Jackaranda - Media New Ways and Meanings - 3rd Edition

media

new ways and meanings

3rd Edition

5_61_05447_MEDIA_Prelims

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media

new ways and meanings 3rd Edition

Colin Stewart Adam Kowaltzke

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Third edition published 2008 by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064 First edition 1990 Second edition 1997 Typeset in 9/ 12.5 pt New Aster LT © Colin Stewart and Adam Kowaltzke 2008 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-publication data Stewart, Colin. Media : new ways and meanings. 3rd ed. Includes index. For secondary school students. ISBN 978 0 7314 0544 2 (pbk.). 1. Mass media — Textbooks. I. Kowaltzke, Adam. II. Title. 302.23 Reproduction and communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/ or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL). Reproduction and communication for other purposes Except as permitted under the Act (for example, a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review), no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher. Cover design: © Adam Kowaltzke Cartography by MAPgraphics Pty Ltd, Brisbane Illustrated by Steve Hunter, Paul Lennon and the Wiley Art Studio Printed in China by Printplus Limited 10 9 8 All activities have been written with the safety of both teacher and student in mind. Some, however, involve physical activity or the use of equipment or tools. All due care should be taken when performing such activities. Neither the publisher nor the authors can accept responsibility for any injury that may be sustained when completing activities described in this textbook.

Cover design rationale The book design is based on pixels. The media are transitioning to a fully digital form delivered entirely on screens that reproduce media content through millions of pixels and in millions of colours. Media are also transitioning to a model in which user-generated content becomes a key aspect. New media especially encourage participation. This idea is illustrated on the cover by the bright, new pixels emerging from underneath the greyer pixels above, which represent the stale and dusty facade of old media. Participation makes the media more reflective of society. The design uses elements of reflection to reinforce this idea. Media are ubiquitous and play a part in almost everything we do in the complete spectrum of our lives — an idea represented in the design by the colour spectrum. The spectrum also refers to the test patterns used for colour televisions, illustrating that not everything about the media is likely to change so rapidly.

Contents Preface vii About the authors viii About eBookPLUS ix Acknowledgements x

5 Media industry production issues

1 Introduction to the media Traditional media and new media

New media industry issues 90 Working in the video game industry Copyright and the internet 94 Music and movie piracy 95 Internet censorship 96

1

1

elements

4

Media language 4 Genres 7 Language elements of film and television 10 Editing: shot-to-shot relationships 21 Language elements of radio 27 Language elements of the print media 28 Computer-based language elements 30

3 Representation

4 Technologies

69

A culture of technology 69 The democratisation of information 74 The impact of new media on traditional media 76 Privacy 81 Digital imaging 83 Mobile media technology 85


49

102

Media institutions 102 Public and private institutions 108 Regulation and self-regulation 110 Australian content 114 Australian media ownership 116 The structure of the television industry 120 The structure of the radio industry 129 The ratings system 132

7 Narrative

35

Representing reality 35 Representation of gender 40 Representation in television comedy 45 Representation in news and current affairs Docudrama and truth 53 Law and order on television 56 Advertising and stereotypes 58 Representation in soap operas 60 Representation in video games 61 Representation and the internet 64

92

6 Australian media institutions

2 Language production

90

135

Story elements 135 Narrative structure 138 Characters 141 The hero s journey 144 Setting 146

8 Audience

147

Characteristics of audiences 147 Individual meaning makers 148 Constructing audiences 151 Targeting audiences 152

9 Media infl uence

155

Theories of media influence 155 Protecting audiences 165 The violence debate 168 Do advertisements really work? 174 Effects of playing video games 180 Positive and negative media effects 183

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10 Social values and discourses Texts and contexts 186 Social values 190 Discourses 192 Discourses and social values by decade

11 Cross-media genres

196

203

The medium of film 220 Film response and promotional texts 222 Film movements 227 Australian film 235 World cinema 244 Film noir 254 Gangster movies 261 Horror movies 265 Martial arts movies 273 Musicals 279 Road movies 284 Romantic comedies 290 Thrillers 295 Westerns 299 Science fiction (by Darren Sinclair) 304 Film adaptations of novels 310

16 Radio genres

433

450

The medium of radio 450 Radio music formats 453 Talkback radio 457 Radio comedy 460 Radio plays 463 Radio advertising 466

17 Newspapers The The The The The The

316

The medium of television 316 Television news 321 News writing 325 Soap operas 333 Television comedy 344 Situation comedies 348 Sketch comedies 353 Crime drama 356 Music videos 364 Television advertising 369 Reality television 376

14 The internet

425

The video games medium 425 Video game genres 429 Massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) Narrative in video games 436 Games and movies 440 Advertising and advergaming 442 Developing a successful game 443 Audience issues 447

220

13 Television

Internet institutions and industry issues 393 Web design 400 Internet advertising 404 Social networking and social media 409 Blogs 418 Citizen journalism 420

15 Video games

203

Television and film documentaries Documentary writing 209 Docudrama 214

12 Film

186

469

newspaper medium 469 online newspaper 474 editorial 477 social comment cartoon 480 news story 487 feature story 490

18 Magazines

495

The magazine medium 495 The magazine feature article 501 Magazine fiction 503 Magazine display advertisements 506 Key terms 511 Index

519

383

The medium of the internet 383 The structure of internet communication The internet audience 391

388

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Preface Welcome to the third edition of Media: New Ways and Meanings, a book that has helped inform Australian media teaching for the past eighteen years. During this time, teaching about the media has evolved as senior school curriculums have taken account of the dramatic changes wrought by the digital media revolution. Each edition of Media: New Ways and Meanings has been published on the cusp of a new stage in media teaching. Each development has required a new approach to the support materials provided to teachers and students. Writing back in 1972, David Layton saw the development of school subjects as occurring in three stages: beginning with the introduction of the subject on the grounds of relevance to students, through the development of a disciplinary basis to the mature stage where the subject area has its own established conventions and values. Within media education, this text has developed in parallel to the increasing maturity of the field. The fi rst edition was published in 1990 as media education was coming in from the fringes of educational thinking and gaining wide acceptance as an important new discipline. There followed a period of exponential growth in the teaching of media both as a separate subject and within the study of English. The second edition was published in 1997 as the internet came to prominence as a new medium of communication. It was the first highschool media studies text to take account of the digital media. By this time media studies had formalised its discipline base, with its central core of key concepts embedded in curriculum documents across Australia. These new ideas were reflected in the additions and revisions to the second edition. Simultaneously, the idea of literacy itself

was being redefined to include an expanded range of skills outside the narrow tradition of print literacy. An array of social, technological and economic factors was moving the visual image to the centre stage of communication, and the dominance of the screen was beginning to be asserted. At the time of writing the third edition during 2007, the most profound change was the huge movement towards citizen involvement in media creation and distribution. This was expressed in Henry Jenkins’ notion of a participatory media culture, an idea that has been taken up by Australian media educators generally. The growth of video sharing and social networking sites allowed for more democratic distribution of media texts. The proliferation of relatively inexpensive cameras and editing programs gave everyone the ability to become a media producer. Implicit in this third edition is Axel Bruns’ conception of the ‘produser’: belonging to new online communities, the new media participant in the digital age is both a producer and a user of media. Media: New Ways and Meanings, third edition, may be the fi rst high-school media studies text to have been developed using the potential of online communities. Substantial numbers of teachers across urban and regional Australia responded to online surveys into the topics of study. Material was also developed in response to topics generated on several discussion lists on games and media in conjunction with focus groups of teachers in several states. Taking account of these new developments, in this text we have set ourselves the goal of supporting teachers in developing a diversified critical literacy that encourages students to access, analyse and create media in new and participatory ways.

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About the authors Colin Stewart

Adam Kowaltzke

Colin Stewart is Head of Department Visual Arts and Media at Kenmore State High School in Brisbane. He has taught media subjects for more than 25 years, including Film and Television, English, Animation and most recently Film, Television and New Media. He has acted as a media education advisor, served on assessment moderation panels and also been on the writing teams for several state media curriculum documents. He has degree majors in journalism and is currently undertaking doctoral studies in media education.

Adam Kowaltzke is a user interface and user experience designer at Avanade, a global IT consultancy established by Accenture and Microsoft. Adam specialises in visual and experience design, usability and art direction for web-based media and applications, as well as computer application interface design. His role also encompasses accessibility, information architecture and branding. Before his IT and design career, Adam gained degrees in media and art education, and in fi lm and television production.

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About eBookPLUS Next generation teaching and learning This book features eBookPLUS: an electronic version of the entire textbook and supporting multimedia resources. It is available for you online at the JacarandaPLUS website ( www.jacplus.com.au ).

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ix

Acknowledgements There are many people we would like to thank for their help with this book. Firstly we would like to thank our families. It has been their time as well as ours that has been taken up to produce this book. Colin Stewart: Thanks to my daughters Tully and Bridie who have grown up with this text over twenty years and as ‘Generation Y’ are now old enough to suggest programs or movies, make corrections and add valuable ideas. Thanks also to my mother Norma and brother David for help of various kinds and for providing occasional pieces of information or precise dates. Adam Kowaltzke: Thanks to my wife Ariane for her support, especially during the many nights Colin and I worked together on the book, and for the many months spent assisting and supporting me while I researched and wrote. Special thanks for her intrepid exploration of the Second Life world as ‘Thursday Moody’. Secondly we would like to thank the production team at John Wiley & Sons Australia who have worked with us to produce this text. We would especially like to thank Senior Publisher Jan Cousens for her support, guidance and faith in the project. We would also like to thank our editor Jem Bates for his precision, his incisive critique and the many extra hours he put into the book. Our thanks also to Jill Tait for all her work on the multimedia support materials. Thirdly a range of people have given important help at different stages. Their contribution is very much appreciated. Thanks to Darren Sinclair for his section on science fiction fi lms and also for his timeline suggestions and general input on a whole range of matters related to new media, television and fi lm. Thanks to Russell Gilmore for his critique of the text at different times during the writing. For their critique of the cover designs by Adam Kowaltzke, we would like to thank Cathy Magi, Derek Johnston, Barbara Shapcott, Damian Legoullon and Darren Sinclair of the Visual Arts and Media faculty at Kenmore State High School in Brisbane. For his support and engaging exchange of ideas we would like to thank the president of ATOM Queens-

land, Michael Dezuanni, lecturer in fi lm and media studies at Queensland University of Technology. We would also like to thank Jackie Cook of the School of Communication at the University of South Australia for general input and specific research suggestions. We would like to thank the members of the Victorian focus group, Glenda Morris, Jamieson Kane, Polly McCarthy and Mia Tolhurst, who gave up their time to assist with the development of the contents and advise on the requirements of the VCE Media study design. For their critique of the second edition and suggestions for the third, we would like to thank Melanie Beal and Jacqueline Heath in Victoria, Neal Harris in Western Australia and Kristi Street in New South Wales. Thanks to the members of ATOM Queensland and ATOM Victoria for collegial discussions online and sometimes in person. Special thanks to those many ATOM members who responded anonymously to the online surveys used to develop topics for the text. We hope we have lived up to expectations and apologise for any omissions. Thanks to Sarah Malcolm of Adelaide University for access to her PhD thesis on reality television. Thanks also to Christina Pollard for information on the ‘Go for 2&5’ campaign; Ian Ross for anti-smoking campaign information; Eddie Leeon for his review of the world cinema section; Matthew Clayfield for use of parts of his commentary on Australian cinema; Gary Wilson of Cutting Edge Post Production for advice and referrals. The willingness of people in the media to assist in media education was one of the many enjoyable aspects of writing this book. We are especially indebted to Larry Engelmann for his help on Bollywood cinema; Ian Garland of ASTRA for help on subscription television; Jane Foster on crime drama/ police procedurals; Jason Romney and Elizabeth Osder on electronic newspapers; Lee Spurway, John Stock and Damien Ryan on the news sections; Peter Pinne and Julia Smith on soap operas; Edward Rowe, Matt Braid, Geoff Wild and the late Peter Heathwood on television advertising; Wesley Enoch on advertising representation; Jon Robbins, Bill Kelly,

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Phil Lentz, Barry Bissell and Bob Gallagher on radio formats; Murray Olds and Roy Jamieson on radio talk shows; Gareth Evans and Tom Duggan on newspaper editorials; Geoff Eldridge and Pip Wilson on magazine feature articles; Sean Leahy and Patrick Cook for newspaper cartoons; and Eric Sibly and Chris Heazlewood for providing programming and Vista images for the new media chapter. Thanks to the Film, Television and New Media students and also the English students of Kenmore State High School who provided the original raison d’être for this book. Special thanks and best wishes to the cohort of 2007. Thanks fi nally to the hundreds of academics, textbook writers, magazine and newspaper journalists, website content creators and media educators whose work has formed the basis of the research for this book. Colin Stewart Adam Kowaltzke

The authors and publisher would like to thank the following copyright holders, organisations and individuals for their assistance and for permission to reproduce copyright material in this book. El Periodico/ Jordi Cotrina: figure 1.1 • Mercedes-Benz: figure 2.1 • Judy Horacek, www.horacek.com.au: figure 2.4 • Corbis: figures 2.15, 3.1(b); / Sygma, figures 2.2, 12.42; / Digital Stock, figures 2.10, 12.14(a); / John Springer Collection, figure 2.12; / Bettmann, figures 3.1(a), 12.34; / zefa/ Brigitte Sporrer, figure 3.1(c); / J. Howard Miller, figure 3.5; / MGM, figures 7.1, 12.50; / Artkey/ Chen Banding, figure 12.20; / John Springer Collection, figures 12.27, 12.51, 12.54; / Underwood & Underwood, figure 12.29; / Sunset Boulevard, figure 12.32; / Bai Xiao Yan/ Sony Pictures Classics/ Bureau L.A. Collection, figure 12.36; / Bureau L.A. Collection, figure 12.57 • Austral International Press Agency: figures 2.5, 2.18, 2.22, 3.4 (Roger Moore, Pierce Brosnan, Daniel Craig), 6.7, 7.5, 9.9, 10.2, 11.4, 11.8, 12.4, 12.7, 12.21, 12.22, 12.31, 12.39, 12.45, 12.46, 12.55, 12.56, 13.13, 13.20, 13.32; / Comedy Central/ Entertainment Pictures, figure 3.3; / Photo by Rex Features, figure 4.8; / Entertainment Pictures/ 20th Century Fox/ Photo by David James, figure 12.52; / Camera Press/ Jerry Watson, figure 12.53 • Magnum Photos/ Cornell Capa: figure 2.8 • Shamley Productions, Inc.: figures 2.9, 2.13, 2.14, 2.20, 2.21, 2.24 (both) • Getty Images: / Thomas E. Franklin/ The Bergen Record, figure 2.11; / Time & Life Pictures, figure 3.4 (George Lazenby); / Hulton Archive, figure 3.11; / The Image Bank/ Michel Tcherevkoff, figure 6.1; / Patrick Rivière, figures 6.18, 6.19; / M. Mckeown/ Stringer, figure 9.17; / Keystone/ Stringer, figure 11.6; / Time & Life/ Stringer, figure 12.24; / Silver Screen Collection/ Hulton Archive, figure 12.30; / Time & Life/ Al Fenn, figure 12.49; / CBS, figure 13.31; / Karen Bleier, figure 14.15 • Universal City Studios, Inc.: figures 2.16 (both), © 1999 • Newspix: / Adam Head, figures 2.17 (both); / Steven Moore, figure 9.11; / News Ltd Advertising, figure 9.14; / David Geraghty, figure 12.1; / John Wilson,

figure 13.1; / News Ltd, figure 13.3; / AFP, figure 13.11; / Matthew Bouwmeester, figures 13.22; 13.25; / Kelly Barnes, figure 16.2; / Bob Finlayson, figure 17.5 • The Kobal Collection: / Warner Bros, figure 2.25; / Sony Picture Classics, figure 2.26; / Danjaq/ EON/ UA, figure 3.4 (Sean Connery, Timothy Dalton); / 20th Century Fox, figures 3.6, 12.26, 13.23; / Tri-Star, figure 3.8; / HBO/ Worldwide Pants Inc., figure 3.10; / Warner Bros/ David Lee, figure 3.16; / Paramount, figure 3.17; / Universal TV/ Wolf Film, figure 3.18; / Tri-Star/ Rafy, figure 3.20; / Warner Bros, figure 6.8; / Sony Picture Classics/ Bernd Spauke, figure 7.2; / Manga Entertainment, figure 9.8; / Universal/ Francois Duhamel, figure 9.10; / Warner Bros/ Sidney Baldwin, figure 9.12; / Republic, figure 10.1; / Warner Bros/ Jasin Boland, figure 10.7; / Dog Eat Dog/ Miramax, figure 11.1; / Cannon, figure 11.7; / Universal/ Jonathan Hession, figure 11.9; / DeclaBioscop, figure 12.5; / Produzione De Sica, figure 12.6; / Arte France/ Blind Spot, figure 12.8; / Longford, figure 12.12; / R&R/ AFC/ South Australian Film Corp/ Paramount, figure 12.13; / Picnic/ BEF/ Australian Film Commission, figure 12.15; / Videofi lms/ Mact Prod, figure 12.23; / London Films, figure 12.25; / Monarchy/ Regency, figure 12.28; / New Line, figure 12.33; / Concord/ Golden Harvest, figure 12.38; / Vestron, figure 12.40; / MGM/ Pathé, figure 12.44; / Paramount, figures 12.47, 15.1; / 20th Century Fox/ Christine Loss, figure 12.48; / NBC-TV/ Paul Skipper, figure 13.12; / Columbia, figure 13.24; / CBS-TV/ Touchstone, figure 13.26; • www.zoodango.com: figure 2.29 • Microsoft Corporation: figures 2.31, 14.9, 14.11. Screen shots reprinted with permission • Heiwa Alpha Co.: figure 2.32 • Mixart.com: figure 2.33 • Yale University World Wide Web Style Guide/ Sarah Horton: figures 2.34, 2.35 • Guerrilla Girls Inc.: figure 3.2 • AAP Image: / AP Photo, figure 3.7; / Famous, figure 3.9; / Elizabeth Hanna, figure 7.6; / Shannon Morris, figure 12.19; / Double PR/ Nick Obank: figure 13.33; / AP/ Alexander Chadwick, figure 14.24 • Glasgow University Media Group Really Bad News: / Colin Wheeler, figure 3.13; / Dominic d’Angelo, figure 3.15 • Patrick Cook: figures 3.14, 6.6, 13.17, 13.18, 13.19, 17.7, 17.16 • The Age Online: figure 3.21 • Central Intelligence Agency: figure 3.22. Map redrawn by MAPgraphics Pty Ltd, Brisbane • Al Jazeera English: figure 3.23 • United Features Syndicate Inc.: figures 4.1, 4.9, 5.1. Distributed by Auspac Media • Wikipedia: figure 4.3 • OzSpy: figure 4.4 • E Ink Corporation: figure 4.5 • www.eepybird.com: figure 4.6 • Last.fm Ltd: figure 4.7 • Nokia: figure 4.11 • SMS Movies: figure 4.12 • Reporters Without Borders: figure 5.3. Map redrawn by MAPgraphics Pty Ltd, Brisbane • Jon Kudelka: figures 6.2, 6.10 • Ward O’Neill: figures 6.3, 13.16 • Tony Edwards: figure 6.5 • David Rowe: figure 6.9 • Illustration by Harry Afentoglou: figure 6.11 • Fairfax Photo Library/ Ninian Carter: figure 6.12 • Allan Stomann: figure 6.13 • ABC Library Sales: figures 6.14, 6.15, 6.16, 13.10, 14.19, 16.6 • Ron Tandberg: figure 6.17 • AGB Nielsen Media Research: figure 6.22 • B&T Weekly Magazine/ Reed Business Australia: figure 6.23 • In Without Knocking (oil on canvas), Charles Marion Russell (1865–1926)/ Private Collection, Peter Newark/ Western Americana/ The Bridgeman Art Library: figure 7.3 • Jenny Coopes: figures 8.2, 13.34 • Sturt Krygsman/ News Ltd: figure 9.4 • Brandon Centerwall: figure 9.6 • Androniki Christodoulou: figure 9.7 • Commonwealth of Australia: OFLC classification logos, pp. 166–7. Reproduced by permission • Volvo Car Australia: figure 9.15 • Ubisoft Entertainment: figure 9.16. From Tom Clancy’s Splinter Cell Chaos Theory. © 2005 Ubisoft Entertainment. All rights reserved. Splinter Cell, Splinter Cell Chaos Theory, Sam Fisher, the Soldier Icon, Ubisoft, Ubi.com and the Ubisoft

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logo are trademarks of Ubisoft Entertainment in the US and/ or other countries. Unilever Australasia • R. J. Matson: figures 9.18, 10.10 • The Australian Women’s Weekly (18 March 1959)/ ACP Publishing: figure 10.6 • The New Yorker Collection 1997/ Ed Frascino/ w ww.cartoonbank.com: figure 10.8 • E. A. Manning, The Bodgie, Angus & Robertson, an imprint of HarperCollins, 1959: figure 10.9. Used with permission of HarperCollins Publishers • Discovery Channel: figure 11.2 • Film Australia: figure 11.5 • Fairfax Photo Library/ Jacky Ghossein: figure 12.2 • Australian Film Commission: figures 12.9 (both), 12.11. From the collection of The National Film and Sound Archive (a division of the Australian Film Commission) • Cinesound Movietone Productions: figure 12.10 • Australian War Memorial: figure 12.14(b) • Film Finance Corporation Australia: figure 12.16 • Jonathan C. Torgovnik: figures 12.17, 12.18 • Columbia Pictures: figure 12.43. From Easy Rider, © 1969, renewed 1997, Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. All rights reserved • Autocue Group Ltd: figure 13.7 • Punch Limited: figure 13.8 • SBS: figure 13.9 • Network Ten: figure 13.11 (three images), transcript of 1985–86 news story, page 329 • Seven Network/ Photographer Tarsha Hosking, figure 13.14 • Fremantle Media Australia: figure 13.15 • British Broadcasting Corporation: figure 13.21 • Fremantle Media UK: figure 13.29 • Ateco Automotive Australia: figure 13.35 • SunRice: figure 13.36 • Brett Lethbridge: figure 13.37 • Tak Bui/ a rtattack studio: figure 13.38 • World Wide Web Consortium: figure 14.1. All rights reserved • CERN: figure 14.2 • www.internetworldstats.com: figures 14.5, 14.6 • News Limited: figure 14.7 • The Coca-Cola Company: figure 14.12 (top). Trademarks of The Coca-Cola Company are used with permission. The Coca-Cola Company is not the producer of this textbook, nor does it endorse the contents • GM Holden Ltd: figures 14.12 (bottom), 18.5 • Dairy Farmers: figure 14.13 • Qantas:

figure 14.14 • AttentionCompany, Inc., www.attnco.com: figure 14.16 • The Feminist Press at CUNY: figure 14.17. The book can be ordered from www.feministpress.org • Yahoo Inc.: figure 14.18. Reproduced with the permission of Yahoo! Inc. YAHOO! and the YAHOO! logo are trademarks of Yahoo! Inc. • www.eMarketer.com: figure 14.20 • Zadig Voltaire, http:/ / beirutnotes.blogspot.com: figure 14.21 (top) • Amos Bitzan: figure 14.21 (bottom) • Technorati: figures 14.22, 14.25 • Newsvine, Inc.: figure 14.26 (top) • www.digg.com: figure 14.26 (bottom) • The Arcade Flyer Archive: figure 15.2 • RedOctane: figure 15.3 • Persuasive Games: figure 15.4 • Disney Enterprises, Inc.: figure 15.5 • Remedy Entertainment Ltd, 2004: figure 15.6 • Universal Pictures Company: figure 15.7, © 2005 • Rooster Teeth Productions: figure 15.8 • Jeff Busby: figure 16.7 • Jules Feiffer: figure 17.1 • Ralph Steadman/ Los Angeles Times: figure 17.2 • NON SEQUITUR: figure 17.3, © 1996 Wiley Miller. Distributed by Universal Press Syndicate. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved • OhmyNews International: figure 17.4 • Peter Nicholson: figure 17.8 • Bruce Petty: figure 17.10 • Ralph Steadman: figure 17.13 • Michael Leunig: figure 17.15 • Sean Leahy: figure 17.17 • Creators Syndicate/ Leigh Rubin: figure 17.20 • The Sydney Morning Herald (14–15 October 2006, pp. 28–9)/ Louise Williams: figure 17.21. Artwork by Simon Letch • www.CartoonStock.com: figure 18.1 • OK! Magazine: figure 18.2 • Renault Australia: figure 18.4.

Every effort has been made to trace ownership of copyright material. Information that will enable the publisher to rectify any errors or omissions in subsequent reprints will be welcomed. In such cases, please contact the Permissions Section at John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.

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Introduction to the media

Traditional media and new media ‘Welcome to the datasphere,’ writes media analyst Douglas Rushkoff. ‘Here, good news, bad news, any news travels in the blink of an eye. And not just news, but information, ideas, fashions, fads, truths, lies and propaganda.’ A generation ago, state-of-the-art television newsrooms did not have as much media gathering equipment as many ordinary homes have today. Cable or satellite digital television, 24-hour multichannels, music and video downloads to mobile phones, and access to the global ‘information superhighway’ are now commonplace. According to Rushkoff, the datasphere or mediaspace is the new territory of human interaction, where new and old media combine to take up more and more of our time. And people are beginning to interact with the media in exciting new ways. We are in the middle of a cultural revolution that will change society forever. In the datasphere, new media and traditional existing media now interact together. New media have clustered themselves around the core of traditional media and are offering transformations in the way the media are both produced and consumed.

What are the media? According to the strictest meaning of the word, a medium is a channel of communication. Media, as the plural of medium, simply refers to more than one channel. ‘The media’ also refers to the institutions in which teams of people work to produce the communications we consume. The term is broad enough in its usage to also include the actual cultural products of the media — texts such as newspapers, movies and computer games. Traditional media developed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This term refers to the types of media through which a small number of producers communicate with a mass audience. Traditional media are sometimes called one-to-many media. New media developed in the late twentieth century and have come of age in the twenty-first century. New media are computer-based media with a more complex pattern of interaction between producers and consumers. New media are sometimes called many-to-many media. Since the turn of the twenty-fi rst century, the term media has come to include both the traditional media and the emerging new media of computer-based and digital communication.

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Purposes of the media According to communications professor Denis McQuail, the new and traditional media fulfil the following roles in society: • Political role. The media perform an essential political role in all societies, whether democratic or non-democratic: – They provide debate and supply information. – They make politicians widely known in the general community. – They allow governments to exercise power because politicians have easy access to the media. – They promote new ideas, social change and global understanding. • Cultural role. The media are now among the most important communicators about culture. – They are agents of socialisation. Like schools, the media educate the young about the meanings of our culture. – They provide an experience that we can share. Media programs and images allow many people to have a shared sense of belonging. This is why, for instance, many comedians make jokes about politicians or television shows — because we’ve all seen them. – They provide important pastimes and leisure activities for many people. • Economic role. The traditional media are large industries. The developments in new media have increased the importance of the media to the overall economy.

Traditional media

MEDIA

The traditional media — the so-called mass media — include television, movies, radio, newspapers and magazines. Because their production is so expensive it is very centralised. As a result, the communication tends to be from a privileged few to many. The traditional media have all or some of the following features: • Large numbers of people are reached. The audience may truly be a mass audience, or it may be a much smaller ‘narrowcast’ audience (see page 127). With the exception of movies in cinemas, traditional media products are usually produced centrally but consumed privately. • Media products are often multimodal. Language has a variety of modes of delivery. These include speaking, writing, audio, nonverbal and visual modes of communication. Media products commonly combine several modes.

• Some form of technology is employed. Although the technology used may be simple, most traditional media use advanced technological processes. • Industrial corporations are involved in production. With the traditional one-to-many media, largescale government or commercial organisations control the production processes. • There is often multiple authorship. Since media production is an industrial process, workers often have specialised roles, as on an assembly line. • Government regulation often applies. The media industry is usually regarded as a ‘special case’ and is subject to some degree of government regulation.

New media The new media are loosely defined and in a process of constant change. Large numbers of people are involved in both the production and the consumption of new media. Anyone with a computer and a multimedia program can be a producer. Rapid changes in technology have affected media production and consumption more than most other areas of society. Technological change is ‘ecological’, says American cultural critic Neil Postman. He uses the term in the same way as environmental scientists. ‘If you add caterpillars to a given habitat, you do not have the same environment plus caterpillars. You have a whole new environment.’ According to Postman, a new technology does not add or subtract something. It changes everything! New media have all or some of the following characteristics (the list has been added to and adapted from one by Professor Martin Lister and his associates at the University of West England): • Digitality. The new media convert information from real-world lived experience into numbers stored on a computer hard drive. This is different from the old analog systems where lived experience was converted into another real and visible product, such as a videotape. The change means that it is easy to manipulate and alter the data. • Interactivity. New media allow the consumer to interact with the product to make certain choices. This produces a change in the way the audience behaves — for instance, ‘viewers’ may become ‘users’. • Hypertext. The Greek hyper means ‘above’ or ‘outside’. Hypertext is therefore a system of links to other texts outside the first text. Hypertext in new media differs from the linear style of storytelling by allowing people to jump around from text to text and within a text.

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• Dispersal. Traditional media are very expensive to set up. A television station costs many millions, for instance. Computers have created new media forms that are much cheaper to participate in. New media allow widely dispersed many-to-many communication. • Shared. New media involve user participation and encourage user-generated content. This allows wider involvement in the production processes. • Social. New media allow groups of people with shared interests to collaborate. • Virtuality. According to Martin Lister and his associates, the new media have created electronic ‘places’ and ‘spaces’. In these virtual worlds, people can immerse themselves in two opposing experiences. Using digital new media, they can either simulate reality or generate fantasy. • Global and local. New media provide instant communication across vast distances, but also make it easier to socialise and communicate with friends locally. • Everywhere at once. New media are embedded in everyday objects and in our daily lives in such a way that media forms are merging into one another.

Figure 1.1: 4HE MEDIA SCRUM "EHIND EACH CAMERA AND MICROPHONE CAN BE MILLIONS OF VIEWERS

Media: new ways and meanings To come to an understanding of the media, whether traditional or new, more than just the medium itself needs to be considered. The media embody social customs and relationships, as well as buildings and hardware such as fibre-optic cable, steel transmission towers and printing presses. The media consist of the following elements. • Products or texts. Media texts are the cultural products of the media. A television program, a DVD and an online newspaper story are all media texts. As new media combine with traditional media, new types of texts are emerging. And some texts can appear in many forms — for instance, The Matrix (1999) is a movie but also a computer game. • Languages and discourses. The media have their own way of looking at the world. Each uses a specialised language, whether visual or written. Media products have distinctive ways of telling stories; they have particular narratives and recognisable genres. Media discourses are ways of talking that we hear over and over again. • Representations. What we see through the media is not reality, but a re-presentation of reality. It is constructed from various selection decisions made by the producers. The way the media construct a view of the world provides an insight into their relationship with society. • Technologies. The technologies of production, distribution and reception are integral parts of the media themselves. How we receive a communication determines how we use it and has an impact on what it means. • Industries and institutions. Media products are influenced by the organisations that produce them. Roles involved in assembling the products have an impact on the style of the product. Patterns of ownership and government regulation also have a significant effect. • Audiences. While members of the audience may not immediately think of themselves as part of the equation, without them the media would have no meaning.

Activities 1. Neil Postman says that technological change is

‘ecological’. In small groups, brainstorm some recent technological changes in media and apply Postman’s theory. Has it changed the whole environment in some way? As a starting example, consider ways in which the invention of the iPod has changed the music and broadcasting industries.

2. Survey the class on the time they devote to the

traditional media and to the main varieties of new media. To do this, first make a list of the media you will include. Then ask each class member to estimate the number of hours per week they spend on each medium. Express the results as total hours and also as percentages of time.

)NTRODUCTION TO THE MEDIA

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Language — production elements

Media language The rules of spoken or written language cannot be used to understand the sound effects or visual images in movies and video games. All that unites these modes is that they are all acts of communication. This uniting factor provides a starting point for analysis. At the most basic level, communication takes place through signs — gestures, sounds, grunts and drawn images. It is possible to analyse at this level, although it is reducing media language to tiny particles of communication. However, the reduction to signs does allow all print, sound and visual aspects of media communication to be studied together. This study of systems of signs and symbols is called semiotics.

Signs

MEDIA

All communication can be seen as messages created out of signs. A sign can be a smile, a rude hand gesture, a photograph, a laugh or a letter of the alphabet. The audience for a message derives meaning from the message by interpreting the signs. Signs refer to something other than themselves. They work as pointers or directions, guiding the audience towards thinking in a certain way. For example, the collection of marks on a page that is the word apple bears no resemblance to an actual apple. All the marks do is point us in the direction of thinking about a real

apple. While a photograph does bear a resemblance to the object it signifies, it is not the object itself. Therefore a photograph is only directing us to think the thought, in the same way as letters on a page do. The meaning of a sign depends on its cultural context. Communications professor John Fiske gives the example of an ox. In an English-speaking context, an ox may suggest a beast of burden or something served between two buns with French fries. For a Hindu in India, where killing this sacred animal can be punishable by a jail term, the word ox carries a very different meaning. Following are terms defi ning or relating to signs: • Signifiers are the signs. For example, the word apple is a signifier. What is signified are the many meanings of ‘apple’ — these could include associations such as primary school teachers and education systems, or the poisoned apple from Snow White. Signifiers can also be called ‘connotations’ (see opposite). • Icons are signs that resemble the object they refer to. Photographs are icons because they are images of things that do exist. Icons can also be words, however. Onomatopoeia works like an icon because it makes language sound like what it signifies. For example, the word crash sounds like the noise it refers to.



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• Symbols are signs that do not resemble the thing they refer to. They derive their meaning from associations built up over generations of habitual use. The olive branch representing peace or the cross representing Christianity are easily recognised symbols with roots in antiquity. • Denotation is the term given to the naming and describing level of a sign. This level defi nes or denotes what the sign refers to. For example, the word dove denotes a small bird from the same family as the pigeon. • Connotation refers to the associated thoughts that any particular sign brings to mind. These might be anything connected, suggested or implied by the sign. For example, a white dove brings to mind the concept of peace, while a turtledove is connected with the imagery of love. • Polysemy refers to the capacity of all signs to be ‘many signed’ (polysemous); that is, to have more than one meaning. A dictionary is a good place to discover this. The average number of meanings for a single word (or sign) in English is four to five. The word range is one of the most polysemous, as it has 17 different meanings. Within a particular culture, signs are not usually regarded as endlessly polysemous. The variations that occur are within limits set by the social and cultural context.

and in this way make sense of the communication. Codes are therefore a product of the social and cultural context. Writing is a code that allows us to represent thoughts on paper. Carefully schooled agreement among users allows the code to be understood. In the same way, sequences of images in a television drama are a code that allows us to participate in the narrative genre. Code systems may be classified as either technical or symbolic: • Technical codes are codes of the craft or the profession. They are technical in the sense of being techniques of construction. Technical codes include camera techniques, journalistic techniques and editing techniques. • Symbolic codes are systems of signs that are embedded within the text itself. These signs have strong associative or connotative meanings connected with them. Symbolic codes include actors’ clothing and body language. Table 2.1 lists the technical and symbolic codes of the media. Table 2.1: 4HE TECHNICAL AND SYMBOLIC CODES OF THE MEDIA 4ECHNICAL CODES

3YMBOLIC CODES

Television, film, photographs, computer-based multimedia

Select from: • symbolic objects • set design • actors’ body language • actors’ appearance • lighting • dialogue • sound effects • music • choice of language

Figure 2.1: 4HIS PHOTOGRAPH DENOTES A -ERCEDES #,3 4HE -ERCEDES IS A POWERFUL SIGN #ONNECTED WITH IT ARE CONNOTATIONS OF WEALTH LUXURY AND STATUS "UT THE -ERCEDES IS POLYSEMOUS )T CAN MEAN A RANGE OF OTHER THINGS TO DIFFERENT PEOPLE &OR SOME IT COULD ALSO SIGNIFY UNFAIRNESS GREED AND RUTHLESSNESS )N PARTS OF !FRICA FOR EXAMPLE A BLACK -ERCEDES IS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH CORRUPTION AND VIOLENCE 4HE VARIATIONS OF MEANING ARE NOT ENDLESS HOWEVER 4HEY DEVIATE WITHIN LIMITS

Select from: • framing • composition • shot type • camera angle • lighting • special effects • editing • camera movement • sound volume • sound fades and cuts • sound layering • written (structural; e.g. division into parts, words on the screen such as ‘later’) • computer screen design • computer interactivity • computer sequencing • computer navigation

Radio, CDs etc.

Select from: • fades and cuts • sound volume • sound layers

Select from: • dialogue • music • sound effects • silence

Codes

Newspapers, magazines, computer-based multimedia (text) etc.

Select from: • sentence construction • headlines etc. • columns • page design • story placement • layout. (Also refer to the codes for photographs.)

Select from: • choice of emotive words • symbolic typefaces or fonts (e.g. Medieval). (Also refer to the codes for photographs.)

Codes are systems of signs put together (usually in sequence) to create meaning. As with a spy code, a set of rules governs the way the code is assembled and the linkages that will be made. Members of the community who use the code consent to the rules

-EDIA

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As with all systems of signs, coded communications must be constructed (encoded) by the sender and then interpreted (decoded) by the receiver: • Encoding refers to the process of making codes. Producers of texts encode their messages using systems of signs. Institutional issues influence this process. • Decoding refers to the reading of coded messages by the receiver. Issues related to audience have an impact on this process.

Conventions Conventions are habits or accepted ways of doing things. Through repeated experiences, often over generations, audiences become familiar with the procedures of conventions. The media have hundreds of conventions. Each of them has been built up over so many years that the audience believes they are just common sense. In television and film, for example, a fade to black may indicate the passing of time. Had Hollywood developed differently, it could just as easily have been a fade to white (which instead tends to suggest death or a dream). Conventions operate by general agreement with the audience. They are therefore the social and cultural component of signs and codes.

Binary oppositions Thinking in terms of oppositions (masculine/feminine, black/white, active/passive, good/bad, rich/poor) is very human. Many times we have to remind ourselves that things are not always black and white, but rather many shades of grey. Binary oppositions are an outcome of our way of communicating through signs, codes and conventions. Pairing opposites has an interesting effect on our thinking about power. Educators Emma and Sophie Robinson say oppositions have the effect of including or excluding individuals or social groups. Binary opposites are not usually equal to each other. More often they are locked in a power struggle for dominance. For example, the gender opposites of masculine and feminine have been engaged in a ‘battle of the sexes’ since time immemorial.

Commutation

MEDIA

The meaning of a sign, code or convention can often be discovered by commuting it into something else. Movement, transfer or exchange of a code can result in vastly different meanings. For example, if the white clothes of the traditional melodrama hero were commuted to black, there would be a change in meaning. This change communicates to us the cultural significance of white clothes.

Figure 2.2: )N *UNIOR !RNOLD 3CHWARZENEGGER BECOMES PREGNANT DURING A MEDICAL EXPERIMENT k-Y BODY MY CHOICE l SAYS 3CHWARZENEGGER WHEN ADVISED TO END THE PREGNANCY 4HE HUMOUR IN THIS MOVIE COMES FROM THE INCONGRUENCE OF THIS BIOLOGICAL COMMUTATION )T ILLUSTRATES HOW EVEN TODAY MALE AND FEMALE ROLES REMAIN DIVIDED

Meaning Meaning derives from the cultural and social context just as much as it does from the text. Indonesian shadow theatre would have little meaning to a western audience because they do not have access to the cultural context. Even within the same culture, different meanings can be read into one text. A text provides informationrich sequences that are rather like building blocks. Most people would use the blocks to build understandings that look similar, but each person’s ideas would be a little different. Life experiences, gender, race or class may all be factors influencing a person’s ‘construction’. Some people could build quite unusual structures, yet still be using the same set of building blocks. In the same way, people make different interpretations of the blocks of meaning that are media texts.

Co Producer’s meanings • personal experiences • social context • cultural context

ntext Text

Audience’s meanings • personal experiences • social context • cultural context

Figure 2.3: ! TEXT FOR EXAMPLE A TELEVISION PROGRAM EXISTS WITHIN A SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT 0RODUCERS AND AUDIENCES WITHIN THESE CONTEXTS EACH CONTRIBUTE TO THE MEANING OF THE TEXT #ERTAIN INČUENCES AFFECT THE PRODUCERS AND THE AUDIENCE IS SUBJECT TO A RANGE OF OTHER INČUENCES 0UT SIMPLY MEANING IS MADE ON BOTH SIDES OF THE TEXT



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Genres and codes There may be many codes linked to and operating within the larger conventional code of a large or small genre. For example, the semiotician Roland Barthes suggests the narrative genre consists of at least five key codes: • character codes, in which signs relating to personality, appearance and speech are grouped • suspense codes, in which information is hidden from the reader until the end

• plot codes, which use familiar patterns of story development • structural codes, featuring oppositions such as good versus evil or city versus country • cultural codes based on cultural knowledge, beliefs and values. Barthes argues that by varying these codes, particular genres such as romance or horror movies are produced.

Activities 1. Title sequences of movies and television programs

are often rich in meaningful signs, as producers show the key elements of the program and the audience they are appealing to. Analyse a title sequence in terms of the denotation and connotation of its introductory sign systems. 2. Collect images (or words) you believe are clearly more polysemous than most. The meaning of these signs will depend on context. Use captions to anchor the meaning to a particular interpretation you wish the audience to make. Discuss the results with your class. 3. Make a list of well-known visual media conventions and outline their meanings. Examples of conventions might include cuts, fades, wipes, split screens and dissolves.

PRODUCTION TASKS Select one of the following production tasks. 4. Prepare the script for a 20- to 30-shot video sequence that relies on the powerful connotative effect of selected images to present an emotional appeal. The topic can be of your own choice.

