Industrial Engineering Lecture notes

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AEDZ[TXA@L JEBAEJJXAEB

[kè tmj PX kfdj ifr tmj sfitkfpy fi tmas ljkturj eftjs. (^DI Ialj? :gh)

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Tmas study g`tjra`l as prjp`rjd h`sjd fe tmj syll`hus fi tmj suhojkt “Aedustra`l “Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb‗ ifr [jgjstjr =, =, Gjkmèak`l Jebaejjraeb, 8>0; skmjgj, Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty. Tmj eftjs ifr `ll tmj ifur gfduljs m`vj hjje aekludjd ae tmas hffc. [tudjets `rj `dvasjd tf rjijr prjskrahjd tjxt hffcs ifr uedjrstèdaeb tmj suhojkt tmfrfubmly. Tmas eftjs kè hj usjd `s è `ddatafe`l rjijrjekj ifr agprfvaeb tmj cefwljdbj fe tmj tfpak.

Càl`s [rjj Kmèdrè Djp`rtgjet fi Gjkmèak`l Jebaejjraeb, Gfmèd`s Kflljbj fi Jebaejjraeb & Tjkmeflfby, Tmaruvèètm`pur`g. càl`ssrjjkmèdrèNy`mff.kf.ae

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj

GFDZLJ 0 AETXFDZKTAFE TF AEDZ[TXA@L JEBAEJJXAEB

Aedustra`l jebaejjraeb kè hj djiaejd `s ` prfijssafe ae wmakm ` cefwljdbj fi g`tmjg`tak`l èd e`tur`l skajekjs bàejd hy study, jxpjrajekj èd pr`ktakj as `pplajd watm oudbgjet tf djvjlfp tmj w`ys tf utalazj jkfefgak`lly tmj g`tjra`ls èd ftmjr e`tur`l rjsfurkjs èd ifrkjs fi e`turj ifr tmj hjejiat fi gècaed. Tmj @gjrakè Aestatutj fi Aedustra`l Jebaejjrs djiaej aedustra`l jebaejjraeb `s? Aedustra`l jebaejjraeb as kfekjrejd watm tmj djsabe, agprfvjgjet èd aest`ll`tafe fi aetjbr`tjd systjgs fi gje, g`tjra`l èd jquapgjet. At dr`ws upfe spjka`lazjd cefwljdbj èd scalls ae tmj g`tmjg`tak`l, pmysak`l skajekjs tfbjtmjr watm tmj praekapljs èd gjtmfds fi jebaejjraeb è`lysas èd djsabe tf spjkaiy, prjdakt èd jv`lu`tj tmj rjsults tf hj fhtàejd irfg sukm systjgs. Tmj pragj fhojktavj fi aedustra`l jebaejjraeb as tf aekrj`sj tmj prfduktavaty hy jlagae`taeb w`stj èd efe-v`luj `ddaeb (ueprfduktavj) fpjr`tafes èd agprfvaeb tmj jiijktavj utalaz`tafe fi rjsfurkjs. Aedustra`l jebaejjraeb kè hj djskrahjd `s tmj pr`ktak`l `pplak`tafe fi kfghae`tafe fi jebaejjraeb iajlds, tfbjtmjr watm tmj praekapljs fi skajetaiak gè`bjgjet. At as tmj jebaejjraeb fi wfrc prfkjssjs èd tmj `pplak`tafe fi jebaejjraeb gjtmfds, pr`ktakjs, èd cefwljdbj tf prfduktafe èd sjrvakj jetjrprasjs. Aedustra`l jebaejjraeb pl`kjs ` strfeb jgpm`sas fe è uedjrstèdaeb fi wfrcjrs èd tmjar ejjds ae frdjr tf aekrj`sj èd agprfvj prfduktafe èd sjrvakj `ktavatajs. Aedustra`l jebaejjraeb `ktavatajs èd tjkmeaqujs aekludj tmj ifllfwaeb? 

Djsabeaeb ofhs (djtjrgaeaeb tmj gfst jkfefgak`l w`y tf pjrifrg wfrc).

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[jttaeb pjrifrgèkj stèd`rds èd hjekmg`rcs ifr qu`laty, quètaty, èd kfst.

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Djsabeaeb èd aest`llaeb i`kalatajs. JYFLZTAFE FI AEDZ[TXA@L JEBAEJJXAEB (MA[TFXQ)

Ae èy prfduktavj jevarfegjet, wmjtmjr at as è aedustra`l plèt, è aestatutafe sukm `s ` mfspat`l, rjstùrèt, fiiakj, jtk. tmjrj as ` ejjd tf agprfvj tmj qu`laty fi wfrc. Tmas gjès tm`t ` bavje t`sc smfuld hj k`rrajd fut jiiakajetly èd `kkur`tjly ae tj rgs fi tagj èd jiifrt spjet. Duraeb tmj aedustra`l rjvflutafe fi tmj t mj 0=tm èd 01tm kjetury, gèy sg`ll fwejrsmap h`sjd husaejs sjs brjw aetf l`rbjr jetjrprasjs ae wmakm ` eughjr fi gèu`l t`scs wjrj pjrifrgjd hy gjkmèak`l èd stj`g fpjr`tjd g`kmaejs. @t tm`t tagj tmjrj wjrje‑t `djqu`tj tffls fr wfrcaeb kfedatafes èd tmjrj w`s kfesadjr`hlj jxplfat`tafe fi l`hfr. @s ` rjsult, tmjrj wjrj wadj v`ra`tafes ae futput irfg daiijrje t wfrcjrs èd daiijrjet i`ktfrajs g`caeb tmj s`gj prfdukt. Irjdjrakc T`ylfr, ` gjkmèak`l jebaejjr w`s wmf fhsjrvjd tm`t hjttjr gjtmfds kfuld hj jst`hlasmjd jvje ifr ` sagplj t`sc `s mèdlaeb arfe frj èd kf`l ifr ` hl`st ae ` stjjl plèt. Mj pursujd tmj t`sc fi jst`hlasmaeb ` efrg ifr tmj wjabmt èd sazj fi tmj smfvjl ifr skffpaeb èd trèsijrraeb g`tjra`l. Mj fhsjrvjd èd prfvjd tm`t aestj`d fi usaeb tmj l`rbjst smfvjl tf gfvj tmj g`xagug g`tjra`l ae ` d`y, at w`s hjttjr tf djsabe ` smfvjl wmakm kfuld hj kfgifrt`hly usjd hy tmj wfrcjrs fe ` rjpjtatavj h`sas watmfut taraeb fr aeouraeb tmjg `t tmj jed fi tmj d`y. Rmje mas plè w`s agpljgjetjd, mj rjdukjd tmj gèpfwjr hy fvjr 8:%. T`ylfr w`s `lsf kfesadjrjd tf hj tmj i`tmjr fi skajetaiak skajetaia k gè`bjgjet hjkùsj j

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C[K ‛ Djpt Djpt fi Gjkmèak`l ‛ GKJT GKJT - TY^G

Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj mj w`s ` pafejjr ae agprfvaeb gjtmfds èd jst`hlasmaeb tmj aekjetavj systjg ifr wfrcjrs watm tmj hjejiat fi mabmjr prfduktavaty tf tmj fwejrs èd mabmjr w`bjs ifr tmj wfrcjrs. Irèc Balhrjtm, st`rtjd wfrcaeb fe gftafe studajs sffe ìtjr T`ylfr hjbè mas wfrc. Balhrjtm w`s ` kfestruktafe kfetr`ktfr, wmf eftakjd tm`t tmj aedustry l`kcjd stèd`rdaz`tafe fi gjtmfds. Balhrjtm èd mas waij Lalaè, djvftjd tmjar lavjs tf gftafe studajs. Balhrjtm‑s i`gfus Balhrjtm‑s i`gfus daskfvjry tffc pl`kj wmje mj w`s dfaeb `pprjetakjsmap `s ` hrakcl`yjr3 mj fhsjrvjd tm`t tmjrj wjrj ef twf gje, wmf kfuld l`y hrakcs tmj s`gj w`y. Kfesjqujetly, tmjar qu`laty èd quètaty fi futput v`rajd. Mj agprfvjd tmj gjtmfd fi l`yaeb hrakcs hy g`caeb ` eughjr fi kmèbjs. Mj prfvadjd ` pl`tifrg wmfsj mjabmt kfuld hj `doustjd, sf tm`t hrakcl`yjr as `lw`ys `t tmj s`gj mjabmt ae rjl`tafesmap tf tmj hrakcs làd. @ smjli ifr hrakcs èd gfrt`r w`s hualt tf s`vj wfrcjrs irfg hjedaeb dfwe tf pakc up tmjar g`tjra`l. Mj m`d hrakcs prj-st`kcjd watm tmj hjst sadj i`kaeb ae tmj darjktafe fi tmj wfrcjrs tf `vfad wfrcjrs irfg m`vaeb tf ture tmj hrakc sjvjr`l tagjs tf iaed ats hjst sadj oust hj ifrj l`yaeb. Tmjsj kmèbjs sabeaiakètly rjdukjd tmj eughjr fi gftafes ae l`yaeb hrakcs, èd rjsultjd ae mabmjr prfduktafe watm lfwjr i`tabuj ifr tmj wfrcjrs. wfrcjrs. Lalaè Balhrjtm, Irèc‑s waij, ofaejd mag ae mas pursuat ifr prfgftaeb skajetaiak gè`bjgjet hy kfeduktaeb rjsj`rkm èd `pplak`tafe wfrc ae studajs fi gftafe èd gjtmfds. Balhrjtm‑s wfrc kfetaeujd ae gftafes usaeb gftafe pakturjs ifr studyaeb t`scs èd wfrcjrs. Mj djvjlfpjd gakrf gftafe study, ` hrj`cdfwe fi wfrc aetf iued`gjet`l jljgjets k`lljd “tmjrhlabs‗ (h`jd fe Balhrjtm spjlljd h`kcw`rds). T`ylfr‑s kfekjpt fi wfrc jljgjet w`s hrf`d, èd h`sjd fe tagj study rjquarjgjets lacj “bjt tffl‗. Rmjrj`s Balhrjtm‑s wfrc w`s h`sjd fe hrj`caeb dfwe tmj jljgjets iurtmjr aetf h`sak aedavadu`l tmjrhlabs, sukm `s “rj`km ifr tffl èd pakc up tffl‗ aestj`d fi “bjt tffl‗. Tmjrj wjrj gèy ifllfwjrs fi T`ylfr èd Balhrjtm ae tmj 01>>s. Tmjy hjlajvjd tm`t T`ylfr‑s wfrc jgpm`sazjd gftafe gj`surjgjet wmjrj`s Balhrjtm jgpm`sazjd gftafe è`lysas. Ratm tagj, at hjk`gj klj`r tm`t hftm `pprf`kmjs wjrj ejkjss`ry èd wjrj jssjeta`lly aetjrdjpjedjet. Zltag`tjly wm`t as agpfrtèt as tmj hjst fi hftm fi tmjsj jiifrts, e`gjly, tmj rabmt gftafes watm tmj gaeagug fi tagj. Tmus jvflvjd ` tjrg “Gjtmfds jebaejjraeb‗ wmakm as è agpfrtèt iuektafe fi aedustra`l jebaejjraeb. Tmj kfekjpts fi tagj èd gftafe studajs djvjlfpjd hy T`ylfr èd Balhrjtm `rj stall tmj h`sas ifr aedustra`l jebaejjraeb. Jvje tfd`y, fvjr iaity pjrkjet fi aedustra`l jebaejjraeb `ktavatajs `rj rjl`tjd tf tmas kfekjpt. IZEKTAFE[ FX @KTAYATAJ[ FI AEDZ[TXA@L JEBAEJJXAEB

Gfst agpfrtèt iuektafes fi aedustra`l jebaejjraeb `rj? 

Djvjlfpgjet fi tagj stèd`rds, kfstaeb èd pjrifrgèkj stèd`rds.

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[jljktafe fi prfkjssjs èd `ssjghlaeb gjtmfds.

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[jljktafe èd djsabe fi tffls èd jquapgjet.

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Djsabe fi i`kalatajs aekludaeb plèt lfk`tafe, l`yfut fi hualdaeb, g`kmaejs èd jquapgjet, g`tjra`l mèdlaeb systjg r`w g`tjra`ls èd iaeasmjd bffds stfr`bj i`kalatajs. Djsabe èd agprfvjgjet fi plèeaeb èd kfetrfl systjgs ifr prfduktafe, aevjetfry, qu`laty èd plèt gàetjeèkj èd dastrahutafe systjgs.


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 

Kfst kfetrfl systjgs.

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Djvjlfpgjet èd aest`ll`tafe fi ofh jv`lu`tafe systjgs.

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Aest`ll`tafe fi w`bj aekjetavj skmjgjs.

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Djsabe èd aest`ll`tafe fi v`luj jebaejjraeb èd è`lysas systjg.

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Fpjr`tafe rjsj`rkm.

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G`tmjg`tak`l èd st`tastak`l è`lysas.

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^jrifrgèkj jv`lu`tafe.

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Frbèaz`tafe èd gjtmfds.

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[upplajr sjljktafe èd jv`lu`tafe. TJKMEAPZJ[ FX @XJ@[ FX @^^LAK@TAFE[ FI AEDZ[TXA@L JEBAEJJXAEB

Tmj gàe àg fi tffls èd tjkmeaqujs fi aedustra`l jebaejjraeb as tf agprfvj tmj prfduktavaty fi tmj frbèaz`tafe hy fptagug utalaz`tafe fi frbèaz`tafes rjsfurkjs? gje, g`tjra`ls, èd g`kmaejs. Tmj gòfr tffls èd tjkmeaqujs usjd ae aedustra`l jebaejjraeb `rj? 0) ^rfduktafe plèeaeb èd kfetrfl.

00) [jqujekaeb èd trèspfrt`tafe gfdjls.

8) Aevjetfry kfetrfl.

08) B`gjs tmjfry èd dye`gak prfbr`ggaeb.

;) Ofh jv`lu`tafe.

0;) Brfup tjkmeflfby.

4) I`kalat`tjs plèeaeb èd g`tjra`l mèdlaeb.

04) [t`tastak`l tjkmeaqujs.

:) [ystjg è`lysas.

0:) Pu`laty kfetrfl.

9) Laej`r prfbr`ggaeb.

02) Djkasafe g`caeb tmjfry.

2) [agul`tafe.

0=) Xjpl`kjgjet gfdjls.

=) Ejtwfrc è`lysas (^JXT, K^G).

01) @ssjghly laej h`lèkaeb.

1) Pujuaeb gfdjls.

8>) GX^-OAT-A[F-TPG

0>) @ssabegjet. ^XFDZKT DJYJLF^GJET

Ae bjejr`l, tmj ^rfdukt Djvjlfpgjet kè hj djiaejd `s "krj`taeb, aeefv`taeb, fr djvjlfpaeb jetarjly ` ejw prfdukt , fr prjsjetaeb è jxastaeb prfdukt watm jemèkjd utalaty, agprfvjd ij`turjs, gfrj `ppj`laeb djsabe, hjttjr qu`laty qu`laty èd rjla`halaty tf s`tasiy tmj rjquarjgjets fi ats jed-usjrs." Gjèaeb fi ^rfdukt Djvjlfpgjet ^rfdukt gjès ` bffd, sjrvakj, adj` fr fhojkt krj`tjd `s ` rjsult fi ` prfkjss èd fiijrjd tf sjrvj ` ejjd fr s`tasiy ` wèt. Djvjlfpgjet gjès tmj `kt fr prfkjss fi brfwaeb, prfbrjssaeb, fr djvjlfpaeb.

prfdukt ae ^rfdukt Djvjlfpgjet as ` prfkjss fi agprfvaeb tmj jxastaeb prfdukt fr tf aetrfdukj ` ejw prfdukt tmj g`rcjt. At as `lsf rjijrrjd `s Ejw ^rfdukt Djvjlfpgjet. Tmj iuektafes fi prfdukt djvjlfpgjet `rj `s ifllfws ?0. Krj`tafe fi è jetarjly ejw prfdukt fr upbr`daeb è jxastaeb prfdukt,


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 8. Aeefv`tafe fi ` ejw fr è jxastaeb prfdukt tf djlavjr hjttjr èd jemèkjd sjrvakjs, ;. Jemèkaeb tmj utalaty èd agprfvaeb tmj ij`turjs fi è jxastaeb prfdukt, 4. Kfetaeufus agprfvjgjet fi ` prfdukt tf s`tasiy r`padly kmèbaeb kustfgjr ejjds èd wèts. ^rfdukt Djvjlfpgjet ^rfkjss ^rfdukt djvjlfpgjet prfkjss as ` kruka`l prfkjss ifr tmj sukkjss èd survav`l fi èy husaejss. Tfd`y, husaejssjs `rj fpjr`taeb ae ` mabmly dye`gak èd kfgpjtatavj jevarfegjet. Husaejss frbèas`tafes m`vj tf kfetaeufusly upd`tj tmjar prfdukts tf kfeifrg tf kurrjet trjeds. Tmj prfdukt djvjlfpgjet prfkjss st`rts irfg adj` bjejr`tafe èd jeds watm wat m prfdukt djvjlfpgjet èd kfggjrka`las`tafe. Ifllfwaeb `rj tmj stjps ae tmj prfkjss fi prfdukt djvjlfpgjet.

0. Adj` Bjejr`tafe - Tmj iarst stjp fi prfdukt djvjlfpgjet as Adj` Bjejr`tafe tm`t as adjetaiak`tafe fi ejw prfdukts rjquarjd tf hj djvjlfpjd kfesadjraeb kfesugjr ejjds èd djgèds. Adj` bjejr`tafe as dfej tmrfubm rjsj`rkm fi g`rcjt sfurkjs lacj kfesugjr lacaeb, daslacaeb, èd kfgpjtatfr pflakajs. Y`rafus gjtmfds `rj `vàl`hlj ifr adj` bjejr`tafe lacj - Hràe [tfrgaeb, Djlpma Gjtmfd, fr Ifkus Brfup. 8. Adj` [krjjeaeb - Tmj sjkfed stjp ae tmj prfkjss fi prfdukt djvjlfpgjet as Adj` [krjjeaeb tm`t as sjljktaeb tmj hjst adj` `gfeb tmj adj`s bjejr`tjd `t tmj iarst stjp. @s tmj rjsfurkjs `rj lagatjd, sf `ll tmj adj`s `rj eft kfevjrtjd tf prfdukts. Gfst p rfgasaeb adj` as cjpt ifr tmj ejxt st`bj. st `bj. ;. Kfekjpt Djvjlfpgjet - @t tmas stjp tmj sjljktjd adj` as gfvjd aetf djvjlfpgjet prfkjss. Ifr tmj sjljktjd adj` daiijrjet prfdukt kfekjpts `rj djvjlfpjd. Fut fi sjvjr`l prfdukt kfekjpts tmj gfst suat`hlj kfekjpt as sjljktjd sjlj ktjd èd aetrfdukjd tf ` ifkus brfup fi kustfgjrs tf uedjrstèd tmjar rj`ktafe. Ifr jx`gplj jx`gplj - ae ùtf jxpfs daiijrjet kfekjpt k`rs `rj prjsjetjd, tmjsj gfdjls `rj eft tmj `ktu`l prfdukt, tmjy `rj oust tf djskrahj tmj kfekjpt s`y jljktrak, myhrad, spfrt, iujl jiiakajet, jevarfegjet irajedly, jtk. 4. G`rcjt [tr`tjby Djvjlfpgjet - @t tmas stjp tmj g`rcjt str`tjbajs `rj djvjlfpjd tf jv`lu`tj g`rcjt sazj, prfdukt djgèd, brfwtm pftjeta`l, èd prfiat jstag`tafe ifr aeata`l yj`rs. Iurtmjr at aekludjs lùekm fi prfdukt, sjljktafe fi dastrahutafe kmèejl, hudbjt`ry rjquarjgjets, jtk. :. Husaejss @e`lysas - @t tmas stjp husaejss è`lysas ifr tmj ejw prfdukt as dfej. Husaejss è`lysas aekludjs - jstag`tafe fi s`ljs, irjqujeky fi purkm`sjs, e`turj fi husaejss, prfduktafe èd dastrahutafe rjl`tjd kfsts èd jxpjesjs, èd jstag`tafe fi prfiat. 9. ^rfdukt Djvjlfpgjet - @t tmas stjp tmj kfekjpt gfvjs tf prfduktafe fi iae`lasjd prfdukt. Djkasafes `rj t`cje irfg fpjr`tafe`l pfaet fi vajw wmjtmjr tmj prfdukt as tjkmeak`lly èd kfggjrka`lly ij`sahlj tf prfdukj. Mjrj tmj rjsj`rkm èd djvjlfpgjet djp`rtgjet djvjlfp ` pmysak`l prfdukt. 2. Tjst G`rcjtaeb - Efw tmj prfdukt as rj`dy tf hj lùekmjd ae g`rcjt watm hrèd e`gj, p`kc`baeb, èd prakaeb. Aeata`lly tmj prfdukt as lùekmjd ae ` tjst g`rcjt. Hjifrj iull sk`lj lùekmaeb tmj prfdukt as jxpfsjd jxpfsjd tf ` k`rjiully kmfsje s`gplj fi fi tmj pfpul`tafe, k`lljd tjst g`rcjt. Ai tmj prfdukt prfdukt as ifued `kkjpt`hlj ae tjst g`rcjt tmj prfdukt as rj`dy tf hj lùekmjd ae t`rbjt g`rcjt. =. Kfggjrta`las`tafe - Mjrj tmj prfdukt as lùekmjd `krfss t`rbjt g`rcjt watm ` prfpjr g`rcjt str`tjby èd plè. Tmas as k`lljd kfggjrka`las`tafe pm`sj fi prfdukt djvjlfpgjet.

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G@EZI@KTZXAEB G@EZI@KTZXAEB Y[ ^ZXKM@[J (G@CJ FX HZQ DJKA[AFE)

Tmj g`cj-fr-huy djkasafe as tmj `kt fi g`caeb ` str`tjbak kmfakj hjtwjje prfdukaeb è atjg aetjre`lly (ae-mfusj) fr huyaeb at jxtjre`lly (irfg è futsadj supplajr). Tmj huy sadj fi tmj djkasafe `lsf as rjijrrjd tf `s futsfurkaeb. G`cj-fr-huy djkasafes usu`lly `rasj wmje ` ia rg tm`t m`s djvjlfpjd ` prfdukt fr p`rt — — fr sabeaiakètly gfdaiajd ` prfdukt fr p`rt — as as m`vaeb trfuhlj watm kurrjet supplajrs, fr m`s dagaeasmaeb k`p`katy fr kmèbaeb djgèd. G`cj-fr-huy è`lysas as kfeduktjd `t tmj str`tjbak èd fpjr`tafe`l ljvjl. Fhvafusly, tmj str`tjbak ljvjl as tmj gfrj lfeb-rèbj fi tmj twf. Y`ra`hljs kfesadjrjd `t tmj str`tjbak ljvjl aekludj è`lysas fi tmj iuturj, `s wjll `s tmj kurrjet jevarfegjet. Assujs lacj bfvjregjet rjbul`tafe, kfgpjtaeb iargs, èd g`rcjt trjeds `ll m`vj ` str`tjbak agp`kt fe tmj g`cj-fr-huy djkasafe. Fi kfursj, iargs smfuld g`cj atjgs tm`t rjaeifrkj fr `rj ae-laej watm tmjar kfrj kfgpjtjekajs. Tmjsj `rj `rj`s ae wmakm tmj iarg as strfebjst èd wmakm bavj tmj iarg ` kfgpjtatavj `dvèt`bj. I`ktfrs tm`t g`y aeilujekj iargs tf g`cj ` p`rt aetjre`lly aekludj? 

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Kfst kfesadjr`tafes (ljss jxpjesavj tf g`cj tmj p`rt) Djsarj tf aetjbr`tj plèt fpjr`tafes ^rfduktavj usj fi jxkjss plèt k`p`katy tf mjlp `hsfrh iaxjd fvjrmj`d (usaeb jxastaeb adlj k`p`katy) Ejjd tf jxjrt darjkt kfetrfl fvjr prfduktafe èd/fr èd/fr qu`laty Hjttjr qu`laty kfetrfl Djsabe sjkrjky as rjquarjd tf prftjkt prfprajt`ry tjkmeflfby Zerjla`hlj supplajrs Ef kfgpjtjet supplajrs Djsarj tf gàetàe ` st`hlj wfrcifrkj (ae pjrafds fi djklaeaeb s`ljs)


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Puètaty tff sg`ll tf aetjrjst ` supplajr Kfetrfl fi lj`d tagj, trèspfrt`tafe, èd w`rjmfusaeb kfsts Brj`tjr `ssurèkj fi kfetaeu`l supply ^rfvasafe fi ` sjkfed sfurkj ^flatak`l, sfka`l fr jevarfegjet`l rj`sfes (ueafe prjssurj) Jgftafe (j.b., pradj)

I`ktfrs tm`t g`y aeilujekj iargs tf huy ` p`rt jxtjre`lly aekludj? L`kc fi jxpjrtasj [upplajrs' rjsj`rkm èd spjka`lazjd cefw-mfw jxkjjds tm`t fi tmj huyjr kfst kfesadjr`tafes (ljss jxpjesavj tf huy tmj atjg) [g`ll-vflugj rjquarjgjets Lagatjd prfduktafe i`kalatajs fr aesuiiakajet k`p`katy Djsarj tf gàetàe ` gultaplj-sfurkj pflaky Aedarjkt gè`bjra`l kfetrfl kfesadjr`tafes ^rfkurjgjet èd aevjetfry kfesadjr`tafes Hrèd prjijrjekj Atjg eft jssjeta`l tf tmj iarg's str`tjby 

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Tmj twf gfst agpfrtèt i`ktfrs tf kfesadjr ae ` g`cj-fr-huy djkasafe `rj kfst èd tmj `vàl`halaty fi prfduktafe k`p`katy. Fhvafusly, tmj huyaeb iarg wall kfgp`rj prfduktafe èd purkm`sj kfsts. Hurt, Dfhljr, èd [t`rlaeb prfvadj tmj gòfr jljgjets aekludjd ae tmas k fgp`rasfe. Jljgjets fi tmj "g`cj" è`lysas aekludj? Aekrjgjet`l aevjetfry-k`rryaeb kfsts Darjkt l`hfr kfsts Aekrjgjet`l i`ktfry fvjrmj`d kfsts Djlavjrjd purkm`sjd g`tjra`l kfsts Aekrjgjet`l gè`bjra`l kfsts @ey ifllfw-fe kfsts stjggaeb irfg qu`laty èd rjl`tjd prfhljgs Aekrjgjet`l purkm`saeb kfsts Aekrjgjet`l k`pat`l kfsts 

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Kfst kfesadjr`tafes ifr tmj "huy" è`lysas aekludj? ûrkm`sj prakj fi tmj p`rt Trèspfrt`tafe kfsts Xjkjavaeb èd aespjktafe kfsts Aekrjgjet`l purkm`saeb kfsts @ey ifllfw-fe kfsts rjl`tjd tf qu`laty fr sjrvakj 

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Fej wall eftj tm`t sax fi tmj kfsts tf kfesadjr `rj aekrjgjet`l. Hy djiaeatafe, aekrjgjet`l kfsts wfuld eft hj aekurrjd ai tmj p`rt wjrj purkm`sjd irfg è futsadj sfurkj. Ai ` iarg dfjs eft kurrjetly m`vj tmj k`p`katy tf g`cj tmj p`rt, aekrjgjet`l kfsts wall aekludj v`ra`hlj kfsts plus tmj iull pfrtafe fi iaxjd fvjrmj`d `llfk`hlj tf tmj p`rt's gèui`kturj. Ai tmj iarg m`s jxkjss k`p`katy tm`t kè hj usjd tf prfdukj tmj p`rt ae qujstafe, fely tmj v`ra`hlj fvjrmj`d kùsjd hy prfduktafe fi tmj p`rts `rj kfesadjrjd j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj aekrjgjet`l. Tm`t as, iaxjd kfsts, uedjr kfedatafes fi suiiakajet adlj k`p`katy, `rj eft aekrjgjet`l èd smfuld eft hj kfesadjrjd `s p`rt fi tmj kfst tf g`cj t mj p`rt. Rmalj kfst as sjldfg tmj fely kratjrafe usjd ae ` g`cj-fr-huy djkasafe, sagplj hrj`c-jvje è`lysas kè hj è jiijktavj w`y tf quakcly surgasj tmj kfst agplak`tafes watmae ` djkasafe. [uppfsj [uppfsj tm`t ` iarg kè purkm`sj jquapgjet ifr ae-mfusj usj ifr n 8:>,>>> 8:>,>>> èd prfdukj tmj ejjdjd p`rts ifr n 0> 0> j`km. @ltjre`tavjly, ` supplajr kfuld prfdukj èd smap tmj p`rt ifr n 0: 0: j`km. Abefraeb tmj kfst fi ejbfta`taeb ` kfetr`kt watm tmj supplajr, tmj sagplj hrj`c-jvje pfaet kfuld j`saly hj kfgputjd? 8:>,>>> + n 0>P 0>P n 8:>,>>>

7 n 0:P 0:P 8:>,>>> 7 n 0:P 0:P ∘ n 0>P 0>P n 8:>,>>> 8:>,>>> 7 n :P :P n 8:>,>>> :>,>>> 7 P Tmjrjifrj, at wfuld hj gfrj kfst jiijktavj ifr ` iarg tf huy tmj p`rt ai djgèd as ljss tmè :>,>>> ueats, èd g`cj tmj p`rt ai djgèd jxkjjds :>,>>> ueats. Mfwjvjr, ai tmj iarg m`d jefubm adlj k`p`katy tf prfdukj tmj p`rts, tmj iaxjd kfst fi n 8:>,>>> 8:>,>>> wfuld eft hj aekurrjd (gjèaeb at as eft è aekrjgjet`l kfst), g`caeb tmj prfspjkt fi g`caeb tmj p`rt tff kfst jiiaka jet tf abefrj.

KF[T ‛ YFLZGJ YFLZGJ ‛ ^XFIAT ^XFIAT @E@LQ[A[

@ kratak`l p`rt fi KY^ è`lysas as tmj pfaet wmjrj tft`l rjvjeujs jqu`l tft`l kfsts (hftm iaxjd èd v`ra`hlj kfsts). @t tmas hrj`c-jvje tmas hrj`c-jvje pfaet, ` pfaet, ` kfgpèy wall jxpjrajekj ef aekfgj fr lfss. Tmas hrj`c-jvje pfaet kè hj è aeata`l jx`gae`tafe tm`t prjkjdjs gfrj djtàljd KY^ è`lysas. KY^ è`lysas jgplfys tmj s`gj h`sak `ssugptafes `s ae hrj`cjvje è`lysas. Tmj `ssugptafes uedjrlyaeb KY^ è`lysas `rj? 

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Tmj hjm`vafr fi hftm kfsts èd rjvjeujs `rj laej`r tmrfubmfut tmj rjljvèt rèbj fi `kt avaty. (Tmas `ssugptafe prjkludjs tmj kfekjpt fi vflugj daskfuets fe jatmjr purkm`sjd g`tjra`ls fr s`ljs.) Kfsts kè hj kl`ssaiajd `kkur`tjly `s jatmjr iaxjd fr v`ra`hlj. Kmèbjs ae `ktavaty `rj tmj fely i`ktfrs tm`t ìijkt kfsts. @ll ueats prfdukjd `rj sfld (tmjrj as ef jedaeb iaeasmjd bffds aevjetfry). Rmje ` kfgpèy sjlls gfrj tmè fej typj fi prfdukt, tmj prfdukt gax (tmj r`taf fi j`km prfdukt tf tft`l s`ljs) wall rjgàe kfestèt.

Tmj kfgpfejets fi KY^ è`lysas `rj? Ljvjl fr vflugj fi `ktavaty Zeat sjllaeb prakjs Y`ra`hlj kfst pjr ueat Tft`l iaxjd kfsts 

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@ssugptafes  

Kfestèt s`ljs prakj3 Kfestèt v`ra`hlj Kfestèt v`ra`hlj kfst pjr kfst pjr ueat3 ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj  

Kfestèt tft`l iaxjd tft`l iaxjd kfst3 Zeats sfld jqu`l ueats prfdukjd.

Tmjsj `rj sagplaiyaeb, l`rbjly laej`razaeb l`rbjly laej`razaeb `ssugptafes, wmakm `rj fitje agplakatly `ssugjd ae jljgjet`ry daskussafes fi kfsts èd prfiats. Ae gfrj `dvèkjd trj`tgjets èd pr`ktakj, kfsts èd rjvjeuj `rj efelaej`r `rj efelaej`r èd tmj è`lysas as gfrj kfgplak`tjd, hut tmj aetuatafe ìifrdjd hy laej`r KY^ rjgàes h`sak èd usjiul. Fej fi tmj gàe gjtmfds fi k`lkul`taeb KY^ as prfiat ‛ ‛ vflugj vflugj r`taf wmakm as (kfetrahutafe /s`ljs)*0>> 7 tmas bavjs us prfiat ‛ ‛ vflugj vflugj r`taf. 

Kfetrahutafe stèds ifr s`ljs gaeus v`ra`hlj kfsts.

Tmjrjifrj, at bavjs us tmj prfiat `ddjd pjr ueat fi v`ra`hlj kfsts. H`sak br`pm

Tmj `ssugptafes fi tmj KY^ gfdjl yajld tmj ifllfwaeb laej`r jqu`tafes ifr tft`l ifr tft`l kfsts èd tft`l rjvjeuj (s`ljs)?

Tmjsj `rj laej`r hjkùsj fi tmj `ssugptafes fi kfestèt kfsts èd prakjs, èd tmjrj as ef dastaektafe hjtwjje ueats prfdukjd èd ueats sfld, `s tmjsj `rj `ssugjd tf hj jqu`l. Eftj tm`t wmje sukm ` km`rt as dr`we, tmj laej`r KY^ gfdjl as `ssugjd, fitje agplakatly. Ae syghfls?

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TK 7 Tft`l kfsts TIK 7 Tft`l iaxjd kfsts Y 7 Zeat v`ra`hlj kfst (v`ra`hlj kfst pjr ueat) ] 7 Eughjr fi ueats TX 7 [ 7 Tft`l rjvjeuj 7 [`ljs ^ 7 (Zeat) s`ljs prakj

^rfiat as kfgputjd `s TX-TK3 at as ` prfiat ai pfsatavj, ` lfss ai ejb`tavj.

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@pplak`tafes

KY^ sagplaiajs tmj kfgput`tafe fi hrj`cjvje hrj`cjvje ae hrj`c-jvje ae hrj`c-jvje è`lysas, èd è`lysas, èd gfrj bjejr`lly `llfws sagplj kfgput`tafe fi t`rbjt t`rbjt aekfgj s`ljs. At s`ljs. At sagplaiajs è`lysas fi smfrt rue tr`dj-fiis ae fpjr`tafe`l djkasafes. Lagat`tafes? KY^ as ` smfrt rue, g`rbae`l è`lysas? at `ssugjs tm`t ueat v`ra`hlj kfsts èd ueat rjvjeujs `rj kfest èt, wmakm as `pprfpra`tj ifr sg`ll djva`tafes irfg kurrjet prfduktafe èd s`ljs, èd `ssugjs ` ej`t davasafe hjtwjje iaxjd kfsts èd v`ra`hlj kfsts, tmfubm ae tmj lfeb rue `ll kfsts `rj v`ra`hlj. Ifr lfebjr-tjrg è`lysas tm`t kfesadjrs tmj jetarj laij-kyklj laij-k yklj fi ` prfdukt, fej tmjrjifrj fitje prjijrs `ktavaty-h`sjd prjijrs `ktavaty-h`sjd kfstaeb fr tmrfubmput tmrfubmput `kkfuetaeb.

Rmje wj è`lyzj KY^ as wmjrj wj djgfestr`tj tmj pfaet `t wmakm ae ` iarg tmjrj wall hj ef prfiat efr lfss gjès tm`t iarg wfrcs ae hrj`cjvje satu`tafe 

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[jbrjb`tafe fi tft`l kfsts aetf ats iaxjd èd v`ra`hlj kfgpfejets as `lw`ys ` dùetaeb t`sc tf df. Iaxjd kfsts `rj uelacjly tf st`y kfestèt `s futput aekrj`s js hjyfed ` kjrtàe rèbj fi `ktavaty. Tmj è`lysas as rjstraktjd tf tmj rjljvèt rèbj spjkaiajd èd hjyfed tm`t tmj rjsults kè hjkfgj uerjla`hlj. @sadj irfg vflugj, ftmjr jljgjets lacj aeil`tafe, jiiakajeky, k`p`katy èd tjkmeflfby agp`kt fe kfsts Agpr`ktak`l tf `ssugj s`ljs gax rjgàe kfestèt saekj tmas djpjeds fe tmj kmèbaeb djgèd ljvjls. Tmj `ssugptafe fi laej`r prfpjrty fi tft`l kfst èd tft`l rjvjeuj rjlajs fe tmj `ssugptafe tm`t ueat v`ra`hlj kfst èd sjllaeb prakj `rj `lw`ys kfestèt. Ae rj`l laij at as v`lad watmae rjljvèt rèbj fr pjrafd èd lacjly tf kmèbj.

Pujstafe 0? @ kfgpèy as i`kjd watm ` satu`tafe wmjrj at kè jatmjr prfdukj sfgj atjg hy `ddaeb `ddatafe`l aeir`strukturj wmakm wall kfst tmjg Xs. 0:,>>,>>>/- hut ueat kfst fi prfduktafe wall wall hj Xs. Xs. :/j`km. @ltjre`tavjly at kè huy tmj s`gj atjg irfg ` vjedfr vjedfr `t ` r`tj fi Xs. 8>/- j`km. Rmje smfuld smfuld tmj kfgpèy `dd tf ats k`p`katy ae tjrgs fi djgèd fi atjgs pjr èeug6 Dr`w tmj da`br`g tf smfw tmj HJ^. j

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[flutafe? Ljt tmj k`p`katy as x wmje kfgpèy wall gjjt ats djgèd, sf ^

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Pujstafe 8? Tmj ifllfwaeb d`t` rjijrs tf ` gèui`kturaeb ueat Iaxjd kfst 7 Xs. 0>>>>>/Y`ra`hlj kfst 7 0>>/- pjr ueat [jllaeb prakj 7 Xs. 8>>/- pjr ueat (a) K`lkul`tj tmj HJ^ (aa) K`lkul`tj tmj eughjr fi kfgpfejet ejjdjd tf hj prfdukt tf bjt ` prfiat fi Xs. 8>>>>/[flutafe? (a) @t hrj`c jvje pfaet I + P.Y 7 [ Ò P

P7 (aa)

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 ∘

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Ifr iaxjd prfiat Xs. 8>>>>/I + P.Y + ^ 7 [ Ò P P7

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7 08>> 08>>  

MZG@E I@KTFX[ AE DJ[ABE Mugè i`ktfrs èd jrbfefgaks (kfggfely rjijrrjd tf `s MI&J), `lsf cefwe `s kfgifrt djsabe, iuektafe`l djsabe, èd systjgs, as tmj pr`ktakj pr`kta kj fi djsabeaeb prfdukts, systjgs, fr prfkjssjs tf t`cj prfpjr `kkfuet fi tmj aetjr`ktafe hjtwjje tmjg èd tmj pjfplj wmf usj tmjg.

Tmj iajld m`s sjje sfgj kfetrahutafes irfg eugjrfus daskaplaejs, sukm `s psykmflfby, jebaejjraeb, hafgjkmèaks, aedustra`l hafgjkmèaks, aedustra`l djsabe, pmysaflfby, djsabe, pmysaflfby, èd èd ètmrfpfgjtry. ètmrfpfgjtry. Ae Ae jssjekj, at as tmj study fi djsabeaeb jquapgjet, djvakjs èd prfkjssjs tm`t iat tmj mugè hfdy èd ats kfbeatavj `halatajs. Tmj twf tjrgs "mugè i`ktfrs" èd "jrbfefgaks" `rj jssjeta`lly jssjeta`ll y syefeygfus. Tmj Aetjre`tafe`l Tmj Aetjre`tafe`l Jrbfefgaks @ssfka`tafe djiaejs jrbfefgaks fr mugè i`ktfrs `s ifllfws?

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Jrbfefgaks (fr mugè i`ktfrs) as tmj skajetaiak daskaplaej kfekjrejd watm tmj uedjrstèdaeb fi aetjr`ktafes `gfeb mugès èd ftmjr jljgjets fi ` systjg, èd tmj prfijssafe tm`t `pplajs tmjfry, praekapljs, d`t` èd gjtmfds tf djsabe ae frdjr tf fptagazj mugè wjll-hjaeb èd fvjr`ll systjg pjrifrgèkj. MI&J as jgplfyjd tf iuliall tmj bf`ls fi fkkup`tafe`l fkkup`tafe`l mj`ltm èd sìjty èd prfduktavaty. èd prfduktavaty. At At as rjljvèt ae tmj djsabe fi sukm tmaebs `s sìj iureaturj èd j`sy-tf-usj aetjri`kjs tf g`kmaejs èd jquapgjet. ^rfpjr jrbfefgak djsabe as ejkjss`ry tf prjvjet rjpjtatavj stràe aeourajs èd ftmjr guskulfscjljt`l guskulfscjljt`l dasfrdjrs, wmakm kè djvjlfp fvjr tagj èd kè lj`d tf lfeb-tjrg das`halaty. Tf `ssjss tmj iat hjtwjje ` pjrsfe èd tmj usjd tjkmeflfby, mugè i`ktfrs spjka`lasts fr jrbfefgasts kfesadjr tmj ofh (`ktavaty) hjaeb dfej èd tmj djgèds fe tmj usjr3 tmj jquapgjet usjd (ats sazj, sm`pj, èd mfw `pprfpra`tj at as ifr tmj t`sc), èd tmj aeifrg`tafe usjd (mfw at as prjsjetjd, `kkjssjd, èd kmèbjd). Gjtmfds Jtmefbr`pmak è`lysas? Zsaeb gjtmfds djravjd irfg jtmefbr`pmy, jtmefbr`pmy, tmas prfkjss ifkusjs fe fhsjrvaeb tmj usjs fi tjkmeflfby ae ` pr`ktak`l jevarfegjet. At as ` qu`lat`tavj èd fhsjrv`tafe`l gjtmfd tm`t ifkusjs fe "rj`l-wfrld" jxpjrajekj èd prjssurjs, èd tmj us`bj fi tjkmeflfby fr jevarfegjets ae tmj wfrcpl`kj. Tmj prfkjss as hjst usjd j`rly ae tmj djsabe prfkjss. Ifkus Brfups `rj èftmjr ifrg fi qu`lat`tavj rjsj`rkm ae wmakm fej aedavadu`l wall i`kalat`tj daskussafe èd jlakat fpaeafes `hfut tmj tjkmeflfby fr prfkjss uedjr aevjstab`tafe. Tmas kè hj fe ` fej-tf-fej aetjrvajw h`sas, fr ae ` brfup sjssafe. Kè hj usjd tf bàe ` l`rbj quètaty fi djjp qu`lat`tavj d`t`, tmfubm duj tf tmj sg`ll s`gplj s azj, kè hj suhojkt tf ` mabmjr ma bmjr djbrjj fi aedavadu`l ha`s. Kè hj usjd `t èy pfaet pfaet ae tmj djsabe prfkjss, `s at as l`rbjly djpjedjet fe tmj jx`kt qujstafes qujstafes tf hj pursujd, èd tmj strukturj fi tmj brfup. Kè hj jxtrjgjly kfstly. Atjr`tavj djsabe? @lsf cefwe `s prftftypaeb, tmj atjr`tavj djsabe prfkjss sjjcs tf aevflvj usjrs `t sjvjr`l st`bjs fi djsabe, ae frdjr tf kfrrjkt prfhljgs `s tmjy jgjrbj. @s prftftypjs jgjrbj irfg tmj djsabe prfkjss, tmjsj `rj suhojktjd tf ftmjr ifrgs fi è`lysas `s futlaejd ae tmas `rtaklj, èd tmj rjsults `rj tmje t`cje èd aekfrpfr`tjd aetf tmj ejw djsabe. Trjeds `gfebst usjrs `rj è`lyzjd, èd prfdukts rjdjsabejd. Tmas kè hjkfgj ` kfstly prfkjss, èd ejjds tf hj dfej dfej `s sffe `s pfssahlj ae tmj djsabe prfkjss hjifrj djsabes hjkfgj tff kfekrjtj. Gjt`-è`lysas? @ suppljgjet`ry tjkmeaquj usjd tf jx`gaej ` wadj hfdy fi `lrj`dy jxastaeb d`t` fr latjr`turj ae frdjr tf djravj djra vj trjeds fr ifrg mypftmjsjs ae frdjr tf àd djsabe djkasafes. @s p`rt fi ` latjr`turj survjy, ` gjt`-è`lysas kè hj pjrifrgjd ae frdjr tf daskjre ` kflljktavj trjed irfg aedavadu`l v`ra`hljs. [uhojkts-ae-tèdjg? Twf suhojkts `rj `scjd tf wfrc kfekurrjetly fe ` sjrajs fi t`scs wmalj vfk`lazaeb tmjar è`lytak`l fhsjrv`tafes. Tmj tjkmeaquj as `lsf cefwe `s "Kf-Daskfvjry" `s p`rtakapèts tjed tf ijjd fii fi j`km ftmjr's kfggjets tf bjejr`tj ` rakmjr sjt fi fhsjrv`tafes tmè as fitje pfssahlj watm tmj p`rtakapèts sjp`r`tjly. Tmas as fhsjrvjd hy tmj rjsj`rkmjr, èd kè hj usjd tf daskfvjr us`halaty daiiakultajs. Tmas prfkjss as usu`lly rjkfrdjd. [urvjys èd Pujstafeeàrjs? @ kfggfely usjd tjkmeaquj futsadj fi Mugè I`ktfrs `s wjll, survjys èd qujstafeeàrjs m`vj è `dvèt`bj ae tm`t tmjy kè hj `dgaeastjrjd tf ` l`rbj brfup fi pjfplj ifr rjl`tavjly rjl`ta vjly lfw kfst, je`hlaeb tmj rjsj`rkmjr rjsj`r kmjr tf bàe ` l`rbj `gfuet fi d`t`. Tmj v`ladaty fi tmj d`t` fhtàejd as, mfwjvjr, `lw`ys ae qujstafe, `s tmj qujstafes gust hj wratt je èd aetjrprjtjd 

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kfrrjktly, èd `rj, hy djiaeatafe, suhojktavj. Tmfsj wmf `ktu`lly rjspfed `rj ae jiijkt sjli-sjljktaeb `s wjll, wadjeaeb tmj b`p hjtwjje tmj s`gplj èd tmj pfpul`tafe iurtmjr. tmjfry, t`sc è`lysas as ` w`y fi systjg`tak`lly T`sc è`lysas? @ prfkjss watm rffts ae `ktavaty tmjfry, djskrahaeb mugè aetjr`ktafe watm ` systjg fr prfkjss tf uedjrstèd mfw tf g`tkm tmj djgèds fi tmj systjg fr prfkjss tf mugè k`p`halatajs. Tmj kfgpljxaty fi tmas prfkjss as bjejr`lly prfpfrtafe`l tf tmj kfgpljxaty fi tmj t`sc hjaeb è`lyzjd, èd sf kè v`ry ae kfst èd tagj aevflvjgjet. At as ` qu`lat`tavj èd fhsjrv`tafe`l prfkjss. Hjst usjd j`rl y ae tmj djsabe prfkjss. Tmaec `lfud prftfkfl? @lsf cefwe `s "kfekurrjet vjrh`l prftfkfl", tmas as tmj prfkjss fi `scaeb ` usjr tf jxjkutj ` sjrajs fi t`scs fr usj tjkmeflfby, wmalj kfetaeufusly vjrh`lazaeb tmjar tmfubmts sf tm`t ` rjsj`rkmjr kè bàe aesabmts `s tf tmj usj rs' è`lytak`l prfkjss. Kè hj usjiul ifr iaedaeb djsabe il`ws tm`t df eft ìijkt t`sc t` sc pjrifrgèkj, hut g`y m`vj ` ejb`tavj kfbeatavj ìijkt fe tmj usjr. @lsf usjiul ifr utalazaeb jxpjrts ae frdjr tf hjttjr uedjrstèd prfkjdur`l cefwljdbj fi tmj t`sc ae qujstafe. Ljss jxpjesavj tmè ifkus brfups, hut tjeds tf hj gfrj spjkaiak èd suhojktavj. Zsjr è`lysas? Tmas prfkjss as h`sjd `rfued djsabeaeb ifr tmj `ttrahutjs fi tmj aetjedjd usjr fr fpjr`tfr, jst`hlasmaeb tmj km`r`ktjrastaks tm`t djiaej tmjg, krj`taeb ` pjrsfe` ` pjrsfe` ifr tmj usjr. Hjst dfej `t tmj futsjt fi tmj djsabe prfkjss, ` usjr è`lysas wall `ttjgpt tf prjdakt tmj gfst kfggfe usjrs, èd tmj km`r`ktjrastaks tm`t tmjy wfuld hj `ssugjd tf m`vj ae kfggfe. Tmas kè hj prfhljg`tak ai tmj djsabe kfekjpt dfjs eft g`tkm tmj `ktu`l usjr, fr ai tmj adjetaiajd `rj tff v`buj tf g`cj klj`r djsabe djkasafes irfg. Tmas prfkjss as, mfwjvjr, usu`lly quatj aejxpjesavj, èd kfggfely usjd. "Raz`rd fi Fz"? Tmas as ` kfgp`r`tavjly uekfggfe tjkmeaquj hut m`s sjje sfgj usj ae gfhalj djvakjs. H`sjd upfe tmj Raz`rd tmj Raz`rd fi Fz jxpjragjet, tmas jxpjragjet, tmas tjkmeaquj aevflvjs è fpjr`tfr wmf rjgftjly kfetrfls tmj fpjr`tafe fi ` djvakj ae frdjr tf agat`tj tmj rjspfesj fi è `ktu`l kfgputjr prfbr`g. At m`s tmj `dvèt`bj fi prfdukaeb ` mabmly kmèbj`hlj sjt fi rj`ktafes, hut kè hj quatj kfstly èd daiiakult tf uedjrt`cj. Gjtmfds @e`lysas as tmj prfkjss fi studyaeb tmj t`scs ` wfrcjr kfgpljtjs usaeb ` stjp-hy-stjp aevjstab`tafe. J`km t`sc ae hrfcje dfwe aetf sg`lljr stjps uetal j`km gftafe tmj wfrcjr pjrifrgs as djskrahjd. Dfaeb sf je`hljs yfu tf sjj jx`ktly wmjrj rjpjtatavj fr stràeaeb t`scs fkkur. Tagj studajs djtjrgaej tmj tagj rjquarjd ifr ` wfrcjr tf kfgpljtj j`km t`sc. Tagj studajs `rj fitje usjd tf è`lyzj kyklak`l ofhs. Tmjy `rj kfesadjrjd "jvjet h`sjd" studajs hjkùsj tagj gj`surjgjets `rj trabbjrjd hy tmj fkkurrjekj fi prjdjtjrgaejd jvjets. Rfrc s`gplaeb as ` gjtmfd ae wmakm tmj ofh as s`gpljd `t rèdfg aetjrv`ls tf djtjrgaej tmj prfpfrtafe fi tft`l tagj spjet fe ` p`rtakul`r t`sc. At prfvadjs aesabmt aetf mfw fitje wfrcjrs `rj `r j pjrifrgaeb t`scs wmakm gabmt kùsj stràe fe tmjar hfdajs. ^rjdjtjrgaejd tagj systjgs `rj gjtmfds ifr è`lyzaeb tmj tagj spjet hy wfrcjrs fe ` p`rtakul`r t`sc. Fej fi tmj gfst wadjly usjd prjdjtjrgaejd tagj systjg as k`lljd Gjtmfds-Tagj-Gj`surjgjet (GTG). ` us`halaty aespjktafe gjtmfd ae wmakm tmj jv`lu`tfrs kè Kfbeatavj R`lctmrfubm? R`lctmrfubm? Tmas gjtmfd as ` us`halaty `pply usjr pjrspjktavj tf t`sc skje`rafs tf adjetaiy djsabe prfhljgs. @s `pplajd tf g`krfjrbfefgaks, jv`lu`tfrs `rj `hlj tf è`lyzj tmj us`halaty fi wfrc systjg djsabes tf adjetaiy mfw wjll ` wfrc systjg as frbèazjd èd mfw wjll tmj wfrcilfw as aetjbr`tjd. tr èsifrgs kfesugjr‑s rjspfesjs tf ejw prfdukts prfdukts aetf djsabe Cèsja Gjtmfd? Tmas as ` gjtmfd tm`t trèsifrgs spjkaiak`tafes. @s `pplajd tf g`krfjrbfefgaks, tmas gjtmfd kè trèsl`tj jgplfyjj‑s rjspfesjs tf kmèbjs tf ` wfrc systjg aetf djsabe spjkaiak`tafes. Mabm Aetjbr`tafe fi Tjkmeflfby, Frbèaz`tafe, èd ^jfplj (MATF^)? Tmas as ` gèu`l prfkjdurj dfej stjp-hy-stjp tf `pply tjkmeflfbak`l tjkmeflfbak`l kmèbj tf tmj wfrcpl`kj. At `llfws gè`bjrs tf `

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hj gfrj `w`rj fi tmj tmj mugè èd frbèaz`tafe`l frbèaz`tafe`l `spjkts fi tmjar tjkmeflfby plès, `llfwaeb tmjg tf jiiakajetly aetjbr`tj tjkmeflfby ae tmjsj kfetjxts. Tfp Gfdjljr? Tmas gfdjl mjlps gèui`kturaeb kfgpèajs adjetaiy tmj frbèaz`tafe`l kmèbjs ejjdjd wmje ejw tjkmeflfbajs `rj hjaeb kfesadjrjd ifr tmjar prfkjss. Kfgputjr-aetjbr`tjd Gèui`kturaeb, Frbèaz`tafe, èd ^jfplj [ystjg Djsabe (KAGF^)? Tmas gfdjl `llfws ifr jv`lu`taeb kfgputjr-aetjbr`tjd gèui`kturaeb, frbèaz`tafe, èd pjfplj systjg djsabe h`sjd fe cefwljdbj fi tmj systjg. @etmrfpftjkmeflfby? Tmas gjtmfd kfesadjrs è`lysas èd djsabe gfdaiak`tafe fi systjgs ifr tmj jiiakajet trèsijr fi tjkmeflfby irfg fej kulturj tf èftmjr. [ystjgs @e`lysas Tffl ([@T)? Tmas as ` gjtmfd tf kfedukt systjg`tak tr`dj-fii jv`lu`tafes fi wfrc-systjg aetjrvjetafe `ltjre`tavjs. G`krfjrbfefgak @e`lysas fi [trukturj (G@[)? Tmas gjtmfd è`lyzjs tmj strukturj fi wfrc systjgs `kkfrdaeb tf tmjar kfgp`tahalaty watm ueaquj sfkaftjkmeak`l `spjkts. G`krfjrbfefgak @e`lysas èd Djsabe (GJ@D)? Tmas gjtmfd `ssjssjs wfrc-systjg prfkjssjs hy usaeb ` tje-stjp prfkjss. Yartu`l Gèui`kturaeb èd Xjspfesj [uri`kj Gjtmfdflfby (YGX[G)? Tmas gjtmfd usjs kfgputjrazjd tffls èd st`tastak`l è`lysas ifr wfrcst`tafe djsabe.

Lagat`tafes

^rfhljgs rjl`tjd tf gj`surjs fi us`halaty us`halat y aekludj tmj i`kt tm`t gj`surjs fi lj`reaeb lj`r eaeb èd rjtjetafe fi mfw tf usj è aetjri`kj `rj r`rjly jgplfyjd èd sfgj studajs trj`t gj`surjs fi mfw usjrs aetjr`kt watm aetjri`kjs `s syefeygfus watm qu`laty-ae-usj, djspatj è ueklj`r rjl`tafe. @ltmfubm iajld gjtmfds kè hj jxtrjgjly usjiul hjkùsj tmjy `rj kfeduktjd ae tmj usjrs' e`tur`l jevarfegjet, tmjy m`vj sfgj gòfr lagat`tafes tf kfesadjr. Tmj lagat`tafes aekludj? 0. 8. ;. 4.

Zsu`lly t`cj gfrj tagj èd rjsfurkjs tmè ftmjr gjtmfds Yjry mabm jiifrt ae plèeaeb, rjkruataeb, èd jxjkutaeb kfgp`rjd watm ftmjr gjtmfds Gukm lfebjr study pjrafds èd tmjrjifrj rjquarjs gukm bffdwall `gfeb tmj p`rtakapèts [tudajs `rj lfebatudae`l ae e`turj, tmjrjifrj, `ttratafe kè hjkfgj ` prfhljg. Y@LZJ JEBAEJJXAEB

Y`luj jebaejjraeb (YJ) as ` systjg`tak gjtmfd tf agprfvj tmj "v`luj" fi bffds fr prfdukts èd sjrvakjs hy usaeb è jx`gae`tafe fi iuektafe. Y`luj, `s djiaejd, as tmj r`taf fi iuektafe iuektafe tf kfst. tf kfst. Y`luj Y`luj kè tmjrjifrj hj aekrj`sjd hy jatmjr agprfvaeb tmj iuektafe fr rjdukaeb tmj kfst. kfst. At as ` prag`ry tjejt fi v`luj jebaejjraeb tm`t h`sak iuektafes hj prjsjrvjd èd eft hj rjdukjd `s ` kfesjqujekj fi pursuaeb v`luj agprfvjgjets.

Tmj rj`sfeaeb hjmaed v`luj jebaejjraeb as `s ifllfws? ai g`rcjtjrs jxpjkt ` prfdukt tf hjkfgj pr`ktak`l ly fr stylastak`lly fhsfljtj watmae ` spjkaiak ljebtm fi tagj, tmjy kè djsabe at tf fely l`st ifr tm`t spjkaiak laijtagj. Tmj prfdukts kfuld hj hualt watm mabmjr-br`dj kfgpfejets, hut watm v`luj jebaejjraeb tmjy `rj eft hjkùsj tmas wfuld agpfsj è ueejkjss`ry kfst fe tmj gèui`kturjr, èd tf ` lagatjd jxtjet `lsf è aekrj`sjd kfst fe tmj purkm`sjr. Y`luj jebaejjraeb wall rjdukj tmjsj kfsts. @ kfgpèy wall typak`lly usj tmj lj`st jxpjesavj kfgpfejets tm`t s`tasiy tmj prfdukt's laijtagj prfojktafes. b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Ofh ^lè Y`luj jebaejjraeb as fitje dfej hy systjg`tak`lly ifllfwaeb ` gulta-st`bj ofh plè. L`rry plè. L`rry Galjs' frabae`l systjg w`s ` sax-stjp sax-st jp prfkjdurj wmakm mj k`lljd tmj "v`luj è`l ysas ofh plè." Ftmjrs m`vj v`rajd tmj ofh plè tf iat tmjar kfestràets. Djpjedaeb fe tmj `pplak`tafe, tmjrj g`y hj ifur, iavj, sax, fr gfrj st`bjs. Fej gfdjre vjrsafe m`s tmj ifllfwaeb jabmt stjps?

0. 8. ;. 4. :. 9. 2. =.

^rjp`r`tafe Aeifrg`tafe @e`lysas Krj`tafe Jv`lu`tafe Djvjlfpgjet ^rjsjet`tafe Ifllfw-up

Ifur h`sak stjps ae tmj ofh plè `rj? 

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Aeifrg`tafe b`tmjraeb - Tmas `scs wm`t tmj rjquarjgjets `rj ifr tmj fhojkt. Iuektafe è`lysas, è agpfrtèt tjkmeaquj ae v`luj jebaejjraeb, as usu`lly dfej ae tmas aeata`l st`bj. At trajs tf djtjrgaej wm`t iuektafes fr pjrifrgèkj km`r`ktjrastaks `rj agpfrtèt. At `scs qujstafes lacj3 Rm`t dfjs tmj fhojkt df6 Rm`t gust at df6 Rm`t smfuld at df6 Rm`t kfuld at df6 Rm`t gust at eft df6 @ltjre`tavj bjejr`tafe (krj`tafe) - Ae tmas st`bj v`luj jebaejjrs `sc3 Rm`t `rj tmj v`rafus `ltjre`tavj w`ys fi gjjtaeb rjquarjgjets6 Rm`t jlsj wall pjrifrg tmj djsarjd iuektafe6 Jv`lu`tafe - Ae tmas st`bj `ll tmj `ltjre`tavjs `rj `ssjssjd hy jv`lu`taeb mfw wjll tmjy gjjt tmj rjquarjd iuektafes èd mfw brj`t tmj kfst s`vaebs wall hj. ^rjsjet`tafe - Ae tmj iae`l st`bj, tmj hjst `ltjre`tavj wall hj kmfsje èd prjsjetjd tf tmj klajet ifr iae`l djkasafe.

Y`luj Jebaejjraeb ^rfkjss B`tmjr aeifrg`tafe

0.Rm`t as hjaeb dfej efw6 Rmf as dfaeb at6 Rm`t kfuld at df6 Rm`t gust at eft df6 Gj`surj

8.Mfw wall tmj `ltjre`tavjs hj gj`surjd6 Rm`t `rj tmj `ltjre`tj w`ys fi gjjtaeb rjquarjgjets6 Rm`t jlsj kè pjrifrg tmj djsarjd iuektafe6 @e`lyzj 4 0

;.Rm`t gust hj dfej6 b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Rm`t dfjs at kfst6 Bjejr`tj

4.Rm`t jlsj wall df tmj ofh6 Jv`lu`tj

:.Rmakm Adj`s `rj tmj hjst6 Djvjlfp èd jxpèd adj`s

9.Rm`t `rj tmj agp`kts6 2.Rm`t as tmj kfst6 =.Rm`t as tmj pjrifrgèkj6 ^rjsjet adj`s

1.@ltjre`tavj fptafes `rj prjsjetjd tf tmj klajet, ` rjkfggjed`tafe as g`dj ifr tmj hjst `ltjre`tavj èd prjsjetjd tf tmj klajet ifr ` djkasafe. [JLJKTAFE FI G@TJXA@L IFX JEBAEJJXAEB @^^LAK@TAFE Tmj qu`laty, pjrifrgèkj, laij jtk. fi è jebaejjraeb prfdukt, `ll `rj jiijktjd hy tmj jebaejjraeb g`tjra`l hjaeb usjd ifr gèui`kturaeb tm`t prfdukt. Mjekj at hjkfgjs ejkjss`ry ejkjss`r y tf sjljkt sjljk t ` suat`hlj Jebaejjraeb g`tjra`ls ifr ` sukkjssiul jebaejjraeb prfdukt. Ifr sjljktafe fi suat`hlj g`tjra`ls ifr èy jebaejjraeb `pplak`tafe / prfdukt, ifllfwaeb i`ktfrs smfuld hj kfesadjrjd ‛ kfesadjrjd ‛

0. 8. ;. 4. :. 9. 2. =.

