de ansiedad, por lo que todo el mundo utiliza algún tipo de mecanismos mecanismos de defensa. Todos ellos implican el auto-engaño o distorsión de la realidad de algún tipo. No podemos olvidar las cosas que nos hacen sentir incómodos o recordar de manera que no es tan desagradable; nos damos razones para hacer algo que sabemos que no debemos, proyecto inaceptable sentimientos a los demás en
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(tales como el estudio de los detalles de la operación muy abstracta), o de la proyección ( "mi marido es el que tiene miedo, no estoy" estoy" ), o en el furioso con la enfermera de la necesidad necesidad ante la junta, dos veces para obtener sangre). sangre). A pesar de estas regresiones, regresiones, según Vaillant, en el curso normal de la vida adulta la mayoría de los adultos agregar algunos de los mecanismos más maduros o utilizar más frecuentemente, y al mismo tiempo, puede utilizar los mecanismos menos maduros menos a menudo. Por otra parte, Vaillant sostiene que los individuos varían en la medida en que se demuestra que esa maduración. Es las personas que pasan pasan la mayoría de las defensas defensas maduras maduras que que tendrá más éxito en su vida personal y profesional. TABLA 3.3 . Los niveles de mecanismos de defensa propuesto por Vaillant. Nivel I. "Psicótico" Mecanismos
Descripción Proyección Delirante: frank delirios, como delirios de
persecución. Negación: Negación: negación negación de la realidad externa. Distorsión: Distorsión: una burda remodelación realidad
externa para adaptarse a necesidades internas, incluyendo alucinaciones, deseo de delirios (Príncipe Encantador me cualquier día).
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Desplazamiento: Desplazamiento: es es orientar sus sentimientos cobarde
algo o alguien que no sea el objeto original. (P. ej., abrazando su coche, cuando está seguro de que desea celebrar un amante). Reacción Reacción Formación: Formación: comportarse de una manera directamente opuesto a lo que realmente (inconscientemente) como hacer (como la de ser excepcionalmente agradable a un compañero de trabajo que detesta, ya que no puede reconocer su harred a sí mismo ). La disociación: disociación: temporal temporal , una drástica modificación de la sensación de carácter, como una repentina actitud indiferente y despreocupada , períodos de la irresponsabilidad.
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Otrasteorías elopmental Stage-De v Hay muchas otras teorías de este mismo tipo que describen las dimensiones del desarrollo más estrecho, como Lawrence Kohlberg la teoría del desarrollo moral (Kohlberg, 1964, 1981, 1984), o a James Fowler de la teoría del desarrollo de la fe (1981), ambas de las cuales se describen en el capítulo II. Otras teorías en este grupo, aunque de gran alcance, sobre un menor rango de edad que Erikson, Loevinger o Vaillant, como Roger Gould's muy interesante teoría de transformación transformación personal (1978, 1980). Teoría de Gould efectivamente efectivamente sólo abarca el período comprendido entre de 20 a 45 y no dice nada acerca de los últimos años. años. Propone, en esencia, esencia, que el proceso de de desarrollo para para adultos
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estados), como maestro y alumno, padre e hijo, o empleador y el
empleado. El contenido de una posición en particular particular se llama una función. Una Una función es, pues, una especie de descripción de trabajo para un puesto en particular, un conjunto de habilidades o cualidades de una persona que ocupa esa posición. La persona que ocupa el papel de dirigente Scout, por ejemplo, se espera que sepa sepa sobre el camping, cocina, manualidades, y de organizar las actividades que se mantenga a los niños pequeños. Esa persona también está previsto para ser amable y alegre. El concepto de función es un elemento importante en cualquier debate de la edad adulta. De hecho, podemos describir (o incluso definir) cualquiera de los adultos vida en términos de las funciones que realiza. Yo soy una madre, una
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Una serie de sociólogos (p. ej., Evelyn Duvall, 1962) han propuesto que la vida puede ser entendido en en términos de cambios sistemáticos sistemáticos en las funciones de la familia. Por lo menos para aquellos adultos que casarse y tener hijos (la gran mayoría de los adultos), vida adulta marchas por el ritmo de los cambios en las funciones de la familia. Como se puede ver en el cuadro 3.4 , ocho etapas han sido propuestas, cada una refleja o adiciones o supresiones a la familia (nuevo niño, o los niños que salen) o los cambios en el contenido de los padres como los niños desde la infancia hasta de caminar a la escuela de edad hasta la adolescencia. TABLA 3.4 . Las etapas de ciclo de vida de la Familia Propuesto Propuesto por Duvall y otros.
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Sin embargo, esta concepción ha servido como modelo de organización de un gran número de investigaciones sociológicas sobre la adultez. En lugar de comparar los adultos de diferentes edades, los investigadores comparan los adultos en diferentes fases del ciclo de vida. Ya hemos visto un ejemplo de esto en el Capítulo 1 (figuras 1-10 y 1-11), y habrá muchas más ejemplos a lo largo de todo el libro . La idea básica es, evidentemente, que el comportamiento de los individuos y las actitudes se forman a partir de los roles que ocupa. Y puesto que estos roles cambian con la edad en forma sistemática y previsible, los adultos también cambio sistemática y predecible. No existe la noción que algunas funciones están mejor mejor que otros, o que el ciclo de vida de la familia (o cualquier otra relacionada con la edad de cambio de roles) conduce a un
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trayectorias de los roles sociales que se han adoptado con el tiempo... El éxito de las transacciones y los ajustes a la edad de las categorías son las principales tareas de desarrollo que enfrenta el individuo en el curso de la vida. ... Programa de psicología... es el de examinar cómo los individuos confrontan, adaptar, y hacer hac er los ajustes necesarios a la edad de los roles y las transiciones. (P. 120-121)
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Daniel Levinson de Theory Theory de las estaciones de la edad adulta
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a las nuevas exigencias de la época. Este primer intento de una adecuada estructura vida se volvió a evaluar en un medio de transición era, después de lo cual hay una fase culminante, en el que el mejoramiento o vida más adaptable se crea la estructura, con lo que el esfuerzo de la época. Esta culminando vida
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interior y exterior conduce a la creación de una estructura de vida en primer lugar el 20s. Este "novato" de la vida de los primeros años de la vida adulta estructura
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Levinson no está diciendo que todos los adultos vida son exactamente iguales. De hecho, el orador hace hincapié en que la vida útil específica las estructuras creadas en las distintas etapas y eras será muy diferentes. Pero lo que está diciendo que la secuencia de épocas, estables y etapas de transición, tiene para
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