Remember to specify your audience. In a column on the side of the script, explain the connotative effect you hope to achieve on your target audience with each of your chosen shots. Choosing a topic that allows you to take a strong view about something may make it easier to think of ways to manipulate associations and images. For example, emotive images are readily available for topics dealing with environmental issues. Advertisements are another suitable choice. 5. Create a magazine advertisement. Cut connotative images from magazines and assemble them into a composite image to sell a product. Explain the totality of the effect and give detailed explanations of the connotations of each individual image.

WRITTEN TASK 6. In 600 words, analyse a television advertisement in

relation to the following aspects: (a) denotation and connotation (b) polysemy (where noticeable) (c) technical codes and symbolic codes (d) use of recognisable conventions.

Genres ‘Genres are like coloured spectacles that we can change but never remove. They are rules which always limit the way writers and readers construct meaning in texts but which are essential in enabling us to read at all.’ Brian Moon, language educator

Genres (from a French word meaning type, classification or category) are repeated sets of codes and conventions (see pages 5–7). In the media they are ways of putting texts into categories according to the characteristics they share. Similar plot lines,

characters or settings in different fi lms, for example, suggest they belong to the same genre. The habitual use of genre conventions tends to mean their structure stays the same, at least for as long as they are a useful way of doing things. Consequently they have predictable patterns. However, unlike the classification systems of biology, for instance, genre classification is vague and blurry. Boundaries between genres are not strictly defi ned. Hybrid texts change those boundaries all the time. Indeed, fi lm genre specialist Stephen Neale argues that each new text extends or changes the genre by adding something new or altering one of the

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conventions. In this way, says communications academic John Hartley, the creation of just one western fi lm changes the whole genre. Genres are based on shared knowledge held by the producers and the audiences. Genres are a means of selecting and constructing a certain view of the world. As such, they are closely related to audience ‘reading’ practices (see page 149). An important feature of all genres is the tendency to progress in stages. For example, the narrative genre typically begins with an orientation stage before moving to a complications stage, possibly an evaluation stage and, fi nally, a resolution stage.

• Report genres are based on the retelling of factual information but can use aspects of narrative as they relate events. News stories fall within the report genre. • Exposition or expository genres aim to convince or argue a point of view. Documentaries and newspaper feature articles are regarded as expositions. • Non-narrative genres are those that do not tell stories. For instance, a single-frame newspaper cartoon does not have any plot development and so is a nonnarrative text. Music videos that don’t rely on a story and use jumbled imagery are another example.

Smaller genres Most people use the smaller categories of genre when they think of genre texts. These may be divided into: • Specific genres. There are many well-known media genres, such as the horror movie, the newspaper feature article, the situation comedy and so on. Each of these will fit into one or other of the larger categories. • Subgenres. Genres are often divided into subgenres. For example, the horror fi lm genre has at least five smaller subgenres — slasher, supernatural, and so on (see page 265).

Features of genres Genres have the following characteristics.

Figure 2.4: 'ENRES ARE MADE UP OF CODES AND CONVENTIONS AS WELL AS EXPECTATIONS OF THE PRODUCER AND THE AUDIENCE 4HE RELATIONSHIP AMONG THESE FACTORS IS CIRCULAR ! CHANGE IN AUDIENCE EXPECTATION OR INTERPRETATION CAN MEAN THE NEED FOR A GENRE CHANGE 0RODUCER EXPERIMENTATION TOO MAY MEET AUDIENCE APPROVAL AND THEREFORE CHANGE A GENRE

Types of genres Just as cars, for example, can be roughly divided between large and small models, genres can be classified into larger and smaller varieties.

Larger genres Broad categories of genre are based on whether texts are fiction or nonfiction and whether or not they use story techniques. The large genres are as follows:

MEDIA

• Narrative genres use storytelling codes and conventions such as plot, character and setting. They are fictional or literary genres. The narrative genre includes most Hollywood movies.

Genres have a step-by-step structure. In other words, they have a relatively predictable structure of stages that follow one another in a sequence. In the narrative genre, the Hollywood formula for musicals was said to be ‘boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy gets girl’. This is an example of the familiar narrative structure of orientation, complication and resolution. Audiences can usually identify genres because they have recognisable features and step-by-step structures. Audience enjoyment of them is often derived from the familiarity of repetition, with just enough variation to add ‘spice’. Genres are a development of the cultural context. In a particular culture, people get used to interacting in certain ways. The rituals of traditional Maori greeting, for example, developed out of the habitual interactions of that culture. Within a culture, people like hearing stories with familiar subject matter. In Japan, a favourite genre is the samurai story. Respect, loyalty and tradition are important to this genre. The values and beliefs of the culture will affect the types of stories it prefers. For example, western culture



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generally favours stories in which good triumphs over evil. There is little demand for stories in which evil is rewarded or good and evil meet with random consequences. These preferences lead the audience to expect particular characters and familiar plots. The interest lies in the twists and turns along the way to resolution. Particular communities and countries favour certain genres. For example, the Australian cultural context appears to have been favourable to the development of the television soap opera. Australian soaps are now shown around the world.

The animated television sitcom The Simpsons is an obvious example of a text that uses intertextuality to maximum effect. When young children watch the program they are largely unaware of the hundreds of ‘in jokes’ and references to other television programs, movies and books. As they become teenagers, more of these references become apparent and so they derive more enjoyment from watching the program. For adults watching with their families, this effect is often greater still, affording them extra pleasure when they watch the show.

Genres can change. Genres change at about the same pace as the overall culture. Being closely tied to the culture, they reveal the concerns of the time, as well as who has most power in that culture. For example, some nineteenth-century British novels, mostly written by women, portray a class-based society that denied women access to power. This is shown in the 1995 movie of Jane Austen’s novel Sense and Sensibility. Genres are changing relatively quickly at the moment. Technology has brought about a rapid transformation in culture, changing previously accepted ways of doing things. As genres are ways of doing things, they too are changing.

Types of intertextuality

Multigeneric or hybrid texts. Many texts ‘mix and match’ a range of genres to suit new purposes created by a changing society. For example, TV programs such as the crime drama The Bill combine elements of soap opera in the format. Documentaries, often regarded as belonging to the larger exposition genre, can also display features of the report genre. Docudrama combines both genres with the storytelling features of the narrative genre.

The following are types of intertextuality, according to John Hartley: • Genre relationships. Other texts within a genre that the audience has seen can be used as a reference point to help understand and predict a new text. • Character and actor relationships. Well-known actors or characters provide a link to other texts and a sense of familiarity. • Direct quote relationships. Sometimes a text makes a direct quote from another text, using it in some new way. This kind of ‘recycling’ is common in music videos and in television comedies such as The Simpsons.

Intertextuality ‘All kinds of texts gain meaning through similarities with other texts. If this were not true, readers would be astonished and puzzled by every new text.’ Brian Moon, language educator

‘Intertextuality is best understood as the textual equivalent of cross-referencing,’ says Queensland University of Technology’s John Hartley. It refers to the way in which any one text is woven into the whole culture and operates as a link to many other texts. It is also a reading practice carried out by audiences. The ability of the audience to use their familiarity with other texts is a skill built up as cultural knowledge develops. By drawing on references to other texts, audiences are able to derive more complex and enjoyable meanings.

Figure 2.5: 4HE 3IMPSONS CROSS REFERENCES -ARK 4WAINS MUCH LOVED NOVEL !DVENTURES OF (UCKLEBERRY &INN 4HE REFERENCE IS PROBABLY LOST ON YOUNG CHILDREN BUT MORE EXPERIENCED VIEWERS GAIN A HEIGHTENED SENSE OF PLEASURE FROM RECOGNISING THE INTERTEXTUALITY

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Genres and audiences

Genres and industry

There has been very little research into how audiences make sense of genres to construct meaning for themselves. However, two possible approaches are indicated.

It probably isn’t a coincidence that Antz (1998) by Dreamworks and A Bug’s Life (1998) by Disney/Pixar came out in the same year. It just makes good economic sense! Once a genre has been found to be successful, various studios will produce more of them to extract the most profit. Recycling genre products has several other economic advantages. As Nicholas Abercrombie points out, considerable savings can be made by reusing props, sets and costumes. Teams of writers and technicians can be built up and their skills specialised into particular styles of production. Producing more of something eventually leads to what are called economies of scale — cost efficiencies created by mass production. Genres change relatively slowly compared with the pace of production. Therefore media companies are able to standardise their production within genres and know that their techniques will suit the market for a reasonable period of time. Different audiences can be catered for using different genres; this increases profitability because it leads to better targeting.

• Genres build audiences. A media genre is a way of creating an identifiable product for sale, says John Hartley. This product will then attract a certain sort of audience. In the case of television genres, the audience attracted can then be onsold to advertisers. Genres also serve as a way for producers to manipulate audience memories and expectations. • Audience members use genre to build their own identities. Some research has been attempted into gender preferences for particular genres. There is also some indication that people may use preferences for certain genres as building blocks to their sense of self. For instance, someone who has seen the romantic comedy Bridget Jones’s Diary (2001) several times may possibly be using this movie to tell themselves something about their own desires or who they are.

Activities 1. As a whole class, make a list of all the media text

genres you can think of. Begin with movies and then consider other media texts. 2. In small groups, list movies that came out in roughly the same time period and seem to have dealt with

the same topic and used the same genre. Suggest some reasons for the similarities. 3. View an episode of The Simpsons and make a list of textual cross-references.

Language elements of film and television The shot and narrative purpose

MEDIA

In fi lm, the term shot has at least two defi nitions, and in the early days of cinema they were clearly distinguished. The arrival of computer-based media has tended to blur the differences between the two. In the fi rst defi nition (camera on/off ), a shot is the interval of time from when the camera is fi rst turned on in a scene until the stop button is pressed. This defi nition includes any continuous movement within the shot. In the second, less common defi nition (position change), the shot is the duration of time until the camera is moved to another position. Depending on how strictly it is interpreted, this defi nition may or may not include continuous camera movement.

The shot is the prime vehicle for carrying the narrative. In the visual language of photography, television and fi lm, the shot is the smallest unit of communication. It is equivalent to a short sentence in prose. A typical Hollywood movie has between 800 and 1200 shots — or picture statements. Like sentences, picture statements have subjects. The picture statement may be saying, ‘Look at these great wide open plains.’ The next shot may say, ‘Look at this man on a horse — see what he is doing.’ Picture statements are usually changed for one of two reasons: a new subject is being introduced, or something different about the same subject is going to be shown. A fi lmmaker or photographer can consider five variables when creating a shot: shot size, framing, focus, angle and movement.



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Shot sizes There are eight main shot sizes. Visual emphasis is directly related to the size of the subject in the shot. A big, close subject is more powerful. Therefore, the choice of which shot to use is the most fundamental decision every director makes. The definition of shot sizes depends on the subject of the shot. A close-up of an elephant is very different from a close-up of an ant! Most definitions work on a human scale. They define the size of the shot according to how much of the human body can be fitted into the frame. Figure 2.6 (below) illustrates the eight different shot sizes. The main narrative purpose of each shot size is as follows: • Extreme long shot (ELS): a wide view of the complete setting, such as a coral reef in the middle of a vast ocean. In human terms, a person would be barely visible in the scene. In the narrative, an extreme long shot gives a sense of scale and also provides location. • Long shot (LS): closer than the extreme long shot but still shows the complete scene. On a human scale, a human figure is clearly visible and the complete person fits easily within the frame. In a typical long shot, the background still dominates the human figure. A long shot is most often used in narrative to establish the scene. • Medium long shot (MLS): a great deal of information about the setting is still visible. Human characters can be seen in detail and almost all of the body (usually from just below the knees) is in the frame. French filmmakers once called this ‘the American shot’, as it was very common in Hollywood during the film noir period (see page 254). A common purpose of this shot is to provide for both dialogue and action. In noir films a detective may be surrounded by a carefully arranged formation of underworld characters. • Medium shot (MS): defined by some as ‘not too close, not too far’. On the human body, a medium shot would start at around the waist and include a little space above the head. Gesture and expression are now more clearly visible. The medium shot is ideal for dialogue and some limited action. • Medium close-up (MCU): frames the subject moderately closely. Medium close-ups used to be the typical frame for a newsreader, but many are now framed in medium shot. The head and shoulders fit comfortably in the frame with a little room above the head. The medium close-up is a common shot size in television narratives. This is partly explained by television’s history as a domestic medium (see page 317).

• Close-up (CU): shows the detail of a subject. A typical close-up may show only the face of a person. The close-up is often used in narrative to show emotion. It is common in both film and television, but television narrative relies more heavily on it. ‘A face in close-up is what, before the age of film, only a mother or a lover ever saw,’ says media analyst Dennis Porter. • Big close-up (BCU): shows almost all of the detail of its subject. On the face, a big close-up would include from the middle of the forehead to just above the chin. This would show the ‘the social triangle’ of the eyes and mouth. Big close-ups are used to show extremes of emotion. • Extreme close-up (ECU): shows only a portion of detail or magnifies something that is minute. An example could be a dramatic focus on someone’s eyes. Often an extreme close-up is used to create a sense of mystery. It can be very effective in hiding what something is until a dramatic camera pullback.

Extreme long shot (ELS)

Long shot (LS)

Medium long shot (MLS)

Medium shot (MS)

Medium close-up (MCU)

Close-up (CU)

Big close-up (BCU)

Extreme close-up (ECU)

Figure 2.6: 4HE EIGHT SHOT SIZES 4HE HUMAN BODY IS TRADITIONALLY USED TO DEüNE THE SIZE OF THE SHOT 7E MEASURE EVERYTHING AGAINST OURSELVES

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Framing The photographic frame is not just a simple border, according to American film academics David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson. It is not like the margin of a page. The frame produces a vantage point. It gives a point of view, and it selects some details over others. The frame lets us see some things and not others. Bordwell and Thompson list four main ways that framing can influence what the audience sees. • Aspect ratio. The size and shape of the frame is called the aspect ratio because it is based on the ratio of width to height (gained by dividing width by height). The standard television ratio is 4:3 or 1.33:1, while widescreen television uses 16:9 or 1.78:1. Cinema uses a variety of ratios, but most widescreen formats are slightly larger than 16:9, with 1.85:1 the most common. However, some epic films such as The Lord of the Rings (2001, 2002, 2003) use Cinemascope with a ratio of 2.35:1.

• Angle, height and distance. The idea of the frame as a vantage point suggests that framing places the viewer in a certain position — perhaps above or below the subject, or close or far in the distance. Each of these positions affects the narrative in some way. • Frame movement. As the camera moves, so too does the frame. How this happens in relation to the events on the screen changes our involvement in the story.

• On-screen and off-screen space. When the audience sees a shot on screen everyone assumes that space and life continues consistently outside the frame and all around it. How a director uses this assumption can be important to the narrative. An example of this is the use of looking space or talking space. This is an area of negative or empty space in front of a framed person that suggests someone else is outside the frame. Another way of suggesting space outside the frame is to use eyelines. A character can appear to look towards a point outside the frame. A

B

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Figure 2.7: 3PACE OUTSIDE THE FRAME IS SUGGESTED IN BOTH THESE SHOTS 3HOT ! USES kLOOKING SPACEl TO SUGGEST THAT THE CHARACTER IS TALKING TO SOMEONE OUTSIDE THE FRAME 3HOT " HAS NEGATIVE SPACE BEHIND THE PERSON SUGGESTING ACTION IS HAPPENING OUTSIDE THE FRAME BEHIND HIM

Figure 2.8: +EPT IN CHECK MATE %ACH OF THESE FRAMINGS OF A CHESS GAME HAS AN ENTIRELY DIFFERENT MEANING 4HE WIDER FRAME GIVES THE AUDIENCE MORE INFORMATION "UT EVEN THIS WIDER FRAME IS A SELECTION "EYOND THE FRAME COULD BE A PRISON WARDER A LUNCH TROLLEY OR ANY NUMBER OF OTHER THINGS CAPABLE OF CHANGING THE MEANING OF THE PICTURE FURTHER



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Composition Composing a shot is a matter of arranging the elements to create a desirable effect within the narrative. The following two conventions are among the most commonly used: • Lines and diagonals. Placing elements on imaginary lines can create interesting effects. The lines may be horizontal, vertical or diagonal across the image. In the narrative, diagonal lines build a sense of drama and may be used to direct attention towards a character or event. Figure 2.9: )N !LFRED (ITCHCOCKlS üLM 0SYCHO

DIAGONAL LINES FORMED BY THE CARS AND THE ROADWAY ALL POINT TO THE POWERFUL üGURE OF THE POLICEMAN AND THUS HELP TO POSITION THE CHARACTER WITHIN THE NARRATIVE

• Rule of thirds. Some say the subject of a photograph should never be placed in the centre of the frame. Instead, the focus of interest should be at the intersection of imaginary lines that divide the frame into thirds.

Figure 2.11: !MERICAN PHOTOGRAPHER 4HOMAS &RANKLIN CAME UPON A SMALL GROUP OF üREüGHTERS IN THE RUBBLE OF THE 7ORLD 4RADE #ENTER ON 3EPTEMBER k4HE SHOT IMMEDIATELY FELT IMPORTANT TO ME l &RANKLIN SAID k)T SAID SOMETHING TO ME ABOUT THE STRENGTH OF THE !MERICAN PEOPLE AND ABOUT THE COURAGE OF ALL THE üREüGHTERS WHO IN THE FACE OF THIS HORRIBLE DISASTER HAD A JOB TO DO IN BATTLING THE UNIMAGINABLEl

Depth of field

Figure 2.10: k2AISING THE ČAG AT )WO *IMAl WAS THE MOST REPRINTED PHOTOGRAPH OF 7ORLD 7AR )) 6ICTORIOUS BUT EXHAUSTED A SMALL GROUP OF MARINES CLIMBED -OUNT 3URIBACHI TO HOIST THE ČAG 4HE ROUTE TO THE TOP OF THE MOUNTAIN WAS LITTERED WITH THE BODIES OF NEARLY DEAD MEN .OTICE THE USE OF STRONG DIAGONALS AND THE APPLICATION OF THE RULE OF THIRDS IN THE PHOTOGRAPH

If an image is out of focus you won’t want to bother looking at it. A filmmaker can use focus to make the audience pay attention to certain details within the narrative. Selective focus can be used to draw attention to someone’s face, for example. The background and other details can be downplayed by keeping them out of focus. The area of the frame that is in sharp focus is called the depth of field. The depth of this area is determined by the length of lens and size of aperture used. Generally speaking, a wide-angle lens has a greater depth of field than a telephoto lens — that is, more of the image will be in focus with a wide-angle lens.

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Types and uses ‘If I made big budget films I would have that deep depth of field because it plays upon the effect of surprise. It can give you a whole series of little tricks, little hiding places, little hooks in the image where you can hang surprises, places where they can suddenly appear, just like that. You can create the off-frame within the frame.’ Benoit Jacquot, French film director, Seventh Heaven (1998)

There are two main types and usages of depth of field. Deep focus. The term deep focus is applied to films that have everything in focus, from the foreground to the distant background. Deep focus films need lots of light, a small camera aperture, a fast wide-angle lens and fast film stock. Deep focus tends to favour long takes. With so much of the frame in focus there is more information for the audience to absorb. Therefore there is a greater need to linger on the shot. Deep focus also favours the ‘invisible style’ of continuity editing (see page 25). Movies using deep focus include Citizen Kane (1941), Jaws (1975) and The Untouchables (1987). Because deep focus mimics the operation of the human eye, it creates a greater sense of realism (see

page 229). The filmed image looks more like the real world. Some critics say this allows the audience to make up their own minds about meaning a lot more easily — just as in real life. Selective focus. Many modern films use a selective focus or shallow focus technique, where only some of the shot is in focus. Selective focus or shallow focus relies more on quick cutting and lots of close-ups. It is therefore more suited to montage editing (see page 21) and the quicker pace of many films. Selective focus is often said to be less realist in its approach, and more expressive and personal. Because the audience seems to see less of the real world, the director’s personal view is strengthened. A film that exemplifies the selective focus approach is Baz Luhrmann’s Moulin Rouge (2001).

Changing focus Sometimes the focus is changed in the middle of a single shot. The two main kinds of focus change are: • Follow focus. The camera follows the moving subject, keeping the subject in focus while the background changes. • Pull or rack focus. The focus suddenly changes to direct attention away from one subject and towards another. For example, a shot with wire net fencing in sharp focus may suddenly be pull focused onto the prisoners exercising in the enclosed yard beyond.

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Figure 2.12: 4HE DEEP FOCUS TECHNIQUE IS EVIDENT IN THIS SHOT FROM #ITIZEN +ANE SHOWING +ANE /RSON 7ELLES IN THE FOREGROUND ADDRESSING A RAPT AUDIENCE OF BUSINESSMEN AT A LONG BANQUETING TABLE



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Camera angle The camera angle helps set the relationship the audience has with the subject of the shot. Camera angle can also establish the power relations between characters on screen. An example of this occurs in the musical Dirty Dancing (1987), when ‘Baby’ first declares her admiration and love for Johnny. Having ‘played her hand’, she is shown as vulnerable in a high camera angle. He is powerful because he may reject her. A low camera angle ensures he towers over her, until he softens and then declares his love in return. At that moment, the camera angle returns to normal and equalises their power relations. The main camera angles are as follows: • High camera angle. This angle is created when the camera is positioned high and tilts down on the subject. High camera angles tend to place the audience in the position of an adult looking down on a child. The subject looks inferior or unimportant and the viewer feels superior.

Figure 2.14: 4HE POLICEMAN ADVISES -ARION TO SLEEP AT A MOTEL NEXT TIME JUST TO BE SAFE 4HE LOW CAMERA ANGLE GIVES THE POLICEMAN CONSIDERABLE EXTRA POWER AND SUPERIORITY 4HE AUDIENCE ALSO FEELS MENACED BECAUSE HE LOOKS DIRECTLY AT US 4HE CAMERA ANGLES SET UP THE NARRATIVE FOR THE CONTINUED PRESENCE OF THE POLICEMAN AS A THREAT IN THE üRST STAGE OF THE MOVIE • Dutch angle. When the camera is canted or tilted to one side so that the horizon is on an angle, it creates an effect that is disorienting and unsettling for the audience. Dutch tilts can be seen in the opening scenes of Bagdad Café (1988), where the angles add to the foreignness of the situation and reflect the domestic conflict between a German couple lost in the American desert. Dutch angles are also used in The Third Man (1949).

Movement

Figure 2.13: )N THE üLM 0SYCHO -ARION #RANE STEALS AND DRIVES OUT OF 0HOENIX !RIZONA TO #ALIFORNIA 3HE SLEEPS OVERNIGHT IN THE CAR BUT IS AWAKENED BY A SUSPICIOUS POLICEMAN -ARION IS INTIMIDATED BY THE POLICEMAN AND THE HIGH CAMERA ANGLE HAS THE NARRATIVE PURPOSE OF MAKING US FEEL HER LACK OF POWER AND VULNERABILITY • Extremely high camera angle. If the camera is very high, almost overhead, it gives a bird’s-eye view of the subject. Sometimes this can create a feeling that the viewer is like a god looking down on events. In certain cases, it can suggest impending death or punishment. A spectacular example of this occurs at the end of the 1969 cult road movie Easy Rider. • Low camera angle. When the camera is low to the ground and tilts upward at its subject, the viewer feels inferior or threatened. The subject seems overpowering. Low camera angle creates the perspective of a child looking up at an all-powerful adult.

Camera movement in a shot directs the audience to where the filmmaker wants them to look. It can help establish visual emphasis. But the movement of the camera can also be like our own movement. For example, when the camera moves in it is as though we ourselves have moved closer. So camera movement is important in positioning the audience within the narrative. Following are the main types of camera movement and their narrative purpose.

Panning The term is derived from panorama and means moving the camera in a long horizontal sweep from one side of the scene to the other. Since a long rotation from left or right can be difficult to perform, most camera operators use a tripod. A pan helps set the scene. It can also be used to heighten the suspense in the narrative as the audience scans the scene, waiting to be shown something. Probably the most analysed pan in cinema history is the opening shot in Psycho (1960). At the start of the narrative, this shot panning across the city hints how ‘evil’ can randomly enter the lives of ordinary people.

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Tracking/ dollying In a tracking shot the camera moves along the ground — forward, back, diagonally or from side to side. Originally, cameras were moved on little railway-like tracks. This method is sometimes still used today. However, a dolly (tripod with wheels) is often substituted. A dolly is used in the opening sequence of Robert Altman’s The Player (1992). More recently, Steadicams have also been used. A Steadicam is a gyroscopic camera mount that smoothes out camera movements. It uses weights and counterbalances to allow the camera to ‘float’ on a mechanical arm. The operator wears the Steadicam attached to a special harness. A Steadicam shot is used to resolve the narrative in the closing scene of the film Notting Hill (1999). A tracking/dollying or Steadicam shot moves the audience through the scene, making it seem more three-dimensional. It is also very precise about what is important — the subject being followed! Tracking and dollying lends narrative significance or importance to the subject. For instance, tracking shots are used to introduce the characters in Goodfellas (1990).

Figure 2.16: !S THE SCENE ENDS IN THE ROMANTIC COMEDY .OTTING (ILL THE CAMERA CRANES UP AND THEN HIGH OVER THE TREES )T IS AS THOUGH WE ARE LEAVING OUR CHARACTERSl WORLD ALTOGETHER #RANE SHOTS LEND A SENSE OF üNALITY AT THE CLOSE OF A SCENE

Zoom

Figure 2.15: ! 3TEADICAM SMOOTHES OUT CAMERA MOVEMENTS BY MOUNTING THE CAMERA ON A COUNTERBALANCED MECHANICAL ARM

Crane

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The crane shot is performed by a camera moving up or down on a mechanical arm or crane. For different effects it can be raised or lowered at all sorts of angles. In a narrative, crane shots give a feeling of entering or leaving a series of events. A crane shot up and away at the end of a scene gives an air of finality.

A zoom is similar to a tracking shot but the camera stays still. A zoom does not have the effect of allowing us to move through the scene. Unlike a tracking shot, it does not add to the three-dimensional feeling. Instead, a zoom enlarges or magnifies the subject. Zooming in on a character suggests we should listen to him or her. Zooming out has the opposite effect. Invented in 1948, the camera zoom is a technique that has no parallel in the human eye. Some filmmakers therefore consider it an unnatural technique and use the zoom sparingly. It used to be used only in nonfiction genres such as news or documentary. However, modern filmmakers are turning to it for its shock value, often using a rapid zoom called a zip-zoom. The technique can be seen in the opening scenes of Baz Luhrmann’s Romeo and Juliet (1996).

Contra-zoom/dolly zoom Horror movies often use a specialised zoom called a contra-zoom. It can also be called the Hitchcock zoom, since he was the first director to use it. But it has many other names. Some refer to it as a dolly zoom, a triple-zoom reflex or even the trombone shot. In the contra-zoom the camera zooms in at the same time as it tracks back in the reverse direction, leading to a dramatically disorienting change in perspective.



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In the narrative, the contra-zoom or dolly zoom is effective in portraying a reaction of horrified awe. This reaction can be seen in The Lion King (1994) when Simba practises his roar and almost gets caught in a stampede. The technique is also used in Jaws (1975) when Chief Brody first spots the great shark’s fin.

Tilt A tilt movement swivels the camera up or down while it is mounted on the tripod. It is like a vertical pan. Like the pan, the tilt gives the impression that something will eventually be revealed. It can also give the feeling of a scene gradually unrolling like a scroll, from top to bottom. In Italian director Bernardo Bertolucci’s Besieged (1998), a tilt from the bottom of a stairwell to the top landing establishes the distance between an African servant and her wealthy British employer.

Handheld Handheld cameras have tended to signify amateur productions for most of the history of television and film. However, the arrival of lighter cameras meant that handheld shots became quite common in news and documentary filming. In these genres the information was seen as more important than the formal construction of the shot. From the 1960s the cinémavérité movement (see page 205) in documentary film strengthened the importance of handheld camera work in news and documentary genres. The handheld camera found new popularity in fictional film after The Blair Witch Project (1998) used documentary techniques in a horror movie. Within a fictional narrative, use of a handheld camera often has the purpose of lending an air of documentary truth. It is also used to create feelings of frantic confusion.

Digital composite shots Modern computer-generated special effects allow for all sorts of camera movements that are impossible to achieve in real life. Many of these are combinations of several of the traditional camera movements. A digital composite shot is used at the beginning of the science fiction movie Contact (1997). The shot starts by zooming away from Earth into the solar system, through the Milky Way — and finally comes out of the eye of a young girl!

Cable shots With the increasing portability of cameras, dramatic shots can be achieved by mounting the camera on a flying fox device strung on a cable. This could be used to fly a camera in through a window, for example.

Figure 2.17: 'OLD #OASTpBASED STUNTMAN +EIR "ECK AT .ORWELL 2ACE #IRCUIT WITH A HIGH SPEED REMOTE CONTROL CAMERA STRUNG UP ON HIGH TENSION WIRES TO CAPTURE THE RACETRACK ACTION

Mise-en-scène Mise-en-scène explains why feature films are packed with information and every shot looks so rich in meaning. The expression is French for ‘put in the scene or frame’ and refers to all the visual details a filmmaker can include in the screen image. Although the term is widely used, it is of relatively recent origin. French film critics coined it during the French New Wave (see page 231) of the 1950s. They saw mise-en-scène as a unique mode of expression for an auteur (author/director). Mise-en-scène is the film’s way of communicating a mass of information and is equivalent to the descriptive passages in a novel — that is, everything in the novel except the spoken dialogue. One way to think of miseen-scène is to imagine a still image from a feature film. If you sat down and pored over this image, extracting every bit of meaning from it and noting every detail, then you would be analysing the mise-en-scène. You would be studying every prop, every detail of furniture and every aspect of costume. As you did so, it would probably also become clear to you that almost nothing is in that image by chance. It was all put there! The main elements of mise-en-scène are setting, costume and make-up, acting and lighting. It is best to consider mise-en-scène as being what the director has control over. This would normally exclude the script, for example.

Setting The setting establishes the place and time of the narrative. According to film theorist André Bazin, setting is much more important in television and film than it is in theatre. Theatre, he argues, is all about human beings. ‘The drama on the screen can exist without actors. A banging door, a leaf in the wind, waves beating on the shore can heighten the dramatic effect.’

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Settings can be either natural or specially constructed for the purpose. From the setting the audience can construct an array of meanings about the story, the characters and the genre. For instance, a Monument Valley setting immediately conjures up the western genre. In the mise-en-scène, the décor and props are also considered part of the setting. In Psycho, both props and décor become motifs. A motif is a recurring element or theme that is important in the narrative. The shower curtain starts as décor but its repeated appearance makes it a motif. The newspaper initially is just a prop but then it too is used in the narrative as a motif.

Costume and make-up Costumes and make-up work in a similar way to setting in providing information about the place and time of the narrative. Like setting, they can also be realistic or completely stylised and artificial. An example of a film with highly stylised make-up and costume is the German expressionist film The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (1919). Costumes and make-up are also important in the development of character. Costume changes can indicate mood changes or changes in status of the characters. For instance, in The Godfather (1972) both costume and make-up are used to show the aging of Don Corleone.

sound element of voice. Acting for television or film is very different from acting in the theatre, say film academics David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson. Facial expression is much more important on the screen than it is on the stage because of the use of the camera close-up. But it is also true that we can be much further away from an actor in a movie — even to the point where they are just a dot in the landscape.

Lighting In early cinema natural lighting was all that was available. Filming took place outside in the sun or in studios with vast glass roofs. Some studios even had opening roofs. This partly explains why the early film studios moved to the sun-drenched California desert, and what was then the small village of Hollywood. Around this time, during World War I (1914–18), Hollywood film studios found a peaceful use for the arc-searchlights that had been developed to spot enemy aircraft. Thus began the expressive film lighting that we know today. From around 1915 Hollywood’s standard three-point lighting set-up was introduced, and practice has changed very little since then. The need to run studios like factories working around the clock was one reason that standard threepoint lighting was introduced. Another was the arrival of the star system with its emphasis on glamour. Lighting is considered part of the mise-en-scène because of its power to suggest ideas and emotions. Lighting helps the viewer to construct meaning. It can suggest time, place, mood or genre. Lighting is a powerful tool directors can use to express their art.

Three-point lighting In standard three-point lighting there are three main positions for the lights. These are: • Key light. The key light is the hardest and brightest light and is focused slightly to one side of the main subject. The key light is normally the main source of illumination. • Fill light. The fill light is a softer, more diffuse light that is placed slightly to the other side of the main subject at about the same angle as the key light. The fill light fills in the shadows cast by the key light. Figure 2.18: "AZ ,UHRMANNlS ELABORATE AND SURREAL MISE EN SCġNE IN THE MUSICAL -OULIN 2OUGE

Acting

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The director has considerable input into the acting in a film. Therefore acting is considered a part of the mise-en-scène. Acting is made up of body language, physical appearance and facial expressions, and the

• Backlight. The backlight is placed behind the subject and works to separate the subject from the background. If the subject is against a wall, the backlight creates a sense of three-dimensional distance or separation, preventing the subject from being ‘plastered’ to the wall by the intensity of the two main lights. Backlights are usually hard lights to better create an outline around the subject.



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Three-point lighting is used in most situations even today. Audiences now accept it as natural looking, yet within the mise-en-scène it also has the effect of glamorising its subjects. Backlight

Key light

Fill light Camera

Figure 2.19: 4HE LAYOUT FOR STANDARD THREE POINT LIGHTING

lighting. Chiaroscuro combines the Italian words for light and dark. Low key lighting is a feature of the mise-en-scène of German expressionism (see page 227) and film noir (see page 254).

Figure 2.21: ,OW KEY AND HIGH CONTRAST LIGHTING IS USED TO UNSETTLE THE AUDIENCE IN THIS REVERSE SHOT IN 0SYCHO SHOWING .ORMAN AS HE REPLIES TO -ARION .OTE THE SHADOWS CAST BY THE STUFFED BIRDS 4HE LIGHTING IS JUSTIüED BY THE LAMP IN THE CORNER HOWEVER NO ORDINARY LAMP COULD CAST SUCH SHARP AND TERRIFYING SHADOWS

High key lighting

Figure 2.20: 3TANDARD THREE POINT LIGHTING IS USED TO CREATE A POSITIVE FEELING IN THE AUDIENCE TOWARDS -ARION IN 0SYCHO AS SHE SITS TALKING TO .ORMAN 4HERE ARE FEW SHADOWS AND HER FACE IS SOFTENED BY THE üLL LIGHT

Low key lighting Low key lighting casts shadows across areas of the set or across the faces of the actors. Low key lighting is created by directing the key light so that it is aimed straight at the scene instead of being high above it. This casts long shadows. The key light may also be of lower intensity relative to other lights around it. Often there is only the key light and the backlight. High contrast lighting is often used together with low key lighting to create sharp contrasts between areas of light and shade. This is called chiaroscuro

High key lighting is like standard three-point lighting on steroids! The key light is mounted high and is of high intensity. All other lights are also of high intensity and are directed at filling in shadows so that none remain. High key lighting often uses lots of different soft fill lights. The very artificial, brightly lit look of many daytime soap operas is a result of high key lighting. High key is also often used as standard mise-en-scène in studio musicals and comedies. Director Peter Weir shot many of the scenes in The Truman Show (1998) with high key lighting to build the sense of an artificial, overly perfect world. The same technique is used for a similar purpose in Edward Scissorhands (1990) during scenes showing suburban life.

Day for night Day for night is a lighting technique that involves shooting outside in daytime to make it look like a moonlit night. The technique was commonly used until the 1970s, when the ready availability of fast film stock made ‘night for night’ possible. Day for night shooting can be seen in many noir films of the 1940s. It is also used in Psycho when Norman sinks Marion’s car in the swamp. Day for night is achieved by shooting in the afternoon with a small lens aperture and various filters. The film appears underexposed and dark looking.

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With domestic video cameras, a similar effect can be achieved by white balancing to orange and then reducing the iris size. Ideally, day for night is shot when there are plenty of puffy clouds in the sky to cast drifting moon-shadows.

They are: • Intensity. At a simple level, intensity determines the brightness of the light. It also refers to whether the light is ‘hard’ or ‘soft’. Hard lighting creates sharp edges and strong shadows. Soft lighting makes gentler and smoother textures. • Source. The source of light can be natural, such as sunlight or fi relight, or it can be artificial. Usually an audience expects to see where a light is coming from. This is called justified lighting. Light can be justified by sunlight streaming in through a window or a lamp in the corner of a room.

Figure 2.22: $AY FOR NIGHT IN THE CLASSIC NOIR üLM 4HE -ALTESE &ALCON 4HE TECHNIQUE IS HARDLY USED TODAY BUT INDEPENDENT üLMMAKERS HAVE FUN EXPERIMENTING WITH IT

Features of lighting There are four main features to consider about lighting, suggest British communications academics Graham Roberts and Heather Wallis.

• Direction. Direction refers to the path of light from source to subject. According to Roberts and Wallis, light direction causes different effects: – Front lighting flattens. – Side lighting highlights features by casting shadows. – Back lighting defi nes by outlining. – Under lighting/below lighting distorts features. – Top lighting ‘bathes’ (an actor) to create glamour. • Colour. Audiences often respond to colour by association. For instance, warmth and happiness may be associated with yellows, oranges and reds. Blues and greys can be cold. Filmmakers often shoot during what is known as the ‘magic hour’ — the golden period of sunshine just after sunrise or before sunset.

Activities 1. View the pan across the city of Phoenix that opens

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Psycho. Discuss how this pan suggests that ‘evil’ can enter anyone’s life, and explain how the pan develops the narrative of the movie. Compare Hitchcock’s pan with the one across Paris that opens Moulin Rouge. What are the narrative similarities and differences? 2. Make a list of movies in which costume and make-up are fundamental to characterisation and therefore to the narrative. For each movie, explain the significance in a short paragraph. For example, Dracula’s costume with its flowing cape is always important. 3. View a movie that has been filmed in a well-known location in your home city. Discuss how the mise-enscène has been developed and somehow changed from what you are familiar with. Also search for the use of well-known icons to signify the location. 4. View the scene from Psycho in which Norman first invites Marion into his parlour. Examine the lighting set-up in terms of intensity, source and direction. Discuss the meanings that audiences can gain from Hitchcock’s use of lighting. Consider what can be learned about the characters’ intentions and how lighting is used to build suspense. Also consider

how Hitchcock positions the audience in relation to Marion and Norman as characters. 5. Arrange a basic three-point lighting set-up to minimise shadow and to glamorise the subject. Then experiment with different arrangements to produce the following effects: • ghoulish appearance (under lights) • hair haloes (backlight) — experiment with different hair colours • chiaroscuro (low key). 6. Try your hand at shooting exterior day for night. First white balance your DV camera while it is aimed at something orange. Adjust the iris close to the minimum setting (also experiment with turning down the gain). Have your actors dress or carry props that signify night-time. Shoot a short moonlit sequence in the shadows from the clouds passing overhead. 7. Create a folio of magazine photographs that illustrate the main shot types and angles. Place each photograph on a separate page of your folio. Title each page with the type or angle that the photograph illustrates (for example, shot size — medium long shot). Underneath each picture, explain the effect of the shot size or angle.



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Editing: shot-to-shot relationships A Hollywood movie contains between 800 and 1200 shots. For a narrative movie, the shooting ratio of fi lmed rushes to fi nal selection is usually about eight to one. However, news and documentary genres, being less tightly planned than fi lms, can have shooting ratios as high as twenty to one. Editing is often thought of as a process of cutting down. However, it can also be seen as a means of building up a story. Both are valid approaches. In its simplest form, editing may be defi ned as the process of coordinating one shot with the next. Editing involves a dilemma. The break between one shot and another interrupts the audience’s attention. Each cut is a small jolt for the viewer. Every time a cut is made, there is a risk that the viewer will be brought back to reality. On the other hand, there is no other way of constructing a fi lm. The fi lmmaker’s problem is how to use editing, yet also control its disruptive power. The negative, unsettling aspects of editing may be controlled and turned to advantage by using two related elements: juxtapositioning of shots and transitional devices.

Juxtaposition of shots It is said the founders of fi lm, the Lumière brothers, stumbled on one of the techniques of editing quite by accident. The camera broke down in the middle of fi lming. When they got it going again, they found the jump in continuity actually looked good. Juxtapositioning had been discovered.

Juxtapositioning of shots simply means the placing of shots side by side. The shots interact with each other and create certain meanings. The selection and sequence of shots has an impact on the audience’s understanding of the message. Traditional Hollywood productions begin with a juxtapositioning of certain shot sizes. The opening sequence usually runs from an extreme long shot (ELS) through medium shot (MS) to close-up (CU).

Montage/collision of images Montage is the process of using a ‘collision of images’ to create an idea in the minds of the audience. Each image contains ideas and meanings. If separate shots with different meanings are placed side by side — even if they mean opposite things — then a third meaning can arise. For example, imagine a shot of a man lying on the ground; next to this imagine a shot of another man holding a gun. Neither shot on its own indicates that a murder has occurred. However, the collision of the two independent images suggests this third meaning. The Russian fi lmmaker Sergei Eisenstein developed the theory of montage from this effect. Eisenstein worked with a fi lm movement called Soviet montage (see page 227). Montage proved to be one of the most important developments of early cinema. Collision of images formed the basis of almost all Hollywood special effects up to the development of computergenerated imagery.

Figure 2.23: 3IX SHOTS FROM THE /DESSA STEPS SEQUENCE IN 3ERGEI %ISENSTEINlS üLM "ATTLESHIP 0OTEMKIN 4HE COLLISION OF THESE APPARENTLY UNRELATED SHOTS OF SOLDIERS GUNS BODIES AND A WOMAN CARRYING A DEAD CHILD CREATE A POWERFUL EMOTIONAL RESPONSE IN THE AUDIENCE 4HE TECHNIQUE IS CALLED MONTAGE

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Transitions: visual punctuation The devices used to shift from one scene to another provide the equivalent of punctuation. They convey certain impressions. They also assist understanding and help to make meaning clear. Audiences learn to make meaning from these visual language conventions because they are constantly repeated. Following are some of the devices used as ‘visual punctuation’.