Gjkmèak`l strjebtm [t`halaty Duktalaty @vàl`halaty I`hrak`halaty Djsabe Kfrrfsafe Xjsastèkj Kfst

Gjkmèak`l [trjebtm Gjkmèak`l strjebtm as prag`ry kratjra` ifr sjljktafe fi suat`hlj g`tjra `ls ifr èy Jebaejjraeb `pplak`tafe / prfdukt. Gjkmèak`l strjebtm as tmj `halaty fi g`tjra`ls tf watmstèd watm lf`d fr ifrkjs. G`tjra`ls sjljktjd ifr èy jebaejjraeb `pplak`tafe, smfuld m`vj `pprfpra`tj gjkmèak`l strjebtm tf hj k`p`hlj tf watmstèd watm lf`ds fr ifrkjs djvjlfpjd ae strukturj fi jebaejjraeb prfdukt duraeb fpjr`tafe. [t`halaty [t`halaty fi jebaejjraeb g`tjra`l as djiaejd hy tmj `halaty fi jebaejjraeb prfdukt gèui`kturjd hy usaeb tm`t g`tjra`l tf watm stèd watm ifllfwaeb fpjr`taeb kfedatafes`

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 0. 8. ;. 4. :.

Tjgpjr`turj Iluktu`tafes ae tjgpjr`turj Duraeb fi fpjr`tafe X`da`tafe @tgfspmjrak kfedatafes

Duktalaty Duktalaty fi jebaejjraeb g`tjra`l as tmj prfpjrty fi g`tjra`l g`cjs tmj g`tjra`l suat`hlj suat `hlj ifr i`hrak`tafe hy rfllaeb, dr`waeb, jxtrusafe èd ftmjr gjkmèak`l prfkjssjs. H`sak`lly at as tmj `halaty fi g`tjra`l tm`t mfw gukm tmj g`tjra`ls kè hj strjtkmjd pl`stak`lly watmfut hrj`cdfwe fr iàlurj. Duktalaty fi g`tjra`ls as rjl`tjd tf tmj strjebtm fi g`tjra`l. Kfesadjr`hlj duktalaty kè hj fhtàejd `t ` s`kraiakj fi strjebtm fr vakj vjrs`. Ifr jx`gplj, hy aekrj`sj fi tjgpjr`turj duktalaty duktalat y fi g`tjra`l aekrj`sjd èd strjebtm djkrj`sjd. Hy kfld rfllaeb tmj gjkmèak`l strjebtm as aekrj`sjd wmjrj`s tmj duktalaty as djkrj`sjd. At as eft ejkjss`ry tmj g`tjra`l hjaeb usjd ifr `ll prfdukt smfuld m`vj mabm duktalat y. Hut at smfuld m`vj suat`hlj duktalaty. @vàl`halaty G`tjra`l sjljktjd ifr jebaejjraeb prfdukt smfuld hj j`saly `vàl`hlj ae djsarjd ifrg èd `t `pprfpra`tj kfst. [f tm`t tmj prfdukt kè hj prfdukjd jkfefgak`ll y tf g`cj ats prakj kfgpjtatavj ae g`rcjt. G`tjra`l g`y hj `vàl`hlj ae èy ifrg sukm `s k`staeb, ifrbaeb, rflljd smjjts jtk. Hut tmj `vàl`halaty fi g`tjra`l ae suat`hlj ifrg as ejkjss`ry tf i`kalat`tj i` kalat`tj tmj gèui`kturaeb tmj prfdukt watm djsarjd qu`lat y. I`hrak`halaty I`hrak`halaty fi è Jebaejjraeb g`tjra`l as tmj `halaty fi g`tjra`l, wmakm aedak`tjs tm`t mfw j`saly at kè hj i`hrak`tjd ae djsarjd ifrg i frg èd sm`pj ae frdjr tf gèui`kturj è jebaejjraeb prfdukt. I`hrak`halat y fi g`tjra`l g`cjs at suat`hlj ifr gjkmèak`l prfkjssaeb tf kfevjrt at ae djsarjd ifrg èd sm`pj. Djsabe Tmj sjljktafe fi g`tjra`l ifr èy jebaejjraeb prfdukt as `lsf bfvjrejd hy tmj djsabe fi prfdukt. Tmj djsabe fi jebaejjraeb prfdukt djkadjs tmj strjebtm èd duktalaty rjquarjd ifr ae g`tjra`ls hjaeb sjljktjd ifr tm`t prfdukt. Mjekj, tmj jebaejjraeb prfdukt smfuld hj djsabejd watm kfesadjr`tafe fi prfpjrtajs fi jebaejjraeb g`tjra`l. Kfrrfsafe Xjsastèkj Rmje tmj Jebaejjraeb prfdukt as usjd ae è aedustra`l `tgfspmjrak jevarfegjet, tmjrj `rj kmèkjs tm`t tmj h`sj g`tjra`ls fi prfdukt bjts kfrrfdjd. Kfrrfsafe fi rjiaejd g`tjra`l as ` e`tur`l prfkjss wmakm kfevjrts tmj rjiaejd g`tjra`l ae gfrj st`hlj fxadjs. Tmas kfrrfsafe g`cjs tmj g`tjra`l br`du`lly wj`c watm tagj. Mjekj, ifr tmj s`tasi`ktfry fpjr`tafe, pjrifrgèkj èd laij fi jebaejjraeb prfdukt, at hjkfgjs ejkjss`ry tm`t g`tjra`l hjaeb sjljktjd ifr tm`t prfdukt smfuld m`vj suiiakajet kfrrfsafe rjsastèkj. Kfst Tf g`cj tmj jebaejjraeb prfdukt kfggjrka`lly sukkjssiul èd prfiat`hlj, ats prakj smfuld hj rj`sfe`hlj èd kfgpjtatavj ae g`rcjt. Tmj prakj v`luj fi èy jebaejjraeb prfdukt as bfvjrejd hy gèy i`ktfr sukm `s g`tjra`l kfst, l`hfur kfst, prfkjssaeb kfst jtk. Mjekj, tmj cjjp tmj prakj fi prfdukt lfw, at hjkfgjs ejkjss`ry tm`t tmj g`tjra`l kfst, l`hfur kfst èd prfkjssaeb kfst smfuld hy `s gaeagug `s pfssahlj. Tmjrjifrj, tmj kfst fi jebaejjraeb g`tjra`l sjljktjd ifr jebaejjraeb prfdukt gust hj lfw. 9 0 j b ` ^




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GFDZLJ 8 ^L@ET L@QFZT @ED G@TJXA@L M@EDLAEB

X`w g`tjra`ls ifrg ` kratak`l p`rt fi gèui`kturaeb `s wjll `s sjrvakj frbèaz`tafe. Ae èy frbèaz`tafe, ` kfesadjr`hlj `gfuet fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb as dfej ae fej ifrg fr tmj ftmjr. Tmas gfvjgjet as jatmjr dfej gèu`lly fr tmrfubm è ùtfg`tjd prfkjss. Tmrfubmfut g`tjra`l, mèdlaeb prfkjssjs sabeaiakèt sìjty èd mj`ltm3 km`lljebjs `rj prjsjetjd tf wfrcjrs `s wjll `s gè`bjgjet. Tmjrjifrj, gèu`l g`tjra`l mèdaeb as fi pragj kfekjre ifr mj`ltm èd sìjty prfijssafe`l, èd tmjy gust djtjrgaej pr`ktak`l w`ys fi rjdukaeb mj`ltm rasc tf tmj wfrcjrs. G`tjra`l Mèdlaeb Gèu`l g`tjra`l mèdlaeb rèbjs irfg gfvjgjet fi r`w g`tjra`l, wfrc ae prfbrjss, iaeasmjd bffds, rjojktjd, skr`ps, p`kcaeb g`tjra`l, jtk. Tmjsj g`tjra`ls `rj fi daiijrjet sm`pj èd sazjs `s wjll `s wjabmt. G`tjra`l mèdlaeb as ` systjg`tak èd skajetaiak gjtmfd fi gfvaeb, p`kcaeb èd stfraeb fi g`tjra`l ae `pprfpra`tj èd suat`hlj lfk`tafe. Tmj gàe fhojktavjs fi g`tj ra`l mèdlaeb `rj `s ifllfws?       

At smfuld hj `hlj djtjrgaej `pprfpra`tj dastèkj tf hj kfvjrjd. I`kalat`tj tmj rjduktafe ae g`tjra`l d`g`bj `s tf agprfvj qu`laty. Xjdukaeb fvjr`ll gèui`kturaeb tagj hy djsabeaeb jiiakajet g`tjra`l gfvjgjet Agprfvj g`tjra`l ilfw kfetrfl Krj`tafe èd jekfur`bjgjet fi sìj èd m`z`rd-irjj wfrc kfedatafe Agprfvj prfduktavaty èd jiiakajeky Hjttjr utalaz`tafe fi tagj èd jquapgjet

At as kratak`l ifr gèui`kturaeb frbèaz`tafe tf adjetaiy agpfrtèkj fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb praekaplj `s tmj kratak`l stjp ae prfgftaeb tmj ofh agprfvjgjet prfkjss. Gèu`l g`tjra`l mèdlaeb sabeaiakètly aekrj`sjs mj`ltm m`z`rd ifr tmj wfrcjrs ae irfg lfwjr h`kc aeourajs. Ae tmj kurrjet kfgpjtatavj èd blfh`lazjd jevarfegjet, at as agpfrtèt tf kfetrfl kfst èd rjdukj tagj ae g`tjra`l mèdlaeb. @e jiiakajet g`tjra`l mèdlaeb prfkjss prfgftjs?    

Djsabe fi prfpjr i`kalaty l`yfut ^rfgftjs djvjlfpgjet fi gjtmfd wmakm agprfvjs èd sagplaiajs tmj wfrc prfkjss At agprfvjs fvjr`ll prfduktafe `ktavaty. Jiiakajet g`tjra`l mèdlaeb rjdukjs tft`l kfst fi prfduktafe.

^raekapljs fi G`tjra`l Mèdlaeb G`tjra`l mèdlaeb praekapljs `rj `s ifllfws?  Frajet`tafe ^raekaplj? At jekfur`bjs study fi `ll `vàl`hlj systjg rjl`tafesmaps hjifrj gfvaeb tfw`rds prjlagae`ry plèeaeb. Tmj study aekludjs lffcaeb `t jxastaeb gjtmfds, prfhljgs, jtk.  ^lèeaeb ^raekaplj? At jst`hlasmjs ` plè wmakm aekludjs h`sak rjquarjgjets, djsar`hlj `ltjre`tjs èd plèeaeb ifr kfetaebjeky. [ystjgs ^raekaplj? At aetjbr`tjs mèdlaeb èd stfr`bj `ktavatajs, wmakm as kfst jiijktavj aetf  aetjbr`tjd systjg djsabe.  Zeat Lf`d ^raekaplj? Mèdlj prfdukt ae ` ueat lf`d `s l`rbj `s pfssahlj  [p`kj Ztalaz`tafe ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bj jiijktavj utalaz`tafe fi `ll tmj sp`kj `vàl`hlj `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj  

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[tèd`rdaz`tafe [tèd`rdaz`tafe ^raekaplj? At jekfur`bjs stèd`rdaz`tafe fi mèdlaeb gjtmfds èd jquapgjet. Jrbfefgak ^raekaplj? At rjkfbeazjs mugè k`p`halatajs èd lagat`tafe hy djsabe jiijktavj mèdlaeb jquapgjet. Jejrby ^raekaplj? At kfesadjrs kfesugptafe fi jejrby duraeb g`tjra`l mèdlaeb. Jkflfby ^raekaplj? At jekfur`bjs gaeagug agp`kt upfe tmj jevarfegjet duraeb g`tjra`l mèdlaeb. Gjkmèaz`tafe Gjkmèaz`tafe ^raekaplj? At jekfur`bjs gjkmèaz`tafe fi mèdlaeb prfkjss wmjrjvjr pfssahlj `s tf jekfur`bj jiiakajeky. Iljxahalaty ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bjs fi gjtmfds èd jquapgjet wmakm `rj pfssahlj tf utalazj ae `ll typjs fi kfedatafe. [agplaiak`tafe ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bj sagplaiak`tafe fi gjtmfds èd prfkjss hy rjgfvaeb ueejkjss`ry gfvjgjets Br`vaty ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bjs us`bj fi br`vaty br`vat y praekaplj ae gfvjgjet fi bffds. [ìjty ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bjs prfvasafe ifr sìj mèdlaeb jquapgjet `kkfrdaeb tf sìjt y ruljs èd rjbul`tafe Kfgputjraz`tafe ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bjs fi kfgputjraz`tafe fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb èd stfr`bj systjgs [ystjg Ilfw ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bjs aetjbr`tafe fi d`t` ilfw watm pmysak`l g`tjra`l ilfw L`yfut ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bjs prjp`r`tafe fi fpjr`tafe`l sjqujekj fi `ll systjgs `vàl`hlj Kfst ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bjs kfst hjejiat è`lysas fi `ll sflutafes `vàl`hlj Gàetjeèkj ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bjs prjp`r`tafe fi plè ifr prjvjetavj gàetjeèkj èd skmjduljd rjpàrs Fhsfljskjekj ^raekaplj? Jekfur`bj prjp`r`tafe fi jquapgjet pflaky `s tf jeofy `pprfpra`tj jkfefgak `dvèt`bj.

G`tjra`l mèdlaeb fpjr`tafes `rj djsabejd h`sjd upfe praekapljs `s daskussjd `hfvj. G`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet kfesasts fi krèjs, kfevjyfrs èd aedustra`l trukcs. I`ktfrs ìijktaeb tmj sjljktafe fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet?

(a) E`turj fi prfdukt èd ats pfrt`halaty. (aa) Y`luj fi prfduktafe. (aaa) [m`pj èd sazj fi prfdukts. (av) Gjtmfds fi prfduktafe. (v) [jqujekj fi fpjr`tafes. (va) Tmj prfduktafe r`tj fi tmj aedustra`l ueat. (vaa) [p`kj `vàl`halaty èd typj fi l`yfut usjd. (vaaa) Dastèkj tf hj kfvjrjd hy tmj g`tjra`l. (ax) ^fwjr `vàl`halaty. (x) Aeata`l kfst fi aest`ll`tafe, fpjr`tafe èd gàetjeèkj kfsts. (xa) Djprjka`tafe Kfsts. (xaa) @vàl`halaty èd w`bjs fi uescalljd l`hfur. (xaaa) Djsabe fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet ats k `p`katy. 1 0 j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj At as klj`r irfg `hfvj tm`t tm` t tmj sjljktafe fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet‑s djpjed fe sf gèy i`ktfrs èd at as daiiakult tf g`cj èy rjkfggjed`tafe watmfut t`caeb aetf kfesadjr`tafe tmj pr`ktak`l `spjkts fi tmj prfhljg. [f `t tmas st`bj, at as rjljvèt tf djiaej tmj h`sak rjquarjgjets fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet‑s. Xjquarjgjets Xjquarjgjets fi ` bffd g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet? (a) At gust hj `hlj tf pjrifrg pjri frg tmj h`sak iuektafe fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb lacj stfr`bj èd tr èspfrt`tafe. (aa) At gust i`kalat`tj i`kalat `tj prfduktafe plèeaeb, aespjktafe èd prfkjss kfetrfl `ktavatajs. (aaa) At smfuld hj `hlj tf rjdukj tmj wfrc kyklj tagj a.j. gaeagazaeb tmj ueprfduktavj g`tjra`l mèdlaeb tagj. (av) At smfuld agprfvj tmj k`p`katy utalaz`tafe fi plèt. (v) At smfuld gaeagazj tmj wfrc ae prfkjss fr tmj t ft`l aevjetfry rjquarjgjets. (va) At smfuld hj `hlj tf rjdukj tmj wfrcjrs gutu`l èd pmysak`l i`tabuj. Tmas i`ktfr wall ultag`tjly agprfvj s`tasi`ktafe èd sìjty ljvjl fi wfrcjrs. Daiijrjet Typjs fi G`tjra`l Mèdlaeb Jquapgjet

Tmjrj `rj 4 gàe k`tjbfrajs fi g`tjra`l g`tjr a`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet? 

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Hulc g`tjra`l mèdlaeb Jebaejjrjd systjgs Aedustra`l trukcs [tfr`bj èd mèdlaeb jquapgjet

Hulc Mèdlaeb G`tjra`l Jquapgjet

Tmj tjrg ”hulc mèdlaeb jquapgjet‑ rjijrs tf tmj stfr`bj, kfetrfl èd trèspfrt`tafe fi g`tjra`ls hy hulc, èd ae lffsj ifrg. Tmjrj `rj pljety fi jx`gpljs fi tmas `pplak`tafe ‛ tmj tmj mèdlaeb fi iffd, hjvjr`bjs, laquads, gjt`l atjgs (sukm `s skrjws èd eàls) èd gaejr`ls `rj oust ` ijw. Ae bjejr`l tjrgs, tmjsj pajkjs fi jquapgjet prag`raly mèdlj tmjsj atjgs wmje tmjy `rj lffsj. Fej jx`gplj as ` kfevjyfr hjlt tm`t as usjd tf gfvj atjgs irfg fej p`rt fi tmj prfduktafe prfkjss tf èftmjr. Drugs èd mfppjrs g`y hj usjd `s wjll, tf ”iueejl‑ tmjsj lffsj atjgs aetf ` st`bj st` bj wmjrj tmjy kè hj gfrj j`saly gèapul`tjd, fr p`kc`bjd. Kfevjyfr hjlts `rj usjd ifr mfrazfet`l trèspfrt`tafe. Ifr vjrtak`l trèspfrt`tafe, jljv`tfrs `rj gfst kfggfely usjd. Typjs fi hulc mèdlaeb g`tjra`l jquapgjet 

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Hukcjt èd bràe jljv`tfrs Kfevjyfr hjlts Mfppjrs èd salfs Xjklàgjrs [t`kcjrs > 8 j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Jebaejjrjd [ystjgs

@e jebaejjrjd systjg as fej tm`t as typak`lly ùtfg`tjd. [ukm systjgs `rj `lsf usu`lly krj`tjd irfg ` v`rajty fi ueats. Rmje kfghaejd, tmjy wfrc tf je`hlj hftm stfr`bj èd trèspfrt`tafe. @e ”@utfg`tjd [tfr`bj èd Xjtrajv`l [ystjg‑ (fr ` @[/X[ ifr smfrt) as fej jx`gplj fi ` systjg tm`t as jebaejjrjd. Tmas as ` l`rbj, ùtfg`tjd djvakj tm`t kfgjs kfgpljtj watm r`kcs, smjlvjs èd àsljs. Tmjsj stfr`bj sflutafes `rj `kkjssjd hy ` ”smuttlj‑ ‛ ` ` gjkmèazjd gjkmèazjd djvakj tm`t‑s sagal`r tf ` kmjrry pakcjr. Tmas djvakj kè hj usjd hy tmj systjg fpjr`tfr tf gèu`lly sjljkt tmj atjgs `s ejjdjd, fr tmj jetarj systjg kè hj kfgputjrazjd èd ùtfg`tjd. @e @[/X[ kè hj aetjbr`tjd watm ` prfduktafe i`kalaty‑s jxastaeb kfgputjr jxastaeb kfgputjr ejtwfrc tf cjjp fe tfp fi stfkc kfetrfl, plus ftmjr lfbastak`l systjgs. At kè `lsf hj aetjbr`tjd watm ftmjr st`bjs fi tmj prfduktafe prfkjss, sf tm`t `s gukm ùtfg`tafe kè hj fiijrjd `s pfssahlj. T ypjs ypjs fi jeba e jjr jjr jd sys systjgs tjgs 

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@utfg`tjd buadjd vjmakljs (@BYs) Kfevjyfr systjgs Xfhftak djlavjry systjgs

Aedustra`l Trukcs

Tmas tjrg as èftmjr hrf`d djiaeatafe tm`t kè hj `pplajd tf gèy daiijrjet typjs fi jquapgjet. [ukm pajkjs fi jquapgjet df m`vj fej tmaeb tmaeb ae kfggfe, tmfubm ‛ tmfubm ‛ tmjy tmjy `ll prfvadj trèspfrt`tafe. Tmj skfpj fi tmas tjrg kè aekludj hftm sg`ll, sg`ll , mèd-fpjr`tjd djvakjs, èd l`rbj-sk`lj gftfrazjd vjmakljs. [fgj atjgs kè hj dravje, wmalj ftmjrs ‛ ftmjrs ‛ sukm sukm `s p`lljt trukcs ‛ trukcs ‛ sagply sagply `dd gfhalaty tf tmj g`tjra`ls tm`t `rj hjaeb mèdljd. Gèy fi tmjsj typjs fi trukcs m`vj usjiul km`r`ktjrastaks sukm `s ifrcs fr ` il`t suri`kj tm`t kè hj aesjrtjd uedjr p`lljts fr ftmjr typjs fi stfr`bj pl`tifrgs. Ftmjr trukcs ejjd ` sjp`r`tj atjg fi jquapgjet tf usj ifr laitaeb. Trukcs m`vj tmj k`p`halaty tf lait va` pfwjrjd pf wjrjd fr gèu`l gjès, èd kè hj raddje upfe ae ` dravjr‑s k`h, fr sagply pfwjr-`ssastjd wmje pusmjd. [ukm tukcs kè `lsf hj stjjrjd hy mugè aetjrvjetafe, fr kè hj kfgpljtjly ùtfg`tjd, ifllfwaeb ` prj-djiaejd tr`kc fe tmj prfduktafe ilffr, suecje fr ràsjd tr`kcs, fr kflfrjd straps tm`t `rj làd fut èd sjesjd hy fptak`l sjesfrs. [ukm ùtfg`tjd aedustra`l trukcs `lsf m`vj èta-kfllasafe tjkmeflfby tm`t sjesjs wmje è jgplfyjj fr ftmjr fhst`klj as ej`r. [t`kcaeb trukcs `rj usjd tf st`kcs atjgs, wmalj ` efe-st`kcaeb trukc as oust usjd ifr trèspfrt`tafe, èd eft ifr prfdukt lf`daeb. Typjs fi aedustra`l trukcs? 

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@utfg`tjd buadjd vjmakljs (@BYs) Mèd, pl`tifrg èd p`lljt trukcs ^

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Frdjr pakcjrs ^`lljt o`kcs [adj-lf`djrs R`lcaeb st`kcjrs

[tfr`bj èd Mèdlaeb Jquapgjet

Jquapgjet tm`t as usjd ifr stfr`bj usu`lly fely jekfgp`ssjs atjgs tm`t `rj eft ùtfg`tjd. [tfr`bj èd mèdlaeb jquapgjet tm`t as ùtfg`tjd i`lls uedjr tmj tjrg ”jebaejjrjd systjgs‑ [tfr`bj jquapgjet as jquapgjet tm`t as usjd tf mfld prfdukts èd g`tjra`ls wmje tmjy `rj eft hjaeb usjd, fr wmje tmjy `rj wàtaeb tf jetjr fr lj`vj tmj prfduktafe prfkjss. Tmjsj pjrafds kfuld hj lfeb-tjrg, fr smfrt-tjrg ae frdjr tf `llfw ` suat`hlj huald-up fi stfkc fr iaeasmjd atjgs. Gfst atjgs tm`t kè hj djskrahjd `s stfr`bj èd mèdlaeb jquapgjet rjijrs tf p`lljts, r`kcaeb fr smjlvjs. G`tjra`ls `rj stfrjd ae ` ej`t èd kfevjeajet gèejr tf `wàt trèspfrt`tafe, fr tmjar jetry aetf tmj prfduktafe prfkjss ai ejkjss`ry. M`vaeb suat`hlj stfr`bj jquapgjet wall `dd tf èy kfgp èy‑s prfduktafe jiiakajeky. Tmj jiiakajeky fi èy prfduktafe systjg as g`xagazjd hy tmj j`sj `t wmakm j`km st`bj fi tmj jetarj systjg fpjr`tjs. @ey aejiiakajet sjktafe krj`tjs ` hfttljejkc tm`t wall m`vj è jiijkt fe `ll ftmjr sjktafes fi tmj systjg iurtmjr dfwe tmj prfduktafe laej. [p`kj as `lsf `t ` prjgaug ai yfu rue ` prfduktafe jevarfegjet. Tmj hjttjr utalazjd yfur `vàl`hlj sp`kj as, tmj gfrj atjgs yfu‑ll hj `hlj tf stfrj. Tmas gjès yfu kè cjjp yfur wfrcilfw ae fpjr`tafe ifr gukm lfebjr watmfut wfrryaeb `hfut rj-stfkcaeb. Tmas mjlps iurtmjr aekrj`sj yfur jiiakajek y. Typjs fi stfr`bj èd mèdlaeb jquapgjet 

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Dravj-tmrfubm fr dravj-ae r`kcs ^`lljt r`kcs ûsm-h`kc r`kcs [mjlvaeb [ladaeb r`kcs [t`kcaeb ir`gjs

Xjl`tafe hjtwjje ^lèt L`yfut èd G`tjra`l Mèdlaeb

Tmj g`tjra`l mèdlaeb tjkmeaquj tf hj usjd djiaeatjly jiijkts tmj plèt l`yfut èd tmj i`ktfry hualdaeb. @ sfued lfw kfst gjtmfd kè hj djsabejd èd aest`lljd fely ai g`tjra`l mèdlaeb as kfesadjrjd è aetjbr`l p`rt fi plèt l`yfut. @ wjll kfesadjrjd `rrèbjgjet fi prfduktafe jquapgjet, tmj prfpjr lfk`tafe fi daiijrjet djp`rtgjets, ` lfbak`l sjqujekj fi fpjr`tafe watmae tmj djp`rtgjet èd kfevjeajet lfk`tafe fi stfrj `rj`s, tffl kra hs èd sagal`r `ktavaty kjetrjs as rjquarjd ifr ` bffd g`tjra`l mèdlaeb `rrèbjgjet. Tmj jiiakajet èd jkfefgak`l g`tjra`l mèdlaeb systjg kè hj djsabejd èd sjljktjd ifr a est`ll`tafes fely ìtjr tmj ilffr plè m`s hjje `djqu`tjly frbèazjd.


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Ae `ll typjs fi plèt l`yfut prfvasafes ifr tmj rjkjavaeb èd smappaeb fi g`tjra`ls hy v`rafus pfssahlj gjès (lacj trukcs fr tràe jtk.) smfuld hj g`dj. Ai at as rjquarjd tf gfvj tmj g`tjra`ls hy mèd fpjr`tjd fr pfwjr fpjr`tjd trukcs, suiiakajet p`ss`bj smfuld hj prfvadjd. Ai tmj hualdaeb as gulta stfrajd, lait, jljv`tfrs èd kfevjyfrs fi daiijrjet typjs gust hj utalazjd tf je`hlj jiiakajet g`tjra`l mèdlaeb. m èdlaeb. Tmj lfk`tafe fi atjgs ae tmj stfrj s tfrj rffg smfuld prfvadj ifr gaeagug mèdlaeb fi g`tjra`ls tf tmj pfaet fi assuj, `kkjssahalaty èd jiiakajet sp`kj utalaz`tafe. G`tjra`l Mèdlaeb ae ^rfdukt Typj fi L`yfut?

Tmj prfdukt typj fi l`yfut rjquarj sfgj darjkt gjès fi trèspfrt`tafe hjtwjje v`rafus fpjr`tafes, G`tjra`l mèdlaeb gjtmfds èd g`kmaejs lacj tmj l`yfut atsjli tjed tf hj spjka`l purpfsj ae e`turj ifr tmas typj fi l`yfut wmjrj tmj e`turj fi tmj prfdukt `llfws a t, br`vaty kmutjs kè hj jiijktavjly utalazjd. utalaz jd. Kfevjyfrs tf iat `ll daiijrjet `pplak`tafes fi sazj, sm`pj èd wjabmt fi p`rt `rj kfggjrka`lly `vàl`hlj. Tmjsj kfevjyfrs g`y iat ae prfdukt typj fi l`yfut wjll. Gèy prfkjssjs sukm `s kljèaeb, pàetaeb dryaeb èd wjabmaeb `s ae k`sj fi kjrtàe laquad g`tjra`ls g`y t`cj pl`kj wmalj tmj g`tjra`l gfvjs. Tmj spjka`l purpfsj e`turj fi prfdukt l`yfut djsabe fitje g`cjs at wfrtmwmalj tf djsabe spjka`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet wmakm as aetjbr`tjd watm prfkjssaeb sf kfgpljtjly tm`t tmj jetarj laej wfrcs `s ` saeblj aetjbr`tjd g`kmaej. G`tjra`l Mèdlaeb ae Iuektafe`l L`yfut?

Tmj h`sak rjquarjgjet fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb tjkmeaqujs usjd ae iuektafe`l l`yfut as iljxahalaty a.j. iljxahalaty fi sazj, wjabmt èd sm`pj fi lf`d èd iljxahalaty fi p`tm. Tmj typjs fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet wmakm suat tmas rjquarjgjet `rj ae bjejr`l, gfhalj trukcs, tr`ktfr, tràes, ifrc, lait, trukcs èd krèjs jtk. Tmj agpfrtèt km`r`ktjrastak fi è jiiakajet g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet as tmj tagj rjquarjd tf pakc up fr sjt dfwe lf`d. Tmjrjifrj, quakc pakcup systjg s ystjg m`vj djvjlfpjd `rfued scads èd p`lljts. G`tj ra`l kè hj darjktly lf`djd fe ` scad fr p`lljt hy tmj wfrcjr wfrcjr `s mas fpjr`tafe fe tmj p`rt as kfgpljtjd. Ae tmas w`y watmfut iurtmjr mèdlaeb, ` scad trukc, ifrc lait trukc fr p`lljt trukc kè pakc up tmj jetarj jetar j lf`d vjry quakcly èd gfvj at tf ats bf`l. Tmjrjifrj fej agpfrtèt kfesadjr`tafe ae djvjlfpaeb tmj djtàls fi l`yfut as tf `llfw j`sy `kkjss tf `ll fpjr`tafes tf hj pjrifrgjd hy jiiakajet g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet. [uppljgjet`ry krèjs `rj fitje ejjdjd `t tmj wfrc st`tafes tf mèdlj mj`vy ofhs tf èd irfg tmj g`kmaejs. Fvjrmj`d krèjs `rj utalazjd tf trèspfrt t rèspfrt èd pfsatafe l`rbj mj`vy ofhs watmae ` iaxjd `rj `. At as kfggfe tf iaed tmj g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet ueutalazjd ae iuektafe`l typj fi l`yfut èd `t tmj s`gj tagj kfgplàets `rj tm`t g`tjra`l kè ejvjr hj gfvjd wmje wètjd. Tmjrjifrj gukm g`tjra`l mèdlaeb jquapgjet as rjquarjd ae tmas typj fi l`yfut. Tmas m`s `lw`ys hjje ` daiijrjet qujstafe ae iuektafe`l typj fi l`yfut ae vajw fi tmj djgèd ifr trèspfrtaeb k`p`kat y as fe rèdfg h`sas. ; 8 j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj ILJ]AHLJ G@EZI@KTZXAEB [Q[TJG

@ iljxahlj gèui`kturaeb systjg ( IG[) as ` gèui`kturaeb systjg ae wmakm tmjrj as sfgj `gfuet fi iljxahalaty tm`t `llfws tmj systjg tf rj`kt ae k`sj fi kmèbjs, wmjtmjr prjdaktjd fr ueprjdaktjd. Tmas iljxahalaty as bjejr`lly kfesadjrjd tf i`ll aetf twf k`tjbfrajs, wmakm hftm kfetàe eugjrfus suhk`tjbfrajs. Tmj iarst k`tjbfry, g`kmaej iljxahalaty, iljxahalaty, kfvjrs tmj systjg's `halaty tf hj kmèbjd tf prfdukj ejw prfdukt typjs, èd `halaty tf kmèbj tmj frdjr fi fpjr`tafes jxjkutjd fe ` p`rt. Tmj sjkfed k`tjbfry as k`lljd rfutaeb iljxahalaty, iljxahalaty, wmakm kfesasts fi tmj `halaty tf usj gultaplj g`kmaejs gultaplj g`kmaejs tf pjrifrg tmj s`gj fpjr`tafe fe ` p`rt, `s wjll `s tmj systjg's `halaty tf `hsfrh l`rbj-sk`lj kmèbjs, sukm `s ae vflugj, k`p`katy, fr k`p`halaty. Gfst IG[ kfesast fi tmrjj gàe systjgs. Tmj wfrc g`kmaejs wmakm `rj fitje ùtfg`tjd KEK g`kmaejs `rj kfeejktjd hy ` g`tjra`l mèdlaeb systjg tf fptagazj p`rts ilfw èd tmj kjetr`l kfetrfl kfgputjr wmakm kfetrfls g`tjra`l gfvjgjets èd g`kmaej ilfw. Tmj gàe `dvèt`bjs fi è IG[ as ats mabm iljxahalaty ae gè`baeb gèui`kturaeb rjsfurkjs lacj tagj èd jiifrt ae frdjr tf gèui`kturj ` ejw prfdukt. Tmj hjst `pplak`tafe fi è IG[ as ifued ae tmj prfduktafe fi sg`ll sjts fi prfdukts lacj la cj tmfsj irfg ` g`ss ` g`ss prfduktafe. @dvèt`bjs 

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Xjdukjd gèui`kturaeb kfst Lfwjr kfst pjr ueat prfdukjd, Brj`tjr l`hfr prfduktavaty, Brj`tjr g`kmaej jiiakajeky, Agprfvjd qu`laty, Aekrj`sjd systjg rjla`halaty, Xjdukjd p`rts aevjetfrajs, @d`pt`halaty tf K@D/K@G fpjr`tafes. [mfrtjr lj`d tagjs Agprfvjd jiiakajeky Aekrj`sj prfduktafe r`tj

Das`dvèt`bjs 

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Aeata`l sjt-up kfst as mabm, [uhstèta`l prj-plèeaeb Xjquarjgjet fi scalljd l`hfur Kfgplak`tjd systjg ^XJYJETAYJ @ED HXJ@C DFRE G@AETJE@EKJ

^rjvjetavj Gàetjeèkj? 4

0. ^rjvjetavj Gàetjeèkj as skmjduljd èd rjkurs watmae ` gukm lfebjr tagj ir`gj tmè gfst rfutaej gàetjeèkj èd rjquarjs aedavadu`ls watm gfrj `dvèkjd scalls èd tràeaeb. `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 8. @ktavatajs ae ^rjvjetavj Gàetjeèkj `rj usu`lly pjrifrgjd h`sjd fe buadjlaejs irfg jquapgjet supplajrs èd tmj hualdaeb jebaejjr. ;. ^rjvjetavj Gàetjeèkj aekludjs `ktafes tf prflfeb tmj laij fi ` pajkj fi jquapgjet èd tf gaeagazj tmj hrj`cdfwe fi jquapgjet. 4. At as darjktjd `t tmj jquapgjet fpjr`taeb `t fr ej`r ats r`tjd ljvjl. :. Zsj fi bffd ^rjvjetavj gàetjeèkj prfkjdurjs ae wmakm hftm usjr èd gàetjeèkj pjr sfeejl as wjll-kffrdae`tjd, jquapgjet dfwe tagj kè hj gaeagazjd 9. Kfstly rjpàrs èd Aetjrruptafes as plèejd gàetjeèkj èd prfduktafe skmjduljs kè hj jlagae`tjd. 2. At as ` kfggfe tffl ifr hftm Z[JX èd G@AETJE@EKJ djp`rtgjet tf usj ae `kmajvaeb g`xagug rjpàr kfst. Fhojktavj fi ^rjvjetavj Gàetjeèkj? Fej fi tmj gàe fhojktavjs fi prjvjetavj gàetjeèkj as tf iaed èy kfedatafe tm`t g`y kùsj g`kmaej iàlurj hjifrj sukm ` hrj`cdfwe fkkurs. Tmas g`cjs at pfssahlj tf plè èd skmjdulj gàetjeèkj wfrc watm tmj lj`st `gfuet fi aetjrruptafe. aetjrruptafe.

Tmj h`sak ^G prfbr`g kfesasts fi? 

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^jrafdak aespjktafe fi g`kmaejry, utalatajs èd hualdaebs. Tmj irjqujeky fi aespjktafes as djtjrgaejd hy jxpjrajekj fr hy tmj gèui`kturjr‑s rjkfggjed`tafes uetal rjkfggjed`tafes uetal jxpjrajekjs as bàejd. Xjpfrtaeb fi hrj`cdfwe sf tm`t tmjy kè hj è`lyzjd èd kfrrjktavj gàetjeèkj `ktafe kè hj t`cje tf `ssurj tmjy wall eft hjkfgj rjpjtatavj. rjpjtata vj.

Hrj`cdfwe Gàetjeèkj?

Hrj`cdfwe Gàetjeèkj as tmj rjstfr`tafe fi ` i`kalaty tf ` kfedatafe suhstèta`lly jquav`ljet tf ats frabae`l fr djsabejd k`p`katy èd jiiakajeky hy rjpl`kjgjet fi p`ts, fvjrmùl fr rjprfkjssaeb fi g`tjra`ls ìtjr djtjrafr`tafe. Hrj`cdfwe Gàetjeèkj as tmj gfst jxpjesavj saekj ae `ddatafe tf tmj kfst fi rjpàr, tmjrj as fitje ` lfss fi husaejss fr prfduktafe `s ` rjsult. Tmas typj fi gàetjeèkj rjsults wmje ` pajkj fi jquapgjet fr ` strukturj kfgpfejet kfgpljtjly iàls. Tmjrj as jssjeta`lly ef ljjw`y ae tmj skmjdulaeb fi tmas gàetjeèkj. Tmj jquapgjet gust hj rjpàrjd aggjda`tjl y fr tmj fpjr`tafe wall hj smut dfwe. XJ^L@KJGJET FI JPZA^GJET[

Tmj rjpl`kjgjet fi prfduktavj jquapgjet as agpfrtèt str`tjbak djkasafes i`kjd hy hftm gèui`kturaeb èd sjrvakj iargs hjkùsj purkm`saeb ` ejw pajkj fi jquapgjet fitje aevflvjs gfrj kfst èd kè ìijkt tmj prfduktavaty èd jiijktavjejss fi tmj iarg. Kurrjetly, tmas assuj as mabmlabmtjd ae i`st kmèbaeb tjkmeflfbajs èd bffd jquapgjet purkm`sj kè sffe hjkfgj fhsfljtj. Zedjr tmjsj satu`tafes, tmj dravaeb gftav`tafe tf t`cj rjpl`kjgjet djkasafes as lacjly tf hj tjkmeflfbak`l futgfdjdejss aestj`d fi pmysak`l djtjrafr`tafe, fi tmj jxastaeb jquapgjet. Tmas satu`tafe as typak`l fi gakrfkfgputjrs, kfgputjrazjd eugjrak`lly kfetrflljd g`kmaejs, èd ftmjr jljktrfeaks tjkmeflfbajs. Tmj rjpl`kjgjet prfhljgs `rj `ssfka`tjd watm tmj assujs tm`t djvjlfps wmje tmj pjrifrgèkj fi è atjg djkrj`sjs, iàlurj fr hrj`cdfwe fkkurs. Tmj djklaej ae pjrifrgèkj fr hrj`cdfwe g`y hj br`du`l fr sfgjtagjs suddje. Tmjrj as ` ejjd ifr rjpl`kjgjet fi atjgs wmje3 0. Tmj jxastaeb atjg fr systjg m`s hjkfgj aejiiakajet fr rjquarj gfrj gàetjeèkj. 8. Tmj jxastaeb jquapgjet m`s iàljd duj tf `kkadjet fr ftmjrwasj èd dfjs eft wfrc `t `ll. ;. Tmj jxastaeb jquapgjet as jxpjktjd tf iàl smfrtly. `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 4. Tmj jxastaeb jquapgjet m`s hjkfgj fhsfljtj duj tf tmj `vàl`halaty fi jquapgjet watm l`tjst tjkmeflfby èd hjttjr djsabe. Tmj sflutafe tf rjpl`kjgjet prfhljg as tf djvakj hjst pflaky tm`t djtjrgaejs tmj tagj `t wmakm tmj rjpl`kjgjet as gfst jkfefgak`l aestj`d fi kfetaeuaeb `t è aekrj`sjd gàetjeèkj kfst. Tmj Gàe fhojktavj fi rjpl`kjgjet pflaky as tf buadj tmj frbèaz`tafe ae gèy satu`tafes sf tm`t at kè t`cj kfrrjkt djkasafe sukm ae ` satu`tafes wmje wàtaeb ifr kfgpljtj iàlurj fi atjg fr tf rjpl`kj j`rlajr `t tmj jxpjesj fi mabmjr kfst fi tmj atjg, wmjtmjr tf rjpl`kj tmj uedjrpjrifrgaeb jquapgjet watm tmj sagal`r caed fi atjg fr hy daiijrjet caed fi atjg. Tmj prfhljg fi rjpl`kjgjet fkkurs ae tmj k`sj fi hftm gje èd g`kmaejs. Tmjrj `rj eugjrfus rj`sfes ifr jquapgjet rjpl`kjgjet. Tmj iarst rj`sfe as tmj jquapgjet as djpljtjd fi iuektafe. [jkfed rj`sfe ifr rjpl`kaeb jquapgjet as ai tmj jquapgjet hjkfgjs fhsfljtj. Ifr jx`gplj, fldjr kfgputjrs `rj gukm slfwjr èd m`vj ijwjr ij`turjs tmè tmjar gfdjre kfuetjrp`rts. Ae `ddatafe, fldjr kfgputjrs `rj m`rdjr tf gàetàe hjkùsj rjpl`kjgjet p`rts èd qu`laiajd tjkmeakaès `rj gukm m`rdjr tf iaed. @eftmjr rj`sfe ifr rjpl`kjgjet as djtjrafr`tafe duj tf `baeb. Jquapgjet as a e`djqu`tj èd dfjs eft gjjt ejjds, aekrj`sjd djgèd. Tmje at as rjpl`kjd watm ` l`rbjr `ssjt. Tmjrj `rj gèy typjs fi iàlurj ae jquapgjet? 0. Br`du`l Iàlurj? Ae tmas, tmj iàlurj gjkmèasg as prfbrjssavj. @s è jquapgjet hjkfgjs fld, ats pjrifrgèkj djtjrafr`tjs. djtjr afr`tjs. Tmas rjsults ae aekrj`sjd fpjr`taeb kfst, djkrj`sjd prfduktavaty fi tmj atjg èd djkrj`sj ae rjs`lj v`luj fi atjg. 8. [uddje Iàlurj? Tmas typj fi iàlurj fkkurs ae jquapgjet tm`t df eft djtjrafr`tj br`du`lly watm `bj hut wmakm iàl suddjely ìtjr sfgj pjrafd fi sjrvakj. Tmj tagj pjrafd hjtwjje aest`ll`tafes èd iàlurj wall eft hj kfestèt ifr èy p`rtakul`r jquapgjet. Mfwjvjr tmj iàlurj p`ttjre wall ifllfw kjrtàe irjqujeky dastrahutafe tm`t g`y hj prfbrjssavj, rjtrfbrjssa vj fr rèdfg ae e`turj. ;. ^rfbrjssavj iàlurj? prfbrjssavj iàlurj fkkurs wmje prfh`halaty fi iàlurj aekrj`sjs watm tmj `bj fi è atjg. 4. Xjtrfbrjssavj iàlurj? Kjrtàe atjgs wall m`vj gfrj prfh`halaty fi iàlurj ae tmj j`rly yj`rs fi tmjar laij èd watm tmj aekrj`sj ae tmj laij fi è atjg tmj kmèkjs fi iàlurj hjkfgj ljss. Tm`t as, tmj `halaty fi tmj atjg tf survavj ae tmj aeata`l yj`rs fi laij aekrj`sjs ats jxpjktjd laij. :. Xèdfg iàlurj? Xèdfg iàlurj fkkurs wmje kfetaeufus prfh`halaty fi iàlurj as rjl`tjd watm jquapgjet tm`t iàls hjkùsj fi rèdfg kùsjs sukm `s pmysak`l smfkcs tm`t `rj aedjpjedjet fi `bj. Ae tmj k`sj fi rèdfg iàlurj, vartu`ll y `ll atjgs iàl hjifrj `baeb m`s èy è y jiijkt. Tmj rjpl`kjgjet satu`tafes `rj k`tjbfrazjd aetf tmj ifllfwaeb ifur typjs? 0. Xjpl`kjgjet fi k`pat`l jquapgjet wmfsj pjrifrgèkj djkrj`sjs watm tagj. 8. Brfup rjpl`kjgjet atjgs tm`t iàl kfgpljtjly? [fgj systjg usu`lly kfgpfsjd fi ` l`rbj eughjr fi lfw kfst atjgs tm`t `rj prfej tf iàlurj watm `bj sukm `s iàlurj fi ` r jsastfr ae tjljvasafe, r`daf, kfgputjr jtk. Ae sfgj k`sjs tmj iàlurj fi ` kfgpfejet g`y kùsj tmj kfgpljtj iàlurj fi tmj systjg. Ae sukm k`sjs, tmj kfst fi fvjr`ll iàlurj wall hj quatj mabmjr tmè tmj kfst fi kfgpfejet atsjli. Ae sukm satu`tafes, twf typjs fi rjpl`kjgjet prfkjdurjs gust hj kfesadjrjd. Iarst as Aedavadu`l rjpl`kjgjet. Ae tmas pflaky, è atjg as rjpl`kjd aggjda`tjly ìtjr ats iàlurj. [jkfedly, Brfup rjpl`kjgjet ae wmakm, djkasafe as `hfut tmj `bj wmje `ll tmj atjgs smfuld hj rjpl`kjd, ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj arrjspjktavj fi wmjtmjr tmj atjgs m`vj iàljd fr eft. Ae tmas pflaky, tmj atjgs tm`t iàl hjifrj tmj fptag`l tagj, wall hj rjpl`kjd aedavadu`lly. ;. ^rfhljg fi gfrt`laty èd stìiaeb. 4. Gaskjllèjfus prfhljgs. GJTMFD[ FI ^XFYADAEB DJ^XJKA@TAFE

Tmj ifllfwaeb `rj tmj v`rafus gjtmfds ifr prfvadaeb djprjka`tafe? 0. [tràbmt Laej fr Iaxjd ^jrkjet`bj fe Frabae`l Kfst fr Iaxjd Aest`llgjet Gj tmfd. 8. Rrattje Dfwe Y`luj fr Iaxjd ^jrkjet`bj fe Dagaeasmaeb H`lèkj fr Xjdukaeb Aest`llgjet Gjtmfd. ;. Aesurèkj ^flaky Gjtmfd. 4. [ug fi tmj Dabats Gjtmfd. :. Xjv`lu`tafe Gjtmfd. 9. Djpljtafe Gjtmfd. 2. G`kmaej Mfur X`tj Gjtmfd. 0. [tràbmt Laej Gjtmfd

Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, ` iaxjd pjrkjet`bj fi frabae`l kfst as wrattje fii tmj `ssjt jvjry yj`r. Tmus, ai è `ssjt kfsts Xs.8>,>>> èd 0> pjrkjet djprjka`tafe wjrj kfesadjrjd `djqu`tj, Xs.8,>>> wfuld hj wrattje fii jvjry yj`r. Tmj `gfuet tf hj wrattje fii jvjry yj`r as `rravjd `t `s uedjr? 7 ( Kfst ‛ Kfst ‛ Jstag`tjd Jstag`tjd [kr`p Y`luj ) / Jstag`tjd Laij Tmj pjrafd ifr wmakm tmj `ssjt as usjd ae ` p`rtakul`r yj`r smfuld `lsf hj t `cje aetf `kkfuet. Tmas gjtmfd as sagplj ae k`lkul`tafe èd `lsf ae sukm ` k`sj, tmj km`rbj tf tmj ^rfiat èd Lfss @kkfuet as ueaifrg jvjry yj`r. Tmas gjtmfd as usjiul wmje tmj sjrvakj rjedjrjd hy tmj `ssjt as ueaifrg irfg yj`r tf yj`r. At as djsar`hlj, wmje tmas gjtmfd as ae usj, tf jstag`tj tmj `gfuet tf hj spjet hy w`y fi rjpàrs duraeb tmj wmflj laij fi tmj `ssjt èd prfvadj ifr rjpàrs j`km yj`r `t tmj `vjr`bj `ktu`l rjpàrs. 8. Rrattje Dfwe Y`luj Gjtmfd

Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, tmj r`tj fr pjrkjet`bj fi djprj ka`tafe as iaxjd, hut at `pplajs tf t f tmj v`luj `t wmakm tmj `ssjt stèds ae tmj hffcs ae tmj hjbaeeaeb fi tmj yj`r. Ae ftmjr wfrds, uedjr tmas gjtmfd, ` iaxjd pjrkjet`bj as wrattje fii jvjry yj`r fe tmj rjdukjd h`lèkj fi tmj `ssjt. Tmus, tmj pjrkjet`bj fi djprjka`tafe as eft `pplajd tf tmj frabae`l kfst hut fely tf tmj h`lèkj, wmakm rjgàes ìtjr km`rbaeb djprjka`tafe ae tmj hjbaeeaeb fi ` yj`r. Tmj pjrkjet`bj fi djprjka`tafe rjgàes iaxjd ifr `ll tmj yj`rs fi tmj wfrcaeb laij fi è `ssjt hut tmj `ktu`l `gfuet fi djprjka`tafe wrattje fii jvjr y yj`r bfjs fe djkrj`saeb watm tmj rjduktafe ae tmj v`luj fi tmj `ssjt. ;. Aesurèkj ^flaky Gjtmfd fr K`pat`l Xjdjgptafe ^flaky Gjtmfd

Zedjr tmas gjtmfd tmj husaejss t`cjs ` pflaky irfg è aesurèkj kfgpèy. Tmj `gfuet fi tmj pflaky as sukm tm`t at as suiiakajet tf rjpl`kj tmj `ssjt wmje at as wfre fut. K`sm, wmakm as jqu`l tf tmj `gfuet fi djprjka`tafe, as pàd hy w`y fi prjgaug jvjry yj`r. Tmj `gfuet bfjs fe `kkugul`taeb watm tmj aesurèkj


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj kfgpèy `t ` kjrtàe r`tj fi aetjrjst èd as pàd h`kc tf tmj aesurjd `t tmj g`turaty fi tmj pflaky. Tmj `gfuet sf g`dj `vàl`hlj hy tmj aesurèkj kfgpèy as usjd ifr purkm`saeb ` ejw `ssjt. Tmas gjtmfd tf ` brj`t jxtjet as sagal`r tf saecaeb iued gjtmfd, hut ef dfuht tmj prfkjdurj as ` lattlj daiijrjet. Ae tmas gjtmfd, aestj`d fi huyaeb sjkuratajs, tmj aesurèkj pflaky as t`cje èd prjgaug as pàd jvjry yj`r. Kfgpèy, tm`t rjkjavjs prjgaug, `llfws ` sg`ll aetjrjst fe kfgpfued h`sas. Tmas gjtmfd as ` gfrj suat`hlj djvakj ifr jesuraeb tmj `vàl`halaty fi k`sm tf rjpl`kj tmj `ssjt. Tmj `dvèt`bj uedjr tmas systjg as tm`t tmj kfgpèy ejjd eft wfrry wmjtmjr tmj aevjstgjets `s uedjr tmj Djprjka`tafe Iued Gjtmfd, wall hj sfld `t hjst prakjs fr eft. Ai è aesurèkj pflaky as t`cje, at sjrvjs twf purpfsjs. Iarstly, at aesurjs tmj `ssjt. [jkfedly, tmj aesurèkj kfgpèy wall p`y tmj stapul`tjd `gfuet tf je`hlj tmj kfgpèy tf rjpl`kj `ssjts. Tmas gjtmfd as gfrj jxpjesavj `s tmj aesurèkj kfgpèy m`s tf cjjp ats g`rbae fi prfiats. At as suat`hlj ifr lfssjs wmjrj tmj laij fi tmj `ssjt as djiaeatjly cefwe. At yajlds ` vjry lfw r`tj fi aetjrjst. At g`cjs ef `doustgjets ifr prakjljvjl kmèbjs. 4. [ug fi tmj Dabats Gjtmfd

Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, `gfuet fi tmj djprjka`tafe tf hj wrattje fii j`km yj`r as k`lkul`tjd hy tmj ifllfwaeb ifrgul`? 7 Xjgàeaeb Laij fi tmj @ssjt (aekludaeb tmj Kurrjet Qj`r) / [ug fi `ll tmj Dabats fi tmj Laij fi tmj @ssjt ae Qj`rs x Kfst fi tmj @ssjt [uppfsj tmj laij fi è `ssjt kfstaeb Xs.:>,>>> as 0> yj`rs. Tmj sug fi `ll tmj dabats irfg 0 tf 0> kfgjs tf :: a.j., 0>+1+=+2+9+:+4+;+8+A 7 ::. Tmj djprjka`tafe tf hj prfvadjd ae tmj iarst yj`r wall hj? 7 0> / :: x :>,>>> fr Xs.1,>10 Ae tmj sjkfed yj`r, at wall hj? 1 /:: x :>,>>> fr Xs.=,0=0 Tmas gjtmfd as sagal`r tf tmj Rrattje Rrat tje Dfwe Y`luj Gjtmfd djskrahjd j`rlajr. :. Xjv`lu`tafe Gjtmfd

Tmas gjtmfd as usjd fely ae k`sj fi sg`ll atjgs at jgs lacj k`ttlj (Lavjstfkc), fr lffsj tffls wmjrj at g`y hj tff gukm tf gàetàe è `kkfuet fi j`km saeblj atjg. Tmj `gfuet fi djprjka`tafe tf hj wrattje fii as djtjrgaejd hy kfgp`raeb tmj v`luj `t tmj jed fi tmj yj`r (v`lu`tafe hjaeb dfej hy sfgj fej m`vaeb jxpjrt cefwljdbj fi tmj v`lu`tafe fi tmj `ssjt) watm tmj v`luj ae tmj hjbaeeaeb. [uppfsj fe 0st @pral 8,>>2 tmj v`luj fi lffsj tffls w`s Xs.0>,>>> èd duraeb tmj yj`r Xs.;>,>>> wfrtm fi tffls wjrj purkm`sjd. Efw ai `t tmj jed fi tmj yj`r, tmj lffsj tffls `rj kfesadjrjd tf hj wfrtm fely Xs.8:,>>> tmj djprjka`tafe kfgjs tf Xs.0:,>>> Xs .0:,>>> a.j. Xs.0>,>>>+ Xs.;>,>>> ‛ Xs.;>,>>> ‛ Xs.8:,>>>. Xs.8:,>>>. 8

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 9. Djpljtafe Gjtmfd

Tmj djpljtafe gjtmfd as usjd ae k`sj fi gaejs, ga ejs, qu`rrajs, jtk., wmjrj è jsta g`tj fi tft`l quètaty fi futput lacjly tf hj `vàl`hlj smfuld hj `vàl`hlj. Djprjka`tafe as k`lkul`tjd pjr tfe fi futput. Ifr jx`gplj, ai ` gaej as purkm`sjd ifr Xs.8>,>>,>>> èd at as jstag`tjd tm`t tmj t ft`l quètaty fi gaejr`l ae tmj gaej as :,>>,>>> tfe, tfe, tmj djprjka`tafe pjr tfe fi futput kfgjs tf 7 8>,>>,>>> / :,>>,>>> :,>>,>>> 7 Xs. 4. Ai tmj futput ae tmj iarst yj`r as ;>,>>> tmje tmj djprjka`tafe wall hj ;>,>>> x Xs.4 7 Xs. 0,8>,>>>, ae tmj sjkfed yj`r, tmj futput g`y hj :>,>>> tfe3 tmj djprjka`tafe tf hj wrattje fii wall hj Xs.8,>>,>>> a.j., :>,>>> x Xs.4. 2. G`kmaej Mfur X`tj Gjtmfd

Tmas as gfrj fr ljss lacj tmj djprjka`tafe gjtmfd. Aestj`d fi tmj usu`l gjtmfd fi jstag`taeb tmj laij fi ` g`kmaej ae yj`rs, at as jstag`tjd jst ag`tjd ae mfurs. Tmje, è `kkur`tj rjkfrd as cjpt r jkfrdaeb tmj eughjr fi mfurs j`km g`kmaej as rue èd djprjka`tafe as k`lkul`tjd `kkfrdaebly. Ifr jx`gplj, tmj jiijktavj laij fi ` g`kmaej g`y hj ;>,>>> mfurs. Ai tmj kfst fi tmj g`kmaej as Xs.4,:>,>>>, tmj mfurly djprjka`tafe as 7 4,:>,>>> / ;>,>>> 7 Xs. 0:. Tmj djprjka`tafe ifr ` p`rtakul`r yj`r duraeb wmakm tmj g`kmaej rues ifr 8,:>> mfurs wall hj 8,:>> x Xs.0: 7 Xs.;2,:>>. DJTJXGAE@TAFE DJTJXGAE@TAFE FI JKFEFGAK LAIJ

@ey `ssjt wall m`vj tmj ifllfwaeb kfst kfgpfejets?  K`pat`l rjkfvjry kfst (`vjr`bj iarst kfst), kfgputjd irfg tmj iarst kfst (purkm`sj prakj) fi tmj g`kmaej.  @vjr`bj fpjr`taeb èd gàetjeèkj kfst (F & G kfst)

Tft`l kfst wmakm as tmj sug fi k`pat`l rjkfvjry kfst (`vjr`bj iarst kfst) èd `vjr`bj gàetjeèkj kfst.

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Jx`gplj

@ iarg as kfesadjraeb rjpl`kjgjet fi è jquapgjet, wmfsj iarst kfst as Xs. 4,>>> èd tmj skr`p v`luj as ejblabahlj `t tmj jed fi èy yj`r. H`sjd fe jxpjrajekj, at w`s ifued tm`t tmj gàetjeèkj kfst as zjrf duraeb tmj iarst yj`r èd at aekrj`sjs hy Xs. 8>> jvjry yj`r tmjrjìtjr. (`) Rmje smfuld tmj jquapgjet hj rjpl`kjd ai a 7 >%6 (h) Rmje smfuld tmj jquapgjet hj rjpl`kjd ai a 7 08%6 (`) Rmje a 7 >%. Ae tmas prfhljg (a) Iarst kfst 7 Xs. 4,>>> (aa) Gàetjeèkj kfst as Xs. > duraeb tmj iarst yj`r èd at aekrj`sjs hy Xs. 8>> jvjry yj`r tmjrjìtjr. Tmas as sugg`razjd ae kfluge H fi T`hlj Kfluge K sugg`razjs tmj sugg`tafe fi gàetjeèkj kfsts ifr j`km rjpl`kjgjet pjrafd. Tmj v`luj kfrrjspfedaeb tf èy jed fi yj`r ae tmas kfluge rjprjsjets tmj tft`l gàetjeèkj kfst fi usaeb tmj jquapgjet tall tmj jed fi tm`t p`rtakul`r yj`r. @vjr`bj tft`l kfst 7 S Iarst kfst (IK) + [ugg`tafe fi gàetjeèkj kfst W / Xjpl`kjgjet pjrafd

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Tmj v`luj kfrrjspfedaeb tf èy jed fi yj`r ( e) ae Kfluge I rjprjsjets tmj `vjr`bj tft`l kfst fi usaeb tmj jquapgjet tall tmj jed fi tm`t p`rtakul`r yj`r. Ifr tmas prfhljg, tmj `vjr`bj tft`l kfst djkrj`sjs tall tmj jed fi yj`r 9 èd tmje at aekrj`sjs. Tmjrjifrj, tmj fptag`l rjpl`kjgjet pjrafd as sax yj`rs, a.j. jkfefgak laij fi tmj jquapgjet as sax yj`rs. (h) Rmje aetjrjst r`tj, a 7 08%. Rmje tmj aetjrjst r`tj as gfrj tmè >%, tmj stjps tf hj t`cje ifr bjttaeb tmj jkfefgak laij `rj sugg`razjd watm rjijrjekj tf T`hlj

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj T`hlj K`lkul`tafes tf Djtjrgaej Jkfefgak Laij (Iarst kfst 7 Xs. 4,>>>, Aetjrjst 7 08%)

Tmj stjps `rj sugg`razjd efw? 0. Daskfuet tmj gàetjeèkj kfsts tf tmj hjbaeeaeb fi yj`r 0. Kfluge D 7 Kfluge H 0/ (0 + a)e 7 Kfluge H (^/I, a, e) 7 Kfluge H

Kfluge K.