The cut A cut is an instant change to another shot. In real life, this is similar to an abrupt change of attention, when we suddenly decide to inspect something else. A cut is the least obvious transition because it occurs so quickly and seems to work naturally. A cut can be regarded as the shortest distance between two shots. But there should be a reason for the cut, so the audience feels they want to look at the next shot. The motivation might be provided by the dialogue or an action from a character. Cutting on action is common because the movement in the shot distracts attention from the shot change. Cutting on dialogue seems natural because the audience naturally wants to see each person speak.

The dissolve During a dissolve, one image gradually blends or dissolves into another. A dissolve is a longer route between two shots than a cut. For this reason, it introduces greater disruption. It can represent a ‘dramatic pause’. In a narrative genre, a dissolve can be used to suggest a smooth and gentle change in time or place.

The fade A fade-out gradually fades the picture to an empty or black screen. A fade-in begins with a black screen and gradually reveals a picture. The fade is an obvious and disruptive transition. It signals a major change in the progress of the text. As such it is often compared to the curtain in a stage theatre, which opens and closes the show and separates the acts. The fade is the longest route between shots.

of wipes, including the flip frame and the page leaf. A wipe is the most unnatural transition and consequently is the most obvious to the audience. It is commonly used in those genres that allow for disjointed presentation, such as news, documentaries and sports coverage.

How editing controls text progress According to American film studies academics David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson, editing offers the filmmaker four areas of control over the relationships between shots: picture relationships, rhythmic relationships, space relationships and time relationships.

Picture or graphic relationships between shots An editor can make a connection between two scenes if there are any similarities in the actual content of the pictures. These similarities, say Bordwell and Thompson, could be in the scenery, the lighting, the costumes or what the characters are doing. A famous match of picture action occurred at the beginning of Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). A prehistoric man-ape hurls a bone into the air and we watch it spin over and over. The next shot is of a twenty-first-century space station spinning in space. The spinning bone and the spinning space station connect prehistory with the future. Graphic matches are also used extensively in Baraka (1992) to link the imagery as transitions are made between the scenes. In one clear example an overhead shot of a circular group of men performing the traditional ‘monkey dance’ is followed by an overhead shot of the circular vents of volcanoes. Table 2.2 gives other examples of texts in which two scenes are connected by the pictorial content of each shot.

Defocus Defocus shots provide transitions by gradually moving out of focus on one scene and refocusing on another. They are similar in character to the dissolve and are a more gradual way of easing the audience from one shot to another.

MEDIA

The wipe A new image ‘wipes’ across the old one using a defined line. Digital effects switchers allow for a huge variety

Figure 2.24: 0ROBABLY CINEMAlS BEST KNOWN GRAPHIC MATCH IS BETWEEN -ARIONlS EYE AND THE PLUGHOLE AT THE END OF THE SHOWER SCENE IN !LFRED (ITCHCOCKlS 0SYCHO



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Table 2.2: %XAMPLES OF EDITS MADE ON THE BASIS OF THE PICTORIAL OR GRAPHIC CONTENT OF THE IMAGE 4HE RELATIONSHIP OF SHOT ! TO SHOT " IS PURELY VISUAL 4ITLE OF TEXT

3HOT !

3HOT "

The Usual Suspects (1995)

Medium long shot of the mouth of a cave. The cave is the scene of a violent confrontation.

Rim of a coffee cup belonging to the man recounting the tale of events in the cave

Once Were Warriors (1994)

Close-up of Beth’s face defiant and proud despite suffering

Close-up of face of carved Maori wooden statue

Baraka (1992)

Medium close-up of monk’s head as he enters deep meditation

Long shot of natural stone archway on sea-shore as waves break through the gap. Position of archway corresponds to the monk’s head

Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)

Titles showing the Paramount Studios mountain

Dissolve into opening shot of actual mountain where the story begins

Lawrence of Arabia (1962)

Close-up shot of Lawrence striking a match

Shot of a flaming desert sun

Titanic (1997)

Shot of the rusted Titanic’s bow under water

Shot of the bow of the ship just before sailing

Rhythmic relationships Each shot takes up a certain amount of time on screen. A shot may range in length from one second to several minutes. Just as variation in the length of notes creates rhythm in music, shot length can be used to build rhythm into visual texts. A sequence of rapid shot changes gives an impression of fast, exciting action. A sequence of longer shots may create a reflective, romantic mood. Using cuts speeds up the transition, while dissolves slow it down. Filmmakers punctuate fast passages with slow ones, so that the variation in rhythm is accentuated. Accelerating the tempo creates a greater feeling of excitement than a constantly fast rate of cutting. In the traditional Hollywood style, the rhythm of the shots also depends on the shot size. Long shots are left on the screen for longer than close-ups. This is because it is assumed the audience needs longer to read the greater amount of detail in a long shot.

both the filming and the editing. There are several ways this can be done. These include: • Compressing time. Long passages of time can be shortened to just a few shots. For example, a fiveday drive across a continent may be shown with a shot of the starting point, a shot of the road in between and a shot of arrival at the destination. • Expansion of time. Prolonging the action can prolong the suspense or draw out the emotional response in the audience. Soap operas often use this technique, with the emotional responses of several characters shown one after another.

Space relationships With clever editing, a filmmaker can make places that in fact are on opposite sides of the Earth seem to be next door to each other. For example, someone can walk out of the front door of a constructed set in a Hollywood studio and into a street in Egypt. Placing shots side by side can suggest the action is occurring within the same space. The traditional progression from extreme long shot through medium shot to close-up is a device often used to create space relationships. An establishing shot sets the scene. All other shots in the sequence are much closer, allowing the filmmaker to return to the studio. The audience continues to believe the action is taking place within the setting of the establishing shot.

Time relationships A program can encapsulate whole lifetimes or just a few minutes in someone’s life. Time can be manipulated in

Figure 2.25: "ULLET TIME FROM 4HE -ATRIX AS IT IS BEING üLMED "ULLET TIME IS AN EXTREME CASE OF EXPANSION OF TIME q A TECHNIQUE USED TO HEIGHTEN SUSPENSE • Simultaneous time. Cross-cutting from one event to another can give the impression they are occurring simultaneously. In the last-minute rescue scenes of silent-screen melodramas, cross-cutting had the audience on the edge of their seats. Classic D. W. Griffith films have the villain tying the heroine to the railway track, the train steaming around the corner and the hero rushing to the rescue. The excitement lies in the audience’s hope that the three events, apparently occurring at the

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Figure 2.26: 4HE 'ERMAN üLM 2UN ,OLA 2UN USES SIMULTANEOUS TIME TO EXPLORE HOW DIFFERENT EVERYTHING MIGHT BE IF JUST ONE THING OR ONE MOMENT WAS CHANGED )N THE MOVIE ,OLA IS RUNNING TO PREVENT HER BOYFRIEND -ANNI FROM ROBBING A SUPERMARKET AT EXACTLY MIDDAY same time, will converge in such a way as to create the most satisfying conclusion. A rule of simultaneous time is that events in the two or more parallel locations must come together in some way. • Flashbacks. Memories or past events can be shown by juxtaposing shots of the present with shots of the past, perhaps separated by a transitional device such as a fade. • Flashforwards. In visual texts, flashforwards are rarer than flashbacks. This is because a flashforward is a more obvious break in the logical order of a story.

Screen geography

MEDIA

Screen geography is the layout and direction of the action within the frame and the point of view of the camera as it films. When editing and filming, attention must be paid to screen geography so the movement within each frame matches that in the next frame. A car chase in which one car is following another must have the shots of each car moving in the same direction. If the leading car is moving from left to right of the frame, then the following car must use the same screen geography. This sounds easy, but if the camera has the wrong point of view it can accidentally show a car moving in the opposite direction.

When simultaneous time is shown, it is common for the action in the two parallel locations to move in opposite directions. This suggests that the two sources of movement will converge at some point. Consider the classic simultaneous time situation of a car and a speeding train racing towards a level crossing. Ideally the car will move in one direction across the frame, the train in the opposite.

The 180 degree rule According to the 180 degree rule, an imaginary line exists called the axis of action. Imagine two people in conversation. The imaginary axis of action can be considered as a line between them — perhaps the line of eye contact. If you are filming them talking you should always place the camera on the same side of the imaginary line. It can be moved to any position to show one person, then the other, but it should always stay on the same side of the line. Crossing to the other side will disrupt the screen geography, as a character will appear to be facing the wrong way. Crossing the line can be done effectively if there is a neutral shot in between. This could be an overhead shot or a shot directly down the axis of action. After a neutral shot, it is acceptable to cross the line and film from the other side.



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It is not the same as that world as experienced by the audience, which may include other elements such as orchestral music or voice-over narration. The diegesis can include all of the events that the characters in the story experience — whether in the past, present or future. Thus, the diegesis of a soap opera would include the ‘bible’ that outlines all of the character histories as well as their likely future paths.

‘If the ear is receiving a reasonably smooth flow of sounds as one sequence gives way to another, the sound will tend to bind the two sequences together and make the transition acceptable.’ Karel Reisz, film director and editing theorist

In television or film, sound can come from only one of two sources. Either it comes from inside the story or it is happening outside the story. These two sources of sound are labelled diegetic or nondiegetic sound. Figure 2.27: 3CREEN GEOGRAPHY REQUIRES THAT THE CAMERA STAY ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE DOTTED LINE WHENEVER ITS POSITION IS CHANGED 4HE LINE CAN BE CROSSED BUT ONLY IF A NEUTRAL SHOT IS INSERTED BETWEEN THE TWO POSITIONS 4HE CAMERA CAN BE IN THE POSITIONS ! OR " FOR INSTANCE 0OSITION " WILL SEE A CHARACTER SUDDENLY ČIP AND FACE THE OTHER WAY

Classic continuity editing Continuity editing, favoured during the golden age of Hollywood, is sometimes called ‘the invisible style’. It has the following features: • Shot progressions in the classical Hollywood style — ELS, LS, MS, CU • Continuity cutting — for example, cutting on action or movement to distract the viewer • Matching techniques to hide cuts — for instance, eyelines are matched • Transitions such as dissolves to smooth the remaining joins where necessary • Simultaneous time/parallel editing (cross-cutting) • Point-of-view shots — shot/reverse shot when filming conversation • Application of the 180 degree rule • Use of standard three-point lighting to naturalise appearances • Use of music that is subservient to the story, reinforcing the meaning.

The soundtrack The Greek word diegesis was used by Aristotle to describe the world of the story that is created by the text. In movies, the diegesis is the fictional world that is shown on screen. This fictional world of the diegesis is the world experienced by the characters.

Diegetic sound Sound from within the story is called diegetic sound because it happens inside the diegesis (the world of the story). This means the story characters, as well as the audience, must be able to hear the sound. It could be a gunshot or it could be music from a radio in the scene, for example. Usually the audience can see the source of the sound. Diegetic sound comes from the on-screen action that we observe and that the characters participate in.

Nondiegetic sound Sound that is imported into the movie but isn’t related to the on-screen action is called nondiegetic sound. Nondiegetic sound may contribute to the story or it may build atmosphere or enhance the emotional power of a scene, but its source isn’t seen on screen. If the characters can’t hear it, it is nondiegetic. Voiceovers and narration are nondiegetic sound.

Dimensions of sound Sound has three dimensions in television and film: • Music. The power of music to manipulate the emotions has always been acknowledged. It is often the music that makes an image come alive, producing an effect in combination with the image that is greater than each element on its own. • Sound effects. Sound effects and background noises help create a sense of reality in a visual text. They also build the idea of a real space in which the action is taking place. • Dialogue. According to media academics and educators Barrie McMahon and Robyn Quin, there are two extremes of television and film dialogue.

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At one end of the spectrum is highly staged theatrical dialogue. At the other end is mood dialogue in which it is the characterisation the words convey, rather than the words themselves, that is important. Most modern dialogue is a blend of the two.

Overlapping sound Just as a brick wall is built by overlapping brick after brick, a visual text is assembled by overlapping sound and image. Cuts to the image are not exactly aligned to cuts to the sound. Sound flows over the shot joins and unites the scenes. Overlapping of sound during dialogue sequences is a feature of most modern texts. Cutting to the next speaker for a response shot is usually done before the fi rst speaker has fi nished. Similarly, background sounds (such as traffic or trains) can be introduced before a cut to a different environment. The easiest way to bind any sequence together is to use music. This is most clearly demonstrated in music video clips and MTV.

Types of sound Two types of sound are used in the visual language of television and film. Film theorists have come up with a

variety of terms for these types of sound. For example, Karel Reisz uses the terms synchronous and asynchronous. James Monaco uses parallel and contrapuntal. He argues that music, sound effects and speech can work with the image, or else comment on it.

Parallel sound Parallel sound, says Monaco, is logically connected with the image. The sound comes from within the scene or emphasises some aspect of the scene. The classical style of Hollywood’s golden age relied on parallel sound, with music, sound effects and dialogue underlining and supporting the image.

Contrapuntal sound Contrapuntal sound provides a commentary on the image and may be unconnected to it. The sound may work against the image to create a third meaning. Contrapuntal sound can come from outside the scene. Stanley Kubrick’s fi lms 2001: A Space Odyssey and A Clockwork Orange (1972) both use contrapuntal music. In A Clockwork Orange, Beethoven’s symphonies are contrasted with futuristic scenes of stylised violence. Hitchcock used contrapuntal sound in Psycho. Scenes of apparent ordinariness were given high tension through use of a disturbing orchestral soundtrack.

Activities 1. View some action films and find examples of

2.

3.

4.

5.

MEDIA

6.

collision of images. Still each image and present them to the class, explaining how they work. Manipulate time in a short filmed sequence. You may choose to expand or compress time to create a desired effect. Record some examples of visual language punctuation (transitional devices) and show them to the class, explaining their purpose and effect. Bordwell and Thompson say there are four basic ways editing can control the relationship between shots: pictorial or graphic relationships, rhythmic relationships, space relationships and time relationships. Look through some movies or television programs and find an example of each type of relationship. Show it to the class and explain how the edit works and what effect it has. Find examples of overlapping sound in films or television programs. Include in your collection some examples of dialogue flowing over a cut. As a start, overlapping sound can be found in Baraka just before the monkey dance. Compare the use of simultaneous time in the scenes involving the truck chasing the car in Steven Spielberg’s Duel (1971) and in Jeepers Creepers

(2001). Consider the pace of editing, the sense of threat, the use of special effects and the use of screen geography.

PRODUCTION TASK 7. Film a short (10- to 15-shot) video sequence on

a topic of your own choice. The sequence should have at least one example of each of the following: (a) editing using collision of images to create an idea that isn’t in either shot (b) simultaneous time created by cross-cutting (c) at least two different types of transitional devices (d) an example of overlapping sound.

WRITTEN TASK 8. Write a 600-word editor’s analysis of a sequence from

a movie or television program of your choice. Analyse the major decisions the editor has made, covering montage, transitional devices and the various means of controlling relationships between shots. Comment on the use of sound. Conclude by evaluating the effectiveness of the editing in the sequence.



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Language elements of radio The ear is not a very intelligent organ. It processes information relatively slowly and even then it only sometimes gets it right. The recommendation ‘KISS — Keep It Simple, Stupid’ has often been applied to the medium of radio. Unlike fi lm, television, computerbased media or the print media, radio cannot be seen. Unlike a newspaper, it cannot be held in the hand and read over and over again. Television can signify meaning through images. Radio has only sound.

Basic units of radio language Radio communication exists in time. It takes time to be heard and it is impossible to go back in time. You need to hear it right the fi rst time because it will not be repeated. This is different from newspaper communication, which exists in space. A newspaper devotes space to stories; it takes up space at the breakfast table and, like the table, it is a physical object. The codes (see page 5) of radio language consist of words, sound effects, music and silence. These codes are shared to some extent with television and fi lm, but radio uses them in a slightly different way.

Words Words, as we have mentioned, are signs that stand for something else. The word apple does not look anything like the fruit that grows on trees. It is a sign within the semiotic language of signs (see page 4). Radio relies on collections of these word signs as symbolic codes (see page 5) to communicate meaning. Words on radio are spoken. This makes them different from words printed on a page because extra layers of meaning can be added. The tone of voice or the inflection can communicate meaning. The person speaking the words is therefore an additional sign. The personality of the DJ or the accent of a character in an advertisement can add to the meaning of what is said. An American accent or an upper-class English accent in a radio advertisement, for example, can each convey extra meaning beyond the meaning of the words themselves.

Sound effects Sound is a natural element in the real world, whereas words are a human invention. However, sounds do not exist in isolation in the natural world. They are always caused by something happening. Sounds always stand for something other than themselves. Therefore sounds are signs, just as words are. Just as television and fi lm producers select certain images, radio producers select certain sounds, con-

structing and arranging them in logical order to create meaning. Some sounds are included or stand out because the producer believes they are important. Other sounds are softer or left out altogether. There are many ways sound can be used. American academics Edgar Willis and Camille D’Arienzo classify it according to three main functions: • Action sounds are created by some kind of movement, such as the tapping of a blind man’s cane. • Setting sounds, such as the hooting of an owl, indicate the surroundings or setting. • Symbolic sounds serve to suggest an idea, particularly in a fantasy. Willis and D’Arienzo give the example of a rising note on a slide whistle representing Pinocchio’s lengthening nose in a radio adaptation of the children’s story. (For other ways of classifying sound, see also soundtrack, page 25.)

Music Music can signify something beyond itself in the same way that sounds and words do. For example, a saxophone solo can evoke city nightlife. However, music is also just itself. It is very difficult for anyone to say what a piece of music means. It can build up emotions; it can move people to tears. But music can never be said to mean something the way the word ‘apple’ means the fruit of a tree. Unlike words, music can be enjoyed as complete meaning, without having to refer to anything else. The unique way music communicates means that it is not a sign system in the ordinary sense. Instead, suggests English and communications lecturer Andrew Crisell, if it does signify anything, its meaning is almost entirely symbolic.

Silence The American comedian Jack Benny had a reputation for being a penny-pinching miser. In one famous radio comedy skit, Benny was confronted by a mugger on the street. The mugger demanded, ‘Your money or your life!’ There was a prolonged silence from Jack Benny. Then, as the studio audience responded to the silence, they began to laugh and applaud. It was dawning on them what Jack Benny was debating in his mind. Just as sound effects can signify meaning, so too can silence. When used this way, silence is actually noise.

The main radio code According to Andrew Crisell, radio relies mainly on the verbal codes of the spoken word. This may seem

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strange for the medium that gave the world the Top 40. Crisell says it is speech on radio that sets music and sound in context. Speech is what separates mainstream radio from muzak, the canned music that is piped around super-

markets and shopping malls. The meaning of a piece of music is vague and hard to pinpoint. Speech, says Andrew Crisell, can invest music with greater significance by setting it in context and explaining details of interest.

Activities 1. Analyse the use of the basic units of radio language

in an advertisement. Comment on the proportion of the advertisement devoted to each element, the use of accents and voice inflection to convey meaning, and the effectiveness of the music. 2. Investigate Andrew Crisell’s statement that the voice gives meaning to music on radio. Think of a classic

song that is well known to everybody. Consider how it would sound presented by various DJs on a range of different radio stations. For example, does the meaning of the song change if it is played on a youth-oriented station as opposed to a station with an older audience?

Language elements of the print media ‘I know my ideal newspaper,’ said the American newspaper baron William Randolph Hearst, the man the movie Citizen Kane (1941) is based on. ‘It’s one where the reader looks at page one and says, “Gee Whiz”; turns to page two and says, “Holy Moses”; turns to the middle and says, “God Almighty!” ’ The language of the print media is a specialised language based on immediacy (critics of Hearst would say sensationalism) and multimodal presentation (see page 2). The print media are multimodal because they rely on photographs as well as text.

Basic units of print media language The codes (see page 5) of print language consist of the printed word, location and page layout, and story length. Still photographs add some of the codes of the visual image (see page 5).

The printed word The language of newspapers and magazines has developed particular characteristics over the past century and a half. These include:

MEDIA

• An alphabetic code. Words printed on a page are signs that stand for something else (see page 5). The word earthquake, for example, does not resemble the actual event in any way. Television images of an earthquake are much closer to the event than the written word. The print media rely on collections of word signs as symbolic codes (see page 5) to communicate meaning. Emotive words and descriptive, actionoriented language are the symbolic codes of the

print media. The emotive connotations of words correspond to the emotive power of actors’ body language or the mise-en-scène in a fi lm. • Sensation. ‘When a dog bites a man, that’s not news,’ said the American newspaper editor Charles Dana. ‘But when a man bites a dog, now that’s news!’ Print media writing styles favour action and excitement. Intensity and urgency are the keys to the organisation of print media products. Both the construction of individual sentences and the structuring of whole stories are designed to put the sensational facts fi rst. • Economy. Never use two or three words when one will do, young journalists are advised. Ever since the telegraph and telegram last century put a cost on every word, economies of language have also meant economies of production. In the print media, space saved can be devoted to paid advertising. • Speed. Most readers skim newspapers. They pause to read only those stories that are directly interesting to them. Newspaper language has evolved to assist this process. Sentences are short. Headlines reduce the facts to a few punchy words. Phrases such as ‘the silent majority’ compress meaning.

Location Real-estate agents claim three factors set the price of a house: position, position and position. The print media operate on the same principle. The location of an article in a print media text determines its importance and its genre. The more interesting readers are likely to fi nd a story, the closer it has to go to the front of the newspaper or magazine. The most exciting or important



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story will appear at the top of the first page. Editors place articles on pages one, three, five, seven and all the other right-hand (odd-numbered) pages, which are considered more interesting or important than those on even-numbered pages. This is because readers naturally look to the right-hand side. In newspapers, a story above the fold of the paper has been placed there because the editors regarded it as more important than those below the fold.

Page layout ‘Newspapers are printed in small type, with narrow columns, on cheap paper. Long paragraphs — large, grey blocks of type — discourage readers. So, reporters divide stories into bite-sized chunks that are easy to read. Also, the white space left at the ends of the paragraphs helps brighten each page.’ Fred Fedler, veteran journalist and author

Table 2.3: (OW A NEWSPAPER IS READ 4HE LOCATION OF AN ARTICLE WILL DETERMINE HOW MANY PEOPLE SEE IT 2EADERS AS PERCENTAGE

/RDER OF ELEMENTS READ Headlines, news, then remainder

29

Straight through (front to back)

28

Front to back, then sections

12

Sections, news, then remainder

8

Look at all sections

Variations in page layout

87

In all newspapers and some magazines, there is a progression from hard news in the first few pages to comments and features towards the middle of the paper, followed by classified advertisements. However, as the print media change in response to new media such as digital pay television and the internet, comment is being given more importance. Many newspapers now put short, argumentative commentaries by leading writers on the front page. Media article/program

to chronicle

to argue

to interpret

to enable how-to texts

discussions

comments

human interest or soft news

hard news

The elements of page layout are printed text, pictures and advertisements. Each newspaper or magazine develops a page layout or format that is distinctively its own. The typeface, style and placement of certain articles become part of the house style. The page layout is like a brand image. Regular readers recognise it and feel comfortable with it.

Page design depends on the publication’s readership and content. It can vary in the following ways: • Arrangement of columns. Some newspapers may put all stories in single columns. Often financial newspapers do this. Others may choose the impact of variety. They could spread the introductory sentences of a main story across two columns. • Typeface. The choice of type characters is a way of giving a newspaper or magazine a personality. Typeface is a key means of establishing a distinct identity that is different from that of competitors. • Headline style. Some magazines and newspapers put headlines in block capitals to add urgency. Others use lower case, with only the first word capitalised. Some newspapers and magazines use a ‘deck’ below the main headline. This is a smaller headline adding more detail. The use of subheadings is another distinguishing feature. A subheading is a heading above a paragraph in the main body of the story. • Use of graphics. Graphics drawn underneath the masthead (the title of the paper) can signal regular sections in the paper and add to the design. • Photographs. The way photographs are placed can also be a regular feature of page design.

Story length and space editorials

reviews

From front to back of print media news

Figure 2.28: 'ENRES CHANGE AS THE READER MOVES FROM THE FRONT TO THE BACK OF A NEWSPAPER OR MAGAZINE ACCORDING TO THE 7RITE )T 2IGHT TEAM FROM THE .EW 3OUTH 7ALES $EPARTMENT OF 3CHOOL %DUCATION (ARD NEWS OBJECTIVE GENRES COMES üRST FOLLOWED BY ARGUMENTATIVE COMMENT SUBJECTIVE GENRES

The length of a story indicates its importance, just as its location does. If the newspaper story is too long to fit its allotted space, editors cut paragraphs from the bottom. This practice means stories are written so the important facts are contained in the first few paragraphs. Stories are cut to suit the overall news hole as well as their allotted order in it. The size of the news hole is determined by the amount of space left after all the advertising has been included.

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Activities 1. Look through a magazine or newspaper article

and highlight the emotive or highly symbolic words — those with strong associations. They may suggest vivid scenes to you or remind you of something. 2. From a print media article, find examples of characteristic media language that is either sensational or economical. Write it another way — to suit a novel or an essay, for example. 3. Look again at figure 2.28. Flip through a newspaper from front to back. Choose a story or article that could represent each of the genres shown at each

stage of the diagram. Cut them out and paste them onto a page in your workbook. Label the stories or articles accordingly. 4. Investigate the graphic layout of a print media product. Draw an outline map of the front page of a newspaper (or a main page from a magazine). Mark in the columns and boxes to represent photographs. Write the story headlines in the appropriate spaces and mark in the boundaries of each story. Draw boxes in the columns to indicate advertising. Mark in any other graphics and, if a newspaper, the masthead (title).

Computer-based language elements Computer-based media combine traditional media forms with new digital versions. Through a process called convergence (see page 71), traditional media forms ‘converge’ with digital formats, accessed via computer or mobile device. Convergence has seen the combination of existing media and the creation of engaging and innovative new forms. Computer-based language shares elements of traditional media, particularly fi lm, television, magazines and newspapers.

allows nonlinear access to information. Users select their own path to specific information by following a trail of related information — ‘drilling down’, click by click, to reach their objective. Any page, picture, paragraph or word can be linked to any other. Information can be accessed in whatever order the user chooses. This navigation system is called hypertext. Each link — whether word, icon, graphic, picture or video — is known as a hypertext link or hyperlink.

Basic units of computer-based communication Computer-based media language units are text, images, audio, video and animation. These elements are combined to create multimedia forms including the internet, disc-based multimedia, interactive television and video games. New technologies are continually evolving, developing new ways of combining existing media elements. They can be combined in simple forms, such as electronic newspapers in which text is combined with pictures and video. They can also be combined in artistic forms in which elements merge or morph into one another, interact with the user, or create artistic mindscapes capturing emotion and experience.

Hypertext

MEDIA

Internet sites and multimedia products (see page 32) typically involve a series of menus and document pages linked together in a web-like structure that

Figure 2.29: %XAMPLES OF HYPERLINKS AN UNDERLINED WORD WITHIN THE BODY OF THE TEXT SYMBOLIC ICONS OR ICONIC ELEMENTS REPRESENTING THE ACTION A HOTSPOT LINK WITHIN A LARGER IMAGE THE LINKED AREAS ARE OUTLINED

Hypertext is not a new invention. It originated in 1963, when writer Ted Nelson coined the word to describe ‘non-sequential writing’. Hypertext author and playwright Charles Deemer sees hypertext as giving the reader options: ‘ “What do you want to read next?” is the question that hypertext asks again and again . . . Do you want to read the poem, or hear the poem or watch the poet read the poem?’



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Convention dictates that when a mouse pointer is positioned above a hypertext link it should change form from an arrow to a hand. In this ‘hover state’, the link should also change appearance. When the link is clicked it should temporarily change appearance again (‘active state’), and the link content is loaded. A ‘visited’ hyperlink is also often represented by a different colour (‘visited state’). Hypertext is a very efficient way to store information. It not only provides a link to specific content, but also gives contextual links to related materials. A library will usually hold a large number of Shakespeare’s works in the 822.33 section, each work encased in its own volume. The library will also hold books about each work, as well as books on Shakespeare himself and information about performances and the history of the Elizabethan period. All Shakespeare’s works can be contained in one multimedia presentation, with links between works where there are interesting parallels, and links to useful notes and commentaries. Text, images and video clips can link drama history and historical events of the time with the text. Performances of each work could be viewed. You might even have the option of undertaking a virtual tour of the Globe Theatre, where Shakespeare’s plays were first performed. Charles Deemer concludes that ‘hypertext is a web of possibilities, a web of reading experiences . . . [it] is the language of exploration and discovery — and therefore is the perfect language to become the mother tongue of the Information Age’. Ted Nelson sees the future of hypertext as more fluid and interconnected than the current internet with its dependence on websites containing one set of information that binds the content to a single presentation method. Nelson uses the term hypermedia to describe a network where the transition from information to information is ‘transparent’ (not obvious, as when navigating from website to website) and where information can be replicated without a finite location and redesigned to suit the context of the linking information. This is the basis for Web 3.0 (see page 389).

interface tools such as 3D goggles, motion sensors and even body suits with sensors allowing the user to ‘feel’. The interface also includes the product’s artificial intelligence, especially obvious in video games. Interactive designer Greg Roach believes ‘the goal of an interface is to create something that is invisible’. Paul Brown has classified user interfaces into three categories: symbolic, iconic and indexical.

User interfaces (UI)

Figure 2.30: 3YMBOLIC INTERFACES ARE COMPLEX LEARNING TO USE THEM IS SIMILAR TO LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

‘The success of the personal computer revolution was not only due to miniaturisation of components and prices. Far more important was the development of ‘user friendly’ object orientated and graphical user interfaces (GUI).’ Paul Brown, writer/researcher

A user interface is used to help navigate through computer-based media. The interface ranges from simple buttons and menus on the screen to more complex

Symbolic interfaces This form of interface is commonly known as programming. A user must know the computer language used and the conventions of its use. Programming languages use textual ‘code’ in the same way that the English language uses words — to represent objects or actions. This interface features few barriers to hinder the user’s creativity but is almost impossible to use without a thorough knowledge of the code.

Iconic interfaces This interface style features icons that stand for actions, and menus that allow the user to select among predetermined options. This interface is extremely productive and easy to use, but limits the user to a range of pre-programmed actions. The most common examples are the Windows and Mac OS interfaces with their metaphoric ‘desktop’ functionality. By using a metaphor that simulates a real-life environment, users of the product quickly become familiar with its functions.

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Multimedia

Figure 2.31: )CONIC INTERFACES ARE VERY FAMILIAR TO USERS DRAWING ON THE DESKTOP METAPHOR

Indexical interfaces This style of interface is richly decorated with images and colour. It is immersive, becoming part of the production and not simply a way to use it, which enhances the overall effect and allows the user to become more involved with the product. This kind of interface is commonly found in multimedia and video game products. It provides a variety of navigation options, from simple iconic buttons to random artistic patterns or images that transform when clicked. Indexical interfaces allow a designer to artistically explore the possibilities of interface design.

Multimedia is a key aspect of all new media forms, including the internet, information kiosks, CD-ROMs, DVDs, interactive television, illustrated lectures and presentations, and video games. Multimedia is ‘an environment in which more than one media type is used, media types being text, graphics, animation, audio and video,’ writes Cameron McDonald in Macweek. One of the first types of multimedia was silent movies. These featured film accompanied by text-based still illustrations, and by presentations, often including multiple slide and film projectors, with live commentary or music. The key difference between the old forms of multimedia and the new digital ones has been identified by Antwar Slade: ‘The computer environment allows the digitisation of the source material, and provides the ability to randomly access this information and to combine any number of media types.’ In a digital, computer-based form, the film can be seen in part or in full, in combination with clips from other related movies, commentary, and biographies of the stars and filmmakers. All can be contained in one form, randomly accessible at any point and in any order. Multimedia allows the user to access information under natural inquiry conditions, interactively ‘discovering’ the information. Studies have shown that users who have to seek out information interactively are more likely to remember it.

Multimedia elements There are five main media elements used in new media. These are text, graphics, animation, audio and video. The combination of these media elements in an interactive form is known as multimedia.

Animation Animation can provide a multimedia work with a slick, well-produced look and feel, adding impact and creating visually exciting interfaces. Animation is also useful for demonstrations and presenting data. It is often used for artistic effect or for storytelling. Three main applications are as transitional devices, as demonstration aids and as attention grabbers.

MEDIA

Figure 2.32: 4HE INDEXICAL INTERFACE IS HARDER TO USE BUT MORE APPEALING TO ITS TARGET MARKET q THE YOUNG AND TECHNOLOGICALLY AWARE

Transitions. Animations are good for creating transition effects, particularly when the user is moving between two different parts or styles in a multimedia piece. Transition effects should be used consistently.



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Demonstration. Animation can enrich graphical representations of objects, actions or concepts. Some types of information are best shown in an animated format, particularly when demonstrating actions, mechanics, and 3D environments and structures. Seeking attention. Animation is used to attract attention. Online advertisers use animation to attract the user’s attention, but web designers need to be careful as too much animation detracts from the impact. Animated websites strategically minimise download time. Objects are reused from shared libraries downloaded only once; content is preloaded in anticipation of the user’s next move and is streamed only as required. There is no point downloading an entire animation if the user is not likely to view the whole work.

information on the screen. Audio can also be used for providing a sense of place or creating a mood. When audio is used as a backing track, it should be restrained, and not interfere with the primary content. Audio can enhance a user’s experience. Usability ‘guru’ Jakob Nielsen cites the example of a video game whose users actually thought the graphics were better when improved sound was added to a game, even though they had not altered the original visuals!

Text Computer-based media content is viewed on a computer screen. Screens have limited resolutions, which makes it difficult to read small text. Until screen technology improves to rival the readability of paper, large amounts of small text should be avoided. Lengthy textual content is still common, however. Designers overcome readability problems by breaking the text into manageable pieces linked via hypertext. Segmenting content enables whole books to be published electronically. An electronic book will often be provided as a separate downloadable file that can be read offline or printed. Text for computer-based media is written in an inverted pyramid style, following the tradition of print journalism, with the most important information at the top (see page 487). Where text is placed over a background, simple background colours and images should be used to ensure the text is legible.

Images Figure 2.33: &ULLY ANIMATED SITES CAN HAVE GREAT VISUAL IMPACT BUT THEY NEED CAREFUL DESIGN TO ENSURE THAT THE ANIMATION IS WELL CONTROLLED AND DOES NOT INTERFERE WITH USABILITY /N THIS SITE THE DESIGNER HAS POSITIONED THE CONTENT WITHIN A $ ENVIRONMENT AND USED TRANSITION ANIMATIONS FOR BRINGING THE CONTENT IN AND OUT OF FOCUS

Video Video is a familiar and proven means of effective communication. Video in websites, online advertising and games is common. It is compressed into smaller file sizes by ‘stripping’ out inessential data, such as unused colour information, unchanged image areas from frame to frame and out-of-frame footage. Relying too heavily on video, however, can mean that users with slow connections do not wait for it to download.

Audio Audio can be integrated into a multimedia product in a variety of ways. One way is through narration. Speech can offer commentary without obscuring the

Multimedia is highly visual. Excessive use of pictures and illustrations, however, can detract from the primary content. Like video, pictures are compressed to save space. Graphics may be content, but are also used in the user interface and to establish ‘look and feel’. Effective use of graphics adds professionalism to any computer-based media product.

Structuring information in a multimedia form The power of multimedia and hypertext lies in the way information can be linked together. But users view any site one page at a time. This is in contrast to newspaper readers, who can view the work as a whole. Because of this, a multimedia user needs to create a mental model of the content structure, or the way the information is linked and related. Patrick Lynch, author of Yale University’s World Wide Web Style Manual, warns that a user’s mental model of a site is likely to be incoherent or jumbled if the information is poorly structured and hard to navigate through.

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D

M

D

D

M

D

D

D

M M D

M

D

D D

M D

D D

D

D

Figure 2.34: 4HIS MODEL OF INFORMATION ORGANISATION IS JUMBLED AND DIFüCULT TO FOLLOW 5SERS OF THIS MULTIMEDIA PRODUCT OR WEBSITE WOULD üND IT VERY HARD TO NAVIGATE Lynch states that users need predictability and structure, with clear functional and graphical continuity between the various components and subsections of the multimedia product. Menus and document pages share a consistent identity through using the same graphics, icons and visual style. This avoids ‘orphan’ pages. ‘Designing the way the content flows is one of the most difficult tasks facing designers and writers,’ say Jon Samsel and Darryl Wimberly in their book A Guide to Interactive Writing. The organisation of information into an ordered and easily understood layout is called information architecture. The main page or home page is usually the fi rst screen a user encounters. The home page of any multimedia product should always be a landmark, accessible from anywhere within a multimedia piece. The information should be so modelled that a user can understand its organisation easily without having to fi rst explore the content.

M

= Menu or ‘home page’

D

= WWW page or document

Home page

Major submenus

Individual documents

Figure 2.35: 'OOD MULTIMEDIA OR INTERNET PAGE LAYOUT AND ORGANISATION 4HE USER HAS EASY ACCESS TO INFORMATION WHICH IS ARRANGED IN A CLEAR LOGICAL AND PREDICABLE WAY 4HE PLAN ILLUSTRATING WEBSITE CONTENT IS CALLED A SITE MAP

Activities 1. In small groups, choose and research a topic of your

MEDIA

choice such as a historical event. Half the group will search for information on the topic and related data in print encyclopedias, while the rest will use the internet or online encyclopedias. Compare your results. Which method found the best information, which was the easiest to use, and which provided the most relevant related information? 2. How has hypertext made information easier to find? Is the ‘web-like’ data structure on the internet and in other forms of multimedia beneficial for efficient storage and retrieval of information? Explain why or why not. 3. Analyse a range of different multimedia products or websites. Define which type of interface is used in each, explaining why you think the designer chose it. Reasons could include clarity, artistic effect, speed of access, simplicity of understanding and brand image enhancement. Is the style of the content linked to the

style of the interface? For example, an encyclopedia may use a very formal iconic interface, while a virtual art gallery or artist’s portfolio may use an artistic indexical one. Do you think that the best user experience has been offered by the website producer? 4. Locate a couple of nonfiction books of your choice on different subjects. Explain what type of interface you would use for an electronic version of each book, and what elements or navigation tools it might include, such as menus, icons, full-page illustrations with hotspots within the image, moving text or animated backgrounds. Would you lay it out in a formal manner using headlines and body text, or would you allow the user to experience it more directly, for instance by offering a virtual tour? 5. Structuring information: Map out a segment of a multimedia website, such as the home page of a record company, and illustrate the links and sublinks leading from that page (as in figure 2.35).



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Representation

Representing reality Ninety-five per cent of characters killed in films and television entertainment shows are men. In action movies, horror movies and westerns, most of these males are dispatched without any mourning, according to American men’s movement academic Warren Farrell. On the other hand, after nearly 40 years of modern feminism, more than 30 per cent of advertising still portrays women as slim, blond bimbos less than 30 years old. A different standard applies to men. At least half the men were allowed to be over 30, according to a survey by the Broadcasting Standards Council in Britain. Male actors are frequently dark haired, in contrast to the typical blond female. In advertising, only 11 per cent are slim and muscular himbos, the remainder being a variety of body weights. While a male ideal defi nitely exists, men are allowed a greater range of body types. And in an interesting tradition, according to the Broadcasting Standards Council, women are almost never shown in the driving seat when men and women travel together. It is not only gender analysts who are crying foul over characterisation in the media. Members of commonly portrayed professions are also irritated. Whereas 20 per cent of television males are involved in law enforcement, only 1 per cent of real-life males

are. Police officers say the result is that the media often give the public unrealistic expectations. The media do not present reality — they represent it by offering a selection of reality. In the case of television, the scriptwriter, camera operator, editor and producer all make selections and changes. Newspaper stories go through a similar process of selection involving the journalist, the subeditor and the editor. Media products, consisting of only a selection of manufactured ideas, are not the same as lived experience. This manufactured version is based on the values of the producers and, in turn, the values of the larger society and culture. The media version is said to be not a presentation, but a re-presentation. A media representation is a depiction, a likeness or a constructed image. A representation can be of individual people (such as the American president in the fi lm Independence Day, 1996), social groups (such as age groups, gender groups, racial groups), ideas (such as law and order, unemployment), or events (such as European settlement of Australia or the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001). A representation can be a single image, a sequence of images or a whole program, written words, spoken words or song lyrics.


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How representations work Representations invite audiences to understand them and agree with them in certain preferred ways. However, depending on the audience, different interpretations are to some extent possible. Representations work in the following ways: • A representation consists of repeated elements. The more we see these elements repeated, the more the representation will appear to be natural or normal.

Figure 3.1(a): 4HE REPRESENTATION IN THIS IMAGE OF A FAMILY FROM THE S SUGGESTS THE WOMANlS PLACE IS IN THE HOME 4HE MANlS ROLE IS TO PROVIDE üNANCIALLY AND ALLOWS A MINIMUM OF INVOLVEMENT IN FAMILY LIFE

Figure 3.1(b): ! S IMAGE OF A FAMILY INCLUDES THE FATHER WITHIN THE FAMILY CIRCLE AND SUGGESTS THROUGH BODY LANGUAGE AND CLOTHING THAT THE MOTHER IS AN EQUAL PARTNER IN ALL THINGS PROBABLY INCLUDING EMPLOYMENT (OWEVER THE FAMILY IS STILL REPRESENTED AS A CONVENTIONAL NUCLEAR FAMILY

• We are invited either to identify with or to recognise the representation. Producers of the media representation may have a view of the world that is similar to our own. If their representation fits in with our view of who we are, we may choose to identify with it. This happens, for example, when a movie invites us to imagine ourselves in the role of an appealing character. On the other hand, the producers may see a person, idea or event as somehow foreign or different from them. We will be invited to recognise the representation from our own experience. A program might invite us to identify with the lawyer hero, for example, but will ask us only to recognise the lawbreaking young thugs. • The media make categories of people, events or ideas. Categories include labels such as ‘the unemployed’, ‘the aged’ or ‘businessman’. The war in Iraq, for example, becomes ‘another Vietnam’. Representations are generalisations about categories and why events, ideas or people belong in them. These categories then become part of our thinking processes. • Representations contain a point of view. The meaning in a representation will be selected and constructed, already containing built-in value judgements. All representations contain the point of view of the people who made them. • Representations have a mode of address. Hidden behind the apparent naturalness of the representation will be some assumptions about who you are. For example, a news item about youth may address you in a manner that assumes you are a middle-aged businessperson rather than a young person.

Questioning representations

MEDIA

Figure 3.1(c): 4HIS IMAGE OF A FAMILY SUGGESTS THAT SINGLE PARENTHOOD MAY BE A LIKELIHOOD WHILE MAINTAINING THE POSSIBILITY THAT THE REST OF THE FAMILY IS STILL INSIDE THE HOUSE 4HE PORTRAYAL OF THE FATHER AS A POTENTIAL SINGLE PARENT IS AN INNOVATION ON THE TYPICAL PORTRAYAL OF A WOMAN AS THE USUAL SINGLE PARENT

To be more critically aware of a representation, the following questions need to be asked: • Who made it? • When was it made? • What are its purposes? • Who benefits from the representation or whose point of view does it support?



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• Who does not benefit or whose point of view is not considered? • Who or what is not shown?

Figure 3.2: 4HE REPRESENTATION AND THE REALITY CAN BE TWO QUITE DIFFERENT THINGS 4HIS !MERICAN CAMPAIGN POSTER WAS PREPARED BY FEMINIST CULTURE JAMMERS 'UERRILLA 'IRLS SEE CULTURE JAMMING IN 46 ADVERTISING PAGE k7E TOOK +ONG GAVE HIM A SEX CHANGE AND A DESIGNER GOWN AND SET HER UP IN (OLLYWOOD JUST A FEW BLOCKS FROM WHERE THE /SCARS WILL BE AWARDED l THEY SAID !S FOR THE /SCAR k7E REDESIGNED THE OLD BOY SO HE MORE CLOSELY RESEMBLED THE WHITE MALES WHO TAKE HIM HOME EACH YEARl

Analysing representations There are at least four main ways of analysing representations, according to sociologist Eoin Devereux. These are: • Codes and conventions. Representations can be understood by analysing the technical and symbolic codes that are used to communicate (see page 5). For instance, the representation of women in the ‘girl power’ phenomenon of the early 2000s can be analysed by looking at the symbolic codes of costume and also the technical codes of shot angle and shot size. • Discourses. Understanding the discourse that a representation is part of can help explain how it works (see discourses, page 192). For instance, it is easier to analyse representations of race or religion if you understand the discourse of such political issues as immigration or the ‘war on terror’. • Framing. A representation can be framed within a certain viewpoint or it can be shown only within a certain context. For example, in Australian commercial television poverty is usually framed as an individual problem or perhaps just ‘bad luck’. • Narrative analysis. Often a person or an event can be packaged as belonging to a certain kind of familiar story or pattern. In this way, for instance, whole nations can be represented as ‘bad guys’ or ‘good guys’ because it fits the pattern of many Hollywood movies.

Stereotypes A stereotype is an oversimplified, clichéd image, repeated so many times that it seems to have established a pattern. It is a highly judgemental type of representation. One well-known female stereotype is the dumb blonde, and a common male one is the foolish, incompetent father. The history of the media provides a long list of stereotypes, including the housewife, the nuclear family and the action hero. The word stereotype comes from the printing trade. Stereotyping was the creation of a solid metal printing plate that exactly duplicated a tray of movable type, the letters of which had to be placed one by one. Until the invention of the stereotype, this movable type had to be reset if a second printing was needed. The stereotype revolutionised printing, allowing cheap editions of books to be made. In the same way that the image on the metal printing plate is fixed and repeated from the original, so the modern stereotype is often applied whatever the circumstances. Stereotypes are an extreme form of representation. They are constructed by a process of selection. Certain aspects are focused on and then exaggerated. At the same time, an evaluation is made and the audience is invited to make a judgement, which is often based on prejudice. Repetition establishes stereotypes and over time allows them to appear ‘natural’. In the extreme, stereotypes can become caricatures resembling cartoons. In fact, jokes, cartoons and comedies rely on stereotypes because they are instantly recognisable — a kind of shorthand that everyone understands. Many groups in society have stereotypes associated with them. These contain limited and distorted views. For example, in a study of the image of scientists, Dr Roslynn Haynes came up with six stereotypes that have existed since the 1500s. These are: the evil scientist or alchemist (e.g. Dr Strangelove), the noble scientist (Einstein-like characters — common in 1950s films), the absent-minded scientist (Professor Brainard in Flubber), the inhuman researcher (Rotwang in Metropolis), the adventurer (Dr Grant in Jurassic Park) and the crazed scientist whose projects get out of control (Dr Frankenstein and Dr Jekyll). Stereotyping is often evident when there is a power imbalance between members of society. Relations between men and women, for example, can encourage the development of stereotypes on both sides. In the same way, disadvantaged minority groups often have stereotypes associated with them.

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Counter-stereotypes Many groups of people suffer from negative portrayal in the media. Since the civil rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s, certain groups have been able to demand more of a voice and a more positive portrayal. First among these were women, followed in the United States by African Americans, gays and Latinos. In Australia various ethnic groups and, to some extent, Aboriginal people have met with some success in demands for more positive portrayal. A counter-stereotype is a portrayal that deliberately sets out to change an earlier representation or seeks to portray a group in a positive light. There is debate about whether counter-stereotypes are a good or bad thing. Some argue that they can empower or help minority groups. Others have argued that counter-stereotypes hinder the progress of minority groups because the positive portrayals often hide the real difficulties that these groups encounter. Counter-stereotypes can also encounter audience resistance and work to uphold the traditional portrayal. The humour of the South Park character Token is partly based on this factor.

• Political power. Some groups have been able to use legislation or community pressure to achieve a more positive representation. Women’s groups initially used the political process but are now recognised as an important economic force as well.

Factors affecting representations We need to keep four things in mind when we think about representations in the media, says Professor Julie D’Acci.

Production Just who is employed to produce media affects the nature of the representations. In the 1950s and 1960s it was rare to find women working in the media industries except as secretaries. Naturally, if nearly all the representations of women were produced by men, there would be an unbalanced view. Similarly, it was not until the early 1990s that even small numbers of African Americans were employed as writers in the American television and film industries. The composition of the workforce affects the representation.

Reception Audiences do not automatically accept a representation or even view it in the way the producer might hope (see page 148). We know audience interpretation is variable. That was just as true in 1950 as it is today. It is very difficult for a modern audience to really understand how audiences in the past interpreted the media of the time. Watching I Love Lucy in the twenty-first century can never be the same as watching it in 1950.

Media landscape

Figure 3.3: 4HE CHARACTERS #ARTMAN AND 4OKEN FROM 3OUTH 0ARK 4HERE IS DEBATE ABOUT WHETHER COUNTER STEREOTYPES HELP OR HINDER MINORITY GROUPS The two main factors behind the rise of counterstereotypes are:

MEDIA

• Economic power. When a group gains sufficient spending power to convince advertisers to target it, media representations often change to suit. For instance, the African-American market in the United States is strong enough to have encouraged more television and film producers to portray the lives of African Americans and depict them as three-dimensional characters.

A representation cannot be understood by itself, but must be analysed as part of a whole system. In television, for instance, the representation of people and ideas happens within a programming system of genres, narratives, codes and conventions. The representation of women may be affected by a single image of the type of woman shown or by the reduced number of women as central characters across the whole schedule. Or it can be affected by the small number of female voices used in advertising voice-overs.

Social/historical context Whatever is happening in society can affect representations. Members of society live their lives in response to the value systems and ways of thinking around them. This equally affects those who work in the media. Representations are a product of their social and cultural environment (see texts and contexts, page 186).



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Activities 1. Images, ideas and representations have a history.

Search through old television programs on DVD or old magazine advertisements to find representations that no longer fit today’s cultural and social context. 2. Modern representations may come to look as dated in the future as 1950s representations do today. Question some modern representations using the six questions on pages 36–7. 3. Analyse some representations (e.g. images of youth) across different media and compare the results. Representations could be chosen from table 3.1. Table 3.1: 3UGGESTED MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS FOR ANALYSIS 2EPRESENTATION CATEGORY

3PECIüC EXAMPLES

People

Politicians, movie or rock stars, sports personalities, historical characters

Groups

Occupations, families, youth groups, political groups

Places

Tourist destinations, city versus country, local regions, overseas countries

Ideas

Law and order, the future, political points of view, the environment

4. Select a theme and explore its representation across

several different media or over time. Themes could include age, gender, race or social class. 5. Look through the magazines in the library and find examples of stereotypes. Discuss the way they express their point of view through various features. For example, a five o’clock shadow (darkly stubbled cheeks) on a cartoon character suggests criminal associations. 6. Review the current cast of television characters across a range of programs and evaluate whether any of them is a counter-stereotype. Support your evaluation with an explanation.

PRODUCTION TASK 7. Select one of the following topics, and then create

an advertisement in a medium of your choice (e.g. a magazine or radio advertisement). (a) Create an advertisement based on a selective, positive representation of a group that mainstream culture has failed to represent fairly. A model for this could be the recent development of some positive advertising representations of women in positions of power or with successful careers. Try this for another underrepresented group. (b) Create an advertisement for a magazine of your choice based on a selective negative

representation of a group that has always enjoyed safe, positive representation from mainstream culture. For example, doctors are often represented as wise, concerned, self-sacrificing care givers. Businesspeople have also tended to enjoy positive representation, as have teachers. Note that your advertisement does not have to be for a product directly related to the representation. For example, a television advertisement for chocolate bars used a rowdy classroom of primary schoolers sneaking chocolate under the desk while a kindly but incompetent teacher attempted to begin the lesson. In this example, a negative representation of a teacher was used to sell a totally unrelated product. 8. Dress as a well-known stereotype and photograph yourself. Repeat the process for several other stereotypes until you have a folio of five or six images. Explain each stereotype and indicate its defining features. Point out where you have seen the stereotype before.

WRITTEN TASK Choose one of the following assignments and write a 500-word response. 9. Imagine you have been hired as a media consultant by a community leader from a particular group, such as a gender-based professional or ethnic group. Research the representation of the group and give them a broad idea of how it is presented over a range of media. Critically analyse and evaluate your findings. Suggest action the group might take to improve its representation. 10. Select two or three politicians or media stars with image problems and propose a solution for them to consider. In a written report, outline the problems as you see them, and then suggest ways of changing the representations in the media. Conclude the report with a description of each person’s new image.

SPEAKING TASK 11. Prepare a five-minute oral presentation for the

following task: research the development and changes in a particular representation over several stages in a historical period. Present your findings to the class in the form of a lecture or seminar. Speculate about the social and cultural contexts that created the representations. Critically analyse and evaluate the representation at each stage over the time period, discussing the viewpoints and ideologies they contain. You might like to include television or film excerpts to illustrate points as you make them.

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Representation of gender ‘Changes in television images have not always paralleled actual changes in society. Particularly with regard to the depiction of women, we can see how social values mediate between changes in the real world, the images that become available on television, and viewers’ choices of television images to watch.’ Andrea Press, Professor of Media Studies, University of Virginia

Mainstream media, and especially Hollywood, are often some distance behind changes in society. There have been many examples of this apart from gender. For instance, most of the anti–Vietnam War movies did not come out of Hollywood until the early 1980s, whereas the anti-war protests took place in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and the war actually ended in 1975. Ogburn’s theory of cultural lag states that different parts of modern culture do not change at the same rate. Some parts are changing rapidly and other parts slowly. But since everything is interrelated, a rapid change in one part will eventually require a change in the other parts.

Changes in gender portrayal The breadth and depth of the various media make it difficult to generalise about gender portrayal, but content analysis (see page 156) does provide a guide. Content analysis has been applied most widely to television, but has also yielded some results for other media. Below are some of the fi ndings, together with some of the opinions of media analysts.

Pre-feminist era According to Andrea Press, active and courageous women were portrayed in the media of the prefeminist era. Many had careers or were portrayed as independently wealthy. However, the difference was that their world was limited because they were women, and stories often focused on how difficult they found the injustice of that.

1930s –1940s ‘Women in films of the 1930s and 1940s seldom ventured outside of their socially prescribed roles as sweethearts, wives or mothers to the male hero. By providing a romantic interest for the hero, the woman served the function traditionally assigned to her gender (particularly in film) while allowing the male character to play out his own pre-ordained role.’ John Blaser, No Place for a Woman: The Family in Film Noir

Figure 3.4: 4HE *AMES "OND

MEDIA

üLMS WHICH SPAN DECADES PROVIDE AN OPPORTUNITY TO STUDY CHANGES IN GENDER REPRESENTATION 4HE REPRESENTATION OF THE MALE HARDLY CHANGES ACROSS üLMS BUT THE FEMALE PORTRAYAL IS ANOTHER MATTER "Y THE S "ONDlS BOSS IS A WOMAN AND HIS LOVE INTERESTS HAVE INCLUDED A MARTIAL ARTS EXPERT AND A NUCLEAR SCIENTIST



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Before World War II (1939–45) a great deal of film and magazine representation focused on women’s role in the home. As the first celebrities of the golden era of Hollywood, women were also glamorised as fashion icons or sex sirens. Many of these women, such as Mae West, were very assertive, however. There were also exceptions to these common representations. Screwball comedy films were popular during the Great Depression (1929–33). They featured independent, somewhat madcap and often wealthy women who had encountered a working-class male. However, the ‘battle of the sexes’ that followed usually ended in the woman being tamed by marriage. Examples include Bringing Up Baby (1938) and His Girl Friday (1940). During World War II women entered the workforce in large numbers to support the war effort. Hollywood depicted women as ‘keeping the home fires burning’. But they were also depicted in factories and as combat nurses overseas. An example is the American wartime propaganda poster Rosie the Riveter (1944) publicising women working in heavy engineering factories.

adventurous soldiers to reliable breadwinners’. The femmes fatales and amoral males of film noir called this effort into question (see film noir, page 254).

1950s–1960s ‘Television has represented the American woman as a stupid, unattractive, insecure little household drudge who spends her martyred, mindless, boring days dreaming of love — and plotting nasty revenge against her husband.’ Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique

The coming of television created a different representation of women, although the representation of men remained relatively constant. Advertising demanded that television appeal to the dreams of the moneyed middle class. Advertisers also didn’t want anyone offended lest they decide not to buy their products. Hollywood was forced to fight television for audiences. In the movies, the glamour of actresses such as Marilyn Monroe helped attract the crowds. Says Annette Kuhn, ‘Representations of women became the commodities [that] film producers were able to exchange for money.’

Figure 3.6: -ARILYN -ONROE IN 'ENTLEMEN 0REFER "LONDES HELPED (OLLYWOOD ATTRACT AUDIENCES BACK FROM TELEVISION "UT IN THE S AND S THE PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN WAS POSSIBLY MORE LIMITING THAN EARLIER REPRESENTATIONS Figure 3.5: 4HE PIN UP GIRL OF THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT 2OSIE THE WARTIME FACTORY WORKER FROM 2OSIE THE 2IVETER 3HE IS RATED THE TH MOST INČUENTIAL REPRESENTATION EVER CREATED IN THE BOOK -OST )NČUENTIAL 0EOPLE 7HO .EVER ,IVED BY !LLAN ,AZER AND *EREMY 3ALTER 4HE AUTHORS SUGGEST 2OSIE HELPED JUMP START THE WOMENlS LIBERATION MOVEMENT After the war, says Nina Leibman, the media became ‘obsessed with returning women to their “proper place” in the home and converting men from

In the 1950s and 1960s only about 20 per cent of prime-time television characters were women, content analysis shows. Few women on television were shown to be independent. Their existence was mostly bound up with their children and their husbands. They are most often pictured in the private space of the family home and are rarely involved in public affairs. An example is the television show I Love Lucy (1951–57). Try as she might to escape her housewife role, the sassy Lucy always ended up being humbled.

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Popular films of the era included the westerns High Noon (1952) and Shane (1953). Television programs included Bonanza (1959–73) and 77 Sunset Strip (1958–64). All of them focused on male heroes who were confident and in control. While women had important roles, they were often portrayed as frightened or in need of protection. Little changed on television and in film during the 1960s, despite the changes happening in society and the rise of second-wave feminism (see the gender representation timeline, page 44). One content analysis study of television advertising found that 75 per cent of all ads showing a woman were for products used in either the kitchen or the bathroom.

show greater sensitivity as well. But hyper-masculine action heroes such as Rambo also appeared in the 1980s.

The feminist era 1970s–1980s Cultural lag meant that for much of the 1970s little changed in the representation of women, despite feminism. For instance, in the movie Superman (1978) Lois Lane had a career as a reporter but the focus was still on the male hero. According to Marjorie Rosen, ‘The representation of women as sex objects varied in style but remained constant throughout.’ Nevertheless, the actual numbers of women on prime-time television did increase. Content analysis studies showed that women were more than twice as likely as men to be shown in the home. The launch of the magazines Cleo (1972) and Cosmopolitan (1973) took women away from the housewife images of most other magazines. By the early 1980s things had begun to change. On television, Cagney and Lacey (1982–88) cast two women as the central characters in a crime drama. In film, the character Ripley set a new standard for a female science fiction hero in Aliens (1986). Meanwhile a 1985 content analysis of television ads showed that men and women were appearing as central figures about an equal amount of the time. Women were appearing in work roles and men were beginning to appear in family roles. Table 3.2: 5PWARD TREND IN WOMENlS SHARE OF PRIME TIME 46 CHARACTERS IN S AND S 9EAR

0ERCENTAGE

1971

18.3

1974

27.8

1987

35.0

MEDIA

Men’s representations also began to change after nearly 60 years of very narrowly limited depictions. The film Three Men and a Baby (1985) showed men in nurturing roles. Some action movie heroes seemed to

Figure 3.7: 4HE CHARACTER OF 2IPLEY IN !LIENS MARKED A TURNING POINT FOR THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN üLM !S THE PROTAGONIST SEE PAGE OF THE üLM AND A FEARLESS WARRIOR 3IGOURNEY 7EAVERlS CHARACTER BATTLED ON AN EQUAL BASIS WITH THE MALES 2IPLEY SET A TREND FOR FEMALE CHARACTERS IN ALL SCIENCE üCTION üLMS THAT FOLLOWED

1990s–2000s ‘It could be said that in the 1990s, to a certain extent, program makers arrived at comfortable, not-particularly-offensive models of masculinity and femininity, which a majority of the public seemed to think were acceptable.’ David Gauntlett, Professor of Media and Communications, University of Westminster

In the past 20 years there have been big changes in the media depictions of both men and women. A postmodern kind of feminism called third-wave feminism is a strong influence. Thelma and Louise (1991) cast two women in the leading roles as fugitives in the traditional road-trip



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movie genre, the villain in the story being sexism. This had not been seen before. From the 1990s, films such as The Long Kiss Goodnight (1996) and Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001) cast women in leading roles in action movies. On television, crime dramas such as Law & Order (1990–) and CSI (2000–) have both male and female leads. A content analysis of magazines has found that women’s bodies are still more often objectified than men’s and more often shown as body parts. An analysis of prime-time television has found only 3 per cent of women were portrayed as housewives during prime time. Direct comparisons are not available, but in the 1970s, 30 per cent of women were housewives in daytime television. In a 1995 content analysis of British television ads by Guy Cumberbatch, men were shown for the first time cooking more often than women. Following a backlash from female consumers, advertisers were reluctant to show women doing housework. Only 7 per cent of ads showed women cleaning. However, many other aspects of gender representation were unchanged. Women were nearly always young and attractive. Only 10 per cent were aged over 40. Men were still more likely to be in paid employment. A study by Jim Macnamara of the University of Western Sydney has found that in the 2000s, 69 per cent of representations of males were unfavourable compared with just 12 per cent being favourable. When men were represented positively, it was often because they had ‘embraced their feminine side’, says Dr Macnamara.

Male and female stereotypes Male stereotypes The following male stereotypes were identified in a report called Boys to Men: Media Messages about Masculinity by the Children Now organisation: • The joker. This type can be seen in movies such as Ghostbusters (1984) or Back to the Future (1985). • The jock. Often seen in horror movies as among the first to die, the jock demonstrates his power and strength to impress women. • The strong silent type. This character is in charge, acts decisively, doesn’t show emotion and always gets the girl. He is commonly seen in older action movies.

• The buffoon. This figure appears as a bungling father figure in television ads and sitcoms.

Figure 3.8: 3INCE THE S THE ACTION HERO HAS BULKED UP TO BECOME A HYPER MASCULINE HERO WITH AN UNREALISTIC PENCHANT FOR BRUTE FORCE 4HIS IS A CHANGE FROM EARLIER REPRESENTATIONS OF MALE HEROES

Female stereotypes The main female stereotypes are: • The dumb blonde. The blonde has a long history in the film and television industries, and there are various theories as to how the stereotype developed. She is seen as coming out of the myth that women can have beauty or brains but not both. The bimbo is a variation of the stereotype. • The femme fatale. This deadly woman uses her sexuality to destroy men in order to further her own ends; it is not usually love she is after (see film noir, page 254). • The girl next door. This is the stereotype of the sweet and trusting young woman who is portrayed as the ideal marriage prospect. • Gold diggers and trophy wives. These stereotypes perpetuate the myth that women marry for money and are reliant on men to support them. • The career woman. Since the 1980s the stereotype of the career woman has become increasingly common. She is successful but she can also be ruthless. • The housewife. Long the favoured stereotype on television, the housewife exists only to support her husband and children.

• The big shot. Seen in gangster movies but also in movies about business and the law, he is defined by his professional status.

• The soccer mum. This is a newer stereotype of the housewife. She has an overpowering desire for her children to succeed. She drives them everywhere and still has time to go to the gym.

• The action hero. Since the 1980s the action hero has become a hyper-masculine caricature. He is aggressive and uses violence to achieve his goals.

• The super mum. This woman fits everything into her life: kids, career, husband, commuting and personal development.

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Media industry

Men

Gender representation timeline

Women 1880–1920 First-wave feminism (e.g. Suffragettes)

1914

1914–1918 World War I

1930s

Magazines begin to focus on ‘light’ content aimed

1920–1980s 1930–1975 Age of mass media; a few media outlets aim at mass audiences. Representations target idealised middle-class consumers, ignoring all other groups because economically unviable. Gender representations used to associate sexual desire with products.

Restricted to traditional role in 85% of depictions Commanding, independent, competitive. In control of self and others Action oriented; hero focus on skill and decisiveness Involved in aggression and violence either as protector or perpetrator. Much more likely to die or suffer bodily wounds Breadwinner/workforce role; little family involvement

1930s–1940 Screwball comedies feature independent, ‘kooky’ women.

1940s–1950 Deadly, sexually alluring woman of film noir or the good, modest woman as housewife

1950s–1960s Women depicted as temptresses or housewives. Only 30% of television characters are female.

at housewives.

1939

1939–1945 World War II

1940

His Girl Friday (screwball independent woman eventually tamed by marriage)

1944

Double Indemnity (noir femme fatale and virtuous stepdaughter)

1949

Network TV begins (US).

1950

Sunset Boulevard (noir femme fatale and good-hearted marriage prospect)

1951

1951–1957 I Love Lucy (TV, madcap housewife and sensible husband; show seen as gently resisting social gender norms)

1964

1964–1972 Bewitched (TV, housewife uses spells to outwit husband)

1970s 1975–1995

Second-wave feminism. Turning point in gender representation

More media outlets (e.g. TV channels)

1976

role, but based on sex appeal)

1982

Rise of pay TV and targeting of audience demographics leads to slightly wider representation.

1976–1981 Charlie’s Angels (TV, women in action

1982–1988 Cagney and Lacey (TV, starring policewomen, a turning point in TV drama) 1982, 1985, 1988 Rambo (hyper-masculinity)

1985

Three Men and a Baby (men in nurturing role)

1986

Aliens (another turning point in women’s representation, with ‘macho’ Ripley victorious in battle)

1990s–2000s Portrayal of men as sex objects in ads (now both sexes)

2000s

MEDIA

Digital media enable marketing to smaller audiences and still wider representation.

Greater family involvement. Increased sensitivity of male hero, but also hyper-masculine action heroes focus on brute power and violence

1990 Third-wave feminism. Professional women depicted working alongside men.

2000s Many prime-time shows have female leads. Drop in housewife ads, but female still portrayed as sex object.

1991

Thelma and Louise (first female outlaws on the run, escaping from sexism)

1998

1998–2004 Sex in the City (TV, third-wave feminism)

1999

Fight Club (R-rated, examines masculinity)

2000

Billy Elliot (working -class boy hero wants to study ballet)

2001

Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (among first female action hero movies)

2005

The Pacifier (macho male in nurturing role)



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Activities 1. Conduct your own brief content analysis of

magazines to determine the most popular images of masculinity and femininity. To do this, select a magazine and note the imagery used in each picture of a man and a woman. Use headings for the various representation categories you are investigating. Once you have reached the end of the magazine, total the results and report to the class. 2. Make a collage charting the changes in either the male action hero in films or the representation of the housewife/mother figure in advertising. You will need samples from each of the key eras of media development: the pre-feminist, feminist and postfeminist eras. 3. Choose one of these topics and discuss it as a class. Has the advertising industry overreacted in its portrayal of men? Consider representations of men in the kitchen, men as sex objects and men portrayed in beer ads.To what extent has the exploitation of women’s bodies in advertising decreased since the pre-feminist era? Or has it become worse?

WRITTEN TASK 4. Write a report on the representation of gender

in a specific medium of your choice such as film, television or new media. You will need to support your findings with examples of common representations and some analysis of how they operate and what audience they are designed to appeal to. Collect some real-world statistics to compare real people with the media representation.

PRODUCTION TASK 5. Make a collage or an edited montage of the

representation of males and females over time, using imagery from a collection of movies. Scan DVD covers, create movie stills using a capture program or download images from the internet to build the production.

Representation in television comedy Homer Simpson is not well loved in the American nuclear power industry. In the cartoon sitcom The Simpsons, Homer is the incompetent, clock-watching employee of Springfield’s leaky nuclear power station. His carelessness with lumps of glowing material has reached a world audience of millions. Each episode of The Simpsons helps to erode the carefully fostered public relations image of the nuclear industry and provides a boon for the anti-nuclear movement. Whatever the message, if you want to get it across to people, an effective way is to get them laughing. Because of the humour element, the representations in comedies may well be more powerful than those in other fictional genres. This can work to support those already in power, or it can work to support the powerless.

Comedy and social change Something is funny only if it strikes a chord with the way we live our lives or if it makes a comment on events we are experiencing, so comedy writers go out of their way to be relevant to the audience. This means that every major social change of the past 60 years of television has been documented in comedy. While the formats of situation comedy and sketch comedy have

changed little since the early days of television, the content certainly has. Situation comedy is heavily concerned with families or family-like situations. As a result, the politics of the family has received the most attention. Changes in power relationships within the family and changes in family structure are clearly reflected in situation comedies from different time periods (see the sitcom timeline on page 350, and changes in sitcoms over time on page 352). ‘The situation comedy has been the television genre most consistently associated with feminist heroines and with advocating a progressive politics of feminism,’ says Lauren Rabinovitz. Sketch comedy is freer to criticise on a wide range of topics because it has a looser structure. Sketches are often tied to very recent political or social events, so they are much closer to recent change than situation comedy is (see the sketch comedy timeline on page 355).

Sketch comedy stereotypes Comedy relies on stereotypes. The need to get quick laughs in a 30-minute program may also mean that the views of dominant groups, big business interests

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and audience prejudices are reinforced. However, there can still be room for stereotypes that work in opposition. Greedy business leaders, corrupt politicians and ignorant bigots can also be the targets of comedy, as often occurs in The Simpsons. In one episode, Mr Burns, the owner of the nuclear power plant, runs for Governor to halt an inquiry into why Bart has caught a three-eyed fish in the local river. Sketch comedy is often satirical, seeking to criticise established authority. However, sketch comedy must appeal to a mass audience, especially on the commercial networks. The targets of its satire are therefore the usual approved targets that most people like to see criticised. Perhaps fortunately, the number one target is television itself. Many sketch comedies devote much of their time to parodying advertisements and television personalities. In a diverse society, often the only target that will unite the audience is television, since everyone has some experience of it.

Representation and the sitcom narrative In the sitcom format it is common to set up a comic problem that has an angle on some current issue or social concern. As the narrative progresses, the problem is explored. By the end of the episode the problem has been resolved and everything returns to normal. The way the problem is resolved can cue the audience to accept a certain message or point of view about the topic. In addition to entertaining, American situation comedies often try to provide their viewers with lessons in commonsense morality. The values appeal to most people and are unlikely to cause offence to anyone. Such sitcoms regularly give lessons in honesty, personal responsibility, trust, the value of hard-earned money, the importance of family, peer group pressure, the need for independence and the usefulness of education.

A world of personal problems

MEDIA

In sitcoms the focus on the small world of the comic trap (see page 348) means that problems tend to be caused by oddities of personality. Larger social causes are not dealt with directly, but rather are looked at only as they affect members of the comic trap. In the sitcom family, alienation, domestic violence, emotional abuse and financial difficulty are ignored. Divorce does appear, but primarily as a device for establishing the comic trap. When these issues do surface, they are presented as temporary plot

complications, resolved at the end of the program. Only rarely are problems shown as disruptions that may originate in social pressures from outside the comic situation.

Representation of groups ‘Beverly Hills is so clean because they don’t throw their garbage away — they turn it into television shows.’ Woody Allen, in Annie Hall (1977)

Situation comedies, rather than sketch comedies, have received criticism from many media academics for a variety of reasons. One reason for this is that sitcoms are long-running and can be studied and carefully analysed over time.

Fathers ‘In the world according to sitcoms, the air is thick with self-congratulation as the kids all blink and stare and roll their eyes in unison behind the back of some uptight neo-Dad. And every easy put-down touches off a noisy little riot of predictable applause. ‘Today’s good Dad will sometimes have a big reconciliation scene with his son (although seldom with his daughter), hugging the boy after some misunderstanding. But this is always presented as healthy weakness on Dad’s part. Even his moments of unrestrained affection demonstrate that Dad is at his best when giving in.’ Mark Crispin Miller, Professor of Media Studies, New York University

In contrast with the dads of 1950s television shows such as Father Knows Best, Homer Simpson is a sitcom father with no idea what is best for his family or even himself. Some critics say Homer promotes a prejudiced view of blue-collar fathers. There is evidence that most sitcoms tend to portray blue-collar fathers as foolish, and the writers give the power to the females in the family. A study in the year 2000 showed that working-class fathers were the butt of the jokes in comedy shows 63 per cent of the time, compared with 42 per cent of the time for middle-class fathers and 19 per cent for upper-class fathers. Nevertheless, it is also primarily in sitcoms (and soap operas) that men are shown as caring and being concerned for family.



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Nowadays women are an audience that television is eager to please. Women, especially younger women, are the advertisers’ most sought-after target group. They have the most control over spending and they watch the most television. Representations of women became much more favourable when their purchasing power was recognised from the 1990s onwards. Some researchers have suggested that sitcoms are targeting women much more keenly because they are losing men to new media communications channels and to pay TV sports and news. A 2001 study found that women made up approximately half the lead characters in the situation comedies studied. However, there are still areas of concern to feminist critics. These include: • Age barriers. Among television characters, women in their early twenties outnumber men of similar age by three to one. This was the finding of Professor George Gerbner following a massive study of all television characters. However, after this age their numbers fall away to almost nothing. Older women are rare in television sitcoms. When they do appear, they almost never look their age. Mothers and daughters appear more like sisters. Figure 3.9: 3OME CRITICS SAY (OMER 3IMPSON PROMOTES A PREJUDICED VIEW OF BLUE COLLAR FATHERS

Women Concern about the portrayal of women in television programs reached a peak in the 1970s and 1980s. The main issue was the lack of female characters. For example, in 1971 the gender distribution on all television was 80 per cent male and 20 per cent female. A decade of protests had some effect. By 1980 the proportion had reached 60 per cent male and 40 per cent female.

• The beauty myth. In situation comedies, women are invariably slim and attractive. Women are five times more likely than men to have red or blond hair. They are also usually portrayed as obsessed with the way they look and are much more likely to dress provocatively.

Table 3.3: 4HE COMBINED RESULTS OF THREE CONTENT ANALYSIS STUDIES INTO THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN THE S 4HE STUDIES INTO DOMINANCE LOOKED AT HOW MANY STATEMENTS MALES MADE COMPARED WITH FEMALES 4HEY ALSO LOOKED AT WHO WAS SEEN TO BE IN CONTROL MOST OF THE TIME ! CONTENT ANALYSIS STUDY IN SHOWED THERE HAD BEEN LITTLE CHANGE IN THE OVERALL PROPORTIONS -OST OF THE CHANGES WERE FOUND TO HAVE HAPPENED IN THE S -ALE

&EMALE

Percentage of men and women

56

44

Percentage of dominant characters

19

14

Percentage of equal characters

64

66

Percentage of dominated characters

16

20

Figure 3.10: -ARIE "ARONE 2AYMONDS MEDDLING OVERPROTECTIVE MOTHER OFFERS HER FAVOURITE SON SOME UNWELCOME ATTENTION IN %VERYBODY ,OVES 2AYMOND &EMALES IN SITUATION COMEDIES ARE DEPICTED AS MORE HOSTILE THAN MEN AND MORE LIKELY TO MAKE NEGATIVE COMMENTS A STUDY SHOWS (OWEVER WOMEN ARE ALSO SHOWN AS MORE AFFECTIONATE

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Minority groups In the past, television did not try to woo ethnic minorities. The reason for this was simple. Ethnic minorities have been among society’s most disadvantaged groups, so they have never had the spending power to attract advertisers. After all, the foremost aim of television is to attract wealthy consumers. But times have changed. In the United States, African Americans have come to represent a profitable market. According to Vance Packard, they spend more on consumer goods than Anglo Americans and also watch more television. African Americans now appear on American television roughly in proportion to their percentage of the total population. In contrast, Asian Americans and Latinos appear much less often. Television representation of African Americans does not recognise the history of slavery, the years of racial discrimination and the present-day realities of the ghettos. Instead, programs focus on a glorified, wealthy black upper class. As in most situation comedies, the larger social causes of problems are ignored, and the focus is only on personal issues. People who succeed are shown to do so because of their individual abilities rather than through luck or privilege. Upper-class African Americans are rarely shown interacting with the outside world or having to confront racism. They seem to have miraculously worked their way up through organisations without having encountered the obstacles most other African Americans do. Presenting this perfect sitcom world, argues communications academic Herman Gray, has led many Americans to comfortably believe racial disadvantage is no longer a problem.

male from ridicule, suggests Erica Scharrer. In 60 years he has moved from joke teller to joke target. There is some evidence from cross-cultural studies that this power shift in comedy has occurred in many western countries apart from English-speaking ones. However, making males the butt of television humour is less acceptable in countries such as Korea or Thailand, where the male economic role is stronger and the power distance greater. Table 3.4: )N YEARS THERE HAS BEEN A REVERSAL OF POWER RELATIONS BETWEEN THE GENDERS IN SITCOMS 4HERE HAS ALSO BEEN AN INCREASE IN SPOUSES MAKING FUN OF EACH OTHER &ATHER JOKES AT MOTHERS EXPENSE

-OTHER JOKES AT FATHERS EXPENSE

1950s

58

19

1960s

31

23

1970s

65

56

1980s

106

155

1990s

81

176

$ECADE

Changes in family Television families have always been unrepresentative. For instance, it was not until the 1970s that a divorced couple first appeared on American television. Divorce had become acceptable on television after the changes to American family law in 1969, but it had existed in society long before that. However, by 1994, 32 per cent of television characters were divorced, 8 per cent were separated and 5 per cent had never married. This is again a distortion. Table 3.5: 4ELEVISION FAMILIES HAVE NEVER REALLY MIRRORED REAL LIFE FAMILIES

Changes in sitcoms over time In the years since the 1950s the biggest change in representation in sitcoms has been in the portrayal of gender relations. There have also been minor changes in the portrayal of family harmony (or the lack of it) and relationships between brothers and sisters.

Gender basis for humour

MEDIA

Many studies have plotted the progress of the sitcom father from wise in the 1950s to foolish in the 2000s. In the 1950s the all-knowing father seemed to be above criticism and was much less likely to be the butt of the humour. Husbands and fathers governed the family in the 1960s. They gained their power in two ways: they were good decision makers and they had kindly wisdom. The father’s progression from wise to foolish has paralleled the decline of the single-income family with the male as sole breadwinner. Having a crucial economic role exempted the

4ELEVISION TWO PARENT NUCLEAR FAMILIES

4WO PARENT NUCLEAR FAMILY DATA FROM 53 CENSUS

1950s

38

88

1990s

26

73

$ECADE

Sitcom families tend to present a happier and more harmonious view of family relationships than might be usual in real-life families. Across all decades, studies show television families exhibit more cooperative and affectionate behaviours than hostile or withdrawing behaviours. Since the 1950s family relationships in sitcoms have exhibited much more conflict and a lot less stability. Husbands and wives fight more in modern sitcoms, but they are also more affectionate. Content analysis shows modern sitcom couples are more open about their relationship problems but, on balance, they seem as satisfied as they did in the past. Husbands and wives now seek support and give advice



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equally, whereas in the past husbands had a stronger role in supporting and advising the family. Power relations between husbands and wives are shown to be much more equal in modern sitcoms. While brothers and sisters in the 1950s and 1960s did fight, the issues were resolved quite quickly and were often refereed by wise and non-judgemental parents. However, a 2001 study has found things have gone downhill for the modern sitcom family. Most sibling interaction is still friendly, but sibling confl ict has increased since the days of Leave It to Beaver. The children of the family are seen to be motivated more by concern for themselves or their friends than for their siblings. People in older sitcoms seemed to cope better with the daily routines of family life than the characters in modern sitcoms do. In one study, which compared 1950s comedies such as Father Knows Best with 1990s comedies such as Home Improvement, the 1990s family was found to be much less competent, more disorganised and generally worse at coping.

Figure 3.11: 4HE SITCOM HAS CHANGED SINCE THE DAYS OF ,EAVE )T TO "EAVER 3IBLINGS üGHT MORE AND PARENTS COPE LESS WELL BUT POWER RELATIONSHIPS ARE MORE EQUAL

Activities 1. Watch a television sketch comedy and list the

stereotypes used. What point of view does each stereotype seem to suggest? Try to isolate any trend in viewpoint across the whole program. Evaluate the overall stance of the program. Does it support powerful institutions or groups in society, or does it seek to undermine them? 2. Examine a sitcom’s portrayal of a selected group, such as fathers, mothers, minority groups, males or females. Suggest ways these representations could be altered. 3. There has been little study of the representation of minority groups in Australian comedy. Perform a

content analysis of a sketch comedy to gather data on the use of non-Anglo-Celtic characters. 4. Conduct a class debate on the topic of whether situation comedies have improved the community’s understanding of the experience of minority groups. 5. Make a comparison of sitcoms from different time periods since the 1950s. Watch at least one episode of a sitcom from each decade. As points of comparison, examine the treatment of family and spousal relationships and the role of the father across the different time periods.

Representation in news and current affairs Why is the news always bad? So many people have asked why we only ever hear bad news that some television stations are promoting ‘good news’ programs. Most of these programs are not accepted as real news. It seems most people expect the news to be negative. The reasons for this are complex. Media experts have some ideas on it, including: • Negative is more visible than positive. Negative news appears more often than good news because it is easier to see. It can take seconds to kill a human being, but that same human being may have had years of nurturing and care that were not regarded

as newsworthy. A house may take several months to build and yet it can be razed to the ground in minutes in an accidental fi re. A negative event can easily happen between two issues of a newspaper, so it can easily be slotted into the front page. • Negative is undeniable. Negative news cannot be argued with. It is negative to everybody. For example, the building of a dam may be regarded by some conservationists as a serious problem, while developers may see it as a great benefit. However, the bursting of a dam wall and the subsequent flooding of a town would be understood by all as a disaster.

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• Negative is unexpected. The negative is more unexpected than the positive. Negative events are both rarer and less predictable than the more stable positive news.

• Simplicity. The news event must be simple and easy to understand. Black and white issues are the best stories for newspapers. Anything too complex will often be rejected. • Conflict. The story should contain conflict. The conflict can be between personalities, ideas or nations. A conflict involving violence is even more newsworthy. • Impact. The news event must have a big impact on people. Journalists often ask themselves: ‘Who will be affected by this story?’ The story must be of some consequence to the audience. • Familiarity. The news has to be familiar. Nothing too different or ‘way out’ will be included. In this sense, all news is actually a collection of ‘olds’. It always consists of wars, murders, politics, earthquakes and so on. It is an endlessly repeated drama whose stories are familiar and very well understood.

Processes of representation Figure 3.12: -EDIA EXPERTS SAY THERE ARE AT LEAST THREE REASONS WHY WE ONLY EVER HEAR BAD NEWS IT IS EASIER TO SEE IT CANNOT BE ARGUED WITH AND IT IS UNEXPECTED

In television news, current affairs and documentaries, issues of representation can be treated as by-products of the basic processes of news gathering: agenda setting, gatekeeping, selection, language, visuals, time and sequence.