8. Iaed tmj sugg`tafe fi prjsjet wfrtm fi gàetjeèkj kfsts tmrfubm tmj yj`r bavje (Kfluge J 7 Kfluge D). ;. Iaed Kfluge I hy `ddaeb tmj iarst kfst fi Xs. 4,>>> tf Kfluge J. 4. Iaed tmj èeu`l jquav`ljet tft`l kfst tmrfubm tmj yj`rs bavje. Kfluge M 7 Kfluge I a(0 + a)e 7 Kfluge I (@/^, 08%, e) 7 Kfluge I

/ (0 + a)e Kfluge B

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:. Adjetaiy tmj jed fi yj`r ifr wmakm tmj èeu`l jquav`ljet tft`l kfst a s gaeagug. Ifr tmas prfhljg, tmj èeu`l jquav`ljet tft`l kfst as gaeagug `t tmj jed fi yj`r 2. Tmjrjifrj, tmj jkfefgak laij fi tmj jquapgjet as sjvje yj`rs. j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj GJTMFD[ JEBAEJJXAEB

Gjtmfds jebaejjraeb as ` hrèkm fi aedustra`l jebaejjraeb spjka`lazaeb ae tmj è`l ysas fi gjtmfds èd tmj agprfvjgjet èd stèd`rdaz`tafe fi gjtmfds, jquapgjet, èd wfrcaeb kfedatafes. @ltjre`tavjly at kè hj djskrahjd `s tmj djsabe fi tmj prfduktavj prfkjss ae wmakm ` pjrsfe as aevflvjd. Tmj t`sc fi tmj Gjtmfds jebaejjr as tf djkadj wmjrj mugès wall hj utalazjd ae tmj prfkjss fi kfevjrtaeb r`w g`tjra`ls tf iaeasmjd prfdukts èd mfw wfrcjrs kè gfst jiijktavjly pjrifrg tmjar `ssabejd t`scs. Tmj tjrgs fpjr`tafe è`lysas, wfrc djsabe èd sagplaiak`ta fe, èd gjtmfds jebaejjraeb èd kfrpfr`tj rjjebaejjraeb `rj irjqujetly usjd aetjrkmèbj`hly. Lfwjraeb kfsts èd aekrj`saeb rjla`halaty èd prfduktavaty `rj tmj fhojktavjs fi gjtmfds jebaejjraeb. Tmjsj fhojktavjs `rj gjt ae ` iavj stjp sjqujekj `s ifllfws? ^rfojkt sjljktafe, d`t` `kquasatafe èd prjsjet`tafe, d`t` è`lysas, djvjlfpgjet fi è adj`l gjtmfd h`sjd fe tmj d`t` è`lysas èd, iae`lly, prjsjet`tafe èd agpljgjet`tafe fi tmj gjtmfd. GJTMFD [TZDQ

Gjtmfd study je`hljs tmj aedustra`l jebaejjr tf suhojkt j`km fpjr`tafe tf systjg`tak è`lysas. Tmj gàe purpfsj fi gjtmfd study as tf jlagae`tj tmj ueejkjss`ry fpjr`tafes èd tf t f `kmajvj tmj hjst gjtmfd fi pjrifrgaeb tmj fpjr`tafe. Gjtmfd study as `lsf k`lljd gjtmfds jebaejjraeb fr wfrc djsabe. Gjtmfd jebaejjraeb as usjd tf djskrahj kflljktafe fi è`lysas tjkmeaqujs wmakm ifkus fe agprfvaeb tmj jiijktavjejss fi gje èd g`kmaejs. @kkfrdaeb tf Hratasm [tèd`rds Aestatutafe (H[ ;0;=)? “Gjtmfd study as tmj systjg`tak rjkfrdaeb èd kratak`l jx`gae`tafe fr jxastaeb èd prfpfsjd w`ys fr dfaeb wfrc `s ` gjès fr djvjlfpaeb èd `pplyaeb j`sajr èd gfrj jiijktavj gjtmfds èd rjdukaeb kfst.‗ Iued`gjet`lly gjtmfd study aevflvjs tmj hrj`cdfwe fi è fpjr`tafe fr prfkjdurj aetf ats kfgpfejet jljgjets èd tmjar systjg`tak è`lysas. Ae k`rryaeb fut tmj gjtmfd study, tmj rabmt `ttatudj fi gaed as agpfrtèt. Tmj gjtmfd study gè smfuld m`vj? 0. Tmj djsarj èd djtjrgae`tafe tf prfdukj rjsults. 8. @halaty tf `kmajvj rjsults. ;. @e uedjrstèdaeb fi tmj mugè i`ktfrs aevflvjd. Gjtmfd study skfpj lajs ae agprfvaeb wfrc gjtmfds tmrfubm prfkjss èd fpjr`tafe è`lysas, sukm `s? 0. 8. ;. 4. :. 9.

Gèui`kturaeb fpjr`tafes èd tmjar sjqujekj. Rfrcgje. G`tjra`ls, tffls èd bùbjs. L`yfut fi pmysak`l i`kalatajs èd wfrc st`tafe djsabe. Gfvjgjet fi gje èd g`tjra`l mèdlaeb. Rfrc jevarfegjet. ; ; j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Fhojktavjs fi Gjtmfd [tudy Gjtmfd study as jssjeta`lly kfekjrejd watm iaedaeb hjttjr w`ys fi dfaeb tmaebs. At `dds v`luj èd aekrj`sjs tmj jiiakajeky hy jlagae`taeb ueejkjss`ry fpjr`tafes, `vfad`hlj djl`ys èd ftmjr ifrgs fi w`stj. Tmj agprfvjgjet ae jiiakajeky as `kmajvjd tmrfubm?

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Agprfvjd l`yfut èd djsabe fi wfrcpl`kj. Agprfvjd èd jiiakajet wfrc prfkjdurjs. Jiijktavj utalaz`tafe fi gje, g`kmaejs èd g`tjra`ls. Agprfvjd djsabe fr spjkaiak`tafe fi tmj iae`l prfdukt.

Tmj fhojktavjs fi gjtmfd study tjkmeaqujs `rj? 0. ^rjsjet èd è`lyzj truj i`kts kfekjreaeb tmj satu`tafe. 8. Tf jx`gaej tmfsj i`kts kratak`lly. ;. Tf djvjlfp tmj hjst èswjr pfssahlj uedjr bavje karkugstèkjs h`sjd fe krat ak`l jx`gae`tafe fi i`kts. [kfpj fi Gjtmfd [tudy Tmj skfpj fi gjtmfd study as eft rjstraktjd tf fely gèui`kturaeb aedustrajs. Gj tmfd study tjkmeaqujs kè hj `pplajd jiijktavjly ae sjrvakj sjktfr `s wjll. At kè hj `pplajd ae fiiakjs, mfspat`ls, hècs èd ftmjr sjrvakj frbèaz`tafes. Tmj `rj`s tf wmakm gjtmfd study kè hj `pplajd sukkjssiully ae gèui`kturaeb `rj?

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Tf agprfvj wfrc gjtmfds èd prfkjdurjs. Tf djtjrgaej tmj hjst sjqujekj fi dfaeb wfrc. Tf sgfftmje g`tjra`l ilfw watm gaeagug fi h`kc tr`kcaeb èd tf agprfvj l`yfut. Tf agprfvj tmj wfrcaeb kfedatafes èd mjekj tf agprfvj l`hfr jiiakajeky. Tf rjdukj gfeftfey ae tmj wfrc. Tf agprfvj plèt utalaz`tafe èd g`tjra`l utalaz`tafe. Jlagae`tafe fi w`stj èd ueprfduktavj fpjr`tafes. Tf rjdukj tmj gèui`kturaeb kfsts tmrfubm rjdukaeb kyklj tagj fi fpjr`tafes.

[tjps fr ^rfkjdurj Aevflvjd ae Gjtmfds [tudy Tmj h`sak `pprf`km tf gjtmfd study kfesasts fi tmj ifllfwaeb jabmt stjps. Tmj djtàljd prfkjdurj ifr kfeduktaeb tmj gjtmfd study as smfwe ae tmj ifllfwaeb iaburj.

0. [JLJKT tmj wfrc tf hj studajd èd djiaej ats hfued`rajs. 8. XJKFXD tmj rjljvèt i`kts `hfut tmj ofh hy darjkt fhsjrv`tafe èd kflljkt sukm `ddatafe`l d`t` `s g`y hj ejjdjd irfg `pprfpra`tj sfurkjs. ;. J ] @ G A E J tmj w`y tmj ofh as hjaeb pjrifrgjd èd km`lljebj ats purpfsj, pl`kj sjqujekj èd gjtmfd fi pjrifrgèkj. Gjtmfd study prfkjdurj 4

4. DJYJLF^ tmj gfst pr`ktak`l, jkfefgak èd jiijktavj jiijkta vj gjtmfd, dr`waeb fe tmj kfetrahutafes fi tmfsj kfekjrejd. `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj :. JY@LZ@TJ daiijrjet `ltjre`tavjs tf djvjlfpaeb ` ejw agprfvjd gjtmfd kfgp`raeb tmj kfstjiijktavjejss fi tmj sjljktjd sjljk tjd ejw gjtmfd watm tmj kurrjet gjtmfd watm tmj kurrjet gjtmfd fi pjrifrgèkj. 9. D J I A E J tmj ejw gjtmfd, `s ` rjsult, ae ` klj`r gèejr èd prjsjet at tf tmfsj kfekjrejd, a.j., a.j., gè`bjgjet, supjrvasfrs èd wfrcjrs. 2. AE[T@LL tmj ejw gjtmfd `s ` stèd`rd pr`ktakj èd tràe tmj pjrsfes aevflvjd ae `pplyaeb at. =. G @ A E T @ A E tmj ejw gjtmfd èd aetrfdukj kfetrfl prfkjdurjs tf prjvjet ` draitaeb h`kc tf tmj prjvafus gjtmfd fi wfrc. [jljktafe fi tmj Ofh ifr Gjtmfd [tudy Kfst as tmj gàe kratjra` ifr sjljktafe fi ` ofh, prfkjss èd djp`rtgjet ifr gjtmfds è`lysas. Tf k`rry fut tmj gjtmfd study, ` ofh as sjljktjd sukm tm`t tmj prfpfsjd gjtmfd `kmajvjs fej fr gfrj fi tmj ifllfwaeb rjsults?

`. h. k. d. j.

Agprfvjgjet ae qu`laty watm ljssjr skr`p. Aekrj`sjd prfduktafe tmrfubm hjttjr utalaz`tafe fi rjsfurkjs. Jlagae`tafe fi ueejkjss`ry fpjr`tafes èd gfvjgjets. Agprfvjd l`yfut lj`daeb tf sgfftm ilfw fi g`tjra`l èd ` h`lèkjd prfduktafe laej. Agprfvjd wfrcaeb kfedatafes.

Kfesadjr`tafes ifr sjljktafe fi gjtmfd study

Tmj ofh smfuld hj sjljktjd ifr tmj gjtmfd study h`sjd upfe tmj ifllfwaeb kfesadjr`tafes? 0. Jkfefgak `spjkt 8. Tjkmeak`l `spjkt, èd ;. Mugè `spjkt. @. Jkfe fga k @spjkts @spjkts Tmj gjtmfd study aevflvjs kfst èd tagj. Ai suiiakajet rjtures `rj eft `ttàejd, tmj wmflj jxjrkasj wall bf w`stj. Tmus, tmj gfejy spjet smfuld hj oustaiajd hy tmj s`vaebs irfg at. Tmj ifll fwaeb buadjlaejs kè hj usjd ifr sjljktaeb ` ofh? `. h. k. d. j.

Hfttljejkc fpjr`tafes wmakm `rj mfldaeb up ftmjr prfduktafe fpjr`tafes. Fpjr`tafes aevflvaeb jxkjssavj l`hfr. Fpjr`tafes prfdukaeb lft fi skr`p fr djijktavjs. Fpjr`tafes m`vaeb pffr utalaz`tafe fi rjsfurkjs. H`kctr`kcaeb fi g`tjra`ls èd jxkjssavj gfvjgjet fi g`tjra`ls.

Tjkme a k`l @spjkts @spjkts H. Tjkmea

Tmj gjtmfd study gè smfuld hj k`rjiul jefubm tf sjljkt ` ofh ae wmakm mj m`s tmj tjkmeak`l cefwljdbj èd jxpjrtasj. @ pjrsfe sjljktaeb ` ofh ae mas `rj` fi jxpjrtasj as bfaeb tf df iull oustakj. Ftmjr i`ktfrs wmakm i`vfr sjljktafe ae tjkmeak`l `spjkt `rj? ;

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Ofh m`vaeb ae kfesastjet qu`laty.


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 8. ;.

Fpjr`tafes bjejr`taeb lft fi skr`ps. Irjqujet kfgplàets irfg wfrcjrs rjb`rdaeb tmj ofh.

K. M ugè Kfesadj Kfesadjrr `tafes Gjtmfd study gjès ` kmèbj `s at as bfaeb tf ìijkt tmj w`y ae wmakm tmj ofh as dfej prjsjetly èd as eft iully `kkjptjd hy wfrcgè èd tmj ueafe. Mugè kfesadjr`tafes pl`y ` vat`l rflj ae gjt mfd study. Tmjsj `rj sfgj fi tmj satu`tafes wmjrj mugè `spjkt smfuld hj bavje duj agpfrtèkj? >. 0. 8.

Rfrcjrs kfgplàeaeb `hfut ueejkjss`ry èd taraeb wfrc. Gfrj irjqujeky fi `kkadjets. Aekfesastjet j`reaeb.

Xjkfrdaeb Tjkmeaqujs ifr Gjtmfd [tudy Tmj ejxt stjp ae h`sak prfkjdurj, ìtjr sjljktaeb tmj wfrc tf hj studajd as tf rjkfrd `ll i`kts rjl` taeb tf tmj jxastaeb gjtmfd. Ae frdjr tm`t tmj `ktavatajs sjljktjd ifr aevjstab`tafe g`y hj vasu`lazjd ae tmjar jetarjty èd ae frdjr tf agprfvj tmjg tmrfubm suhsjqujet kratak`l jx`gae`tafe, at a s jssjeta`l tf m`vj sfgj gjès fi pl`kaeb fe rjkfrd `ll tmj ejkjss`ry i`kts `hfut tmj jxastaeb gjtmfd. Xjkfrds `rj vjry gukm usjiul tf g`cj hjifrj èd ìtjr kfgp`rasfe tf `ssjss tmj jiijktavjejss fi tmj prfpfsjd agprfvjd gjtmfd.

Tmj rjkfrdaeb tjkmeaqujs `rj djsabejd tf sagplaiy èd stèd`rdazj tmj rjkfrdaeb wfrc. Ifr tmas purpfsj km`rts èd da`br`gs `rj usjd. Xjkfrdaeb tjkmeaqujs ifr gjtmfd study Km`rts usjd ae gjtmfds study

Tmas as tmj gfst pfpul`r gjtmfd fi rjkfrdaeb tmj i`kts. Tmj `ktavatajs kfgprasaeb tmj ofhs `rj rjkfrdjd usaeb gjtmfd study syghfls. @ brj`t k`rj as tf hj t`cje ae prjp`raeb tmj km`rts sf tm`t tmj aeifrg`tafe at smfws as j`saly uedjrstffd èd rjkfbeazjd. Tmj ifll fwaeb aeifrg`tafe smfuld hj bavje ae tmj km`rt. Tmjsj km`rts `rj usjd tf gj`surj tmj gfvjgjet fi fpjr`tfr fr wfrc ( a.j., a.j., ae gftafe study). `. h. k. d. j.

@djqu`tj djskraptafe fi tmj `ktavatajs. Rmjtmjr tmj km`rtaeb as ifr prjsjet fr prfpfsjd gjtmfd. [pjkaiak rjijrjekj tf wmje tmj `ktavatajs wall hjbae èd jed. Tagj èd dastèkj sk`ljs usjd wmjrjvjr ejkjss`ry. Tmj d`tj fi km`rtaeb èd tmj e`gj fi tmj pjrsfe wmf dfjs km`rtaeb.

Typjs fi Km`rts

At kè hj hrf`dly davadjd aetf (@) G`krf gftafe km`rts èd ( H) Gakrf gftafe km`rts. G`krf gftafe km`rts `rj usjd ifr g`krf gftafe study èd gakrf gftafe km`rts `rj usjd ifr gakrf gftafe study. G`krf gftafe study as fej wmakm kè hj gj`surjd tmrfubm ”stfp w`tkm‑ èd gakrf gftafe study as fej wmakm kèeft hj gj`surjd tmrfubm stfp w`tkm. 9 ; j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj G`krf gftafe km`rts

Ifllfwaeb ifur km`rts `rj usjd uedjr tmas typj? 0. Fpjr Fpjr `tafe ^rfkjs ^rfkjss Km`rt At as `lsf k`lljd futlaej prfkjss km`rt. @e fpjr`tafe prfkjss km`rt bavjs tmj hard‑s jyj vajw fi tmj wmflj prfkjss hy rjkfrdaeb fely tmj gòfr `ktavatajs èd aespjktafes aevflvjd aevflvjd ae tmj prfkjss. Fpjr`tafe prfkjss km`rt usjs fely twf syghfls, a.j., a.j., fpjr`tafe èd aespjktafe. Fpjr`tafe, prfkjss km`rt km`rt as mjlpiul tf? `. Yasu`lazj tmj kfgpljtj sjqujekj fi tmj fpjr`tafes èd aespjktafes ae tmj prfkjss. h. Cefw wmjrj tmj fpjr`tafe sjljktjd ifr djtàljd study iats aetf tmj jetarj prfkjss. k. Ae fpjr`tafe prfkjss km`rt, tmj br`pmak rjprjsjet`tafe fi tmj pfaets `t wmakm g`tjra`ls `rj aetrfdukjd aetf tmj prfkjss èd wm`t fpjr`tafes èd aespjktafes `rj k`rrajd fe tmjg `rj smfwe. 8. I lfw ^r fkjs fkjss Km`r t Ilfw prfkjss km`rt bavjs tmj sjqujekj fi ilfw fi wfrc fi ` prfdukt fr èy p`rt fi at tmrfubm tmj wfrc kjetrj fr tmj djp`rtgjet rjkfrdaeb tmj jvjets usaeb `pprfpra`tj syghfls. At as tmj `gplaiak`tafe fi tmj fpjr`tafe prfkjss km`rt ae wmakm fpjr`tafes3 aespjkta fe, stfr`bj, djl`y èd trèspfrt`tafe `rj rjprjsjetjd. Mfwjvjr, prfkjss km`rts `rj fi tmrjj typjs? `. G`tjra`l typj — wmakm wmakm smfws tmj jvjets tm`t fkkur tf tmj g`tjra`ls. h. Gè typj — @ktavatajs @ktavatajs pjrifrgjd hy tmj gè. k. Jquapgjet typj — mfw mfw jquapgjet as usjd. Tmj ilfw prfkjss km`rt as usjiul? d. j. i. b. m.

tf rjdukj tmj dastèkj tr`vjlljd hy gje (fr g`tjra`ls). tf `vfad wàtaeb tagj èd ueejkjss`ry djl`ys. tf rjdukj tmj kyklj tagj hy kfghaeaeb fr jlagae`taeb fpjr`tafes. tf iax up tmj sjqujekj fi fpjr`tafes. tf rjlfk`tj tmj aespjktafe st`bjs. Lacj fpjr`tafe prfkjss km`rt, ilfw prfkjss km`rt as kfestruktjd hy pl`kaeb syghfls fej hjlfw èftmjr `s pjr tmj fkkurrjekj fi tmj `ktavatajs ` ktavatajs èd `rj ofaejd hy ` vjrtak`l vjrt ak`l laej. @ hraji djskraptafe fi tmj `ktavaty as wrattje fe tmj rabmt mèd mèd sadj fi tmj `ktavaty syghfl èd tagj fr dastèkj as bavje fe tmj ljit mèd sadj.

;. Twf M èdjd èdjd ^r fkjs fkjss Km`rt @ twf mèdjd (fpjr`tfr prfkjss km`rt) as tmj gfst djtàljd typj fi ilfw km`rt ae wmakm tmj `ktavatajs fi tmj wfrcjrs mèds `rj rjkfrdjd ae rjl`tafe tf fej èftmjr. Tmj twf mèdjd prfkjss km`rt as efrg`lly kfeiaejd tf wfrc k`rrajd fut `t ` saeblj wfrcpl`kj. Tmas `lsf bavjs syekmrfeazjd èd br`pmak`l rjprjsjet`tafe fi tmj sjqujekj fi gèu`l `ktavatajs fi tmj wfrcjr. Tmj `pplak`tafe fi tmas km`rts `rj? 

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Tf vasu`lazj tmj kfgpljtj sjqujekj fi `ktavatajs ae ` rjpjtatavj t`sc. Tf study tmj wfrc st`tafe l`yfut. b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 4. G ulta plj @ktavaty @ktavaty Km`rt Km`rt At as ` km`rt wmjrj wmjr j `ktavatajs fi gfrj tmè suhojkt s uhojkt (wfrcjr fr jquapgjet) `rj j`km rjkfrdjd r jkfrdjd fe ` kfggfe tagj sk`lj tf smfw tmjar aetjr-rjl`tafesmap. Gultaplj `ktavaty km`rt as g`dj? 

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tf study adlj tagj fi tmj gè èd g`kmaejs, tf djtjrgaej eughjr fi g`kmaejs mèdljd hy fej fpjr`tfr, èd tf djtjrgaej eughjr fi fpjr`tfrs rjquarjd ae tj`gwfrc tf pjrifrg tmj bavje ofh.

Da`br`gs Zsjd ae Gjtmfd [tudy

Tmj ilfw prfkjss km`rt smfws tmj sjqujekj èd e`t urj fi gfvjgjet hut at dfjs eft klj`rly klj`rl y smfw tmj p`tm fi gfvjgjets. Ae tmj p`tms fi gfvjgjets, tmjrj `rj fitje uedjsar`hlj ij`turjs sukm `s kfebjstafe, h`kc tr`kcaeb èd ueejkjss`ry lfeb gfvjgjets. Tf rjkfrd tmjsj ueejkjss`ry ij`turjs, rjprjsjet`tafe fi tmj wfrcaeb `rj` ae tmj ifrg fi ilfw da`br`gs, straeb da`br`gs kè h j g`dj? 0. Tf study tmj daiijrjet l`yfut plès èd tmjrjhy3 sjljkt tmj gfst fptag`l l`yfut. 8. Tf study trìiak èd irjqujeky fvjr daiijrjet rfutjs fi tmj plèt. ;. Adjetaiak`tafe fi h`kc tr`kcaeb èd fhst`kljs duraeb gfvjgjets. Da`br`gs `rj fi twf typjs? 0. Ilfw da`br`g èd 8. [traeb da`br`g. 0. I lfw da`br`g da`br`g Ilfw da`br`g as ` dr`waeb, fi tmj wfrcaeb `rj`, smfwaeb tmj lfk`tafe fi tmj v`rafus `ktavatajs adjetaiajd hy tmjar eughjrjd syghfls èd `rj `ssfka`tjd watm p`rtakul`r ilfw prfkjss km`rt jatmjr gè typj fr g`kmaej typj.Tmj rfutjs ifllfwjd ae trèspfrt `rj smfwe hy ofaeaeb tmj syghfls ae sjqujekj hy ` laej wmakm rjprjsjets `s ej`rly `s pfssahlj tmj p`tm fr gfvjgjet fi tmj tm j suhojkt kfekjrejd. Ifllfwaeb `rj tmj prfkjdurjs tf g`cj tmj ilfw da`br`g? 0. Tmj l`yfut fi tmj wfrcpl`kj as dr`we tf sk`lj. 8. Xjl`tavj pfsatafes fi tmj g`kmaej tffls, wfrc hjekmjs, stfr`bj, èd aespjktafe hjekmjs `rj g`rcjd fe tmj sk`lj. ;. ^`tm ifllfwjd hy tmj suhojkt uedjr study as tr`kcjd hy dr`waeb laejs. 4. J`km gfvjgjet as sjra`lly eughjrjd èd aedak`tjd hy `rrfw ifr darjktafe. :. Daiijrjet kflfrs `rj usjd tf djeftj daiijrjet daiijr jet typjs fi gfvjgjets. 8. [tra eb da`br`g Tmj straeb da`br`g as ` sk`lj l`yfut dr`waeb fe wmakm, ljebtm fi ` straeb as usjd tf rjkfrd tmj jxtjet `s wjll `s tmj p`ttjre fi gfvjgjet fi ` wfrcjr wfrcaeb watmae ` lagatjd `rj` duraeb ` kjrtàe pjrafd fi tagj. Tmj prag`ry iuektafe fi ` straeb da`br`g as tf prfdukj ` rjkfrd fi ` jxastaeb sjt fi kfedatafes sf s f tm`t tmj ofh fi sjjaeb wm`t as `ktu`lly t`caeb pl`kj as g`dj `s sagplj `s pfssahlj. Fej fi tmj gfst v`lu`hlj ij`turjs fi tmj straeb da`br`g as tmj `ktu`l dastèkj tr`vjlljd duraeb tmj pjrafd fi study tf hj k`lkul`tjd hy rjl`taeb tmj ljebtm fi tmj tmrj`d usjd tf tmj sk`lj fi dr`waeb. Tmus, at mjlps


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj tf g`cj ` vjry jiijktavj kfgp`rasfe hjtwjje daiijrjet l`yfuts fr gjtmfds fi dfaeb ofh ae tjrgs fi tmj tr`vjllaeb aevflvjd. Tmj gàe `dvèt`bjs fi straeb da`br`g kfgp`rjd tf ilfw da`br`g as tm`t rjspjktavj gfvjgjets hjtwjje wfrc st`tafes wmakm `rj daiiakult tf hj tr`kjd fe tmj ilfw da`br`g kè hj kfevjeajetly smfwe fe straeb da`br`g. Ifllfwaeb `rj tmj prfkjdurjs tf dr`w straeb da`br`g? 0. @ l`yfut fi tmj wfrc pl`kj fi i`ktfry as dr`we tf sk`lj fe tmj sfit hf`rd. 8. âes `rj iaxjd aetf hf`rds tf g`rc tmj lfk`tafes fi wfrc st`tafes, paes `rj `lsf dravje `t tmj tureaeb pfaets fi tmj rfutjs. ;. @ gj`surjd ljebtm fi tmj tmrj`d as t`cje tf tr`kj tmj gfvjgjets (p`tm). 4. Tmj dastèkj kfvjrjd hy tmj fhojkt as fhtàejd hy gj`suraeb tmj rjgàeaeb p`rt fi tmj tmrj`d èd suhtr`ktaeb at irfg frabae`l ljebtm. [yghfls Zsjd ae Gjtmfd [tudy

Br`pmak`l gjtmfd fi rjkfrdaeb w`s frabae`tjd hy Balhjrtm, ae frdjr tf g`cj tmj prjsjet`tafe fi tmj i`kts klj`rly watmfut èy `ghabuaty èd tf je`hlj tf br`sp tmjg quakcly èd klj`rly. At as usjiul us jiul tf usj syghfls aestj`d fi wrattje djskraptafe. GJTMFD [TZDQ [QGHFL[

Fpjr`tafe @e fpjr`tafe fkkurs wmje è fhojkt as aetjetafe`lly kmèbjd ae fej fr gfrj fi ats km`r`ktjrastaks (pmysak`l fr kmjgak`l). Tmas aedak`tjs tmj gàe stjps ae ` prfkjss, gjtmfd fr prfkjdurj. @e fpjr`tafe `lw`ys t`cjs tmj fhojkt fej st`bj `mj`d tfw`rds kfgpljtafe. Jx`gpljs fi fpjr`tafe `rj? 

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Tureaeb, drallaeb, gallaeb, jtk. @ kmjgak`l rj`ktafe. Rjldaeb, hr`zaeb èd ravjtaeb. Laitaeb, lf`daeb, uelf`daeb. Bjttaeb aestruktafes irfg supjrvasfr.

Aespjktafe @e aespjktafe fkkurs wmje è fhojkt as jx`gaejd èd kfgp`rjd watm stèd`rd ifr qu`laty èd quètaty. Tmj aespjktafe jx`gpljs `rj? 

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Yasu`l fhsjrv`tafes ifr iaeasm. Kfuet fi quètaty fi aekfgaeb g`tjra`l. ^

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Kmjkcaeb tmj dagjesafes.

Trèspfrt`tafe @ trèspfrt aedak`tjs tmj gfvjgjet fi wfrcjrs, g`tjra`ls fr jquapgjet irfg fej pl`kj tf èftmjr.

Gfvjgjet fi g`tjra`ls irfg fej wfrc st`tafe tf èftmjr. Jx`gplj? Gfvjgjet Rfrcjrs tr`vjllaeb tf hraeb tffls. Djl`y D? Djl`y (Tjgpfr`ry [tfr`bj) [tfr`bj)

@ djl`y fkkurs wmje tmj aggjda`tj pjrifrgèkj fi tmj ejxt plèejd tmaeb dfjs eft t`cj pl`kj. Jx`gplj? 

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Rfrc wàtaeb hjtwjje kfesjkutavj fpjr`tafes. Rfrcjrs wàtaeb `t tffl krahs. Fpjr`tfrs wàtaeb ifr aestruktafes irfg supjrvasfr.

[tfr`bj [tfr`bj fkkurs wmje tmj fhojkt as cjpt ae è ùtmfrazjd kustfdy èd as prftjktjd `bàest ueùtmfrazjd rjgfv`l. Ifr jx`gplj, g`tjra`ls cjpt ae stfrjs tf hj dastrahutjd tf v`rafus wfrc. A ll ustr`tafe ustr`tafe 0. Djvjlfp ` ^rfkjss Km`rt ifr g`caeb ` kmjjsj sèdwakm.

[flutafe. Tmj ifllfwaeb km`rt as fej pfssahlj sflutafe. Tmj ljvjl fi djtàl ae prfkjss km`rts djpjeds upfe tmj rjquarjgjets fi tmj ofh. Tagj as fitje aekludjd tf àd è`lysas fi v`luj `ddjd. ^rfkjss Km`rt Dastèkj ae [yghfl ^rfkjss djskraptafe gjtjr

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Allustr`tafe 8. Djvjlfp ` Gultaplj @ktavaty Km`rt ifr dfaeb tmrjj lf`ds fi lùedry, `ssugj yfu wall m`vj `kkjss tf fej w`smaeb g`kmaej èd fej dryjr. [flutafe? Tmj ifllfwaeb km`rt as fej pfssahlj sflutafe. Tmj ljvjl fi djtàl ae prfkjss km`rts djpjeds upfe tmj rjquarjgjets fi tmj ofh. Tagj as fitje aekludjd tf àd è`lysas fi v`luj `ddjd.

Gakrf-gftafe study km`rt Gakrf-gftafe study prfvadjs ` tjkmeaquj ifr rjkfrdaeb èd tagaeb è `ktavaty. At as ` sjt fi tjkmeaqujs aetjedjd tf davadj tmj mugè `ktavatajs ae ` brfups fi gfvjgjets fr gakrf-gftafes (k`lljd Tmjrhlabs) èd tmj study fi sukm gfvjgjets mjlps tf iaed ifr è fpjr`tfr fej hjst p`ttjre fi gfvjgjets tm`t kfesugjs ljss tagj èd rjquarjs ljss jiifrt tf `kkfgplasm tmj t`sc. Tmjrhlabs wjrj subbjstjd hy Irèc F. Balhrjtm, tmj ifuedjr fi gftafe study. Gakrf-gftafe study w`s gàely jgplfyjd ifr tmj ofh è`lysas. Ats ftmjr `pplak`tafes aekludj?

0. @s è àd ae studyaeb tmj `ktavatajs fi twf fr gfrj pjrsfes fe ` brfup wfrc6 8. @s è àd ae studyaeb tmj rjl`tafesmap fi tmj `ktavatajs fi tmj fpjr`tfr èd tmj g`kmaej `s ` gjès fi tagaeb fpjr`tafes. ;. @s è àd ae fhtàeaeb gftafe tagj d`t` ifr tagj stèd`rds. 4. @kts `s pjrgèjet rjkfrd fi tmj gjtmfd èd tagj fi `ktavatajs fi tmj fpjr`tfr èd tmj g`kmaej. [AGF km`rt syghfls

Tmj gakrf-gftafe brfup fi tjkmeaqujs as h`sjd fe tmj adj` fi davadaeb mugè `ktavatajs aetf davasafe fi gfvjgjets fr brfups fi gfvjgjets (Tmjrhlabs) `kkfrdaeb tf purpfsj ifr wmakm tmjy `rj g`dj. Balhrjtm daiijrjeta`tjd 02 iued`gjet`l mèd fr mèd èd jyj gftafes. J`km Tmjrhlabs m`s ` spjkaiak kflfr, syghfl s yghfl èd ljttjr ifr rjkfrdaeb purpfsjs. Tmj Tmjrhlabs `rj gakrf -gftafe study aevflvjs tmj ifllfwaeb stjps? 0. Ialgaeb tmj fpjr`tafe tf hj studajd. 8. @e`lysas fi tmj d`t` irfg tmj ialg. j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Tmj rjkfrdaeb fi tmj d`t` tmrfubm [AGF km`rt as dfej `s gakrf gftafe km`rt.

[AGF Km`rt

[agultèjfus gftafe kyklj km`rt ([AGF km`rt) as ` rjkfrdaeb tjkmeaquj ifr gakrf-gftafe study. @ [AGF km`rt as ` km`rt h`sjd fe tmj ialg è`lysas, usjd tf rjkfrd sagultèjfusly fe ` kfggfe tagj sk`lj tmj Tmjrhlabs fr ` brfup fi Tmjrhlabs pjrifrgjd hy daiijrjet p`rts fi tmj hfdy fi fej fr gfrj fpjr`tfrs. At as tmj gakrf-gftafe ifrg fi tmj gè typj ilfw prfkjss km`rt. Tf prjp`rj [AGF km`rt, è jl`hfr`tj prfkjdurj èd usj fi jxpjesavj jquapgjet `rj rjquarjd èd tmas study as oustaiajd wmje tmj s`vaeb rjsultaeb irfg study wall hj vjry mabm. ^XAEKA^LJ[ FI GFTAFE JKFEFGQ

Tmj praekapljs fi gftafe jkfefgy ifrg ` sjt fi ruljs èd subbjstafes tf agprfvj tmj gèu`l wfrc ae gèui`kturaeb èd rjdukj i`tabuj èd ueejkjss`ry gfvjgjets hy tmj wfrcjr, wmakm kè lj`d tf tmj rjduktafe ae tmj wfrc rjl`tjd trùg`. rjl`tjd trùg`. Tmj praekapljs fi gftafe jkfefgy kè hj kl`ssaiajd aetf ifur brfups? 0. ^raekapljs rjl`tjd tf tmj usj fi mugè hfdy, hfdy ,

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 8. ^raekapljs rjl`tjd tf tmj `rrèbjgjet fi tmj wfrc pl`kj, pl`kj, ;. ^raekapljs rjl`tjd tf tmj djsabe fi tffls èd jquapgjet . jquapgjet . 4. ^raekapljs rjl`tjd tf tagj kfesjrv`tafe. kfesjrv`tafe. Zsj fi Mugè Hfdy 

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Tmj twf mèds smfuld hjbae gftafes `t tmj s`gj tagj. Tmj twf mèds smfuld eft hj adlj `t tmj s`gj tagj jxkjpt duraeb rjst pjrafds. Gftafes fi tmj `rgs smfuld hj g`dj ae fppfsatj èd syggjtrak`l darjktafes èd smfuld hj g`dj sagultèjfusly Mèd gftafes smfuld hj kfeiaejd tf tmj lfwjst kl`ssaiak`tafe watm wmakm at as pfssahlj tf pjrifrg tmj wfrc s`tasi`ktfraly? 0. 8. ;. 4. :.

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Iaebjr gftafes Rrast gftafes Ifrj`rg gftafes Zppjr `rg gftafes [mfuldjr gftafes

Gfgjetug smfuld hj jgplfyjd tf `ssast tmj wfrcjr wmjejvjr pfssahlj, èd at smfuld hj rjdukjd tf ` gaeagug ai at gust hj fvjrkfgj hy guskul`r jiifrt. [gfftm kfetaeufus gftafes fi tmj mèds `rj prjijr`hlj tf zabz`b gftafes fr stràbmt-laej gftafes aevflvaeb suddje èd sm`rp kmèbjs ae darjktafe. H`llastak (a.j. irjj swaebaeb) gfvjgjets `rj i`stjr, j`sajr èd gfrj `kkur`tj tmè rjstraktjd fr kfetrflljd gfvjgjets.

@rrèbjgjet fi tmj Rfrc ^l`kj 

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Tmjrj smfuld hj ` djiaeatj èd iaxjd pl`kj ifr `ll tffls èd g`tjra`ls. Tffls, g`tjra`ls, èd kfetrfls smfuld hj lfk`tjd klfsj ae èd darjktly ae irfet fi tmj fpjr`tfr. Drfp djlavjrs smfuld hj usjd wmjejvjr pfssahlj. G`tjra`ls èd tffls smfuld hj lfk`tjd tf pjrgat tmj hjst sjqujekj fi gftafes. @rrèbj tmj mjabmt fi tmj wfrcpl`kj èd kmàr ifr `ltjre`tj sattaeb èd stèdaeb, wmje pfssahlj. ^rfvadj ` kmàr fi tmj typj èd mjabmt tf pjrgat bffd pfsturj.

Djsabe fi Tffls èd Jquapgjet 

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Kfghaej tffls wmjejvjr pfssahlj. ^rjpfsatafe tffls èd g`tjra`ls. Rmjrj j`km iaebjr pjrifrgs sfgj spjkaiak gfvjgjet, tmj lf`d s mfuld hj dastrahutjd ae `kkfrdèkj watm tmj aemjrjet k`p`katajs fi tmj iaebjrs. Ifr labmt `ssjghly, ` skrjwdravjr mèdlj smfuld hj sg`lljr `t tmj hfttfg. Gfgjetug smfuld hj usjd tf mjlp tmj wfrcjr ae dfaeb tmjar t`sc eft tf aekrj`sj t mjar t`sc. ;

Tagj Kfesjrv`tafe j

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Jvje ` tjgpfr`ry ` tjgpfr`ry djl`y fi wfrc hy ` gè fr g`kmaej smfuld eft hj jekfur`bjd.


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G`kmaej smfuld eft rue adlj, at as eft djsar`hlj tm`t ` l` tmj g`kmaej as rueeaeb èd ats ofh as rft`taeb hut ef kut as hjaeb t`cje. Twf fr gfrj ofhs smfuld hj wfrcjd upfe `t tmj s`gj tagj fr twf fr gfrj fpjr`tafes smfuld hj k`rrajd fut fe ` ofh sagultèjfusly ai pfssahlj. Eughjr fi gftafe aevflvjd ae kfgpljtaeb ` ofh smfuld hj gaeagazjd. @LLFR@EKJ[ @ED [T@ED@XD TAGJ

Tmj rj`daebs fi èy tagj study `rj t`cje fvjr ` rjl`tavjly smfrt pjrafd fi tagj. Tmj efrg`l tagj `rravjd `t, tmjrjifrj, dfjs eft aekludj ue`vfad`hlj djl`y èd ftmjr ljbatag`tj lfst tagj, ifr jx`gplj, ae wàtaeb ifr g`tjra`ls, tffls fr jquapgjet3 pjrafdak aespjktafe fi p`rts3 aetjrruptafes duj tf ljbatag`tj pjrsfe`l ejjds, jtk. At as ejkjss`ry èd agpfrtèt tm`t tmj tagj study pjrsfe `pplajs sfgj `doustgjet, fr `llfwèkjs, tf kfgpjes`tj ifr sukm lfssjs sf tm`t iàr tagj stèd`rd as jst`hlasmjd ifr tmj bavje ofh. @llfwèkjs `rj bjejr`lly `pplajd tf tft`l kyklj tagj `s sfgj pjrkjet`bj fi at, hut sfgjtagjs tmjsj `rj bavje sjp`r`tjly ifr g`kmaej tagj `s sfgj % èd ifr gèu`l jiifrt tagj sfgj ftmjr %. Mfwjvjr, ef `llfwèkjs `rj bavje ifr aetjrruptafes wmakm g`y hj duj tf i`ktfrs wmakm `rj watmae tmj fpjr`tfr's kfetr fl fr wmakm `rj `vfad`hlj. Gfst kfgpèajs `llfw tmj ifllfwaeb `llfwèkjs tf tmjar jgplfyjjs. • • • • •

Kfestèt `llfwèkjs (ifr pjrsfe`l ejjds èd h`sak i`tabuj) Djl`y @llfwèkj @llfwèkj (ifr ue`vfad`hlj djl`ys) I`tabuj @llfwèkj @llfwèkj (ifr ofh djpjedjet i`tabuj) ^jrsfe`l @llfwèkj [pjka`l @llfwèkj

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Djl`y @llfwèkj

Tmas tagj `llfwèkj as bavje tf fpjr`tfr ifr tmj eugjrfus ue`vfad`hlj djl`ys èd aetjrruptafes tm`t mj jxpjrajekjs jvjry d`y duraeb tmj kfursj fi mas wfrc. Tmjsj aetjrruptafes aekludj aetjrruptafes irfg tmj supjrvasfr, aespjktfr, plèejrs, jxpjdatjrs, ijllfw wfrcjrs, prfduktafe pjrsfeejl èd ftmjrs. Tmas `llfwèkj `lsf kfvjrs aetjrruptafes duj tf g`tjra`l arrjbul`ratajs, daiiakulty ae gàetàeaeb spjkaiak`tafes èd tfljrèkjs, èd aetjrijrjekj djl`ys wmjrj tmj fpjr`tfr m`s tf `ttjed tf gfrj tmè fej g`kmaej. I`tabuj @llfwèkj

Tmas `llfwèkj kè hj davadjd aetf twf p`rts? (a) h`sak i`tabuj `llfwèkj èd (aa) v`ra`hlj i`tabuj `llfwèkj. Tmj h`sak i`tabuj `llfwèkj as bavje tf tmj fpjr`tfr tf kfgpjes`tj ifr tmj jejrby jxpjedjd ifr k`rryaeb fut tmj wfrc èd tf t f `lljva`tj gfeftfey. Ifr è fpjr`tfr wmf as dfaeb labmt wfrc wmalj sj`tjd, uedjr bffd wfrcaeb kfedatafes èd uedjr efrg`l djgèds fe tmj sjesfry fr gftfr systjg, ` 4% fi efrg`l tagj as kfesadjrjd `djqu`tj. Tmas kè hj t rj`tjd `s ` kfestèt `llfwèkj. Tmj g`beatudj fi v`ra`hlj i`tabuj `llfwèkj bavje tf tmj fpjr`tfr djpjeds upfe tmj sjvjraty fi kfedatafes, wmakm kùsj jxtr` (gfrj tmè efrg`l) i`tabuj tf mag. @s wj cefw, i`tabuj as eft mfgfbjejfus. At rèbjs irfg straktly pmysak`l tf purjly psykmflfbak`l èd aekludjs kfghae`tafes fi tmj twf. Fe sfgj pjfplj at m`s ` g`rcjd jiijkt jii jkt wmalj fe ftmjrs, at m`s `pp`rjetly lattlj la ttlj fr ef jiijkt. Rm`tjvjr g`y hj tmj caed fi i`tabuj-pmysak`l fr gjet`l, tmj rjsult as s`gj-at rjdukjs tmj wfrc futput fi fpjr`tfr. Tmj gòfr i`ktfrs tm`t kùsj gfrj tmè oust tmj h`sak i`tabuj aekludjs sjvjrj wfrcaeb kfedatafes, jspjka`lly watm rjspjkt tf efasj, allugae`tafe, mj`t èd mugadaty3 tmj e`turj fi wfrc, jspjka`lly watm rjspjkt tf pfsturj, guskul`r jxjrtafe èd tjdafusejss, èd lacj tm`t. At as truj tm`t ae gfdjre aedustry, mj`vy gèu`l wfrc, èd tmus guskul`r i`tabuj as rjdukaeb d`y hy d`y hut gjkmèaz`tafe as prfgftaeb ftmjr i`tabuj kfgpfejets lacj gfeftfey èd gjet`l strjss. Hjkùsj i`tabuj ae tft`laty kèeft hj jlagae`tjd, prfpjr `llfwèkj m`s tf hj bavje ifr `dvjrsj wfrcaeb kfedatafes èd rjpjtatavjejss fi tmj wfrc. ^jrsfe`l @llfwèkj

Tmas as `llfwjd tf kfgpjes`tj ifr tmj tagj spjet hy wfrcjr ae gjjtaeb tmj pmysak`l ejjds, ifr aestèkj ` pjrafdak hrj`c ae tmj prfduktafe rfutaej. Tmj `gfuet fi pjrsfe`l tagj rjquarjd hy fpjr`tfr v`rajs watm tmj aedavadu`l gfrj tmè watm tmj caed fi wfrc, tmfubm at as sjje tm`t wfrcjrs ejjd gfrj pjrsfe`l tagj wmje tmj wfrc as mj`vy mj`v y èd dfej uedjr uei`vfr`hlj kfedatafes. Tmj `gfuet fi tmas `llfwèkj kè hj djtjrgaejd djtjr gaejd hy g`caeb `ll-d`y tagj study fr wfrc s`gplaeb. Gfstly, ` : % `llfwèkj ifr pjrsfe`l tagj (ej`rly 84 gaeutjs ae = mfurs) as kfesadjrjd `pprfpra`tj. [pjka`l @llfwèkjs

Tmjsj `llfwèkjs `rj bavje uedjr kjrtàe spjka`l karkugstèkjs. [fgj fi tmjsj `llfwèkjs èd tmj kfedatafes uedjr wmakm tmjy `rj bavje `rj? ^flaky @llfwèkj? [fgj kfgpèajs, `s ` pflaky, bavj è `llfwèkj tf prfvadj ` s`tasi`ktfry ljvjl fi j`reaebs ifr ` spjkaiajd ljvjl fi pjrifrgèkj uedjr jxkjptafe`l karkugstèkj. Tmas g`y hj `llfwjd tf


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj ejw jgplfyjjs, mèdak`p jgplfyjjs, wfrcjrs fe eabmt smait, jtk. Tmj v`luj fi tmj `llfwèkj as typak`lly djkadjd hy gè`bjgjet. [g`ll Lft @llfwèkj? Tmas `llfwèkj as bavje wmje tmj `ktu`l prfduktafe pjrafd as tff smfrt tf `ll fw tmj wfrcjr tf kfgj fut fi tmj aeata`l lj`reaeb pjrafd. Rmje è fpjr`tfr kfgpljtjs sjvjr`l sg`ll-lft ofhs fe daiijrjet sjtups duraeb tmj d`y, è `llfwèkj `s mabm `s 0: pjrkjet g`y hj bavje tf `llfw tmj fpjr`tfr tf g`cj efrg`l j`reaebs. Tràeaeb @llfwèkj? Tmas `llfwèkj as prfvadjd wmje wfrc as dfej hy tràejj tf `llfw mag tf g`cj rj`sfe`hlj j`reaebs. At g`y hj ` sladaeb `llfwèkj, wmakm prfbrjssavjly djkrj`sjs tf zjrf fvjr kjrtàe ljebtm fi tagj. Ai tmj jiijkt jiij kt fi lj`reaeb fe tmj ofh as cefwe, tmj r`tj fi djkrj`sj fi tmj tràeaeb tràeae b `llfwèkj kè hj sjt `kkfrdaebly. Xjwfrc @llfwèkj? Tmas `llfwèkj as prfvadjd fe kjrtàe fpjr`tafe wmje at as cefwe tm`t sfgj pjrkjet fi p`rts g`dj `rj spfaljd duj tf i`ktfrs hjyfed tmj fpjr`tfr's kfetrfl. Tmj tagj ae wmakm tmjsj spfaljd p`rts g`y hj rjwfrcjd as kfevjrtjd aetf `llfwèkj. Daiijrjet frbèaz`tafes m`vj djkadjd upfe tmj `gfuet fi `llfwèkjs tf hj bavje tf daiijrjet fpjr`tfrs hy t`caeb mjlp irfg tmj spjka`lasts / kfesultèts ae tmj iajld èd tmrfubm ejbfta`tafes hjtwjje tmj gè`bjgjet èd tmj tr`dj ueafes. ALF m`s bavje ats rjkfggjed`tafes `hfut tmj g`beatudj fi v`rafus `llfwèkjs, `s smfwe ae T`hlj. ae T`hlj. [T@ED@XD TAGJ [tèd`rd tagj as tmj tagj rjquarjd hy è `vjr`bj scalljd fpjr`tfr, wfrcaeb `t ` efrg`l p`kj, tf pjrifrg ` spjkaiajd t`sc usaeb ` prjskrahjd gjtmfd. At aekludjs `pprfpra`tj `llfwèkjs tf `llfw tmj pjrsfe tf rjkfvjr irfg i`tabuj irfg i`tabuj èd, wmjrj ejkjss`ry, è `ddatafe`l `llfwèkj tf kfvjr kfetaebjet jljgjets wmakm g`y fkkur hut m`vj eft hjje fhsjrvjd.

Tmj stèd`rd tagj kè hj djtjrgaejd usaeb tmj ifllfwaeb tjkmeaqujs? 0. 8. ;. 4.

Tagj study, ^rjdjtjrgaejd gftafe tagj systjg `c` ^GT[ fr ^T[, [tèd`rd d`t` systjg, Rfrc s`gplaeb.

Gjtmfd fi K`lkul`tafe?

Tmj [tèd`rd Tagj as tmj prfdukt fi tmrjj i`ktfrs? 0. Fhsjrvjd tagj? Tmj tagj gj`surjd tf kfgpljtj tmj t`sc. 8. ^jrifrgèkj r`taeb i`ktfr? Tmj p`kj tmj pjrsfe as w frcaeb `t. 1>% as wfrcaeb slfwjr tmè efrg`l, 00>% as wfrcaeb i`stjr tmè efrg`l, 0>>% as efrg`l. Tmas i`ktfr as k`lkul`tjd hy è jxpjrajekjd wfrcjr wmf as tràejd tf fhsjrvj èd djtjrgaej tmj r`tae b. ;. ^jrsfe`l, i`tabuj, èd djl`y (ÎD) `llfwèkj. 4

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Tmj stèd`rd tagj kè tmje hj k`lkul`tjd hy usaeb?


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Ai tmj tjkmeakaè's pjrifrgèkj m`s hjje r`tjd `t 08> pjrkjet, èd tmj kfgpèy pflaky ifr `llfwèkj (pjrsfe`l, i`tabuj, jtk.) stapul`tjs 0; pjrkjet, • Djtjrgaej tmj efrg`l efrg`l tagj. • Djtjrgaej tmj stèd`rd tagj. R`tkm rj`daebs i`llaeb :> % `hfvj èd 8: % hjlfw tmj `vjr`bj g`y hj kfesadjrjd `s `hefrg`l. @es?

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GFDZLJ ; OFH JY@LZ@TAFE

Ofh jv`lu`tafe as tmj prfkjss tf `ssjss tmj rjl`tavj v`luj fi ` ofh ae è frbèas`tafe hy kfgp`raeb at watm ftmjr ofhs watmae tmj frbèas`tafe èd watm ofh g`rcjt futsadj. At `ttjgpts tf g`cj ` gjtmfdak`l kfgp`rasfe hjtwjje ofhs tf `ssjss tmjar rjl`tavj wfrtm ifr tmj purpfsj fi jst`hlasmaeb ` r`tafe`l p`y strukturj. Ofh jv`lu`tafe as daiijrjet irfg ofh è`lysas. Ofh è`lysas as ` systjg`tak w`y tf `kkugul`tj aeifrg`tafe `hfut ` ofh. Jvjry ofh jv`lu`tafe gjtmfd rjquarjs sfgj h`sak ofh è`lysas ae frdjr tf prfvadj `kkur`tj aeifrg`tafe `hfut tmj ofhs kfekjrejd. Tmjrjifrj, ofh jv`lu`tafe hjbaes watm ofh è`lysas èd jeds `t tm`t pfaet wmjrj tmj v`luj fi ` ofh as djtjrgaejd ifr `kmajvaeb p`y jquaty hjtwjje ofhs. H`sa k`lly, Ofh jv`lu`tafe as tmj `pplak`tafe fi ` prfkjss tf adjetaiy, è`lysj èd gj`surj j`km ofh `bàest jst`hlasmjd kratjra` èd wjabm tmj rjl`tavj v`luj fi ofhs ae ` ueaifrg èd kfesastjet gèejr. At as eft usjd tf fhtàe ` s`l`ry aekrj`sj ifr tmj aekughjet. Gjtmfds fi Ofh Jv`lu`tafe

Tmjrj `rj gèy gjtmfds hy wmakm ofh jv`lu`tafe as dfej. 0. Xècaeb / Br`daeb Gjtmfd? Zedjr rècaeb gjtmfd, ofhs `rj frbèazjd ae djskjedaeb frdjr fi agpfrtèkj watm tmj mjlp fi ofh djskraptafe èd ofh spjkaiak`tafe. Tmj rècaeb r ècaeb fi ofh as dfej hy ` kfggattjj fi jxpjrts k`lljd r`tjrs. Tmj rècaeb as dfej `t djp`rtgjet`l ljvjl, ifr jvjry djp`rtgjet tmj ofh as rècjd ae frdjr fi agpfrtèkj. Tmj gàe hjejiats fi tmas gjtmfd `rj tm`t at as sagplj, j`saly uedjrstffd hy `ll kfekjrejd èd j`sy tf fpjr`tj, aejxpjesavj èd kè hj usjd kfevjeajetl y ae sg`ll jst`hlasmgjets. Tmj lagat`tafes aekludj tmj djbrjj fi daiijrjekjs ae tmj ofhs. [fgjtagjs at as h`sjd fe tmj r`tjr's bjejr`l cefwljdbj fi tmj ofhs. At as ae`pprfpra`tj ifr hab kfgpèy watm ` kfgpljx frbèas`tafe`l strukturj. 8. I`ktfr Kfgp`rasfe / Rjabmt-ae-Gfejy Rjabmt-ae-Gfejy Gjtmfd? Ae tmas typj fi prfkjdurj, tmj ofhs `rj rècjd ae tmj ifllfwaeb w`y? Kfggfe cjy jljgjets fi daiijrjet ofhs `rj sjljktjd. Tmjsj sjljktjd cjy jljgjets `rj wjabmtjd èd rècjd. @ gfejt`ry v`luj as `ssabejd tf j`km jlj gjet fi `ll ofhs. Tmje tmjsj gfejt`ry v`lujs fi aedavadu`l ofhs `rj wjabmtjd. Tmje tft`l v`luj fi j`km ofh as `vàl`hlj. Tmj gòfr hjejiats ai tmas gjtmfds `rj tm`t at as gfrj `kkur`tj èd systjg`tak `s kfgp`rjd tf sagplj rècaeb gjtmfd. Daiijrjet ofhs `lsf kè hj r`tjd fe tmj h`sas fi kfggfe i`ktfrs. Tmj dr`wh`kcs fi tmas gjtmfd kfgprasj tm`t at as kfgplak`tjd, eft j`saly jxplàe`hlj èd jxpjesavj. @pplak`tafe fi wjabmt`bj èd gfejt`ry v`lujs g`y aevflvj ha`s fi rècjrs. At as daiiakult tf aest`ll aest`l l mjekj eft usjd jxtjesavjly. ;. ^faet X`taeb Gjtmfd? Ae tmas gjtmfd, j`km ofh as `ppràsjd sjp`r`tjly, kfesadjraeb j`km fi tmj ofh i`ktfrs sukm `s scall, jiifrt, rjspfesahalaty èd wfrcaeb kfedatafes èd kfghaeaeb tmjg aetf ` saeblj pfaet skfrj ifr j`km ofh. Gàe `dvèt`bjs `rj tm`t at as è`lytak`l ae ats `pprf`km, at bavjs ` quètat`tavj v`luj ifr j`km ofh. H`sas èd buadjlaejs fi v`lu`tafe `r j stèd`rdazjd èd kfdaiajd ae ` usjr gèu`l. Das`dvèt`bjs aekludj, gèu`l usjd ifr r`taeb tmj ofhs ejjds pjrafdak`l rjvasafe èd upd`tj. At as daiiakult ifr `pplak`tafe èd ueaetjllabahlj ifr wfrcjrs. 1 4 j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj [ugg`ry fi ofh jv`lu`tafe gjtmfd

Ofh jv`lu`tafe prfkjss

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^rfkjss fi Ofh Jv`lu`tafe Tmj prfkjss fi ofh jv`lu`tafe aevflvjs ifllfwaeb stjps?

0. [jkuraeb `kkjptèkj irfg jgplfyjjs ìtjr jxplàeaeb tmj purpfsj èd usj fi ofh jv`lu`tafe prfbr`ggj. 8. Krj`taeb ofh jv`lu`tafe kfggattjj kfesastaeb fi jxpjrajekjd jgplfyjjs, ueafe rjprjsjet`tavjs èd MX jxpjrts. ;. Djkadaeb tmj ofh tf hj jv`lu`tjd, wmakm g`y rjprjsjet tmj typj fi wfrc pjrifrgjd ae tmj frbèas`tafe. 4. @e`lysaeb èd prjp`raeb ofh djskraptafe. :. [jljktaeb gjtmfd fi jv`lu`tafe, `kkfrdaeb tf tmj ofh i`ktfrs èd frbèas`tafe`l djg` ed. 9. Kl`ssaiyaeb tmj ofhs fe tmj h`sas fi wjabmt`bj èd gfejt`ry v`lujs. 2. Aest`llaeb tmj prfbr`ggj ae tmj wmflj frbèas`tafe ìtjr jxplàeaeb at tf jgplfyjjs. =. Kfeduktaeb pjrafdak`l rjvajw ae tmj labmt fi kmèbjs ae jevarfegjet irfg tagj tf tagj. Ofh jv`lu`tafe as `ssfka`tjd watm ` prfkjss fi jst`hlasmaeb wfrtm fi daiijrjet ofhs. Ofh jv`lu`tafe fiijrs ` h`sas ifr rècaeb fr br`daeb daiijrjet ofhs o fhs èd djvjlfpaeb ` p`y strukturj str ukturj ifr tmjg. At as tmj prfkjss fi jxplàeaeb tmj dutajs, ùtmfraty rjl`tafesmaps, scalls, kfedatafe fi wfrc èd ftmjr rjljvèt aeifrg`tafe rjl`tjd tf ofhs. At prfvadjs v`lu`hlj d`t` èd aeifrg`tafe tf djvjlfp ofh djskraptafe èd spjkaiak`tafe dfkugjets. Ofh jv`lu`tafe as ` sabeaiakèt t`sc fi mugè rjsfurkj gè`bjr wmakm as dfej ae frdjr tf djtjrgaej tmj v`luj fr wfrtm fi j`km ofh watmae tmj frbèaz`tafe. GJXAT X@TAEB

Gjrat X`taeb as `lsf cefwe `s pjrifrgèkj `ppràs`l fr pjrifrgèkj jv`lu`tafe. At as ` systjg`tak prfkjss ifr gj`suraeb tmj pjrifrgèkj fi tmj jgplfyjjs ae tjrgs fi ofh rjquarjgjets. At utalazjs v`rafus r`taeb tjkmeaqujs ifr kfgp`raeb aedavadu`l jgplfyjjs ae ` wfrc brfup ae tjrgs fi pjrsfe`l qu`latajs fr djiakajekajs djiakaj ekajs èd tmj rjquarjgjets fi tmjar t mjar rjspjktavj ofhs. At as è jst`hlasmjd js t`hlasmjd i`kt tm`t pjfplj daiijr ae tmjar `halatajs èd `ptatudjs. Tmjsj daiijrjekjs `rj e`tur`l tf ` brj`t jxtjet èd kèeft hj jlagae`tjd jvje hy prfvadaeb s`gj tràeaeb èd jduk`tafe jduk`tafe i`kalatajs tf tmjg. Tmjrj wall hj sfgj daiijrjekjs ae tmj qu`laty èd quètaty fi wfrc dfej hy daiijrjet wfrcjrs jvje fe tmj s`gj ofh. Tmjrjifrj at as jssjeta`l ifr tmj gè`bjgjet tf cefw tmjsj daiijrjeta`ls sf tm`t jgplfyjjs m`vaeb hjttjr `halatajs g`y hj rjw`rdjd èd tmj wrfeb sjljktafe èd pl`kjgjet g`yhj rjstraktjd fr `vfadjd. Gàe fhojktavjs fi gjrat r`taeb 0. Tf `ssjss tmj wfrc fi jgplfyjjs ae rjl`tafe tf tmjar ofh rjquarjgjets. 8. Tf kfesadjr jgplfyjjs/wfrcjrs ifr prfgftafes, trèsijr, l`yfiis jtk. ;. Tf `ssjss tmj bffd èd h`d pfaets ae wfrcaeb fi jgplfyjjs èd tmje g`caeb subbjstafes ifr agprfvjgjet. 4. Tf mjlp ae w`bj èd s`l`ry `dgaeastr`tafes èd t `caeb djkasafes `hfut aekjetavjs èd aekrjgjets tf hj bavje tf tmj wfrcjrs. j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj :. Tf jv`lu`tj scall èd tràeaeb k`p`halatajs fi jgplfyjjs èd mjlpaeb ae plèeaeb suat`hlj tràeaeb èd djvjlfpgjet prfbr`ggjs ifr wfrcjrs. 9. Tf cefw tmj prfhljgs i`kjd hy wfrcjrs wmalj dfaeb v`rafus ofhs. 2. Tf prfvadj ` h`sas ifr kfgp`rasfe tf sjbrjb`tj jiiakajet èd aejiiakajet wfrcjrs. =. Tf mjlp gè`bjgjet ae pl`kjgjet/trèsijr tf wfrcjrs `kkfrdaeb tf tmjar k`p`katy, aetjrjst, `ptatudj èd qu`laiak`tafes. 1. Tf mjlp supjrvasfrs tf cefw tmjar suhfrdae`tjs gfrj klfsjly ifr aekrj`saeb tmjar jiiakajeky èd agprfvaeb prfduktavaty. Gjtmfds fi gjrat-r`taeb 0. Xècaeb?

Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, ` gè as kfgp`rjd watm `ll ftmjrs watmfut kfesadjraeb èy spjkaiak i`ktfrs. @ rèc as prjp`rjd hy pl`kaeb tmj hjst `t tmj tfp èd tmj pffrjst ae pjrifrgèkj `t tmj hfttfg. Tmas gjtmfd as sagplj èd as suat`hlj ae k`sj fi sg`ll sk`lj kfekjres. Mfwjvjr, tmj gjtmfd as suhojkt tf ifllfwaeb lagat`tafes? (`) At as eft fely daiiakult hut r`tmjr sagply agpfssahlj tf kfgp`rj ` wmflj gè watm tmj wmflj gje. (h) Rmje ` rèc as prjp`rjd, at as eft pfssahlj tf cefw tmj daiijrjekj hjtwjje tmj twf pjrsfes lastjd ae tmj rèc frdjr. Tmj `hfvj lagat`tafes kè hj fvjrkfgj tf sfgj jxtjet jx tjet ai pàrjd kfgp`rasfe gjtmfd as ifllfwjd. Mjrj è jgplfyjj‑s pjrifrgèkj as kfgp`rjd watm jvjry ftmjr jgplfyjj aedavadu`lly r`tmjr tmè wmflj gje. Zedjr tmas gjtmfd tmj tft`l eughjr fi kfgp`rasfes wall hj `s ifllfws? e (e-l)/ 8 E rjijrs tf tmj eughjr fi pjrsfes tf hj kfgp`rjd. Tmj rèc prjp`rjd fe tmj t mj h`sas fi sukm kfgp`rasfes wall hj djiaeatjly hjttjr tmè tmj sagplj rèc. [uppfsj tmjrj `rj iaitjje jgplfyjjs, tmj supjrvasfr wall m`vj tf g`cj 0>: kfgp`rasfes a.j. 0:(0:-0)/8. Tmj gjtmfd as suat`hlj ai tmj eughjr fi jgplfyjjs as ljss. 8. Br`daeb? Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, tmj pjrifrgèkj fi tmj jgplfyjjs as jv`lu`tjd `bàest kjrtàe br`djs sukm `s pffr, bffd, vjry bffd, jxkjlljet fr futstèdaeb, s`tasi`ktfry fr ues`tasi`ktfry. Tmj br`dj wmakm djskrahjs mas pjrifrgèkj kè hj `llfk`tjd tf mag. ;. Br`pmak [k`ljs? Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, pjrifrgèkj fi è jgplfyjj as jv`lu`tjd `bàest kjrtàe spjkaiak i`ktfrs. Iavj djbrjjs fr sk`ljs `rj jst`hlasmjd ifr j`km i`ktfr èd j`km djbrjj as djiaejd. Tmas gjtmfd as gfst wadjly usjd ae gjrat r`taeb èd as `lsf tmj fldjst.