News values A large metropolitan newspaper receives around one million words of news copy every day, so the selection process is massive. Little more than 10 per cent of this avalanche ever appears in the paper. Media analysts say there are certain requirements that stories must meet before they will be accepted by the newspapers or television news. These requirements fall under the following headings: • Frequency. The news event must occur within a time frame similar to that of the newspaper. For example, a weekly newspaper may be able to focus better on long-term projects than a daily newspaper. This is why murders are commonly covered in daily newspapers. They occur in a short space of time between two daily issues of the paper. Correspondingly, the building of a dam will not make a daily newspaper because the time frame is wrong. The start of construction or the official opening of the dam will make the paper, however. • Threshold. The news event must be of sufficient size to be considered newsworthy.

MEDIA

• Social acceptability. The news event must fit in with what the majority of people in a society believe is important.

Figure 3.13: "IAS IS THE FAVOURING OF CERTAIN POINTS OF VIEW OVER OTHERS !LL REPRESENTATIONS CONTAIN BIAS SINCE THEY ARE ALL SELECTIONS OF REALITY



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Agenda setting News programs set the agenda for community discussion by deciding what news will be included and what will be left out. In making judgements for audiences about what is important, news programs are creating a representation of the world based on their own chosen discourses (see page 192 on discourse). This process is explained in agenda-setting theory (page 158). Instances of agenda setting by news agencies are easy to find. For example, commercial news agencies run lots of stories on violent crime. According to agenda-setting theory, the outcome of this is that the community starts to consider violent crime a problem, whether it is or not. Similarly, current affairs programs often place stories about welfare cheats on the agenda. As a result, cracking down on welfare cheats may become a political issue. The actual size of the problem compared with, say, tax cheating by wealthier sections of the community is not examined because it is not on the agenda.

• Traditional news values decide what is news and what is not news. This tradition carries on from newspaper values and is part of the institutional culture of media organisations (see newspaper representation issues, page 479). Selection procedures are often institutional. Commercial television may choose differently from a public service broadcaster. • Visual selection is necessary because television is a visual medium. A story with no pictures/footage may be passed over for a lesser story with strong pictures/footage. • Cultural selection is probably the most powerful filter. Some things can be said publicly and other things can’t. This is culturally decided. The ‘ordinary’ citizen is the target of news and current affairs, and his or her presumed viewpoint is the one used to select the stories. Other, more unusual viewpoints are rarely selected.

Gatekeeping Agenda setting occurs through a process called gatekeeping. In the newsroom, the news editor decides which stories will appear in the news bulletin and in which order. Often this is a personal decision based on what the news editor thinks the targeted audience will want to see. Gatekeeping prevents many smaller community groups from making contact with a larger audience. In the meantime, the established discourses flow through without interruption. For instance, until the early 1980s gatekeeping kept environmental issues off the agenda for most of mainstream Australia. In contrast, pro-development points of view supporting business interests made it to air much more easily.

Selection processes As the clock ticks away the minutes to the opening broadcast, news and current affairs editors work frantically, sifting and selecting stories for broadcast. It is a process so habitual and speedy that it is almost instinctive. Material is selected using the following four main institutional processes: • Routines of newsgathering mean some news is selected and other news ignored. A story breaking at 5:00 pm has a greater chance of appearing than one breaking at 9:00 pm. A story with easy vehicle or helicopter access, a story close by or an email story may be preferred over other stories. Reporters also have regular places they visit to gather news. These are called rounds or beats, and they include police stations, law courts and Parliament.

Figure 3.14: 3ELECTION PROCEDURES FOR NEWS PROGRAMS ARE OFTEN INSTITUTIONAL #OMMERCIAL INSTITUTIONS NEED BULLETINS THAT ENTERTAIN AS WELL AS INFORM 0UBLIC SERVICE INSTITUTIONS MAY REVERSE THOSE PRIORITIES

Language The Glasgow University Group conducted exhaustive research into the language used on British television news. They found that the language itself can lead to significant bias. Their study concentrated on the reporting of industrial news such as strikes. The who, what, when and where structure of stories was found to neglect the causes of strikes. Stories focused on strikers as the group causing disputes, yet all industrial action involves two sides. Industrial news always

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sees unions ‘demanding’ and employers ‘offering’. The Glasgow analysts point out that to talk of employers demanding and unions offering seems absurd. Repetition has normalised the bias. Putting the news fi rst in a sentence also creates a distortion. The focus is mainly on the what in each story. Television news stories in particular never seem to get to the why.

Visuals The Glasgow University Media Group study found that the written story is still the major factor in television news, current affairs and documentaries. While television is undoubtedly a visual medium, the visuals are usually a secondary element. Pictures tend to be shot to suit the story. While the camera records the truth, it selects the truth it records. Not everything can be included in the frame and this can lead to bias. One study of industrial news has shown that bosses tend to be fi lmed as individuals in close-up, whereas workers tend to be fi lmed in groups on site in medium shot or long shot. The effect of this is possibly that greater importance and ‘truth’ is attached to what the managers say, while workers appear as unruly troublemakers. Camera angle can also indicate a point of view (see television and fi lm language, page 15). Editing adds to the process of selection. The picture sequence shown on the television screen may be a rearrangement of the original footage. Editors may have changed the order of the pictures to suit the story.

A famine in Ethiopia is shown as a group of starving people, because the general problem of world food resources is too complex for the time allowed. Certain viewpoints may be given more time than others. The Glasgow group reported that ‘[In Britain] in the fi rst four months of our survey, there were 17 occasions when the news showed viewpoints against the government’s policy of wage restraint. There were 287 occasions when views supporting these policies were broadcast.’ In newspapers, the space given to a story determines its relative importance. Newspapers may give more space to news and opinion that agrees with their own opinions. Opposing news may be given less space.

Story placement The position of a story can cause bias. For example, the following two introductions appeared one after another in a commercial news program. Story 1 ‘And now that controversial government grant of $10 000 to a group of feminist surfers for the design of a women’s surfboard.’ Story 2 ‘Today, a handicapped boy goes without a wheelchair because the government says there is no more money available.’ The impact of one story on the other is considerable. Together they make a powerful statement that could not be said to be objective or unbiased.

Time and space

Opinion

The short time span of a news story creates a ‘bias against understanding’, according to some analysts. Typical news bulletins, with a large number of stories in a short time, work against a deep understanding.

Editorials always support particular points of view, and other opinions have no chance of being supported in the newspaper. For example, newspaper editorials never support strikes or protest demonstrations.

Activities 1. News and current affairs directors select stories in

MEDIA

response to their own cultural background and that of their audience. (a) Suggest some unusual backgrounds that might change a news director’s view of what makes news and current affairs. (b) Suggest some of the stories you would include if you were an editor with an atypical background broadcasting to an audience of similar background to your own. 2. Look at figure 3.15 and consider the selection the camera operator has made. Suggest a reason for this, and say what you think the point of the cartoon is.

Figure 3.15



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3. Suggest some story pairs that could have an impact

on each other’s meaning. For example, a story on alcohol advertising followed by a story on a drink driving accident might change viewers’ ideas on alcohol advertising. 4. Compare the evening news bulletins on different television stations. To do this you will need to allocate different class members or groups to each of the competing programs. As you watch the news, fill in a table similar to the one below. (A row has been completed to give you an example of the information you will need.) Collate your findings, documenting the following: overall number of stories; degree of similarity

between stations; differences in the order of priority given to the same story; and the differences in the amount of time devoted to stories. Consider the needs of several audience groups, then recommend the best television news for each that is available in your area.

PRODUCTION TASK 5. From the pages of a newspaper, find a story with

two possible viewpoints in it. Using selection, sequencing and space, create two biased, 200-word stories from the original. Write a brief explanation of your methods, attach it to the original and also attach the two biased stories.

Table 3.6: #OMPARISON OF EVENING NEWS BULLETINS ON DIFFERENT TELEVISION STATIONS #ATEGORIES OF NEWS

3TORY TITLE

7AS THE STORY OF FOREIGN OR NATIONAL INTEREST OR BOTH

0OSITION OF STORY IN BULLETIN

4IME TAKEN TO REPORT THE STORY

Hole in the ozone

Both

5th

30 seconds

Politics Business and the economy Industrial relations (unions and management) Foreign affairs National affairs Human interest Disasters Sport

Docudrama and truth ‘The challenge of film to history, of the visual culture to the written culture may be like the challenge of written history to the oral tradition. Before writing, there was myth, which was a perfectly adequate way of dealing with the past of a tribe, or a city of people. It was adequate in terms of providing a meaningful world in which to live and relate to one’s past. In a post-literate world, it is possible a visual culture will once again change the nature of our relationship with the past.’ Robert A. Rosenstone, Professor of History, California Institute of Technology

A docudrama is a television or fi lm narrative based on real people and actual events. Docudramas could well be called nonfiction drama. For a fuller defi nition of docudrama, see page 205.

The arguments for and against the use of docudrama are based on differing ideas of what is truth and what is accuracy.

Criticism According to media historian Jerry Kuehl, people are mistaken if they believe a docudrama has any real claim to truth. Dramas are not capable of causal accounts of the real world, says Kuehl. If an event has already been recorded on fi lm, a docudrama would have to mimic it exactly to be in any way truthful. There is no point in this. Therefore any change to the portrayal of an event reduces its truthfulness. If an event was not fi lmed, then dramatic artists are at even more of a disadvantage. Even if the language used in the re-creation is authentic and based on court records, for example, drama still alters the truth. Accents may be different; inflection, volume,

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gestures, stance and so on could all have their meaning changed. Docudramas about non-English-speaking people are doubly false, says Kuehl. Himmler speaking English with a heavy German accent or Krushchev speaking American English with a Russian accent removes us further from the truth. Actors speaking the lines, directors who orchestrate them, scriptwriters, camera operators and editors all selectively construct a version that moves further and further from the truth, says Kuehl. At the heart of traditional documentaries lie truth claims, according to Kuehl. These claims are based on argument and evidence, assembled from research, interviews and film footage. Kuehl asks: How can we tell if Krushchev ever lost his temper in public? Footage of him banging his shoe on a desk at the United Nations Assembly will not persuade everyone, but it is very strong evidence. A movie starring Telly Savalas dressed as Krushchev and banging on a desk somewhere in Hollywood is evidence of nothing and will convince no-one.

According to Leslie Woodhead, much of the heat in the docudrama debate is generated by arguments over accuracy versus absolute truth. Absolute truth is impossible to achieve. Accuracy, on the other hand, suggests a version of the truth that is based heavily on research and factual evidence. Woodhead’s docudramas have been regarded as authoritative enough to be tendered as court evidence. His 1979 production Collision Course contains a second-by-second reconstruction of the last few minutes before the world’s worst mid-air collision. It was used as evidence in an inquiry into air safety.

Representing history The great stories of history have always captivated filmmakers. Producers are now starting to engage historians as consultants to productions. Using the experience gained through their involvement with films, some historians are speaking out about the role of history on the screen.

‘Getting it right does have validity in journalistic terms. Not against the standards of an elusive absolute truth, but against the standards of evidence as they might be understood in a court of law.’

‘The moving image conveys a poor information load. History does not consist of a descriptive narrative of what happened. It consists of debates between historians about just what exactly did happen, why it happened and what would be an adequate account of its significance.’

Leslie Woodhead, docudrama pioneer

Ian Jarvie, historian

MEDIA

Figure 3.16: $ENZEL 7ASHINGTON IN A SCENE FROM 3PIKE ,EElS üLM -ALCOLM 8 3CREEN BIOGRAPHIES ARE A FORM OF DOCUDRAMA THAT HAS ALWAYS BEEN POPULAR WITH FEATURE üLMMAKERS )SSUES OF TRUTH ARE FURTHER COMPLICATED WHEN A HUGELY POPULAR ACTOR APPEARS IN A üLMED INTERPRETATION OF SOMEONE ELSElS LIFE



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‘Traditional written history is too narrow in focus to render the fullness of the complex, multidimensional world in which humans live. Only film, with its quick cuts to new sequences, dissolves, fades, speed-ups and slow motion, can ever hope to approximate real life. Only film can provide empathetic reconstruction to convey how historical people witnessed, understood and lived their lives.’ R. J. Raack, historian

Films cannot fulfil the basic demands for truth and verification that historians demand, argues Robert Rosenstone. Films insert fictions to improve the story. They also tend to confuse memory with history — if someone remembers something, then it must be true. This means they ignore the possibility of faulty memory, exaggeration or even lies. Films, Rosenstone claims, also create a closed world with a single linear story, thus denying alternative points of view and banishing all complexity. For most people, however, the emphasis in history is on the story. Academic historians are few in number and they are in danger of becoming even fewer. Film is capable of dealing with the past and can attract huge audiences. Despite its limitations, fi lm is a medium historians can use to create narrative histories that will touch large numbers of people and give meaning to the past, says Rosenstone. Not all historians agree. The great danger of fi lm, said David Herlihy, is that it makes the viewer an eyewitness. In order to accept the dramatisation of the fi lm, the viewer must also suspend disbelief. In history, this is a dangerous thing.

Figure 3.17: 7ARREN "EATTY AS *OHN 2EED AND $IANE +EATON AS ,OUISE "RYANT IN 2EDS "IOGRAPHICAL DOCUDRAMAS CAN ALTER THE TRUTH FOR THE SAKE OF THE STORY )N THE üLM *OHN 2EED MAKES A TRAIN JOURNEY THROUGH WAR TORN &RANCE AND 'ERMANY TO 0ETROGRAD IN LATE q A TRIP THAT WOULD HAVE BEEN IMPOSSIBLE AT THE TIME

‘Doubt is not visual. Warnings of any sort, appeals to maintain critical detachment, cannot be easily photographed. Warnings require a retreat from the visual to the written word.’ (The late) David Herlihy, historian

Activities 1. Can drama be used to present real-life

material? Discuss the docudrama’s claim on truth. 2. From a history book, find graphical or tabular evidence of some causes of historical events; for example, statistics on famine, unemployment or overpopulation. Think of a way of transposing this information into a scene in a film. Discuss the effectiveness of film as a means of communicating this information. 3. Analyse the use of mise-en-scène (see page 17) in a sequence from a historical docudrama from any period. Count up the meaningful objects included in the scenes, such as landscape, period architecture, costumes and means of transport. Evaluate the effectiveness of these elements in conveying information about the period.

4. How can an audience be encouraged to critically

evaluate evidence presented within a docudrama? One historian has suggested displaying subtitles on the screen outlining other points of view. Suggest other ways of solving the problem.

WRITTEN TASK 5. Make a comparison of two docudramas dealing with

the same topic. Analyse the variations in viewpoints they contain and illustrate your comments with excerpts from the films. Suggest reasons for the differences. Some suggested films are: historical docudramas made in different eras; film versions of Shakespearean historical plays such as Henry V; biographies such as Malcolm X (1972 and 1992); Shadowlands (1985 and 1993); and docudramas relating to the Jewish Holocaust of World War II.

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Law and order on television Crime shows deal with law and order. The law is also the concern of politics. Unlike many other television topics, the portrayal of crime and law and order means that programs are unavoidably involved in politics. From the early days of television, programs have always played it safe by supporting the status quo.

The point of view The handsome hero is brave and tough but also kind. The audience naturally identifies with him in his quest against crime. The hero represents the law and becomes the law. To the audience, the hero and the law are one and the same. Criminals are stereotyped as bad characters. No-one mourns their bad end. As a result, only one point of view is favoured. The world is viewed through the eyes of the law enforcers.

The television crime wave Crime on television is much more brutal and violent than actual crime is, notwithstanding some sensational real-life cases. Television crime is also much more likely to be directed against a person than at property. One study showed that simple theft accounted for nearly two-thirds of actual police work but only 6 per cent of television police work. On the other hand, murder made up one-third of television crime but in the United States accounts for less than onesixth of 1 per cent of FBI investigations.

MEDIA

Human rights

Figure 3.18: 0ART OF THE ,AW /RDER TEAM !CCORDING

A neat, bloodless bullet hole in the villain’s heart is a common sort of television justice. The criminal is always shown to pull his gun first, so the law enforcer’s gun is only ever used in self-defence in life-and-death situations. When the law enforcers are shown to be so brave and honourable, the viewer rarely questions their right to dispense capital punishment. Certainly the law enforcer never seems to feel guilty. In one episode of a crime show, a criminal is cornered against a heap of old cartons and rubbish. He fires at the cop and the cop calmly shoots him dead. The streetwise detective simply looks at the body and says: ‘Now all the city has to do is pick him up with the garbage.’

The right to life is not the only human right that the law enforcers violate. A University of Massachusetts study of crime programs showed law officers routinely breaking and entering. They were also shown failing to inform suspects of their legal rights and committing bribery. The research professors commented that police shows seem to reduce the ordinary person’s awareness of their rights and responsibilities. Many people did not even notice blatant police-state tactics, as they were so engrossed in the violence and action of the show.

TO 0ROFESSOR %LAYNE 2APPING ,AW /RDER ATTORNEYS HAVE TENDED TO BE LESS CONCERNED WITH kPOLITICALLY CORRECTl MORAL ISSUES AND MORE CONCERNED WITH GETTING A CONVICTION



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The personal is never political In one episode of a British police show, the streetwise cop asks himself why a childhood friend has turned to armed robbery. ‘I just don’t understand it,’ he comments. His hardboiled partner replies, ‘Don’t even try, George — it’s just human nature.’ Because they deal with crime, crime dramas cannot avoid dealing with political, social and economic issues. There are differences between the traditional and the newer crime dramas in their approach to social problems. However, most programs play it safe when it comes to social criticism. Few traditional crime dramas analyse the reasons for crime very deeply. Problems in society that breed crime, such as unemployment or the divisions between rich and poor, are rarely mentioned. Traditional crime dramas offer little understanding of the overall situation. There is a tendency for the traditional television crime drama to suggest that lawbreakers are born, not made.

Soap opera–influenced programs such as The Bill do tackle social issues and do not always resolve them neatly. However, shows that do analyse the reasons for crime still rarely lead the viewer to think that anything could or should be done about significantly changing society. They are even less likely to suggest that the viewers themselves could take personal political action. This is partly explained by the fact that commercial programs must make sure that advertisers or other powerful groups are not offended. As well, the studios are themselves major multinational corporations with commercial interests to protect. Computer crime, white-collar crime and the corporate crimes of big businesses are also rarely mentioned on crime shows, despite the fact that they are perhaps a much greater threat to society and certainly cost the community vast sums of money. But these stories lack action and stereotypical victims. The television crime drama series concentrates almost exclusively on murders, assaults, drug abuse and robberies.

Activities 1. The following crimes against human rights — all

committed by law enforcers — often appear on crime shows, according to the University of Massachusetts study: • breaking and entering • failure to inform suspects of their rights • terrorising • bribery. Count how many of these (if any) occur in one episode of an American crime drama. 2. Look at the comparison in table 3.7 of real crime frequency and the frequency of television crime, and then answer the questions that follow. Table 3.7: #OMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF REAL CRIMES AND TELEVISION CRIMES

(a) To what extent does the television crime rate reflect the real world? (b) Suggest reasons for the differences between the two rankings. 3. Look at the comparison of real American criminals and criminals on American television in table 3.8, and then answer the questions that follow. Table 3.8: #OMPARISON OF REAL AND TELEVISION CRIMINALS IN THE 5NITED 3TATES 2EAL CRIMINALS

4ELEVISION CRIMINALS

Male

85

84

Female

15

16

Under 20

35

0

#ATEGORY

Sex

2EAL CRIMES RANKED IN ORDER OF FREQUENCY FROM &") INDEX OF CRIMES

4ELEVISION CRIMES RANKED IN ORDER OF FREQUENCY

1

Burglary

Murder

20–35

34

39

2

Larceny*

Assault

36–50

20

52

3

Auto theft

Robbery

51–65

9

8

4

Robbery

Auto theft

Over 65

2

1

5

Assault

Burglary

6

Rape

Larceny*

7

Murder

Rape

*Larceny is an American term referring to the theft of personal property. The term is rarely used in Australia. Burglary is the crime of breaking in with the intent to steal.

Age

(a) What differences are there between the real criminal and the television criminal? Can you suggest any reason for this? (b) Can you think of any programs now showing that offer a different focus from the survey results?

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Advertising and stereotypes Have you ever thought how much an advertiser could save by using real-life characters instead of professional models? For a much smaller fee, a real-life nurse could be persuaded to appear in a hospital scene. Advertising agencies have actually tried this approach, but with very unsatisfactory results. Real-life workers do not make good stereotypes. The actual nurse, for example, would probably not be convincing on television. It is quite likely that the reallife professional would not be recognised as a proper nurse by viewers who have become accustomed to the stereotype. Instead, advertisers believe it works much better to have models who fit the stereotype to pose in completely make-believe scenes. Stereotypes (see page 37) allow a commercial to communicate instantly and nonverbally. Since most advertisements last only 30 seconds, the viewers must immediately recognise and accept the stereotyped image as ‘believable’. Like comedy, advertising as we now know it could not exist without the use of stereotypes, which harness the cultural knowledge of the viewer. A person’s cultural knowledge may include all the comics, television shows and books, and each prejudice and belief he or she has ever encountered. Tapping into this knowledge, stereotypes often include the most extreme and exaggerated characteristics of groups, ideas or events. The views of the dominant and most powerful groups in society tend to be reinforced by stereotypes in television advertising. This is because non-dominant groups (who also are stereotyped) usually do not have spending power.

Advertising representations Women

MEDIA

Getting the representation of women right has been one of the most difficult balancing acts advertising agencies have had to face. Women are the most lucrative audience for television advertising, but they also make up 65 per cent of all complainants about advertising. Statisticians became aware of greatly increased numbers of women in the workforce as early as 1966. However, until the 1980s the typical woman in television commercials was still presented as a housewife. She was usually young, with an executivetype husband and two children. The meaning in her life derived from discussions about the benefits of miracle washing powders, oven cleaners and modern appliances. She won her husband’s approval through

good household management, lots of cosmetics and impeccable grooming. In the mid 1980s came the new stereotype of the super-mum. She managed all the tasks of the traditional stereotype as well as holding down a high-powered career. Feminists were strongly critical. Gillian Dyer, for example, said that the new stereotype still did not question the basic power structures or the continuing male dominance of the workplace and the family. By the mid 1990s the super-mum stereotype had been partly replaced by the busy career mother. The new super-stressed mum was desperate for a product to provide relief from the hectic demands of the double shift. Advertisers seemed keen to sympathise with women’s increasing stress levels as they tried to juggle their dual roles in the workforce and the home. However, a recent survey of 150 advertisements found the representation of women was still out of touch with reality. Nearly 60 per cent of women portrayed were young and beautiful, 26 per cent were obsessed with body image and 18 per cent were housewives.

Men Men are shown as weak and pathetic in nearly 11 per cent of advertisements, according to an advertising industry survey. The same survey found muscle-men (himbos) were the representations of men shown in 27 per cent of advertisements. Other common stereotypes of men included Mr Fix-its (in 9 per cent of commercials), sensitive new age guys (17 per cent) and powerful businessmen (18 per cent). Until recently, few men have complained about the depiction of males on television advertising. The main reason for recent complaint has been the broadcasting of a number of advertisements seen as demeaning to men. Most complainants have argued that, if the gender roles were reversed in the commercial, the depiction would be banned. Advertisers would not dare treat women in such a demeaning manner. So far none of these complaints has been upheld. Authorities argue that what the community sees as acceptable in the portrayal of women is currently very different from what is acceptable for men.

Ethnic minorities Whereas women have made significant gains in advertising representations in the past two decades, the representation of minority ethnic groups has hardly changed. This is despite a focus on multiculturalism in the broader community. When ethnic minorities appear in television advertising, it is usually to



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promote food products such as curries and sauces. Part of the reason for the stereotyped portrayal of ethnic groups is that, unlike women, advertisers have not so far identified them as separate, big-spending target audiences.

Aborigines Advertisers almost never choose an Aboriginal person to promote their products. In this, the actors Ernie Dingo and Deborah Mailman and athlete Cathy Freeman are the sole exceptions. When Aborigines do appear, it is usually to promote community services or Indigenous festivals and so on. Representations of Indigenous Australians are often used to promote tourism, but they are always romanticised tribal Aborigines, says director and actor Wesley Enoch of Brisbane’s Kooemba Jdarra theatre group. He points out that when advertisement producers do choose to portray Aborigines, they have a stereotyped image in mind. They never choose to show urban Aborigines, nor do they give Aborigines central roles in the advertisement.

The African-American experience Reviewing the experience of African Americans can be useful for understanding the representation of ethnic minority groups in Australia. Following the mass civil rights demonstrations in the 1960s, African-American organisations pressured the US government and corporations into using more African-American models in their advertisements. Content analysis surveys in the 1990s showed the battle had been won. Their representation in television commercials is now just slightly higher than their percentage share of the population. However, research shows African Americans are usually seen endorsing products of lower value than those endorsed by white Americans. The AfricanAmerican model is usually male and is less likely than white models to be portrayed holding a highly skilled occupation. African Americans are three times more likely to be portrayed as sports stars, but only half as likely to be shown in business roles.

Occupations Nearly everyone in television advertisements has a high-paying professional job. Following a content analysis study of almost 320 commercials, an American survey revealed that 87 per cent of people are shown as having highly skilled occupations. Only 13 per cent of advertisements feature people in lowincome or unskilled occupations.

groups, such as feminists and consumer organisations, believe today’s advertising relies on outmoded stereotypes and is socially irresponsible. Advertising professionals disagree. They see the industry as a business, the aim of which is to communicate messages that sell their clients’ products. Advertisers say that their marketing simply reflects the world as it is. Otherwise consumers would not buy the advertised products. Since advertisers aim to make money, they only ever present safe images that follow, rather than lead, public opinion. More than anything, they fear a consumer backlash against their images, which could lead to a drop in product sales. Their clients’ reaction would be to cancel the account.

Representation and society The representations of advertising interact with society in two ways. The first is by drawing in something desirable from the wider culture and attaching it to a product. For example, love can be attached to chocolates or the power of feminism can be attached to insurance products. The second interaction advertising has with society is in an outward direction — it is the spin-off effect of advertising. The commercialism of advertisements may be extended to a greater commercialism in other walks of life. Advertising is now attaching itself outwards to all kinds of aspects of society. For instance, sporting events, cultural events, even early childhood education in some countries, all attract advertising. John Corner of the University of Liverpool refers to these two effects as the centripetal and centrifugal forces of advertising representations. The American literary critic Wayne Booth calls advertising representations pornographic. Advertising seeks to arouse appetite and desire, he says. Booth outlines a number of properties of advertising representation that he says make advertising a depressing cultural event: • Advertisements do not permit other ways of thinking, and they suggest moral values that are taken as normal. • Advertisements link the noblest human emotions with greedy demand for products. • Advertisements depend on stereotypes. • Advertising shows that the only goal in life is success — there are no losers in Adland.

Reflecting or shaping reality?

Discourses

Should the representations of advertising simply reflect the real world or should they influence it? Many social

For more on discourses in advertising see television advertising, page 369.

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Activities 1. A content analysis counts the occurrence of certain

representations in an advertisement. Analyse the content of a selection of commercials to check the incidence of various stereotypes of different groups. Calculate this incidence as a percentage of the total number of advertisements containing the target group. 2. Research the historical development of the representation of a selected group in television advertising.

3. Create a commercial based on a ‘reverse stereotype’

of a selected group. A reverse stereotype changes the common depictions of a group into their opposites or takes on the stereotypical elements of more powerful groups. A reverse stereotype, for example, could be of a powerful Aboriginal businesswoman.

Representation in soap operas ‘Our soaps and serials reaffirm values and ideals that are generally held in the community. Loyalty, friendship, cooperation, trust, wisdom, love, beauty, youth. Audiences switch on Home and Away to be reassured that basically ours is a good society, even though it has ups and downs and dramatic moments. Summer Bay is somewhere audiences go to experience the sense that although there are rough times in life, in the end things will be okay. On the occasions we as a story department tried to be provocative, tried to change those values, tried to change community standards, we lost our audience. Home and Away exists to reaffirm social values, not query them.’ Greg Haddrick, former story editor on Home and Away

Soap operas aim for a feeling that their world is similar to real life and lived experience. Familycentred, humdrum domestic settings and plots add to this feeling. The audience is encouraged to believe they are watching a parallel world — similar to their own, but separate. Soaps also deal with typical social issues and concerns. With the real world and the soap world dealing with similar issues, the apparent realism of the program is further confi rmed.

MEDIA

‘The world of Neighbours is the world of the detergent commercial; everything from the kitchen worktops to the S-bend is squeaky clean. Everyone’s hair and underwear is freshly laundered. No-one is shabby or eccentric; no-one is poor or any colour but white. Neighbours is the Australian version of the American dream, owneroccupied, White-Anglo-Saxon-Protestant paradise.’ Germaine Greer, feminist writer and commentator

What sort of ‘real’ world? Critics and analysts who study the representation of the world offered by soap operas focus on a variety of areas. These include: • Strong women. Soap operas frequently represent women as strong characters. Women’s roles range from the professional and career oriented to the domestic. • SNAG males. Males in soap operas tend to be represented as sensitive new age guys. Strong males are often villains.

‘The men are turned into whining idiots while the women run amok. You can’t write scenes where the men say, “Why don’t you love me? What can I do to help you?” It’s horrible. We’re working on scripts where the men can demonstrate commitment without necessarily talking about it.’ Hogan Sheffer, head writer on As the World Turns (US)

• Distorted world. According to American critic Ruth Rosen, soap characters rarely eat except at restaurants; motherhood is glorified but no-one is ever glimpsed caring for the offspring; family life is praised but divorces occur at twice the real frequency; amnesia is a common disease; lots of people have split personalities; and once a woman spent 17 days in a revolving door having flashbacks! • Problems are personal. No attempt is made to link the problems that characters have to larger social causes. For example, in one episode of Neighbours, Brad was a happy-go-lucky surfie. He was also unemployed, but unemployment as a social issue was presented only as a matter of Brad’s personality. Unemployment is also usually seen as a male problem only.



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• Conflict is resolved. The inner circle of the family is seen as the solution to all problems. Quite difficult social problems are resolved through family love, courage and tolerance. • Lead from behind. It could never be said that soap operas are important catalysts for social change. They follow from a safe distance rather than lead. They do not commit themselves to progressive solutions to problems, but aim for the middle ground or the consensus viewpoint. The pressure for high ratings means that most soaps never go beyond mild reformism.

• Unrealistic minority characters. Characters from minority groups are rarely given central roles. Some have been cast as central characters in Home and Away, but minority families are almost never the main family in a soap opera. Minority characters often have to represent the whole population, since so few of them are given important roles. Thus, the producers have a problem: minority characters are unable to be villains for fear the show will appear racist. Yet there is no room for them as heartthrobs or heroes either; as a result, they often end up being wishy-washy.

Activities 1. List some difficult social problems you have

4. What moral values do you think would have been

witnessed in soap operas recently. How would you rate their stance — ahead of public opinion, with it or safely behind? 2. Can you work out the overall moral standpoint of a particular soap opera? Start by listing the stands it has taken recently. Does an overall philosophy or point of view emerge? Write your answer in a paragraph. 3. Soap operas can express their morality as much by what is left out as by what is shown. Make a list of taboo areas a soap opera could discourage by never allowing them to appear.

promoted in the radio soap operas of the 1930s? Contrast these with today’s values. 5. Many media academics say soaps concentrate on the personal instead of the larger social meanings of problems. Find examples to either support or refute this criticism. Where you agree with the criticism, list examples and explain how the program could have dealt with the issue differently. Where you disagree, show why.

Representation in video games Game designers are typically white, middle-class American males. This same demographic also represents the largest portion of the video game market. As a result, the most commonly cited representation issues for games concern gender, cultural issues and violence.

Gender portrayal Critics believe video games impart unrealistic ideas about gender roles, encourage violent behaviour and are aimed only towards males. Writer and gamer Aleah Tierney believes that male video game characters represent what men desire to be, while female characters represent the fantasy women that men want. Games written for girls often take a heavy-handed approach to morality. The morality is saccharine and preachy — you win if you always make the ‘nice’ decision. Some well-known attempts at marketing to girls include ‘girl games’ such as Purple Moon’s Rockett’s New School in which the main concern was mixing with the right crowd and making a good impression. In another game, Tricky Decision, Rockett gets to choose between ‘two cool parties, same night’. These types of

games are criticised for their narrow representation of females. Mattel, in its push to capture the female market, developed a number of very popular Barbie games. Attempts to market to girls so far have been based on stereotypical notions of girls’ interests.

‘Most computer games are created by males, for males. Traditionally, when females did appear, it was typically in sexist or overtly misogynistic ways: as damsels in distress needing rescue, rewards for successful completion of a game level, victims of violence, and/or sexual objects. Recently, video game companies have started to include more female characters in games, but a good percentage of these female characters continue to be created according to traditional gender stereotypes: the virtuous but passive woman who motivates game action; the evil, sexualised woman who must be overthrown by the male protagonist; the objectified female with huge breasts and lips and an impossibly small waist.’ Dr Kathryn Wright, Gamasutra columnist

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‘Boys get to drive Formula One race cars, fly F-15s, build cities, battle dragons, conquer the galaxy, save the universe. Girls get to ... become queen of the prom? Is that really the best we can do for them?’ Ernest Adams, columnist and game designer

MEDIA

Game marketing can accentuate the issue. Characters such as Lara Croft are strong and independent, even if they do have disproportionate bodies. As the game Tomb Raider began to become successful, Lara started wearing less clothing, grew bigger breasts, and was splashed across the covers of books, magazines and calendars. ‘Characters like Tomb Raider’s Lara Croft allow women gamers to get tough and “play the lead”. While their presence is a positive step toward female inclusion, there’s something about the gargantuan breasts and the tiny clothes that leave real women cold. Believe me, women gamers feel frustrated and excluded,’ says writer and gamer Aleah Tierney. By playing video games, many boys are able to familiarise themselves with computers in a nonthreatening way. Some analysts argue that game programmers who continue to ignore females are denying girls the opportunity to develop computer skills. In games that offer numerous characters, an increasing variety of female as well as ethnic characters are being offered as options. But where there is only one main character, it is almost always going to be an action-hero white male. Women are not the only ones critical of game representations. ‘Action-hero’ types are often the only successful male characters. They are musclebound with model good looks, and they almost always speak in American accents. Rockstar Entertainment’s bullying game, Canis Canem Edit (Latin for ‘Dog Eat Dog’), allows the traditional white male lead character to explore his sexuality, but cynics believe this was mostly for the publicity rather than a genuine desire to expand the range of video game characters available. Other games, such as The Sims, allow homosexual relationships. Characters are greater than their visual representation. Characterisation plays a crucial part of persona believability and leads to greater player/character engagement. Characterisation includes a character’s full range of verbal and nonverbal communication. Language used in conversations with other characters can add depth to characters, extending them beyond simple stereotypes. ‘The choice of words can really establish a character’s identity. Key words or phrases, diction, accent, slang, code phrases, sentence structure, profanity, even the amount of dialogue —

all of these can tell the audience a great deal about the persona of the character you’re creating,’ suggests game writer Rafael Chandler. The move towards massively multiplayer online games in which players create their own characters could lead to a wider variety of character evolution.

Violence as problem solving Video games have always been based on violence. Even games such as Space Invaders and Pac-Man required the destruction of opponents to succeed. Violence in games happens outside the normal moral universe. What you see on screen is not a depiction of what death is. There is no remorse, no pain and sorrow, and the player is not punished for killing; in fact, violence and killing are rewarded with success. In many games the player is faced with challenges in which the only solution is to blast their way out. Critics say this effectively rewards violent behaviour and demonstrates there are no other solutions. Some critics want games to offer multiple solutions or more complex and engaging narratives so that the player has to rely more on intuition and intelligence. This may serve to show that violence is not the only solution. However, a game where all the players sit around a conference table and diplomatically discuss nonviolent solutions would probably never be a hit!

Figure 3.19: .ONVIOLENCE MAY BE A SOLUTION BUT IT WILL PROBABLY NEVER BE A MARKETING HIT



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‘Every art form, every storytelling tradition needs the ability to represent violence, because aggression, trauma and loss are a fundamental aspect of the human condition. The idea that game violence is in and of itself bad is an absurdity … I am not opposed to game violence per se but I would like to see game designers make more meaningful choices about how they represent violence through their games. There is too much repetitive, banal, thoughtless violence which exists simply because people think it will sell more units.’ Professor Henry Jenkins, Director of Comparative Studies, MIT

The representation of video games in their own marketing is often misleading. Gamers often seek out provocative content, and marketers are all too willing to target this desire.

Cultural and racial issues Australia has very few locally made games in comparison with the large number of imported titles. With thousands of new titles released each year, most of them American, our culture is in danger of being swamped by imported cultural ideals. The representation of non-white, middle-class characters in games has traditionally been poor, and many racist and stereotypical characters have been used. Dr Kathryn Wright, feature writer at Womengamers.com, believes that minority characters in games are often designed to be laughed at, such as black American characters with huge afro hairstyles using stereotypical street slang. ‘There are often violently negative portrayals of African Americans, Latinos and women in some of the most popular games on the market,’ writes Carrie Kilman, writer for Tolerance.org. ‘If blacks are always portrayed as the villains, or as the victims who get killed often and easily, that is code for powerlessness,’ says psychologist John Murray from the Kansas State University. ‘These aren’t just kids’ toys; these are representative of our society and they teach us,’ writes Canadian researcher Robert Parungao. Some games even have a racist message built into them. Steve Brown from PC Gamer magazine writes that Soldier of Fortune had a ‘discriminatory and racist

message woven into the very fabric of the game, which attributes different values to Iraqi and American citizens’ lives’. In the game, a group of Americans is being held hostage. If you kill a hostage, you are punished; if you kill an American tramp on the subway, you are punished; if you kill an innocent Iraqi civilian, you are not.

‘Clearly, games are taking the route that television did for years in its portrayal of race. Game developers make games out of their own perceptions, attitudes, and experiences — and that is part of the problem … once more minority and female game developers get into the field, games will naturally change for the better in this respect.’ Dr Kathryn Wright, game audience researcher, Womengamers.com

Unlike many other media forms, gaming is not exclusively dominated by American titles. Japanese games and characters also have had a strong cultural influence: from ninjas and samurai warriors to anime characters, wide-eyed talking animals and the massive cross-media hit Pokemon. Many American games have adopted Japanese styling, and some have been influenced by Japanese narrative.

Figure 3.20: 4HE EERIE ATMOSPHERE OF THE 3ILENT (ILL SERIES IS INČUENCED BY THE *APANESE HORROR STYLING OF 4HE 2ING AND 4HE 'RUDGE 4HIS SERIES FOCUSED HEAVILY ON ITS ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT 7HILE THIS METHOD OF STORYTELLING WORKED FOR THE GAME VERSION THE ENVIRONMENT ALONE WASNlT ENOUGH TO MAKE THE MOVIE VERSION SHOWN ABOVE A SUCCESS

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Activities 1. Discuss whether you believe game makers have

4. Ernest Adams, a columnist at Gamasutra, wrote:

been responsible in marketing towards all players. Has their focus been too narrow, as critics suggest? (a) What are the effects of targeting most games at a single audience? (b) Is it easier to market the same type of proven games to the same audience? If so, how can regulators encourage game makers to create good products for a wide variety of potential players? (c) Write a short letter to a game company setting out an argument for a greater diversity of games targeted at a range of different players. 2. Would you agree that almost all games are based on violence and that they reward violence through success? Explain. What nonviolent aspects could be incorporated into games to make them more enjoyable? Make a list. 3. From your experience, what do you estimate is the ratio of foreign to locally made games?

‘History is full of heroic women whose achievements went far beyond “making new friends”! Why not track chimpanzees through the jungle with Jane Goodall or help slaves to freedom with Harriet Tubman, or fly the world with Amelia Earhart or even, yes, battle the Romans with Queen Boudicca? The problem with the clothes-and-makeup theme isn’t just that it’s stereotypical — it’s that it’s feeble.’ Research a famous historical female figure and develop a treatment for a game based on her life or adventures. 5. Games researcher Dr Kathryn Wright believes ‘male gamers see that most male characters are portrayed as unrealistic, muscle-bound Rambo-types, but they simply are not that affected by this. Many female gamers, on the other hand, are irritated when they cannot identify with their female character’. Discuss this finding. Do you think male game players are unaffected? Do females identify differently in your opinion?

Representation and the internet ‘In the minds of its detractors, the internet is still a world inhabited by spotty youths who sit in the dark staring at a computer screen and searching for arcane sites where Eastern European pornography and advice on how to build a nuclear bomb are freely available.’ Bruce Elder, technology columnist

The ‘truth’ — information versus data

MEDIA

‘ “The Web is the Great Equaliser”, as one of my test users once said. Anybody can put up a site and, increasingly, anybody does. As a result, users don’t quite know what to make of information retrieved from the web. It can be the deep truth, or it can be the ramblings of a nut. ‘There is no easy way of telling whether a website is reliable. In the physical world, you typically know that certain sources like The New York Times are reliable, and you know that if you walk into a Toyota dealership, they will have the specifications of the latest model as released by Toyota headquarters.’ Jakob Nielsen, authority on web usability

The traditional media have always regulated who is published and who is not. While this has restricted the diversity of opinion and information available, it has ensured that published information is normally well researched, well structured, accurate, and free from plagiarism. In contrast, internet providers do not filter the information on their systems in the same way that a publisher filters the content in books. Information is often not checked for accuracy and not copyright cleared. It has no guarantee of being well researched, and may not be accurate at all — it might simply be someone’s opinion. Google CEO Eric Schmidt thinks the internet might work against those who purposely propagate misinformation through archiving the truth in the public domain. He believes that the internet ‘has broken down the barriers that exist between people and information, effectively democratising access to human knowledge. This has made us much more powerful as individuals’. Only 49 per cent of 3600 American students surveyed were able to correctly evaluate a set of websites for objectivity, authority and timeliness. ‘They’re very good at typing in and using the internet, but they don’t always understand what they get back,’ says Linda Goff, head of instructional services for the California State University library. ‘They take at face value whatever shows up at the top of the list as the best stuff.’



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Figure 3.21: /N THIS NEWS SITE CAPTIONS POINT TO KEY IDENTIüERS SHOWING THAT THE SITE CAN BE TRUSTED 4HE HEADER SHOWS THE COMPANY THAT OWNS THE SITE &AIRFAX $IGITAL AND A RECOGNISED NEWSPAPER LOGO 5NDER THE STORY HEAD IS THE AUTHORS NAME AND TITLE 4HE SITE HAS A PRIVACY POLICY AND A CONTACTS PAGE )T ALSO CLEARLY DIFFERENTIATES THE ADVERTISING FROM THE NEWS CONTENT

Online shopping sites that require personal financial and billing details strive to appear trustworthy. Questions that consumers can use to determine whether the site is safe to send credit card details to include: 1. Does the site explain what measures have been taken to ensure the safety of your transaction? 2. Does the site use secure means of transmitting personal and financial information? 3. Does the site have a privacy policy? 4. Is the site’s country of origin apparent? International regulation can be a problem with sites that are located in countries with weak consumer and fraud laws. 5. Are there clear feedback and help mechanisms to assist you if any problems arise with any purchased products or services? 6. Does the site appear professional?

Hate sites ‘Online hate is as much a part of the web as e-commerce, porn sites and portals. From neo-Nazis and skinheads to the Ku Klux Klan, almost every hate group in America has its own website.’ Lakshmi Chaudhry, Wired magazine

What is termed ‘hate’ literature represents a growing presence on the internet, whether it appears in antiMuslim or anti-Semitic websites, the Ku Klux Klan

site, or other racist, sexist or homophobic sites. However, the presence of hate sites on the internet has been shown not to have increased membership of racist organisations. Jordan Kessler from the Anti-Defamation League says the internet ‘has been extremely bad for hate groups. They’ve been exposed, scrutinised, and poked at’. Hate groups have traditionally been secretive, and exposing their propaganda online has left them open to public exposure and condemnation. Author Michael Jay Tucker maintains that ‘there is no poison on earth more potent, nor half so deadly, as a partial truth mixed with passion’. But Alan Dershowitz has suggested a solution: ‘The best answer to bad speech is good speech.’ His proposition is strengthened by the many counter-responses to hateful or other inaccurate information posted online. There are now many anti-hate sites on the internet. Membership may not be the only measure of the influence of racist organisations. Rabbi Abraham Cooper, an Associate Dean at the Simon Wiesenthal Centre, is concerned that ‘at risk’ individuals could find validation for their hate on the web.

Cyberstalking and bullying Cyberstalking is the act of repeatedly threatening or harassing someone over the internet via email or other electronic communication device. This phenomenon is similar to offline stalking.

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The difference with cyberstalking is that the offence can be carried out in the same room as the victim, or from the other side of the world. The technology makes it easier for stalkers to mask their identity and disguise their location. Sex crime prosecutor Linda Fairstein says that ‘the rate of cyberstalking has escalated enormously in the past few years with the spread of the internet. It provides a new method of committing the same kind of crime’. An Australian survey of 13 000 girls found that 42 per cent had experienced some form of online bullying. Adolescence psychologist and National Coalition Against Bullying spokesman Dr Michael Carr-Gregg believes that a ‘whole new lexicon’ of bullying has developed through the internet. Masquerading (where users impersonate someone else to send out inflammatory messages) and flaming (where torrents of abuse are levelled against others) are common online.

Sexism and sexual harassment

The internet and, in particular, email have made the distribution of offensive materials in the workplace easy. Many companies have cracked down on illicit material in the workplace, but Queensland University of Technology’s Dr Paula McDonald believes that sexual harassment in the workplace is occurring every day, and technology has enabled perpetrators to access their victims more easily. Women can be verbally harassed in electronic messages and in discussion groups, says Australian web publisher Rosie Cross. Some women are also offended or intimidated when a man masquerades as a woman by using a female user name or avatar (a digital representation of a user). Harassment is widespread on the internet and is not restricted to women. The tone of much web-based communication is aggressive, and many older users treat new users, the non-technically savvy and women with disrespect.

Cultural imperialism

‘When the laws against sexual discrimination were being put in place, the kind of things that people were doing was putting Playboy posters up or leaving magazines open in full view. Now it is electronic, so it is a little less obvious but it is no less offensive or difficult for women.’

‘Traditionally, Third World countries have been concerned that the free flow will actually lead to a one-way flow of information from western organisations like news media, which dominate the international flow of information.’

Martha Burk, Cult of Power: Sex Discrimination in

Madanmohan Rao, Communications Director, United

Corporate America and What Can Be Done About It

Nations Inter Press Service

A R C T I C

O C E A N

Arctic Circle

PACI FI C

Tropic of Cancer

Number of internet hosts, 2005 100 000 000 +

ATL AN TIC O CE AN

5 000 000 – 100 000 000

O C EA N Equator

2 000 000 – 5 000 000 1 000 000 – 2 000 000 500 000 – 1 000 000

ATLANTIC

I N D I A N

OCEAN

O C E A N

Tropic of Capricorn

200 000 – 500 000 100 000 – 200 000 50 000 – 100 000 10 000 – 50 000 1 000 – 10 000

MEDIA

0

2000

4000 km

N

100 – 1 000 0 – 100

Figure 3.22: 4HE NUMBER OF INTERNET HOSTS PER COUNTRY !USTRALIA IS ONE OF THE HEAVIEST USERS OF THE INTERNET



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The internet was an American invention, and it continues to be dominated by American culture. The 2006 CIA World Factbook shows that the United States has the most internet host computers, with 195 million, followed by the European Union (22 million) and Japan (21 million). These figures demonstrate the overwhelming concentration of American internet control. In most countries, traditional media are governed by regulations that control how much content must be locally produced. ‘Information on the internet is not restricted by national borders, like publications,’ points out the Electronic Frontier Foundation of Australia. ‘It flows freely in and out of every nation on Earth, like the sea.’ The global nature of the internet makes it difficult to monitor where content is sourced. Existing local content laws have proved to be unenforceable by any nation that has attempted to apply them. This has contributed to what researchers have termed the ‘internationalism of culture’. In the book The Electronic Colonialism of the Pacific, the authors speculate that the internet also provides a perfect opportunity for minorities to project a global presence. For example, the websites for the Cape York Land Council in north-eastern Australia and the Centre for World Indigenous Studies in Washington can share the experiences of indigenous people with the world.

The internet is also extensively used by political groups in countries with dictatorial governments. Most recently the internet has been used by both sides involved in the second Iraq War and in Israel’s invasion of Lebanon. News websites, such as CNN and Al Jazeera, have contributed to reporting from both sides of the conflict, while blogs tell of the first-hand experiences of those caught up in the conflict. Journalist David Amis writes that, in the traditional media, ‘nearly everything we read, viewed or heard about the [Iraq] war was filtered, assessed and interpreted by the journalist’. He believes that the internet shifts this ‘balance of power’. Judith Shulevitz, New York editor of online magazine Slate, believes that the internet is very democratising, making it harder to demonise the enemy because alternative viewpoints in the conflict are so accessible. Firsthand reports and personalised contributions on the internet add local flavour by indicating the strength of feeling on both sides of the conflict. Amis believes that these reports are often the only way we can get a true picture of the impact of a war. The internet has made a significant difference to how the Iraq War has been debated. Amis writes that the internet ‘has allowed discussion to take place across a wide range of forums, bringing together people who would never have met in any other circumstance. More

Figure 3.23: !L *AZEERA PROVIDES A NON WESTERN PERSPECTIVE ON EVENTS IN THE -IDDLE %AST )T LAUNCHED ITS %NGLISH LANGUAGE EDITION IN OFFERING A LOCAL VIEWPOINT IN THE REGION -EANWHILE !MERICAN NEWS OUTLETS SUCH AS #.. CAN BE ACCESSED IN NON WESTERN COUNTRIES

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importantly, it has allowed for the growth of forums where people from both sides can participate. While the traditional media are still a major source of news and comment, the potential of the internet to offer alternative viewpoints and interpretations of the war has been demonstrated’. However, language barriers are still a significant obstacle to internet use, particularly in cultures that do not use Roman characters in their writing. Journalist Kieren McCarthy from The Guardian writes that ‘if your fi rst language is Chinese,

Arabic, Hindi or Tamil, you will be scrabbling to fi nd a link to a translated version in your language on most websites. Even fi nding a website in the fi rst place requires that you master the western alphabet — have you ever tried to type “.com” in Chinese?’ Internet domain names are managed by the US government– controlled company ICANN (the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), but many countries are offended by the need to apply to a US organisation to have their languages accepted as legitimate online.

Activities 1. How would you go about ensuring that information

3. Feminist author Dale Spender once wrote that the

you find on the internet is suitable for use in your assignments? Is there any information you have rejected or would reject? Why? If you have a system for finding good information, or know of a number of reliable information sources, share them with the class. 2. Women view computers with ‘critical distance and ambivalence’ in contrast to the typical ‘male techno-evangelism’, says Dr Zoe Sofoulis. In your experience, do you believe this to be true? Define how you think women view and use computers, and compare it with how you think males view and use computers. Is there a technology gap between the sexes and, if so, do you believe it is diminishing? Discuss this with other members of the class.

internet was a new forum for sexual harassment and male domination. This statement was made in the early years of the internet. Do you think that the internet has changed significantly since Spender wrote this? Have any members of the class been harassed on the internet — for example, sent unwanted sexist email or pornographic images, or verbally harassed while engaged in online conversations? Discuss strategies for dealing with such situations. 4. It is often stated that ‘global culture is American culture’. How do you think that the internet either contributes to this situation or alleviates it? Provide examples of American cultural domination on the internet, and find contrasting examples of minority cultures using the net to publish information from their cultural perspective.

MEDIA



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Technologies

A culture of technology ‘In coming years, the very words telephone and television will ring as quaintly as horseless carriage, icebox, or picture radio do today.’ George Gilder, US technology writer

We have entered a technological revolution, a revolution that will forever change the way we gather information. According to technology writer Slade Antwar, information technology is creating new means of self-expression and greater independence of thought and action. Antwar sees these new technologies as forming part of a newly emerging culture — a culture of technology.

Post-industrial society We are moving from an industrial culture to an information-based culture. Today’s information technologies have decreased the size of the workforce and created multiskilled people in new technology and information-based businesses, while others in traditional industries are being de-skilled. Large numbers of people have had to be re-skilled to work with new technology. This has increased profits for some businesses while bankrupting others.

American cultural critic Neil Postman believes modern society now worships technology in the same way the ancients worshipped and sacrificed to various gods. Whereas technology once existed to serve humanity, everyone is now a servant of technology, says Postman. All societies throughout history have used tools, but our society has allowed the tools to take over, he says. Postman calls this new condition technopoly — the monopoly of technology. Technology does not necessarily bring an improvement in everyone’s lives. ‘For every technological change,’ says writer, broadcaster and former Labor politician Barry Jones, ‘the corresponding gain or loss to the quality of life depends on how that technological change is used.’

‘The next 20 years will see as much innovation as the last 500.’ Ian Pearson, futurist, British Telecom

The current period of rapid change has been called the post-industrial revolution. The last time technology so drastically changed work practice was during the industrial revolution (1780–1850). The industrial revolution transformed agricultural societies into manufacturing societies. Production became


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mechanised and cheap mass-produced goods became widely available. However, the mechanisation of production also led to the devaluing of workers and a subsequent loss of traditional skills. The incomes of working people fell, and many employers treated their workers no better than the machinery with which they worked. In the modern workplace, technology is once more often seen as more valuable than the worker who operates it. Companies invest vast sums of money on technology while spending less on employing fewer people. Technology advocates point to the rise in a more skilled workforce with a flatter management hierarchy. Moreover, the skills that the workforce has developed have empowered many individuals within that workforce. The speed at which technology progresses improves affordability, but ensures that expensive new equipment becomes devalued very quickly. Moore’s Law states that every 18 months computer power doubles. Within a span of seven years, analysts say, any computer will drop to 1 per cent of its current price or grow 100 times in power. Price Waterhouse chief Dr Doug Kalish compares computers to cars. ‘The Cadillac today, if it had 20 years of the same efficiency [as computers], would be getting 500 000 miles to the gallon and would cost $2.50 — and you’d fit seven onto the head of a pin.’ Experts have predicted that computer technology will reach ‘human’ levels of intelligence, or 60 trillion instructions per second, within the next 20 to 40 years. Sony’s PlayStation 3 is already capable of two trillion instructions per second. Star Wars creator George Lucas has joked that next year’s kids will have more computer power than last year’s special effects animators. However, new technologies create new problems. Governments around the world are grappling with new issues concerning censorship, privacy, copyright and representation.

American technology writer George Gilder predicts that the information superhighway will reduce the media’s creation of ‘lowest common denominator’ messages, and new methods of accessing information and entertainment will enhance individualism, promoting creativity over passivity. Others believe that new media and communication technology could reduce the ability of the audience to think critically and gain a full understanding of complex issues. Esther Dyson, an internet investor and author, is worried about what she calls ‘Mental Diabetes Type 2’, or a lack of ability to concentrate and think deeply for periods of time. ‘We’re getting a diet of empty information calories that [are] overprocessed, over-sugared, too bite-sized and way too appealing.’

‘A typical 21-year-old has played 5000 hours of computer games; exchanged 25 000 email, SMS, and chat messages; used a cell phone some 10 000 times; and spent 3500 hours online. That’s your future consumer.’ Martin Lindstrom, founder of BRANDchild

New media and the information superhighway

MEDIA

Computers are the basis for a vastly expanded entertainment and communications network. The new communication and entertainment devices have formed a massive datasphere containing an unlimited amount of information and providing access to a huge range of services and entertainment. The information superhighway allows such a diverse range of information that it targets niche markets. In contrast, television, radio and newspapers target mass audiences with simple and predictable content.

Figure 4.1: #HILDREN ARE RAISED WITH TECHNOLOGY THAT THE PREVIOUS GENERATIONS COULD NOT HAVE EVEN GUESSED WAS COMING



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Martin Lindstrom, author of the world’s largest study of children and their relationship with brands, found that adults were able to use 1.7 media forms simultaneously (such as watching TV and reading a newspaper). Children, however, could handle 5.4 media forms. ‘They can watch TV, send SMS messages, surf the net, chat on IM, listen to music, and even devote 0.4 of their simultaneous communications energy to homework.’ New media forms are more persuasive than traditional mass media. They affect our entertainment habits and the way we gather information and form opinions. They also affect the way we live. New media are changing everything: the way we work, shop, socialise, view and pass on culture and experience, and the way we are entertained, educated and schooled.

‘As the human race collectively learns more, learning is becoming increasingly compartmentalised. Couple that with the increasing ability to propagate information faster than ever through the internet, and cognitive dissonance becomes inevitable. People’s belief systems are becoming challenged more than ever, which seems to result in increasing polarisation. And these multiple polarisations seem to be proliferating.’ Lloyd Case, senior technical analyst, Extremetech.com

Being able to tailor the information to a user’s own interests, beliefs and political viewpoints leads to a restricted range of information that can cause audience polarisation and strengthen a person’s existing beliefs rather than challenge them. Those people who choose to read widely and challenge their beliefs, however, can distance themselves from collective options formed through broadcast media.

Convergence and divergence

all communication and entertainment. Convergence has also affected the major media and internet companies, with many forming alliances or merging to attempt to capitalise on, or survive in, new media industries. Multimedia represents the convergence of text, pictures, video and sound into a single form. In the same way, the internet represents the convergence of television, radio, newspapers, literature, movies, video telephony, video games, telephone services, surveillance and tracking systems into a single form. Media culture expert Henry Jenkins believes that convergence is not only technical, but also social and cultural. He speculates that new media will not simply replace old media but interact with it. He defines a ‘convergence culture’ where ‘old and new media collide, where grassroots and corporate media intersect, where the power of the media producer and the power of the media consumer interact in unpredictable ways’. Examples of convergence culture include blogs (see page 418), social networking sites (see page 409) and Wikipedia (see page 415).

Divergence Multiplying the forms of delivery of a media product is called divergence. For example, television is delivered free-to-air, by cable, by satellite, via the internet and to handheld devices and ordinary household appliances, all of which are connected to the same global information networks. Divergence has also affected the media owners, allowing a wide range of media content to be delivered by more than just the few media players in traditional media spaces.

Communication networks

Two terms that are used to describe the impact of the new communications media are convergence and divergence.

Convergence The blurring of the boundaries between different telecommunications media is termed convergence. The boundary between television and the computer is already blurring. So too are the boundaries between newspapers, radio, computers, mobile phones, MP3 players, video game systems, voice-over internet protocol (VoIP) telephony, and surveillance, identity and global positioning systems. More and more, the computer and the mobile phone are becoming the basis of

Cable TV, interactive TV

Mobile telephony Internet and World Wide Web Computing/ information technology

CD-ROM, DVD

Content (media)

Figure 4.2: 4REVOR "ARR AN !USTRALIAN MEDIA THEORIST ILLUSTRATES WHAT HE TERMS kTHE 4HREE #S OF #ONVERGENCEl WHERE THE MERGING OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY AND CONTENT CREATE OVERLAPPING AND CONVERGENT NEW MEDIA FORMS

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Technology Genre and society developments Renaissance to 1450–1801 Enlightenment The publishing and mass media begin A new age of advancement and scientific progress following the Middle Ages

(books, newspapers and magazines) Development of calculating machines.

The Industrial Revolution and automation of industry lead to a huge range of technical innovations.

1450

Gutenberg invents the printing press.

1455

The Bible becomes the first book published.

1620s

First newspapers published (the first mass media). World’s first copyright laws passed (Britain’s Statute of Anne).

1800–1900

Victorian Era

Technology timeline

Photography developed. Wired communication introduced. The telephone invented. Mechanical and electromechanical computing developed. Photography replaces painting as the visual recordkeeper of the age.

1801

First programmable machine — a cotton loom controlled using punched cards (precursor to the disc, 1967)

1822

Charles Babbage pioneers mechanical computing.

1825

The world’s first photographs

1839

First electric telegraph (UK)

1854

Antonio Meucci demonstrates the electric telephone.

1861

First colour photograph

1865

Atlantic cable links US and Europe, allowing instant intercontinental telegraph communication using Morse code.

1876

Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone and makes the first long-distance call.

1877

Edison invents audio recording and playback.

1887

The cathode ray tube (CRT) invented — the basis for television screens.

1890

First large-scale electromechanical computing use — the US census took 6 weeks instead of 10 years.

1895

Guglielmo Marconi sends the first wireless message. Lord Kelvin of the Royal Society of the UK states, ‘Everything that needed to be invented is now invented!’ Lumière brothers patent a movie camera/projector.

The modern age 1901–1960 The automobile and aeroplanes invented. Two world wars and the cold war speed technology development and introduce massive political change throughout the world.

1900

Kodak Box Brownie opens photography to everyone.

1906

The vacuum tube invented, enabling production of

The wireless and vacuum tube era

digital computers. Story of the Kelly Gang — first feature film (Aus.)

The rise of broadcast media, including radio, film and television Digital computers invented.

1920

First radio station

1925

First television transmission by John Logie Baird

1927

First public trans-Atlantic radio telephone call

1935

Modern colour film developed.

1946

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) — the first fully digital computer. It weighed 30 tonnes and contained 18 000 vacuum tubes.

The space age 1960–1975 Computers start to shrink as microprocessors and transistors introduced. Computer networking developed. Internet backbone formed.

1946

First mobile phone

1952

First video game created as a university experiment.

1957

The Soviet Union launch Sputnik, the first satellite.

1960s

Transistor-based computing replaces tubes.

1965

Packet switching developed, allowing reliable computer networking.

1967

The floppy disc invented.

1969

US Defense Department computer network ARPANET forms the internet ‘backbone’.

1975–1990

MEDIA

Home entertainment expands; cinema struggles. popular.

1971

First computer microprocessor First video game publicly launched.

1975

Kodak creates a digital camera (0.01 megapixels). First home VCR available (Sony)



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Technology Genre and society developments The home computer, video game console and portable music era begins.

First modern computer user interfaces (GUIs). Computers used at home.

Technology timeline 1977

The Apple II released, the first easy-to-use colour home computer.

1979

The compact disc (CD) is invented. The Sony Walkman makes music portable.

1981 Miniaturisation of technology using integrated circuits and transistors. Non-computer products begin integrating computer processes.

Digital music released. Mobile phones begin to become popular. Internet is restricted to universities and military.

Microsoft’s DOS operating system launched. IBM 5150 personal computer is launched, bringing the PC to business and everyday use.

1983

First automated mobile phone system (1G) is released.

1984

Mac OS launched with the first widely available ‘graphical user interface’ (GUI).

1985

Aldus Pagemaker launches desktop publishing. The CD-ROM invented.

1988

Fuji releases the first digital camera.

1990

Windows 3.0 released. PhotoShop released. 2nd generation (2G) digital mobile phones launched.

The internet age 1991–2000 The world becomes ‘smaller’ through accessible, instant worldwide communication

DVDs revolutionise the growing home entertainment market. Instant communication makes news reporting immediate.

1991

World Wide Web (WWW) invented by Tim Berners-Lee.

1995

The internet becomes widely available. Windows 95 released.

1996

The DVD format released.

2001

3rd generation (3G) mobile phone services launched, offering online applications. Windows XP and Mac OS X launched.

2001–present

‘Ubiquitous’ computing — computer processors everywhere, used in almost every device we use.

Mobile technology use and wireless internet access increase rapidly. Our music and media travel with us on portable devices. Digital cameras also accompany us everywhere.

The iPod released. 2004

Voice-over IP (VoIP) internet telephone services begin.

2005

High-definition DVD formats released. Microsoft Xbox 360 released — new generation of game consoles and entertainment centres.

2007

2007 Windows Vista launched.

Activities 1. Research the industrial revolution and report on

its effects. Compare these with the effects of the current period of technological change, often referred to as the post-industrial revolution. 2. In groups, compare the following procedures. (a) One group should type in a paragraph or two of text into a word processing program, while another group types in a paragraph of text on a typewriter. Spellcheck the document and correct any mistakes. (b) Another two groups can work on centring a heading. One group centres a heading on a manual typewriter, while the other centres a heading on a computer.

(c) At the conclusion of the experiment, discuss how the computer has simplified the process of typing in information. What implication do you believe this has for the workforce? 3. Think about the way you enter text into a computer and the way you write on paper. Are you as careful with what you write when you are typing? Do you structure and check spelling when you write on paper? Has the computer improved your writing skills? Look at the following points when you construct your answer: efficiency of your writing (length versus content and substance), spelling, planning and grammatical precision.

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The democratisation of information ‘But thank God I live in a time when there are entire cable channels dedicated to houseplants, when I can download Serbian protest music composed while B-52s drop my tax dollars on the artists from 40 000 feet, when I can pull up news wires from my bedroom or flip through a magazine for remarrying brides. Any world without handy internet resources for Brazilian fingernail fetishists is not a world I want to live in.’ James Poniewozik, Salon magazine

The unprecedented amount of information that can be transferred through fibre optic cable has allowed for greater volumes of communication, greater user input, more diverse media forms, and the greater expression of opinion and ideas. This has been termed the democratisation of information. Ordinary people can now readily participate in the media. People can select individualised programming. They can also create their own programming for others. Cheaper video technology has altered the way we see news. Chances are that the fi rst on the scene of a news event will be an individual with a video camera rather than a professional news crew. Newsrooms then scramble to buy the sensational amateur footage, as it increases the impact and sense of immediacy of the story. Video footage and images captured on mobile devices are becoming increasingly common in news reporting. Some analysts are concerned that the amateur nature of user-contributed footage is leading to a consumer acceptance of low-quality video work even from professionals.

MEDIA

Figure 4.3: !MATEUR IMAGES AND VIDEO FOOTAGE OF THE 3OUTH !SIAN TSUNAMI WERE SNAPPED UP BY THE MEDIA BECAUSE OF THE IMMEDIACY OF EXPERIENCE THEY OFFERED

The price reductions in video technology have also led to the miniaturisation of cameras, allowing for easier surveillance. Such is the scope of the problem that governments and business have been forced to draft laws forbidding hidden camera or mobile-phone camera use by voyeurs in shopping centres, schools, beaches and public pools. This miniaturisation of cameras has created a new genre of voyeuristic ‘real-life’ entertainment. People have been left alone on deserted islands to fend for themselves under the prying eye of a camera, or been locked in houses fi lled with hidden cameras, with their every move exposed either to millions of television viewers or to hundreds of internet users, satisfying previously hidden voyeuristic desires. Political and environmental groups have also started using the cheaper video technology to document injustice, environmental destruction, and police and military brutality. DIVA, the Damned Interfering Video Activists, say the battle is now fought with images through new media, and that pictures and video will become more important than the pen and the sword. Video footage is critical in the campaigns of activist groups such as Greenpeace and the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, for example. Organisations such as Witness, founded by musician Peter Gabriel, were formed after it became clear that perpetrators of human rights abuses could be brought to justice when photographic or video evidence of the abuse existed. Witness distributes video equipment to victims, enabling them to expose and fight abuses through imagery. The ease with which images can be distributed through the internet and new media has led to the uncovering of many controversial situations. The revelation of abuse of prisoners in Iraq’s Abu Ghraib prison is an illustration of how amateur digital images can create huge news stories with significant political and cultural impact. ‘The key point is once there’s something on fi lm, it’s impossible to keep it contained,’ says Paul Levinson, chairman of Fordham University’s Department of Communication and Media Studies. The internet provides the best opportunity yet for public expression in the media. Multimedia presentations, podcasts and blogs convey average people’s experiences and opinions to millions of viewers. The individual now has the opportunity to become a media giant, with the same potential audience as the established mass media corporations.



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those with the technical skill and ability to access it are termed the ‘information rich’. Access also depends on whether people are situated near phone lines, wireless access points and fibre-optic cables. It is the information rich who are benefiting from the change to a post-industrial society.

Figure 4.4: ! WEB PAGE FOR SPY CAMERA SALES .EW TECHNOLOGY HAS LED TO THE SPREAD OF VIDEO CAMERAS THROUGH SOCIETY BUT HAS IT LED TO THE CREATION OF A SURVEILLANCE CULTURE

Information ownership The commercial viability of new media has increased as more people have gained access to it. As a consequence, mass media corporations are starting to exert a degree of control over what is presented on the ‘popular’ internet by transferring their content to an online format. Because consumers are familiar with their products, their sites become among the most popular places to visit on the internet. While any voice can be heard on the internet, it is hard for small sites to ‘shout’ over the top of the content saturation of popular sites, many backed by large corporations who advertise their products to the mass market. Some inroads have been made into the big media player space by the more influential bloggers (see blogging, page 418), who have broken major news stories ahead of the big networks or have developed significant influence in business and politics.

Information rich and information poor The new media have an economic basis. Those who can gain access are predicted to become the information rich. Without skills, or unable to afford access, the disadvantaged will become the information poor. Information rich. Those who own digital information, those with the money to purchase information, and

Information poor. Large groups of the population — those who do not have the advantages that provide easy access to digital information — have become ‘information poor’. William Gibson, author of the classic cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, sees the future as already here — it’s just that it is unevenly distributed. Maria Fernandez, assistant professor at the University of Pittsburgh, believes that ‘discussion about the internet and information technologies totally disregards the people of Third World countries, many of whom don’t even have phone lines’. Other members of the information poor are those who, through disability, are unable to access new technology. While many governments have legislated to ensure that websites meet minimum standards for accessibility, very few websites are easily navigated by those with a disability. There are no legal requirements for any new technology to be accessible.

‘The power of the Web is in its universality. Access by everyone regardless of disability is an essential aspect.’ Tim Berners-Lee, W3C Director and inventor of the World Wide Web

Everyone has an equal right to information and services. Everyone also has a right to equal employment. Therefore, systems used within the work environment should not provide a significant barrier for employment. It is easy to convince ourselves that the number of disabled people in the workforce is insignificant, but the 1998 Australian Bureau of Statistics labour force statistics showed that nationwide there were 8 million people participating in the workforce, of whom 450 000 had a hearing, vision or speech impairment — 5 per cent of the total of labour force. Australian Centre for Adult Literacy data indicate that 6.6 million Australians also experience difficulties as a result of low literacy levels, which can affect their access to information.

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Activities 1. Commentators say the internet has democratised

information. Use the internet to visit the home pages or blogs of a number of ordinary people, such as other students from around the world. List the kinds of information the sites present. Evaluate the extent to which other media can offer such variety. 2. Do you agree with the comment that the ‘popular’ internet is owned by the same companies that run traditional media forms? Analyse the sites you have visited over the past month and calculate roughly what percentage of these are owned by traditional media companies (check the bottom of the home

page for details) and which are owned by nonmedia interests such as individuals, small businesses and small organisations. 3. ‘The flood of instant information in the world today — at least in the western industrialised world — sometimes seems not to further but to retard education; not to excite but to dampen curiosity; not to enlighten but merely to dismay.’ Do you agree or disagree with this comment by journalist William Shawcross? Explain your answer, and back it up with examples of how technologies have actually either helped or hindered you.

The impact of new media on traditional media ‘Power is moving away from the old elite in our industry — the editors, the chief executives and, let’s face it, the proprietors. A new generation of media consumers has risen, demanding content delivered when they want it, how they want it, and very much as they want it.’ Rupert Murdoch, News Limited

MEDIA

New media technologies have not replaced existing media forms but have supplemented them, with the existing forms having to adapt to survive. Existing media players, while slow at fi rst, have been rapidly expanding their use of new media technologies and repositioning their existing offerings to coexist with new communication forms. In the same way that television didn’t replace radio, the internet will not replace television — it will simply cause it to adapt. Existing media, such as television, radio and newspapers, deliver programming in a linear format, arranged and timed in a way that is controlled by broadcasters and advertisers. The future of media, however, is non-linear. Digital video recorders (DVRs), for example, allow people to record their choice of shows and replay or ‘time shift’ them at their own convenience (skipping the ads). In addition, ondemand wireless access to all media types is having a huge influence on where and when we choose to access entertainment and news. Email and SMS are reducing the relevance of ‘snail mail’ or traditional letters. In 1960 letters made up 50 per cent of the written messaging market; this proportion had fallen to just 14 per cent in 2004, the bulk of it consisting of financial statements, cards, packages, bills and cheques rather than personal communication.

Even the book is in danger from new technologies. The lack of a unified e-book format, combined with low-resolution displays, has so far restricted the electronic book market. Recent advances in electronic paper, however, mean the book is likely to become a largely electronic medium — especially novels and textbooks, which are heavy and bulky to carry. Electronic book readers promise to be lightweight, flexible, cheap and small, with the ability to hold a vast number of titles on a single device. Encyclopedias are the fi rst book type to have become almost exclusively electronic.

Figure 4.5: % )NK AND 0HILIPS PRODUCED THIS PROTOTYPE ELECTRONIC PAPER IN #HEAP ČEXIBLE DISPLAYS COULD RADICALLY ALTER OUR MEDIA CONSUMPTION PATTERNS



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Stephanie Duncan, director of the publishing firm Bloomsbury, believes ‘we are on the cusp of a digital reading device being launched that will have the same impact on e-books that the iPod had on digital music’. DVDs, home cinema projection, high-definition widescreen televisions and surround-sound systems are hurting public cinemas. Increased broadband internet speeds can have downloadable movies delivered to your house in less time that it would take to pop out to the video store.

‘Get ready for video everywhere, literally. Video ads will show up on cereal boxes, food wrappers, and all sorts of packaging. Also expect clothing, wallpaper, bedding, even paint to have video capabilities. This will lead to a revolution in information display, mapping, directions, and (of course) entertainment.’ Eric Picard, director of advertising strategy and emerging media planning, Microsoft

The mass production of cheap, flexible and disposable video screens will have a huge impact on broadcast media and the print industry. Inkjet printers can simply ‘print’ the screen onto glass, plastic and even paper. It will become so cheap that it will be easy to use in books, magazines, packaging and tickets. The technology is already available to ‘print’ the batteries required to power the screens. The biggest change of all, however, is expected to be the influence of user involvement and usergenerated content (see social networking, page 409).

Television ‘TV will ultimately be on demand all the time. Broadcast TV will eventually be phased out. Whether this takes three, five or ten years is beside the point. TV is better experienced ondemand.’ Eric Picard, director of advertising strategy and emerging media planning, Microsoft

Television will expand to embrace broadband media. Broadcast television will exist for some time, but increasingly television consumption will move into the broadband world. There are already twice as many broadband internet users as pay-TV subscribers, and new mobile and on-demand television services will accentuate the change to custom-delivered content. UK telecom regulator Ofcom found in its 2006 study that 16- to 24-year-olds watched seven hours less television per week than older demographics, and read fewer newspapers and magazines.

Massive increases in computer power, hard drive space and video compression (allowing smaller file sizes but better sound and picture quality) make broadband television inevitable. However, slow roll-out of high-speed broadband in Australia, in combination with uncertain government regulation, has led to a late start for broadband television plans. Free-to-air broadcast television channels are adapting to the change by offering much of their content as free program downloads, often referred to as ‘vodcasts’, with embedded advertising. Television series on DVD have become unexpectedly popular purchases, strongly suggesting that people want, and are willing to pay for, content to view at their own convenience.

‘I think the future of television is very exciting. But there’s a great open question about how content is going to be distributed.’ Denmark West, MTV Networks

Smaller media players and television producers can enter the market using distributed file-sharing systems such as BitTorrent. This spreads the burden of video delivery across groups of users, and reduces costs by eliminating the need for massive server farms and vast bandwidth. New media companies will massively increase the amount of content available. Albert Cheng, executive vice-president of Digital Media at Disney-ABC Television, points out that when you change the way content is distributed, you increase consumption. He believes that great shows will benefit, while mediocre shows that people watch because ‘there’s nothing else on’ will suffer. Other analysts believe that broadcast television will remain a strong influence. Julie Flynn, CEO of Free TV, the body representing Australian free-to-air television channels, believes that while many analysts have been claiming since the early 2000s that broadcast television was dead, people haven’t thrown their televisions out; instead they’ve gone out and bought even bigger ones. The role of advertising in broadband television has become increasingly unclear, as the 30-second advertisement is made irrelevant by commercial-skipping technology.

Advertising and marketing The traditional 30-second television ad, valued in the US at $75 billion in 2006, is at risk from commercialskipping digital video recorders and competition from new media and video games. Commercial skipping has become such a problem that the ‘0:5’ video ad is beginning to become a major advertising initiative.

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While skipping ads, the viewer often accidentally views the first five seconds and last five seconds of an ad, making these segments among the most valuable to the advertiser. Inserting five-second ads in the middle of content is another ploy, because it’s less time-consuming to watch the ad than to reach for the remote and skip it. Broadcast flags, which prevent the viewer from skipping the commercials, are also being proposed (see copyright, page 94). Moreover, new communication technology encourages ‘rich media’ advertisements (see internet advertising, page 405), which allow the user, if interested in the product, to expand a short ad into a full-format commercial or to interactively explore it.

‘Advertising will be much more relevant and effective due to appropriately implemented targeting and filtering technologies that will anonymously identify people across all media. Ultimately this type of targeting will extend across all forms of advertising — even what today is considered offline.’ Eric Picard, director of advertising strategy and emerging media planning, Microsoft

MEDIA

With television programs increasingly sold over the internet, new ways need to be found to connect with the consumer. Strategies have involved retaining ads within the program, placing ads that the user cannot skip at the start of the program, and relying on product placement and program sponsorship. Returns from advertising on broadband content have so far been significantly lower than in traditional media forms. Advertisers also struggle to create new ways of engaging with consumers using new media technology and the internet. Notable successes, however, are viral marketing and peer-to-peer ads, which engage the audience so well that the viewer distributes the advertisement to their friends. An example is the Carlton Draught Big Ad, which became a huge hit on the internet. Charles Clapshaw, head of digital advertising at The Furnace, predicts that location-based marketing using mobile phones will be huge. He describes a scenario in which an advertiser tracks the internet searches that a subscriber makes on his or her mobile and targets ads based on those search terms. ‘For example, if they are walking through the CBD searching for Nike shoes, I can probably assume that they would be in that 18–24 age bracket and might be in the market for a PlayStation 4 game. I could then send an ad to them directing them to my electronics store based on where they actually are at that given moment.’

‘Tomorrow’s brands must be distinctive to push the envelope of acceptability across a spectrum of socio-economic and political tolerances. Brands must even offend certain audiences to make their presence felt and their distinction from competitors clear.’ Martin Lindstrom, founder of BRANDchild

For Martin Lindstrom, founder of the BRANDchild project, a brand should reflect the values its audience appreciates, even if that could offend those outside its target market. He believes that by producing controversial and targeted advertising, a company can build its relationship with its core audience. New media provide an outlet for advertisements too controversial for mass media commercial outlets. Lindstrom thinks mass-market audiences are a thing of the past. ‘In principle, no brand can afford to be friends with everyone at the same time.’ A huge impact is also being made on traditional advertising, marketing and brand image by consumer-generated content. This creates problems for marketers trying to control consumer exposure to their brand. Cosmetics company L’Oréal encouraged its customers to create television advertisements for lip gloss in their ‘You make the commercial’ contest. While the winner was shown on television, the other 300–400 videos made their way onto the internet, outside the control of the company’s marketers, spreading a brand message that may not have been in the company’s best interests. Numerous websites encourage consumers to make advertisements for products they like or don’t like. Companies must be careful with how much control they apply to user-generated content or they risk consumer backlash. Consumers, and even undercover competitors, are also creating negative brand content, such as videos warning about product faults using fake claims and staged demonstrations. An unknown user of YouTube produced a video of Samsung headphones to demonstrate how easily they broke in half. In reality the headphones had been tampered with, but the effect on sales was devastating. Encouraging and controlling user-generated content is a major issue for advertisers, but success is rewarded. Studies show that user-generated advertising content increases brand recall 400 per cent, and the cost of acquiring each customer drops from a $10–$400 range to just $0–$10. This is owing to the willingness of the consumer to stay with the advertising for much longer than a 30-second television commercial.



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Figure 4.6: 4HE %EPY"IRDCOM %XTREME $IET #OKE AND -ENTOS %XPERIMENTS 3OME OF THE BEST VIRAL ADVERTISING ISNlT COMMISSIONED BY A COMPANY )N THIS EXAMPLE A FOUNTAIN IS CREATED BY %EPY"IRD TWO kSCIENTISTSl USING TWO LITRE BOTTLES OF $IET #OKE AND -ENTOS %XPERTS HAVE VALUED THE ADVERTISING BENEüT TO EACH COMPANY AT 53 MILLION q MORE THAN -ENTOS YEARLY AD BUDGET q WHILE IT COST NEITHER COMPANY ANYTHING TO MAKE

Techniques for controlling user-generated advertising content include bringing the content ‘in-house’ by building your own website with a visible moderator and allowing users to vote down content that is inappropriate.

Newspapers Newspapers have moved online relatively intact, with their websites featuring the same content as the print editions. Many newspapers also offer their entire newspaper as a paid download in a digital format that exactly replicates the print version. This format is expected to have a bigger impact when electronic paper becomes widely available. Newspapers have been quick to incorporate popular aspects of new media communication such as blogs, user forums and increased interactivity to improve their popularity and online readership. Studies have shown that people trust existing mass media websites more than they do news published by new media companies or blogs. This is especially evident for important news stories, for which most users would go to a ‘trusted’ news company.

On the other hand, entertainment and social news is one area where traditional media sites are losing at least some of their audience to new media players. Blogs written by ‘citizen journalists’ are increasingly challenging newspapers for the online news audience (see citizen journalism, page 420). Many newspapers have countered this trend by offering exclusive online content delivered in a blog format, targeting an audience that is less likely to purchase the paper version of their news. Randy Bennett of the Newspaper Association of America believes, for example, that online newspapers are starting to attract audiences that are different from the audiences they draw with their print versions — in particular, they attract a younger demographic. Newspapers are also starting to embrace user-generated content, allowing readers to comment on news items and contribute newspaper content. Some newspapers and news agencies, however, are worried about the accuracy, appeal and relevance of newspaper blogs and user contributions. User contributions to newspapers have been charged with a range of offences including plagiarism and just ‘being boring’. Patrick Williams, managing editor of the Dallas Observer, believes that ‘too often newspaper blogs are filled with leftovers from stories too long to fit in the paper that day’. Jim Debth, website manager of the AmericanStatesman of Austin, Texas, says the idea behind encouraging user-generated content is to create a sense of community. ‘You create community and you’ll increase traffic and loyalty.’ Using live content delivered to the newspaper website through media forms such as blogs gives the newspaper a sense of immediacy that rivals television and radio.

Radio Internet radio has been around for many years, but it has only recently begun to have an impact. Unlike traditional radio, with its linear format, digital radio can be customised to suit each user. It does this through playlists or by defining particular styles of content, music and acts that you want to hear. Broadband radio can also be streamed through a listener’s mobile phone, enabling the same functionality offered by internet radio stations in a mobile format. This will also provide another means for advertisers to connect with mobile listeners. Podcasts, or downloadable or subscription-based music programs, are also affecting the way in which we listen to radio content.

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Figure 4.7: )NTERNET RADIO STATION ,AST &- USES SOCIAL NETWORKING TECHNOLOGY SEE PAGE TO BUILD PLAYLISTS FOR THEIR USERS BASED ON THEIR PERSONAL PROüLES AND THOSE OF THEIR LINKED FRIENDS

Activities 1. List the advantages and disadvantages of on-

MEDIA

demand television. Include in the list the pros and cons for the individual and also for society as a whole. Advantages may seem easier to see than disadvantages. Try to make your lists equal in length. For instance, are there disadvantages for society as a whole if we don’t view certain programs across the nation and at the same time? Are there disadvantages for the individual if families don’t sit around the television at the same time to watch a particular program? 2. Brainstorm some ways that advertisers can reach target audiences across technologies. Choose a traditional media platform and a new media platform and discuss ways that links can be made between the two. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of each platform and any special compatibilities the two might have. 3. Suppose you are a media producer with a particular text to distribute, such as a news story, current affairs program, drama or promotional music video. List three media that would be effective as distribution channels. Beside each listed medium, note down the advantages and disadvantages that would apply for your particular text.