Tmj I`ktfrs tf hj [jljktjd `rj fi Twf Typjs? (0) Km`r`ktjrastaks fi jgplfyjj vaz., aeata`tavj, aeat a`tavj, `halaty tf lj`re, djpjed`halaty, jtk., èd (8) Kfetrahutafes fi jgplfyjj‑s vaz., qu`laty èd quètaty fi quètaty fi futput, sìjty rjkfrd, jtk. ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Ifr jx`gplj, ifur i`ktfrs sjljktjd ifr gjrat r`taeb g`y hj `) Pu`laty fi futput. (h) Puètaty fi futput (k) Djpjed`halaty (d) @ttatudjs tfw`rd `ssfka`tjs èd supjrafrs. Tmj sk`ljs fr djbrjjs g`y hj kfestruktjd `s ifllfws? Pu`laty Pu`la ty fi Rfrc?

^ffr - Iàr - Bffd - Yjry - Bffd - Jxkjlljet Jxkjllje t

Zsu`lly tmj ftmjr i`ktfrs kfesadjrjd ifr gjrat r`taeb ae `ddatafe tf ifur daskussjd `hfvj `rk? kf-fpjr`tafe, pjrsfe`laty, Mj`ltm, `ttjedèkj, Cefwljdbj fi ofh, aeata`tavj, sìjty, pftjeta`l ifr djvjlfpgjet. Ifr j`km i`ktfr wj kè e`gj iavj i avj djbrjjs `s jxplàejd `hfvj. Tmj kruka`l p`rt fi tmas gjtmfd as, tmjrjifrj, tmj djtjrgae`tafe fi i`ktfrs èd tmjar djbrjjs. Tmj ifllfwaeb djiaeatafes g`y hj bavje ifr tmjsj djbrjjs? ^ffr — L`zy, L`zy, eft aetjrjstjd ae mas wfrc. Iàr — dfjs dfjs mas ofh watmfut èy aetjrjst ae mas wfrc. Bffd — dfjs dfjs mas ofh watm aetjrjst. Y. Bffd — Bffd Bffd cjje jgplfyjj. Jxkjlljet — Jxkjlljet — Jxkjptafe`lly Jxkjptafe`lly m`rd wfrcjr. At g`y hj pfaetjd fut tm`t tmas gjtmfd as oust lacj ”^faet [ystjg‑ fi Ofh Jv`lu`tafe. Tmj r`taeb fi è jgplfyjj g`y hj dfej hy puttaeb ` takc fr g`rcs irfg > tf 8> a.j., ifr pffr > g`rcs èd ifr i fr jxkjlljet 8> g`rcs. 4. Gè-Tf-Gè Kfgp`rasfe?

Tmas gjtmfd rjsjghljs watm tmj i`ktfr-kfgp`rasfe gjtmfd fi ofh- jv`lu`tafe. Zedjr tmas gjtmfd kjrtàe Cjy pjrsfeejl `rj sjljktjd ifr j`km i`ktfr i `ktfr (wmakm g`y aekludj aeata`tavj, lj`djrsmap, djpjed`halaty, sìjty jtk.) Ftmjr jgplfyjjs wall hj kfgp`rjd watm tmjsj cjy pjrsfeejl hy kfesadjraeb fej i`ktfr `t ` tagj. Tmas gjtmfd as eft vjry gukm usjd ae pjrifrgèkj `ppràs`l hjkùsj fi daiiakulty ae sjljktaeb tmj cjy gje. :. Kmjkc Last? Ae frdjr tf rjdukj ha`s fr prjoudakj fi tmj r`tj r, tmj gjrat r`taeb uedjr tmas gjtmfd as `ktu`lly `kt u`lly dfej hy tmj MX Djp`rtgjet. Tmj supjrvasfr sagply rjpfrts tmj. ^jrifrgèkj fi tmj jgplfyjj jgp lfyjj hy puttaeb ”Qjs‑ fr ”Ef‑ `bàest ` sjrajs fi djskraptavj pmr`sjs. Tmj r`tj as eft `w`rj fi tmj wjabmt`bj fi tmjsj qujstafes hut mj kè djiaeatjly dastaebuasm hjtwjje pfsatavj èd ejb`tavj qujstafes.

Tmjrj `rj daiijrjet kmjkclasts ifr `dgaeastr`tavj èd supjrvasfry pjrsfeejl. Tmas gjtmfd as eft sagplj. Tmj gàe das`dvèt`bj fi kmjkc last gjtmfd as tm`t at as vjry daiiakult tf `ssjghlj, è`lysj èd wjabm ` eughjr fi pmr`sjs `pplak`hlj tf jgplfyjj‑s qu`latajs fr smfrtkfgaebs.

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Tmj ifllfwaeb as tmj spjkagje fi kmjkc last st`tjgjets? Qjs

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Mj t`cjs cjje aetjrjst ae ■ mas wfrc Mj pfssjssjs bffd ■ cefwljdbj fi mas wfrc Mj as bffd ae plèeaeb ■ Mj as rjspjktjd hy mas ■ ijllfw wfrcjrs Mj vfluetjjrs bffd ■ adj`s Mj as bjejr`lly rjbul`r ■ Mj fhjys frdjrs ■ Mj `lw`ys iaeasmjs mas ■ wfrc ae tagj Mj as `lw`ys kf■ fpjr`tavj watm mas kfllj`bujs Mj gàetàes mas ■ g`kmaejs prfpjrly Mj irjqujetly kfggats ■ gast`cjs Mj trajs tf jv`dj ■ rjspfesahalaty

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9. Ifrkjd Kmfakj Djskraptafe? Zsu`lly tmj r`tjrs try tf r`tj tmj jgplfyjjs ae tmj ”`vjr`bj‑ k`tjbfry hjkùsj at dfjs eft rjquarj iurtmjr jxplè`tafe. Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, tmj r`tj as ifrkjd tf sjljkt ` st`tjgjet irfg ` pàr fi st`tjgjets tmfubm hftm g`y hj `pplak`hlj fr ue `pplak`hlj `pplak`hlj tf mag. @ pàr fi ue i`vfur`hlj st`tjgjets g`y hj `s ifllfws? (`) G`cjs prfgasjs tm`t mj cefws mj kèeft iuliall. (h) [mfws i`vfur tf kjrtàe jgplfyjjs. Mj gust kmffsj `t lj`st fej tmfubm efej g`y hj `pplak`hlj fe tmj jgplfyjj. Tmj ^fsatavj [t`tjgjets G`y Hj `s Ifllfws? (`) M`s ` kfestèt ilfw fi ejw adj`s. (h) [mfws k`rjiul oudbgjet. Jvje tmfubm hftm tmjsj st`tjgjets g`y hj `pplak`hlj, tmj r`tjr gust sjljkt fely fej st`tjgjet. Tmus, ha`s fr prjoudakj (m`lf jiijkt) fi tmj r`tjr kè hj jlagae`tjd irfg gjrat r`taeb uedjr tmas gjtmfd.

Mfwjvjr, tmas systjg as eft pfpul`r fe `kkfuet fi tmj ifllfwaeb lagat`tafes? (`) At as vjry daiiakult tf cjjp sjkrjt fi tmj v`lujs `tt`kmjd tf v`rafus st`tjgjets. (h) Tmj r`tjr usu`lly fhojkts tf tmas gjtmfd `s mj as ifrkjd tf g`cj ` djkasafe wmakm mj dfjs eft wèt tf g`cj. (k) Tmas gjtmfd as ues`tasi`ktfry. Hftm tmj r`tjrs èd r`tjs daslacj tmas gjtmfd, `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 2. [jljktafe fi Kratak`l Aekadjets? Tmj `kt fr kfedukt fi è jgplfyjj duraeb kruka`l fr kratak`l karkugstèkjs as rjkfrdjd hy tmj r`tjr. Tmjsj kratak`l aekadjets `rj k`rjiully è`lysjd èd tmj hjm`vafur fr qu`latajs fi tmj jgplfyjjs `rj k`rjiully r`tjd.

Tmj ifllfwaeb `rj sfgj fi tmj jx`gpljs fi sukm aekadjets? 0. Hjk`gj upsjt fr ejrvfus wmje `kkadjet tffc pl`kj ae tmj i`ktfry. 8. Xjiusjd prfgftafe fr tràeaeb fppfrtueatajs. ;. [ubbjstjd è agprfvjgjet ae tmj gjtmfds fi wfrc. 4. Dad eft kf-fpjr`tj watm mas wfrcjrs. :. B`vj jxkjlljet èswjr tf ueafe brajvèkj. 9. ^jrsu`djd mas ijllfw wfrcjr tf watmdr`w mas brajvèkj. =. Ifrkjd Dastrahutafe Gjtmfd? Rmjrj tmjrj `rj ` l`rbj eughjr fi jgplfyjjs, tmj r`tjr g`y hj `scjd tf r`tj `ll tmj jgplfyjjs `s ifllfws?

^ffr 0>% @vjr`bj 8:% Iàr ;:% Bffd 8>% Jxkjlljet 0>% Bjejr`lly tmj r`tjr dfjs eft wèt tf r`tj tmj jgplfyjjs `s pffr fr jxkjlljet hjkùsj ae hftm tmj k`sjs, mj m`s tf bavj rj`sfes ifr oustaiyaeb tmj r`taeb. Mjekj r`taebs bjejr`lly klustjr `rfued ”`vjr`bj!. Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, tmj r`tj as ifrkjd tf dastrahutj `ll tmj jgplfyjjs ae kjrtàe k`tjbfrajs `s jxplàejd `hfvj. @dvèt`bjs fi gjrat r`taeb `rj `s ifllfws?

(`) At prfvadjs ` skajetaiak h`sas ifr oudbaeb tmj wfrtm fi jgplfyjjs. Tmjy try tf agprfvj upfe tmjar pjrifrgèkj ai at as eft up tf tmj s`tasi`ktafe fi tmj jgplfyjr. (h) At prfvadjs ` h`sas ifr djkasafes lacj prfgftafe, djgftafe, trèsijr fr tjrgae`tafe fi jgplfyjjs. Hjttjr pjrsfes `rj sjljktjd s jljktjd ifr prfgftafe. Tmj systjg`tak jv`lu`tafe fi jgplfyjjs as `lsf cjpt `s ` pjrgèjet rjkfrd. (k) At mjlps ae dastaebuasmaeb hjtwjje jiiakajet èd aejiiakajet wfrcjrs. Ae tmas w`y, at rjvj`ls tmj djijkts ae tmj sjljktafe prfkjdurj. Tmfsj jgplfyjjs wmf `rj gas iats g`y hj spfttjd èd `pprfpra`tj `ktafe `kta fe t`cje `bàest tmjg. (d) Rfrcjrs g`y hj bavje aekrj`sj ae p`y ai tmjar pjrifrgèkj as bffd. At mjlps tmj gè`bjgjet ae `vfadaeb spft oudbgjets èd rjpl`kjs at watm plèejd djkasafes. (j) Fhojktavj gjrat r`taeb djvjlfps kfeiadjekj `gfeb tmj jgplfyjjs ai tmj gjtmfds fi jv`lu`tafe `rj systjg`tak èd agp`rta`l. @gfeb tmj wfrcjrs, ` sjesj fi kfgpjtatafe as djvjlfpjd rjsultaeb aetf aekrj`sjd a ekrj`sjd futput fr hjttjr pjrifrgèkj. :

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (i) At mjlps ae krj`taeb ` kfebjea`l wfrcaeb jevarfegjet ae wmakm jgplfyjr- jgplfyjj rjl`tafes `rj agprfvjd. [uhfrdae`tjs bjt gftav`tjd èd wfrc m`rd ifr bjttaeb i`vfr`hlj r`taeb. (b) At `lsf mjlps ae stagul`taeb èd djvjlfpgjet fi è jgplfyjj `s at pfaets fut tmj wj`cejss fi tmj jgplfyjjs. Tmj tràeaeb ejjds fi jgplfyjjs kè hj cefwe èd tràeaeb prfbr`ggjs kè hj `kkfrdaebly dr`we. (m) @ systjg`tak jv`lu`tafe `lsf djvjlfps hjttjr supjrvasfrs èd jxjkutavjs. Fe tmj h`sas fi gjrat-r`taeb rjpfrt, tmj tfp gè`bjgjet kè oudbj tmj `halaty fi jxjkutavjs wmf `rj wrataeb sukm rjpfrts. Mfwjvjr, ifrg`l gjrat-r`taeb g`y eft t`cj pl`kj ae k`sj fi ` sg`ll kfekjre saekj tmj aeifrg`l r`taeb kè prfvadj `ll tmj djsarjd aeifrg`tafe. Ae k`sj fi ` l`rbj sk`lj kfekjre, hftm jgplfyjr èd jgplfyjj stèd hjejiatjd irfg ` systjg`tak pjrifrgèkj `ppràs`l. Lagat`tafes fi gjrat r`taeb?

0. M`lf Jiijkt? Tmjrj as ` tjedjeky tf r`tj tmj jgplfyjj fe tmj h`sas fi fej i`ktfr fely. At as `lsf cefwe `s ”hljedaeb tjedjeky‑. Ai tmj r`tjr iaeds tm`t tmj gè as bffd ae fej i`ktfr mj g`y r`tj mag bffd ae `ll ftmjr i`ktfrs. 8. Kl`raty ae [tèd`rds? J`km r`tjr g`y `pply mas fwe stèd`rds watm tmj rjsult tm`t iae`l r`taebs sagply kèeft hj kfgp`rjd. Ifr jx`gplj, ` r`tjr g`y tmaec tm`t ”s`tasi`ktfry‑ r`taeb as hjttjr tmè ”jxkjlljet‑. ;. Ljeajeky fr [traktejss? Ljeajet r`tjrs bavj mabm r`taebs wmjrj`s strakt r`tjrs `lw`ys bavj lfw r`taebs. Mjekj, tmjrj as ` hab daiijrjekj fi r`taebs hjtwjje twf r`tjrs. @ supjrvasfr g`y ijjl tm`t lfw r`taebs g`y rjiljkt mas fwe wj`cejss ae dj`laeb watm wfrcjrs. 4. Kjetr`l Tjedjeky? Bjejr`lly tmj r`tjrs jv`lu`tj jgplfyjjs hy cjjpaeb tmjg ae tmj `vjr`bj k`tjbfry tmfubm sfgj g`y hj i`llaeb ae tmj jxtrjgj jeds fi tmj sk`lj vaz., jxkjlljet fr pffr. :. Aeilujekj fi Mabmjr-^àd Ofhs? Zsu`lly tmjrj as ` tjedjeky tf bavj mabm r`taeb tf ` pjrsfe wmf as dfaeb tmj mabmly pàd ofh. Gjrat r`taeb m`s eftmaeb tf df watm tmj wfrtm fi tmj ofh (wmakm as tmj suhojkt g`ttjr fi ofh jv`lu`tafe). 9. Daiijraeb ^jrkjptafes? Jvje ai ` pjrsfe trajs tf hj ` iàrjst r`tjr ae pjrifrgèkj jv`lu`tafe, mj kèeft jlagae`tj ha`s hjkùsj fi daiijraeb pjrkjptafes. Kjrtàe uekfeskafus i`ktfrs sukm `s r`kj, k`stj, èd krjjd jtk., jiijkt gjrat r`taeb. Ai ` gè`bjr, wmf as ljss qu`laiajd, jv`lu`tjs mas suhfrdae`tj wmf as gfrj fr hjttjr qu`laiajd, gjrat r`taeb g`y eft hj iàr. Tmj lagat`tafes fi gjrat-r`taeb jxplàejd `hfvj kè hj jlagae`tjd tf sfgj jxtjet hy jduk`taeb èd tràeaeb tmj r`tjrs. 9 : j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj R@BJ ^@QGJET [Q[TJG Kfekjpt @ed Gjèaeb fi R`bj ^`ygjet [ystjg Tmj systjg fi w`bj p`ygjet as tmj gjtmfd `dfptjd hy gèui`kturaeb kfekjres tf rjguejr`tj wfrcjrs. At as tmj w`y fi bavaeb iaeèka`l kfgpjes`tafe tf tmj wfrcjrs ifr tmj tagj èd jiifrt aevjstjd hy tmjg ae kfevjrtaeb g`tjra`ls aetf iaeasmjd prfdukts. At aedak`tjs tmj h`sas fi g`caeb p`ygjet tf tmj wfrcjrs, wmakm g`y hj jatmjr fe tagj h`sas fr futput h`sas. Tmj sjljktafe fi tmj systjg djpjeds fe tmj typj èd e`turj fi tmj kfekjre èd ats prfdukts. Tmj w`bj p`ygjet systjgs kè hj davadjd aetf twf gàe systjgs `s ifllfws.

0. âjkj r`tj systjg 8. Tagj r`tj systjg Agpfrtèkj fi R`bj ^`ygjet [ystjg Tmj `gfuet fi w`bjs pàd tf tmj wfrcjrs as fej fi tmj gòfr jljgjets fi kfst. At m`s ` brj`t hj`raeb fe tmj kfst fi prfduktafe èd prfiat`halaty fi tmj kfekjre. Mjekj, jvjry kfekjre as rjquarjd tf `dfpt ` iàr systjg fi w`bj p`ygjet. Tmj agpfrtèkj fi w`bj p`ygjet systjg kè hj sugg`razjd `s ifllfws?

* R`bj p`ygjet systjg i`kalat`tjs tmj prjp`r`tafe fi w`bj plè ifr iuturj. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg mjlps tf djtjrgaej tmj kfst fi prfduktafe èd tmj prfiat`halaty fi tmj frbèaz`tafe. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg djtjrgaejs tmj `gfuet fi j`reaeb fi tmj wfrcjrs èd tmjar lavaeb stèd`rds. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg ìijkts tmj aetjrjst èd `ttatudj fi tmj wfrcjrs. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg djtjrgaejs tmj ljvjl fi s`tasi`ktafe s`tasi`ktafe fi tmj wfrcjrs èd ìijkts tmj r`tj fi l`hfr turefvjr. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg mjlps ae rjkruataeb scalljd, jxpjrajekjd èd tràejd wfrcjrs. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg mjlps tf aekrj`sj tmj prfduktavaty èd bffdwall èd bffdwall fi tmj frbèaz`tafe. Jssjeta`l Km`r`ktjrastaks fi @ Bffd R`bj ^`ygjet [ystjg @ sfued systjg fi w`bj p`ygjet as fej tm`t s`tasia js jgplfyjr èd jgplfyjj hy iuliallaeb ifllfwaeb kratjra`.

* R`bj p`ygjet systjg smfuld hj iàr èd oustaia`hlj t f tmj wfrcjrs èd frbèaz`tafe. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg smfuld mjlp ae g`xagazaeb wfrcjrs' s`tasi`ktafe èd gaeagazaeb l`hfr turefvjr. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg smfuld `ssurj gaeagug bu`rètjjd w`bjs tf `ll wfrcjrs. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg smfuld `ssurj jqu`l p`y ifr jqu`l wfrc. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg smfuld prfvadj gfrj w`bjs tf jiiakajet èd scalljd wfrcjrs. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg smfuld ifllfw bfvjregjet pflaky èd tr`dj ueafe's efrgs. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg smfuld hj sagplj èd uedjrstèd`hlj tf `ll tmj wfrcjrs. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg smfuld mjlp ae agprfvaeb pjrifrgèkj èd prfduktavaty fi tmj wfrcjrs. * R`bj p`ygjet systjg smfuld hj iljxahlj jefubm tf suat tmj ejjds fi tmj frbèaz`tafe. 2 : j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj TAGJ X@TJ & ÂJKJ X@TJ [Q[TJG Kfekjpt èd Gjèaeb fi âjkj X`tj [ystjg fi R`bj ^`ygjet Tmj pajkj r`tj systjg as tm`t systjg fi w`bj p`ygjet ae wmakm tmj wfrcjrs `rj pàd fe tmj h`sas fi tmj ueats fi futput prfdukjd. âjkj r`tj systjg dfjs eft kfesadjr tmj tagj spjet hy tmj wfrcjrs. âjkj r`tj systjg as tmj gjtmfd fi rjguejr`taeb tmj wfrcjrs `kkfrdaeb tf tmj eughjr fi ueat prfdukjd fr ofh kfgpljtjd. At as `lsf cefwe `s p`ygjet hy rjsult fr futput. âjkj r`tj systjg p`ys w`bjs `t ` iaxjd pajkj r`tj ifr j`km ueat fi futput prfdukjd. Tmj tft`l w`bjs j`rejd hy ` wfrcjr as k`lkul`tjd hy usaeb tmj ifllfwaeb ifrgul`.

Tft`l R`bjs J`rejd7 Tft`l ueats fi futputs prfdukjd x R`bj r`tj pjr ueat fi futput. FX, Tft`l R`bjs J`rejd7 Futput x âjkj X`tj @ dvèt`bjs dvè t`bjs fi â jkj jkj X`tj [ys [ystjg tjg

Tmj ifllfwaeb `rj sfgj agpfrtèt `dvèt`bjs fi pajkj r`tj systjg fi w`bj p`ygjet. * âjkj r`tj systjg p`ys p` ys w`bjs `kkfrdaeb tf tmj futput prfdukjd hy tmj wfrcjrs. At jekfur`bjs jiiakajet wfrcjrs. * âjkj r`tj systjg mjlps tf rjdukj tf rjdukj adlj tagj. * âjkj r`tj systjg bavjs aekjetavjs a ekjetavjs tf tmj wfrcjrs tf `dfpt ` hjttjr gjtmfd fi prfduktafe ifr aekrj`saeb tmjar prfduktafe èd j`reaeb. * âjkj r`tj systjg mjlps tmj gè`bjgjet tf djtjrgaej tmj jx`kt l`hfr kfst pjr ueat ifr suhgattaeb quft`tafe. * âjkj r`tj systjg rjdukjs pjr ueat kfst fi prfduktafe duj tf aekrj`sjd vflugj fi prfduktafe. * âjkj r`tj systjg rjquarjs ljss supjrvasafe kfst. D a s`dvèt`bjs fi â jkj jkj X`tj [ys [ystjg tjg

Tmj ifllfwaeb `rj tmj eft`hlj das`dvèt`bjs fi pajkj r`tj systjg * âjkj r`tj systjg dfjs eft mjlp ae prfdukaeb qu`laty futput `s tmj wfrcjrs `rj kfekjetr`tjd gfrj fe quètaty aestj`d fi qu`laty. * âjkj r`tj systjg dfjs eft mjlp ifr ` ueaifrg ilfw fi prfduktafe èd g`cjs daiiakult tf rjbul`tj tmj prfduktafe skmjdulj. * At as vjry daiiakult tf iax è `kkjpt`hlj èd rj`sfe`hlj pajkj r`tj ifr j`km atjg fi futput fr ofh. * âjkj r`tj systjg `dvjrsjly ìijkt tmj wfrcjrs' mj`ltm `s wjll. * At rjquarjs jxtr` supjrvasafe supjrvasa fe kfst ifr qu`laty futput èd jiijktavj usj fi g`tjra`l s, tffls èd jquapgjet. Kfekjpt @ed Gjèaeb fi Tagj X`tj [ystjg fi R`bj ^`ygjet Tmj tagj r`tj systjg as tm`t t m`t systjg fi w`bj p`ygjet ae wmakm tmj wfrcjrs `rj pàd fe tmj h`sas fi tagj spjet hy tmjg ae tmj i`ktfry. Zedjr tmas systjg, s ystjg, tmj wfrcjrs èd jgplfyjjs `rj pàd w`bjs fe tmj h`sas fi tmj tagj tmjy m`vj wfrcjd r`tmjr tmè tmj vflugj fi futput tmjy m`vj prfdukjd. Mjekj, `kkfrdaeb tf tmas systjg, w`bjs `rj pàd fe mfurly, wjjcly fr gfetmly h`sas. Zedjr tag j r`tj systjg, tmj w`bjs j`rejd hy ` wfrcjr as djtjrgaejd hy usaeb tmj ifllfwaeb ifrgul`.

R`bjs J`rejd 7 Tagj spjet(@ttjedjd) x R`bj r`tj pjr mfur/d`y/wjjc/gfetm

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj @ dvèt`bjs dvè t`bjs fi T a gj X`tj [ystjg [ystjg

Tmj ifllfwaeb `rj sfgj fi tmj agpfrtèt `dvèt`bjs fi tagj r`tj systjg fi w`bj p`ygjet? * Tagj r`tj systjg as sagplj tf uedjrstèd èd j`sy tf k`lkul`tj. * Tagj r`tj systjg as quatj usjiul ifr frbèaz`tafes tm`t usj kfstly aeputs ifr qu`laty futputs. * Tagj r`tj systjg as hjejiaka`l ifr `vjr`bj èd hjlfw wfrcjrs. * Tagj r`tj systjg `ssurjs rjbul`r aekfgj èd krj`tjs tmj ijjlaeb fi jkfefgak sjkuraty `gfeb tmj wfrcjrs. * Tagj r`tj systjg dfjs eft daskragae`tj tmj wfrcjrs èd as prjijrrjd hy tr`dj ueafes. D a s`dvèt`bjs Fi Ta gj X`tj [ys [ystjg tjg

Tmj ifllfwaeb `rj sfgj eft`hlj das`dvèt`bjs fi tagj r`tj systjg fi w`bj p`ygjet. * Tagj r`tj systjg dfjs eft mjlp ae aekrj`saeb futput èd agprfvaeb jiiakajeky `s tmjrj as ef kfrrjl`tafe hjtwjje jiifrt èd rjw`rd. èd rjw`rd. * Tagj r`tj systjg as eft oustaia`hlj oust aia`hlj hjtwjje jiiakajet èd aejiiakajet aejiiakaj et wfrcjrs èd scalljd èd uescalljd wfrcjrs. * Tagj r`tj systjg p`ys ifr adlj tagj, wmakm aekrj`sjs tmj kfst fi prfduktafe. Tagj r`tj systjg jekfur`bjs ` bf-slfw tjedjeky `gfeb wfrcjrs duraeb wfrcaeb mfurs mfurs èd jekfur`bjs tmjg tf wfrc fvjrtagj. * At as daiiakult tf jstag`tj jx`kt l`hfr jx`kt l`hfr kfst ae `dvèkj. * At rjquarjs strakt supjrvasafe supjrvas afe tf bjt tmj rjquarjd quètaty fi futput. Daiijrjekjs hjtwjje âjkj X`tj [ystjg èd Tagj X`tj [ystjg fi R`bj ^`ygjet

0. Gjèaeb âjkj r`tj systjg as ` gjtmfd fi w`bj p`ygjet tf wfrcjrs h`sjd fe tmj quètaty fi futput tmjy m`vj prfdukjd. Tagj r`tj systjg as ` gjtmfd fi w`bj p`ygjet tf wfrcjrs wfrcjrs h`sjd fe tagj spjet hy tmjg ifr tmj prfduktafe fi futput. 8. E`turj fi ^`ygjet âjkj r`tj systjg p`ys tmj wfrcjrs `kkfrdaeb tf tmj ueats fi futput prfdukjd. Tagj r`tj systjg p`ys tmj wfrcjrs `kkfrdaeb tf tmj tagj spjet ae tmj i`ktfr y. ;. Jgpm`sas âjkj r`tj systjg bavjs jgpm`sas j gpm`sas fe l`rbjr quètaty fi futput. Tagj r`tj systjg jgpm`sa s fe hjttjr qu`laty fi futput. 4. Daskragae`tafe âjkj r`tj systjg daskragae`tjs tmj wfrcjrs èd p`ys gfrj w`bjs tf jiiakajet èd scalljd wfrcjrs. Tagj r`tj systjg dfjs eft daskragae`tj tmj wfrcjrs èd p`ys tmj s`gj w`bjs tf jiiakajet èd aejiiakajet wfrcjrs. :. [upjrvasafe âjkj r`tj systjg rjquarjs strakt supjrvasafe tf bjt tmj rjquarjd qu`laty futput. Tagj r`tj systjg rjquarjs strakt supjrvasafe tf bjt rjquarjd quètaty fi futput. :

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 9. Djtjrgae`tafe fi L`hfr Kfst âjkj r`tj systjg mjlps tf iax pjr ueat l`hfr kfst ae `dvèkj. Tagj r`tj systjg dfjs eft mjlp tf iax l`hfr kfst pjr ueat ae `dvèkj. 2. Ilfw fi ^rfduktafe âjkj r`tj systjg dfjs eft hraeb ueaifrgaty ae tmj ilfw fi prfduktafe èd kùsjs è jxkjssavj w`st`bj fi aeputs. Tagj r`tj systjg mjlps gàetàe ` ueaifrg ilfw fi prfduktafe èd jesurjs è jiiakajet usj fi g`tjra`ls, tffls èd jquapgjets.

R@BJ AEKJETAYJ ^L@E[

R`bj aekjetavj rjijrs tf pjrifrgèkj laecjd kfgpjes`tafe pàd tf agprfvj gftav`tafe èd prfduktavaty. At as tmj gfejt`ry aedukjgjets fiijrjd tf jgplfyjjs tf g`cj tmjg pjrifrg hjyfed tmj `kkjptèkj stèd`rds. @kkfrdaeb tf tmj E`tafe`l Kfggassafe fi L`hfur “w`bj aekjetavjs `rj jxtr` iaeèka`l gftav`tafe. Tmjy `rj djsabejd tf stagul`tj mugè jiifrt hy rjw`rdaeb tmj pjrsfe fvjr èd `hfvj tmj tagj r`tjd rjguejr`tafe, ifr agprfvjgjets ae tmj pr jsjet jsjet fr t`rbjtjd rjsults‗. [kftt djiaejs at `s “èy ifrg`l èd èefuekjd prfbr`ggj uedjr wmakm tmj aekfgj fi è aedavadu`l, ` sg`ll brfup, ` plèt wfrc ifrkj fr `ll tmj jgplfyjjs fi ` iarg `rj p`rta`lly fr wmflly rjl`tjd tf sfgj gj`surj fi prfduktavaty futput‗. fu tput‗. Mugè èd Eakcjrsfe djiaej at ae sagplj tjrgs `s “`ll tmj plès tm`t prfvadj jxtr` p`y ifr jxtr` pjrifrgèkj ae `ddatafe tf rjbul`r w`bjs ifr ` ofh‗. Fhojktavjs fi R`bj Aekjetavj [kmjgjs? (a) Tf usj w`bj aekjetavjs `s ` usjiul tffl ifr sjkur aeb ` hjttjr utalas`tafe fi gèpfwjr, hjttjr prfduktavaty skmjdulaeb èd pjrifrgèkj kfetrfl, èd ` gfrj jiijktavj pjrsfeejl pflaky. (aa) Tf agprfvj tmj prfiat fi ` iarg tmrfubm ` rjduktafe ae t mj ueat kfsts fi l`hfur èd g`tjra`ls fr hftm. (aaa) Tf aekrj`sj ` wfrcjr‑s j`reaeb watmfut dr`bbaeb tmj iarg aetf ` mabmjr w`bj r`tj st rukturj rjb`rdljss fi prfduktavaty. (av) Tf `vfad `ddatafe`l k`pat`l aevjstgjet ifr tmj jxpèsafes fi prfduktafe k`p`katy. ^raekapljs fi ` Bffd R`bj èd [`l`ry @dgaeastr`tafe? `. [agplj èd j`sy tf uedjrstèd. h. Zeafe gè`bjgjet `brjjgjet. k. Tagj stèd`rd gust hj iaxjd. d. Xjw`rd gust hj prfpfrtafe`l tf tmj jiifrt. j. Kfgplàets èd brajvèkjs gust hj prfpjrly `ttjedjd tf. i. Tmj plès smfuld eft kmèbj irjqujetly èd gust hj trajd fut kfetaeufusly ifr sfgj ljebtm fi tagj. b. Jquaty èd iàrejss. m. Rfrcjrs gust hj g`dj tf uedjrstèd tmj plè. a. Gjtmfd study gust prjkjdj tagj stèd`rd. o. Tmjrj gust hj ` gae bu`rètjjd p`ygjet. j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj @dvèt`bjs fi Aekasavj ^lès? R`bj aekjetavj plès hjejiat eft fely tmj jgplfyjjs hut `lsf tmj jgplfyjrs. `. R`bj aekjetavj plès prfvadj è fppfrtueaty ifr m`rdwfrcaeb èd `ghatafus wfrcjrs tf j`re gfrj. h. At jekfur`bjs jgplfyjjs tf hj aeefv`tavj. Tmjy kfgj fut watm gfrj jiiakajet w`ys w` ys fi dfaeb wfrc hy fvjrkfgaeb tmj prfhljgs rjl`tjd tf prfduktavaty èd w`stjiul pr`ktakj. k. Aekjetavj plès mjlp tf agprfvj daskaplaej èd aedustra`l rjl`tafes. Jiijktavj aekjetavj plè mjlps ae gaeagazaeb `hsjetjjasg, `kkadjets jtk. d. Tmj sjli gftav`tafe fe tmj p`rt fi tmj wfrcjrs tf wfrc m`rd èd agprfvj pjrifrgèkj sf `s tf j`re gfejt`ry rjw`rds wall rjdukj tmj kfst fi supjrvasafe. j. Tmj skajetaiak wfrc study uedjrt`cje hjifrj aetrfdukaeb tmj aekjetavj plès mjlps ae agprfvaeb wfrc ilfw, wfrc gjtmfds jtk. i. Tmj jgplfyjjs `rj jekfur`bjd tf wfrc `s ` tj`g watm gutu`l kf-fpjr`tafe `s tmjar `ktavatajs as aetjrdjpjedjet, èd èy fhstruktafe fe tmj p`rt fi ` wfrcjr kè ìijkt tmj futput èd rjw`rds. b. @kkfrdaeb tf tmj E`tafe`l E`taf e`l Kfggassafe fe L`hfur, “w`bj aekjetavj as tmj kmj`pjst, quakcjst èd surjst gjès fi aekrj`saeb prfduktavaty.‗ Lagat`tafes? `. Oj`lfusy èd kfeilakts `gfeb wfrcjrs g`y `rasj wmje sfgj wfrcjrs j`re gfrj tmè ftmjrs. h. Zeljss strakt kmjkc èd aespjktafes `rj gàetàejd, gàetà ejd, qu`laty g`y kfgj uedjr st`cj ae tmj t mj jetmusa`sg `gfeb wfrcjrs tf aekrj`sj prfduktavaty. k. Ae tmj `hsjekj fi ` kjalaeb kjal aeb fe aekjetavj j`reaebs, sfgj wfrcjrs g`y spfal tmjar mj`ltm. d. [trakt vabalèkj hjkfgjs ejkjss`ry tf jesurj tm`t wfrcjrs df eft dasrjb`rd sìjty rjbul`tafe. j. Tmj kfst èd tagj fi kljrak`l wfrc aekrj`sjs ae aetrfdukaeb èd `dgaeastr`taeb tmj aekjetavj plès. i. Rmjejvjr prfduktafe ilfw as dasruptjd duj tf tmj iùlt fi gè`bjgjet, wfrcjrs aesast fe kfgpjes`tafe. Typjs fi R`bj Aekjetavj ^lès? 0. [tràbmt âjkj X`tj ^lè? Zedjr tmj stràbmt pajkj r`tj plè wfrcjrs `rj pàd h`sjd fe tmjar futput. Ifr jx`gplj, ai tmj paj kj r`tj as Xs. 4 pjr pajkj fi tmj prfdukt, tmje ` wfrcjr wmf tures fut 4> pajkjs/d`y j`res Xs. 09> (Xs. 4 x 4>) `s mas w`bj ifr tm`t d`y. Rmjrj`s èftmjr jgplfyjj wmf prfdukjs ;8 pajkjs/ d`y j`res Xs. 08= (Xs. 4 x ;8 pajkjs). Mjekj ` i`st wfrcjr j`res gfrj kfgp`rjd tf tmj slfw wfrcjr. @dvèt`bjs? a. Gftav`tjs tmj wfrcjrs tf aekrj`sj tmjar tm jar futput. aa. [agplj èd j`sy tf uedjrstèd. aaa. agprfvj prfduktavaty. Das`dvèt`bjs? a. Ef bu`rètjjd gaeagug w`bj. Tmas g`cjs wfrcjrs aesjkurj. aa. Brj`t dasp`raty fi j`reaeb hjtwjje slfw èd i`s t wfrcjrs. aaa. R`st`bj gabmt aekrj`sj. av. Pu`laty fi prfduktafe g`y suiijr `s tmj wfrcjrs kfekjetr`tj fe quètaty. v. Aetjrpjrsfe`l rjl`tafesmap suiijrs duj tf oj`lfusy èd kfgpjtatafe tf j`re gfrj. va. Jeifrkjd adljejss lacj jljktrakaty iàlurj fr g`kmaej hrj`cdfwe, `dvjrsjly ìijkt j`reaeb fi wfrcjrs. j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 8. [tèd`r [tèd`r d âjkj âjkj X`tj wat m Bu `rè tjj tjjd G a ea gug R`bj? R`bj?

Mjrj tmj gaeagug bu`rètjjd w`bj as iaxjd fe mfurly h`sas. @ wfrcjr bjts tmj gaeagug iaxjd w`bj/d`y plus tmj aekjetavj ifr tmj eughjr fi pajkjs pajkjs prfdukjd. Tf allustr`tj tmas, `ssugj `ssugj tm`t tmjrj as = mfur‑s mfur‑s smait tmj pajkj r`tj as Xs 4 èd ` gaeagug iaxjd w`bj fi Xs 09/ mfurs (Xs 09 x = mfurs 7 Xs. 08= pjr d`y). Tmj stèd`rd tagj/pajkj as 0: gae. Efw, tmjrj `rj twf wfrcjrs @ èd H. (Ai wfrcjr @ prfdukjs 8: prakjs/d`y tmje mj j`res? Xs. 08= (gae. bu`rètjjd w`bj) + Xs. 0>> (Xs. 4 x 8: pks) 7 Xs. 88=/ d`y Ai wfrcjr H prfdukjs 4> pajkjs / d` y tmje mj j`res Xs. 08= (gae. bu`rètjjd w`bj) + Xs. 09> (4> pajkjs x Xs. 4) 7 Xs. 88=/ d`y) @dvèt`bjs? a. Gae. bu`rètjj agprfvjs sjesj fi sjkuraty. aa. Dasp`raty hjtwjje slfw èd i`stjr wfrcjrs as rjdukjd. Das`dvèt`bjs? a. Djgftav`tj i`stjr wfrcjr. aa. [lfw wfrcjrs bjt mabmjr pajkj r`tj vaz Xs. :.08 (08=/ 8:). Daiijrjeta`l âjkj X`tjs? Tmj smfrtkfgaeb fi tmj `hfvj gjetafejd aekjetavj plès m`vj bavje w`y Daiijrjeta`l pajkj r`tjs. Tmj daiijrjeta`l pajkj r`tjs `rj `r j kl`ssaiajd uedjr twf mj`ds vaz. Aedavadu`l aekjetavj plès èd Brfup aekjetavj plès. Aedavadu`l Aekjetavj ^lès? Tmj daiijrjet plès mjrj `rj daskussjd hjlfw? (`) M`lsjy ^lè? Tmj ij`turjs fi tmas plè `rj? `. Gae. w`bj as bu`rètjjd. h. @ddatafe`l hfeus as prfvadjd tf wfrcjrs wmf

R`bj èd [`l`ry @dgaeastr`tafe 042 kfgpljtj tmj ofh ae ljss tmè t mj “stèd`rd tagj‗. Hfeus as ` kjrtàe prfpfrtafe tf tmj tagj s`vjd. Tmas prfpfrtafe prfpfrtafe as iaxjd `t :>% ae tmas plè. Tmj tft`l w`bj as k`lkul`tjd `s? T x X + :>% ([ ‛ ([ ‛ O) O) x X Rmjrj O ‛ O ‛ tagj tagj t`cje X ‛ X`tj X`tj fi w`bj [ ‛ [tèd`rd [tèd`rd tagj :>% ‛ :>% ‛ Tmj Tmj hfeus pjrkjet`bj. Allustr`tafe? [ 7 0> mfurs, O 7 = mfurs3 X 7 Xs. : / Mr3 Hfeus 7 :>% Ω 7 = x :+(:>/0>>) x (0> ‛ =) =) x :


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Ω 7 Xs. 4:. @dvèt`bjs? a. Bu`rètjjd gae. w`bj jxasts. aa. [agplj èd j`sy. aaa. Daspjesjd watm tagj kfesugaeb èd kfstly prfkjss fi wfrc study. av. Gè`bjgjet sm`rj ` p`rt fi hfeus fe tagj s`vjd. Das`dvèt`bjs? a. Rfrcjrs bjt fely m`li fi tmj hjejiat fi tmjar jiiakajeky. aa. Ai tmj tmj wfrcjr‑s rusm tmrfubm tmj ofh tf s`vj tagj, tmj qu`laty g`y suiijr. aaa. Rfrcjrs fhojkt gè`bjgjet ae sm`raeb hfeus fe tagj s`vjd. av. [uiiakajet aekjetavj as eft prfvadjd tf i`st wfrcjrs. (h) Xfwè ^lè?

Tmas as ` gfdaiajd ifrg fi M`sljy ^lè, djvjlfpjd hy O`gjs Xfwje fi Jeblèd. Tmj Xfwè ^lè p`ys gfrj tmè tmj M`lsjy ^lè. Tmas as pfssahlj ai ` wfrcjr kfgpljtjs tmj t`sc ae m`li tmj stèd`rd tagj fi tmj t`sc. Ai gfrj tmè :>% tagj as s`vjd tmje tmj hfeus mj j`res djkrj`sjs. Tmjrjifrj, Tft`l w`bj 7 O x X + SO x X x (Tagj s`vjd/std. tagj)W Allustr`tafe? [ 7 0> mfurs3 O 7 = mfurs3 X 7 Xs. : / mrs. Ω 7= x : + S= x :+ (8/0>)W Ω 7 Xs. 4= @dvèt`bjs? a. Gaeagug bu`rètjjd w`bj jxasts. aa. Hftm tmj jgplfyjjs èd tmj wfrcjrs sm`rj tmj hjejiats fi tagj s`vjd. aaa. Tmj jiiakajet wfrcjrs bjt hfeus `t dagaeasmaeb r`tj ai tmjy s`vj gfrj tmè :>% fi tmj stèd`rd tagj. Tmas kmjkcs fvjr-spjjdaeb. Das`dvèt`bjs? a. Aekjetavj prfvadjd ifr i`st wfrcjr as eft suiiakaj et. aa. Rfrcjrs daslacj gè`bjgjet sm`raeb hfeus fi tagj s`vjd. (k) Bètt plè? Tmas plè w`s djvjlfpjd hy Mjery L. Bètt. Mjrj stèd`rd tagj ifr jvjry t`sc as iaxjd tmrfubm tagj èd gftafe study. Gaeagug tagj w`bj as bu`rètjjd tf `ll wfrcjrs.

@ wfrcjr wmf iàls tf kfgpljtj tmj t`sc watmae tmj stèd`rd tagj rjkjavjs w`bjs ifr `ktu`l tagj spjet `t tmj spjkaiajd r`tj. Rfrcjrs wmf `kmajvj fr jxkjjd tmj stèd`rd bjt jxtr` hfeus v`ryaeb hjtwjje 8>% tf :>% fi tmj mfurly r`tj ifr tmj tagj `llfwjd ifr tmj t`sc. ; 9 j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Allustr`tafe? ([) [uppfsj tmj stèd`rd tagj iaxjd ifr tmj ofh as = mfurs èd (T) tagj r`tj as a s Xs. 0> mfurs èd tmj r`tj fi hfeus as 8:%, tmje ` wfrcjr wmf kfgpljtjs tmj ofh ae 0> mfurs wall hj pàd Xs. 0> x = 7 Xs. =>. Fe tmj ftmjr mèd tmj wfrcjr wmf kfgpljtjs tmj ofh ae 9 mfurs wall hj pàd Xs 0>> (Xs. => + 8:% fi Xs. =>). @dvèt`bjs? a. Gaeagug bu`rètjj jxasts. aa. I`st wfrcjr as pàd hfeus `t mabmjr r`tj prfpfrtafe`l tf tmjar futput. aaa. [tèd`rd wfrcjr as pàd 8>% hfeus. av. ^`rt fi hfeus as sm`rjd hy tmj frbèas`tafe. Das`dvèt`bjs? a. [m`raeb fi hfeus hy frbèas`tafe as rjsjetgjet. aa. Dasueaty `gfeb tmj slfw èd tmj i`st wfrcjrs. (d) Hjdjùx ^lè?

Tmas plè as djvjlfpjd hy Km`rljs J. Hjdjùx ae 0100. Mjrj tmj gaeagug tagj w`bj as bu`rètjjd tf `ll wfrcjrs. Tmj wfrcjrs wmf kfgpljtj tmj ofh watmae fr gfrj tmè tmj stèd`rd tagj `rj pàd `t tmj efrg`l tagj r`tj. Rfrcjrs wmf kfgpljtj tmj ofh ae ljss tmè tmj stèd`rd tagj `rj pàd hfeus, bjejr`lly 2:% fi tmj w`bj ifr tmj tagj s`vjd èd 8:% tf tmj ifrjgè. Tmj w`bj r`tj as k`lkul`tjd `s?

[ x X + 2:% fi X ([ ‛ ([ ‛ T) T) Allustr`tafe? [ 7 0> mrs3 X 7 Xs. : / mrs3 T 7 = mrs. Tmje? Ω 7 0> x :+ 2:% (:) x (0> -=) 7 :> + (;.2: x 8) 7 :> + 2.:> Ω 7 Xs. :2.:> @dvèt`bjs? a. Gae. w`bj as bu`rètjjd tf `ll tmj wfrcjrs. aa. Tmj ifrjgè as gftav`tjd tf tmj prfduktavaty `s 8:% fi tagj s`vjd as pàd tf mag. aaa. Tmas plè as suat`hlj ae i`ktfrajs wmjrjae ` wfrcjr as jxpjktjd tf pjrifrg daiijrjet typjs fi ofhs. Das`dvèt`bjs? a. Rfrcjrs g`y rjsjet sm`raeb tmj hfeus watm ifrjgè. aa. Rfrcjrs g`y iaed at daiiakult tf uedjrstèd tmj kfgpljtj k`lkul`tafe aevflvjd ae tmas gjtmfd. 4 9 j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (j) Jgjrsfe‑s Jiiakajeky ^lè? Tmas plè w`s djvjlfpjd hy M`rraebtfe Jgjrsfe. Mjrj gaeagug w`bj as bu`rètjjd. Rfrcjrs `rj pàd daiijrjet hfeus r`tjs `s pjr tmjar jiiakajeky ljvjl. Hfeus as bavje `t è aekrj`saeb pjrkjet`bj hjyfed tmj prjskrahjd ljvjl fi jiiakajeky (usu`lly 99.92%). Jiiakajeky as gj`surjd hy kfgp`raeb tmj `ktu`l tagj t`cje watm tmj stèd`rd tagj. Allustr`tafe? [ 7 0> mrs, T 7 = mrs, X 7 Xs. : / mr. Hfeus 7 0>% uptf 2: % jiiakajeky 8>% ifr 2:%- 0>>% ;>% hjyfed 0>>% Ω 7 (T x X) + (pjrkjet`bj fi hfeus x T x X) Ae tmas k`sj, tmj jiiakajeky ljvjl ae (0>/=) x 0>> 7 08:% èd, Hfeus `t ;>% as p`y`hlj. Tft`l w`bj 7 = x : + (;>/0>>) (= x :) 7 4>+08 Xs. :0. Ai wfrcjr @ t`cjs 09 mrs, tmje mas hfeus as eal. Ai wfrcjr H t`cjs 04 mrs, mas hfeus as (0/0>) x 04 x :. Ai wfrcjr K t`cjs 0> mrs, mas hfeus as (8/0>) x 0> x :. Ai wfrcjr D t`cjs = mrs, mas hfeus as (;/0>) x = x :. @dvèt`bjs? a. Bu`rètjjd tagj w`bj prfvadjs ` sjesj fi sjkuraty tf `ll tmj wfrcjrs. aa. At jekfur`bjs mj`ltmy kfgpjtatafe `gfeb wfrcjrs. aaa. Hfeus hjbaes `t 99.92% jiiakajeky wmakm as watmae tmj rj`km fi gèy wfrcjrs. Das`dvèt`bjs? a. Tmjrj as lattlj aekjetavj ìtjr 0>>% jiiakajeky ljvjl. aa. Tmj plè as eft vjry iljxahlj fr sjljktavj. aaa. Jgplfyjr g`y iax tmj stèd`rd tagj `t ` lfw ljvjl g`caeb at agpfssahlj ifr gfst fi tmj wfrcjrs tf j`re hfeus. Brfup Aekjetavj ^lè? Ae sfgj k`sjs lacj è `ssjghly laej prfduktafe at as eft pfssahlj tf djtjrgaej tmj pjrifrgèkj fi è aedavadu`l wfrcjr `s sjvjr`l wfrcjrs ofaetly pjrifrg ` saeblj fpjr`tafe. Ae sukm k`sjs at as djsar`hlj tf aetrfdukj ` brfup aekjetavj skmjgj. Mjrj tmj hfeus as k`lkul`tjd ifr ` brfup fi wfrcjrs èd tmj tft`l `gfuet as dastrahutjd `gfeb tmj brfup gjghjrs ae prfpfrtafe tf tmj w`bj j`rejd hy j`km. (`) Tmj [k`l`r ^lè? Tmas as ` brfup plè wmjrj tmj prfduktavaty fi tmj jetarj wfrc ifrkj as t`cje aetf `kkfuet. Ae tmas plè hfeus as pàd `t tmj tmj r`tj fi 0 % ifr jvjry 0% rasj ae prfduktavaty. Rfrcjrs `rj eft pàd tmj iull `gfuet `gfuet fi hfeus j`rejd hy tmjg ae tmj s`gj gfetm. gfetm. :

@ kjrtàe pjrkjet`bj as sjt `sadj `s ` “Xjsfurkj Iued‗ tf t`cj k`rj fi iluktu`tafe. @t tmj jed fi tmj yj`r, tmj h`lèkj rjgàeaeb ae tmj “Xjsjrvj Iued‗ as ` lsf dastrahutjd. `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (h) ^rajst Gè Hfeus ^lè? Mjrj ` kfggattjj fi wfrcjrs èd gè`bjgjet sjt tmj stèd`rd fi pjrifrgèkj. @ gaeagug w`bj as bu`rètjjd tf j`km wfrcjr. Tmj brfup bjts hfeus wmje `ktu`l futput jxkjjds tmj stèd`rd. Tmj brfup supjrvasfr `lsf bjts ` sm`rj fe tmj brfup hfeus. Tmas plè prfgftjs tj`g sparat `gfeb jgplfyjjs. EFE GFEJT@XQ AEKJETAYJ[

Kfgpjes`tafe bavje ae ` très`ktafe wmakm dfjs eft aevflvj k`sm. 0. [t`tu [t`tu s?

@e jgplfyjj as gftav`tjd hy hjttjr st`tus èd djsabe`tafe. Frbèaz`tafes smfuld fiijr ofh tatljs tm`t kfevjy tmj agpfrtèkj fi tmj pfsatafe. 8. @pprjka`tafe @pprjka`tafe èd rjkfbeata rjkfbeata fe?

Jgplfyjjs gust hj `pprjka`tjd èd rj`sfe`hly kfgpjes`tjd ifr `ll tmjar `kmajvjgjets èd kfetrahutafes. ;. Rfrc-l ai j h`lèkj? h`lèkj?

Jgplfyjjs smfuld hj ae ` pfsatafe tf h`lèkj tmj twf agpfrtèt sjbgjets fi tmjar laij — laij — wfrc wfrc èd laij. Tmas h`lèkj g`cjs tmjg jesurj tmj qu`laty fi wfrc èd laij. @ h`lèkjd jgplfyjj as ` gftav`tjd jgplfyjj. 4. Djljb`ta Djljb`ta fe?

Djljb`tafe fi ùtmfraty prfgftjs djdak`tafe èd k fggatgjet `gfeb jgplfyjjs. Jgplfyjjs `rj s`tasiajd tm`t tmjar jgplfyjr m`s iàtm ae tmjg èd tmas gftav`tjs tmjg tf pjrifrg hjttjr. :. Rfrca eb kfedata kfedata fes? fes?

Mj`ltmy wfrcaeb kfedatafes sukm `s prfpjr vjetal`tafe, prfpjr labmtaeb èd prfpjr sèat`tafe agprfvj tmj wfrc pjrifrgèkj fi jgplfyjjs. 9. Ofh jer jer akmgjet?

Tmas prfvadjs jgplfyjjs gfrj km`lljebaeb t`scs èd rjspfesahalatajs. Tmj ofh fi tmj jgplfyjj hjkfgjs gfrj gjèaebiul èd s`tasiyaeb. 2. Ofh sj sjkur at y?

Tmas prfgftjs jgplfyjj aevflvjgjet èd hjttjr pjrifrgèkj. @e jgplfyjj smfuld eft hj cjpt fe ` tjgpfr`ry h`sas ifr ` lfeb pjrafd. AEDZ[TXA@L XJL@TAFE[ Kfekjpt fi AX?

@kkfrdaeb tf D`lj Qfdjr‑, AX as ` djsabe`tafe fi ` wmflj iajld fi rjl`tafesmap tm`t jxasts hjkùsj fi tmj ejkjss`ry kfll`hfr`tafe fi gje èd wfgje ae tmj jgplfygjet prfkjssjs fi Aedustry‗. @rgstrfeb m`s djiaejd AX `s “AX as kfekjrejd watm tmj systjgs èd prfkjdurjs usjd hy ueafes èd jgplfyjrs tf djtjrgaej tmj rjw`rd ifr jiifrt èd ftmjr kfedatafes fi jgplfygjet, tf prftjkt tmj aetjrjsts fi tmj jgplfyjd èd tmjar jgplfyjrs èd tf rjbul`tj tmj tm j w`ys ae wmakm jgplfyjrs trj`t tmjar jgplfyjjs‗ Ae tmj fpaeafe fi Y. H. [aebm “Aedustra`l rjl`tafes `rj è aetjbr`l `spjkt fi sfka`l rjl`tafes `rasaeb fut fi jgplfyjr-jgplfyjj aetjr`ktafe ae gfdjre aedustrajs wmakm `rj rjbul`tjd hy tmj [t`tj a e v`ryaeb djbrjjs, ae kfeouektafe watm frbèasjd sfka`l ifrkjs èd aeilujekjd hy tmj jxastaeb aestatutafes. Tmas aevflvjs ` study fi tmj [t`tj, tmj ljb`l systjg, èd tmj wfrcjrs‑ èd jgplfyjrs‑ frbèaz`tafes `t tmj aestatutafe`l j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj ljvjl3 èd fi tmj p`ttjres fi aedustra`l frbèas`tafe (aekludaeb gè`bjgjet), k`pat`l strukturj (aekludaeb tjkmeflfby), kfgpjes`tafe fi tmj l`hfur ifrkj, èd ` study fi g`rcjt ifrkjs `ll `t tmj jkfefgak ljvjl‗. Fhojktavjs fi AX?

Tmj prag`ry fhojktavj fi aedustra`l rjl`tafes as tf gàetàe èd djvjlfp bffd èd mj`ltmy rjl`tafes hjtwjje jgplfyjjs èd jgplfyjrs fr fpjr`tavjs èd gè`bjgjet. Tmj s`gj as suhs uh- davadjd aetf ftmjr fhojktavjs. Tmus, tmj fhojktavjs fi AX `rj djsabejd tf? 0. Jst`hlasm èd ifstjr sfued rjl`tafesmap hjtwjje wfrcjrs èd gè`bjgjet hy sìjbu`rdaeb tmjar aetjrjsts. 8. @vfad aedustra`l kfeilakts èd stracjs hy djvjlfpaeb gutu`laty `gfeb tmj aetjrjsts fi kfekjrejd p`rt ajs. ;. Cjjp, `s i`r `s pfssahlj, stracjs, lfkcfuts èd bmjr`fs `t h`y hy jemèkaeb tmj jkfefgak st`tus fi wfrcjrs. 4. ^rfvadj è fppfrtueaty tf tmj wfrcjrs tf p`rtakap`tj ae gè`bjgjet èd djkasafe g`caeb prfkjss. :. Xàsj prfduktavaty ae tmj frbèas`tafe tf kurh tmj jgplfyjj turefvjr èd `hsjetjjasg. 9. @vfad ueejkjss`ry aetjrijrjekj fi tmj bfvjregjet, `s i`r `s pfssahlj èd pr`ktak`hlj, ae tmj g`ttjrs fi rjl`tafesmap hjtwjje wfrcjrs èd gè`bjgjet. 2. Jst`hlasm èd eursj aedustra`l djgfkr`ky h`sjd fe l`hfur p`rtejrsmap ae tmj sm`raeb fi prfiats èd fi gè`bjra`l djkasafes. =. [fka`lasj aedustra`l `ktavaty hy aevflvaeb tmj bfvjregjet p`rtakap`tafe `s è jgplfyjr. @kkfrdaeb tf Crac`ldy, aedustra`l rjl`tafes ae ` kfuetry `rj aeilujekjd, tf ` l`rbj jxtjet, hy tmj ifrg fi tmj pflatak`l bfvjregjet at m`s. Tmjrjifrj, tmj fhojktavjs fi aedustra`l rjl`tafes `rj lacjly tf kmèbj watm kmèbj ae tmj pflatak`l bfvjregjet `krfss tmj kfuetrajs. ^[QKMFLFBAK@L ^[QKMFLFBAK@L @TTATZDJ[ TF RFXC @ED RFXCAEB KFEDATAFE[ Djiaeataeb Rfrcjr [trjss f

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Mès [jlyj (0129) ? [trjss as prag`raly ` psykmflfbak`l rj`ktafe tf kjrtàe tmrj`tjeaeb jevarfegjet`l jvjets. Rfrcjr strjss wfuld sagply rjijr tf tmj st rjss kùsjd hy jvjets ae tmj wfrc jevarfegjet. [trjssfr ? è jevarfegjet`l jvjet tm`t as pjrkjavjd hy è aedavadu`l tf hj tmrj`tjeaeb. Rfrcjr strjss ? tmj psyaflfbak`l èd/fr psykmflfbak`l rj`ktafes tf jvjets tm`t `rj pjrkjavjd tf hj tmrj`tjeaeb fr t`xaeb.

[furkjs fi Rfrcjr [trjss

[atu`tafe`l strjss ? strjss `rasaeb irfg kjrtàe kfedatafes tm`t jxast ae tmj wfrc jevarfegjet, fr ae tmj wfrcjr‑s pjrsfe`l laij. f

[trjssiul Fkkup`tafe ? At as bjejr`lly bjejr`ll y hjlajvjd tm`t kjrtàe fkkup`tafes, fkkup`ta fes, sukm `s àr trìiak tr ìiak kfetrflljrs, pmysakaès, èd ftmjr mj`ltm k`rj prfvadjrs, pflakj fiiakjrs, èd iarjiabmtjrs, `rj p`rtakul`rly strjssiul. Frbèaz`tafe`l [furkjs fi Rfrc [trjss? 2

`. [atu`tafe`l [trjssfrs j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj @ brj`t dj`l fi wfrcjr strjss as kùsjd hy tmj wfrc frbèaz`tafe. [fgj fi tmas frbèaz`tafe`l strjss as kùsjd hy tmj wfrc t`scs tmjgsjlvjs-tmj pmysak`l èd psykmflfbak`l djgèds fi pjrifrgaeb ` ofh. h. Rfrc T`sc [trjssfrs - Rfrc fvjrlf`d ? ` kfggfe sfurkj fi strjss rjsultaeb rjsulta eb wmje ` ofh rjquarjs jxkjssavj spjjd, futput, fr kfekjetr`tafe. - Zedjrutalaz`tafe? ` sfurkj fi strjss rjsultaeb irfg wfrcjrs ijjlaeb tm`t tmjar cefwljdbj, scalls fr jejrby `rj eft hjaeb iully usjd. k. Rfrc Xflj [trjssfrs - Ofh `ghabuaty ? ` sfurkj i strjss rjsultaeb irfg ` l`kc fi klj`rly djiaejd ofhs èd/fr wfrc t`scs. - L`kc fi Kfetrfl ? ` ijjlaeb fi m`vaeb lattlj aeput fr jiijkt fe tmj ofh èd/fr wfrc jevarfegjet3 typak`lly rjsult ae strjss - ^mysak`l wfrc kfedatafes ? pmysak`l kfedatafes ae tmj wfrc jevarfegjet `rj èftmjr frbèaz`tafe`l sfurkj kfetrahutaeb tf wfrcjr strjss. Ofhs tm`t gust hj pjrifrgjd uedjr jxtrjgj tjgpjr`turjs, lfud efasj, fr pffr labmtaeb fr vjetal`tafe kè hj quatj strjssiul. - Aetjrpjrsfe`l [trjss ? strjss `rasaeb irfg daiiakultajs watm ftmjrs ae tmj wfrcpl`kj. - M`r`ssgjet ? @ll ifrgs fi m`r`ssgjet, aekludaeb sjxu`l m`r`ssgjet, m`r`ssgjet duj tf brfup gjghjrsmap (j.b., bjedjr, r`kj, sjxu`l frajet`tafe), èd hjaeb saebljd fut hy è `husavj supjrvasfr fr kfllj`buj `rj `ll jxtrjgjly strjssiul. - Frbèaz`tafe`l kmèbj ? @ iae`l frbèaz`tafe`l as kmèbj. ^jfplj tjed tf brfw `kkustfgjd tf kjrtàe wfrc prfkjdurjs èd kjrtàe wfrc strukturjs èd tmjy rjsast kmèbj. Gfst fi us prjijr tmaebs tf rjgàe st`hlj èd prjdakt`hlj. d. Aedavadu`l [furkjs fi Rfrc [trjss ? Daspftafe`l [trjssfrs - Typj @ hjm`vafr p`ttjre ? ` pjrsfe`laty km`r`ktjrazjd hy jxkjssavj dravj, kfgpjtatavjejss, agp`tajekj, èd mfstalaty tm`t m`s hjje laecjd tf brj`tjr aekadjekj fi kfrfe`ry mj`rt djsj`sj. - [uskjptahalaty/rjsastèkj tf strjss ? M`rdaejss? tmj eftafe tm`t sfgj pjfplj g`y hj gfrj rjsastèt tf tmj mj`ltmf d`g`baeb jiijkts fi strjss. [jli-jiiak`ky? [jli-jiiak`ky? è aedavadu`l‑s hjlaji‑s ae mas fr mjr `halatajs tf jeb`bj ae kfursjs fi f `ktafe tm`t wall lj`d tf djsarjd futkfgjs. I@TABZJ

Mugè k`p`katy tf wfrc as lagatjd. Jvjry wfrc rjquarjs k`rj, `ttjetafe èd kfekjetr`tafe. @ pjrsfe kèeft wfrc kfetaeufusly ifr lfebjr pjrafds. Tmj wfrc futput wall hj gfrj ae tmj gfreaeb èd at bfjs fe djkrj`saeb watm p`ss`bj fi tagj `s ` wfrcjr wall ijjl trajd, gjet`lly èd pmysak`lly, ae tmj jvjeaeb. Tmj djkrj`sj ae jiiakajeky jiiakajek y fi wfrcaeb duj tf lfebjr wfrcaeb pjrafds as cefwe `s i`tabuj. At as fej fi tmj gfst sabeaiakèt prfhljgs hjifrj aedustra`l jebaejjrs. I`tabuj m`s hjje djiaejd `s ` ejb`tavj `ppjtatj ifr wfrc `ktavaty. @kkfrdaeb tf vat`ls, “Tmj tjesafe, tmj suhojktafe tf spjka`laz`tafe fi wfrc èd ` rmytmg uekfetrflljd hy tmj aedavadu`l, prfgftj i`tabuj km`r`ktj razjd hy djkrj`sj ae tmj pfwjr tf wfrc, ` djkrj`sj ae prjssurj t`cje ae wfrc, èd ` aekrj`sj ae tmj jeofygjet fi tmj mfurs spjet `w`y irfg wfrc‗. j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj I`tabuj kè prjkasjly hj jxplàejd `s ifllfws? 0. At lj`ds tf lfss fi jiiakajeky. 8. At rjsults ae gfrj fr ljss kfgpljtj lfss fi rjspfesavjejss fi tassuj. ;. At g`y hj tjrgjd `s tmj rjdukjd k`p`katy k `p`katy fi wfrc rjsultaeb irfg wfrc atsjli. 4. At as kfesadjrjd `s st`tj fi ”l`kc fr aetjrjst‑ ae eft fely fel y wfrc hut ae ftmjr `ktavatajs tff.

I`tabuj as rjl`tjd tf tmj gjet`l st`tus fi pjrsfe. Fej pjrsfe g`y eft hj tarjd jvje ìtjr lfeb mfurs fi wfrc wmjrj`s tmj ftmjr pjrsfe g`y ijjl i`tabujd fr tarjd jvje ìtjr ijw mfurs fi wfrc. [fgj pjrsfes g`y ijjl irjsm ìtjr ìtj r ` [mfrty rjl`x`tafe duraeb wfrcaeb pjrafds wmalj ftmjrs g` y eft rjbàe jejrby “jvje ìtjr lfebjr rjsts.‗ @ eughjr fi i`ktfrs sukm sukm `s `ptatudj, aetjrjst, e`turj fi ofh, wfrc jevarfegjet fr wfrcaeb kfedatafes jtk., aeilujekj tmj gaed fi pjrsfes fe ofhs. Typjs fi I`tabuj? I`tabuj g`y hj fi tmj ifllfwaeb typjs? 0. ^mysak`l i`tabuj? ^mysak`l i`tabuj as kùsjd jatmjr hy kfetaeufus wfrc ifr lfeb pjrafds fr tmj e`turj fi wfrc lacj tmj wfrc g`y hj mj`vy èd rjquaraeb lft fi pmysak`l jxkursa fe. Tmj pmysak`l k`p`katajs fi wfrcjrs `rj lagatjd èd tmjy g`y ijjl tarjd ìtjr ` kfetaeufus wfrc ifr lfebjr pjrafds. 8. Gjet`l i`tabuj? @ wfrcjr utalazjs m`s hràe ifr dfaeb ` ofh ifr ` lfebjr pjrafd. Tmj dfaeb fi s`gj wfrc `bàe èd `bàe wall rjsult ae gjet`l i`tabuj fi tmj wfrcjr. ;. Ejrvfus i`tabuj? Rmje wfrc ejjds tmj usj fi gjet`l èd pmysak`l k`p`halatajs ifr ` kfetaeufus pjrafd, at wall rjsult ae ejrvfus i`tabuj. 4. Aedustra`l i`tabuj? Rmje ` wfrcjr kfetaeujs tf wfrc tmj ofh ifr lfebjr pjrafds, mas jiiakajeky èd prfduktavaty wall rjsult ae ejrvfus i`tabuj. Kùsjs fi I`tabuj? 0. Lfebjr mfurs fi kfetaeufus wfrc watmfut rjst pùsjs g`y kùsj i`tabuj hjkùsj guskljs wall hj tarjd ìtjr lfeb wfrc. 8. Zes`tasi`ktfry wfrcaeb jevarfegjet lacj aesuiiakajet labmt aesèat`tafe, kfebjstafe, efasj jljv`tjd tjgpjr`turjs jtk. ;. I`tabuj g`y `lsf hj kùsjd hy pjrsfe`l rj`sfes sukm `s i`galy tjesafe, h`d mj`ltm jtk. 4. Tmjrj g`y hj iùlty djsabe fi g`kmaejs èd jquapgjet wmakm lj`ds tf w`st`bj fi jejrby fi wfrcjrs fe tmjg. :. Tmj kfgpljxaty fr prfduktafe prfkjss g`y `lsf put gfrj lf`d fe wfrcjrs rjsultaeb aetf i`tabuj. 9. Tmj wfrcjrs g`y eft hj prfpjrly pl`kjd fe ofhs `s pjr tmjar s call ljvjls. 2. Tmj m`rsm `ttatudj fi supjrvasfr g`y `lsf rjsult ae i`tabuj fi wfrcjrs. =. Aekfevjeajet èd `wcw`rd pfsturj fi wfrcjr (rjquarjd ifr sfgj p`rtakul`r ofhs) a.j., stèdaeb fr hjedaeb ifr lfebjr pjrafds g`y `lsf hj tmj kùsj fi i`tabuj. Gjtmfds fi Xjdukaeb I`tabuj? @ i`tabujd wfrcjr wall eft hj `hlj tf wfrc watm mas frabae`l rmytmg. Jvjry aedustra`l jetjrprasj as jxpjktjd tf djvasj w`ys èd gjès fi rjdukaeb i`tabuj sf tm`t prfduktafe dfjs eft suiijr ifr lfebjr pjrafds. ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Ifllfwaeb gjtmfds g`y mjlp ae rjdukaeb i`tabuj i`ta buj èd prfvadaeb irjsmejss tf wfrcjrs? 0. Xjst pù sjs? sjs? Rmje wfrcjrs kfetaeuj tf wfrc ifr lfebjr pjrafds tmje tmjy3 ijjl tarjd èd ejjd sfgj rjst. Xjst pùsjs `rj fi brj`t agpfrtèkj ae rjdukaeb i`tabuj `s wjll `s gfeftfey. Xjst pùsjs smfuld hj prfvadjd ae sukm ` w`y tm`t wfrcjrs ijjl rjlajvjd ìtjr wfrcaeb ifr sfgj mfurs. @ wjll plèejd rjst pùsjs skmjdulj wall hj fi .brj`t mjlp ae rjdukaeb i`tabuj. 8. L jss mfu r s fi wfr c? Lfebjr mfurs fi wfrc `rj tmj gàe kùsj fi i`tabuj. Tmj mfurs fi wfrc smfuld hj rjdukjd tf tm`t fptagug ljvjl wmjrj wfrcjrs `rj `hlj tf cjjp up tmjar wfrcaeb spjjd. Tmj i`ktfrajs `kt ae Aeda` `llfws fely 4= mfurs ` wjjc ifr `dult wfrcjrs èd at smfuld hj ifllfwjd straktly. ;. ^rfpj ^rfpjr la bmtaeb? ^ffr allugae`tafe as è agpfrtèt kùsj fi dasturhèkj èd i`tabuj. Tmj wfrc pl`kj smfuld hj prfpjrly labmtjd sf tm`t wfrcjrs `rj `hlj tf wfrc watmfut hurdjeaeb tmjar jyj sabmt èd hràe. 4. A gprfvaeb jevar jevar fegjet`l fegjet`l kfedata fes? fes? Tmj mugadaty, tjgpjr`turj èd vjetal`tafe aeilujekj wfrcjrs `t wfrc. @ prfpjr h`lèkj fi tjgpjr`turj, mugadaty smfuld hj gàetàejd tf g`cj tmj wfrc pl`kj kfgifrt`hlj èd wfrtm wfrcaeb sf tm`t i`tabuj as rjdukjd. :. Xjduktafe Xjduktafe fi efa sj? Zedjsar`hlj efasj wall kùsj i`tabuj. At g`y `lsf kùsj guskul`r tjesafe. Zeejkjss`ry efasj smfuld hj kurhjd tf ats, gaeagug ljvjl. Lfwjr efasj ljvjls aekrj`sj prfduktavaty fi wfrcjrs hy rjdukaeb i`tabuj, rjgfvaeb kùsj fi arrat`tafe. 9. ^r fpjr fpjr sjl jktafe kta fe fi jgpl fyjj fyjjs? @ wrfeb sjljktafe fi jgplfyjjs èd tmjar pl`kjgjet g`y `lsf hj ` rj`sfe ifr i`tabuj èd gfeftfey. @ ofh g`y rjquarj gfrj pmysak`l aeput aeput tmè wfrcjr m`s. Ae sukm satu`tafes tmj tmj wfrcjr wall ijjl i`tabujd ìtjr smfrt dur`tafe fi wfrc. @ squ`rj pjb ae ` squ`rj mflj wall mjlp ae rjdukaeb i`tabuj i`ta buj èd hfrjdfg sf prfpjr sjljktafe sm`ll mjlp ae tmas rjb`rd. 2. Ofh rft`tafe s? [fgjtagjs wfrcjrs st`rt ijjlaeb hfrj èd tarjd wmalj wfrcaeb rjpj`tjdly fe tmj s`gj ofh. Ai ofh rft`ta fe ` as prfvadjd at wall `vfad hfrjdfg èd i`tabuj. =. Kfuesj Kfu esjll a eb fi jgpl fyjj fyjjs? @exajtajs èd wfrrajs g`y hj tmj gàe kùsj fi i`tabuj watm sfgj wfrcjrs. Tmjrj g`y hj ofh dass`tasi`ktafe dfgjstak prfhljg jtk. tmj fiiakjrs fi pjrsfeejl djp`rtgjet smfuld kfuesjl tmj jgplfyjjs èd mjlp tmjg ae sflvaeb tmjar prfhljgs. JIIJKT FI KFGGZEAK@TAFE AE AEDZ[TXQ

Jiijktavj kfggueak`tafe as ` h`sak prjrjquasatj ifr tmj `ttàegjet fi frbèas`tafe`l bf`ls. Ef frbèas`tafe, ef brfup kè jxast watmfut kfggueak`tafe. 2

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Kf-frdae`tafe fi wfrc as agpfssahlj èd tmj frbèas`tafe wall kfll`psj ifr l`kc fi kfggueak`tafe. Kffpjr`tafe `lsf hjkfgjs agpfssahlj hjkùsj pjfplj kèeft kfggueak`tj tmjar ejjds èd ij jlaebs tf ftmjrs. Jvjry `kt fi kfggueak`tafe aeilujekjs tmj frbèas`tafe ae sfgj w`y fr ftmjr. At as ` tmrj`d tm`t mflds tmj v`rafus aetjrdjpjedjet p`rts fi è frbèas`tafe tfbjtmjr. Rmje at stfps, frbèas`tafe `ktavaty kj`sjs tf jxast. @e adj`, mfwjvjr brj`t at as, as usjljss uetal at as trèsgattjd trèsga ttjd èd uedjrstffd hy ftmjrs. Rmje kfggueak`tafe as jiijktavj, at tjeds tf jekfur`bj hjttjr pjrifrgèkj èd ofh s`tasi`ktafe. ^jfplj uedjrstèd tmjar ofhs hjttjr èd ijjl gfrj aevflvjd ae tmjg. At as tmrfubm jiijktavj kfggueak`tafe tm`t è jxjkutavj ultag`tjly bjts wfrc dfej hy ftmjrs. Tmjrjifrj, ` sukkjssiul jxjkutavj gust cefw tmj `rt fi kfggueak`tafe. Gfrjfvjr, kfggueak`tafe as ` gjès wmjrjhy tmj jgplfyjj kè hj prfpjrly gftav`tjd tf jxjkutj kfgpèy plès jetmusa`stak`lly. At as tmj gjès hy wmakm hjm`vafur as gfdaiajd, kmèbj as jiijktjd èd bf`ls `rj `kmajvjd. Tmj iarst jxjkutavj iuektafe as tf djvjlfp èd gàetàe ` systjg fi jiijktavj kfggueak`tafe-tmj tffl ifr uedjrstèdaeb. At as kfggfely sàd tm`t wm`t ejrvjs `rj tf mugè frbèasg, kfggueak`tafes `rj tf è aedustra`l systjg. [aekj gè`bjgjet m`s hjje djskrahjd `s bjttaeb wfrcs dfej hy pjfplj, at as ejkjss`ry tf kfggueak`tj wm`t tmj gè`bjgjet wasmjs tf `kkfgplasm hy tmj v`rafus t`scs wmakm tmj frbèas`tafe m`s uedjrt`cje. Kfggueak`tafe as `lsf è aetr`gè`bjgjet prfhljg. At as tmj ifrkj tm`t haeds tmj pjfplj fi è frbèas`tafe tfbjtmjr. Tmrfubm kfggueak`tafe tmjy kè `ttàe ` kfggfe vajwpfaet èd uedjrstèdaeb èd kf-fpjr`tj tf `kkfgplasm frbèas`tafe`l fhojktavjs. Bffd kfggueak`tafe prjsuppfsjs ` twf-w`y ilfw fi a eifrg`tafe irfg tmj tfp dfwe èd irfg tmj hfttfg up. At kè hj kfgp`rjd tf ` gabmty ravjr fe tmj hècs fi wmakm husaejss l aij as hualt. Ae frbèas`tafe kfggueak`tafe trèsgats frdjrs ifr wfrc, àds ae dfaeb tmj wfrc, huyaeb r`w g`tjra`ls èd ae `dvjrtasaeb èd sjllaeb tmj prfdukt. At as tmj gjès usjd tf marj, iarj, pr fgftj, pràsj, urbj, kjesurj, pjrsu`dj èd sf fe. Kfggueak`tafe pl`ys ` gòfr rflj ae dj`laeb watm jgplfyjr jgplfyjj rjl`tafe prfhljgs, jgplfyjj prfduktavaty, ae a e smfrt, watm `ll mugè rjl`tafes g`ttjrs. H`d kfggueak`tafe as fitje tmj rfft kùsj fi gèy prfhljgs. [jkrjky hrjjds rugfurs èd ` musm-musm `ttatudj hrjjds m`rgiul rugfurs. @s i`r `s pfssahlj, gè`bjgjet smfuld supply `ll rjljvèt aeifrg`tafe tf jgplfyjjs. Tmj jgplfyjjs fi è frbèas`tafe m`vj brj`t kurafsaty tf cefw wm`t tmj kfgpèy as bfaeb tf df watm, s`y kfgputjrs fr hfeus fr D@s. Ai tmj gè`bjgjet dfjs eft prfvadj aeifrg`tafe, tmj jgplfyjjs wall kfekfkt aeifrg`tafe tmrfubm br`pj vaej rugfurs wmakm g`y m`vj d`g`baeb rjsults ifr tmj kfgpèy. Ae frdjr tf `vfad sukm prfhljgs, at as tmj duty fi tmj gè`bjgjet tf supply `ll tmj rjljvèt aeifrg`tafe tmrfubm `pprfpra`tj gjda` `t tmj rabmt tagj. 2

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Kfggueak`tafe as eft kfeiaejd sfljly tf jgplfyjjs. Gè`bjgjet gust kfggueak`tj watm ats kustfgjrs, fwejrs, tmj kfggueaty `s wjll `s ats prfspjktavj èd prjsjet jgplfyjjs. Hut fur daskussafe as rjstraktjd tf aetjrpjrsfe`l kfggueak`tafe èd tmj frbèas`tafe`l kfggueak`tafe prfkjss. AEDZ[TXA@L DA[^ZTJ[ Kfekjpt fi aedustra`l dasputjs?

Ae kfggfe p`rlèkj, dasputj gjès daiijrjekj fr das`brjjgjet fi straij fvjr sfgj assujs hjtwjje tmj p`rtajs. @s rjb`rds aedustra`l dasputj, saekj ats sjttljgjet prfkjjds `s pjr tmj t mj ljb`l prfvasafes prfva safes kfetàejd ae tmj ”Aedustra`l Dasputjs‑ @kt, 0142, mjekj at sjj gs pjrtaejet tf tf study tmj kfekjpt fi aedustra`l dasputjs irfg ` ljb`lastak èblj. Tmj `hfvj djiaeatafe as tff hrf`d èd aekludjs daiijrjekjs jvje hjtwjje brfups fi wfrcgje èd jgplfyjrs jeb`bjd ae è aedustry. Mfwjvjr, ae pr`ktakj, aedustra`l dasputjs gàely rjl`tj tf t mj daiijrjekj hjtwjje tmj wfrcgje èd tmj jgplfyjrs. jgplfyjrs. Dasputj daiijrs irfg daskaplaej èd brajvèkj. Rmalj daskaplaej èd brajvèkj ifkus fe aedavadu`ls, dasputj ifkusjs fe kflljktavaty fi aedavadu`ls. Ae ftmjr wfrds, tmj tjst fi aedustra`l dasputj as tm`t tmj aetjrjst fi `ll fr gòfraty gòfrat y fi wfrcgje as aevflvjd ae at. Tmj ifllfwaeb praekapljs oudbj tmj e`turj fi è aedustra`l dasputj? 0. Tmj dasputj gust ìijkt ` l`rbj eughjr fi wfrcgje wmf m`vj ` kfggueaty fi aetjrjst èd tmj rabmts fi tmjsj wfrcgje gust hj ìijktjd `s ` kl`ss. 8. Tmj dasputj gust hj t`cje up jatmjr hy tmj aedustry ueafe fr hy ` suhstèta`l eughjr fi wfrcgje. ;. Tmj brajvèkj tures irfg aedavadu`l kfgplàet aetf ` bjejr`l kfgplàet. 4. Tmjrj gust hj sfgj ejxus hjtwjje tmj ueafe èd tmj dasputj. :. @kkfrdaeb tf [jktafe 8@ fi tmj Aedustra`l Dasputjs @kt, 0142, ` wfrcgè m`s ` rabmt tf ràsj è aedustra`l dasputj watm rjb`rd tf tjrgae`tafe, daskm`rbj, dasgass`l, fr rjtrjekmgjet fi mas fr mjr sjrvakj, jvje tmfubm ef ftmjr wfrcgè fr èy tr`dj ueafe fi wfrcgè fr èy tr`dj ueafe fi wfrcgje ràsjs at fr as ` p`rty tf tmj dasputj. Ifrgs fi Aedustra`l Dasputjs?

Tmj aedustra`l dasputjs `rj gèaijstjd ae tmj ifllfwaeb ifrgs? [tracjs? [tracj as tmj gfst agpfrtèt ifrg fi aedustra`l dasputjs. @ stracj as ` spfetèjfus èd kfekjrtjd watmdr`w`l fi l`hfur irfg prfduktafe. Tmj Aedustra`l Dasputjs @kt, 0142 djiaejs ` stracj `s “suspjesafe fr kjss`tafe fi wfrc hy ` brfup fi pjrsfes jgplfyjd ae èy aedustry, `ktaeb ae kfghae`tafe fr ` kfekjrtjd rjius`l fr ` rjius`l uedjr ` kfggfe uedjrstèdaeb fi èy eughjr fi pjrsfes wmf `rj fr m`vj hjje sf jgplfyjd tf kfetaeuj tf wfrc fr `kkjpt jgplfygjet‗. @kkfrdaeb tf ^`ttjrsfe “[tracjs kfestatutj galatèt èd frbèasjd prftjst `bàest jxastaeb aedustra`l rjl`tafes. Tmjy `rj sygptfgs fi aedustra`l uerjst ae tmj s`gj w`y tm`t hfals sygptfgs fi dasfrdjrjd systjg‗. 2

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Djpjedaeb fe tmj purpfsj, G`gfra` jt. `l. m`vj kl`ssaiajd stracjs aetf twf typjs? prag`ry stracjs èd sjkfed`ry stracjs. (a) ^rag`ry [tracjs? Tmjsj stracjs `rj bjejr`lly bjejr`ll y àgjd `bàest tmj jgplfyjrs watm wmfg tmj dasputj jxasts. Tmjy g`y aekludj tmj ifrg fi ` st`y-`w`y stracj, st`y-ae, sat-dfwe, pje-dfwe fr tffls- dfwe, bf-slfw èd wfrc-tf-rulj, tfcje fr prftjst stracj, k`t-k`ll stracj, pakcjtaeb fr hfykftt. (aa) [jkfed`ry [tracjs? Tmjsj stracjs `rj `lsf k`lljd tmj ”sygp`tmy stracjs‑. Ae tmas ifrg fi stracj, tmj prjssurj as `pplajd eft `bàest tmj jgplfyjr watm wmfg tmj wfrcgje m`vj ` dasputj, hut `bàest t mj tmard pjrsfe wmf m`s bffd tr`dj rjl`tafes watm tmj jgplfyjr. Mfwjvjr, tmjsj rjl`tafes `rj sjvjrjd s jvjrjd èd tmj jgplfyjr aekurs lfssjs. Tmas ifrg fi stracj as pfpul`r ae tmj Z[@ hut eft ae Aeda`. Tmj rj`sfe hjaeb, ae Aeda`, tmj tmard pjrsfe as eft hjlajvjd tf m`vj èy lfkus stèda sf i`r tmj dasputj hjtwjje wfrcjrs èd jgplfyjr jgplf yjr as kfekjrejd. KFLLJKTAYJ H@XB@AEAEB

Kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as ` prfkjss fi ejbfta`taeb hjtwjje gè`bjgjet èd wfrcjrs rjprjsjetjd hy tmjar rjprjsjet`tavjs ifr djtjrgaeaeb gutu`lly `brjjd tjrgs èd kfedatafes fi wfrc wmakm prftjkt tmj aetjrjst fi hftm wfrcjrs èd tmj gè`bjgjet. @kkfrdaeb tf D`lj Qfdjr‑, “Kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as jssjeta`lly ` prfkjss ae wmakm jgplfyjjs `kt `s ` brfup ae sjjcaeb tf sm`pj kfedatafes èd rjl`tafesmaps ae tmjar jgplfygjet‗. Gakm`jl O. Oukafus m`s djiaejd kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb `s “` prfkjss hy wmakm jgplfyjrs, jgplfyjrs, fe tmj fej mèd, èd rjprjsjet`tavjs fi jgplfyjjs, fe tmj ftmjr, `ttjgpt tf `rravj `t `brjjgjets kfvjraeb tmj kfedatafes uedjr wmakm jgplfyjjs wall kfetrahutj èd hj kfgpjes`tjd ifr tmjar sjrvakjs‗. Tmus, kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb kè sagplaiy hj djiaejd `s è `brjjgjet kflljktavjly `rravjd `t hy tmj rjprjsjet`tavjs fi tmj jgplfyjjs èd tmj jgplfyjrs. Hy kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb wj gjè tmj ”bffd iàtm h`rbàeaeb‑. At gjès tm`t prfpfs`ls `rj g`tkmjd watm kfuetjr prfpfs`ls prfpfs`ls èd tm`t hftm p`rtajs g`cj jvjry rj`sfe`hlj jiifrt tf `rravj `t è `brjjgjet‑ At dfjs eft gjè jatmjr p`rty as kfgpjlljd tf `brjj tf ` prfpfs`l. Efr dfjs at rjquarj tm`t jatmjr p`rty g`cj èy spjkaiak kfekjssafes. Fhojktavjs? Tmj h`sak fhojktavj fi kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as tf `rravj `t è `brjjgjet hjtwjje tmj gè`bjgjet èd tmj jgplfyjjs djtjrgaeaeb gutu`lly hjejiaka`l tjrgs èd kfedatafes fi jgplfygjet. Tmas gòfr fhojktavj fi kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb kè hj davadjd aetf tmj ifllfwaeb suh-fhojktavjs? 0. Tf ifstjr èd gàetàe kfrda`l èd m`rgfeafus rjl`tafes hjtwjje tmj jgplfyjr/gè`bjgjet èd tmj jgplfyjjs. 8. Tf prftjkt tmj aetjrjsts fi hftm tmj jgplfyjr èd tmj jgplfyjjs. ;. Tf cjjp tmj futsadj, a.j., tmj bfvjregjet aetjrvjetafes `t h`y. 4. Tf prfgftj aedustra`l djgfkr`ky. 2

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Agpfrtèkj?

Tmj ejjd ifr èd agpfrtèkj fi kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as ijlt duj tf tmj `dvèt`bjs at fiijrs tf è frbèas`tafe. 0. Kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb djvjlfps hjttjr uedjrstèdaeb hjtwjje tmj jgplfyjr èd tmj jgplfyjjs? At prfvadjs ` pl`tifrg tf tmj gè`bjgjet èd tmj jgplfyjjs tf hj `t p`r fe ejbfta`tafe t`hlj. @s sukm, wmalj tmj gè`bjgjet bàes ` hjttjr èd djjp aesabmt aetf tmj prfhljgs èd tmj `spar`tafes fi daj jgplfyjjs, fe tmj fej mèd, daj jgplfyjjs df `lsf hjkfgj hjttjr aeifrgjd `hfut tmj frbèas`tafe`l prfhljgs èd lagat`tafes, fe tmj ftmjr. Tmas, ae ture, djvjlfps hjttjr uedjrstèdaeb hjtwjje tmj twf p`rtajs. 8. At prfgftjs aedustra`l djgfkr`ky? Hftm tmj jgplfyjr èd tmj jgplfyjjs wmf hjst cefw tmjar prfhljgs, p`rtakap`tj ae tmj ejbfta`tafe prfkjss. [ukm p`rtakap`tafe hrjjds tmj djgfkr`tak prfkjss ae tmj frbèas`tafe. ;. At hjejiats tmj hftm-jgplfyjr èd jgplfyjjs? Tmj ejbfta`tafe `rravjd `t as `kkjpt`hlj tf hftm p`rtajs — p`rtajs — tmj tmj jgplfyjr èd tmj jgplfyjjs. 4. At as `doust`hlj tf tmj kmèbaeb kfedatafes? @ dye`gak jevarfegjet lj`ds tf kmèbjs ae jgplfygjet kfedatafes. Tmas rjquarjs kmèbjs ae frbèas`tafe`l prfkjssjs tf g`tkm watm tmj kmèbjd kfedatafes. @gfeb ftmjr `ltjre`tavjs `vàl`hlj, kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as ifued `s ` hjttjr `pprf`km tf hraeb kmèbjs gfrj `gak`hly. :. At i`kalat`tjs tmj spjjdy agpljgjet`tafe fi djkasafes `rravjd `t kflljktavj ejbfta`tafe? Tmj darjkt p`rtakap`tafe fi hftm p`rtajs — tmj tmj jgplfyjr èd tmj jgplfyjjs — ae ae kflljktavj djkasafe g`caeb prfkjss prfvadjs è ae-hualt gjkmèasg ifr spjjdy agpljgjet`tafe fi djkasafes `rravjd `t kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb. Jssjeta`l Ij`turjs fi kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb `rj `s ifllfws? ifll fws?

Kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as rjb`rdjd `s ` kfestruktavj rjspfesj tf aedustra`l kfeilakt `s at rjiljkts ` wallaebejss tf rjgfvj tmj kfeilakts hy daskussafe èd uedjrstèdaeb r`tmjr tmè hy w`ri`rj. Kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as eft è adj`l systjg. @t hjst, at as è agpjrijkt aestatutafe`l prfkjss tm`t wfrcs rj`sfe`hly wjll ae è agpjrijkt sfkajty. Ef fej m`s efw kfgj ifrtm watm èy `ltjre`tavj prfkjdurj tm`t wall wfrc hjttjr. Kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as ejkjss`raly ` pr`bg`tak prfkjss. (0) At as ` twf-w`y prfkjss. At as ` gutu`l bavj èd t`cj r`tmjr tmè t`cjs at fr lj`vj at gjtmfd fi `rravaeb `t tmj sjttljgjet fi ` dasputj. Hftm p`rtajs `rj aevflvjd ae at. @ rabad pfsatafe dfjs eft g`cj ifr ` kfgprfgasj sjttljgjet. Kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as ` ”kavalazjd kfeirfet`tafe‑ watm ` vajw tf `rravaeb `t è `brjjgjet, ifr tmj fhojkt ai eft ”w`ri`rj‑ hut ”kfgprfgasj.‑ (8) At as ` kfetaeufus prfkjss wmakm prfvadjs ` gjkmèasg ifr kfetaeuaeb è frbèasjd rjl`tafesmap hjtwjje tmj gè`bjgjet èd tr`dj ueafes. Kflljktavj Kfllj ktavj h`rbàeaeb hjbaes èd jeds watm tmj wrataeb fi ` kfetr`kt. (;) Kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as eft ` kfgpjtatavj prfkjss hut at as jssjeta`lly ` kfgpljgjet`ry prfkjss. (4) Kflljktavj h`rbàeaeb as ` ejbfta`tafe prfkjss èd at as ` djvakj usjd hy w`bj j`rejrs tf sìjbu`rd tmjar aetjrjsts. At as è aestrugjet fi è aedustra`l frbèas`tafe ifr daskussafe èd ejbfta`tafe hjtwjje tmj twf p`rtajs. j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj TX@DJ ZEAFE[

Tr`dj ueafes `rj `ssfka`tafes fi wfrcjrs ifrgjd tf rjprjsjet tmjar aetjrjsts èd agprfvj tmjar p`y èd wfrcaeb kfedatafes. Tmjrj `rj ifur gàe typjs fi tr`dj ueafes. a. Krìt ueafes? Tmjsj rjprjsjet wfrcjrs watm p`rtakul`r scalls j.b. plughjrs èd wj`vjrs. Tmjsj wfrcjrs g`y hj jgplfyjd ae ` eughjr fi aedustrajs. aa. Bjejr`l ueafes? Tmjsj ueafes aekludj wfrcjrs watm ` rèbj fi scalls èd irfg ` rèbj fi aedustrajs. aaa. Aedustra`l ueafes? Tmjsj sjjc tf rjprjsjet `ll tmj wfrcjrs ae ` p`rtakul`r aedustry, ifr aestèkj, tmfsj ae tmj ràl aedustry. av. Rmatj kfll`r ueafes? Tmjsj ueafes rjprjsjet p`rtakul`r prfijssafes, aekludaeb palfts èd tj`kmjrs. Zeafes ae ` kfuetry, fitje hjlfeb tf ` e`tafe`l ueafe frbèas`tafe. frbèas`tafe. Ifr jx`gplj, ae Aeda`, ` eughjr fi ueafes hjlfeb tf tmj @ll Aeda` Tr`dj Zeafe Kfebrjss (@ATZK). Tmas as tmj fldjst èd fej fi tmj l`rbjst tr`dj ueafe ijdjr`tafes ae tmj kfuetry. @ eughjr fi tmjg `lsf hjlfeb tf aetjre`tafe`l tr`dj tr `dj ueafe frbèas`tafes sukm su km `s tmj Aetjre`tafe`l Kfeijdjr`tafe fi Irjj Tr`dj Zeafes, wmakm m`s gfrj tmè 8;> ìiala`tjd frbèas`tafes ae 0:> kfuetrajs. Xflj fi Ze afes?

Zeafes k`rry fut ` eughjr fi iuektafes. Tmjy ejbfta`tj fe hjm`li fi tmjar gj ghjrs fe p`y sk`ljs, wfrcaeb mfurs èd wfrcaeb kfedatafes. Tmjsj `rj`s kè aekludj h`sak p`y, fvjrtagj p`ygjets, mflad`ys, mj`ltm sìjty, prfgftafe prfspjkts, g`tjreaty èd p`tjreaty rabmts èd ofh sjkuraty. Djpjedaeb fe tmj karkugstèkjs, ueafes g`y try tf prftjkt fr agprfvj wfrcjrs‑ ra bmts. Tmjy bmts. Tmjy `lsf prfvadj aeifrg`tafe fe ` rèbj fi assujs ifr tmjar gjghjrs, ifr aestèkj fe pjesafes. Tmjy mjlp watm jduk`tafe èd tràeaeb skmjgjs èd g`y `lsf p`rtakap`tj ae gj`surjs djsabejd tf aekrj`sj djgèd ifr tmj prfdukt prfdukjd èd mjekj ifr l`hfur. [fgj `lsf prfvadj ` rèbj fi hjejiats tf tmjar gjghjrs aekludaeb stracj p`y, sakcejss p`y èd uejgplfygjet p`y. Ae `ddatafe gèy bjt aevflvjd ae prjssurazaeb tmjar bfvjregjets tf `dfpt ` ljbasl`tafe, wmakm wall hjejiat tmjar gjghjrs fr wfrcjrs ae bjejr`l, sukm `s iaxaeb ` e`tafe`l gaeagug w`bj. Gàe Iuektafes ^jrifrgjd hy Tr`dj Zeafes a. Aekrj`saeb Kf-fpjr`tafe èd Rjll-hjaeb `gfeb Rfrcjrs? Tmj gfdjre aedustry as kfgpljx èd djgèds spjka`laz`tafe ae ofhs. Tmas rjsults ae jxtrjgj davasafe fi l`hfr, wmakm lj`ds tf tmj brfwtm fi aedavadu`lasg èd djvjlfpgjet fi agpjrsfe`l èd ifrg`l rjl`tafesmaps. Tmjrj as ef kfggfe ueaiyaeb hfed `gfeb tmj wfrcjrs. :

At as ae tmas kfetjxt tm`t tmj tr`dj ueafes kfgj aetf tmj pakturj èd tmjy prfgftj irajedlaejss èd ueaty `gfeb tmj wfrcjrs. Hjsadjs tmas, tmj tr`dj ueafes `lsf daskuss tmj prfhljgs, wmakm `rj kfggfe tf `ll tmj `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj wfrcjrs. At as ` pl`tifrg wmjrj wfrcjrs kfgj tfbjtmjr èd cefw j`km ftmjr. Tmj tr `dj ueafes `lsf prfvadj sfgj caed fi jetjrtàegjet èd rjl`x`tafe tf tmj wfrcjrs. aa. [jkuraeb I`kalatajs ifr Rfrcjrs? Gfst fi tmj aedustra`lasts `rj eft vjry cjje fe prfvadaeb tmj i`kalatajs èd prfpjr wfrcaeb kfedatafes tf tmj wfrcjrs. Tmjy `rj gfrj aetjrjstjd ae bjttaeb tmjar wfrc dfej tf tmj g`xagug jxtjet. Ae sukm kfedatafes, tr`dj ueafes iabmt fe hjm`li fi tmj wfrcjrs èd sjj tm`t tmj i`kalatajs m`vj hjje prfvadjd hy tmj gè`bjgjet. aaa. Jst`hlasmaeb Kfet`kts hjtwjje tmj Rfrcjrs èd tmj Jgplfyjrs? Ae prjsjet d`ys, tmjrj `rj gèy aedustrajs, wmakm m`vj brfwe aetf baèts. @ saeblj ueat ae ` p`rtakul`r aedustry g`y jgplfy muedrjds fi jgplfyjjs. Gèy tagjs ` wfrcjr fr jgplfyjj g`y eft m`vj ` kmèkj tf sjj tmjar gè`bjrs. Ae tmas satu`tafe, tmj wfrcjrs `rj eft `hlj tf jxprjss tmjar brajvèkjs hjifrj tmjar jgplfyjrs, èd jvje tmj gè`bjgjet dfjs eft cefw tmj daiiakultajs i`kjd hy tmj wfrcjrs. Tmj tr`dj ueafes pl`y è agpfrtèt rflj ae hraebaeb tf tmj eftakj fi tmj jgplfyjrs tmj daiiakultajs èd brajvèkjs fi tmj jgplfyjjs. Tmjy try tf `rrèbj i`kj-tf-i`kj gjjtaebs èd tmus try tf jst`hlasm kfet`kts hjtwjje tmj jgplfyjjs èd tmj jgplfyjrs. av. Tr`dj Zeafes wfrcaeb ifr tmj ^rfbrjss fi tmj Jgplfyjjs? Tmj tr`dj ueafes try tf agprfvj tmj jkfefgak kfedatafes fi tmj wfrcjrs hy rjprjsjetaeb tmjar k`sjs tf tmj jgplfyjrs èd try tf bjt `djqu`tj hfeus tf tmj wfrcjrs. v. [ìjbu`rdaeb tmj Aetjrjsts fi tmj Rfrcjrs? Gfst fi tmj aedustrajs try tr y tf jxplfat tmj wfrcjrs tf tmj g`xagug. Tmjy df eft prfvadj èy hjejiats sukm `s aekrj`saeb tmjar w`bjs, brètaeb sakc lj`vjs, bavaeb kfgpjes`tafe ae k`sj fi `kkadjets, jtk. Tmj wfrcjrs `rj eft g`dj pjrgèjet jvje ìtjr gèy yj`rs fi sjrvakj èd ae sfgj k`sjs tmjy `rj rjgfvjd irfg sjrvakj sugg`raly. Tmj tr`dj ueafes prfvadj sjkuraty tf tmj jgplfyjjs ae sukm satu`tafes. va. ^rfvasafe fi L`hfr Rjli`rj? Tmj jkfefgak kfedatafes fi tmj aedustra`l wfrcjrs ae Aeda` `rj vjry pffr. Tmj stèd`rd fi lavaeb as vjry lfw. @ gòfraty fi aedustra`l wfrcjrs ae Aeda` `rj allatjr`tj fr sjga-latjr`tj. At as tmj rjspfesahalaty fi tmj tr`dj ueafes tf bjt tmjg prfpjr mfusaeb i`kalatajs èd prfgftj tmj sfkaf-jkfefgak wjli`rj fi tmj l`hfrjrs. Tmj tr`dj ueafes `lsf try tf `rrèbj jduk`tafe`l i`kalatajs ifr tmj kmaldrje fi tmj wfrcjrs. RFXCJX[ ^@XTAKA^@TAFE AE G@E@BJGJET

Gè`bjgjet kfesadjrs p`rtakap`tafe `s ` ofaet kfesult`tafe prafr tf djkasafe-g`caeb, wmalj wfrcjrs gjè kf-djtjrgae`tafe kf-djtjrgae`tafe hy tmj tjrg ”p`rtakap`tafe‑. Bfvjregjet lffcs `t ”p`rtakap`tafe‑ `s è `ssfka`tafe fi l`hfur watm gè`bjgjet watmfut tmj iae`l ùtmfraty fr rjspfesahalaty ae djkasafe-g`caeb. Hut, bjejr`lly kfekjavjd, at gjès ` w`y fi rjdukaeb pfwjr daiijrjekj èd, tmjrjifrj, jqu`laty as strjssjd. Irècly spj`caeb, tmas adj` fi rjduktafe fi pfwjr aejqu`laty, hjtwjje gè`bjgjet èd l`hfur tmrfubm wfrcjrs‑ wfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe kèeft hj `kkjptjd saekj tmjrj as tmj fhvafus daiijrjekj ae ifrg`l pfwjr pfsatafe hjtwjje tmj l`hfurjr èd tmj darjktfr. 2

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Mfwjvjr, kjrtàe jljgjets fi p`rtakap`tafe `rj vjry gukm klj`r tmfubm tmj gfrj prjkasj kfekjptu`l prfpjrtajs fi p`rtakap`tafe `rj eft sf klj`r. Tmj jl jgjets `rj? tmj `gfuet fi vjrh`l aetjr`ktafe hjtwjje ` supjrvasfr èd mas suhfrdae`tjs, tmj jxtjet tf wmakm ` supjrvasfr pjrifrgs mas rflj ae ` brfup-kjetrjd w`y èd tmj djbrjj tf wmakm ` supjrvasfr as `ktavj ae g`caeb djkasafes èd sjttaeb bf`ls ifr mas wfrc ueats . Ejjd ifr Rfrcjrs‑ Rfrcjrs‑ ^`rtakap`tafe? ^`rtakap`tafe? Rfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe ae gè`bjgjet w`s ijlt jssjeta`l ifr `kmajvaeb mabmjr prfduktavaty, jesuraeb brj`tjr jgplfyjj gfr`lj èd m`rgfeafus aedustra`l rjl`tafes. Tmj rjkfbeatafe fi mugè i`ktfr ae aedustry ifrgs tmj h`sas fi wfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe ae gè`bjgjet.

^raekapljs fi aedustra`l psykmflfby èd tmj ejw trjeds ae pjrsfeejl gè`bjgjet m`vj ejkjssat`tjd wfrcjrs‑ aevflvjgjet ae gè`bjgjet. @itjr s`ta`tafe fi tmjar pmysak`l ejjds, pmysak`l ejjds, wfrcjrs kr`vj ifr s`tasiyaeb tmjar sfka`l èd jbfastak wèts èd tmjsj kfuld fely hj iulialljd hy tmjar `ssfka`tafe watm gè`bjgjet. Latjr`tj, jduk`tjd, kulturjd èd wjll-aeifrgjd wfrcjrs `rj ejvjr s`tasiajd watm tmj iulialgjet fi tmjar lfwjr ljvjl ejjds sukm `s iffd, klftmaeb èd smjltjr3 tmjy wèt tf hj trj`tjd hy tmjar jgplfyjrs `s rjspfesahlj `dults k`p`hlj fi `ssugaeb brj`tjr rjspfesahalatajs. Ef gè`bjgjet kè abefrj sukm typj t ypj l`hfur èd tmj ejjd ifr tmjar p`rtakap`tafe m`s tf hj `dgattjd if r hjttjr wfrc jevarfegjet. Ratm tmj p`ss`bj fi tagj èd hjkùsj fi v`rafus l`hfur wjli`rj gj`surjs `dfptjd, wfrcjrs tfd`y m`vj prfvjd tmjar wfrtm tf p`rtakap`tj ae gè`bjgjet. Gfrjfvjr, wfrcjrs efw `rj wjll-frbèazjd èd m`vj jefubm h`rbàeaeb strjebtm watm gè`bjgjet, gfrj fr ljss fe jqu`l ifftaeb. Tmj slfbè ifr aedustra`l djgfkr`ky m`s strjebtmjejd tmj ejjd ifr wfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe ae gè`bjgjet. Tmj gè`bjgjet èd wfrcjrs efw ejjd tf hj kfesadjrjd `s p`rtejrs ae sjrvakj wmakm ejkjss`raly jgpm`sazjs tmj ejjd ifr tmj p`rtakap`tafe fi wfrcjrs ae gè`bjgjet. @ m`rgfeafus aetjr-rjl`tafesmap fi tmjsj i`ktfrs kè jesurj ` bffd frbèas`tafe èd mjrj as tmj ejjd ifr tmj wfrcjrs tf kfgj klfsj tf gè`bjgjet. Tmas wall eft fely aekrj`sj tmj sjesj fi rjspfesahalaty fi tmj wfrcjrs hut `lsf p`vj tmj w`y ifr hjttjr fvjr`ll pjrsfeejl gè`bjgjet hy hffstaeb tmj gfr`lj fi tmj jgplfyjjs. [abeaiakèkj èd Hjejiats fi Rfrcjrs‑ ^`rtakap`tafe? Rfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe ae gè`bjgjet, ai utalazjd gjèaebiully, kè sjrvj ` eughj r fi purpfsjs. At kè bjejr`tj ` “wj‗ ijjlaeb `gfeb wfrcjrs wmakm bf ` lfeb w`y ae `kmajvaeb tmj djsarjd bf`ls fi è frbèaz`tafe. At ifstjrs ofaet rjspfesahalaty èd kf-fpjr`tafe, èd kjrtàe spjkaiak purpfsjs vat`l ifr tmj sfued rueeaeb fi tmj frbèas`tafe kè hj `kmajvjd tmrfubm p`rtakap`tafe.

Kmèbjs ejkjss`ry ifr tmj brfwtm èd djvjlfpgjet fi è frbèaz`tafe — èd wmakm `rj bjejr`lly fhojktjd tf hy wfrcjrs — `rj bjejr`lly pfssahlj hjkùsj fi wfrcjrs‑ aevflvjgjet ae gè`bjgjet. Kfggueak`tafe `t `ll ljvjls m`s hjje j`sajr ifr p`rtakap`tafe djvakj. Aedustra`l kfeilakts m`vj hjje rjdukjd èd “wfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe `t tmj plèt ljvjl kè hj sjje `s tmj iarst stjp tf jst`hlasmaeb djgfkr`tak v`lujs ae sfkajty `t l`rbj‗ (Gfe`pp` l`rbj‗ (Gfe`pp` & [ày`dàe). 2 2 j b ` ^


Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj At as ef jx`bbjr `tafe `tafe tf s`y tm`t wfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe ae gè`bjgjet gè`bj gjet fi aedustrajs as eft `kkadjet`l, at m`s kfgj fut fi ejkjssaty èd at wall st`y `s ` ifrkjiul djvakj ifr agprfvaeb aedustra`l rjl`tafes ifr tmj s`cj fi ejkjssaty. @ eughjr fi hjejiats `kkruaeb irfg wfr cjrs‑ cjrs‑ p`r takap`tafe takap`tafe oustaiy ats sabeaiakèkj. ^`rtakap`tafe jekfur`bjs wfrcjrs tf `kkjpt rjspfesahalaty, g`cjs tmjg jbf-aevflvjd èd jgftafe`lly aevflvjd. [uiiakajetly sabeaiakèt as tm`t, kfetr`r y tf tmj usu`l pr`ktakj fi tmj wfrcjrs tf fppfsj èy gfvj t`cje hy tmj gè`bjgjet, wfrcjrs‑ p`r takap`taeb takap`taeb ae gè`bjgjet kf-fpjr`tj èd jekfur`bj tmj `kkjptèkj fi èy kmèbj ae tmj tr`datafe`l p`ttjr e hy tmj wfrcjrs. Tmas as ef gjè `dvèt`bj fe tmj p`rt fi tmj gè`bjgjet tf aetrfdukj èy ejw adj` ae tmj frbèas`tafe. Rmjrj wfrcjrs p`rtakap`tj ae gè`bjgjet, tmjrj as ljss rjsastèkj tf tmj aetrfduktafe fi kfgputjr jkfefgy fr èy skmjgj fi r`tafe`las`tafe. Rfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe ae gè`bjgjet `lsf jerakmjs tmj djkasafes fi tmj gè`bjgjet, saekj `ll djkasafes `rj t`cje ìtjr gukm djlahjr`tafe watm tmj wfrcjrs. Hy agprfvaeb gfr`lj èd tj`g wfrc èd hy usaeb krj`tavaty fi wfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe, at pl`ys ` sabeaiakèt rflj ae agprfvaeb aedus tra`l rjl`tafes èd, tmus, at aekrj`sjs prfduktafe èd prfduktavaty. Rfrcjrs‑ Rfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe ae gè`bjgjet `dds dabeaty tf wfrcjrs, g`cjs tmjg ijjl fej watm tmj gè`bjgjet, bavjs tmjg kfeiadjekj, jekfur`bjs tmjg tf spj`c fut — fut — `ll `ll tmjsj hraeb `hfut è `ll-rfued djvjlfpgjet fi tmj frbèas`tafe. Tmj sabeaiakèkj fi wfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe p`rtakap`tafe ae gè`bjgjet as jefrgfus saekj p`rtakap`tafe ae tmj gè`bjra`l iuektafe hy tmj wfrcjrs mjlps sflvaeb gèy gè`bjgjet prfhljgs, p`rtakul`rly pjrsfeejl ae e`turj. Tf wm`t jxtjet p`rtakap`tafe kè bf ae sflvaeb v`rafus frbèas`tafe`l prfhljgs djpjeds gutu`lly fe tmj ifrgs èd e`turj fi p`rtakap`tafe. ^`rtakap`tafe as sabeaiakèt saekj at agprfvjs jiiakajeky fi jetjrprasjs, djvjlfps sfka`l jduk`tafe èd `kts `s ` gjès ifr `ttàeaeb aedustra`l pj`kj. At as mugèat`raè `s at bavjs tmj wfrcjrs è `kkjpt`hlj st`tus watmae tmj wfrcaeb kfggueaty èd ` sjesj fi purpfsj ae `ktavaty. Rfrcjrs‑ p`rtakap`tafe ae gè`bjgjet as ` g`ttjr fi adjflfby tm`t djvjlfps sjli -gè`bjgjet -gè`bjgjet ae aedustry. ^`rtakap`tafe `kquarjs sabeaiakèkj saekj at kfeijrs ` eughjr fi hjejiats tf tmj gè`bjgjet, wfrcjrs èd tmj sfkajty. Tmjsj hjejiats `rj? (0) Jemèkjgjet fi tmj sjesj fi rjspfesahalaty fi wfrcjrs, (8) Kmèbj fi gjet`l `ttatudj fi wfrcjrs tf `kkjpt èy kmèbj, (;) Jekfur`bjgjet ifr hjttjr djkasafes, (4) Agprfvjgjet fi gfr`lj èd tj`g wfrc, (:) Zsj fi tmj krj`tavj jgplfyjjs, (9) Jekfur`bjgjet ifr sjli-jxprjssafe èd sjli-`dvèkjgjet, (2) Ifstjraeb dabeaty tf wfrcjrs, (=) Agprfvjgjet fi prfdukt qu`laty èd quètaty, quètat y, (1) Xjduktafe fi wfrcjrs‑ brajvèkjs èd aedustra`l kfeilakts. kfeilakts . j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj ^XFDZKTAFE ^L@EEAEB @ED KFETXFL

^rfduktafe plèeaeb èd kfetrfl as ` djvakj tm`t rjbul`tjs tmj gfvjgjets fi g`tjra`ls, pjrifrgèkj fi g`kmaejs èd fpjr`tafe fi l`hfur ae tmj hjst tjkmeak`l èd jkfefgak`l gèejr3 sf `s tf fhtàe rabmt quètaty fi prfduktafe fi rjquarjd qu`laty ‛ qu`laty ‛ `t `t ` tagj wmakm as prfgasjd ifr djlavjry fi bffds tf kustfgjrs. “^rfduktafe kfetrfl as tmj prfkjss fi plèeaeb prfduktafe ae `dvèkj fi fpjr`ta fes, jst`hlasmaeb tmj jx`kt rfutj fi j`km aedavadu`l atjg, p`rt fr `ssjghly3 sjttaeb st`rtaeb èd iaeasmaeb d`tjs ifr j`km agpfrtèt atjg, `ssjghly èd tmj iaeasmjd prfdukts, èd rjlj`saeb tmj ejkjss`ry frdjrs `s wjll `s aeata`taeb tmj rjquarjd ifllfw-up tf tf jiijktu`tj tmj sgfftm iuektafeaeb fi tmj jetjrprasj.‗ [tjps ae ^rfduktafe ^lèeaeb èd Kfetrfl? ^rfduktafe kfetrfl aevflvjs tmj ifllfwaeb stjps? (a) ^lèeaeb (aa) Xfutaeb (aaa) [kmjdulaeb (av) Dasp`tkmaeb (v) Ifllfw-up fr kmjkcaeb tmj prfbrjss (va) Aespjktafe

Fut fi tmjsj sax stjps aevflvjd ae prfduktafe kfetrfl, tmj iarst tmrjj stjps rjl`tj tf plèeaeb3 tmj ifurtm rjl`tjs tf jxjkutafe fi plè èd tmj l`st twf rjijr tf tmj kfetrfl `spjkt fi plèeaeb. Tmj `hfvj adj` as djpaktjd hy gjès fi tmj ifllfwaeb da`br`g?

(0) ^lèea ^lèea eb?

Ifr plèeaeb fi prfduktavj fpjr`tafes ae djtàl, tmj plèeaeb djp`rtgjet wall rjkjavj iull aeifrg`tafe irfg gè`bjgjet `hfut tmj quètaty tf hj prfdukjd èd tmj d`tjs wmje djlavjry m`s hjje prfgasjd tf kustfgjrs. Tmj plèeaeb djp`rtgjet wall `lsf bjt tmj ejkjss`ry jebaejjraeb èd dr`waeb spjkaiak`tafes irfg tmj jebaejjraeb djp`rtgjet. Hrf`dly, `t tmj st`bj fi plèeaeb tmj ifllfwaeb assujs `rj kfesadjrjd fe wmakm h`sjs km`rts èd wrattje plès `rj prjp`rjd? (`) Rm`t wfrc smfuld hj dfej6 (h) Mfw sm`ll tmj wfrc hj dfej6 (k) Rmjrj sm`ll tmj wfrc hj dfej6 (d) Rmje sm`ll tmj wfrc hj dfej6 ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (8) Xfutaeb?

Xfutaeb aevflvjs tmj djtjrgae`tafe fi tmj p`tm tm`t wfrc sm`ll ifllfw èd tmj frdjr ae wmakm v`rafus fpjr`tafes wall hj k`rrajd fut. Tmj fhojktavj fi rfutaeb as tf iaed fut tmj hjst èd tmj kmj`pjst sjqujekj fi fpjr`tafes. Rmalj prjp`raeb tmj rfutj k`rd, at gust hj cjpt ae gaed tm`t g`kmaejs ae tmj plèt `rj fpjr`tjd `t tmjar iull k`p`katy3 èd gèpfwjr èd ftmjr i`kalatajs `rj hjst utalazjd. (;) [kmjd [kmjdul ul ae b?

[kmjdulaeb as tmj djtjrgae`tafe fi tmj tagj tm`t smfuld hj rjquarjd tf pjrifrg j`km fpjr`tafe èd `lsf tmj tagj ejkjss`ry tf pjrifrg tmj jetarj sjrajs, `s rfutjd, g`caeb `llfwèkj ifr i`ktfrs kfekjrejd. At aevflvjs tmj prjp`r`tafe fi ` tagj-t`hlj, aedak`taeb tmj tft`l tagj ejjdjd ifr tmj gèui`kturj fi ` prfdukt `s `lsf tmj tagj jxpjktjd tf hj spjet `t j`km g`kmaej èd prfkjss. Ae prjp`raeb skmjduljs, tmj pjrsfes kfekjrejd wall m`vj tf t`cj aetf kfesadjr`tafe tmj v`rafus typjs fi frdjrs fe mèd èd tmj d`tjs hy wmakm tmjar kfgpljtafe m`s hjje prfgasjd. [fgj frdjrs g`y hj sukm `s wall rjquarj fvjr-tagj wfrc3 hjkùsj kfgpljtafe as eft pfssahlj `kkfrdaeb tf tmj djlavjry d`tjs sjt ifr tmjg, ae tmj rjbul`r kfursj fi prfduktafe. (4) Da sp`tkmae p`tkmae b?

Dasp`tkmaeb latjr`lly gjès sjedaeb sfgjtmaeb tfw`rds ` p`rtakul`r djstae`tafe. Mjrj, at gjès t`caeb `ll sukm stjps, `s `rj ejkjss`ry tf agpljgjet tmj prfbr`ggj fi prfduktafe km`lcjd fut `s pjr rfutaeb èd skmjdulaeb stjps. Ae p`rtakul`r, dasp`tkmaeb rjijrs tf? 0. ^rfkurjgjet fi ejkjss`ry tffls, oabs èd iaxturjs iax turjs jtk.3 hjifrj tmjy `rj `ktu`lly rjquarjd hy tmj wfrcgje. 8. Bavaeb wfrcjrs tmj ejkjss`ry wfrc frdjrs, aestruktafes, dr`waebs jtk. ifr aeata`taeb tmj wfrc. (:) I fll fw-Zp (fr Kmjkcaeb Kmjkcaeb tmj ^rfbrjs ^rfbrjss)?

Ifllfw-up as tmj kfetrfl `spjkt fi prfduktafe plèeaeb èd kfetrfl. At aevflvjs t`caeb stjps tf kmjkc up wmjtmjr wfrc prfkjjds `kkfrdaeb tf plès èd mfw i`r tmjrj `rj v`raèkjs irfg stèd`rds3 èd `lsf t`caeb ejkjss`ry kfrrjktavj stjps tf sjt tmaebs ae frdjr. (9) A espj espjktafe? ktafe?

Aespjktafe as tmj qu`laty kfetrfl `spjkt fi prfduktafe plèeaeb èd kfetrfl. At jesurjs tm`t bffds prfdukjd `rj fi tmj rabmt qu`laty. Tmj aespjktfrs g`y aespjkt g`tjra`ls, sjga-iaeasmjd èd iaeasmjd prfdukts jatmjr `t tmj wfrc hjekm fr ae spjka`l l`hfr`tfrajs fr tjstaeb rffgs. Tf jesurj gàetjeèkj fi mabm stèd`rds fi qu`laty, ` prfbr`ggj fi [PK ([t`tastak`l Pu`laty Kfetrfl) g`y hj iusjd watm ` systjg fi prfduktafe plèeaeb èd kfetrfl. Fhojktavjs/@dvèt`bjs Fhojktavjs/@dvèt`bjs fi ^rfduktafe ^lèeaeb èd Kfetrfl? (a) Kfetaeufus ^rfduktafe? ^rfduktafe? ^rfduktafe kfetrfl jesurjs kfetaeufus prfduktafe watm lj`st pfssahlj aetjrruptafes3 `s at jlagae`tjs `ll sfurkjs fi aetjrruptafes ae prfduktafe lacj-efe-`vàl`halaty fi g`tjra`ls, tffls, pffr gàetjeèkj fi g`kmaejs jtk. =

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (aa ) Kfst Kfst Kfetrfl èd ^rfiat G `xagaz`taf `xagaz`tafe? e?

^rfduktafe kfetrfl mjlps ae kfst kfetrfl (èd ( èd tmus ae prfiat g`xagaz`tafe) hy h y fptagazaeb usj fi prfduktavj rjsfurkjs èd jlagae`taeb w`stj èd spfal`bj. (aa a) Kustfgj Kustfgjrr [`tasi`ktafe? `tasi`ktafe?

^rfduktafe kfetrfl jesurjs hjttjr sjrvakj tf kustfgjrs duj tf tagjly djlavjry fi bffds èd qu`lat`tavj prfdukts. At, tmus, lj`ds tf kustfgjr s`tasi`ktafe èd hjttjr husaejss rjl`tafes watm kustfgjrs. (av) ^l èea eb fi Xjs Xjsfur kj Xjquar Xjquar jgjets gjets èd èd A evjetfry evjetfry Kfetr fl?

^rfduktafe kfetrfl sjjcs tf `ssjss ae `dvèkj rjquarjgjets fi gèpfwjr, g`kmaejry èd ftmjr i`kalatajs tf gjjt tmj djsarjd t`rbjts fi prfduktafe. At `lsf mjlps tf gàetàe rjbul`r supply fi r`w-g`tj ra`ls, wfrcae-prfbrjss èd iaeasmjd bffds watm gaeagug aevjstgjet ae aevjetfrajs. (v) Ga ea gug G `tjra `tjra `l M èdla eb èd [tfr`bj Kfsts Kfsts??

^rfduktafe kfetrfl mjlps ae gaeagaz`tafe fi g`tjra`l mèdlaeb èd stfr`bj kfsts. (va) Jkfefgy ae ^rfduktafe Tagj?

^rfduktafe kfetrfl rjdukjs tmj lfss fi tagj hy tmj wfrcjrs wàtaeb ifr g`tj ra`ls, èd kùsjs agprfvjgjet ae plèt gfr`lj. (vaa (vaa ) J quapgjet quapgjet Z tala z`tafe? `tafe?

^rfduktafe kfetrfl g`cjs ifr tmj gfst jiijktavj usj fi jquapgjet.

Agpfrtèkj fi ^rfduktafe ^lèeaeb

^rfduktafe plèeaeb aevflvjs tmj gjès hy wmakm ` gèui`kturaeb plè as djtjrgaejd, aeifrg`tafe assujd ifr ats jxjkutafe, d`t` kflljktjd èd rjkfrdjd, wmakm wall je`hlj tmj plèt tf hj kfetrflljd tmrfubm `ll ats st`bjs. @ ijw djiaeatafes `rj bavje mjrj ae frdjr tf m`vj klj`r uedjrstèdaeb fi tmj tjrg ”^rfduktafe ^lèeaeb‑. “Tmj plèeaeb fi aedustra`l aed ustra`l fpjr`tafes aevflvjs ifur kfesadjr`tafes, e`gjly, wm`t wfrc sm`ll hj dfej, mfw tmj wfrc sm`ll hj dfej èd l`stly, wmje tmj wfrc sm`ll hj dfej‗. “Tmj tjkmeaquj fi ifrjk`staeb fr pakturaeb `mj`d jvjry stjp ae ` lfeb sjrajs fi sjp`r`tj fpjr`tafes, j`k m stjp tf hj t`cje ae tmj rabmt pl`kj fi tmj rabmt djbrjj èd `t tmj rabmt tagj èd j`km fpjr`tafe tf hj dfej `t g`xagug jiiakajeky. =

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Fhojktavj Fhojktavjs s fi fi ^rfduktafe ^l èea eb?