WRITTEN TASK 4. Research the introduction of any new

communications technology that has had a significant effect on the existing systems. List the positive and negative changes the new technology has caused. Evaluate the overall benefit and prepare a 600-word response. Some suggestions are listed below. (a) The introduction of sound in movies and the subsequent effect on the silent film industry (b) The introduction of electronic news gathering in the early 1980s and its effect on news routines, including deadlines (c) The introduction of word processors in the newspaper industry in the early 1980s and its effect on employment in the printing industry 5. Investigate the movie industry’s increasing use of computer-produced special effects. Give a brief history of the use of these effects and outline any new developments in the field. Discuss whether special effects creation represents an example of convergence. Evaluate the effect of computergenerated images on the storytelling potential of movies. Conclude with some examples of your favourite effects.



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Privacy The erosion of privacy in a digital world ‘Show me someone who has no financial, sexual, social, political or professional secrets to keep from his family, neighbours or colleagues, and I’ll show you someone who is either an exhibitionist or a dullard. Show me a corporation that has no trade secrets or confidential records, and I’ll show you a business that isn’t very successful. Discretion and tact are pillars of civilisation.’ André Bacard, The Computer Privacy Handbook

Privacy is the ability to control what, when and how your personal details are provided to other people or organisations. Computers make the control of information more difficult and the transmission, compilation and storage of vast amounts of personal data and statistics far easier. Much of this unsorted data is inaccurately transcribed and badly compiled, leading to ‘dirty data’. Bob Sullivan, a Red Tape Chronicles columnist, points out that this data is being used to make important decisions about us based on quite incorrect or misleading premises. We could have loans, jobs or credit cards refused because someone has accessed and believed dirty data. Around the world, in the wake of terrorism threats, many governments have legislated to give law enforcement agencies unprecedented access to our personal information by means such as tracking web browsing and searching, storing and reading emails, messages and phone calls.

‘On my way into work today, I counted more than thirty-five cameras watching me, and that’s excluding those watching the road for the congestion charge, those behind windows, those in police or other vehicles, or those in any way concealed. It used to be that you could take a certain comfort from the knowledge that short of employing half the country to watch the other half, a severe shortage of eyeballs would leave you some privacy in your outdoor life. Not now. Our friend the computer can identify us by face, gait, body proportions … Intel even released open source lipreading software. Who needs microphones?’ Rupert Goodwins, ZDNet UK

Surveillance cameras that use 3D imaging to ‘recognise’ human faces not only record footage of an individual who walks in front of the camera, but also identify who it is, cross-reference the image with other systems, and build maps to record the person’s movements. This technology is widely used in Australia.

‘In a digital world, privacy feels like a lost cause … Each time we use a credit card or rent a flat, more information about us is logged and stored. We can be tracked by e-tag on the toll road or by our mobile phones. Intersecting CCTV coverage has us covered as we stroll through the city and its stores. No point staying at home to avoid the unblinking gaze of the world: as soon as you turn on the computer you’re tangled up in the sticky flypaper of the internet. “Privacy is dead”, Sun Microsystems chief executive Scott McNealy cheerfully informed us back in 1999.’ Thornton McCamish, The Sydney Morning Herald

In the information age, personal information becomes commercial data, bought and sold for profit by marketers, businesses and governments. The future of marketing lies in individualised, targeted promotion that is based on personal information collected within databases. Companies profi le consumers by collecting publicly available information, often from innocuous places such as blogs, résumés, biographies on company websites, newsletters and RSS feed subscriptions (see page 390). They then sell this information to other companies who use it in ways never consented to.

‘Bit by bit and click by click, intimate details of your personal life are piling up in enormous commercial databases — often without your knowledge or consent.’ www.consumerreports.org

Irene Graham, executive director of Electronic Frontiers Australia, has concerns that demographic information can be misused in ways such as ‘redlining’ — using demographic and sociographic profi les to discriminate against or draw a red line under certain groups. She quotes an example of an American company that placed people at the end of the queue on service calls if they were known to live in African-American neighbourhoods. ‘People don’t immediately think of the implications of what use this kind of profi ling information can be put to.’

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Jo Ann Barefoot, a privacy expert and managing director at KPMG Consulting, believes that the law is about 10 years behind the technology. ‘There’s no question that technology, and its ability to keep track of all this data, is putting people into terrain where they don’t know what the ethics are.’ Barefoot believes that monitoring could actually benefit the consumer with more accurate niche marketing, so that you are not bothered with advertisements for products that don’t fit your profile. The internet has destructive potential as an instrument of social ridicule. Emails circulated to a few friends can be forwarded to millions in a matter of minutes, while video or image postings can be seen by as many in just a few days.

‘Sometimes an unfortunate ordinary Joe gains unwitting celebrity, such as the podgy 19-yearold from New Jersey, Gary Brolsma, who made the mistake of putting a clip of himself on the web, jiggling about and mouthing the words to a cheesy Romanian pop song. Some two million downloads later, he was on the front page of the New York Times and, according to his family, severely depressed. Just like the classroom, the internet can be a cruel place.’

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David Teather, The Sydney Morning Herald

Many ordinary people thrust into the limelight through new media forms (such as reality TV, blogs and social networking sites) are unprepared for the intensity of celebrity and have been caught up in situations beyond their control. James Bone, writing in The Times, believes the ‘trend towards cheap, voyeuristic reality TV may have gone too far for the sanity of those involved’.

Australian privacy regulation

MEDIA

Australia’s Privacy Amendment Act 2000 has 10 principles of privacy that organisations should adhere to: 1. Collection. An organisation must not collect personal information unless the information is necessary for its functions or activities, and the collection must be lawful and not unreasonably intrusive. The individual must be made aware that information is being collected, of the purpose for the collection, and to whom the information will be disclosed. 2. Use and disclosure. An organisation must not use or disclose personal information for a purpose other than agreed, unless the purpose is related or the individual has consented to the disclosure. If the information is not sensitive, it can be

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used for direct marketing with some restrictions. Health data can be used for the purpose of compiling statistics. All information can be disclosed if required by law or if the information held poses a threat to the individual or others. Data quality. An organisation must take steps to ensure that the information collected is accurate, complete and current. Data security. An organisation must protect the personal information it holds from misuse and loss and from unauthorised access, modification or disclosure. Information no longer required should be de-identified or destroyed. Openness. An organisation must document its personal information management policies. The organisation must make this document available to anyone who asks for it. On request, an organisation must disclose what sort of personal information it holds, for what purposes, and how it collects, holds, uses and discloses that information. Access and correction. If an organisation holds personal information, it must provide an individual with access to that information on request, except where that would be unlawful, frivolous, pose a threat to the life or health of the individual, impact on the privacy of another individual, affect a negotiation or pose a threat to the security of the country. In a case where information is not provided, reasons must be provided. The organisation must also take reasonable steps to correct the information if the person can establish it is not accurate. Identifiers. An organisation must not take an identifier assigned by a government agency and adopt it as its own identifier of an individual. (A name or Australian Business Number is excluded from this.) For example, an organisation cannot request a Medicare number or tax file number and use it to identify someone in its database. Anonymity. Wherever possible, individuals must have the option of not identifying themselves when transacting with an organisation. Transborder data flows. An organisation in Australia can transfer information about an individual to someone in a foreign country only if that country has a similar set of privacy principles or laws; if the individual consents; or if the transfer is necessary for the performance of a contract involving the individual. Sensitive information. An organisation must not collect sensitive information about an individual unless the individual has consented, the collection is required by law or by the government for education or welfare research, or the collection is necessary to prevent or reduce a serious threat to the life or health of an individual.



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Activities 1. Research the measures certain social networking

sites such as MySpace have taken to prevent predators taking advantage of members. To what extent do these measures reflect the concerns of Australian privacy legislation? To what extent do they reflect community concerns about protection and privacy? 2. What advice would you give a friend who believes personal information about them has been distributed on the internet? Make a list of ways to help them deal with the issue and suggest some measures they could take to improve the situation.

PRODUCTION TASK 3. Prepare a pitch for a short film about a character

whose ‘digital footprints’ have come back to cause problems later in life. For instance, the character could be troubled by the reappearance of an earlier YouTube video, a MySpace site or some wider internet records. Conclude the film with a scenario in which the character overcomes the problem in some entertaining way.

WRITTEN TASK 4. Bruce Sterling, pioneering cyberspace author,

wrote in a short story: ‘I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by Google’. He describes a 2026 scenario in which:

. . . we teenagers have to live in ‘controlled spaces’. Radio-frequency ID tags, real-time locative systems, global positioning systems, smart doorways, security videocams. They ‘protect’ us kids from imaginary satanic drug dealer terrorist mafia predators. We’re ‘secured’. We’re juvenile delinquents with always-on cellphone nannies in our pockets. There’s no way to turn them off. The internet was designed without an off-switch.

Discuss the possibilities of emerging technology’s affect on our lives and privacy in 2026. Do you think that this worse-case scenario is likely? Rewrite this 2026 scenario in 600 words to describe a world in which technology has assisted us and allowed us greater freedom and creativity. Point out what you believe could be positive uses of technology, such as global positioning systems and identification tags that identify us to systems we interact with. Examples could be customising environments to our liking when we enter rooms or arrive home; customising programming to our preferences when we sit in front of the television; starting dinner when our home systems know we are only 20 minutes from home; alerting us to suspicious behaviour around us; preventing pedestrian road accidents; providing us with more leisure time through the efficiencies of automation; enhancing our social lives; or, when we walk past shops, alerting us to specials we will be interested in.

Digital imaging ‘No era in history has been recorded in such detail as the 20th century — and much of that is due to photography. Professionals and amateurs crossed the world to compile a social history. But will this happen for the digital generations of the future who snap images and delete them just as quickly? And if they do bother to store an image, will it languish on a hard drive junked for a new computer?’ Geoff Strong, Age columnist and fine art photographer

Photography has traditionally had a special status for faithfully recording the world. Film photography took 160 years to evolve, while digital photography has taken only 30. Invented in the mid 1970s, the fi rst cameras didn’t reach the market until the early 1980s. The fi rst all-digital camera was released in 1988. It

was not until the late 1990s that the quality was good enough for them to challenge fi lm. In the space of just a few years, digital photography has almost entirely replaced traditional photography. Manipulation and photographic ‘truth’ or evidence has long been an issue in photography. Digital photo manipulation tools such as Adobe Photoshop have made it very easy for anyone to manipulate imagery and distort the truth. Image manipulation used to require years of practice, but now there is even a consumer digital camera that trims down the subjects to make them look thinner! Computer technology allows photographers to maximise the impact of their images — but at what point does manipulation become deception? Is it okay to enhance the scene slightly through some basic colour correction or to remove an object from a scene? Is it okay to crop an old partner or your brother out of a personal photograph?

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Photo manipulation has been a powerful political tool for close to 100 years. It was extensively used in communist Russia to rewrite history. Powerful political figures who were later disowned, exiled or executed by the party were regularly removed from photographs; no photographic evidence existed to prove that they had ever lived. In photographs, short-legged revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin was even manipulated to look taller than those around him. Would this still happen? In 2005 a 1960s photo of American presidential candidate John Kerry was digitally combined with a 1960s photo of anti-war activist Jane Fonda in an attempt by conservative media to question Kerry’s patriotism. The picture was so realistic it was printed in newspapers across the country as the truth. The best known example of modern photo manipulation is the 1994 O. J. Simpson cover of Time magazine, where Simpson’s face was deliberately darkened for ‘artistic effect’ by the cover illustrator. This drew criticism concerning not just his right to a fair trial but also racial stereotyping.

‘In the fashion world models are modified to a level of perceived beauty that doesn’t exist anywhere but on billboards.’ CBS News

Image manipulation has had an adverse effect on our body image. It is very rare to look in a magazine and see a natural photograph of a real person. Fashion magazines set an especially bad example. Not only do

the models have professional makeup layered on, but any imperfection unable to be physically hidden can later be digitally altered. Every aspect of the model’s body and face is digitally manipulated into forms that we are encouraged to believe are beautiful, but in reality are almost impossible to achieve. The Swedish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs has created a website called G!rlpower, which reveals the typical photo manipulation used on models appearing in the media. This site allows the viewer to interactively explore the changes made to a model’s eyes, teeth, lips, nose, skin, jawline, hair, breasts and waist. Critics debate the differences between photo documentary and art, and between photographs and photo illustrations. Many highly manipulated images are tagged as ‘photo illustrations’, but how many viewers actually see this? Image manipulation can add credibility to urban legends and hoaxes by illustrating what never existed. With the dramatic increase in realism of 3D animations, it will also be possible to create whole realities that re-create the truth. It won’t just be a manipulated image; rather, the whole situation and environment may never have occurred. The permanence of images has been reduced through advances in technology. Traditional photographs can easily last for tens or hundreds of years, but all the images you store on a DVD could be gone with one scratch. Put them on a hard drive that fails or a computer that is stolen, and all your digital memories could be lost at a stroke. With digital image storage so cheap, we live in an age in which photos have become highly disposable.

Activities

MEDIA

1. Scan or video capture an image featuring significant

3. Conduct research into historic image manipulation

people and events in politics or history. Take this into a photo editing program and make changes to the image; for example, use the clone tool to alter facial features, cut and paste in different backgrounds, or delete people from the event. Print this image. Write a short report on the implications of your actions on politics and the legal system, and on truth in general. 2. Should images that have been digitally enhanced be labelled? What if only minor changes are made, such as increasing the brightness and contrast so that the image prints better? Would you extend photo manipulation labelling further to fashion magazines and advertisements that feature models who have been thinned, made taller, smoothed and made to appear impossibly beautiful?

and its political impact. Compare this with modern examples. What political or social goals do modern examples of photo manipulation have? Have the goals and impacts changed? Draw up a table listing old versus modern impacts and goals of truth manipulation. 4. None of the magazine role models presented to us as ‘beautiful’ are natural; all have been digitally enhanced. Some school photographers even offer manipulation services for school photos. What do you believe this says about our modern society and cultural beliefs? Are there any historical precedents? How has beauty traditionally been represented and what did those representations say about society at that time?



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Mobile media technology ‘With mobiles, laptops, BlackBerry, email . . . we’re available everywhere, 24/7. The costs are solitude, focus and our boundaries. Will we ever do things in person again?’ Karen Kissane, technology writer, The Sydney Morning Herald

In July 2006 the two-billionth mobile phone user was connected, with 1000 new users around the world buying a phone every minute. No other technology has penetrated the global market so fast. Many developing countries are skipping the wired infrastructure of landline communication and are going straight to mobile and wireless technology because it is less expensive to ‘roll out’. In 2005 Australians paid more than $1.53 billion on non-voice services such as ringtones, SMS, MMS (picture messaging) and video calls. The non-voice service market is expected to grow 10 times faster than the voice market, showing the real value of a mobile phone is not the phone but the other communication and entertainment options that they feature. Premium entertainment and information mobile content was estimated to be worth $35 billion worldwide in 2006.

The ‘always-on’ generation Advances in mobile technology and mobile communication have made media more pervasive and harder to avoid. For the next ‘always-on’ generation, the division between work, media, friends and family will be blurred or nonexistent. Jerry Murdock, a venture capitalist with Insight Venture Partners, points out that maintaining an ongoing conversation with someone wherever you are is something new, and that we are entering an era of ‘co-presence’. Esther Dyson, an internet investor and author, believes mobile applications foster interaction among people. ‘These devices are present almost all the time. They become almost part of you.’ Mobile phones and other devices will make it easier to socialise, as you will be able to keep track of your friends’ locations. British Telecom futurist Ian Pearson notes that companies are working hard to fi nd ways that technology can improve users’ social lives. ‘Imagine being able to look at the screen of your mobile phone and know exactly where your friends are. If you’re in town on Saturday morning, your best mate might be 100 yards down the street. You could have gone for a beer . . . and you didn’t. You’ve missed that social opportunity.’

Figure 4.8: 4HE INČUENCE OF MOBILE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON POPULAR CULTURE AND MEDIA WAS ILLUSTRATED IN WHEN #RAZY &ROG A MOBILE PHONE RINGTONE TOPPED MUSIC CHARTS AROUND THE WORLD 4HE RECORD INDUSTRY NOW AWARDS GOLD AND PLATINUM MILLION SALES AWARDS TO RINGTONES IN THE SAME WAY THEY DO FOR CONVENTIONAL ALBUMS AND SINGLES Psychologist Evelyn Field asks whether the amount of communication is reducing the quality of communication; although you are in touch with many people, you are intimate with none. ‘It’s not a good trend because it doesn’t improve the quality of the friendship or relationship. It just becomes more “busyness”. People can be very busy while not doing anything, and people can be communicating electronically and not getting closer; just doing it for the sake of it. It’s almost as if it’s a defence against anxiety.’

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Fifty-five per cent of communication is nonverbal (facial expression, gesture, body language etc.), 28 per cent is by voice and only 7 per cent is through words. In the age of electronic communication, 90 per cent of nonverbal communication is lost. Field believes that teenagers communicating primarily through electronic means ‘miss out on what [they] would feel, hear, smell, sense, pick up [by] gut instinct. It’s not good for the development of social skills’.

systems are used in many Australian schools to SMS parents when their child is away from school without reason. An early implementer of the system, Holroyd High School in Greystanes, reported that it had helped to cut its absentee rate by 42 per cent. Add a global positioning system to a mobile phone and parents and the school will know exactly where kids are all the time. Many researchers believe that mobile devices will replace the PC. Nokia have called some of their handsets ‘multimedia computers’. Brian Cruikshanks of Ipsos, a market research company, suggests that in the long term many of today’s computer-based tasks could be completed using a mobile phone. Tasks such as online banking and music downloads are possible computer-based tasks that could completely migrate to mobile devices. Wired magazine predicts the next wave of mobile innovation will be the ‘Wi-Fi Revolution’, in which the internet is extended via wireless transmission to a wide array of mobile devices, and the computer ‘disappears’ into ordinary objects carried with us.

Short message service (SMS) and multimedia message service (MMS)

Figure 4.9: 4HE MOBILE PHONE IS JUST ONE OF THE TECHNOLOGIES THAT HAS LED TO THE ALWAYS ON GENERATION

‘Persistent communications use . . . is significantly linked to increased distress and decreased family satisfaction, as well as increases in negative work-to-family or familyto-work spillover in individuals.’ Noelle Chesley, researcher, University of Wisconsin

MEDIA

Laptop computers and mobiles are also changing the way we work and holiday. Studies have shown that significant numbers of workers now take their work home or on holidays with them. Organisational psychologist Grant Brecht believes the inability to escape work is leading to a steady rise in anxiety disorders. It’s not just escaping from work that is made more difficult by technology. Mobile messaging

A Virgin Mobile study in the UK found that over 12 per cent of respondents admitted to sending more than 20 SMS messages a day, while 10 per cent admitted to 100 a day. SMS is especially popular in Asia, where rates are cheap. With SMS texting so commonplace, etiquette expert Patsy Rowe is concerned that instant abbreviated communication is too impersonal, and that polite conversation will be lost. ‘It comes as short, sharp and staccato with people using smiley faces to soften their message.’ In the commercial world, however, SMS is proving to be a very effective form of advertising, with a high response rate from phone users. Advertisers are even looking to a future in which SMS advertisements are sent to you when you walk past a store that fits your advertising profile, using special offers to encourage you to enter. Currently SMS allows broadcasters to involve the audience in their programming, for example inviting users to vote on the outcome of reality television shows (for a small fee). On the downside, spam (see page 389) is becoming a problem for mobile users, as unwanted advertising messages are being received at the user’s expense. Another problem is exam cheating. Students have been known to use SMS messages to ask questions of people outside the examination room.



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Multimedia Message Service (MMS) is an extension of the SMS format that allows images, video and audio to be sent as messages or as part of a message.

SMS language SMS language — texting, txt or txtspk — is an abbreviated form of writing designed to make long messages shorter and quicker to compose. Punctuation and grammar are largely irrelevant. Experienced ‘txters’ are adept at using substitutions and abbreviations that shorten words and phrases. Syllables can be replaced with ‘sounds-like’ letters or numbers (ate with ‘8’, are with ‘r’), and commonly used abbreviations can shorten whole phrases (by the way becomes ‘btw’ and got to go becomes ‘g2g’).

with a device like this and watch for half an hour. It’s snacking behaviour, and that’s the content that seems to be working.’

‘Images will be beamed straight to our handsets, avoiding download charges, and consumers will be able to watch extended events like the World Cup wherever they are … even if just one room away from a bigger screen. But it is not just television that will get a mobile revamp. Mobile email is expected to take off even faster than mobile TV, tuneful phones are already taking over from dedicated MP3 players, and Australians own twice as many phone cameras as they do separate digital cameras in a trend that looks destined to grow.’ Jennifer Dudley, technology journalist

Figure 4.10: !RE YOU GOING TO THE PUB TONIGHT CAN BE SHORTENED FROM CHARACTERS INCLUDING SPACES TO With advances in predictive text entry, SMS language is expected to be reduced to a common set of well-known abbreviations. Predictive text makes abbreviations less necessary and often slower to type than the actual words in the software’s dictionary. The increasing number of mobile phones incorporating PDAs (personal digital assistants) also decreases the usefulness of SMS abbreviations, as most have real or onscreen keyboards or handwriting recognition.

Mobile film and television Dipchand Nishar, manager of Google Wireless, believes mobile television won’t replace existing television or computers. Average mobile communication-device usage time in 2006 was about 14 minutes, he reports, while the average computer session is about two hours. Scott Taylor, general manager of content and services at Hutchison, also believes mobile television will not replace traditional television. ‘People won’t sit

Many mobile devices are capable of receiving broadcast digital television in addition to streaming mobile broadband television clips. Mobile television broadcasting provides a higher quality image and eliminates high download costs. The best results for mobile TV have so far come from supplementing existing television events such as reality shows and sporting events. Taylor says that in 2006 Big Brother sessions via mobile averaged nine minutes while the World Cup soccer averaged just six. Research by Nokia, says their multimedia head, Mark Selby, indicates users are willing to watch shows on their mobiles for 20 to 30 minutes. As mobile devices become more sophisticated and users become more familiar with them, viewing time is likely to increase. Selby envisions a big future for mobile television. He believes it will become the primary vehicle for watching television and that future generations will prefer to watch television on their mobile phone, just as many people now prefer to listen to music on an MP3 player rather than a home stereo. Telstra was the first to launch in Australia, with its Next G mobile television and mobile communication system offering 12 channels of Foxtel, sport and movie downloads. A new area of mobile entertainment is usergenerated content, whereby mobile phone users can create content such as video pictures or mobile blog entries (moblogs) and view similar content on their mobile. For John Dvorak, columnist for PC Magazine, ‘the implications of everyone having a camera at the ready are mind-boggling’. Camera phones are also driving new forms of mobile media and creativity. Filmmakers are shooting short productions and documentaries entirely on their phones, while film festivals have opened new categories for mobile or ‘portable’ filmmaking.

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‘It takes a bit of work to get a film up to what I think would be an acceptable standard, but I think as the technology develops, they’re only going to get better. There will be more opportunities to make material, and if more material is being made, then ultimately more will be seen.’ Louise Ingram, Communications Manager, Nokia Australia

Figure 4.11: .OKIA CALLED ITS MOBLOG A kLIFE RECORDERl )T ALLOWS USERS TO KEEP A MULTIMEDIA DIARY ON THEIR MOBILE PHONE AND TO POST IT ONLINE AT ANY TIME FROM ANYWHERE

The director of SMS Sugar Man, Aryan Kaganof, says of his film: ‘It doesn’t look like a video being blown up to 35 mm — it’s more like Super 8 [an old 8 mm film format]. The contrast is great and the camera has a very strong black, which is very suitable for night filming. We shot a lot at night and it worked very well’. According to RMIT digital art lecturer Larissa Hjorth, ‘[Mobile phone filming] has a realism that people tend to be more likely to believe. You can take people’s ideas of reality for a little walk because of the fact that the camera seems to be low quality. It seems to just be recording rather than making stories’.

MEDIA

Figure 4.12: 3-3 3UGAR -AN FROM DIRECTOR !RYAN +AGANOF WAS THE üRST üLM TO BE SHOT ENTIRELY USING MOBILE PHONES 4HE üLM TOOK DAYS TO SHOOT WITH EIGHT PHONE CAMERAS AND COST TO MAKE

Unfortunately, mobile phone camera voyeurism has been an unintended consequence of the technology. Camera phones tend now to be banned from changing rooms, bathrooms and many other places where voyeuristic photos could easily be taken. Laws have been passed making it an offence to secretly take revealing photographs of strangers in public. In Japan the government legislated to force all mobile phone cameras to incorporate a loud clicking sound when a photo is being taken, alerting those nearby to the fact that a camera is being used.

Regulating mobile content Controlling content on mobile devices is proving more difficult than it is in film, television, games and the internet because of the number of children with internet-capable mobile phones, which they often use without supervision. The blurring of boundaries between broadcast and user-generated content also makes it difficult to define the stage at which private communication becomes public, especially when it involves content being sent to groups of users. Mobile content is controlled by the Australian Broadcasting Authority (ABA). In 2005 the first guidelines for mobile content were released, including a ban on material rated X18 or ‘refused classification’. These bans affect SMS, picture and video services. In addition, mobile phone operators with chat room services are required to monitor the content. The ABA has the power to remove outlawed content or services. Live streamed video or audio content is regulated under the same guidelines as broadcasting on public television. Mobile content is proving difficult to police owing to the vast amount of material being sent, especially from user to user, or from groups of users to users.



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Activities 1. Dipchand Nishar, who manages Google’s Wireless

department, writes, ‘We had Generation X and Generation Y. Now we have Generation ADD’. Debate his statement in class or in writing. Has the way we consume information and news, and the always-on nature of communication, created a generation that has problems concentrating and thinking for long periods of time? Explain your answer with examples from your experience. 2. Research the development of the mobile phone from the ‘house bricks’ of the 1980s to the pocketsized phones we use today. Make an evaluation of the status of the mobile phone in the 1980s and its status today.

WRITTEN TASK 3. Write an 800-word report in which you evaluate the

role of the mobile phone in today’s society. Examine its role in youth culture and in citizen journalism, and its impact on modern lifestyles and stress levels. Also investigate any health issues related to the use of mobile phone technology.

PRODUCTION TASK 4. Shoot a short film entirely on mobile phone using

everyday settings and ordinary people to convey the story. Wherever possible, use the advantages offered by mobile phone video — spontaneity and naturalism — to build the narrative.

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Media industry production issues

New media industry issues The growing influence of technology and its ever increasing importance and demand have given rise to a number of unforeseen industry issues.

Environment ‘Creating one computer uses the same amount of water, chemicals and fossil fuels as it takes to make one mid-sized car. So it is shameful that three in four computers are dumped or stockpiled.’ Jenny Henty, Environment Victoria

MEDIA

Technology has become disposable. Our desire to own more and newer devices sees us purchasing more technology and throwing more away. Environment Victoria estimates that each year three million computers are sold in Australia while more than 730 000 are dumped in landfill. Mobiles in particular are upgraded very regularly, the average handset having only a two-year lifespan. American industrial designer Brooks Stevens coined the phrase ‘planned obsolescence’ in 1954 to describe the deliberate manufacture of products with a short lifespan. The speed at which new products are developed leads to consumer desire to own new products even though there

is nothing wrong with the old ones. This approach is becoming increasingly significant as technology improves. All these new devices we own use a lot of electricity. Nokia estimates that if just 10 per cent of mobile users unplugged their phone chargers after their phone is charged, rather than just leaving it on, there would be enough power saved to run 60 000 houses for a year. Some responsible manufacturers, especially in Europe, are offering recycling services to ensure that old technology is recycled rather than ending up in landfi ll.

Outsourcing and automation A wide range of information technology, call centre work and back office fi nancial work is being sent offshore to countries where labour is cheap. In the United States, Forrester Research predicts US$136 billion in wages, or 3.3 million jobs, will move offshore over the next 10 years. A shortage of skilled local workers has also contributed to the offshoring of jobs. Private data, such as taxation returns and credit card information, is increasingly being sent offshore for processing. Some of it ends up being sold or used illegally.


5_61_05447_Media_ch05

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Figure 5.1: /FFSHORE CALL CENTRE WORKERS ARE TRAINED TO SPEAK AND ACT AS THOUGH THEY WERE LOCAL STAFF SO THE CONSUMER IS UNAWARE OF THEIR REMOTE LOCATION

‘Offshoring does not promote long-term development of skills or careers in the Australian banking industry. It is also bad news for consumers, whose sensitive financial data and personal details will be sent to countries with inferior privacy laws.’ Paul Schroeder, Australian Financial Services Union

Jobs are also being lost to machines and computers at an accelerated rate with improvements in computer/human interaction technology and the ever reducing cost and increasing efficiency of machines. Computers are gaining sophisticated comprehension and communication abilities. Once an acceptable ‘human’ level of communication is achieved, the use of machines in the workplace has the potential to displace millions of workers. Technology writer Marshall Brain believes current workplace displacement by machines is just the ‘tip of the iceberg’. On just one day, he writes, he interacted with five automated systems: he withdrew money from an ATM, bought petrol from an automated pump, bought groceries at a supermarket warehouse using a self-service checkout, bought homewares from a hardware store using an automated checkout and bought food at McDonald’s via an automated kiosk.

‘All of these systems are very easy to use from a customer standpoint, they are fast, and they lower the cost of doing business and should therefore lead to lower prices. All of that is good, so these automated systems will proliferate rapidly. The problem is that these systems will also eliminate jobs in massive numbers. In fact, we are about to see a seismic shift in the American workforce. As a nation, we have no way to understand or handle the level of unemployment that we will see in our economy over the next several decades.’ Marshall Brain, technology writer and founder of the website How Stuff Works

The same technology that allows outsourcing allows more flexible working conditions. Working from home while still connected to the office networks is now a reality for many workers. Some believe that greater automation also has the potential to create greater leisure time.

Cost of production Our ever increasing desire for more technology, and its growing influence in our lives, has generated a demand for high volumes of new products. But have you ever wondered how those gadgets you own are made, or why they have become so affordable that we can dispose of them after just a couple of years? Evidence of forced labour, unpaid overtime and child labour in factories making cheap technology for us is often raised in the media. Apple was compelled to prove that their iPod factories did not use child labour or force people to work long hours. Despite the denials issued by the company, it became evident that work and remuneration conditions, while good for China where iPods are made, do not translate well in a western context. Facing minimum 60-hour weeks with additional overtime, workers as young as 16 put in 12- to 15-hour days, standing without breaks, with only one day off a week. The workers are housed at night in giant open dormitories that hold up to 700 people in one room. And all this for as little as $67 a month.

Health Other issues are arising concerning the health aspects of mobile technology, such as possible negative effects due to increased exposure to radiation, and hand and wrist injuries (tendiopathy) caused by excessive texting or game play. A study in the UK conducted by Virgin Mobile found that 3.8 million people complain of texting-related injuries each year.

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We are surrounded by electronic magnetic fields emanating from mobile phones and towers, wireless data networks, microwave links and electrical appliances. Studies of the harmful effects of the radiation we are exposed to have produced controversial fi ndings. The majority of studies have not found a clear indication of short- and medium-term health effects, but in laboratory studies microwave radiation has been shown to affect the growth of tumours, and cause cell death and DNA damage, pointing to possible adverse health effects.

Some mobile users have reported skin irritation, fatigue, digestive problems, dizziness, sleep problems, attention difficulties, headaches and memory loss through extended use of mobile technology. Scientists believe this is caused by electromagnetic hypersensitivity syndrome. Overseas studies have linked electromagnetic radiation to memory loss, infertility, leukemia and eye cancer. The World Health Organization (WHO) has suggested a precautionary approach involving minimised use and a reduction in emission levels until results are clearer.

Activities 1. Have the way we consume information and news,

and the ‘always on’ nature of communication channels, created a generation with problems concentrating and thinking clearly for long periods of time? Explain your answer with examples from your experience. 2. Conduct a class survey plotting the number of SMS and MMS messages sent each day. How does your class measure up against the average of

12 per cent of young people sending more than 20 messages a day? 3. How many automated systems do you deal with in a single day (choose a day when you conduct a number of activities, such as going into the city to watch a movie or meet friends)? Do you expect an increase in the number of machines and automated systems you deal with daily? What sorts of jobs do you think are likely to be displaced?

Working in the video game industry Like any industry, the game industry has its problems. Creating games is a risky business — successes are few, and failures are costly. As a result, the game industry, like the fi lm industry, continues to adapt and recycle existing titles in order to guarantee success. Publishers are often unwilling to invest in new or different concepts. Tom Crago, CEO of Tantalus Interactive, believes ‘it’s the greatest challenge facing independent developers today. Getting anything new off the ground is tough but the rewards are massive.’

What does a game designer do?

MEDIA

Paul O’Connor, senior game designer at Oddworld Inhabitants, summarises the tasks of a game designer as: • writing a treatment describing game action • creating technical documentation specifying game controls • formulating a gameplay outline based on required elements of the story • building game environments using 3D modelling software • presenting game ideas to upper management • working with programmers to refi ne game controls and cameras

• working with artists to create simple visual means of communicating essential game information • controlling the ‘big picture’ while experts work on details • writing game manuals and hint materials • keeping an eye on what other companies are doing, and evaluating competing games • creating, updating and maintaining a database containing descriptions of every element of the game • designing puzzles and other game challenges on paper before implementing them • testing the game and fi xing the bugs • modelling the sophisticated interaction of the game climate, creatures and environment • conceiving original solutions to problems.

Gender Game development workplaces are sometimes noninclusive and difficult for women. In the early days the industry was totally male dominated. The nature of the workplace is changing, however, and becoming more inclusive. ‘By creating a safe environment for the entire team, creative risks are more likely to occur, leading to better gaming concepts and long lasting productivity,’ says Shannon Loftis, Group Program


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Manager at Microsoft Game Studios. ‘There are more opportunities for working in companies that value diversity.’ ‘Networking is very important in the gaming industry,’ writes ‘Atari’ in an article on Womengamers. com. ‘It’s a small industry, so you will run into the same people over and over. Because it is a popular field (at least amongst men), networking can offer you an open door into a company, and keep you a step ahead. However, it is a reality that networking can be difficult when you are female in a male-dominated field.’

Ownership

Work–life balance

The video game industry is in a constant state of flux. It is expanding rapidly, but at the same time it is decreasing in size as companies merge for financial reasons. The proportion of games that actually make a profit is very low (as small as 5 per cent), while development costs are high. Company mergers are a way of spreading the risk. However, having fewer and larger companies can stifle the generation of original ideas and game concepts. This results in much the same situation as that facing the American film industry.

The game industry is renowned for its long work hours. Developers joke about the 100-hour club, for those who put in 100-plus-hour weeks. While this situation has changed for many game development companies, long hours and extra work at weekends remain common. Most companies, especially larger ones, are aware of the problem, and some have strategies in place to reduce overtime required when deadlines are tight. However, difficulties in finding qualified staff have led some companies to work employees longer to make up for skill shortages. Overtime is sometimes voluntary, when developers become so engrossed in their work they simply won’t go home. Sheri Graner Ray, a senior game designer at Sony Online Entertainment, admits she sometimes has to force developers to go home, to have them eat, take a shower, sleep and come back the next day refreshed.

Outsourcing Like all technology fields, video games development uses low-cost offshore development. This is not uncommon in the entertainment industry; cartoons, for example, have been outsourced to Asia for decades. Game developer American McGee believes outsourcing is inevitable. ‘In the future, 40 per cent or more of a game’s budget will be spent on outsourcing. This is the reality created when the art demand in games goes up by 300–400 per cent.’ Most large studios are already outsourcing game development. Outsourcing is profitable for game studios. They don’t have to recruit, scale up development teams or lay off employees after a project is finished. But it means that opportunities are fewer for prospective local employees. Australian game developers often complete outsourcing work for American companies. Cheaper rates from Asia, however, may have an adverse affect on Australian outsourcing companies.

‘Worldwide, the game industry is going through a massive shift. Many studios overseas are closing, merging or being bought by publishers — moves driven by the rising cost of development and exacerbated by the high-definition graphics capabilities of “nextgeneration” consoles such as Microsoft’s Xbox 360 and Sony’s new PlayStation 3.’ Jason Hill, technology writer, Livewire, The Sydney Morning Herald

Australian game development The Game Developers’ Association of Australia believes the major challenges facing the Australian industry lie in maintaining a balance between independent and multinational studios, addressing the skills shortage, attracting investment and gaining government support. ‘Local game developers employ thousands of people and tens of studios around the country, generating exports worth more than $100 million each year — far more than the Australian film industry,’ writes Jason Hill in The Sydney Morning Herald. The world sees Australia as a low-cost producer. A large part of the Australian industry focuses on outsourced American work. So it is important that Australia maintain a number of independent studios to produce original local titles, in addition to accepting overseas work. ‘The Australian game industry is at a crucial point,’ believes Marsha Thomson, Victoria’s minister for information and communication technology. ‘It is highly regarded internationally, but in the global context it is a niche player existing principally on fee-for-service contracts from overseas companies.’ But the Australian game industry is hampered by a lack of senior and skilled staff, says Ben Palmer, director of Melbourne’s IR Gurus. ‘We are forced to go overseas for many of our hires.’ Film Victoria has pioneered a program to deliver expensive and hardto-obtain PlayStation and Xbox development kits to small studios, allowing them to create demos and win lucrative publishing contracts.

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Activities 1. Prepare a short report on post–secondary school

studies available in video game design. List the main options a candidate could be offered and provide some clues as to alternative pathways that could be taken. 2. Research the views of games designers on issues such as work–life balance and outsourcing. Some academics, such as Professor Toby Miller, have begun investigating this area. However, much of

the comment in the field comes from the designers themselves in blogs and personal websites. Prepare a short report after using the internet for research. 3. Prepare a series of interview questions on the experience of being a games designer in Australia, and visit a games design company to conduct the interviews. You will need to arrange the visit in advance and gain the approval of company management to conduct the interviews.

Copyright and the internet ‘The net has introduced a piracy nightmare for the motion picture, recording, and publishing industries, which have resorted to lawsuits to protect their intellectual property online.’ Christopher Jones, Wired News

A new generation of young people have grown up assembling vast personalised archives of contemporary culture, collecting music, bookmarks, movies, documents, pictures and text, says Jon Katz in a Yahoo! feature article. ‘Many of these users have no direct experience paying for the pop culture they love, which until a few years ago was subject to a clear-cut mix of federal theft and copyright laws. Now these people are being called thieves and pirates.’ There is significant potential for copyright infringement on the internet. The traps for the unwary include the following: • Downloading images, music or movies and reproducing or reusing them without permission • Copying images, music, movies and animations from the internet • Copying information, then reselling it — either in print, on disc or over the internet. The structure of the internet, and the easy reproduction and transmission of digital data, will alter the way the next generation views theft, intellectual property and copyright. Kevin Kelly, author of New Rules for the New Economy, believes the internet turns conventional business models upside down. In the old world, he writes, wealth was based on physical objects, and value came from scarcity. In the information age

value comes, rather, from abundance: the more people that have access to information, the more valuable that information becomes. The whole premise behind the internet is the sharing of information. Digital transmission of data reduces everything to a series of ones and zeros, allowing perfect copies to be made and making it impossible to tell which one is the original. Major copyright holders such as the recording, publishing and fi lm industries are fighting what might be a losing battle against copyright theft on the internet. They are trying to improve ways to make digitally distributed fi les copy proof, while reproducible versions of their work, like music MP3s, spread rapidly across the internet. But according to Len Kawell, president of e-book publisher Glassbook Inc., the ‘reality is there’s no such thing as an invincible copy protection system. It’s impractical to make it both invincible and usable.’

‘It may be the case that copyright holders are going to have to adjust the way they work to the nature of the internet.’ Marc Rotenburg, electronic security consultant

In the digital age it is difficult to know what constitutes a copyright violation. Anyone buying a magazine or a book from an offline bookstore is entitled to hand it around. Yet it can be illegal to show anyone else digital information purchased online. And while it is legal to pass around a magazine or book, it is illegal to do so over the internet, because it then becomes a public broadcast. In the same way, it is legal to lend music CDs to your friends, but illegal to share downloaded albums.

Activities MEDIA

1. Suggest possible new approaches to copyright that

take into account the needs of users and the needs of the industry. How can these be reconciled?

2. Research Australia’s new copyright laws. Begin

with a visit to the Australian Copyright Council’s website.