0. Tf `kmajvj kffrdae`tafe `gfeb v`rafus djp`rtgjets rjl`taeb tf prfduktafe. 8. Tf g`cj `djqu`tj `rrèbjgjet fi gje, gfejy, g`tjra`ls, g`kmaejs tffls, agpljgjets èd jquapgjet rjl`taeb tf prfduktafe. ;. Tf djkadj `hfut tmj prfduktafe t`rbjts tf hj `kmajvjd hy cjjpaeb ae vajw tmj s`ljs ifrjk`st. 4. Tf cjjp prfduktafe fpjr`tafe kfetaeufus. :. Tf `kmajvj djsarjd sm`rj fi tmj g`rcjt. 9. Tf iax rabmt typj fi gè ifr rabmt typj fi ofh. 2. Tf `kmajvj tmj djsarjd ljvjl fi prfiat. =. Tf g`cj `ll `rrèbjgjets tf rjgfvj pfssahlj fhst`kljs ae tmj w`y fi sgfftm prfduktafe. 1. Tf `kmajvj jkfefgy ae prfduktafe kfst èd tagj. 0>. Tf aeata`tj prfduktafe fe gfdjre laejs. 00. Tf fpjr`tj tmj plèt `t plèejd ljvjl fi jiiakajeky. 08. Tf djvjlfp `ltjre`tavj plès ae frdjr tf gjjt èy jgjrbjeky fr kfetaebjeky. M.@. M`rdaeb m`s eakjly suggjd up fhojktavjs fi prfduktafe plèeaeb. Ae mas wfrds, tmj fhojktavj fi prfduktafe plèeaeb as tf g`cj surj tm`t kustfgjrs wall hj supplajd tmjar frdjrs, fe tmjar djlavjry d`tjs èd `lsf `t tmj gaeagug fvjr`ll kfst hy h y plèeaeb tmj sjqujekj fi `ktavatajs. TQ^J[ FI ^XFDZKTAFE

[fgj fi tmj gfst agpfrtèt typjs fi prfduktafe `rj? (a) Ofh ^rfduktafe (aa) H`tkm prfduktafe èd (aaa) G`ss fr ilfw prfduktafe! Tmj iae`l djkasafe rjb`rdaeb èy p`rtakul`r gjtmfd fi prfduktafe as vjry gukm ìijktjd hy tmj e`turj fi tmj prfdukts èd tmj quètaty tf hj prfdukjd. ^rfduktafe gjtmfds g`y hj hrf`dly kl`ssaiajd `s Ofh ^rfduktafe, H`tkm prfduktafe èd G`ss fr Ilfw ^rfduktafe. (a) Ofh ^rfduktafe? Zedjr tmas gjtmfd pjkula`r, spjka`l fr efe-stèd`rdazjd prfdukts `rj prfdukjd ae `kkfrdèkj watm tmj frdjrs rjkjavjd irfg tmj kustfgjrs. @s j`km prfdukt as efe- stèd`rdazjd v`ryaeb ae sazj èd e`turj, at rjquarjs sjp`r`tj ofh ifr prfduktafe. Tmj g`kmaejs èd jquapgjet‑s `rj `doustjd ae sukm ` gèejr sf `s tf suat tmj rjquarjgjets fi ` p`rtakul`r ofh.

Ofh prfduktafe aevflvjs aetjrgattjet prfkjss `s tmj wfrc as k`rrajd `s èd wmje tmj frdjr as rjkjavjd. At kfesasts fi hraebaeb tfbjtmjr fi g`tjra`l, p`rts èd kfgpfejets ae frdjr tf `ssjghlj èd kfggassafe ` saeblj pajkj fi jquapgjet fr prfdukt. [map hualdaeb, d`g kfestruktafe, hradbj hualdaeb, hffc praetaeb `rj sfgj fi tmj jx`gpljs fi ofh prfduktafe. Tmard gjtmfd fi plèt l`yfut vaz., [t`tafejry G`tjra`l L`yfut as suat`hlj ifr ofh prfduktafe. prfduktafe. Km`r`ktjrastaks?

Tmj ofh prfduktafe pfssjssjs tmj ifllfwaeb km`r`ktjrastaks. 0. @ l`rbj eughjr fi bjejr`l purpfsj g`kmaejs `rj rjquarjd. 8. @ l`rbj eughjr fi wfrcjrs kfevjrsèt watm daiijrjet ofhs wall m`vj tf hj jgplfyjd. ;. Tmjrj kè hj sfgj v`ra`tafes ae prfduktafe. 4. [fgj iljxahalaty ae iaeèkaeb as rjquarjd hjkùsj fi v`ra`tafes ae wfrc lf`d. :. @ l`rbj aevjetfry fi g`tjra`ls, p`rts èd tffls wal l hj rjquarjd. `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 9. Tmj g`kmaejs èd jquapgjet sjttaeb wall m`vj tf hj `doustjd èd rj`doustjd tf tmj gèui`kturaeb rjquarjgjets. 2. Tmj gfvjgjet fi g`tjra`ls tmrfubm tmj prfkjss as aetjrgattjet. Lagat`tafes?

0. Tmj jkfefgajs fi l`rbj sk`lj prfduktafe g`y eft hj `ttàejd hjkùsj prfduktafe as dfej ae smfrt-rues. 8. Tmj djgèd as arrjbul`r ifr sfgj prfdukts. ;. Tmj usj fi l`hfur èd jquapgjet g`y hj è aejiiakajet. 4. Tmj skajetaiak `ssjssgjet fi kfsts as daiiakult. (aa) H`tkm prfduktafe?

H`tkm prfduktafe pjrtàes tf rjpjtatavj prfduktafe. At rjijrs tf tmj prfduktafe fi bffds, tmj quètaty fi wmakm as cefwe ae `dvèkj. At as tm`t ifrg fi prfduktafe wmjrj adjetak`l prfdukts `rj prfdukjd ae h`tkmjs fe tmj h`sas fi djgèd fi kustfgjrs‑ fr fi jxpjktjd djgèd ifr prfdukts. Tmas gjtmfd as bjejr`lly sagal`r tf ofh prfduktafe jxkjpt tmj quètaty fi prfduktafe. Aestj`d fi g`caeb fej saeblj prfdukt `s ae k`sj fi ofh prfduktafe, ` h`tkm fr brfup fi prfdukts `r j prfdukjd `t fej tagj. At smfuld hj rjgjghjrjd mjrj tm`t fej h`tkm fi prfdukts g`y eft rjsjghlj watm tmj ejxt h`tkm. Zedjr h`tkm systjg fi prfduktafe tmj wfrc as davadjd aetf fpjr`tafes èd fej fpjr`tafe as dfej `t ` tagj. @itjr kfgpljtaeb tmj wfrc fe fej fpjr`tafe at as p`ssjd fe tf tmj sjkfed fpjr`tafe èd sf fe tall tmj prfdukt as kfgpljtjd. H`tkm prfduktafe kè hj jxplàejd watm tmj mjlp fi è allustr`tafe. allustr`ta fe. @e jetjrprasj wèts tf gèui`kturj 8> jljktrak gftfrs. Tmj wfrc wall hj davadjd aetf daiijrjet fpjr`tafes. Tmj iarst fpjr`tafe fe `ll tmj gftfrs wall hj kfgpljtjd ae tmj iarst h`tkm èd tmje at wall p`ss fe tf tmj ejxt fpjr`tafe. Tmj sjkfed brfup fi fpjr`tfrs wall kfgpljtj tmj sjkfed fpjr`tafe hjifrj tmj ejxt èd sf fe. Zedjr ofh prfduktafe tmj s`gj fpjr`tfrs wall gèui`kturj iull g`kmaej èd eft fej fpjr`tafe fely. H`tkm prfduktafe kè ijtkm tmj hjejiats fi rjpjtatavj prfduktafe tf ` l`rbj jxtjet, ai tmj h`tkm as fi ` suiiakajet quètaty. Tmus h`tkm prfduktafe g`y hj djiaejd `s tmj gèui`kturj fi ` prfdukt ae sg`ll fr l`rbj h`tkmjs fr lfts hy sjrajs fi fpjr`tafes, j`km fpjr`tafe hjaeb k`rrajd fe tmj wmflj h`tkm hjifrj èy suhsjqujet fpjr`tafe as fpjr`tjd. Tmas gjtmfd as bjejr`lly `dfptjd ae k`sj fi haskuat èd kfeijktafejry èd gftfr gèui`kturaeb, gjdakaejs, taeejd iffd èd m`rdw`rj‑s lacj euts èd hflts jtk. Km`r`ktjrastaks? 0. Tmj wfrc as fi rjpjtatavj e`turj. 8. Tmjrj as ` iuektafe`l l`yfut fi v`rafus gèui`kturaeb prfkjssjs. ;. Fej fpjr`tafe as k`rrajd fut fe wmflj h`tkm èd tmje as p`ssjd fe tf tmj ejxt fpjr`tafe èd sf fe. 4. [`gj typj fi g`kmaejs as `rrèbjd `t fej pl`kj. :. At as bjejr`lly kmfsje wmjrj tr`dj as sj`sfe`l fr tmjrj as ` ejjd tf prfdukj brj`t v`rajty fi bffds.

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (aaa) G`ss fr ilfw prfduktafe?

Tmas gjtmfd aevflvjs ` kfetaeufus prfduktafe fi stèd`rdazjd prfdukts fe ` l`rbj sk`lj. Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, prfduktafe rjgàes kfetaeufus ae ètakap`tafe fi iuturj djgèd. [tèd`rdaz`tafe as tmj h`sas fi g`ss prfduktafe. [tèd`rdazjd prfdukts `rj prfdukjd uedjr tmas gjtmfd hy usaeb stèd`rdazjd g`tjra`ls èd jquapgjet. Tmjrj as ` kfetaeufus fr ueaetjrruptjd ilfw fi prfduktafe fhtàejd hy `rrèbaeb tmj g`kmaejs ae ` prfpjr sjqujekj fi fpjr`tafes. ^rfkjss l`yfut as hjst suatjd gjtmfd ifr g`ss prfduktafe ueats. Ilfw prfduktafe as tmj gèui`kturj fi ` prfdukt hy ` sjrajs fi fpjr`tafes, j`km `rtaklj bfaeb fe tf ` sukkjjdaeb fpjr`tafe `s sffe `s pfssahlj. Tmj gèui`kturaeb prfkjss as hrfcje aetf sjp`r`tj fpjr`tafes. Tmj prfdukt kfgpljtjd `t fej fpjr`tafe as ùtfg`tak`lly p`ssjd fe tf tmj ejxt tall ats kfgpljtafe. Tmjrj as ef tagj b`p hjtwjje tmj wfrc dfej `t fej prfkjss èd tmj st`rtaeb `t tmj ejxt. Tmj ilfw fi prfduktafe as kfetaeufus èd prfbrjssavj. Km`r`ktjrastaks?

Tmj g`ss fr ilfw prfduktafe pfssjssjs tmj ifllfwaeb km`r`ktjrastaks. 0. Tmj ueats ilfw irfg fej fpjr`tafe pfaet tf èftmjr tmrfubmfut tmj wmflj prfkjss. 8. Tmjrj wall hj fej typj fi g`kmaej ifr j`km prfkjss. ;. Tmj prfdukts, tffls, g`tjra`ls èd gjtmfds `rj stèd`rdasjd. 4. ^rfduktafe as dfej ae ètakap`tafe fi djgèd. :. ^rfduktafe vflugj as usu`lly mabm. 9. G`kmaej sjt ups rjgàe uekmèbjd ifr ` kfesadjr`hlj lfeb pjrafd. 2. @ey iùlt ae ilfw fi prfduktafe as aggjda`tjly kfrrjktjd ftmjrwasj at wall stfp tmj wmflj prfduktafe prfkjss. [ua t`hala ty fi i lfw/g`ss lfw/g`ss prfduktafe?

0. Tmjrj gust hj kfetaeuaty ae djgèd ifr tmj prfdukt. 8. Tmj prfdukts, g`tjra`ls èd jquapgjets gust hj stèd`rdasjd hjkùsj tmj ilfw fi laej as aeiljxahlj. ;. Tmj fpjr`tafes smfuld hj wjll djiaejd. 4. At smfuld hj pfssahlj tf gàetàe kjrtàe qu`lat y stèd`rds. :. At smfuld hj pfssahlj tf iaed tagj t`cje `t j` km fpjr`tafe sf tm`t ilfw fi wfrc as stèd`rdasjd. 9. Tmj prfkjss fi st`bjs fi prfduktafe smfuld hj kfetaeufus. @dvèt`bjs @dvèt`bjs fi g`ss g`ss prfduktafe ?

0. Tmj prfdukt as stèd`rdasjd èd èy djva`tafe ae qu`laty jtk. as djtjktjd `t tmj spft. 8. Tmjrj wall hj `kkur`ky ae prfdukt djsabe èd qu`laty. ;. At wall mjlp ae rjdukaeb darjkt l`hfur kfst. 4. Tmjrj wall hj ef ejjd fi wfrc-ae-prfbrjss hjkùsj prfdukts wall ùtfg`tak` lly p`ss fe irfg fpjr`tafe tf fpjr`tafe. :. [aekj ilfw fi wfrc as sagplaiajd tmjrj wall hj ljssjr ejjd ifr kfetrfl. 9. @ wj`cejss ae èy fpjr`tafe kfgjs tf tmj eftakj aggjda`tjly. 4

2. Tmjrj g`y eft hj èy ejjd fi cjjpaeb wfrc-ae-prfbrjss, mjekj stfr`bj kfst as rjdukjd. b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj JKFEFGAK LFT [A_J

Tmj ejjd ifr djtjrgaeaeb jkfefgak lft sazj `rasjs `s? (a) Jvjry tagj ` kfgpfejet/prfdukt as tf hj g`dj, sjttaeb up fi tmj tffl as aevflvjd. Hjkùsj fi tmas sfgj lfss ae prfduktafe tagj wall hj tmjrj. Tmjrjifrj, g`xagug eughjr fi ueats `rj prfdukjd fekj tmj g`kmaej as sjt ae frdjr tf rjdukj tmj kfst pjr ueat, (aa) [ukm l`rbj prfduktafe `t fej rue wall lj`d tf `kkugul`tafe fi aevjetfry èd tmj kfsts rjl`tjd tmjrjtf, (aaa) Tmus tmjrj as ` quètaty ifr wmakm rjdukjd kfst fi prfduktafe as oust fiisjt hy kfsts fi k`rryaeb tmj quètaty aevjetfry. Tmj djtjrgae`tafe fi gfst jkfefgak`l h`tkm quètaty rjquarjs kfesadjr`tafe fi gèy rjl`tjd i`ktfrs fi kfsts èd jkfefgajs. Tmj i`ktfrs tm`t aeilujekj tmj djkasafe ae tmas rjspjkt `rj? (`) [jt up kfst, (h) Gèui`kturaeb kfst, (k) Aetjrjst fe k`pat`l, (av) [tfr`bj kfst, èd (v) X`tj fi kfesugptafe. Ae H`tkm Kfstaeb Gjtmfd prfduktafe as k`rrajd fe ae h`tkmjs. Ae j`km h`tkm, tmjrj `rj ` eughjr fi ueats. Tmj `skjrtàegjet fi jkfefgak h`tkm quètaty as vjr y usjiul. Jkfefgak h`tkm quètaty g`y hj k`lkul`tjd hy usaeb tmj ifrgul` gjèt ifr k`lkul`taeb Jkfefgak Frdjr Frdjr Puètaty (JFP) ae k`sj fi g`tjra`l kfetrfl.

Jkfefgak H`tkm Puètaty 7 Rmjrj? @ 7 Djgèd fi kfgpfejets ae ` yj`r F 7 [jttaeb up kfst pjr h`tkm K 7 Kfst fi k`pat`l èd stfr`bj (k`rryaeb kfst) pjr ueat pjr èeug [jt [jt u p Kfst?

[jt up kfst fi tffls èd g`kmaejs `rj ` iaxjd `gfuet wmakm as aekurrjd ifr ` h`tkm fi prfduktafe arrjspjktavj fi tmj sazj fi tm`t p`rtakul`r h`tkm. [jt up kfst v`rajs darjktly watm tmj eughjr fi h`tkmjs fr watm h`tkm irjqujeky3 `s h`tkmjs hjkfgj gfrj irjqujet, tmj tft`l sjt up kfst aekrj`sjs. Ae ftmjr wfrds, ifr ` bavje prfduktafe duraeb ` pjrafd, tmj tft`l sjt up kfsts aekrj`sj watm ` rjduktafe ae tmj eughjr fi ueats gèui`kturjd ae ` h`tkm. Ifllfwaeb kjrtàe ftmjr kfsts `lsf aekrj`sj tmj tft`l sjt up kfst? (`) Tagj kfst duraeb kmèbj fvjr irfg fej h`tkm tf èftmjr, (h) Lfss fi scall èd spjjd fi wfrcjr duj tf tff irjqujet kmèbjs, (k) Klfsjr supjrvasafe fi j`km sjt up, (d) R`st`bj fi g`tjra`l duj tf kmèbj ae tmj g`kmaej ijjdaeb, (j) Ftmjr kfst rjl`tjd tf smfrt rues. ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Kfst Kfst fi K`pat `l èd [tfr`bj (K`r r yae b Kfst)? Kfst)?

K`rryaeb kfst djpjeds upfe sjvjr`l v`ra`hlj i`ktfrs sukm `s stfr`bj èd fhsfljskjekj fi aevjetfry, aetjrjst fe lfkcjd up k`pat`l, djprjka`tafe, g`kmaej hrj`c dfwes èd suh-stèd`rd èd djijktavj wfrc. Tmas kfst v`rajs darjktl darjktly y watm tmj sazj fi ` h`tkm a.j. watm tmj t mj h`tkm quètaty. Ratm tmj aekrj`sj ae tmj eughjr fi ueats prfdukjd ae ` h`tkm, fr ae ftmjr wfrds, watm tmj djkrj`sj ae h`tkm irjqujeky, tmj kfst fi k`rryaeb tmj aevjetfry rasjs?

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^XFDZKTAFE KFETXFL

Tmjrj as lft fi das`brjjgjet hjtwjje daiijrjet jxpjrts fi gè`bjgjet rjb`rdaeb tmj gjèaeb fi prfduktafe kfetrfl. Tmj tjrg atsjli `ppj`rs tf hj quatj kfeiusaeb kfeiusaeb èd gaslj`daeb. Ae latjr`ry sjesj kfetrfl gjès `ktafe tf kmjkc/rjbul`tj. Ae tmj fpaeafe fi G`ry Busmaeb Ealjs, “Kfetrfl as gàetàeaeb ` h`lèkj ae `ktavatajs tfw`rds ` bf`l fr sjt fi bf`ls jvflvjd duraeb prfduktafe plèeaeb.‗ ^lèeaeb ^lèea eb fely futlaejs sfgj kfursj fi `ktafe wmjrj`s kfetrfl as è jxjkutafe prfkjss aevflvaeb stèd`rdas`tafe, jv`lu`tafe èd kfrrjktavj iuektafes. =

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj @kkfrdaeb tf I`yfl, “Kfetrfl kfesasts ae vjraiyaeb wmjtmjr jvjrytmaeb fkkurs ae kfeifrgaty watm tmj `dfptjd plè èd jst`hlasmjd praekapljs. Tmj fhojktavj fi kfetrfl as tf pfaet fut wj`cejssjs èd smfrtkfgaebs, ai èy, ae frdjr tf rjktaiy tmjg èd prjvjet rjkurrjekj. At fpjr`tjs fe jvjrytmaeb vaz. g`tjra`l, jquapgjet, gje, fpjr`tafes jtk. Ifr kfetrfl tf hj jiijktavj, at gust hj `pplajd watmae rj`sfe`hlj tagj èd hj ifllfwjd-up ifllfwjd-up sèktafes.‗ Tmus prfduktafe kfetrfl as sfgj skajetaiak prfkjdurj tf rjbul`tj è frdjrly ilfw fi g`tjra`l èd kffrdae`tj v`rafus prfduktafe fpjr`tafes tf `kkfgplasm tmj fhojktavj fi prfdukaeb djsarjd atjg. Ae rabmt quètaty fi djsarjd qu`laty `t tmj rjquarjd tagj hy tmj hjst èd tmj kmj`pjst gjtmfd a.j., tf `ttàe mabmjst jiiakajeky ae prfduktafe. Fhojktavj Fhojktavjs s fi fi ^rfduktafe Kfetrfl ?

Tmj sukkjss fi è jetjrprasj brj`tl y djpjeds fe tmj pjrifrgèkj fi ats prfduktafe kfetrfl djp`rtgjet. Tmj prfduktafe kfetrfl djp`rtgjet bjejr`lly m`s tf pjrifrg tmj ifllfwaeb iuektafes? (a) ^rfvasafe fi r`w g`tjra`l, jquapgjet, g`kmaejs èd l`hfur. (aa) Tf frbèasj prfduktafe skmjdulj ae kfeifrgaty watm tmj djgèd ifrjk`st. (aaa) Tmj rjsfurkjs `rj usjd ae tmj hjst pfssahlj gèejr ae sukm ` w`y tm`t tmj kfst fi prfduktafe as gaeagasjd èd djlavjry d`tj as gàetàejd. (av) Djtjrgae`tafe fi jkfefgak prfduktafe rues watm ` vajw tf rjdukj sjtup kfsts. (v) ^rfpjr kf-frdae`tafe fi tmj fpjr`tafes fi v`rafus sjktafes/djp`rtgjets rjs pfesahlj ifr prfduktafe. (va) Tf jesurj rjbul`r èd tagjly tagjl y supply fi r`w g`tjra`l `t tmj djsarjd djsar jd pl`kj èd fi prjskrahjd qu`laty èd quètaty tf `vfad djl`ys ae prfduktafe. (vaa) Tf pjrifrg aespjktafe fi sjga-iaeasmjd èd iaeasmjd bffds èd usj qu`laty kfetrfl tjkmeaqujs tf `skjrtàe tm`t tmj prfdukjd atjgs `rj fi rjquarjd spjkaiak`tafes. (vaaa) At as `lsf rjspfesahlj r jspfesahlj ifr prfdukt djsabe èd djvjlfpgjet. Tmus, tmj iued`gjet`l fhojktavj fi prfduktafe kfetrfl as tf rjbul`tj èd kfetrfl tmj v`rafus fpjr`tafes fi prfduktafe prfkjss ae sukm ` w`y tm`t frdjrly ilfw fi g`tjra`l as jesurjd `t daiijrjet st`bjs fi tmj prfduktafe èd tmj atjgs `rj prfdukjd fi rabmt qu`laty ae a e rabmt quètaty `t tmj rabmt ra bmt tagj watm wat m gaeagug jiifrts èd kfst. Ljvjls fi ^rfduktafe Kfetrfl? ^rfduktafe Kfetrfl st`rts watm sfgj p`rtakul`r bf`l èd ifrgul`tafe fi sfgj bjejr`l str`tjby ifr tmj `kkfgplasmgjet fi djsarjd fhojktavjs. Tmjrj `rj tmrjj l jvjls fi prfduktafe kfetrfl e`gjly prfbr`ggaeb, frdjraeb èd dasp`tkmaeb. ^rfbr`ggaeb plès tmj futput fi prfdukts ifr tmj i`ktfry `s ` wmflj.

Frdjraeb plès tmj futput fi kfgpfejets irfg tmj supplajrs èd prfkjssaeb djp`rtgjets. Dasp`tkmaeb kfesadjrs j`km prfkjssaeb djp`rtgjet ae ture èd plès tmj futput irfg tmj g`kmaej, tffls èd ftmjr wfrc kjetrjs sf `s tf kfgpljtj tmj frdjrs hy duj d`tj. Fhojktavjs èd @dvèt`bjs fi ^rfduktafe Kfetrfl?

Tmj ifllfwaeb `rj tmj fhojktavjs èd hjejiats uedjr tmj ifur suh-mj`daebs fi Darjktafe, Kf-frdae`tafe, Kfetrfl èd Aeefv`tafe? b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 0. Darjktafe? (a) Jiifrts kè hj darjktjd tf tmfsj `rj`s fi prfduktafe tm`t wall kfetrahutj tfw`rds `kkfgplasmgjet fi ` bavje fhojktavj. (aa) ^rfbr`ggj kè hj klfsjly bj`rjd `s kfesugjr k fesugjr rjquarjgjets. (aaa) Gèui`kturaeb kykljs `rj smfrtjejd rjsultaeb ae rjduktafe fi ae prfkjss aevjetfry kfsts èd kfesugjr s`tasi`ktafe. (av) Rfrc gust hj pjrifrgjd `s pjr prj-plèejd skmjduljs tmrfubm dastrahutafe fi tmj ofhs/wfrc `kkfrdaeb tf tmj fhojktavj ejjds fi tmj skmjduljs. (v) [upjrvasfry stìi as darjktjd tf t`cj kfrrjktavj gj`surj wmjejvjr èd wmjrjvjr rjquarjd. 8. Kf-frdae`tafe? (a) Tmj wfrcjrs/jgplfyjjs fi tmj jetjrprasj kè hj prfvadjd `w`rjejss rjb`rdaeb tmjar rflj ae tmj husaejss. (aa) Kustfgjr kè hj prfvadjd aeifrg`tafe `hfut tmj st`tus fi mas frdjr. (aaa) Fvjr`ll kfst wall bf dfwe ae vajw fi systjg`taz`tafe èd rjduktafe ae p`pjr wfrc aevflvjd. (av) Hy tmj brj`tjr utalaz`tafe utalaz`ta fe fi rjsfurkjs tmrfubm sfued lf`daeb & skmjdulaeb prfduktafe as aekrj`sjd. ;. Kfetrfl? (a) Ljss tagj rjquarjd ifr è`lysas fi rjpfrts hy tmj gè`bjgjet. (aa) Ejkjss`ry aeifrg`tafe as `vàl`hlj ifr tmj djtjrgae`tafe fi wmje èd wmjrj prjvjetavj/kfrrjktavj gj`surjs `rj rjquarjd. (aaa) At prfvadjs ` y`rdstakc tf tmj t mj gè`bjgjet ifr cefwaeb tmj wfrc prfbrjss. 4. Aeefv`tafe? (a) Tagj hjkfgjs `vàl`hlj tf wfrc fut djtàls tm`t wfuld ftmjrwasj hj ljit tf `dvèkj plèeaeb. (aa) At hjkfgjs ` ejkjssaty tm`t `ll `ktavatajs fi prfduktafe `rj tagj pm`sjd. (aaa) Gfrj iljxahalaty ae tmj gèui`kturaeb fpjr`tafes as fhtàejd sf tm`t wj kè `kkjpt èd djlavjr tmj fkk`safe`l usj frdjr ifr tmj fdd prfdukt wmakm bavjs us ` ejw kfesugjr fr `ddatafe`l husaejss irfg è fld kfesugjr. ^rfduktafe Kfetrfl ^rfkjdurj? Tmas prfkjdurj kfesasts fi ifllfwaeb ifur iuektafes? (a) Xfutaeb? Kfeejktjd watm wmjrj tmj wfrc as tf hj dfej. (aa) [kmjdulaeb? Kfeejktjd watm wmje tmj wfrc as tf hj dfej. (aaa) Dasp`tkmaeb? Kfeejktjd watm st`rtaeb tmj wfrc ae tmj plèt. (av) Ifllfw up fr ^rfbrjss Xjpfrtaeb? Kflljktafe fi aeifrg`tafe fe tmj prfbrjss fi wfrc ae tmj ueat.

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Jljgjets fi ^rfduktafe ^lèeaeb èd Kfetrfl ae è Frbèaz`tafe [fgj fi tmj agpfrtèt jljgjets aevflvjd ae tmj prfkjss fi prfduktafe plèeaeb èd kfetrfl ae frbèaz`tafe `rj? (`) ^lèeaeb3 (h) Xfutaeb3 Xfutaeb3 (k) [kmjdulaeb3 (d) (d) Djsp`tkmaeb3 (j) Kmjkcaeb tmj prfbrjss prfbrjss fr ifllfw-up (`) ^lèeaeb?

Tmas as tmj iarst èd tmj gfst agpfrtèt jljgjet fi prfduktafe plèeaeb èd kfetrfl. ^lèeaeb rjijrs tf djkadaeb ae `dvèkj wm`t as tf hj dfej ae iuturj. @ sjp`r`tj plèeaeb djp`rtgjet as jst`hlasmjd ae tmj frbèas`tafe wmakm as rjspfesahlj ifr tmj prjp`r`tafe fi pflakajs èd plès watm rjb`rd tf prfduktafe tf hj uedjrt`cje ae duj kfursj. Rmalj jxplàeaeb tmj kfekjpt fi skajetaiak gè`bjgjet, I.R. T`ylfr jgpm`sasjd tmj ejjd fi sjp`r`taeb plèeaeb iuektafe iuektafe irfg tmj iuektafe fi `ktu`l fpjr`tafe ae è frbèas`tafe. frbèas`tafe. Ifr sukkjssiul agpljgjet`tafe fi prfduktafe kfetrfl, prfduktafe plèeaeb as fi utgfst agpfrtèkj. Tmj plèeaeb djp`rtgjet prjp`rjs v`rafus km`rts, gèu`ls prfduktafe hudbjts jtk., fe tmj h`sas fi aeifrg`tafe rjkjavjd irfg gè`bjgjet. Tmjsj plès èd km`rts fr prfduktafe hudbjts `rj bavje pr`ktak`l sm`pj hy k`rryaeb v`rafus jljgjets uedjr prfduktafe kfetrfl. Ai prfduktafe plèeaeb as djijktavj, prfduktafe kfetrfl as hfued tf hj `dvjrsjly ìijktjd. Ifr `kmajvaeb tmj prfduktafe t`rbjts, prfduktafe plèeaeb prfvadjs sfued h`sas ifr prfduktafe kfetrfl. (h) Xfutaeb?

^rfduktafe rfutaeb as ` prfkjss kfekjrejd watm djtjrgaeaeb jx`kt rfutj fr p`tm, ` prfdukt m`s tf ifllfw rabmt irfg r`w g`tjra`l tall ats trèsifrg`tafe aetf iaeasmjd prfdukt. @ ijw djiaeatafes fi rfutaeb kè hj katjd mjrj? — — “Xfutaeb g`y hj djiaejd `s tmj sjljktafe fi p`tms fr rfutjs fvjr wmakm j`km pajkj as tf tr`vjl ae hjaeb trèsifrgjd irfg r`w g`tjra`l aetf iaeasmjd prfdukt‗. “^rfduktafe rfutaeb aevflvjs rfutaeb aevflvjs tmj plèeaeb fi tmj jx`kt sjqujekj fi wfrc st`tafes tf hj usjd ae prfkjssaeb ` p`rt fi prfdukt. Fekj ` l`yfut m`s hjje jst`hlasmjd tmj rfutaeb fi è atjg as tmj djtjrgae`tafe fi tmj p`tm tm`t atjg smfuld ifllfw `s at as gèui`kturjd‗. — O`gjs O`gjs K. Luedy “Xfutaeb as tmj spjkaiak`tafe fi tmj ilfw fr sjqujekj fi fpjr`tafes èd prfkjssjs tf hj ifllfwjd ae prfdukaeb ` p`rtakul`r gèui`kturaeb lft‗. “Xfutaeb aekludjs tmj plèeaeb fi wmjrj èd hy wmfg wfrc sm`ll hj dfej, tmj djtjrgae`tafe fi tmj p`tm tm`t wfrc sm`ll ifllfw èd tmj ejkjss`ry sjqujekj fi fpjr`tafes3 at ifrgs ` brfuedwfrc ifr gfst fi tmj skmjdulaeb èd dasp`tkmaeb iuektafes fi plèeaeb djp`rtgjet.‗ Tmj `hfvj gjetafejd djiaeatafes klj`rly l`y dfwe tm`t rfutaeb as kfekjrejd wat m tmj sjljktafe fi tmj gfst jkfefgak`l èd `pprfpra`tj p`tm ifr tmj prfdukt ae tmj prfkjss fi iae`l kfgpljtafe irfg r`w g`tjra`l tf iaeasmjd prfdukt. 1

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Fhojkts Fhojkts fi r futae b?

Tmj gàe fhojktavj fi rfutaeb as tf l`y dfwe tmj hjst èd tmj gfst jkfefgak`l sjqujekj fi fpjr`tafes tf hj uedjrt`cje ae tmj prfkjss fi prfduktafe. @eftmjr @eftmjr fhojktavj fi rfutaeb as tf djtjrgaej djtjrgaej prfpjr tffls èd jquapgjets èd tmj rjquarjd eughjr fi wfrcjrs rjquarjd ifr dfaeb fr k`rr yaeb tft`l prfduktafe prfkjssjs ae è frbèas`tafe. Xfutaeb hjkfgjs ùtfg`tak èd kfetaeufus ae k`sj fi kfetaeufus gèui`kturaeb ueats wmjrj stèd`rdazjd prfdukts `rj prfdukjd hy uedjrt`caeb stèd`rdazjd prfduktafe fpjr`tafes. Fe tmj ftmjr mèd, ae k`sj fi ofh frdjr ueats fr aetjrgattjet- prfkjss aedustrajs sukm `s smap hualdaeb, jvjry prfdukt rjquarjs daiijrjet djsabes èd v`ryaeb sjqujekjs fi fpjr`tafes. ^rfkjdurj ^rfkjdurj ifll fwjd fwjd ae r futae b?

Ae k`sj wmjrj ` ejw prfdukt as bfaeb tf hj prfdukjd, daiijrjet stjps `rj aevflvjd ae ` tft`l rfutaeb prfkjdurj. Tmjsj stjps `rj? (`) Kfgpljtj è`lysas fr study fi tmj prfdukt `s tf djkadj wm`t p`rts fi tmj prfdukt `rj tf hj gèui`kturjd èd wm`t g`y hj purkm`sjd irfg tmj g`rcjt. (h) @e`lysas fi tmj `rtaklj sf `s tf cefw wm`t sfrts fi g`tjra`ls `rj ejjdjd ifr prfdukaeb tmj `rtaklj fr prfdukt. Tmas aekludjs tmj kfgpljtj study watm rjb`rd tf t f qu`laty, qu`lat y, quètaty, caed èd br`dj fi g`tjra`ls rjquarjd. (k) Tf djtjrgaej daiijrjet gèui`kturaeb fpjr`tafes èd tmjar sjqujekj. Tmas kè hj wfrcjd fut hy cefwaeb `kkur`tjly `hfut tmj g`kmaejs èd tmjar l`yfut. Tmas `lsf ejkjssat`tjs tmj cefwljdbj fi `llajd jquapgjet, oabs, tffls èd agpljgjets ejjdjd ifr jiiakajet prfduktafe. (d) Djtjrgaeaeb lft tf prfpjr sazj ae rjl`tafe tf frdjr pl`kjd hy tmj kustfgjrs. (j) ^fssahalaty fi skr`p ae gèui`kturaeb ` prfdukt gust hj prfpjrly djtjrgaejd. @etakap`tjd skr`p smfuld hj kfgp`rjd watm `ktu`l skr`p. [tjps smfuld hj uedjrt`cje tf kfetrfl jxkjss skr`p. (i) Djtjrgae`tafe fi tmj kfst fi tmj `rtaklj fr tmj prfdukt prfdukjd gust hj prfpjrly wfrcjd fut. K`lkul`tafe fi tft`l kfst èd pjr ueat kfst prfduktafe as prag`raly tmj ofh fi kfstaeb djp`rtgjet, hut stall kfst jstag`tjs pjrtàeaeb tf darjkt g`tjra`l, darjkt l`hfur, darjkt jxpjesjs èd aedarjkt jxpjesjs èd fvjrmj`ds gust hj prjp`rjd hy tmj prfduktafe djp`rtgjet. Tmjsj jsta g`tjs wall hj brj`tly brj`tl y mjlpiul ifr tmj kfstaeb djp`rtgjet. (b) Kfgpljtj aeifrg`tafe pjrtàeaeb tf daiijrjet typjs fi prfduktafe kfetrfl ifrgs vaz., tagj èd ofh k`rds, aespjktafe k`rds èd tffl takcjts, jtk. gust hj cjpt hy tmj wfrcs gè`bjr. Tmas wall hj vjry mjlpiul ae k`rryaeb plèejd èd systjg`tak prfduktafe. (m) ^rjp`r`tafe fi rfutj smjjts as èftmjr agpfrtèt stjp ae rfutaeb prfkjdurj. Xfutj smjjts rjl`tj tf spjkaiak prfduktafe frdjrs. Fej smjjt as prjp`rjd ifr j`km p`rt fr kfgpfejet fi tmj prfdukt. j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Xfutj smjjts `lsf aedak`tj tmj sjqujekj fi fpjr`tafes tf hj uedjrt`cje èd `lsf kfetàe v`rafus rjquarjgjets fi prfduktafe vaz., gje, g`tjra`ls èd g`kmaejry jtk. Xfutj smjjts `lsf aedak`tj tft`l eughjr fi pajkjs tf hj prfdukjd èd eughjr fi pajkjs tf hj aekludjd ae j`km lft wmjrj prfduktafe as k`rrajd ae lfts. At gust hj rjgjghjrjd tm`t rfutaeb r futaeb as ` kfgpljx èd tjdafus prfkjss `s sukm at smfuld hj jetrustjd tf è jxpjrt wmf cefws `ll tmj aetrak`kajs èd kfgpljxatajs fi prfduktafe fpjr`tafes. @ eughjr fi i`ktfrs vaz. mugè kfesadjr`tafes, plèt l`yfut, typj fi prfduktafe uedjrt`cje èd prfkjssjs jgplfyjd èd typj fi jquapgjet hjaeb uedjrt`cje gust hj cjpt ae gaed hjifrj sjljktaeb ` prfpjr rfutj ifr prfduktafe. (k) [kmjdulaeb?

[kmjdulaeb ae sagplj wfrds gjès iax`tafe fi tagj èd d`tj wmje j`km fpjr`tafe as tf hj kfggjekjd èd kfgpljtjd. At as è agpfrtèt p`rt fi prfduktafe kfetrfl `s `ll iuturj prfkjss fi prfduktafe as h`sjd fe at. [kmjdulaeb l`ys dfwe brfued wfrc ifr `ll suhsjqujet stjps ae prfduktafe prfkjss. @ ijw djiaeatafes fi skmjdulaeb `rj bavje `s uedjr? uedjr? “Tmj djtjrgae`tafe fi tmj tagj tm`t smfuld hj rjquarjd tf pjrifrg j`km fpjr`tafe èd `lsf tmj tagj ejkjss`ry ejkjss`ry tf pjrifrg tmj jetarj sjrajs `s rfutjd, g`caeb `llfwèkj ifr `ll i`ktfrs kfekjrejd.‗ “[kmjdulaeb aevflvjs jst`hlasmaeb tmj `gfuet fi wfrc tf hj dfej èd tmj tagj wmje j`km jljgjet fi tmj wfrc wall st`rt, fr tmj frdjr fi wfrc. Tmas aekludjs `llfk`taeb tmj qu`laty èd r`tj fi futput fi tmj plèt fr djp`rtgjet èd `lsf tmj d`tj fr frdjr fi st`rtaeb j`km ueat fi wfrc `t j`km st`tafe `lfeb tmj rfutj prjskrahjd.‗ Irfg tmj `hfvj gjetafejd djiaeatafes, at as klj`r tm`t skmjdulaeb as kfekjrejd watm `llfk`taeb tagj ifr j`km fpjr`tafe fi prfduktafe èd iae`lly tft`l tagj ae tmj kfgpljtafe fi prfduktafe. Typjs Typjs fi skmjdul kmjdul a eb?

[kmjdulaeb as fi tmrjj typjs vaz? (`) G`stjr skmjdulaeb3 (.h) Gèui`kturaeb fr fpjr`tafe skmjdulaeb3 (k) Xjtàl fpjr`tafe skmjdulaeb. (`) G`stjr skmjdulaeb?

At rjl`tjs tf ` spjkaiajd spjkaia jd pjrafd3 s`y ` gfetm, ` wjjc fr ` ifrteabmt. At kfetàes prfduktafe rjquarjgjets fi ` saeblj prfdukt fr daiijrjet prfdukts duraeb tmj spjkaiajd pjrafd fi tagj. At as j`sajr tf prjp`rj g`stjr skmjdulj ifr ` saeblj prfdukt, hut daiiakulty `rasjs wmjrj tmj eughjr fi prfdukts `rj gfrj. At as `lsf cefwe `s fvjr-`ll skmjdulj. ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Tmj prjp`r`tafe fi g`stjr skmjdulj v`rajs irfg aedustry tf aedustry `kkfrdaeb tf typj fi prfduktafe uedjrt`cje hy tmjg. G`stjr skmjdulj usu`lly kfetàes aeifrg`tafe pjrtàeaeb tf darjkt g`tjra`l rjquarjgjets, jstag`tjd rjquarjgjets ae gè-mfurs pjr prfdukt `t v`rafus wfrc kjetrjs èd jstag`tjd fvjrmj`d jxpjesjs jtk. (h) Gèui`kturaeb fr fpjr`tafe skmjdulaeb?

Gèui`kturaeb skmjduljs `rj prjp`rjd ae k`sj fi prfkjss fr kfetaeufus typj fi aedustrajs. Ae k`sj fi g`ss prfduktafe aedustrajs, wmjrj ueaifrg prfdukts fi s`gj sazj, kflfur èd djsabe jtk., `rj prfdukjd, gèui`kturaeb skmjduljs kè hj j`saly prjp`rjd. Hut ae k`sj wmjrj ` prfdukt as prfdukjd ae daiijrjet sazjs, quètaty, kflfur èd djsabe, at as hat daiiakult tf prjp`rj gèui`kturaeb skmjdulj. Tmj agpfrtèt aeifrg`tafe kfetàejd ae tmas skmjdulj rjl`tjs tf e`gj, eughjr fi tmj prfdukt, quètaty tf hj prfdukjd j`km d`y, wjjc fr èy ftmjr stapul`tjd tagj. (k) Djtàl fpjr`tafe skmjdulaeb?

Tmas typj fi skmjdulj rjl`tjs tf `llfk`tafe fi tagj ifr j`km prfduktafe fpjr`tafe watmae j`km g`kmaej èd gèui`kturaeb prfkjss ae tmj frbèas`tafe. Hftm rfutaeb èd skmjdulaeb `rj agpfrtèt jljgjets ae tmj prfkjss fi prfdukt kfetrfl. Tmjy `rj aetjrdjpjedjet fe j`km ftmjr. ^rfpjr rfutj kèeft hj `ssabejd tf ` prfdukt watmfut prfpjr skmjdulj, `t tmj s`gj tagj skmjduljs kèeft hj prjp`rjd prfpjrly watmfut tmj cefwljdbj fi jx`kt rfutj fi prfduktafe. (d) Dasp`tkmaeb?

Dasp`tkmaeb rjl`tjs tf tmj prfkjss fi aeata`taeb prfduktafe ae `kkfrdèkj watm prj-kfekjavjd prfduktafe plè. At as kfekjrejd watm bavaeb pr`ktak`l pr`kta k`l sm`pj tf t f tmj prfduktafe plè. Tmas aekludjs assuaeb ass uaeb ejkjss`ry frdjrs èd aestruktafes èd ftmjr agpfrtèt buadjlaejs èd aeifrg`tafe pjrtàeaeb tf wfrc. [fgj agpfrtèt djiaeatafes fi dasp`tkmaeb `rj jeugjr`tjd mjrj? “@ bffd djiaeatafe fi dasp`tkmaeb as tmj rfutaej fi sjttaeb prfduktavj `ktavatajs ae gftafe tmrfubm tmj rjlj`sj fi frdjrs èd aestruktafes, ae `kkfrdèkj watm prjvafusly plèejd tagjs èd sjqujekjs, jghfdajd ae rfutj smjjt èd skmjdulj km`rts .‗ “Djsp`tkmjs put prfduktafe ae jiijkt hy rjlj`saeb èd buadaeb gèui`kturaeb frdjrs ae tmj sjqujekj prjvafusly djtjrgaejd hy rfutj smjjts èd skmjduljs.‗ “Tmj djsp`tkmaeb djsp`tkmaeb iuektafe aevflvjs tmj `ktu`l brètaeb fi pjrgassafe tf prfkjjd `kkfrdaeb tf plès `lrj`dy-làd dfwe. Tmas as sagal`r ae k`sj fi tmj tr`vjlljr, tf mas jgplfyjr iae`lly `pprfvaeb mas v`k`tafe lj`vj.‗ ^rfkjdur ^rfkjdur j fr stjps tjps ifl lfwjd ae dasp`tkmae dasp`tkmae b?

Ifllfwaeb stjps `rj uedjrt`cje ae daskm`rbaeb tmj iuektafe fi dasp`tkmaeb‑? 0. Assuaeb g`tjra`ls irfg stfrjs tf daiijrjet prfduktafe prfkjssjs. 8. @ssabegjet fi wfrc tf v`rafus g`kmaejs èd wfrc pl`kjs. ;. ^rfkuraeb ejkjss`ry tffls, jquapgjet èd iaxturjs tf hj assujd tf wfrcgje `s èd wmje ejjdjd. b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 4. Assuaeb ejkjss`ry wfrc frdjrs, bavaeb aestruktafes èd ftmjr aeifrg`tafe watm rjb`rd tf wfrc tf tmj wfrcjrs. :. Tf rjkfrd èd gàetàe tmj tagj t`cje irfg st`rtaeb tf kfgpljtafe fi j`km ofh èd `lsf rjkfrdaeb tmj tft`l prfduktafe tagj. 9. @itjr tmj kfgpljtafe fi wfrc, `ll tffls, agpljgjets, dr`waebs èd km`rts jtk., tf hj rjturejd tf rjspjktavj assuaeb djp`rtgjets. 2. Xjkfrdaeb adlj tagj fi g`kmaejs èd wfrcjrs. (j) Kmjkcaeb tmj prfbrjss fr Ifllfw-up? Ifllfw-up fr jxpjdataeb iuektafe rjl`tjs tf jv`lu`tafe èd `ppràs`l fi wfrc pjrifrgjd. Ai bffds `rj tf hj prfdukjd `s plèejd, prfpjr ifllfw up fr jxpjdataeb jx pjdataeb gust hj uedjrt`cje. @ prfpjrly plèejd ifllfw up prfkjdurj as mjlpiul ae iaedaeb jrrfrs èd djijkts ae tmj wfrc èd at `lsf subbjsts rjgjda`l gj`surjs.

“Ifllfw up fr jxpjdataeb as tm`t hrèkm fi prfduktafe kfetrfl prfkjdurj wmakm rjbul`tjs tmj prfbrjss fi g`tjra`ls èd p`rt tmrfubm tmj prfduktafe prfkjss‗ Tmj iuektafe fi ifllfw -up as k`rrajd hy ”ifllfw-up ”ifllfw-up gje‑. gje‑. Tmjsj gje `kt `s aetjrgjda`rajs hjtwjje v`rafus djp`rtgjets hraebaeb `hfut kf-frdae`tafe kf -frdae`tafe hjtwjje tmjg. ”Ifllfw”Ifllfw-up gje‑ `rj `lsf rjijrrjd `s jxpjdatfrs, ”bf”bf- hjtwjjes‑, hjtwjjes‑, ”stfkc km`sjrs‑ èd ”prfbrjss”prfbrjss-gje‑ jtk. Ifllfw-up iuektafe kè hj `pplajd ae `kkfrdèkj w atm prfdukt fr prfkjss l`yfut. Ifllfw up uedjr prfdukt l`yfut as j`sajr tf uedjrt`cj `s tmj ifllfw-up gje `rj rjspfesahlj ifr tmj prfbrjss fi ` saeblj prfdukt irfg aespjktafe tf p`kcaeb. Fe tmj ftmjr mèd, ifllfw-up uedjr prfkjss l`yfut as daiiakult tf k`rry fe `kkfuet fi sk`ttjrjd djp`rtgjets. Daiijrjet ifllfw-up ifllfw-up gje `rj `ppfaetjd ae daiijrjet djp`rtgjet‑s vaz., l`tmj djp`rtgjet, wjldaeb djp`rtgjet èd iaeasmaeb djp`rtgjet jtk. Ae hraji tmj jljgjet fi ifllfw up as kfekjrejd watm tmj ifllfwaeb tmrjj stjps vaz., (`) Tf rjvajw tmj prjsjet satu`tafe watm rjb`rd tf g`tjra`ls, wfrc-ae-prfbrjss èd iaeasmjd prfdukts. (h) Jxpjdataeb tmj pjrifrgèkj fi tmfsj djp`rtgjets wmakm l`b hjmaed. (k) Xjgfvaeb fhst`kljs ae tmj w`y fi prfduktafe ifr sgfftm èd ueaetjrruptjd ilfw fi prfduktafe. B@ETT KM@XT[

@ Bètt km`rt as ` mfrazfet`l h`r km`rt djvjlfpjd `s ` prfduktafe kfetrfl tffl ae 0102 hy Mjery L. Bètt, è @gjrakè jebaejjr èd sfka`l skajetast. Irjqujetly usjd ae prfojkt gè`bjgjet, ` Bètt km`rt prfvadjs ` br`pmak`l allustr`tafe fi ` skmjdulj tm`t mjlps tf plè, kffrdae`tj, èd tr`kc spjkaiak t`scs ae ` prfojkt. @ Bètt km`rt as kfestruktjd watm ` mfrazfet`l `xas rjprjsjetaeb tmj tft`l tagj spè fi tmj prfojkt, hrfcje dfwe aetf aekrjgjets (ifr jx`gplj, d`ys, wjjcs, fr gfetms) èd ` vjrtak`l `xas rjprjsjeta eb tmj t`scs tm`t g`cj up tmj prfojkt (ifr jx`gplj, ai tmj prfojkt as futiattaeb yfur kfgputjr watm ejw sfitw`rj, tmj gòfr t`scs aevflvjd gabmt hj? kfedukt rjsj`rkm, kmffsj sfitw`rj, aest`ll sfitw`rj). Mfrazfet`l h`rs fi v`ryaeb ljebtms rjprjsjet tmj sjqujekjs, tagaeb, èd tagj s pè ifr j`km t`sc. Zsaeb tmj s`gj jx`gplj, yfu wfuld put "kfedukt "kfedukt rjsj`rkm" `t tmj tfp fi tmj tmj vjrtaklj vjrtaklj `xas èd dr`w ` h`r fe tmj br`pm br`pm tm`t rjprjsjets tmj `gfuet fi tagj yfu jxpjkt tf spjed fe tmj rjsj`rkm, èd tmje jetjr tmj ftmjr t`scs hjlfw tmj iarst fej èd rjprjsjet`tavj h`rs `t tmj t mj pfaets ae tagj wmje yfu jxpjkt tf uedjrt`cj tmjg. Tmj h`r spès g`y fvjrl`p, `s, ifr jx`gplj, yfu g`y kfedukt rjsj`rkm èd kmffsj sfitw`rj duraeb tmj s `gj tagj spè. @s tmj prfojkt


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj prfbrjssjs, sjkfed`ry h`rs, `rrfwmj`ds, `r rfwmj`ds, fr d`rcjejd d`rcj ejd h`rs g`y hj `ddjd tf aedak`tj kfgpljtjd t`scs, fr tmj pfrtafes fi t`scs tm`t m`vj hjje kfgpljtjd. @ vjrtak`l laej as usjd tf rjprjsjet tmj rjpfrt d`tj.

Bètt km`rts bavj ` klj`r allustr`tafe allustr`ta fe fi prfojkt st`tus, hut fej prfhljg watm tmjg as tm`t tmjy dfe't aedak`tj t`sc djpjedjekajs - yfu kèeft tjll mfw fej t`sc i`llaeb hjmaed skmjdulj ìijkts ftmjr t`scs. Tmj ^JXT Tmj ^JXT km`rt, km`rt, èftmjr pfpul`r prfojkt gè`bjgjet km`rtaeb gjtmfd, as djsabejd tf df tmas. @utfg`tjd Bètt km`rts stfrj gfrj aeifrg`tafe `hfut t`scs, sukm `s tmj aedavadu`ls `ssabejd tf spjkaiak t`scs, èd eftjs `hfut tmj prfkjdurjs. Tmjy `lsf fiijr tmj hjejiat fi hjaeb j`sy tf kmèbj, wmakm as mjlpiul. Km`rts g`y hj `doustjd irjqujetly tf rjiljkt tmj `ktu`l st`tus fi prfojkt t`scs `s, `lgfst aejvat`hly, tmjy tmjy davjrbj irfg tmj frabae`l plè.

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GFDZLJ AY AEYJETFXQ KFETXFL

@e aevjetfry as ` stfkc fi bffds gàetàejd ifr tmj purpfsj fi iuturj prfduktafe fr s`ljs.Ae hrf`d sjesj, tmj tjrg aevjetfry rjijrs tf `ll g`tjra`ls, p`rts, supplajs, tffls, ae-prfkjss fr iaeasmjd prfdukts rjkfrdjd ae tmj hffcs hy è frbèas`tafe èd cjpt ae ats stfkcs, w`rjmfusj fr plèt ifr sfgj pjrafd fi tagj. At as ` last fr skmjdulj fi g`tjra`ls mjld fe hjm`li fi è jetjrprasj. Tmj quètaty èd v`luj fi jvjry atjg as `lsf gjetafejd ae sukm last. @kkfrdaeb tf X.L. @kcfii èd G.R. [`sajea, “Aevjetfry kfesasts fi us`hlj hut adlj rjsfurkjs. Tmj rjsfurkjs g`y hj fi èy typj3 ifr jx`gplj, gje, g`tjra`ls, g`kmaejs fr gfejy. Rmje tmj rjsfurkjs aevflvjd `rj g`tjra`ls fr bffds ae èy st`bj fi kfgpljtafe, aevjetfry as rjijrrjd tf `s stf kc. ‗

Ae ` eutsmjll, tmj tjrg aevjetfry g`y hj djiaejd `s “tmj stfkc fi bffds, kfggfdatajs fr ftmjr jkfefgak rjsfurkjs tm`t `rj stfrjd fr rjsjrvjd `t èy bavje pjrafd ifr iuturj prfduktafe fr ifr gjjtaeb iuturj djgèd. Typjs/Kl`ssaiak`tafe Typjs/Kl`ssaiak`tafe fi Aevjetfry? 0. Da r jkt A evjetfra evjetfra js?

Darjkt aevjetfrajs `rj tmfsj aevjetfrajs tm`t pl`y ` gòfr rflj ae tmj prfduktafe èd kfestatutj ` vat`l p`rt fi iaeasmjd bffds. Tmjsj aevjetfrajs kè hj j`saly `ssabejd tf spjkaiak pmysak`l ueats. Darjkt aevjetfrajs g`y hj k`tjbfrasjd aetf ifur brfups. (a) X`w g`tjra`ls? X`w g`tjra`ls `rj tmj pmysak`l rjsfurkjs tf hj usjd ae tmj gèui`kturj fi iaeasmjd prfdukts. Tmjy aekludj g`tjra`ls tm`t `rj ae tmjar e`tur`l fr r`w ifrg. Ifr jx`gplj, kfttfe ae tmj k`sj fi tjxtalj gall, sub`rkèj ae tmj k`sj fi sub`r i`ktfry, fal sjjds ae tmj k`sj fi è fal gall jtk. Tmj kmaji fhojktavj fi cjjpaeb r`w g`tjra`l as tf jesurj ueaetjrruptjd prfduktafe ae tmj jvjet fi djl`ys ae djlavjry èd `lsf tf jeofy tmj jkfefgajs fi l`rbj sk`lj huyaeb. (aa) [jga-iaeasmjd Bffds? [jga-iaeasmjd bffds `rj tmfsj g`tjra`ls wmakm `rj eft kjet pjr kjet (0>>%) kfgpljtj ae `ll rjspjkts a.j., sfgj prfkjssaeb stall rjgàes tf hj dfej hjifrj tmj prfdukt kè hj sfld. Ifr jx`gplj, ` pjrsfe wmf as jeb`bjd ae tmj gèui`kturj fi iureaturj, g`y g` y purkm`sj uepflasmjd iureaturj irfg g`rcjt èd sjll at ìtjr pflasmaeb tmj s`gj. (aaa) Iaeasmjd Bffds? Iaeasmjd bffds `rj kfgpljtj prfdukts tm`t `rj rj`dy ifr s`lj fr dastrahutafe. Ifr aestèkj, ae k`sj fi ` mfsajry i`ktfry, swj`tjrs, sm`wls jtk. `rj iaeasmjd prfdukts. (av) [p`rj ^`rts? [p`rj p`rts gjès duplak`tj p`rts fi ` g`kmaej. Zsu`lly, `lgfst `ll tmj aedustra`l kfekjres gàetàe sp`rj p`rts fi fi v`rafus v`rafus g`kmaejs wmakm wmakm tmjy usj ifr gèui`kturj. Tmas wall je`hlj je`hlj tmjg tf jesurj sgfftm rueeaeb fi g`kmaejs wmakm ae ture prfvadj ifr ueaetjrruptjd prfduktafe. b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 8. Ae dar jkt Ae vjetfra vjetfra js?

Aedarjkt aevjetfrajs aekludj tmfsj atjgs wmakm `rj ejkjss`ry ifr gèui`kturaeb hut df eft hjkfgj kfgpfejet fi tmj iaeasmjd bffds. Tmjy efrg`lly aekludj pjtrfl, gàetjeèkj g`tjra`ls, fiiakj g`tjra`ls, brj`sj, fal luhrakèts jtk. Tmjsj aevjetfrajs `rj usjd ifr èkall`ry purpfsjs tf tmj husaejss èd kèeft hj `ssabejd tf spjkaiak, pmysak`l ueats. Tmjsj aevjetfrajs g`y hj usjd ae tmj i`ktfry, tmj fiiakj fr tmj sjllaeb èd dastrahutafe davasafes. Fhojktavjs? (a) Tf gaeagasj k`pat`l aevjstgjet ae aevjetfry a evjetfry hy jlagae`taeb jxkjssavj stfkcs3 (aa) Tf jesurj `vàl`halaty fi ejjdjd aevjetfry ifr ueaetjrruptjd prfduktafe èd ifr gjjtaeb kfesugjr djgèd3 (aaa) Tf prfvadj ` skajetaiak h`sas ifr plèeaeb fi aevjetfry ejjds3 (av) Tf tadaeb fvjr tmj djgèd iluktu`tafes hy gàetàeaeb rj`sfe`hlj sìjty stfkc3 (v) Tf gaeagasj rasc fi lfss duj tf fhsfljskjekj, djtjrafr`tafe, jtk.3 (va) Tf gàetàe ejkjss`ry rjkfrds ifr prftjktaeb `bàest tmjits, w`stjs lj`c`bjs fi aevjetfrajs èd tf djkadj tagjly rjpljeasmgjet fi stfkcs. @dvèt`bjs fi Aevjetfry Kfetrfl? 0. At agprfvjs tmj laquadaty pfsatafe fi tmj iarg hy rjdukaeb ueejkjss`ry tyaeb up fi k`pat`l ae jxkjss aevjetfrajs. 8. At jesurjs sgfftm prfduktafe fpjr`tafes hy gàetàeaeb rj`sfe`hlj stfkcs fi g`tjra`ls. ;. At i`kalat`tjs rjbul`r èd tagjly supply tf kustfgjrs tmrfubm `djqu`tj stfkcs fi iaeasmjd prfdukts. 4. At prftjkts tmj iarg `bàest v`ra`tafes ae r`w g`tjra`ls djlavjry tagj. :. At i`kalat`tjs prfduktafe skmjdulaeb, `vfads smfrt`bj fi g`tjra `ls èd duplak`tj frdjraeb. 9. At mjlps tf gaeagasj lfss hy fhsfljskjekj, djtjrafr`tafe, d`g`bj, jtk. 2. At je`hljs tmj iargs tf t`cj `dvèt`bj fi prakj iluktu`tafes tmrfubm jkfefgak lft huyaeb wmje prakjs `rj lfw. Lagat`tafes fi Aevjetfry Kfetrfl? (a) Jiiakajet aevjetfry kfetrfl gjtmfds kè rjdukj hut kèeft jlagae`tj husaejss rasc. (aa) Tmj fhojktavjs fi hjttjr s`ljs tmrfubm agprfvjd sjrvakj tf kustfgjr3 rjduktafe ae aevjetfrajs tf rjdukj sazj fi aevjstgjet èd rjdukaeb kfst fi prfduktafe hy sgfftmjr prfduktafe fpjr`tafes `rj kfeilaktaeb watm j`km ftmjr. (aaa) Tmj kfetrfl fi aevjetfrajs as kfgpljx hjkùsj fi tmj gèy iuektafes at pjrifrgs. At smfuld hj vajwjd `s sm`rjd rjspfesahalatajs. Aevjetfry Kfsts? (a) Frdjraeb Kfsts? Tmjsj aekludj kfsts wmakm `rj `ssfka`tjd watm pl`kaeb fi frdjrs tf purkm`sj r`w g`tjra`ls èd kfgpfejets. Kljrak`l èd `dgaeastr`tavj s`l`rajs, rjet ifr tmj sp`kj fkkupajd, pfst`bj, tjljbr`gs, halls, st`tafejry, jtk. `rj tmj jx`gpljs fi frdjraeb kfsts. Tmj gfrj tmj frdjrs, tmj gfrj wall hj tmj frdjraeb kfsts èd vakj vjrs`. (aa) K`rryaeb Kfsts? Tmjsj aekludj kfsts aevflvjd ae mfldaeb fr k`rryaeb aevjetfrajs lacj aesurèkj km`r bjs ifr kfvjraeb rascs, rjet ifr tmj ilffr sp`kj fkkupajd, w`bjs fi l`hfurjrs, w`st`bjs, fhsfljskjekj, fr djtjrafr`tafe, tmjits, ^

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palijr`bjs, jtk. Tmjsj `lsf aekludj ”fppfrtueaty kfsts.‑ Tmas sagply gjès m`d tmj gfejy hlfkcjd ae aevjetfrajs hjje aevjstjd jlsjwmjrj ae tmj husaejss, at wfuld m`vj j`rejd ` kjrtàe rjture. Mjekj, tmj lfss

fi sukm rjture g`y hj kfesadjrjd `s è ”fppfrtueaty kfsts.‑ Gfdjls fi Aevjetfry Gè`bjgjet

Rmalj at as vjry ejkjss`ry tf gàetàe tmj fptagug ljvjl fi aevjetfry, at as eft sf j`sy `s wjll. Efejtmjljss, sfgj gfdjls fr gjtmfds m`vj hjje djvjlfpjd ae tmj rjkjet p`st ifr djtjrgaeaeb tmj fptagug ljvjl fi aevjetfrajs tf hj gàetàejd ae tmj jetjrprasj. @ll gfdjls `rj kl`ssaiajd aetf twf gòfr typjs? (a) Djtjrgaeastak Gfdjls, èd (aa) ^rfh`halastak Gfdjls. Ae hraji, tmj djtjrgaeastak gfdjls `rj hualt fe tmj `ssugptafe tm`t tmjrj as ef uekjrtàety `ssfka`tjd watm djgèd èd rjpljeasmgjet fi aevjetfrajs. Fe tmj kfetr`ry, tmj prfh`halastak gfdjls t`cj kfbeazèkj fi tmj i`kt tm`t tmjrj as `lw`ys sfgj djbrjj fi uekjrtàety `ssfka`tjd watm tmj djgèd p`ttjre èd lj`d tagj fi aevjetfrajs. Zsu`lly, tmj ifllfwaeb tmrjj djtjrgaeastak gfdjls `rj ae usj? 0. Jkfefgak Frdjraeb Puètaty (JFP) Gfdjl, 8. @HK @e`lysas, ;. YJD @e`lysas, 4. I[E @e`lysas 0. Jkfefgak Frdjr Frdjr ae b Puètaty (JFP) G fdjl? fdjl?

Fej fi tmj agpfrtèt djkasafes tf hj t`cje hy ` iarg ae aevjetfry gè`bjgjet as mfw gukm aevjetfry tf huy `t ` tagj.

Tmas as k`lljd ”Jkfefgak Frdjraeb Puètaty (JFP). JFP `lsf bavjs sflutafes tf ftmjr prfhljgs lacj? (a) Mfw irjqujetly tf huy6 (aa) Rmje tf huy6 (aaa) Rm`t smfuld hj tmj rjsjrvj stfkc6 @ssugptafes 0. Tm`t tmj iarg cefws watm kjrtàety mfw gukm atjgs fi p`rtakul`r aevjetfrajs wall hj usjd fr djgèdjd ifr watmae ` spjkaiak pjrafd fi tagj. 8. Tm`t tmj usj fi aevjetfrajs fr s`ljs g`dj hy tmj iarg rjgàes kfestèt fr uekmèbjd tmrfubmfut tmj pjrafd. ;. Tm`t tmj gfgjet aevjetfrajs rj`km tf tmj zjrf ljvjl, tmj frdjr fi tmj rjpljeasmgjet fi aevjetfry as pl`kjd watmfut djl`y. `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Djtjrgae`tafe fi JFP?

JFP Gfdjl as h`sjd fe Hùgfl‑s k`sm gè`bjgjet gfdjl. Mfw gukm tf huy `t ` tag j, fr s`y, mfw gukm wall hj JFP as tf hj djkadjd fe tmj h`sas fi tmj twf kfsts? (a) Frdjraeb Kfsts, èd (aa) K`rryaeb Kfsts. Tmj v`rafus kfgpfejets fi frdjraeb kfsts èd k`rryaeb kfsts `rj smfwe ae t mj ifllfwaeb? Kfgpfejets fi Frdjraeb Kfsts èd K`rryaeb Kfsts? Frdjraeb Kfsts K`rryaeb Kfsts Xjquasatafeaeb R`rjmfusaeb Frdjr ^l`kaeb Mèdlaeb Trèspfrt`tafe @dgaeastr`tavj [tfraeb Aesurèkj @dgaeastr`tavj Djtjrafr`tafe èd Fhsfljskj JFP kè hj djtjrgaejd hy `pplyaeb tmj ifllfwaeb kfggfely usjd ifrgul`?

P 7 8Zx^/[ Rmjrj? P 7 Jkfefgak Frdjraeb Puètaty (JFP) Z 7 Puètaty purkm`sjd ae ` yj`r fr gfetm ^ 7 Kfst fi pl`kaeb è frdjr

[ 7 @eeu`l fr gfetmly kfst fi stfr`bj fi fej ueat cefwe `s ”k`rryaeb kfst.‑ Ljt us allustr`tj tmas watm è ag`bae`ry jx`gplj? Ljt us `ssugj tmj ifllfwaeb d`t` ifr ` iarg? @eeu`l rjquarjgjets =>> ueats Frdjraeb Kfst (pjr frdjr) Xs. :> K`rryaeb Kfst (pjr ueat) Xs. 0>> Efw, usaeb tmj JFP ifrgul`, ifrgul`, JFP quètaty wall hj `s ifllfws? JFP 7 8 x =>> x :>/8 7 =>,>>>/8 7 4>,>>> 7 8>> Zeats 8. @HK @e`l ysas? ysas?

Tmas as `lsf k`lljd ”[jljktavj Aevjetfry Kfetrfl.‑ Tmj @HK è`lysas fi sjljktavj aevjetfry as h`sjd fe tmj lfbak tm`t ae èy l`rbj eughjr, wj usu`lly m`vj ”sabeaiakèt ijw‑ èd ”aesabeaiakèt gèy.‑ Tmas mflds truj ae k`sj fi aevjetfrajs `lsf. @ iarg gàetàeaeb sjvjr`l typjs fi aevjetfrajs dfjs eft ejjd tf jxjrkasj tmj s`gj djbrjj fi kfetrfl fe `ll tmj atjgs.

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Tmj iarg `dfpts sjljktavj `pprf`km tf kfetrfl aevjstgjets ae v`rafus typjs fi aevjetfrajs. Tmas sjljktavj `pprf`km as k`lljd tmj @HK @e` lysas. Tmj atjgs watm mabmjst v`luj `rj kl`ssaiajd `s ”@ Atjgs‑. Tmj atjgs

watm rjl`tavjly lfw v`luj `s ”H Atjgs‑ èd tmj atjgs lj`st v`lu`hlj `rj kl`ssaiajd `s ”K Atjgs.‑ [aekj tmj @HK è`lysas kfekjetr`tjs fe agpfrtèt atjgs, mjekj, at as `lsf cefwe `s ” Kfetrfl hy Agpfrtèkj èd Jxkjptafe (KAJ).‑ Tmj kfgpfsatafe fi tmjsj atjgs ae tjrgs fi quètaty èd v`luj as lfpsadjd. Ae ` study kfeduktjd sfgjtagjs `bf, tmj sm`rjs fi v`rafus atjgs, vaz. @, H èd K ae tft`l eughjr èd v`luj fi è ùtfgfhalj kfgpèy wjrj ifued `s ifllfws? Atjgs @ H K Tft`l

% fi Eughjrs % fi Y`luj 1 :2 0> 0= =0 8: 0>> 0>>

Ae k`sj fi @HK @e`lysas, straebjet kfetrfl as agpfsjd fe ”@ Atjgs‑ gàetàeaeb h`rj gaeagug ejkjss`ry ljvjl fi aevjetfrajs fi tmjsj. Rmalj ”H Atjgs‑ wall hj cjpt uedjr rj`sfe`hlj kfetrfl, ”K Atjgs‑ wall hj uedjr sagplj kfetrfl. Tmj I[E è`lysas kl`ssaiyaeb kl`ssai yaeb bffds aetf I`st-Gfvaeb, [lfw-Gfvaeb, èd Efe-Gfvaeb èd YJD è`lysas kl`ssaiyaeb bffds aetf Yat`l, Jssjeta`l, èd Djsar`hlj `rj sagal`r tf @HK @e`lysas ae praekaplj. ;. YJD @e`lysas Yat`l jssjeta`l èd djsar`hlj è`lysas as usjd prag`raly ifr tmj kfetrfl fi sp`rj p`rts. Tmj sp`rj p`rts kè hj davadjd aetf tmrjj k`tjbfrajs? (a) Yat`l (aa) Jssjeta`l (aaa) Djsar`hlj (a) Yat`l? Tmj sp`rjs tmj stfkc fut fi wmakm jvje ifr ` smfrt tagj wall stfp prfduktafe ifr quatj sfgj tagj èd iuturj tmj kfst fi stfkc fut as vjry mabm `rj cefwe `s vat` l sp`rjs. (aa) Jssjeta`l? Tmj sp`rj stfkc fut fi wmakm jvje ifr ` ijw mfurs fi d`ys èd kfst fi lfst prfduktafe as mabm as k`lljd jssjeta`l. (aaa) Djsar`hlj? [p`rjs `rj tmfsj wmakm `rj ejjdjd hut tmjar `hsjekj ifr jvje ` wjjc fr sf wall eft lj`d tf stfpp`bj fi prfduktafe. 4. I [E @e `lysas? `lysas?

Tmas kl`ssaiak`tafe wfrcs lacj tmas? I 7 I`st Gfvaeb [ 7 [lfw Gfvaeb E 7 Efe-gfvaeb j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj I[E è`lysas as h`sjd fe tmj `ssugptafe tm`t `ll atjgs fi aevjetfry `rj eft rjquarjd `ll tmj tagj ae st frjs. [fgj atjgs `rj rjquarjd fe rjbul`r h`sas èd sfgj fekj ae ` wmalj. Tmjrjifrj, I`st gfvaeb atjgs gust hj cjpt ej`rjr ej`rjr tf tmj pfaet pfaet fi assuj èd sagal`rly Efe- gfvaeb atjgs kè hj cjpt ae ` rjgftj pl`kj `s tmjy `rj rjquarjd fkk`safe`lly.

Tmjrjifrj ifr tmj purpfsj fi kfetrfllaeb atjgs uedjr I[E è`lysas, ”I‑ typj atjgs ejjd tf hj rjvajwjd fe rjbul`r h`sas wmalj ”[‑ typj atjgs g`y hj jx`gaejd iurtmjr èd tmjar daspfs`l k è hj kfesadjrjd. Tf kfedukt I[E è`lysas, tmj d`tj fi rjkjapt fr tmj l`st d`tj fi assuj, wmakmjvjr as l`tjr, as kfesadjrjd tf djtjrgaej tmj eughjr fi gfetms, wmakm m`vj l`psjd saekj tmj l`st très`ktafe. :. M G L @e`lysas @e`lysas??

Tmas kl`ssaiak`tafe wfrcs lacj tmas? M 7 Mabm Kfst Atjgs G 7 Gjdaug Kfst Atjgs L 7 Lfw Kfst Atjgs Lacjwasj @HK è`lysas, atjgs `rj kl`ssaiajd fe tmj h`sas fi kfst fi tmj atjgs. Tmj pfaet fi daiijrjekj hjtwjje tmjsj twf tjkmeaqujs as tm`t uedjr MGL è`lysas, ifr tmj purpfsj fi kl`ssaiyaeb aevjetfrajs aetf v`rafus k`tjbfrajs, fely kfst fi tmj atjgs as kfesadjrjd wmalj tmjar èeu`l kfesugptafe v`luj as tft`lly abefrjd. Aevjetfry Kfetrfl Gfdjls G fdj fdjl A ?

Djrav`tafe fi M`rras ifrgul` ifr aestètèjfus supply, kfetaeufus kfesugptafe èd zjrf huiijr stfkc? Tmas rjl`tafesmap sm`ll hj v`lad ifr purkm`sj `s wjll `s gèui`kturjr fi bffds? K`sj A. ûrkm`sj K`sj? Zsaeb tmj Eft`tafes P 7 Jkfefgak frdjr quètaty JFP (ifr aeput g`tjra`ls) D 7 @eeu`l djgèd fr Kfesugptafe fi aeput g`tjra`ls 7 yj`rly us`bj fi a tjgs K 7 Zeat Kfst a.j. kfst fi ueat g`tjra`l ^ 7 ^rfkurjgjet kfst fr frdjraeb kfst pjr quètaty P èd at g` y aekludj. (a) Kfst fi prfkjssaeb tmj rjquasatafes. (aa) Kfst fi rjkjavaeb tmj g`tjra`l fr trèspfrt`tafe kfst uptf tmj plèt (aaa) Kfst fi qu`laty kfetrfl & aespjktafe aevflvjd. A 7 r`tj fi aetjrjst km`rbjd pjr ueat pjr yj`r M 7 Aevjetfry mfldaeb fr k`rryaeb kfst Rmakm g`y aekludj tmj ifllfwaeb? (a) Kfst fi stfr`bj èd mèdlaeb tmj g`tjra`ls. (aa) T`xjs èd aesurèkj fe aevjetfrajs duraeb stfr`bj. (aaa) Djtjrafr`tafe èd fhsfljskjekj fi aevjetfrajs duraeb stfr`bj.


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (av) Kfst fi gàetàeaeb rjkfrds fi aeput g`tjra`l aevjetfrajs. (M as t`cje `s pjrkjet fi ueat g`tjra`l kfst) K`sj AA. ^rfduktafe K`sj? P 7 Jkfefgak lft sazj tf hj gèui`kturjd. D 7 @eeu`l prfduktafe. K 7 Zeat kfst fi prfduktafe wmakm aekludjs? (a) X`w g`tjra`l kfst pjr ueat. (aa) L`hfur kfst pjr ueat. (aaa) Fvjr mj`ds kfst pjr ueat. ^ 7 ^rjp`r`tafe fr sjt up ifr quètaty P 7 At aekludjs tmj ifllfwaeb? (a) L`hfur kfst ifr sjt up fi g`km aejs/jquapgjet‑s, tffls, oabs èd iaxturjs èd `kkjssfrajs. (aa) ^`pjr wfrc kfst aevflvjd ae prfduktafe plèeaeb èd kfetrfl, tffl rffg èd aeput g`tjra`ls stfrjs. (aaa) Kfst fi skr`p kùsjd duj tf aeata`l tra`l rues duraeb prfduktafe prfkjss èd g`kmaej a dlj tagj duraeb tmas prfkjss. M 7 Aevjetfry k`rryaeb r`tj fr mfldaeb kfst. At as t`cje `s pjrkjet fi ueat kfst, at g`y `lsf hj jxprjssjd `s rupjjs pjr ueat kfst. Tf djravj tmj rjl`tafesmap ifr JFP èd JL[ a.j. Jkfefgak frdjr quètaty fr Jkfefgak lft sazj, Ljt Qk7 Tft`l yj`rly kfst (tft`l èeu`l aevjstgjet) Qk 7 G`tjra`l kfst + @eeu`l Aevjetfry K`rryaeb fr Mfldaeb Kfst + ^rfkurjgjet fr ^rjp`r`tafe fr sjt up kfst. G`tjra`l Kfst 7 Zeat Kfst x @eeu`l ^rfduktafe/us`bj 7 K x D @eeu`l aevjetfry k`rryaeb kfst/Mfldaeb kfst.

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj G fdj fdjl A A ?

Jkfefgak Frdjr Puètaty fr Jkfefgak lft sazj watm rjsjrvj stfkc? Rmje tmj supply as aestètèjfus èd kfesugptafe as kfetaeufus èd tmjrj as i rjsj rvj stfkc èd ifr tmas gfdjl tmj p`ttjre fi aevjetfry as smfwe ae tmj `dofaeaeb iab .08.:

Ifllfwaeb tmj prjvafus eft`tafes èd X `s rjsjrvj stfkc, wj m`vj tmj tft`l èeu`l kfst.

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj G fdjl A AA ?

Jkfefgak frdjr quètaty fr jkfefgak lft sazj wmje tmjrj as smfrt`bj `s smfwe ae Iab.

Rj m`vj kfesadjrjd tmj k`sjs wmjrj `ll djgèds wjrj gjt irfg stfkc èd tmj systjg w`s ejvjr fut fi stfkc. Ae tmj prjsjet k`sj `ll djgèd gust hj gjt ultag`tjly hut tmj systjg g`y g` y hj smfrt fi stfkc ifr sfgj tagj. Ifr smfrt`bjs pje`lty as km`rbjd tf tmj supplajr ae frdjr tf daskfur`bj sukm pr`ktakj. Ae k`sj fi smfrt`bjs h`kc frdjrs `rj tf hj pjrgattjd. Ratm usu`l eft`tafes `s ifllfwjd ae prjvafus gfdjls watm K0 7 ^je`lty pjr ueat smfrt`bjs kfst pjr ueat tagj. P 7 Frdjr Puètaty fr lft sazj. Pg 7 G`xagug aevjetfry ljvjl. e7 Eughjr fi frdjr pl`kjd pjr yj`r7 D/P Tft`l tagj fi tmj kyklj t 7 t0 + t8 t0 as tmj tagj duraeb wmakm djgèd as gjt irfg i rfg aevjetfry stfkc t 8 as tmj tagj wmje smfrt`bj fkkur. Zsaeb bjfgjtrak`l rjl`tafesmap irfg tmjsj sagal`r traèbljs `s smfwe ae Iab.

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G fdj fdjl A Y?

Jkfefgak lft sazj wmje supply as kfetaeufus (eft a estètèjfus) kfesugptafe as kfetaeufus, ef smfrt`bjs èd ef huiijr stfkc. Tmj supply r`tj as brj`tjr tmè tmj r`tj fi kfesugptafe p sf tmjrj as ` br`du`l hualdup fi aevjetfry `t tmj r`tj fr ([ ‛ p). p). p) Gfdjl ifr jkfefgak lft sazjs watm supply èd kfesugptafe ... Tmj r`tj fi aevjetfry huald-up 7 ([ ‛ p) r`tjs v`ryaeb, ef smfrt`bjs, ef huiijr stfkc, r`tj fi supply 7 e r`tj fi kfesugptafe 7 p.

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj [Z^^LQ KM@AE G@E@BJGJET

@ supply kmàe as ` ejtwfrc fi rjtàljrs, dastrahutfrs, trèspfrtjrs, stfr`bj i`kalatajs, èd supplajrs wmf t`cj p`rt ae tmj prfduktafe, djlavjry, èd s`lj fi ` prfdukt tm`t kfevjrt èd gfvj tmj bffds irfg r`w g`tjra`ls tf jed usjrs, at djskrahjs tmj prfkjssjs èd frbèas`tafes frbèas`ta fes aevflvjd ae kfevjrtaeb èd kfevjyaeb tmj bffds irfg gèui`kturjs tf kfesugjrs. Tmj `ktavatajs klfsj tf tmj r`w g`tjra`l st`bj `rj cefwe `s upstrj`g `ktavatajs èd `ktavatajs hjtwjje tmj gèui`kturjr èd jed kfesugjr `rj dfwestrj`g `ktavatajs. G`rcjtaeb dastrahutafe kfekjres tmjsj dfwestrj`g `ktavatajs. @ typak`l supply kmàe kfesasts fi gultaplj kfgpèajs wmakm kffrdae`tj `ktavatajs tf sjt tmjgsjlvjs `p`rt irfg tmj kfgpjtatafe. @ supply kmàe h`sak`lly m`s tmrjj cjy p`rts? a. [upply? At ifkusjs fe tmj r`w g`tjra`ls g`tjra `ls supplajd tf gèui`kturaeb, aekludaeb mfw, wmje, èd irfg wm`t lfk`tafe. aa. Gèui`kturaeb? At ifkusjs fe kfevjrtaeb tmjsj r`w g`tjra`ls aetf iaeasmjd prfdukts. aaa. Dastrahutafe? At ifkusjs fe jesuraeb tm`t tmjsj prfdukts rj`km tmj kfesugjrs tmrfubm è frbèazjd ejtwfrc fi dastrahutfrs, w`rjmfusjs, èd rjtàljrs.

Tmfubm fitje `pplajd tf gèui`kturaeb èd kfesugjr prfdukts, ` supply kmàe kè `lsf hj usjd tf smfw mfw v`rafus prfkjssjs supply tf fej èftmjr (iaburj 09.8). Tmj supply kmàe djiaeatafe ae tmas sjesj kè `pply tf Aetjrejt tjkmeflfby, iaeèkj, èd gèy ftmjr aedustrajs. @ supply kmàe str`tjby djiaejs mfw tmj supply kmàe smfuld fpjr`tj ae frdjr tf kfgpjtj ae tmj g`rcjt. Tmj str`tjby jv`lu`tjs tmj hjejiats èd kfsts rjl`taeb tf tmj fpjr`tafe. Rmalj ` husaejss str`tjby ifkusjs fe tmj fvjr`ll darjktafe ` kfgpèy wasmjs tf pursuj, supply kmàe str`tjby ifkusjs fe tmj `ktu`l fpjr`tafes fi tmj frbèaz`tafe èd tmj supply kmàe tm`t wall h j usjd tf gjjt ` spjkaiak bf`l. Tmus ` typak`l supply kmàe g`y aevflvj ` v`rajty fi st`bjs daskussj d `s uedjr? (a) Kustfgjrs.


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (aa) Xjtàljrs. (aaa) Rmfljs`ljrs/Dastrahutfrs. (av) Gèui`kturjrs. (v) Kfgpfejet/X`w g`tjra`l supplajr. Hjejiats fi [upply Kmàes? (0) At hradbjs tmj b`ps hjtwjje tmj supplajrs èd tmj kustfgjrs. (8) At mjlps gèui`kturjrs ae rjdukaeb aevjetfrajs `s iaeasmjd bffds `rj stfrjd ej`rjr tf tmj kustfgjrs. (;) At `llfws iargs tf kfedukt fpjr`tafes `t è `pprfpra`tj tagj èd pl`kj ifr tmj hjejiats fi supplajrs èd kustfgjrs. (4) Jiijktavj supply kmàes rjsults ae jemèkjd kustfgjr sjrvakj `s rjtàljrs bjt ` kmfakj fi bffds èd `lsf k`rry ljss stfkc. (:) [upply kmàes g`cj gfvjgjets sagplj, kfst-jiijktavj èd jiiakajet `s trèspfrt as sagpljr. (9) Jxpjrtasj kè hj djvjlfpjd ae ` p`rtakul`r typj fi fpjr`tafe. (2) At `llfws iargs tf kfedukt fpjr`tafes `t è `pprfpra`tj tagj èd pl`kj ifr tmj hjejiats fi supplajrs èd kustfgjrs. PZ@LATQ KFETXFL & AE[^JKTAFE

Pu`laty Kfetrfl as ` systjg`tak kfetrfl fi v`rafus i`ktfrs tm`t ìijkt tmj qu`laty fi tmj prfdukt. Tmj v`rafus i`ktfrs aekludj g`tjra`l, tffls, g`kmaejs, typj fi l`hfur, wfrcaeb kfedatafes, gj`suraeb aestrugjets, jtk. Pu`laty Kfetrfl kè hj djiaejd `s tmj jetarj kflljktafe fi `ktavatajs wmakm jesurjs tm`t tmj fpjr`tafe wall prfdukj tmj fptagug Pu`laty prfdukts `t gaeagug kfst. @s pjr @.Q.Ijabfrhùg Tft`l Pu`laty Kfetrfl as? “@e jiijktavj systjg ifr aetjbr`taeb tmj qu`laty djvjlfpgjet, Pu`laty gàetjeèkj èd Pu`laty agprfvjgjet jiifrts fi tmj v`rafus brfups ae è frbèaz`tafe, sf `s tf je`hlj prfduktafe èd sjrvakjs `t tmj gfst jkfefgak`l ljvjls wmakm `llfw iull kustfgjr s`tasi`ktafe. Ae smfrt, wj kè s`y tm`t qu`laty kfetrfl as ` tjkmeaquj fi gè`bjgjet ifr `kmajvaeb rjquarjd stèd`rds fi prfdukts. I`ktfrs @iijktaeb Pu`laty?

Ae `ddatafe tf gje, g`tjra`ls, g`kmaejs èd gèui`kturaeb kfedatafes tmjrj `rj sfgj ftmjr i `ktfrs wmakm ìijkt tmj prfdukt qu`laty. Tmjsj `rj? 

G`rcjt Xjsj`rkm a.j. djgèd fi purkm`sjr.

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Gfejy a.j. k`p`halaty tf aevjst.

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Gè`bjgjet a.j. Gè`bjgjet pflakajs ifr qu`laty ljvjl.

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^rfduktafe gjtmfds èd prfdukt djsabe.

Gfdjre qu`laty kfetrfl hjbaes watm è jv`lu`tafe fi tmj kustfgjr‑s rjquarj gjets èd m`s ` p`rt tf pl`y `t jvjry st`bj irfg bffds gèui`kturjd rabmt tmrfubm s`ljs tf ` kustfgjr, wmf rjgàes s`tasiajd. Fhojktavj fi Pu`laty Kfetrfl? 

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Tf djkadj `hfut tmj stèd`rd fi qu`laty fi ` prfdukt tm`t as j`saly `kkjpt`hljtf tmj kustfgjr èd `t tmj s`gj tagj tmas stèd`rd smfuld hj jkfefgak`l tf gàetàe. Tf t`cj daiijrjet gj`surjs tf agprfvj tmj stèd`rd fi qu`laty fi prfdukt.

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Tf t`cj v`rafus stjps tf sflvj èy caed fi djva`tafes ae tmj qu`laty fi tmj prfdukt duraeb gèui`kturaeb.

Iuektafes fi Pu`laty Kfetrfl Djp`rtgjet? Djp`rtgjet? 

Fely tmj prfdukts fi ueaifrg èd stèd`rd qu`laty `rj `llfwjd tf hj sfld.

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Tf subbjst gjtmfd èd w`ys tf prjvjet tmj gèui`kturaeb daiiakultajs.

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Tf rjojkt tmj djijktavj bffds sf tm`t tmj t mj prfdukts fi pffr qu`laty g`y eft rj`km tf tmj kustfgjrs.

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Tf iaed fut tmj pfaets wmjrj tmj kfetrfl as hrj`caeb dfwe èd aevjstab`tj tmj kùsjs fi at.

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Tf kfrrjkt tmj rjojktjd bffds, ai at as pfssahlj. Tmas prfkjdurj as cefwe `s rjm`halat`tafe fi djijktavj bffds.

@dvèt`bjs fi Pu`laty Kfetrfl?  

Pu`laty fi prfdukt as agprfvjd wmakm ae ture aekrj`sjs s`ljs. [kr`p rjojktafe èd rjwfrc `rj gaeagazjd tmus rjdukaeb w`st`bj. [f tmj kfst fi gèui`kturaeb rjdukjs.

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Bffd qu`laty prfdukt agprfvjs rjput`tafe.

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Aespjktafe kfst rjdukjs tf ` brj`t jxtjet.

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Zeaifrgaty ae qu`laty kè hj `kmajvjd.

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Agprfvjgjet ae gèui`kturjr èd kfesugjr rjl`tafes.

Kfesjqujekjs Kfesjqujekjs fi ^ffr Pu`laty

[fgj fi tmj gòfr w`ys tm`t qu`laty ìijkts è frbèaz`tafe `rj? a) aa) aaa) av)

Lfss fi husaejss, La`halaty, ^rfduktavaty, Kfsts

Gjtmfds fr Tffls fi Pu`laty Kfetrfl?

@ey v`ra`tafes ae tmj qu`laty fi ` prfdukt, a.j., stèd`rds sjt `rj gàely kùsjd hy v`ra`tafes ae r`w g`tjra`l, gje, g`kmaejs, gjtmfds, èd prfkjdurjs fi prfkjdurjs fi prfduktafe èd aespjktafe. Ae frdjr tf prfdukj tmj qu`laty prfdukts, tmjsj v`ra`tafes ejjd tf hj kmj kcjd èd kfetrflljd. Tmjrj `rj gàely twf gjtmfds fi qu`laty kfetrfl. 0. A espj espjktafe ?

Aespjktafe, ae i`kt, as tmj kfggfe gjtmfd usjd ifr qu`laty kfetrfl purpfsjs eft fely ae prfduktafe hut `lsf ae sjrvakjs. @s rjb`rds aespjktafe ae prfduktafe, tmjrj `rj tmrjj agpfrtèt `spjkts aevflvjd ae at? (a) ^rfdukt Aespjktafe? @s tmj e`gj atsjli subbjsts, tmj prfdukt aespjktafe rjl`tjs tf tmj iae`l prfdukt sjet aetf tmj g`rcjt. Tmj gàe purpfsj fi prfdukt aespjktafe as tf jesurj tm `t tmj prfdukts sjet aetf tmj g`r cjt kfgply watm tmj sjt j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj stèd`rd ifr qu`laty. Ae ftmjr wfrds, at as tf jesurj tm`t tmj prfdukt rj`dy ifr s`lj as pjrijkt èd irjj fi djijkts. (aa) ^rfkjss Aespjktafe? ^rfkjss aespjktafe prfkjjds tf prfdukt aespjktafe. At as àgjd `t jesuraeb tm`t tmj r`w g`tjra`l èd

g`kmaejs èd jquapgjet‑s usjd ae tmj prfduktafe prfkjss `rj fi prjskrahjd qu`laty èd g`rc. ^rfkjss aespjktafe hjejiats tmj ueat ae twf w`ys? (0) At jesurjs tmj gèui`kturaeb fi ` qu`laty prfdukt. (8) At s`vjs w`st`bjs fi g`tjra`l hy prjvjetaeb prfkjss hfttljejkcs. (aaa) Aespjktafe @e`lysas? Tmas as ` gjtmfd h`sjd fe tmj è`lysjs fi aespjktafes g`dj. Tmj kfeklusafes djravjd irfg tmj aespjktafe è`lysjs mjlp tmj jetrjprjejur lfk`tj tmj jx`kt pfaets ae gèui`kturaeb prfkjss wmjrj iùlts laj. Ae ftmjr wfrds, at je`hljs tmj jetrjprjejur tf adjetaiy tmj pfaets `t wmakm djva`tafes irfg stèd`rd sjt st`rt. Pu`lat y kfetrfl tmrfubm Aespjktafe Gjtmfd as smfwe s mfwe ae tmj ifllfwaeb Iaburj 82.;.

8. [t`tas [t`tastak`l tak`l Pu`l aty Kfetrfl ?

At as è `dvèkjd gjtmfd fr tjkmeaquj usjd tf kfetrfl tmj qu`laty fi ` prfdukt. Tmas gjtmfd as h`sjd fe st`tastak`l tjkmeaqujs tf djtjrgaej èd kfetrfl tmj qu`laty. [`gplaeb, prfh`halaty, èd ftmjr st`tastak`l aeijrjekjs `rj usjd ae tmas gjtmfd ifr kfetrfllaeb tmj qu`laty fi ` prfdukt. At as wadjly usjd ae prfkjss kfetrfl ae kfetaeufus prfkjss aedustrajs èd ae aedustrajs prfdukaeb bffds fe ` g`ss sk`lj. Zedjr tmas gjtmfd, tmj jetarj lft as, iarstly, s`gpljd fe tmj h`sas fi ats spjkaiak km`r`ktjrastaks èd, tmje, as davadjd aetf tmrjj p`rts `s gjetafejd hjlfw? (a) @e`lysas fi [`gpljs (aa) Zsj fi Kfetrfl Km`rts (aaa) Kfrrjktavj Gj`surjs. (a) @e`lysas fi [`gpljs?

Tmas as h`sjd fe s`gplaeb tjkmeaqujs. Iarst fi `ll, tmj ueavjrsj a.j., tmj pfpul`tafe tf hj è`lysjd, as adjetaiajd. @itjr tmas, ifllfwaeb tmj s`gplaeb tjkmeaquj, tmj s`gplj rjprjsjetaeb tmj wmflj pfpul`tafe as sjljktjd èd è`lysjd. b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj At as agpfrtèt tm`t wj df eft ejjd tf è`lysj `ll tmj ueats fi tmj pfpul`tafe, hut fely ` ijw ueats k`lljd

”s`gplj ueats‑ `rj studajd èd è`lysjd. Tmj rjsult dr`we irfg tmjsj s`gplj ueats `rj tmje bjejr`lazjd `s ` wmflj. Ae ftmjr wfrds, aespjktafe fi s`gpljs gjès st`tastak`l aespjktafe fi tmj wmflj gèui`kturjd lft. (aa) Zsj fi Kfetrfl Km`rt?

Xj`lazaeb tm`t iaburjs/ km`rts `rj `lw`ys wjlkfgj tf djpakt tmj i`kt fi iaedaebs, tmj rjsults fhtàejd irfg è`lysas fi s`gpljs `rj prjsjetjd ae ` km`rt. Tmj gjtmfd tf dr`w ` km`rt as `s ifllfws? (a) Gj`surj tmj qu`laty km`r`ktjrastaks fi s`gplj sjljktjd. (aa) Iaed fut tmj gjè fi tmj s`gplj èd `lsf gj`surj ats rèbj fi daspjrsafe. (aaa) Tmje, d`t` rjb`rdaeb gjè èd daspjrsafe `rj b`tmjrjd. (av) T`cj ` br`pm p`pjr èd plft tmj b`tmjrjd d`t` fe at. Tmus, yfu m`vj ` kfetrfl km`rt rj`dy tf buadj yfu `hfut tmj qu`laty djva`tafe fi yfur prfdukt. Tmj sm`pj fi tmj kfetrfl km`rt sf plfttjd wall hj lacj `s ifllfws?

(aaa) Kfrrjktavj Gj`surjs?

M`vaeb dr`we qu`laty kfetrfl km`rt, tmj jetrjprjejur kè j`saly èd klj`rly lfk`tj tmj pfaets fi djva`ta fes èd kùsjs fi at. Tmas je`hljs mag tf jvflvj kfrrjktavj gj`surjs tf kfetrfl tmj qu`laty fi tmj prfdukt `kkfrdaebly. Ifr jx`gplj, ai v`ra`tafe ae qu`laty as kùsjd hy aeijrafr qu`laty r`w g`tjra`l, tmj qu`laty fi r`w g`tjra`l wall hj aekrj`sjd. [agal`rly, ae k`sj fi tr`datafe`l g`kmaejry, ejw èd gfdjg g`kmaejry wall hj aest`lljd. DJ[TXZKTAYJ & EFE-DJ[TXZKTAYJ TJ[TAEB GJTMFD[ EFE DJ[TXZKTAYJ TJ[TAEB

Efedjstruktavj tjstaeb (EDT) as tmj prfkjss fi aespjktaeb fr tjstaeb g`tjra`ls, kfgpfejets fr `ssjghlajs ifr daskfetaeuatajs, fr daiijrjekjs ae km`r`ktjrastaks watmfut djstrfyaeb tmj wfrcpajkj fr spjkagje. Ae ftmjr wfrds, wmje tmj aespjktafe fr tjst as kfgpljtj d tmj p`rt fr tmj wfrcpajkj kè stall hj usjd. 0

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 0. Yasu`l èd Fptak`l tjstaeb Tmas gjtmfd aevflvjs vasu`lly kmjkcaeb tmj wfrc pajkj ifr suri`kj djijkts, bjfgjtrak`l jrrfrs jtk. Aespjktafe as k`rrajd fut usaeb e`cjd jyj fr hy usaeb g`beaiyaeb bl`ss. Aestrugjets lacj stjjl rulj, skrjw bùbj, vjreajr k`lapjr jtk. kè hj usjd. Kfrrfsafe, gas`la begjet fi p`rts, pmysak`l d`g`bj èd kr`kcs `rj oust sfgj fi tmj daskfetaeuatajs tm`t g`y hj djtjktjd hy vasu`l jx`gae`tafes. 8. X`dafbr`pmy tjstaeb Ae tmas gjtmfd, gfstly ] r`ys `rj usjd ifr iaedaeb tmj aetjre`l djijkts ae tmj kfgpfejets. ] r`ys `rj p`ssjd tmrfubm tmj wfrcpajkj èd èd rj`kmjs tmj ] r`y ialg pl`kjd hjlfw tmj wfrc pajkj `s smfwe ae iaburj. Ai èy aetjre`l kr`kcs fr djijkts `rj prjsjet ae tmj wfrcpajkj, at as smfwe ae tmj ag`bj prfdukjd ae tmj pmftfbr`pmak ialg (] r`y ialg). Aestj`d fi ] r`ys, b`gg` r`ys `rj `lsf usjd wmakm m`s gfrj pjejtr`taeb pfwjr.

;. Zltr`sfeak tjstaeb Ae tmas tjstaeb gjtmfd, mabm irjqujeky sfued w`vjs `rj usjd tf iaed fut tmj aetjre`l djijkts. [fued w`vjs `rj p`ssjd tmrfubm tmj kfgpfejet èd tmj rjijktafe fi tmjsj sfued w`vjs `rj k`pturjd usaeb sjesfrs. Ai èy aetjre`l kr`kcs fr djijkts `rj prjsjet, tmj sfued w`vjs wall bjt rjiljktjd irfg tmjsj èd tmj sjesfrs rjkfrds tmas v`ra`tafe ae rjijktafe. @ed tmjsj `rj kfevjrtjd aetf dabat`l sabe`ls èd vasu`lly smfwjd ae LKD fr KXT daspl`ys. Hy kmjkcaeb tmj br`pms, tmj prjsjekj fi aetjre`l djijkts ` rj j`saly djtjktjd.

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4. G`bejtak ^`rtaklj tjstaeb Ae tmas gjtmfd, jljktrak kurrjet as g`dj tf p`ss tmrfubm tmj wfrcpajkj. Tmj wfrcpajkj hjkfgjs è jljktrf g`bejt èd g`bejtak ilux laejs `rj krj`tjd ae tmj wfrcpajkj. Ai èy suri`kj djijkts fr kr`kcs `rj prjsjet ae tmj wfrcpajkj, sg`ll g`bejtak pfljs `rj krj`tjd `t tmjsj kr`kcs `s smfwe ae tmj iaburj. Rmalj tmj wfrcpajkj as hjaeb g`bejtazjd, g`bejtak p`rtakljs p`rtakl js ae tmj ifrg fi pfwdjr (arfe pfwdjr) as spraecljd s praecljd fvjr tmas wfrcpajkj. Tmje tmj jxkjss pfwdjr as rjgfvjd. Hut sfgj fi tmj pfwdjr rjgàes ae tmj wfrcpajkj wmjrj sg`ll g`bejtak pfljs `rj prjsjet. Hy tmj prjsjekj fi tmjsj rjgàeaeb g`bejtak p`rtakljs ae tmj wfrcpajkj, tmj lfk`tafe fi suri`kj djijkts `rj spfttjd.

:. Laquad ^jejtrèt tjstaeb Laquad pjejtrèt tjstaeb as fej fi tmj i`stjst èd j`sajst gjtmfds tf iaed suri`kj djijkts. Tmjrj as ef spjka`l jquapgjet usjd ae tmas gjtmfd. @ lfw vask fus laquad k`lljd pjejtrèt fr pabgjet as `pplajd fe t mj suri`kj fi tmj wfrcpajkj. Tmj laquad wall hj m`vaeb ` vahrèt kflfur. Tmas laquad pjejtrèt wall pjejtr`tj aetf tmj kr`kcs ae tmj suri`kj. @itjr sfgjtagj, jxkjss pjejtrèt as rjgfvjd irfg tmj suri`kj hut tmj laquad pjejtr`tjd ae tmj kr`kcs wall rjgàe tmjrj. @ labmt kf`taeb fi ` pfwdjr cefwe cefwe `s djvjlfpjr as `pplajd fvjr tmj suri`kj fi tmj wfrcpajkj èd tmj iuektafe fi tmas pfwdjr as tf `hsfrh tmj pjejtrèt jetr`ppjd ae tmj kr`kcs. Rmalj `hsfrhaeb tmj pjejtrèt, kflfur fi djvjlfpjr kmèbjs èd duj tf tmas kflfur kmèbj, tmj prjsjekj fi suri`kj kr`kcs `rj spfttjd j`saly.

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DJ[TXZKTAYJ TJ[TAEB

Djstruktavj tjstaeb gjtmfds `rj usjd tf iaed fut tmj tjesalj strjebtm, kfgprjssavj strjebtm, agp`kt strjebtm, m`rdejss jtk. Ae tmas tjstaeb gjtmfds, kjrtàe lf`d as `pplajd tf tmj wfrc pajkj fr tmj spjkagje wmakm pmysak`lly d`g`bjs at. [f tmjsj tjstaeb gjtmfds `rj e`gjd djstruktavj tjstaeb. 0. Tjesalj tjst Tjesalj tjst as kfeduktjd tf gj`surj tmj tjesalj strjebtm, duktalaty jtk. fi tmj g`tjra`l. Tmj spjkagje as brappjd ae tmj tjesalj tjstaeb g`kmaej èd tjesalj lf`d as `pplajd. Duj tf tmas pullaeb lf`d, tmj spjkagje jlfeb`tjs èd ìtjr ` kjrtàe lf`d, at stfps jlfeb`taeb èd tmj spjkagje hrj`cs. Tmj lf`d `t tmas pfaet as gj`surjd usaeb tmj g`kmaej èd at as rj`d irfg tmj da`l. Tmj aeata`l da`gjtjr fi tmj spjkagje, da`gjtj r `t tmj pfaet fi ir`kturj, aeata`l ljebtm fi tmj spjkagje, ljebtm ìtjr tmj ir`kturj jtk. `rj gj`surjd èd suhstatutjd ae tmj ifrgul`s ifr iaedaeb tmj tjesalj strjebtm, % jlfeb`tafe jtk. Tmj g`kmaej usjd ifr tjesalj tjst as cefwe `s Zeavjrs`l Tjstaeb G`kmaej (ZTG).

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj 8. Kfgprjssafe tjst Kfgprjssafe tjst as kfeduktjd tf iaed fut tmj kfgprjssavj strjebtm fi tmj g`tjra`l. At as kfeduktjd sagal`r tf tjesalj tjst hut tmj ifrkj as kfgprjssavj. Zsu`lly kfgprjssafe tjst as kfeduktjd fe hrattlj g`tjra`ls lacj k`st arfe èd ae kfekrjtj èd hrakc. Tmj tjstaeb as dfej usaeb Zeavjrs`l tjstaeb g`kmaej (ZTG). Tmj spjkagje usjd ae kfgprjssafe tjst as usu`lly g`dj fi kylaedrak`l. Rmje tmj lf`d as `pplajd fe tmj spjkagje, at kfgprjssjs èd ìtjr ` kjrtàe lf`d, tmj spjkagje hrj`cs. Tmas lf`d as rj`d irfg tmj da`l fi ZTG. Tmj da`gjtjrs fi tmj spjkagje hjifrj èd ìtjr ir`kturj èd tmj lf`d `t ir`kturj `rj suhstatutjd ae jqu`tafes tf iaed tmj kfgprjssavj strjebtm fi tmj g`tjra`l.

;. Hjed tjst Hjed tjst as kfeduktjd tf iaed tmj hjedaeb strjebtm, duktalaty jtk. fi tmj g`tjra`l. Tmas tjst kè `lsf hj dfej usaeb ` ZTG hut ejjd kjrtàe `tt`kmgjets ifr brappaeb tmj spjkagje. Tmj tjst as kfeduktjd fe hftm duktalj èd hrattlj g`tjra`ls. Tmj lf`d `t tmj tagj fi st`rt fi hjedaeb èd `t ir`kturj as gj`surjd usaeb tmj g`kmaej èd tmjsj v`lujs `rj usjd tf iaed tmj hjedaeb strjebtm fi tmj g`tjra`l.

4. M`rdejss tjst Tmas tjstaeb as usjd tf iaed fut tmj rjsastèkj tf wj`r fi tmj spjkagje. H`sjd fe tmj g`kmaej usjd, m`rdejss tjstaeb as davadjd aetf ;. `) Hraejll M`rdejss Tjst Ae Hraejll m`redjss tjst, ` m`rdjejd stjjl h`ll as prjssjd aetf tmj spjkagje. Mj`vy lf`d as `pplajd fe tmj spjkagje usaeb tmas m`rdjejd stjjl h`ll wmakm kùsjs è aedjet`tafe fe tmj suri`kj fi tmj wfrcpajkj/spjkagje. @itjr rjgfvaeb tmj lf`d, da`gjtjr fi tmas aedjet as gj`surjd usaeb hraejll gakrfskfpj. Zsu`lly tmj da`gjtjr fi tmj stjjl h`ll as 0>gg. @pplajd lf`d as rèbaeb hjtwjje 0>>cb tf `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj ;>>>cb. Duraeb tmj tjst, tmj lf`d as gàetàejd kfestèt ifr 0>-0: sjkfeds. Tmj da`gjtjr fi tmj s tjjl h`ll, da`gjtjr fi tmj aedjet, lf`d `pplajd jtk. `rj suhstatutjd ae tmj tmjfrjtak`l ifrgul` ifr iaedaeb tmj Hraejll m`rdejss eughjr (HME) fi tm`t g`tjra`l. HME as usjd tf rjprjsjet tmj m`rdejss fi tmj g`tjra`ls. Ai HME as mabmjr, tmj g`tjra`l as m`rdjr. Ai HME as ljss, g`tjra`l as sfit.

Tmj das`dvèt`bjs fi hraejll m`rdejss tjstaeb as, (`) at prfdukjs l`rbj aedjet fe sfit g`tjra`ls, (h) at kèeft hj usjd tf iaed tmj m`rdejss fi g`tjra`ls m`rdjr tmè tmj stjjl h`ll usjd, (k) tmj tjst as eft suat`hlj fe tmae wfrc pajkjs. h) Xfkcwjll M`rdejss Tjst Tmj prfkjdurj fi Xfkcwjll m`rdejss tjstaeb as sagal`r tf hraejll. Hut aestj`d fi m`rdjejd stjjl h`ll, ` kfeak`l sm`pjd da`gfed as usjd. Lf`d as `pplajd fe tmj wfrc pajkj usaeb tmj da`gfed èd duj tf tmj mj`vy lf`d, è aedjet as prfdukjd ae tmj wfrcpajkj. Duj tf tmj usj fi da`gfed aestj`d fi stjjl, Xfkcwjll tjstaeb as suatjd ifr iaedaeb m`rdejss fi m`rdjr g`tjra`ls wmakm `rj hjyfed tmj rèbj fi hraejll. @ed `lsf tmj djptm fi aedjet krj`tjd ae tmj spjkagje as `lsf sg`ll kfgp`rjd tf hraejll. @eftmjr `dvèt`bj as tm`t, tmjrj as ef ejjd tf gj`surj tmj djptm fi tmj aedjet. Tmj Xfkcwjll m`rdejss eughjr (XME) as rj`daly rj`d irfg tmj da`l fi tmj g`kmaej. [f tmj tagj ifr gj`suraeb tmj da`gjtjr èd `pplyaeb ae tmj jqu`tafe as s`vjd. Hut tmj lagat`tafe as tm`t, tmj `kkur`ky fi tmj tjstaeb as vjry ljss kfgp`rjd tf hraejll. LF@D

k) Yakcjr‑s M`rdejss Tjst Yakcjrs m`rdejss tjst as tmj gfst `kkur`tj m`rdejss tjst `gfeb tmj tmrjj. Ae tmas, ` pyr`gad sm`pjd da`gfed as usjd `s tmj aedjetjr. Tmas tjst as suat`hlj ifr vjry m`rd g`tjra`ls. Lf`d as `pplajd fe tmj wfrcpajkj usaeb tmj da`gfed èd duj tf tmj mj`vy lf`d, è aedjet as prfdukjd ae tmj wfrc pajkj. Tmj da`bfe`l ljebtm fi tmj aedjet as `kkur`tjly gj`surjd usaeb tmj gakrfskfpj. Tmj da`gjtjr fi tmj aedjet èd tmj `pplajd lf`d as suhstatutjd ae tmj tmjfrjtak`l jqu`tafe ifr iaedaeb tmj Yakcjr M`rdejss eughjr (YME). 0

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:. Agp`kt Tjst G`tjra`ls g`y iàl wmje tmjy `rj suddjely suhojktjd tf lf`ds fr strjssjs. Agp`kt tjsts `rj pjrifrgjd ae frdjr tf `ssjss tmjar k`p`katy tf watmstèd sukm agp`kt lf`ds. Tmas prfpjrty fi tmj g`tjra`l tf watmstèd sukm suddje lf`ds `rj k`lljd agp`kt strjebtm fr agp`kt rjsastèkj. Ae agp`kt tjst, tmj spjkagje as strukc èd hrfcje hy ` saeblj hlfw ae ` spjka`lly djsabejd tjstaeb g`kmaej. H`sjd fe tmjsj g`kmaejs, agp`kt tjsts `rj davadjd aetf twf. Km`rpy agp`kt tjst èd Azfd agp`kt tjst. `) Km`rpy Agp`kt Tjst Tmj spjkagje usjd ae ` Km`rpy agp`kt tjst as ` 0>gg squ`rj krfss sjktafe m`vaeb ` ljebtm fi ::gg. @ 8gg djptm eftkm as g`dj `t tmj kjetjr watm è èblj fi 4:¿. Tmas spjkagje as pl`kjd mfrazfet`lly ae tmj tjstaeb g`kmaej ae sukm ` w`y tm`t tmj stracaeb m`ggjr mats tmj spjkagje oust fppfsatj tf tmj eftkm. Tmj km`rpy agp`kt tjstaeb g`kmaej kfesasts fi ` hfdy wmakm suppfrts ` stracaeb m`ggjr (pjedulug), èd ` suppfrt tf pl`kj tmj spjkagje. Tmj m`ggjr as pl`kjd `t tmj jed fi ` kfgpfejet maebjd `t tmj ftmjr jed, at `kt `s ` pjedulug. @ da`l as `lsf `tt`kmjd `t tmj maebj tf gj`surj tmj èblj fi gfvjgjet fi tmj pjedulug. Tmj m`ggjr as ràsjd tf ` cefwe èblj èd as rjlj`sjd. Tmj m`ggjr kfgjs dfwe èd stracjs tmj spjkagje, hrj`cs at èd gfvjs ifrw`rd tf ` kjrtàe mjabmt. Tmas mjabmt as gj`surjd ae tmj da`l ae tjrgs fi èblj. Tmj daiijrjekj hjtwjje tmj aeata`l èblj fi tmj pjedulug èd tmj èblj rj`kmjd ìtjr hrj`caeb tmj spjkagje, bavjs tmj jejrby `hsfrhjd hy tmj spjkagje. Tmas as tmj jejrby tm`t w`s t`cje hy tmj spjkagje tf hrj`c èd as jqu`l tf tmj agp`kt rjsastèkj/strjebtm.

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h) Azfd Agp`kt Tjst

Azfd agp`kt tjstaeb as sagal`r tf km`rpy agp`kt tjst. Tmjrj `rj gàely twf daiijrjekjs. Tmj ljebtm fi tmj spjkagje as daiijrjet. Tmj spjkagje as iaxjd vjrtak`lly ae tmj tjstaeb g`kmaej. Tmj spjkagje usjd ae è Azfd agp`kt tjst as ` 0>gg squ`rj krfss sjktafe m`vaeb ` ljebtm fi 2:gg. @ 8gg djptm eftkm as g`dj watm è èblj fi 4:¿, 8=gg `w`y irfg tmj jed. Tmas spjkagje as iaxjd vjrtak`lly vjrtak `lly ae tmj tjstaeb g`kmaej ae sukm ` w`y tm`t tmj stracaeb m`ggjr mats tmj spjkagje `t tmj s`gj sadj fi tmj eftkm. Tmj azfd agp`kt tjstaeb g`kmaej kfesasts fi ` hfdy wmakm suppfrts ` stracaeb m`ggjr (pjedulug), èd ` suppfrt tf iax tmj spjkagje. Tmj m`ggjr as pl`kjd `t tmj jed fi ` kfgpfejet maebjd `t tmj ftmjr jed, at `kt `s ` pjedulug. @ da`l as `lsf `tt`kmjd `t tmj maebj tf gj`surj tmj èblj fi gfvjgjet fi tmj pjedulug. Tmj m`ggjr as ràsjd tf ` cefwe èblj èd as rjlj`sjd. Tmj m`ggjr kfgjs dfwe èd stracjs tmj spjkagje, hrj`cs at èd gfvjs ifrw`rd tf ` kjrtàe mjabmt. Tmas mjabmt as gj`surjd ae tmj da`l ae tjrgs fi èblj. Tmj daiijrjekj hjtwjje tmj aeata`l èblj fi tmj pjedulug èd tmj èblj rj`kmjd ìtjr hrj`caeb tmj spjkagje, bavjs tmj jejrby `hsfrhjd hy tmj spjkagje. Tmas as tmj jejrby tm`t w`s t`cje hy tmj spjkagje tf hrj`c èd as jqu`l tf tmj agp`kt rjsastèkj/strjebtm. j

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj ^XFKJ[[ K@^@HALATQ

^rfkjss k`p`halaty kfgp`rjs tmj futput fi è ae-kfetrfl prfkjss tf tmj spjkaiak`tafe lagats hy usaeb k`p`halaty aedakjs. aedakjs. Tmj kfgp`rasfe as g`dj hy ifrgaeb tmj r`taf fi tmj sprj`d hjtwjje tmj prfkjss spjkaiak`tafes (tmj spjkaiak`tafe "wadtm") tf tmj sprj`d fi tmj prfkjss v`lujs, `s gj`surjd hy 9 prfkjss stèd`rd djva`tafe ueats (tmj prfkjss "wadtm"). ^rfkjss K`p`halaty Aedakjs Rj `rj fitje rjquarjd tf kfgp`rj tmj futput fi ` st`hlj prfkjss watm tmj prfkjss spjkaiak`tafes èd g`cj ` st`tjgjet `hfut mfw wjll wjll tmj prfkjss gjjts spjkaiak`tafe. Tf df tmas wj kfgp`rj tmj e`tur`l v`ra`halaty fi ` st`hlj prfkjss watm tmj prfkjss spjkaiak`tafe lagats.

@ prfkjss wmjrj `lgfst `ll tmj gj`surjgjets i`ll aesadj tmj spjkaiak `tafe lagats as ` k`p`hlj prfkjss. Tmas kè hj rjprjsjetjd paktfra`lly hy tmj plft hjlfw?

KFETXFL KM@XT[

[aekj v`ra`tafes ae gèui`kturaeb prfkjss `rj ue`vfad`hlj, tmj kfetrfl km`rt tjlls wmje tf lj`vj ` prfkjss `lfej èd tmus prjvjet ueejkjss`ry irjqujet `doustgjets. Kfetrfl km`rts `rj br`pmak`l rjprjsjet`tafe èd `rj h`sjd fe st`tastak`l s`gplaeb tmjfry, `kkfrdaeb tf wmakm è `djqu`tj sazjd rèdfg s`gplj as dr`we irfg j`km lft. Kfetrfl km`rts djtjkt v`ra`tafes ae tmj prfkjssaeb èd w`re ai tmjrj as èy djp`rturj irfg tmj spjkaiajd tfljrèkj lagats. Tmjsj kfetrfl km`rts aggjda`tjly tjll tmj uedjsarjd v`ra`tafes èd mjlp ae djtjktaeb tmj kùsj èd ats rjgfv`l. Ae kfetrfl km`rts, wmjrj hftm uppjr èd lfwjr v`lujs `rj spjkaiajd ifr ` qu`laty km`r`ktjrastak, `s s ffe `s sfgj prfdukts smfw v`ra`tafe futsadj tmj tfljrèkjs, ` rjvajw fi satu`tafe as t`cje èd kfrrjktavj stjp as aggjda`tjly t`cje. Ai è`lysas fi tmj kfetrfl km`rt aedak`tjs tm`t tmj prfkjss as kurrjetly uedjr kfetrfl (a.j. as st`hlj, watm v`ra`tafe fely kfgaeb irfg sfurkjs kfggfe tf tmj prfkjss) tmje d`t` irfg tmj prfkjss kè hj usjd tf

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj prjdakt tmj iuturj pjrifrgèkj fi tmj t mj prfkjss. Ai tmj km`rt aedak`tjs aedak`t js tm`t tmj t mj prfkjss hjaeb gfeatfrjd as eft ae kfetrfl, è`lysas fi tmj km`rt kè mjlp djtjrgaej tmj sfurkjs fi v`ra`tafe, wmakm kè tmje hj jlagae`tjd tf hraeb tmj prfkjss h`kc aetf kfetrfl. @ kfetrfl km`rt as ` spjkaiak caed fi rue km`rt tm`t `llfws sabeaiakèt kmèbj tf hj daiijrjeta`tjd irfg tmj e`tur`l v`ra`halaty fi tmj prfkjss. Tmj kfetrfl km`rt kè hj sjje `s p`rt fi è fhojktavj èd daskaplaejd `pprf`km tm`t je`hljs kfrrjkt djkasafes rjb`rdaeb kfetrfl fi tmj prfkjss, aekludaeb wmjtmjr fr eft tf kmèbj prfkjss kfetrfl p`r`gjtjrs. ^rfkjss p`r`gjtjrs smfuld ejvjr hj `doustjd ifr ` prfkjss prfkjss tm`t as ae kfetrfl, `s tmas wall rjsult ae djbr`djd prfkjss pjrifrgèkj. Ae ftmjr wfrds, kfetrfl km`rt as?

• • •

@ djvakj wmakm spjkaiajs tmj st`tj fi st`tastak`l kfetrfl, @ djvakj ifr `ttàeaeb st`tastak`l kfetrfl, @ djvakj tf oudbj wmjtmjr st`tastak`l kfetrfl m`s hjje `ttàejd fr eft.

ûrpfsj èd @dvèt`bjs?

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@ kfetrfl km`rts aedak`tjs wmjtmjr tmj prfkjss as ae kfetrfl fr fut fi kfetrfl. At djtjrgaejs prfkjss v`ra`halaty èd djtjkts ueusu`l v`ra`tafes t`caeb pl`kj ae ` prfkjss. At jesurjs prfdukt qu`laty ljvjl. At w`res ae tagj, èd ai tmj prfkjss as rjktaiajd `t tm`t tagj, skr`p fr pjrkjet`bj rjojktafe kè hj rjdukjd. At prfvadjs aeifrg`tafe `hfut tmj sjljktafe fi prfkjss èd sjttaeb fi tfljrèkj lagats. Kfetrfl km`rts huald up tmj rjput`tafe fi tmj frbèaz`tafe fr bèaz`tafe tmrfubm kustfgjr‑s s`tasi`ktafe.

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@ kfetrfl km`rt kfesasts fi?

•

^faets rjprjsjetaeb rjprjsjetaeb ` st`tastak (j.b., ` gjè, rèbj, prfpfrtafe) prfpfrtafe) fi gj`surjgjets gj`surjgjets fi `

qu`laty km`r`ktjrastak ae s`gpljs t`cje irfg tmj prfkjss `t daiijrjet tagjs Stmj d`t`W

•

Tmj gjè fi tmas st`tastak usaeb usaeb `ll tmj s`gpljs as k`lkul`tjd k`lkul`tjd (j.b., tmj gjè fi tmj gjès, gjès,

gjè fi tmj rèbjs, gjè fi tmj prfpfrtafes)

• •

@ kjetjr laej as dr`we `t tmj v`luj fi tmj gjè fi tmj st`tastak

Tmj stèd`rd jrrfr (j.b., stèd`rd djva`tafe/sqrt(e) ifr tmj gjè) fi tmj st`tastak as `lsf

k`lkul`tjd usaeb `ll tmj s`gpljs

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Zppjr èd lfwjr kfetrfl kfetrfl lagats (sfgjtagjs (sfgjtagjs k`lljd "e`tur`l prfkjss lagats") tm`t aedak`tj tmj

tmrjsmfld `t wmakm tmj prfkjss futput as kfesadjrjd st`tastak`lly 'uelacjly' `rj dr`we typak`lly `t ; stèd`rd jrrfrs irfg tmj kjetjr laej Tmj km`rt g`y m`vj ftmjr fptafe`l ij`turjs, aekludaeb?

•

Zppjr èd lfwjr w`reaeb lagats, dr`we `s sjp`r`tj laejs, typak`lly twf stèd`rd jrrfrs `hfvj èd hjlfw tmj kjetjr laej Davasafe aetf zfejs, watm tmj `ddatafe fi ruljs bfvjreaeb irjqujekajs fi fhsjrv`tafes ae • j`km zfej 

@eeft`tafe watm jvjets fi aetjrjst, `s djtjrgaejd hy tmj Pu`laty Jebaejjr ae km`rbj fi tmj prfkjss's qu`laty. 8

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Typjs fi Kfetrfl Km`rts

Y`ra`hljs

ς Km`rt Km`rt X Km`rt ϋ Km`rt

@ttrahutj

p Km`rt K Km`rt ep Km`rt Z Km`rt

Kfetrfl km`rts kè hj usjd tf gj`surj èy km`r`kt jrastak fi ` prfdukt, sukm `s tmj wjabmt fi ` kjrj`l hfx, tmj eughjr fi kmfkfl`tjs ae ` hfx, fr tmj vflugj fi hfttljd w`tjr. Tmj daiijrjet km`r`ktjrastaks tm`t kè hj gj`surjd hy kfetrfl km`rts kè hj davadjd aetf twf brfups? v`ra`hljs èd `ttrahutjs. 



@ kfetrfl km`rt ifr v`ra`hljsas usjd tf gfeatfr km`r`ktjrastaks tm`t kè hj gj`surjd èd m`vj ` kfetaeuug fi v`lujs, sukm `s mjabmt, wjabmt, fr vflugj. @ sfit draec hfttlaeb fpjr`tafe fpjr`tafe as è jx`gplj fi ` v`ra`hlj gj`surj, saekj tmj `gfuet fi laquad ae tmj hfttljs as gj`surjd èd kè t`cj fe ` eughjr fi daiijrjet v`lujs. Ftmjr jx`gpljs `rj tmj wjabmt fi ` h`b fi sub`r, tmj tjgpjr`turj fi ` h`caeb fvje, fr tmj da`gjtjr fi pl`sta k tuhaeb. @ kfetrfl km`rt ifr `ttrahutjs, fe tmj ftmjr mèd, as usjd tf gfeatfr km`r`ktjrastaks tm`t m`vj daskrjtj v`lujs èd kè hj kfuetjd. Fitje tmjy kè hj jv`lu`tjd watm ` sagplj yjs fr ef djkasafe. djka safe. Jx`gpljs aekludj kflfr, t`stj, fr sgjll. Tmj gfeatfraeb fi `ttrahutjs usu`lly t`cjs ljss tagj tmè tm`t fi v`ra`hljs hjkùsj ` v`ra`hlj ejjds tf hj gj`surjd (j.b., tmj hfttlj fi sfit draec kfetàes 0:.1 fuekjs fi laquad). @e `ttrahutj rjquarjs fely ` saeblj djkasafe, sukm `s yjs fr ef, bffd fr h`d, `kkjpt`hlj fr ue`kkjpt`hlj (j.b., tmj `pplj as bffd fr rfttje, tmj gj`t as bffd fr st`lj, tmj smfjs m`vj ` djijkt fr df eft m`vj ` djijkt, tmj labmthulh wfrcs fr at dfjs eft wfrc) fr kfu etaeb tmj eughjr fi djijkts (j.b., tmj eughjr fi hrfcje kffcajs ae tmj hfx, tmj eughjr fi djets ae tmj k`r, tmj eughjr fi h`re`kljs fe tmj hfttfg fi ` hf`t).

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Gjè (]-H`r) (]-H`r) (ς) Km`rts @ gjè kfetrfl km`rt as fitje rjijrrjd tf `s è x-h`r km`rt. At as usjd tf gfeatfr kmèbjs ae tmj gjè fi ` prfkjss. Tf kfestrukt ` gjè km`rt wj iarst ejjd tf kfestrukt tmj kjetjr laej fi tmj km`rt. Tf df tmas wj t`cj gultaplj s`gpljs èd kfgputj tmjar gjès. Zsu`lly tmjsj s`gpljs `r j sg`ll, watm `hfut ifur fr iavj fhsjrv`tafes. J`km s`gplj m`s ats fwe gjè. Tmj kjetjr laej fi tmj km`rt as tmje kfgputjd `s tmj gjè fi `ll s`gplj gjès, wmjrj e as tmj eughjr fi s`gpljs?

0. At smfws kmèbjs kmèbjs ae prfkjss `vjr`bj èd as ìijktjd hy kmèbjs ae prfkjss v`ra`halaty. 8. At as ` km`rt ifr tmj gj`surj fi kjetr`l tjedjeky. tjedjeky. ;. At smfws jrr`tak fr kyklak smaits ae tmj prfkjss. 4. At djtjkts stj`dy prfbrjss kmèbjs, lacj tffl wj`r. :. At as tmj tmj gfst kfggfely kfggfely usjd v`ra`hljs km`rt. 9. Rmje usjd `lfeb watm X km`rt? `. At tjlls wmje tf lj`vj tmj prfkjss prfkjss `lfej èd wmje tf km`sj èd bf ifr tmj kùsjs lj`daeb tf v`ra`tafe3 h. At sjkurjs aeifrg`tafe ae jst`hlasmaeb fr gfdaiyaeb prfkjssjs, spjkaiak`tafes spjkaia k`tafes fr aespjktafe prfkjdurjs3 k. At kfetrfls tmj qu`laty fi aekfgaeb g`tjra`l. 2. ]-H`r èd X km`rts wmje usjd tfbjtmjr ifrg ` pfwjriul pfwjriul aestrugjet ifr da`befsaeb da`befsaeb qu`laty prfhljgs. Xèbj (X) km`rts

Tmjsj `rj èftmjr typj fi kfetrfl km`rt ifr v`ra`hljs. Rmjrj`s x-h`r km`rts gj`surj smait ae tmj kjetr`l tjedjeky fi tmj prfkjss, rèbj km`rts gfeatfr tmj daspjrsafe fr v`ra`halaty fi tmj prfkjss. Tmj gjtmfd ifr djvjlfpaeb èd usaeb X-km`rts `rj tmj s`gj `s tm`t ifr x-h`r km`rts. Tmj kjetjr laej fi tmj kfetrfl km`rt as tmj `vjr`bj rèbj, èd tmj uppjr èd lfwjr kfetrfl lagats `rj kfgputjd. Tmj X km`rt as usjd tf gfeatfr prfkjss v`ra`halaty wmje s`gplj sazjs `rj sg`ll (e<0>), fr tf sagplaiy tmj k`lkul`tafes g`dj hy prfkjss fpjr`tfrs. Tmas km`rt as k`lljd tmj X km`rt hjkùsj tmj st`tastak hjaeb plfttjd as tmj s`gplj rèbj. 0. At kfetrfls bjejr`l v`ra`halaty fi tmj prfkjss èd as ìijktjd hy kmèbjs ae prfkjss v`ra`halaty. 8. At as ` km`rt ifr gj`surj fi sprj`d. ;. At as bjejr`lly usjd `lfeb watm ]-h`r km`rt. ^lfttaeb ^lfttaeb fi ς èd X km`rts?

@ eughjr fi s`gpljs fi kfgpfejet kfgaeb fut fi tmj prfkjss `rj t`cje fvjr ` pjrafd fi tagj. J`km s`gplj gust hj t`cje `t rèdfg èd tmj sazj fi s`gplj as bjejr`lly cjpt `s : hut 0> tf0: ueats kè hj t`cje ifr sjesatavj kfetrfl km`rts. Ifr j`km s`gplj, tmj `vjr`bj v`luj Ẍ fi `ll tmj gj`surjgjets èd tmj rèbj X `rj k`lkul`tjd. Tmj brèd `vjr`bj Ẍ (jqu`l (jqu`l tf tmj `vjr`bj v`luj fi `ll tmj `vjr`bj Ẍ ) èd X ( X ( X X as jqu`l tf tmj `vjr`bj fi `ll tmj rèbjs X) `rj ifued èd irfg tmjsj wj kè k`lkul`tj tmj kfetrfl lagats ifr tmj Ẍ èd X km`rts.

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Mjrj tmj i`ktfrs @8 , D4 èd D; djpjed fe tmj eughjr fi ueats pjr s`gplj. L`rbjr tmj eughjr, tmj klfsj tmj lagats. Tmj v`luj fi tmj i`ktfrs @8 , D4 , èd D; kè hj fhtàejd irfg [.P.K t`hljs. Mfwjvjr ifr rj`dy rjijrjekj tmjsj `rj bavje hjlfw ae t`hul`r ifrg?

@KKJ^T@EKJ [@G^LAEB

“@kkjptèkj [`gplaeb as kfekjrejd watm tmj djkasafe tf `kkjpt ` g`ss fi gèui`kturjd atjgs `s kfeifrgaeb tf stèd`rds fi qu`laty fr tf rjojkt tmj g`ss `s efe-kfeifrgaeb tf qu`laty. Tmj dj kasafe as rj`kmjd tmrfubm s`gplaeb.‗ s`gplaeb.‗ Ifr tmj purpfsj fi `kkjptèkj, aespjktafe as k`rrajd fut `t gèy st`bjs ae tmj prfkjss fi gèui`kturaeb. Tmjsj st`bjs g`y hj? aespjktafe fi aekfgaeb g`tjra`ls èd p`rts, prfkjss aespjktafe `t v`rafus pfaets ae tmj gèui`kturaeb fpjr`tafes, iae`l aespjktafe hy ` gèui`kturjr fi mas fwe prfdukt èd iae`lly aespjktafe fi tmj iaeasmjd prfdukt hy tmj purkm`sjr. 9

Aespjktafe ifr `kkjptèkj as bjejr`lly k`rrajd fut fe ` s`gplaeb h`sas. Tmj usj fi s`gplaeb aespjktafe tf djkadj wmjtmjr fr eft tf `kkjpt tmj lft as cefwe `s @kkjptèkj [`gplaeb. @ s`gplj b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj irfg tmj aespjktafe lft as aespjktjd, èd ai tmj eughjr fi djijktavj atjgs as gfrj tmè tmj st`tjd eughjr cefwe `s `kkjptèkj eughjr, tmj wmflj lft as rjojktjd. Tmj purpfsj fi @kkjptèkj [`gplaeb as, tmjrj ifrj ` gjtmfd usjd tf g`cj ` djkasafe `s tf wmjtmjr tf `kkjpt fr tf rjojkt lfts h`sjd fe aespjktafe fi s`gplj(s). @kkjptèkj s`gplaeb as tmj prfkjss fi rèdfgly aespjktaeb ` s`gplj fi bffds èd djkadaeb wmjtmjr tf `kkjpt tmj jetarj lft h`sjd fe tmj rjsults. @kkjptèkj s`gplaeb djtjrgaejs wmjtmjr ` h`tkm fi bffds smfuld hj `kkjptjd `k kjptjd fr rjojktjd. Xflj fi @kkjptèkj [`gplaeb?

@kkjptèkj [`gplaeb as vjry wadjly usjd ae pr`ktakj duj tf tmj ifllfwaeb gjrats? 0. @kkjptèkj [`gplaeb as gukm ljss jxpjesavj tmè 0>> pjrkjet aespjktafe. aespjktafe. 8. At as bjejr`l jxpjrajekj tm`t 0>> pjrkjet aespjktafe rjgfvjs fely =8 tf 1: pjrkjet fi djijktavj g`tjra`l. Yjry bffd 0>> pjrkjet aespjktafe g`y rjgfvj `t tmj gfst 11 pjrkjet fi tmj djijktavjs, hut stall kèeft rj`km tmj ljvjl fi 0>> pjrkjet. Duj tf tmj jiijkt fi aespjktafe aespjktaf e i`tabuj aevflvjd ae 0>> pjrkjet aespjktafe, ` bffd s`gplaeb plè g`y `ktu`lly bavj hjttjr rjsults tmè tm`t `kmajvjd hy 0>> pjrkjet aespjktafe. aespjkt afe. ;. Hjkùsj fi ats jkfefgy, at as pfssahlj tf k`rry fut s`gplj aespjktafe `t v`rafus st`bjs. Aespjktafe prfvadjs ` gjès ifr gfeatfraeb qu`laty. Ifr jx`gplj, aespjktafe g`y hj pjrifrgjd fe aekfgaeb r`w g`tjra`l, tf djkadj wmjtmjr tf cjjp at fr rjture at tf tmj vjedfr ai tmj qu`laty ljvjl as eft wm`t w`s `brjjd fe. [agal`rly, aespjktafe kè `lsf hj dfej fe iaeasmjd bffds hjifrj djkadaeb wmjtmjr tf g`cj tmj smapgjet tf tmj kustfgjr fr eft. Mfwjvjr, pjrifrgaeb 0>>% aespjktafe as bjejr`lly eft jkfefgak`l fr pr`ktak`l, tmjrjifrj, s`gplaeb as usjd aestj`d. @kkjptèkj [`gplaeb as tmjrjifrj ` gjtmfd usjd tf g`cj ` djkasafe `s tf wmjtmjr tf `kkjpt fr tf rjojkt lfts h`sjd fe aespjktafe fi s`gplj(s). Tmj fhojktavj as eft tf kfetrfl fr jstag`tj tmj qu`laty fi lfts, fely tf p`ss ` oudbgjet fe lfts. Zsaeb s`gplaeb r`tmjr tmè 0>>% aespjktafe fi tmj lfts hraebs sfgj rascs hftm tf tmj kfesugjr èd tf tmj prfdukjr, wmakm `rj k`lljd tmj kfesugjr's èd tmj prfdukjr's rascs, rjspjktavjly. rj spjktavjly. Rj jekfuetjr g`caeb djkasafes fe s`gplaeb ae fur dàly ìiàrs. Xascs ae @kkjptèkj s`gplaeb

[fgjtagjs aespatj fi bffd qu`laty, tmj s`gplj t`cje g`y smfw djijktavj ueats `s sukm tmj lft wall hj rjojktjd, sukm typj fi rasc as cefwe `s prfdukjr‑s rasc.

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^rfdukjr‑s rasc -? -?

[fgjtagjs tmj qu`laty fi tmj lft as eft bffd hut tmj s`gplj rjsults smfw bffd qu`laty ueats `s sukm tmj kfesugjr m`s tf `kkjpt ` djijktavj lft, sukm ` rasc as cefwe `s kfesugjr‑s rasc. 8.

Kfesugjr‑s Xasc -? -?

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@kkjptèkj [`gplaeb ^lès?

@ s`gplaeb plè as ` plè ifr `kkjptèkj s`gplaeb tm`t prjkasjly spjkaiajs tmj p`r`gjtjrs fi tmj s`gplaeb prfkjss èd tmj `kkjptèkj/rjojktafe kratjra`. Tmj v`ra`hljs tf hj spjkaiajd aekludj tmj sazj fi tmj lft (E), tmj sazj fi tmj s`gplj aespjktjd irfg tmj lft (e), tmj eughjr fi djijkts `hfvj wmakm ` lft as rjojktjd (k), èd tmj eughjr fi s`gpljs tm`t wall hj t`cje. Tmjrj `rj daiijrjet typjs fi s`gplaeb plès. - [aeblj [`gplaeb (Aeijrjekj g`dj fe tmj h`sas fi fely fej s`gplj) - Dfuhlj [`gplaeb (Aeijrjekj g`dj fe tmj h`sas fi fej fr twf s`gpljs) - [jqujeta`l [`gplaeb (@ddatafe`l s`gpljs `rj dr`we uetal è aeijrjekj kè hj g`dj) jtk. [aeblj [`gplaeb ^lès

Ae tmas,` rèdfg s`gplj as dr`we irfg jvjry lft. J`km atjg ae tmj s`gplj as jx`gaejd èd as l`hjljd `s jatmjr “bffd‗ fr “h`d.‗ Djpjedaeb fe tmj eughjr fi eughjr fi djijkts fr “h`d‗ atjgs ifued, tmj jetarj lft as jatmjr `kkjptjd fr rjojktjd. Ifr jx`gplj, ` lft sazj fi :> kffcajs as jv`lu`tjd ifr `kkjptèkj hy rèdfgly aespjktaeb 0> kffcajs irfg tmj lft. Tmj kffcajs g`y hj aespjktjd tf g`cj surj tmjy `rj eft hrfcje fr hurejd. Ai 4 fr gfrj fi tmj 0> kffcajs aespjktjd `rj h`d, tmj jetarj lft as rjojktjd. Ae tmas jx`gplj, tmj lft sazj E 7 :>, tmj s`gplj sazj e 7 0>, èd tmj g`xagug eughjr fi djijkts `t wmakm ` lft as `kkjptjd as k 7 4. Tmjsj p`r`gjtjrs djiaej tmj `kkjptèkj s`gplaeb plè. Dfuhlj [`gplaeb ^lè Tmas prfvadjs è fppfrtueaty tf s`gplj tmj lft ` sjkfed tagj ai tmj rjsults fi tmj iarst s`gplj `rj aekfeklusavj. Ae dfuhlj s`gplaeb wj iarst s`gplj s `gplj ` lft fi bffds `kkfrdaeb tf prjsjt kratjra` k ratjra` ifr djiaeatj `kkjptèkj fr rjojktafe. Mfwjvjr, Mfwjvjr, ai tmj rjsults i`ll ae tmj gaddlj rèbj,tmjy `rj kfesadjrjd aekfeklusavj èd ` sjkfed s`gplj as t`cje. Ifr jx`gplj, ` w`tjr trj`tgjet plèt g` y s`gplj tmj qu`laty fi tmj w`tjr tje tagjs ae rèdfg aetjrv`ls tmrfubmfut tmj d`y. Kratjra` g`y hj sjt ifr `kkjpt`hlj fr ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj ue`kkjpt`hlj w`tjr qu`laty, sukm `s .>: pjrkjet kmlfraej èd .0 pjrkjet kmlfraej. Mfwjvjr, ` s`gplj fi w`tjr kfetàeaeb hjtwjje .>: pjrkjet èd .0 pjrkjet kmlfraej as aekfeklusavj èd k`lls ifr ` sjkfed s`gplj fi w`tjr. Gultaplj [`gplaeb ^lè?

Gultaplj s`gplaeb plès `rj sagal`r tf dfuhlj s`gplaeb plès jxkjpt tm`t kratjra` `rj sjt ifr gfrj tmè twf s`gpljs. Tmj djkasafe `s tf wmakm s`gplaeb plè tf sjljkt m`s ` brj`t dj`l tf df watm tmj kfst aevflvjd ae s`gplaeb, tmj tagj kfesugjd hy s`gplaeb, èd tmj kfst fi p`ssaeb fe ` djijktavj atjg. Ae bjejr`l, ai tmj kfst fi kflljktaeb ` s`gplj as rjl`tavjly mabm, saeblj s`gplaeb as prjijrrjd. @e jxtrjgj jx`gplj as kflljktaeb ` hafpsy irfg ` mfspat`l p`tajet. Hjkùsj tmj `ktu`l kfst fi bjttaeb tmj s`gplj as mabm, wj wèt tf bjt ` l`rbj s`gplj èd s`gplj fely fekj. Tmj fppfsatj as truj wmje tmj kfst fi kflljktaeb tmj s`gplj as lfw hut tmj `ktu`l kfst fi tjstaeb as mabm. Tmas g`y hj tmj k`sj watm ` w`tjr trj`tgjet plèt, wmjrj kflljktaeb tmj w`tjr as aejxpjesavj hut tmj kmjgak`l è`lysas as kfstly. Ae tmas sjktafe wj ifkus prag`raly fe saeblj s`gplaeb plès. XJLA@HALATQ

Xjla`halaty as tmj prfh`halaty tm`t ` prfdukt fr jquapgjet wall pjrifrg s`tasi` ktfraly ifr ` bavje tagj uedjr efrg`l kfedatafes fi usj. [f rjla`halaty as rjl`tjd tf qu`laty hut at as sfgjtmaeb gfrj tmè tm`t. Pu`laty as kfekjrejd watm tmj aeata`l pjrifrgèkj fi ` prfdukt fr ` sjrvakj wmjrj`s rjla`halaty as rjl`tjd tf tmj kfetaeu`tafe fi pjrifrgèkj fvjr ` pjrafd fi tagj. @ prfdukt m`vaeb hjttjr pjrifrgèkj aeata`lly g`y iàl tf prfvadj tmj s`gj pjrifrgèkj l`t jr fe. Ae sukm ` k`sj ` prfdukt as eft kfesadjrjd rjla`hlj. Mjekj, tmj gèui`kturjrs smfuld prfdukj eft fely qu`laty prfdukts hut `lsf rjla`hlj prfdukts. Gj`surjgjet Gj`surjgjet fi Xjla`halaty?

Xjla`halaty kè hj gj`surjd fely ai at as jxprjssjd ae quètat`tavj tjrgs. ^rfh`halaty èd tagj rjquarj kfesadjr`tafe ifr gj`surjgjet fi rjla`halaty. Rmjtmjr ` prfdukt as rjla`hlj fr eft djpjeds fe tmj prfh`halaty fi ats iàlurj duraeb ` bavje pjrafd èd tmj tagj spè ifr wmakm at prfvadjs tmj r`tjd pjrifrgèkj. Tf agprfvj tmj rjla`halaty fi prfdukts3 d`t`/aeifrg`tafe rjl`tjd tf iàlurjs duraeb ` bavje pjrafd fi tagj as kflljktjd3 è`lysjd èd kfrrjktavj `ktafes `rj t`cje. Tmj gj`surjgjet fi rjla`halaty djpjeds fe tmj typj fi prfdukts. Ifr jx`gplj? (a) Kjrtàe prfdukts iuektafe fely fekj sukm `s iusj ae ` jljktrak`l fr jljktrfeak karkuat. (aa) Kjrtàe prfdukts pfssjss ` lfeb laij hut ai tmjy iàl kèeft hj gàetàejd/rjpàrjd. (aaa) Kjrtàe prfdukts pfssjss ` lfeb laij hut ai tmjy iàl, kè hj gàetàejd èd tmje `bàe kè hj put tf usj. Tmj kfedatafes fi usj fi tmj prfdukt `rj `lsf tf hj t`cje aetf kfesadjr`tafe wmalj gj`suraeb tmj rjla `halaty fi ` prfdukt. @ prfdukt ai eft usjd prfpjrly fr ai at as eft wjll gàetàejd at s usjiul laij g`y hj smfrtjejd èd ats rjla`halaty g`y djkrj`sj. `

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Xjla`halaty aeifrg`tafe `vàl`hlj ae tmj ifrg fi kurvjs fr km`rts as vjry usjiul ae t`caeb kjrtàe agpfrtèt djkasafes. Tmj ifllfwaeb qujstafes kè hj j`saly èswjrjd watm tmj mjlp fi km`rts? (a) Rm`t kmèbjs smfuld hj aekfrpfr`tjd ae tmj djsabe fi ` prfdukt tf agprfvj ats rjla`halaty, (aa) Rmakm atjg smfuld hj aespjktjd èd wmje6 (aaa) Rmakm kfgpfejet fr g`kmaej smfuld hj aespjktjd èd wmje6 (av) Mfw i`r ` p`rtakul`r aevjstgjet prfpfs`l wfuld prfvj tf hj iaeèka`lly va`hlj6 (v) Mfw i`r ` prfdukt fr ` g`kmaej fr prfkjss fr ` kfgpfejet as rjla`hlj èd mfw kè ats rjla`halaty hj agprfvjd6 (va) Mfw smfuld tmj plèt èd g`kmaejry fr jquapgjet jtk. hj gàetàejd ifr a ts g`xagug6 Xjla`halaty Agprfvjgjet? Agprfvjgjet?

Xjla`halaty as gj`surjd tf sjj tf wm`t jxtjet ` prfdukt fr prfkjss as rjla`hlj. Ae k`sj tmj rjla`halaty smfws djkrj`saeb trjed, kfrrjktavj `ktafes tf agprfvj tmj rjla`halaty `rj t`cje. Xjla`halaty fi ` prfdukt as darjktly rjl`tjd tf tmj rjla`halaty fi g`tjra`ls usjd ifr gèui`kturaeb `s wjll `s rjla`halaty fi tffls, g`kmaejs èd jquapgjet èd prfduktafe prfkjssjs jtk. usjd ifr tmj prfduktafe fi tm`t prfdukt. Mjekj tf agprfvj tmj rjla`halaty fi ` kjrtàe prfdukt `dfpts tmj ifllfwaeb? (a) Gfrj prjkasj èd pjrijkt kfgpfejets smfuld hj usjd ifr `ssjghly fi prfdukt. (aa) [tèd`rd qu`laty aeput g`tjra`ls prfkurjd irfg rjla`hlj sfurkjs smfuld hj utalazjd. (aaa) ^lèt/g`kmaejry gust hj prfpjrly rjpàrjd èd gàetàejd. (av) [uat`hlj èd stèd`rd jquapgjet/g`kmaejs smfuld hj usjd. (v) G`kmaejs fr tffls smfuld hj rjpl`kjd hjifrj tmjy hjkfgj uesuat`hlj. H@TM TZH KZXYJ

Tmj h`tmtuh kurvj as wadjly usjd ae rjla`halaty ae rjla`halaty jebaejjraeb. At jebaejjraeb. At djskrahjs ` p`rtakul`r ifrg fi tmj m`z`rd tmj m`z`rd iuektafe wmakm kfgprasjs tmrjj p`rts? 

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Tmj iarst p`rt as ` djkrj`saeb iàlurj djkrj`saeb iàlurj r`tj, cefwe r`tj, cefwe `s j`rly iàlurjs. j`rly iàlurjs. Tmj sjkfed p`rt as ` kfestèt iàlurj r`tj, cefwe `s rèdfg `s rèdfg iàlurjs. Tmj tmard p`rt as è aekrj`saeb iàlurj r`tj, cefwe `s wj`r-fut iàlurjs.

Tmj e`gj as djravjd irfg tmj krfss-sjktafe`l sm`pj fi ` h`tmtuh? ` h`tmtuh? stjjp stjjp sadjs èd ` il`t hfttfg. Tmj h`tmtuh kurvj as bjejr`tjd hy g`ppaeb tmj r`tj fi j`rly "aeièt gfrt`laty" iàlurjs wmje iarst aetrfdukjd, tmj r`tj fi rèdfg iàlurjs watm kfestèt iàlurj r`tj duraeb ats "usjiul laij", èd iae`lly tmj r`tj fi "wj`r fut" iàlurjs `s tmj prfdukt jxkjjds ats djsabe laijtagj. Ae ljss tjkmeak`l tjrgs, ae tmj j`rly laij fi ` prfdukt `dmjraeb tf tmj h`tmtuh kurvj, tmj iàlurj r`tj as mabm hut r`padly djkrj`saeb d jkrj`saeb `s djijktavj prfdukts `rj adjetaiajd èd dask`rdjd, èd j`rly sfurkjs fi pftjeta`l iàlurj sukm `s mèdlaeb èd aest`ll`tafe jrrfr `rj surgfuetjd. Ae tmj gad-laij fi ` prfdukt — bjejr`lly, bjejr`lly, fekj at rj`kmjs kfesugjrs — tmj tmj iàlurj r`tj as lfw èd kfestèt. Ae tmj l`tj laij fi tmj prfdukt, tmj iàlurj


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj r`tj aekrj`sjs, `s `bj èd wj`r t`cj tmjar tfll fe tmj prfdukt. Gèy kfesugjr prfdukt laij kykljs strfebly jxmahat tmj h`tmtuh kurvj. Rmalj tmj h`tmtuh kurvj as usjiul, eft jvjry prfdukt fr systjg ifllfws ` h`tmtuh kurvj m`z`rd iuektafe, ifr jx`gplj ai ueats `rj rjtarjd fr m`vj djkrj`sjd usj duraeb fr hjifrj tmj fesjt fi tmj wj`r-fut pjrafd, tmjy wall smfw ijwjr iàlurjs pjr ueat k`ljed`r tagj (eft pjr ueat usj tagj) tmè tmj h`tmtuh kurvj.

HJEKM G@XCAEB

Hjekmg`rcaeb as tmj kfetaeufus prfkjss fi gj`suraeb fej‑s fwe prfdukt, sjrvakjs èd `ktavatajs `bàest tmj hjst ljvjl fi pjrifrgèkj. Tmjsj hjst ljvjls fi pjrifrgèkj g`y hj ifued jatmjr aesadj fej‑s fwe frbèas`tafe fr ae ftmjr kfgpjtaeb frbèas`tafes fr ae frbèas`tafes m`vaeb sagal`r prfkjssjs. Hjekmg`rcaeb usjs hjst pr`ktakjs `s tmj stèd`rd ifr jv`lu`taeb `ktavaty pjrifrgèkj. Ratmae è frbèas`tafe, daiijrjet ueats (ifr jx`gplj, daiijrjet plèt satjs) tm`t pjrifrg tmj s`gj `ktavatajs `rj kfgp`rjd. Tmj ueat watm tmj hjst pjrifrgèkj ifr ` bavje `ktavaty sjts tmj s tèd`rd. Ftmjr ueats tmje m`vj ` t`rbjt tf gjjt fr jxkjjd. Iurtmjr, tmj hjst pr`ktakjs ueat kè sm`rj aeifrg`tafe watm ftmjr ueats fe mfw at m`s `kmajvjd ats supjrafr rjsults. @ltmfubm hjekm g`rcaeb kè ifkus fe èytmaeb fi aetjrjst, at t ypak`lly dj`ls watm t`rbjt kfsts ifr ` prfdukt, sjrvakj fr fpjr`tafe, kustfgjr s`tasi`kt afe, qu`laty, aevjetfry ljvjls, aevjetfry turefvjr, kyklj tagj èd prfduktavaty. Ae tmj hjbaeeaeb, hjekm g`rcaeb w`s usjd fe studyaeb kfgpjtatfrs. Mfwjvjr, efw-`-d`ys hjekm g`rcaeb as wadjly usjd ifr `ll `kta vatajs `rad sjrvakjs. @kkfrdaeb tf K`gp. ^

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“@ltmfubm yfu gust ifkus strfebly fe tmj kfgpjtatafe, ai tm`t as tmj sflj fhojktavj, pl`yaeb k`tkm -up as tmj hjst yfu kè df. R`tkmaeb tmj kfgpjtatafe dfjs eft tjll yfu mfw tf futdastèkj tmjg. Tmj gax fi fur hjekm g`rc `ktavatajs m`vj kmèbjd 0=> djbrjjs. Ae tmj j`rly d`ys, wj spjet => => pjrkjet fi fur hjekmg`rc tagj lffcaeb `t tmj kfgpjtatafe. kfgpjtata fe. Tfd`y wj spjed => pjrkjet fi tm`t tagj t agj futsadj fur aedustry, hjkùsj wj m`vj ifued aeefv`tavj adj`s irfg husaejssjs ae ftmjr aedustrajs‗. Typjs fi Hjekmg`rcaeb? Hjekmg`rcaeb?

(a) ^rfdukt Hjekmg`rcaeb (Xjvjrsj Jebaejjraeb)?

At as è `bj fld pr`ktakj fi prfdukt frajetjd rjvjrsj jebaejjraeb. Jvjry frbèaz`tafe huys ats rav`l‑s prfdukts èd tj`rs tj` rs dfwe tf iaed fut mfw tmj ij`turjs ij`tu rjs èd pjrifrgèkjs pj rifrgèkjs jtk., jt k., kfgp`rj watm ats prfdukts. Tmas kfuld hj tmj st`rtaeb pfaet ifr agprfvjgjet. (aa) Kfgpjtatavj Hjekmg`rcaeb? Kfrpfr`tj hjekmg`rcaeb m`s gfvjd hjyfed prfdukt-frajetjd kfgp`rasfes tf aekludj kfgp`rasfes fi prfkjss watm tmfsj fi kfgpjtatfrs. Ae tmas t ypj, tmj prfkjss studajs g` y aekludj g`rcjtaeb, iaeèkj, MX, X&D jtk., (aaa) ^rfkjss Hjekmg`rcaeb? Tmas as tmj `ktavaty fi gj`suraeb daskrjtj pjrifrgèkj èd iuektafe`laty `bàest frbèaz`tafe tmrfubm pjrifrgèkj ae jxkjlljet è`lfbfus husaejss prfkjssjs. (av) Aetjre`l Hjekmg`rcaeb? At as è `pplak`tafe fi prfkjss hjekmg`rcaeb, watmae è frbèaz`tafe hy kfgp`raeb tmj pjrifrgèkj fi sagal`r husaejss ueats fr husaejss prfkjssjs. (v) [tr`tjbak Hjekmg`rcaeb? At daiijrs irfg fpjr`tafe`l hjekmg`rcaeb ae ats skfpj. At mjlps tf djvjlfp ` vasafe fi tmj kmèbjd frbèaz`tafes. At wall djvjlfp kfrj kfgpjtjekajs tm`t wall mjlp sustàejd kfgpjtatavj `dvèt`bj. (va) Blfh`l Hjekmg`rcaeb? At as jxtjesafe fi [tr`tjbak Hjekmg`rcaeb tf aekludj hjekmg`rcaeb p`rtejrs fe ` blfh`l sk`lj, j.b., Ifrd Kf. fi Z[@ hjekmg`rcjd ats @kkfuets ^`y`hlj iuektafes watm tm`t fi G`zd` ae O`pè èd ifued tf ats surprasj tm`t tmj jetarj iuektafe w`s gè`bjd hy : pjrsfes `s `bàest :>> ae Ifrd. Jljgjets ifr Jiijktavj Hjekm G`rcaeb?

a. Fvjr`ll Agp`kt fe Kustfgjr [`tasi`ktafe? Hjekmg`rcaeb as `hfut jxtjre`l ifkus èd at as jssjeta`l t m`t `ll jxjrkasjs sjjc tf jemèkj j emèkj tmj djlavjry fi qu`laty ljvjls tf tmj jed kustfgjr. aa. Tmj Jxtjet fi Kfetrahutafe tf Xàsaeb Kfgpjtatavj [tèd`rds? Hjekmg`rcaeb as ` str`tjbak kfgpjtatavj tffl èd `s sukm at sjjcs tf `kmajvj stèd`rds fi pjrifrgèkj ae tmj g`rcjt pl`kj èd tf ràsj tmj aetjre`l stèd`rds fi jiijktavjejss, g`caeb tmjg gfrj kfgpjtatavj. ;

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj aaa. Fppfrtueaty tf Krj`tj tmj Lj`reaeb Frbèas`tafe? Hjekmg`rcaeb g`cjs frbèas`tafes sjjc tf jst`hlasm stèd`rds w`y hjyfed gjjtaeb h`sak rjquarjgjets èd tf wfrc tfw`rds ` kfetaeufus surbj ifr ejw adj`s, ejw gjtmfds èd ejw w`ys fi wfrcaeb. av. Aespar`tafes irfg Hjst-ae-Kl`ss Kfgpèajs? Hjekmg`rcaeb bavjs frbèaz`tafes tmj agpjtus èd tmj djsarj tf i fllfw tmfsj frbèas`tafes wmakm `rj tfp fi tmj lj`buj èd wmakm pafejjr ejw kmèbj èd ejw aeefv`tafes. v. [trjebtmjeaeb Rj`cjr ^rfkjssjs? Hjekmg`rcaeb mjlps frbèas`tafes ifkus fe wj`cejssjs èd strjebtmje tmjg. At `lsf je`hljs tmjg tf prftjkt `rj`s fi strjebtm èd jesurj tm`t tmjy sustàe mabm ljvjls fi kfgpjtatavjejss. va. Jemèkaeb Cefwljdbj ^ffl? Hjekmg`rcaeb as ` pr`ktakj wmakm jekfur`bjs aedavadu`ls tf lj`re kfetaeufusly èd tf jesurj tm`t tmjar cefwljdbj, scalls èd `rj`s fi jxpjrtasj `rj ejvjr fhsfljtj. vaa. Hraebaeb ae [t`tj-fi-tmj-@rt ^r`ktakjs? Hjekmg`rcaeb, ai aetrfdukjd ae ` darjkt i`smafe, wall `lw`ys jesurj tm`t frbèas`tafes `rj eft l`bbaeb hjmaed èd tmjy `rj `lw`ys pafejjraeb tmj l`tjst pr`ktakjs tm`t tmj g`rcjt djgèds. vaaa. Cjjpaeb tmj Frbèas`tafe Jxtjre`lly Ifkusjd? Hjekmg`rcaeb rjgaeds pjfplj tf ifkus kfetaeufusly èd kfestètly fe tmj jed kustfgjr èd fe g`rcjt djgèds, èd `s sukm, at kmèbjs tmj kulturj irfg aetjre`l ifkus tf è jxtjre`l fej. a x. x. Jxtjedaeb Jgplfyjjs‑ Krj`tavj Kfetrahutafes? Kfetrahutafes? Hjekmg`rcaeb jekfur`bjs pjfplj tf wfrc sg`rtjr r`tmjr tmè m`rdjr, tmrfubm kfestètly `scaeb qujstafes rjl`tjd tf tmj pr`ktakjs, tmjar ofhs èd t`scs èd tf `sc wmy tmj futputs `rj lfwjr fr mabmjr tmè tmfsj fi kfgpjtatfrs èd ftmjr frbèas`tafes. TFT@L PZ@LATQ G@E@BJGJET G@E@BJGJET

Tft`l Pu`laty gè`bjgjet prfvadjs tmj kfekjpt tm`t tm `t jesurjs kfetaeufus agprfvjgjet ae è frbèas`tafe. frbèas`t afe. Tmj pmalfsfpmy fi TPG strjssjs fe ` s ystjg`tak, aetjbr`tjd èd kfesastjet `pprf`km aevflvaeb jvjryfej èd jvjrytmaeb ae è frbèas`tafe. At àgs `t usaeb `ll pjfplj ae gultaiuektafe`l tj`gs tf hraeb `hfut agprfvjgjets irfg watmae tmj frbèas`tafe. Jvjryfej `ssfka`tjd watm tmj frbèas`tafe as iully aevflvjd ae kfetaeufus agprfvjgjet (aekludaeb ats kustfgjrs èd supplajrs ai ij`sahlj). Jljgjets fi TPG? (a) Gjjtaeb Kustfgjrs‑ Xjquarjgjets? Kustfgjr s`tasi`ktafe as tmj cjy tf tmj survav`l èd brfwtm fi è frbèas`tafe. TPG àgs `t hjst s`tasi yaeb tmj rjquarjgjets fi kustfgjrs wmakm ejvjr rjgàe kfestèt3 hut cjjp kmèbaeb watm kmèbjs ae jevarfegjet èd ejjds, prjijrjekjs jtk. fi kustfgjrs. 0

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (aa) Kfetaeufus Agprfvjgjet? TPG as ` tft`l kfekjpt. At aevflvjs tmj aetjbr`tafe fi `ll iuektafes èd prfkjssjs watmae è frbèas`tafe, ae frdjr tf `kmajvj kfetaeufus agprfvjgjet ae tmj qu`laty fi prfdukts/sjrvakjs. Gfrjfvjr, qu`laty as ` dye`gak kfekjpt. Ratm `dvèkjgjet ae tjkmeflfby, è frbèas`tafe gust `dfpt ejw prfkjssjs èd rjdjsabe prfdukts tf yajld kfetaeufus agprfvjgjet ae qu`laty tf bavj tmj hjst `dvèt`bj fi tjkmeflfby tf kustfgjrs. (aaa) Aevflvjgjet fi `ll Jgplfyjjs?

TPG as k`lljd pjfplj‑s sukkjss. @kkfrdaeb tf TPG pmalfsfpmy, qu`laty as eft tmj rjspfesahalaty fely fi prfduktafe pjrsfeejl. X`tmjr at as ` kfgpèy-wadj rjspfesahalaty. TPG kè hj sukkjssiul fely wmje tmj tft`l frbèas`tafe as qu`laty-kfeskafus. Mjekj tmj efgjekl`turj fi tmas pmalfsfpmy `s TPG a.j. tft`ls qu`laty gè`bjgjet. TPG k`lls ifr agprfvjgjet ae tmj qu`laty fi wfrc fi `ll jgplfyjjs tmrfubm pfpul`razaeb tmj kfekjpt fi qu`laty kulturj. Ae i`kt, TPG smfuld hj tmj kfekjre fi `ll gè`bjrs èd wfrcjrs, ae t mj frbèas`tafe. (;) Djgaeb‑s Xjkfggjed`tafes ifr [ukkjssiul TPG? R. Jdw`rd Djgaeb g`cjs ifurtjje rjkfggjed`tafes tf gè`bjgjet ifr sukkjssiul TPG. Ifr s`cj fi sagplakaty èd quakc kfgprjmjesafe, tmjsj ifurtjje rjkfggjed`tafes m`vj kl`ssaiajd aetf ifllfwaeb ifur k`tjbfrajs? (A) Bjejr`l Xjkfggjed`tafes? (a) Krj`tj kfestèky fi purpfsj ifr agprfvjgjet fi prfdukt/sjrvakj3 èd àg fi kfetaeufus agprfvjgjet smfuld hj rjiljktjd ae `ll `spjkts fi frbèas`tafe`l str`tjby. (aa) ût jvjryfej ae tmj kfgpèy tf wfrc fe tmj trèsifrg`tafe. M`vj p`tajekj tf `kkfgplasm tmj trèsifrg`tafe. (aaa) @dfpt tmj ejw tjkmeflfby (av) Agprfvj kfestètly èd ifrjvjr tmj systjg fi prfduktafe, qu`laty èd sjrvakj. Kfetaeufus agprfvjgjet as ` kfgpjtatavj agpjr`tavj. (v) Jed tmj pr`ktakj fi `w`rdaeb husaejss fe tmj h`sas fi prakj t`b `lfej. Df eft dravj prakj dfwe `t tmj kfst fi qu`laty. (AA) Xjkfggjed`tafes vas-`-vas Darjktaeb? (va) @dfpt èd aestatutj lj`djrsmap. Df eft `ttàe kfetrfl `t tmj jxpjesj fi lj`djrsmap. (vaa) Hrj`c dfwe h`rrajrs hjtwjje stìi `rj`s. Djvjlfp mabm ljvjl fi uedjrstèdaeb tf gutu`l prfhljg sflvaeb, tmrfubmfut tmj frbèas`tafe. (vaaa) Dravj fut ij`r. Ij`r fi lfsaeb ofh/pueasmgjet prfdukjs lfssjs. (ax) [tfp tf m`rèbuj wfrcjrs. Jlagae`tj slfbès, jxmfrt`tafes ifr tmj wfrcifrkj3 `s tmjsj `rj jvadjekj fi iàlurj tf gè`bj. (Tf m`rèbuj gjès tf spj`c lfudly èd èbraly tf pjrsu`dj pjfplj tf df sfgjtmaeb). (AAA) Xjkfggjed`tafes vas-`-vas [tìiaeb? (x) Aestatutj tràeaeb ` prjkfedatafe ifr kfetaeufus agprfvjgjet. (xa) Aestatutj ` vabfrfus prfbr`ggj fi jduk`tafe èd sjli-agprfvjgjet. (xaa) Xjgfvj h`rrajrs tm`t rfh pjfplj fi pradj fi wfrcgèsmap. @eeu`l pjrifrgèkj èd gjrat r`taeb `rj tmj habbjst fhst`kljs. (AY) Xjkfggjed`tafes vas-`-vas Kfetrfllaeb? (xaaa)Huald qu`laty aetf prfdukt. Kj`sj djpjedjekj fe g`ss aespjktafe. Ae i`kt, tmj brj`tjr tmj eughjr fi aespjktfrs3 tmj brj`tjr tmj eughjr fi djijkts. ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj (xav)Jlagae`tj eugjrak`l kfetrfls ifr wfrcifrkj. Kmèbj s ystjg tf suppfrt èd mjlp pjfplj tf jesurj tm`t t`rbjts `rj gjt. @dvèt`bjs fi TPG? (a) [m`rpjes Kfgpjtatavj Jdbj fi tmj Jetjrprasj? TPG mjlps è frbèas`tafe tf rjdukj kfsts tmrfubm jlagae`tafe fi w`stj, rjwfrc jtk. At aekrj`sjs prfiat`halaty èd kfg pjtatavjejss fi tmj jetjrprasj3 èd mjlps tf sm`rpje tmj frbèas`tafe‑s kfgpjtatavj jdbj, ae tmj blfh`lazjd jkfefgy fi tfd`y. (aa) Jxkjlljet Kustfgjr [`tasi`ktafe? Hy ifkusaeb fe kustfgjr rjquarjgjets, TPG g`cjs ifr jxkjlljet kustfgjr s`tasi`ktafe. Tmas lj`ds tf gfrj èd gfrj s`ljs, èd jxkjlljet rjl`tafes watm kustfgjrs. (aaa) Agprfvjgjet ae Frbèas`tafe`l ^jrifrgèkj? ^jrifrgèkj? Tmrfubm prfgftaeb qu`laty kulturj ae tmj frbèas`tafe, TPG lj`d tf agprfvjgjets ae gè`bjra`l èd

fpjr`tavj pjrsfeejl‑s pjrifrgèkj. (av) Bffd ûhlak Ag`bj fi tmj Jetjrprasj? TPG mjlps tf huald è ag`bj fi tmj jetjrprasj ae tmj gaeds fi pjfplj ae sfkajty. Tmas as duj tf strjss fe

tft`l qu`laty systjg èd kustfgjrs‑ rjquarjgjets, uedjr tmj pmalfsfpmy fi TPG. (v) Hjttjr ^jrsfeejl Xjl`tafes? TPG àgs `t prfgftaeb gutu`l trust èd fpjeejss `gfeb jgplfyjjs, `t `ll ljvjls ae tmj frbèas`tafe. Tmas lj`ds tf hjttjr pjrsfeejl rjl`tafes ae tmj jetjrprasj. Lagat`tafes fi TPG? (a) Ràtaeb ifr ` Lfeb Tagj? TPG rjquarjs sabeaiakèt kmèbj ae frbèas`tafe3 kfesastaeb fi? 0. Kmèbj ae gjtmfds, prfkjssjs jtk. fi frbèas`tafe. 8. Kmèbj ae `ttatudj, hjm`vafur jtk. fi pjfplj Lùekmaeb fi TPG èd `kkjptèkj fi tmj t mj pmalfsfpmy fi TPG rjquarjs ` lfeb wàtaeb wàt aeb ifr tmj frbèas`tafe. At as eft pfssahlj tf `kkjpt èd agpljgjet TPG fvjreabmt. (aa) ^rfhljg fi L`hfur Gè`bjgjet Gè`bjgjet Xjl`tafes? [ukkjss fi TPG djpjeds fe tmj rjl`tafesmaps hjtwjje l`hfur èd gè`bjgjet3 hjkùsj p`rtakap`tafe fi pjfplj `t `ll ljvjls as ` prj-rjquasatj ifr TPG prfbr`ggj agpljgjet`tafe. Ae gèy gè y frbèas`tafes, mjrj èd `hrf`d, l`hfur-gè`bjgjet rjl`tafes `rj quatj tjesj. @s sukm, lùekmaeb, `kkjptèkj èd agpljgjet`tafe fi TPG prfbr`ggj as eftmaeb gfrj tmè ` drj`g ifr sukm frbèas`tafes.

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj PZ@LATQ KAXKLJ[

Pu`laty karklj g`y hj djiaejd `s ` sg`ll brfup fi wfrcjrs (: tf 0>) wmf df tmj s`gj/sagal`r wfrcs vfluet`raly gjjtaeb tfbjtmjr rjbul`rly duraeb tmjar efrg`l wfrcaeb tagj, usu`lly uedjr tmj lj`djrsmap fi tmjar fwe supjrafr tf 

Adj etaty

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@e`lysj, èd

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[flvj wfrc rjl`tjd prfhljg.

Tmj brfup prjsjet tmj sflutafe tf tmj gè`bjgjet èd wmjejvjr pfssahlj ag pljgje t tmj sflutafe tmj gsjlvjs. Tmj PK kfekjpt w`s iarst frabae`tjd ae O`pè ae 019>. ^malfsfpmak`l h`sas fi PK

0) At as ` hjlaji tm`t pjfplj wall t`cj pr adj èd dj èd aetjrjst ae tmjar wfrc ai tmj y bjt ùtfefgy èd t`cj p`rt ae tmj djka safe g`caeb prfkjss. `r fr b èaz`taf e. 8) At djvjlfps ` sjesj fi hjlfeba hjlfebaeb ejss ejss ae tmj jgplfyjjs tfw`rds ` p`rtakul`r fr ;) At as `lsf ` hjlaji tm`t tm`t j`km jgplfy jj djsarjs tf p` rtakul rtakul`tj ae g`caeb tmj frbèaz`tafe ` hjttjr pl`kj. 4) At as ` gjè/gjtmfd tmfd ifr tmj djv jlfpgjet fi mugè rjsfurkjs tmrfubm tmj prfkjss fi tràeaeb, wfrc jxpjrajekj èd p`rtakul`tj ae prf hljg sflvaeb. :) @ wallaebejss tf `llfw pjfplj tf vf luetjj r tmjar tagj èd jiifrt if r agpr fv fv jgjet fi pjrifrgèkj fi frb` frb` eaz`tafe. 9) Tmj agpfr t` t` ekj fi j`km gjghjrs gjghj rs rflj ae gjjtaeb fr bèa bèaz` tafe`l bf`l. Km`r`ktjrastaks Km`r`ktjrastaks fi Pu`laty Karklj

0) Pu`laty karkljs `rj sg`ll prag`ry brfups fi jg plfyj js/wfrcjrs wmfsj lfwjr lagat as ; èd uppjr lagat as 08. p as vfluet`ry. Tmj aetjrjstjd jgplfyjjs ae sfgj `rj`s g`y kfgj tfbjtmjr tf 8) Gjg hjrsma p ifrg ` qu`laty karklj. ;) J`km qu`la ty karklj as ljd hy jd hy `rj` supjrv asfr . 4) Tmj gjghjrs gjjt rjbul`rly jvjry wjjc/`s pjr `bbrj`hlj skmjdulj. :) Tmj PK gjghjrs `rj spjka`lly tràejd ae tjkmeaquj fi è`lysas èd prfhljg sflvaeb ae frdjr tf pl`y tmjar rflj jiijktavjly. 9) Tmj h`sak rflj fi PK as tf adjetaiy wfrc r j l`tjd prfhljgs ifr agprfva eb qu`laty èd prfduktavaty. r maddje t`ljets, krj`ta 2) PK je`hl je`hlj tmj gjghjrs tf jx jrkasj tmj ar m krj`tavj scalls jtk. =) At prfgftjs tmj gutu`l gu tu`l djvjlfpgjet djvjlfpg jet fi tmj ar gjghjr tmrfubm kf- fpjr`tavj p`tafe. p`rtaka p`tafe. 1) At bavjs bavjs ofh s`tasi`ktafe hjkùsj fi adjetaiyaeb èd sflvaeb km`ll jeba eb prfhljgs wmalj pjrifrgaeb of h. 0>) Gjghjrs rjkjavjs puhlak r j kfbea fb ea tafe. 00) Gjghjrs rjkjavjs rjkfbeatafe irfg kfgpèy's gè`bjgjet ae tmj ifrg fi gjgjetf, kjr tai tai ak`tj jtk. 08) @s ` rjsult fi `hfvj rjkfbeatafe tmjrj as djvjlfpgjet fi sjli stjjg èd sjli kfeiadjekj fi jgplfyjjs. b

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Fhojktavjs fi P K

0) Tf agprfvj tmj qu`la ty èd prfduktava ty. 8) Tf rjdukj kfst fi prfdukts/sjrvakjs hy w`stj rjduktafe. Jiijktavj utalaz`tafe fi rjsfurkjs jlagae`taeb jrrfrs/djijk jrrfrs/djij kts. ;) Tf utalazj tmj maddje krj`tavj je krj`tavj aetjllabjekj fi tmj jgplfyjj. 4) Tf adjetaiy èd sflvj wfrc rjl`tjd prfhljg. :) Tf gftav`tj pjf plj ifr sflvaeb km`lljebaeb t`scs. 9) Tf agprfvj kfgguea k`tafe watmae tmj frbèaz`tafe. 2) Tf aekrj`sj jgplfyjjs lfy`laty èd kfggatgjet tf frbèaz`tafe`l bf` bf `l . gfr ` lj, `ttatudj èd rjl`ta fesmap. =) Tf je r a km mugè kfe i adje kj, k`p`halaty, c pl `kj. 1) Tf p`y rjspjkt tf mugèaty èd krj`tj ` m`ppy hrabmt hrabmt wfr c 0>) Tf s`tasiy tmj mugè ejjds fi rjk rj kfbea fb ea tafe èd sjli-djvjlfpgjet. A[F

Pu`laty stèd`rds g`y hj djsabejd hy aedavadu`l jetjrprasjs3 hut jetjrprasjs g`y iaed at daiiakult tf kfevaekj kustfgjrs `hfut tmj v`luj fi tmjsj aedavadu`l stèd`rds. Mfwjvjr, ai è jxtjre`l `bjeky as aevflvjd ae djvjlfpaeb èd kjrtaiyaeb qu`laty stèd`rds fi jetjrprasjs3 kfeiadjekj fi kustfgjrs g`y hj j`saly wfe fvjr. b

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj A[F 1>>> sjrajs dj`ls watm tmas `spjkt fi qu`laty stèd`rds. Tmj Aetjre`tafe`l [tèd`rds Frbèas`tafe (A[F) js t`hlasmjd ae 0149 `t Bjejv`, iuektafes `s è `pjx hfdy

fi ”stèd`rd frbèaz`tafes‑ fi v`rafus gjghjr kfuetrajs aekludaeb a ekludaeb Aeda`., At aetrfdukjd A[F 1>>> sjrajs fi qu`laty stèd`rds ae 01=2, `s ` sjt s jt fi buadjlaejs ifr djvjlfpaeb èd djgfestr`taeb ` dfkugjetjd qu`laty systjg. A[F 1>>> sjrajs aekludjs kjrtaiak`tjs ae daiijrjet `rj`s3 èd ` husaejss jetjrprasj kè fhtàe rjljvèt kjrtaiak`tj uedjr tmas sjrajs, ìtjr iuliallaeb tmj rjquarjd kfedatafe`laty‑s. [trukturj fi A[F-1>>> [tèd`rds?

A[F-1>>> sjrajs as ` sjt fi iavj aetjre`tafe`l stèd`rds èd suppljgjetjd hy ` vfk`hul`ry stèd`rd, djiaeaeb tmj v`rafus tjrgs usjd ae tmj sjrajs. Tmjsj stèd`rds `rj smfwe tmrfubm tmj ifllfwaeb km`rt?

[jl [jl jkta jkta fe è d Zsj fi [tèd`r ds? ds?

@e frbèas`tafe wmakm aetjeds tf `dfpt A[F 1>>> qu`laty gè`bjgjet systjg m`s tf sjljkt fej fi tmj tmrjj qu`laty systjg gfdjls ‛ A[F A[F 1>>0, A[F 1>>8 fr A[F 1>>;. A[F 1>>0 [ystjg? Gfdjl ifr qu`laty `ssurèkj ae djsabe/djvjlfpgjet, prfduktafe aest`ll`tafe èd sjrvakaeb3 ifr usj, wmje kfeifrgèkj tf spjkaiak`tafes as tf hj `ssugjd hy tmj supplajr duraeb prfduktafe èd aest`ll`tafe. A[F 1>>8 [ystjg? Gfdjl ifr qu`laty `ssurèkj ae prfduktafe, aest`ll`tafe èd sjrvakaeb3 ifr usj, wmje kfeifrgèkj tf spjkaiajd rjquarjgjets as tf hj `ssurjd hy tmj supplajr duraeb prfduktafe èd sjrvakaeb. A[F 1>>; [ystjg? Gfdjl ifr qu`laty `ssurèkj ae iae`l sjljktafe èd tjstaeb3 ifr usj, wmje kfeifrgèkj tf rjquarjd spjkaiak`tafes as tf hj `ssurjd hy tmj supplajr sfljly tf iae`l aespjktafe.


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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Agpljgjet`tafe Agpljgjet`tafe fi A[F 1>>> Pu`laty Gè`bjgjet Gè`bjgjet [ystjg? Tmj v`rafus pm`sjs ae tmj aest`ll`tafe fi A[F 1>>> qu`laty gè`bjgjet systjg `rj? ^m`sj A? ^rjp`r`tafe ^m`sj? (a) Gè`bjgjet kfggatgjet tf A[F qu`laty gè`bjgjet systjg. (aa) [jttaeb up fi agpljgjet`tafe kfggattjj (aaa) Pu`laty `w`rjejss prfbr`ggj (av) D`t` kflljktafe fi jxastaeb systjg èd prjp`r`tafe plè ^m`sj AA? Agpljgjet`tafe? (v) Djvjlfp èd agpljgjet dfkugjetjd qu`laty systjg (va) Jst`hlasm aetjre`l qu`laty ùdat systjg èd gfeatfr èd st`halazj tmj qu`laty systjg. ^m`sj AAA? Xjbastr`tafe èd Kjrtaiak`tafe? Kjrtaiak`tafe? (vaa) @pply ifr rjbastr`tafe (vaaa) @djqu`ky ùdat hy kjrtaiyaeb `bjeky. (ax) Kfgpjtjekj ùdat hy kjrtaiyaeb `bjeky (x) Kjrtaiak`tafe Hjejia Hjejia ts fi A [F 1>>> 1>>> Kjr Kjr tai ak`tafe?

A[F 1>>> kjrtaiak`tafe jetatljs è frbèas`tafe tf ifllfwaeb `dvèt`bjs? (a) At hraebs `hfut daskaplaej ae systjg, prfkjdurjs èd dfkugjet`tafe. (aa) At agprfvjs tmj kfeiadjekj fi kustfgjrs ae kfgpèy‑s prfdukt . Mjekj, tmj ag`bj fi tmj kfgpèy as jemèkjd. (aaa) At mjlps è jetjrprasj tf sjll prfdukts ae aetjre`tafe`l g`rcjts. Jurfpjè Kfggfe G`rcjt kfuetrajs prjijr jxpfrts irfg A[F 1>>> kjrtaiajd kfgpèajs. Muedrjds fi Aedaè kfgpèajs m`vj `dfptjd A[F stèd`rds èd m`vj hjje kjrtaiajd uedjr A[F 1>>>. [fgj wjll-cefwe A[F 1>>> kjrtaiajd kfgpèajs `rj? Maedustè Ljvjr Ltd., Gì`tl`l Aedustrajs Ltd., Mjrf Kykljs Ltd., Jskfrts Tr`ktfrs Ltd., Maedustè @jrfeùtaks Ltd. jtk. jtk. (av) At mjlps è jetjrprasj tf t f `vàl fi bfvjregjet`l kfekjssafes fe agpfrts. [A] [ABG@

[ax [abg` as tmj st`tastak`l `pplak`tafe fi Tft`l qu`laty gè`bjgjet (TPG) tf `kmajvj ` ejw p`r`dabg ae kustfgjr qu`laty. [abg` qu`laty ljvjl djskrahjs tmj futput fi ` prfkjss. [ax [abg` bfjs hjyfed djijkt rjduktafe tf jgpm`sazj fe tmj husaejss-prfkjss agprfvjgjet ae bjejr`l, wmakm aekludjs kfst rjduktafe, kyklj-tagj agprfvjgjet, aekrj`sjd kustfgjr s`tasi`ktafe, s`tas i`ktafe, èd èy ftmjr gjtrak agpfrtèt tf tmj kfgpèy. [ax [abg` kè efw agply ` wmflj kulturj fi str`tjbajs, tffls, èd st`tastak`l gjtmfdflfbajs tf agprfvj tmj hfttfg-laej fi kfgpèajs. Tf lj`pirfb `mj`d fi kfgpjtatafe ae tmas wfrld fi uekjrtàety, tmj kfrpfr`tj wfrld as jxpjragjetaeb watm

fej prfkjss ìtjr èftmjr. Irfg ”kfeifrgèkj tf stèd`rds‑ tf ”`kmajvaeb tft`l qu`laty‑, tmj ifkus m`s efw smaitjd tf ”`ddaeb jkfefgak v`luj èd pr`ktak`l utalaty tf hftm tmj frbèaz`tafe èd tmj kustfgjr‑. Xj`lazaeb v`luj jetatljgjet hftm hy tmj kustfgjrs èd tmj frbèaz`tafes as efw tmj djtjrgaeèt fi husaejss rjl`tafesmaps. 1

At as efw ` wae-wae satu`tafe ifr hftm. Ifr kustfgjrs, at as tmjar rabmtiul jxpjkt`tafe tf huy qu`laty prfdukts `t kfgpjtatavj kfsts, wmalj ifr frbèaz`tafes fr bèaz`tafes at as tf prfdukj `t tmj mabmjst pfssahlj prfiat. Tmas syejrby as wm`t jvjryhfdy trajs tf `kmajvj ae tmas kfrpfr`tj wfrld. ^

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Aedustra`l Jebaejjraeb ‛ [= [= Gjkmèak`l ‛ Cjr`l` Cjr`l` Zeavjrsaty ‛ 8>0; 8>0; [kmjgj Xjojktafe `llfwèkj èd ue`vfad`hlj rjojktafe (ZX) `rj efw ifrhaddje wfrds. [ax [abg`, `s ` husaejss prfkjss as efw `llfwaeb frbèaz`tafes tf agprfvj tmjar hfttfg-laej hy djsabeaeb èd èd gfeatfraeb husaejss `ktavatajs ae ` w`y tm`t gaeagazjs w`stj fi rjsfurkjs watmfut kfgprfgasaeb watm kustfgjr s`tasi`ktafe. [ax [abg` prfkjss as hrf`djr tmè TPG prfbr`ggjs. Rmalj TPG ifkusjs fe djtjktaeb èd kfrrjktaeb djijkts, [ax [abg` rj-krj`tjs tmj prfkjssjs tf jesurj tm`t djijkts ejvjr `rasj, rabmt irfg tmj hjbaeeaeb. Irfg tmj frbèaz`tafes‑ pfaet fi vajw, at prfvadjs tmj

g`xagug v`luj ae tmj ifrg fi aekrj`sjd prfiats, èd irfg tmj kustfgjrs‑ pfaet fi vajw, at prfvadjs g`xagug v`luj ae tjrgs fi mabm-qu`laty prfdukts èd sjrvakjs `t k fgpjtatavj kfsts. [abg` as ` ljttjr ae tmj Brjjc `lpm`hjt èd as usjd tf djeftj tmj stèd`rd djva`tafe fi ` prfkjss. @s ` kfekjpt at w`s iarst djvjlfpjd hy ` kfesfrtaug aekludaeb Gftfrfl` irfg tmj gad -01=>s èd w`s `dfptjd hy gèy gòfr gèui`kturaeb frbèaz`tafes frbèaz`tafes aekludaeb Bjejr`l Jljktrak (BJ). Efw, Efw, mfwjvjr, mfwjvjr, at as `pplajd ae ftmjr frbèaz`tafes `lsf. Ifr jx`gplj, BJ K`pat`l, tmj wfrld‑s iarst sjrvakj -très`ktafe-h`sjd kfgpèy aetrfdukjd tmas ae 0119. Hrf`dly, [ax [abg` as tmj st`tastak`l `pplak`tafe fi Tft`l qu`laty gè`bjgjet (TPG) tf `kmajvj ` ejw p`r`dabg ae kustfgjr qu`laty. [abg` qu`laty ljvjl djskrahjs tmj futput fi ` prfkjss. [ax [abg` bfjs hjyfed djijkt rjduktafe tf jgpm`sazj fe tmj husaejss-prfkjss husaejss -prfkjss agprfvjgjet ae bjejr`l, wmakm aekludjs kfst rjduktafe, kyklj-tagj agprfvjgjet, aekrj`sjd kustfgjr s`tasi`ktafe, èd èy ftmjr gjtrak agpfrtèt tf tmj kfgpèy. [ax [abg` kè efw agply ` wmflj kulturj fi str`tjbajs, tffls, èd st`tastak`l gjtmfdflfbajs tf agprfvj tmj hfttfg-laej fi kfgpèajs.

@e fhojktavj fi [ax [abg` as tf jlagae`tj jvjry gfljkulj fi w`stj tm`t kè hj ifued ae è frbèaz`tafe‑s prfkjssjs. [uhstèta`l hfttfg-laej hjejiats kè hj `kmajvjd hy frbèaz`tafes pr`ktasaeb tmj [ax [abg` hrj`ctmrfubm str`tjby tmrfubm tmj agprfvjgjet agprfvjgjet fi kyklj tagj, rjduktafe fi djijkts, kfst rjduktafe, jtk. Puatj fitje, frbèaz`tafes `rj pjrpljxjd `t m`vaeb tf `dfpt yjt èftmjr str`tjby èd wfedjr wmy tmjy smfuld kfesadjr [ax [abg`. Tmj èswjr tf tmas as sagplj —tfd`y‑s frbèaz`tafes fr bèaz`tafes `r j kustfgjr-kjetrak.

Kustfgjrs irfg tmj h`sj fi tfd`y‑s wfrld g`rcjt èd kfgpèajs wèt tf sjed tf tmjg ` klj`r gjss`bj— tm`t tmjy prfdukj mabm-qu`laty prfdukts `t lfwjr kfsts watm brj`tjr rjspfesavjejss. [ax [abg` mjlps è frbèaz`tafe ae `kmajvaeb tmjsj fhojktavjs wmje `labejd watm ftmjr aeata`tavjs `s p`rt fi ` husaejss str`tjby. Mabmjr [abg` v`lujs aedak`tj hjttjr qu`laty prfdukts èd lfwjr sabg` v`lujs rjprjsjet lfwjr qu`laty prfdukts. @t tmj [ax [abg` ljvjl, prfdukts `rj vartu`lly djijkt irjj, tm`t as, at `llfws ifr ;.4 djijkts pjr gallafe fppfrtueatajs (D^GF) fely.

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Industrial Engineering Lecture notes

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