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Music and movie piracy ‘Copyright is dead in the digital millennium.’ Graeme Philipson, technology writer, The Sydney Morning Herald

The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) claims illegal internet downloads and fi le sharing cost US$2.3 billion in 2006, while the Recording Industry of American (RIAA) claims losses of US$4.2 billion. Some critics believe this reduction in movie and music sales reflects consumers’ changing priories. While they may have the same entertainment budget they had 15 years ago, now consumers have a much wider range of entertainment choices — from DVDs and internet services to ringtones. A consumer’s total entertainment budget would have to increase dramatically to support buying a wider range of entertainment while retaining the same spending on older formats. According to the NPD Group, a consumer and retail information company, 8 per cent of regular US internet users download digital video fi les from peerto-peer (P2P) sites. Nearly 60 per cent of video fi les downloaded from P2P sites were adult content, with 20 per cent television programming and 5 per cent mainstream movie content. The use of MP3s and digital video fi les to distribute content is growing at an exponential rate. Entertainment companies face the challenge of enhancing their own secure modes of online content distribution and encouraging more users to pay for material they can already source for free. The record companies have resorted to costly court challenges to stop major fi lesharing technologies like Napster, Kazaa, LimeWire and BitTorrent. In the minds of some of the recording industry elite, almost all their customers are thieves. Doug Morris, CEO of Universal Records, describes MP3 players as ‘repositories for stolen music’; he is pressing for a percentage profit for all players sold. But Jimmy Iovine, a music engineer and producer and head of Seagram’s Universal Music distribution venture, believes the music industry has lost a big psychological advantage by fighting the MP3 battle in court. Front-page news stories about big record companies suing children have painted the record industry on one side, and technology, freedom and kids on the other. After a slow start, the legal music download industry has grown fast. At the start of the millennium almost no songs were legally available online; by 2006 the iTunes store alone had sold its billionth track. Downloadable movies initially struggled owing

to high costs (it was cheaper to buy the DVD), no special features, reduced quality and restrictive copyright protection. Record companies and movie studios provide a vast range of downloadable entertainment content, but it usually has highly restrictive use controlled by DRM (Digital Rights Management). This technology controls the use of software, music and movies, typically preventing consumers from copying content to multiple devices, preventing format shifting (i.e. CD to MP3) and limiting how the content can be used or reused. A normal CD without DRM will play back in every CD player and can be stripped to MP3 and uploaded onto any device any number of times. DRM-protected music is restricted in its allowed use. Music bought from iTunes will play only on an iPod, while other stores sell music that won’t play on iPods. These restrictions hamper the usability of the music. The tracks you buy now may not work on your next player, so you may need to purchase them all again. These issues can make DRM-free MP3s downloaded illegally an attractive option. ‘Finding ways to keep track of content is important, but this doesn’t necessarily mean locking it up,’ says Mike McGuire, vice-president of research at Gartner Industries Media. McGuire believes that today’s consumers expect a high degree of portability. ‘Frankly, these kinds of hurdles don’t make consumers feel particularly excited by offerings coming from conventional studios.’ Or, as Ben Macklin, senior analyst at research fi rm eMarketer, puts it, ‘if the rightful owner does not allow consumers to get the content they want, when they want it and how they want to use it, they will get it elsewhere’. ‘What do I do when I’ve bought an album on iTunes, and I’m done with it? How do I resell that song?’ asks Billy McNair, CEO of Peerflix, a P2P content exchange site. ‘There are very few successful products that have been prohibited from selling in a secondary market. The next phase in a digital world: how do we create that secondary market?’ Large markets exist for secondhand CDs, DVDs and books. In the digital world, content owners want secondhand distribution forbidden. According to the Jupiter Communications study into the effects of fi le-sharing technology, ‘all online music activity drives more purchases, not just online spending, but traditional retailers, as well’. PC Magazine columnist John C. Dvorak likes to mention that CD sales increased during the heyday of Napster, and that when it was shut down, CD sales actually fell.

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Increases in broadband access and speed provide the ability to download/copy entire movies in as little as 15 minutes. The movie industry is now trying to fi nd a way of securing their copyrighted materials while making them available online. The major problem record companies are having is fi nding a bulletproof means of encrypting copyright fi les. Every copyright technology developed by the recording companies and movie studios has been almost instantaneously ‘cracked’ by users. Don Huesman, senior director of faculty technology at Wharton, believes that streaming music and movies played in real time from the internet

will make downloading fi les look ‘antiquated’. He predicts that a pay-per-view system will become the prevalent model of future media use. Others, such as Newsweek magazine senior editor and author Steven Levy, believe that the entertainment industry will continue to be very profitable. ‘Though piracy is a huge challenge, there are also tremendous opportunities for revenue that will come from this change. Those opportunities deal with making direct connections to customers, tapping into communities centred on musical genres and fans, making live concerts and rarities available and other things that please customers.’

Activities 1. Users of file-sharing software, which allows them

to share digital music files, are likely to buy more CDs than users who don’t share files, according to a study by research firm Jupiter Communications. Do you agree with these findings, or do you believe that internet users who download MP3s buy less legal music as a consequence? 2. Detail your experience with, or opinion of, legally downloaded music. Do you have concerns about future playability, inability to share it with friends, or hardware/playback problems with other MP3 players? Do the restrictions placed on legally downloaded content make illegal downloading

a better solution for you or do you buy CDs to avoid many of the DRM problems? Discuss your experience with others in the class.

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to the following topic: 3. You are the head of a major recording studio. What you would you do about piracy and illegal downloads? What alternative would you offer to consumers so that they wouldn’t download illegally? In formulating a response, consider your own experience with illegal downloads versus paid downloads or CDs purchased from a shop.

Internet censorship ‘The internet interprets censorship as damage, and routes around it.’ John Gilmore, Electronic Frontier Foundation co-founder

MEDIA

The internet was designed to withstand a nuclear attack. If one of its terminals were to be wiped out, the system would simply route the information around it. There is no central control point. Every user and every access provider in every country has control over the materials that are online. This decentralisation of control, says technology theorist and author Howard Rheingold, means ‘the delivery system for offensive materials is the same worldwide network that delivers economic opportunity, educational resources, civic forums, and health advice’. Human rights groups, meanwhile, warn that government censorship online is growing. According to Amnesty International spokesman Steve Ballinger, ‘More [undemocratic] governments are realising

the importance of the internet . . . There is evidence that internet repression is getting worse’. Reporters Without Borders named 13 countries, including China, Cuba, Iran, Myanmar, Saudi Arabia, Vietnam and North Korea, as the worst culprits for online censorship. These countries ‘censor and block online content that criticises them’. Foreign companies operating in these countries are expected to comply with their censorship regimes. Multinationals such as Yahoo!, Microsoft and Google have cooperated with the Chinese government in fi ltering the internet and have even helped track down cyber-dissidents. Assistance from Yahoo! has helped to jail at least three people, including a reporter sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment.

‘It’s one thing to turn a blind eye to censorship — it’s another thing to collaborate.’ Lucie Morillon, spokeswoman, Reporters Without Borders


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The Great Firewall of China The ‘Golden Shield’ project is known in the west as the ‘Great Firewall of China’ (a firewall being a hardware or software network access restricting device). In China, all internet content producers must register with the government. Producers are issued with a licence if their material is regarded as suitable and all internet access is controlled by governmentoperated providers. Special restrictions apply to material of a religious or political nature, and strict penalties are in place for those who break the rules. Many users have been jailed. China employs 30 000 web censors to track down dissidents and the use of unauthorised websites, and to filter content. Search for terms such as ‘Falun Gong’ or ‘Tiananmen Square’ and your computer could freeze for 30 minutes. Search for such phrases often and you’ll be arrested. The fi rewall is largely ineffective, as users can employ anonymous content rerouting sites outside of China to bypass the restrictions.

Figure 5.2: 4HE kIMAGE SEARCHl RESULTS FOR k4IANANMENl ON 'OOGLE #HINA ABOVE ARE VERY DIFFERENT FROM THOSE ON 'OOGLE !USTRALIA BELOW

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A R C T I C

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Countries putting obstacles to the free flow of information 0

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Figure 5.3: #OUNTRIES WHERE THE FREE ČOW OF INFORMATION IS OBSTRUCTED

Australian censorship Australia has some of the toughest censorship laws in the world, according to Electronic Frontiers Australia executive Irene Graham. Legislation introduced in 2000 allows the Australian Communication and Media Authority to order Australian websites to delete any content it deems objectionable — but only if it is hosted in Australia. (As most content is hosted overseas, these laws are seen to be ineffective against much of the content they were aimed at stopping.) Material rated ‘R’ is allowed only if protected by an adult verification system. Material rated ‘X’ is banned outright.

Difficulties in censoring the internet

MEDIA

According to technology writer Howard Rheingold, short of sending the army into foreign countries to prevent users placing offensive materials on the internet, there is no way in which to censor the internet. ‘The only protection that has a chance of working is to give our sons and daughters moral grounding and some common sense,’ he says. ‘The great thing about the internet,’ writes Richard Curtis, ‘is that it will not abide by the rules.’ The only way to effectively censor the internet would be to stop it coming into the country altogether by shutting off international communication lines. Bill Gates, founder and chairman of Microsoft, believes that attempts to censor the internet are useless because people can always fi nd other ways to spread banned

information via the internet, such as through email or instant messaging. ‘The ability to really withhold information no longer exists,’ he states. There are many difficult issues raised by regulation of the internet. There are also a number of technical reasons why the internet may be impossible to effectively censor: • The internet is international. Information does not recognise national borders, and is not aware of different laws in different countries. • The internet is diverse. Sections of the internet are equivalent to other postal and communications systems that are not subject to censorship. For example, personal email between two people is similar to traditional letter writing, which is censorship free. • Real-time interaction within virtual worlds or instant messaging is difficult to censor, unless the entire virtual world or message system is blocked. • Monitoring of content is costly and difficult. Such a vast amount of data is transferred that only a fraction of it could ever be carefully monitored. Spot monitoring of data would be equivalent to Telstra listening in at random to your phone calls to ensure that nothing offensive is said. • Checking every piece of information for an approved source address, or scanning every word that enters the country, is prohibitively expensive. Creating a list of banned or approved sites is impracticable, given the billions of pages to check. There are also numerous methods of disguising the source of information by routing it through anonymous


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rerouters that strip information of its originating address before passing it on to the user. • Strong encryption can prevent authorities decoding information. • Internet providers cannot guarantee that at any given moment there is no offensive or illegal material held on their systems. They can scan their systems, but they cannot do it every hour of every day. • There are so many content providers that it becomes an impossible task for any agency to monitor what they put online. Attempting to license all providers of content is difficult with a communication form to which many individuals contribute.

Views on regulation and censorship In Australia, internet content is currently regulated under the same laws as those applying to a range of other media. People caught in possession of, or accessing, materials that are illegal will face the same criminal charges as if the materials were in any other form. The legislation applies whether the material is on a DVD or in a book, sent in the mail, communicated via phone, or accessed via the internet. David Vaile, head of the Cyberspace Law and Policy Centre at the University of NSW, is concerned that the government- and media-branded ‘war on terror’ is being used to justify an increase in internet surveillance. Governments believe they have ‘a licence to do anything that is required’ to prevent terrorism. But, he asks, ‘What happens if someone is using Google Earth to zoom in to look at a power station? Will they put systems in place so an alarm goes off to alert the government?’

Against censorship Criminologist Paul Wilson thinks there has been an overreaction to the materials available on the internet. ‘The digital censors say: “We must control the internet — we can’t have people running around learning how to make bombs.” And when you reply that anyone can go to a bookshop or a library and find the same thing, they are not impressed. “It’s so much easier in cyberspace,” they say. Are they implying that it’s not easy to use a library?’ Jon Noring, from OmniMedia Electronic Books, believes attempts to censor materials freely available in normal libraries will have disastrous consequences on the future development of electronic libraries. Other opponents of censorship claim that many calling for restrictions have been misled by the media. ‘Many parents believe that television bears primary responsibility for violence, that the internet is awash with dangerous perverts, and that movies, video games,

and VCRs have rotted the brains and the values of the weak-minded young, infecting them with a predilection for mayhem. The manipulable media have been all too happy to disseminate such fears,’ writes Jon Katz for Wired News. Don Tapscott, in his book Growing Up Digital, points out that for every incident of abuse involving someone met over the internet, there are 300 000 cases of abuse by a relative. Internet service providers are concerned that government intervention forcing them to regulate the internet will saddle them with extremely high costs. In turn, this will drive smaller companies out of the market, reducing the popularity and potential of the internet and also reducing creativity. Ultimately this will make it harder to afford access. In 1996 the US Supreme Court found: ‘The internet deserves the broadest possible protection from government-imposed, content-based regulation. Some of the dialogue on the internet surely tests the limits of conventional discourse. But we should expect such speech to occur in a medium in which citizens from all walks of life have a voice. We should also protect the autonomy that such a medium confers to ordinary people as well as media magnates.’ Critics of internet censorship point to parental guidance as the best way to regulate content in the home. Dr Mubarak Rahamathulla from Flinders University proposes, ‘Just as parents should be asking their children what’s happening in the classroom and how they are doing in their studies and their sports, they should be asking them what they’re doing online. How much time are they spending online? Are they making new friends?’ Sir Tim Berners-Lee, the man who invented the World Wide Web, agrees. ‘Make yourselves a part of your children’s online experience. Take the computer out of their bedroom and put it in the lounge room. That way you can participate in their online lives and know what they’re doing. It’s a big ask, but parenting is hard work.’ Others are concerned that the wrong type of material is being targeted by those advocating censorship. David A. Wilson writes in The Sydney Morning Herald, ‘It never ceases to puzzle me how society is happy to let children play games that centre on stalking and destroying, but if a game contains a scene that shows a glimpse of a naked couple brushing up against each other in a nonviolent way, the moral guardians go bananas.’

In favour of censorship Advocates of internet censorship have concerns about the kind of material falling into the hands of children. A 2004 study, Youth and Pornography in Australia, concluded that ‘anyone who uses the internet extensively has a high probability of coming across sex sites when searching for something else or being sent

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pornographic links or images via email’. The study found that 84 per cent of boys and 60 per cent of girls aged 16 to 20 had been accidentally exposed to sex sites on the internet; 24 per cent of boys were accidentally exposed on a weekly basis. Another study found that more than 50 per cent of children aged 11 to 17 had viewed something on the internet they thought ‘offensive’ or ‘disgusting’. Censorship advocates such as John Beyer of Mediawatch-UK believe that ‘people are sick and tired of being confronted with pornography and its false values and would welcome a general clean up’.

‘Children have always sought out sexually explicit material but doing so today is easier, quicker, cheaper and more anonymous. While the system of video classification is designed to exclude those under 18 from viewing pornography, there are virtually no age-related barriers to pornography on the Internet. Children can spend hours wandering online through a vast array of free images and movie clips much of which would be prohibited on video. They can be drawn or coerced into viewing material they have no desire to see through “pop-ups”, “mousetrapping”, spam emails and manipulation of search engines.’ Michael Flood and Clive Hamilton, in Youth and Pornography in Australia, The Australia Institute

MEDIA

While pornography has attracted most media attention, a recent CNN survey found that 65 per cent of Americans believe that the government should be doing more to regulate violence on the internet. Usergenerated content sites are increasingly producing violent videos, often featuring abuse and bullying. These sites are seen to be encouraging dangerous behaviour. Those concerned about this violence point out that young children are easily impressionable, have a harder time distinguishing between reality and fantasy, cannot easily understand motives for violence, and learn by observing and imitating. Texts instructing on crime and terrorism have also raised community concerns. Criminal records show homemade bombs have become more common since the rise of the internet. The medium also allows the easy distribution of hate literature. Unless the internet is censored, there will be an ‘epidemic of hate’, argues Frank Dimant, of the Jewish organisation B’nai Brith. ‘You no longer have to lure a kid to a rally. You can feed him hate daily in his own home.’ Governments have expressed concerns over the internet becoming a breeding ground for terrorism, allowing like-minded activists to link up to plot attacks or share knowledge. Increasingly, it is claimed, the

internet is being used to attract new recruits to these organisations. The dangers relating to the internet extend beyond content. Chat rooms have been a particular problem for law enforcement agencies, as the number of cases of adults communicating with children in an attempt to make sexual contact has increased. A survey by the US National Center for Missing and Exploited Children found that 14 per cent of children interviewed had met with someone they knew only online, while 70 per cent received information from people they didn’t know, although few of these contacts were adults. The Family Research Council also believes that the internet should be censored. ‘We have to make the World Wide Web conform to the rest of society, not the other way round.’ Australian Family Association vice-president Mary-Louise Fowler believes: ‘Governments need to apply the latest advancements in filtering technology to ensure the delivery of clean content, not only to libraries but schools, childcare centres and indeed every internet terminal in Australia.’

Two approaches to censorship Approaches to internet regulation have so far taken two different directions — technical solutions and self-regulation.

Technical solutions Parents can buy a range of software (termed ‘censorware’) to restrict access to a blacklist of adult websites and newsgroups, and to screen incoming information for words and phrases that indicate offensive materials. Other packages search images for colours that indicate skin tones in pictures. This software generally acts to remove all pictures with any form of human subject in them. It lets through pornographic images if they are black and white or if they are accompanied by enough other colours. Classifying the entire internet is a ‘technical impossibility’, according to the Censorware Project, an organisation dedicated to exposing the faults in filtering software. Because of the sheer number of online sites, the search computers rarely rescan the same sites and miss many others. This censorware software may filter out much offensive content, but there are many drawbacks to its use and its effectiveness is not foolproof. While it may help some families, it is by no means as effective as active parental guidance. What’s more, if whole countries were subject to this sort of screening process, vast tracts of the internet would remain off-limits to everyone, as it is in countries such as China.


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Self-regulation Industry bodies, software manufactures and internet access and content providers have long discussed the option of self-regulating content. There are two types of self-regulation: • Internet provider level. This is effectively the same as government regulation. It requires that internet providers examine all content passing through their system by utilising some form of censorware software. Users who wanted access to restricted materials would have to apply for access.

• Website level. All internet publishers, from multibillion-dollar media organisations to school kids with websites, are encouraged to assign a certain number of keywords or tags to their web pages. These accurately describe what content is contained on each web page, allowing censorware software to operate more efficiently. This method has its detractors. Describing each site in such detail allows governments to simply mandate that all websites containing political or religious materials be off-limits to everyone.

Activities 1. Possession of instructional information on crime- or

5. In a study of 13- to 17-year-olds, Dr Mubarak

drug-related topics is illegal. Many people argue that information alone is not dangerous; it is using the information for criminal purposes that is the problem. Is it fair to prosecute somebody in possession of bomb or drug recipes if that person is never going to use them? Are internet users responsible enough to be trusted not to misuse such information? 2. The Family Research Council believes that the internet should conform to the rest of society, while other researchers believe that the internet is the first true representation of society in any media form. Do you believe the internet to be truly representative of society? Explain your answer. If you do not believe it to be an accurate representation, do you believe that the internet should conform to society’s norms, as the Family Research Council suggests? 3. If the internet is censored, where do you believe the government should draw the line? Should private electronic communication be subject to censorship when traditional postal mail is protected from censorship? Should the language and subject matter in chat sessions be electronically monitored and restricted? What subject matter do you believe should be restricted? Should pornographic material, illegal drug or bomb recipes, or terrorist information be restricted? Outline your own policy ideas in a letter to the government. Explain how you would censor, and what materials you would restrict. 4. Many people are concerned about children accessing adult materials on the internet. Is it fair, therefore, as some pro-censorship groups suggest, to make all content on the internet suitable only for children, banning all adult materials? When answering this question, refer to the history of the internet (page 384) and studies of internet users (page 391).

Rahamathulla of Flinders University found that only 17 per cent of respondents had any parental guidance at all when using the internet. Conduct a survey among your classmates or friends to determine the amount of parental supervision over their internet usage. Determine what methods of supervision are used, and which are most successful (supervision doesn’t mean looking over your shoulder all the time, but could be as simple as asking the occasional question about usage). Create a short list of the best techniques for publication in your school newsletter to help parents provide better supervision. 6. A lobby group of British psychologists, academics and authors believes that the media, including the internet, are contributing to the ‘premature death of childhood’ by turning children into ‘mini adults’ through exposure to unsuitable material, making them more susceptible to depression and developmental problems. Do you agree that exposure to a wide range of adult material has contributed to increased depression, anxiety and suicide rates among children? Is this a reflection of a changed society, or does the internet help cause or exaggerate societal change?

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to the following topic: 7. Research current or planned internet censorship in Australia and other countries and compare the results. Make suggestions on how you would regulate the internet, based on information in this textbook and further research. Regulation does not necessarily mean censorship but could incorporate, for example, a code of practice for users and internet service providers.

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Australian media institutions

Media institutions ‘Though a highly consumer-oriented good, [the media] is very different from most other such goods, like cars, toasters, washing machines. Whereas the latter provide the means, the former trades in the meanings of life.’ J. G. Blumler, media theorist

MEDIA

The media have been called the consciousness industries, selling ways of thinking and ways of seeing or talking about the world. They are engaged in the production and distribution of states of mind. According to academics Graeme Turner and Stuart Cunningham, there can be no disinterested position on the media, as its social function is so profound and so central. Media institutions are different from other knowledge institutions such as schools, churches or art galleries in several ways, including the following: • They carry all types of knowledge, including on behalf of other institutions. • They are open to all members of society. • The relationship between sender and receiver is often more complex. • The media reach more people, for longer (over a lifetime) than any other institution.

Figure 6.1: 4HE MEDIA ARE CONSCIOUSNESS INDUSTRIES &ROM AN EARLY AGE THEY HELP SHAPE OUR INDIVIDUAL THOUGHTS 4HEY ARE A KEY FACTOR AMONG THOSE SHAPING OUR SOCIETY AND CULTURE


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‘This industry is not the same as the beer industry. This industry carries with it different pressures and responsibilities. I’d like to see them develop the same sort of responsibility towards their product as we expect in a pharmaceutical company marketing drugs.’ Deirdre O’Connor, Chairperson, Australian Broadcasting Authority, 1987–90

However, the Marxist position may be partly inapplicable today. Media organisations cannot afford to alienate most of their readers. To make profits, they often present material that does not directly support the interests of the owners of big business. Occasionally, for example through television programs such as The Simpsons, a less elitist view of the world is presented. Analysis of news programs nonetheless has shown much clearer support for the capitalist establishment.

Features of media institutions

Tending towards monopoly

British media tycoon Lord Thompson once said owning a television station was ‘a licence to print money’. For economic and other reasons, the media institutions are close to the centres of power in society — closer to the ‘big end of town’ than they are to their audiences.

The media industry is a competitive jungle where larger businesses gobble up smaller ones until only one (a monopoly) or, more commonly, a few (an oligopoly) are left. In either case, the result is an unhealthy concentration of ownership.

Profit takers Most media organisations are private businesses. They are corporations with shareholders, and their prime concern is to make a profit for those shareholders. Huge investments of money are made. The movie Terminator 2 (1991), for example, cost more than US$80 million to produce. Returns are not guaranteed, but are spectacular when they happen. The merchandising alone from Batman (1994) earned at least US$200 million.

Monopoly. In a media monopoly a single fi rm dominates the market or even operates as the sole provider. Large western media markets have not yet reached the stage of monopoly. Oligopoly. In an oligopoly, four or five firms operate like cardsharps in a poker game. Each player knows what the others are up to, but does not have perfect knowledge. Others are excluded from the game. In Europe, Britain, Australia and the United States the major media markets seem to have settled down to four big players per market. Some of these, such as Rupert Murdoch, are household names in a number of countries.

Supporting the powerful The owners of media organisations can strongly influence those media organisations. There are many examples of editors being forced to resign because they did not support the owner’s political viewpoint. A survey of journalists showed that more than 70 per cent believed owners used the media to push their own political views. Karl Marx proposed that the owners of big businesses are society’s ruling class. While they make up approximately 5 per cent of the population, they control 50 per cent of the national wealth. Everyone else works for them, exchanging labour for wages. In a Marxist view, the media owners, as members of the ruling class, represent reality from the viewpoint of ‘the bosses’. There are several famous cases of this. For example, one European media baron, Silvio Berlusconi, used his own television and radio outlets to support his political campaign to become prime minister of Italy. Berlusconi heads the largest retail-industrial corporation in Italy after Fiat.

Figure 6.2: )MAGINE A PRIMEVAL SWAMP WHERE A FEW BLOATED DINOSAURS CONFRONT ONE ANOTHER 4HEY EXIST IN AN UNEASY TRUCE "UT IF ONE BEAST AVERTS ITS HEAD MOMENTARILY ANOTHER WILL DELIVER A DEATH BLOW )F ONE IS SMALLER AND GROWS MORE SLOWLY IT WILL BE HUNTED BY THE OTHERS %VENTUALLY ONLY ONE OR PERHAPS TWO OF THE LARGEST MOST FEROCIOUS DINOSAURS SURVIVE 4HESE ARE OUR MEDIA ORGANISATIONS

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Diversification Diversification is a process of enlarging a company by taking over or merging with other companies. For example, the American NBC network is owned by General Electric, which makes conventional and nuclear weapons on defence contract. In Australia, private equity investors in media companies have extensive other investments as well as their media interests. Diversification increases profits and long-term security. If one part of the firm loses money, the other parts can support it.

Horizontal integration. Sideways expansion is called horizontal integration. The entertainment media already sell their products in the leisure industry. For example, to horizontally integrate, a movie company may spread its activities into virtual reality technology or holiday resorts. It is still within the leisure industry, but has spread to other, parallel activities. Vertical integration. Expansion up or down is called vertical integration. It is made possible because the production process is divided into stages. A newspaper, for instance, begins as a tree, and then goes through multiple stages of production and distribution until it finally ends up as stuffing for a padded post bag. In one example of vertical integration, the Japanese television manufacturer Sony purchased the American movie company Columbia in the early 1990s. Sony now controls the production and distribution (via television sets) of some of Hollywood’s most famous shows. In Australia, Rupert Murdoch controls 70 per cent of the nation’s newspapers and owns all sources of newsprint. When media companies buy shares in companies making other products, there is an increased danger of a conflict of interest. A newspaper company will be unlikely to do a story on problems with airline safety if the company also owns the airline.

Selling audiences as products

MEDIA

Media products are not sold direct to their consumers. Instead, the consumers are sold to other producers. For example, television advertisers buy the audience for a prime-time television program for 30 seconds so they can show their advertisement. The cost of each 30-second timeslot depends on how high the show’s ratings are. Even newspapers and magazines sell their audiences to advertisers. The cover price barely pays for newsprint. The real money is made selling advertising space. Media organisations aim to maximise audiences. They also target particular types of audiences. Some magazines aim only at wealthy professionals and businesspeople.

Audiences are measured in various ways, some more reliable than others. Newspapers have fairly reliable readership figures based on the number of copies sold. Free-to-air broadcast media, on the other hand, have no real way of knowing whether their program is being watched. Ratings surveys are used to measure audience numbers. The surveys base audience numbers on a random sampling of the population.

The media factories According to a study of news-gathering procedures, almost 95 per cent of television news stories appeared because they happened at the right time (11:00 am to 5:00 pm), or because the crew was close enough and there was enough videotape to record the event. What makes news has as much to do with institutional convenience as newsworthiness. The industrial processes of media organisations are major determinants of the texts.

Division of labour into roles Henry Ford used assembly-line techniques to build cars. By the time the last Model T was made in 1926, he had made half of all cars sold in America. Much capitalist production continues to follow Ford’s mass production techniques. Each worker performs a single task repetitively on a production line. Labour, including labour in media organisations, is divided into component stages. For example: • Media producers have specialised roles. Examples of these roles are journalist, subeditor and editor. A consequence of this multiple authorship is that media texts often follow standard routines. • Media texts are produced in teams. No individual is totally responsible for the meanings communicated in a text. The values of the text are therefore more likely to be those values acceptable to the institution as a whole.

Routines The cast of the TV soap Days of Our Lives (1965–) assemble at 8:00 am each day. Before lunch they read through their lines. After lunch there is a dress rehearsal. Videotaping begins about 3:00 pm and finishes around 6:00 pm. The next day is the same. News-gathering processes are similarly routine. According to news analysts Johan Galtung and Marie Ruge, all news is actually ‘olds’! Routines of news gathering take journalists on the rounds again and again to the same sources. All media institutions develop routines, which can have considerable impact on the shape of the final product.


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Column inches and air time Media texts are geared to suit the space or time available. Newspapers and magazines have column inches, while radio and television have air time. Computerbased media are limited by bandwidth. The pressure for space in newspapers has led to the development of the ‘inverted pyramid’ presentation of information, with all the essential material at the top. In this way, when space saving is necessary, subeditors can cut copy from the bottom paragraphs of a story and it will still make sense. On the other hand, filling up space is always easy. A metropolitan newspaper office is estimated to receive more than one million words of copy each day. Television programs are geared to timeslots and formatted to suit the placement of advertisements. A one-hour crime drama is actually about 48 minutes long, allowing time for advertisements. The ‘set-up’ must happen before the initial ad break, usually in the first three minutes. The ‘wrap-up’ comes just after the final commercial break. The needs of the institution help determine the structures of media texts. Different institutions will organise text in different ways. Many commercial television stations have difficulty rerunning comedy programs made by public service broadcasters such as the ABC or the BBC, where there are no ad breaks!

Media institution effects Media markets are heavily influenced by the commercial media. Even government broadcasters operate in an environment dominated by their often much better resourced competitors.

Sameness and repetition Audiences are never guaranteed, no matter how much money is spent. They can be uncooperative and fickle. This makes media programming a risky business — it becomes difficult to gauge what will work. Once a successful product has been discovered, the formula is copied over and over again as every other producer tries to cash in. Because of a desire to guarantee profits in fickle markets, media products can all seem the same.

Neglect of smaller and poorer audiences The profit motive of the media works consistently to exclude audiences lacking economic power or resources. Unless the media organisation can sell the audience to advertisers, there will be no attempt to cater for that audience. The size of the ignored audience can be in the millions.

Figure 6.3: "RITISH MEDIA TYCOON ,ORD 4HOMPSON ONCE SAID OWNING A TELEVISION STATION WAS kA LICENCE TO PRINT MONEYl 2UPERT -URDOCHlS .EWS #ORP MAKES MILLIONS FROM ITS GLOBAL CABLE AND SATELLITE TELEVISION üLM AND NEWSPAPER INTERESTS

Globalisation and worldwide ‘McCulture’ British media academic Fred Inglis writes of the dumping ‘over the globe of the used-up movies and soap operas of three decades at cut prices, so that you can see Desperate Housewives in Bali, CSI Miami in Finland, and American Idol in Chile any week of the year’. Newspaper columnist Phillip Adams calls this the ‘Coca-Colanisation’ of culture. Adams argues that if biodiversity is important in nature, it is just as important in human culture. The United States imports about 5 per cent of its media products, while the worldwide average for imports is upwards of 30 per cent of the total schedule. Many small Third World countries import more than 90 per cent. Most imports are sourced in the US, leading to accusations of cultural imperialism. Some audience researchers believe there is little cause for alarm in these figures, however. They argue that audiences interpret American media texts in ways unique to the local culture (see audience, page 147). Others, such as Justin Lewis, believe this is swinging the pendulum too far. Audiences have some power to make interpretation, he says, but the producers still set the agenda in subtle ways. Producer power depends to some extent on the genre. News is less open to audience interpretation, and therefore the producer has more power. Global news networks such as CNN (Cable News Network) undoubtedly are successful in relaying an American, first-world point of view. Entertainment genres, on the other hand, could be regarded in a different light.

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‘Suppression of points of view through the activities of ownership would be just as dangerous to democracy as suppression by government decree. It is idle to think that media chiefs do not use such power.’ Malcolm Fraser, Liberal Prime Minister of Australia, 1975–83

‘Most Christian communicators would agree that patterns of communications arising from the concentration of media power are the very opposite of the values of the Gospel.’ Peter Thomas, Director, Catholic Communications Office, Archdiocese of Melbourne

Figure 6.4: #OLUMNIST 0HILLIP !DAMS BELIEVES !USTRALIA HAS BECOME A DUMPING GROUND FOR OVERSEAS MEDIA PRODUCT #ABLE AND SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY THE INTERNET AND THE CONTINUING INTERNATIONAL GROWTH OF NEWS NETWORKS SUCH AS #.. CONTRIBUTE THE k#OCA #OLANISATIONl OF LOCAL CULTURE

Soap operas such as Home and Away and Desperate Housewives may be somewhat more open to local defi nitions. When people watch an entertainment program they enter an imaginary world. In contrast, information genres may be saying, ‘This is how it is!’

The influence of the owners

MEDIA

The British press baron Lord Beaverbrook once told the Royal Commission on the Press that he ran his newspapers ‘purely for propaganda and no other purpose’. Whether or not the owner interferes, the issue of ownership is politically significant. Australians are confronted with the highest level of media ownership concentration in the western world. A small group of individuals, including Rupert Murdoch and James Packer (son of Kerry Packer), own almost all of the newspapers, magazines, radio stations, and cable and free-to-air television stations in the country. As a result of the activities of Rupert Murdoch (now an American citizen), a significant proportion of Australia’s media is foreign owned.

Figure 6.5: 7ITH ALL MEDIA OUTLETS SNARED IN THE EMBRACE OF A GIANT OCTOPUS LIKE ORGANISATION WHAT CHANCE IS THERE FOR NEWS OF THE TAKEOVER )N !USTRALIA JUST A FEW BUSINESSPEOPLE CONTROL THE ČOW OF ALL NEWS

The influence of the professionals Huge conglomerate media companies mean that owners must leave much of the day-to-day running of the media to professionals. Bosses have the power to allocate funds, to control policies, and to hire and fi re. However, media workers have operational control over how something will be produced. Professor John Henningham’s study of the attitudes of journalists has revealed a curious mix. They are mostly in favour of capitalism and free enterprise, but lean to the left on social issues. They have an ‘anything goes’ attitude in moral areas and they are often hostile to organised religion. Whether these views are reflected in news output is largely unresearched. So far only journalists have been surveyed. The social views of other professionals working in the production of television dramas, quiz shows or horror movies have not been explored at all.


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Just as the education system or the police force has a particular culture, media institutions develop an ethos of their own concerning the correct way of doing things. Camera operators have ‘the welltrimmed image’, while magazine artists are guided by ‘house style’. Journalists are bound to some extent by a formal document called the Journalists’ Code of Ethics. The journalists’ union, the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance (MEAA), can impose sanctions on members who breach the code.

External constraints There are some constraints on the media that operate outside of the organisations.

Defamation laws Defamation consists of slander for the spoken word and libel for the written word. Broadly speaking, the offence consists of three parts: publication, identification and defamation. People who think their reputations have been damaged by the media may take the matter to court. If found guilty, media organisations may have to pay out considerable sums of money. This works as a major shaping factor on media texts. According to media academic Keith Windschuttle, a former journalist, the defamation laws do inhibit the freedom of the media. Furthermore, any protection the laws offer is available only to the rich and powerful who can afford to pay the huge costs of lawsuits.

Censorship Censorship is the removal or prohibition of material regarded as morally, politically or otherwise objectionable. Even bad weather was censored in Soviet Russian fi lms of the Brezhnev era. Any sign of the drabness of village life, or evidence of the increasing pollution of the environment, was banned. Picturesque scenes of walks in the forest on sunny days were gratuitously inserted into fi lms to cheer people up! All societies censor in some way, however small.

Direct censorship. Direct censorship of the media exists, but it is usually based on moral rather than political concerns. The Office of Film and Literature Classification has prevented certain films from being shown in Australia. Commercial television stations often cut scenes from films to suit particular timeslots. Self-censorship. Self-censorship occurs when media producers omit material for fear that it will offend sections of the community. Self-censorship can protect commercial as well as moral interests. For example, there is a danger a public service broadcaster such as the ABC may not be critical of the government for fear of budget cuts. Wartime and emergency censorship. Emergency censorship of the media occurs in many countries. During the Gulf War in 1991, for example, the US government authorised the banning of all information that could ‘jeopardise operations and endanger lives, reveal details of future plans, or the location of forces’.

Community standards Community standards are cited by many of the regulatory organisations as the benchmark they use in carrying out their work. However, there is no guiding framework to show how the notion of community standards may be conceived. Similarly, no defi nition of community standards has yet been produced by any of the agencies. The Office of Film and Literature Classification (see page 111) solves this problem in a practical way. It undertakes regular surveys of the Australian public using an opinion polling fi rm. The results are then reflected in its classifications of fi lms and videos.

Discourses As well as influencing discourses, media organisations are in turn influenced by them. The discourses (see page 192) that are common in society help shape community standards and influence media organisations. Indeed, sometimes the media are stopped in their tracks by them, as was illustrated by the public outrage in 2007 over the sexualised portrayal of young children in advertising.

Activities 1. Some analysts believe the concentration of media

ownership by huge multinationals can no longer be regulated because cunning lawyers always get around the rules. For example, companies can easily be restructured to give the appearance of independence. Consequently some countries are now moving to regulate for diversity in the content of the media, forcing owners to give access to a range of points of view.

Draw up a set of regulations for the media to force greater diversity of content rather than ownership. Use the ownership regulations (page 116) as a model for the layout. Specify how this diversity is to be achieved. Possible means to achieve diversity could include: • equal-time regulations for various groups • right-of-reply regulations • access for independent productions/writers.

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2. Collect the annual reports of some of the media

5. Investigate one of the media industries (e.g. the film

organisations in your area. These should provide information about the ownership of the company. Profile the concentration of media ownership in your area and outline any company diversification through ownership of other companies. If other research methods fail, telephone the media organisations themselves. 3. Compare the day’s news in two newspapers owned by the same media organisation. Can you find similar stories with similar angles? Do some stories have different angles?

industry). Report on the various production agencies (e.g. studio or independent), and the stages of production, such as scripting, shooting and editing. Conclude with an evaluation of the impact the practices of the industry have on the shape of the final product. 6. Select a media organisation and report on the range and type of texts the organisation produces. Explain what effect government regulation has had on the organisation. Conclude with your own view of the implications of your findings.

WRITTEN TASK

PRODUCTION TASK

Select one of the following tasks and prepare a 600-word response: 4. Identify the principal owner/s of one of the national media (e.g. television). Prepare a personal profile of each owner. Research estimates of the percentage of market share each has accumulated. Research details of other investments each owner has acquired. Conclude with your own view on the concentration of ownership in the media.

7. Present a 60-second station promotion showing

the characteristics of a particular institutional framework. For example, produce a promo for a government broadcaster with national responsibilities, a commercial organisation with a mass audience, or a small independent producer. Explain how your finished promo reflects its context or is typical of a media text from that institution.

Public and private institutions In the past ten years there have been important changes in the regulations and operating environments of the media in Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand.

Background Since at least the 1970s most western democracies have carefully regulated the television and radio broadcasting environment. Justifications for the regulations included: • Spectrum scarcity. The broadcasting spectrum was seen as very limited and therefore a scarce resource. There could be only a limited number of television channels. Spectrum usage therefore required regulation as a rationing measure. • Spectrum as a national resource. The airwaves were seen as national property to be used in the national interest for the good of the public. • Media power. The influence of the media was seen to be based on its pervasive presence. Television and radio in particular had constant access to every living room in the country.

MEDIA

• Conflicts of interest. Commercial profit motives were often seen as being in opposition to the needs of democracy and to the principles of quality broadcasting.

Present trends By the 2000s economic, social and technological changes meant earlier justifications for regulation no longer had widespread support from governments. These changes include the following: • Decentralisation. Nowadays anyone can be a media producer. Home computers, camcorders and digital editing programs have made it possible for ordinary individuals to do what once required a hugely expensive television station or printing operation. • Free markets. The dominance of the idea of free markets as a solution to many problems has brought a desire for less regulation. • Multichannel television. Digital systems have become capable of delivering hundreds of new channels. Instead of everyone looking at the same few channels, there is suddenly the potential for a bewildering choice. This has weakened the idea of spectrum scarcity and the need for regulation to ration resources. • Globalisation. The worldwide interlinking of digital media is called globalisation. Globalisation has its recent history in the development of multinational corporations. These huge business empires, such as Rupert Murdoch’s News Corp,


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have capital resources larger than the economic output of many small and medium-sized nations. Movements to encourage freer world trade have also encouraged trade in media products and the spread of multinational media corporations. Technology has contributed to the process by making it possible to access media content from anywhere in the world over the internet. The idea of globalisation has an earlier echo in the work of Marshall McLuhan, who wrote of the ‘global village’ in the 1960s. In the global village, the instantaneous nature of modern communications broke down the barriers of time, space, and national and geographical differences.

Localisation Many analysts believe globalisation is being accompanied by the opposite trend of localisation. They use the word local to indicate a region, as well as to cover a range of narrow groupings of people across individual societies or even across the world. For example, local could mean the people of the Mackay area in Queensland; it could also be used to mean everyone around the world interested in the music of a certain band. Digital media are capable of targeting like-minded, subcultural audiences who may find the mainstream channels irrelevant. Localisation may occur as the ‘social glue’ provided by the old national media gradually loses its strength. Some analysts see the trend as positive because it allows more media rights for subcultural or local groups. Others believe it is a two-edged sword, with as many potential negatives as positives.

Loss of nation Between the extremes of global and local, the importance of the nation may be under threat. ‘In the past,’ writes commentator Phillip Adams, ‘we worried about a world where society was dominated by a handful of media outlets. Consider for a moment the problems of governing, of creating some sort of consensus in a society where people will no longer be sharing the same sort of media experiences.’ Some analysts call this fragmentation of media balkanisation. Others have wondered whether the forces of globalisation and the forces of localism will need the surviving nation more than ever — to mediate between them!

Public versus commercial media In a public system, producers get the money to make programs. In a commercial system it is the reverse. They make programs to get the money. Whether to apply a market solution or a government-funded public service solution to today’s broadcasting problems has been a subject of recent debate in all western societies. The nature of the media reflects the nature of society. Therefore the debate is really over what kind of society people want. Both sides seem to agree they want a television environment that promotes freedom. But, as media researcher Richard Collins points out, both sides in the debate do not mean the same thing by freedom. Public service media argue for ‘freedom from’. Commercial media argue for ‘freedom to’.

Public service media In public service media, ‘freedom from’ tends to mean freedom from forces such as domination by the almighty dollar, powerful vested interests, advertising and mediocrity. In Australia, Britain, Canada and New Zealand, public service media have been organised along broadly similar lines. Michael Tracey, of the University of Colorado, has studied a range of public service broadcasters around the world and developed principles that form the basis of the public broadcaster’s definition of freedom. These principles are:

Figure 6.6: 'LOBALISATION MEANS MORE TELEVISION PROGRAMS ARE AIMED AT A WORLD AUDIENCE 4HE 3IMPSONS IS AN EXAMPLE OF AN EFFECTIVE GLOBAL PROGRAM /NE REASON FOR ITS SUCCESS IS THAT A CARTOON CAN BE DUBBED INTO ANY LANGUAGE #RITICS ARGUE THAT GLOBALISATION ACTUALLY MEANS !MERICANISATION

1. Universal availability. Public broadcasters tend to make sure their signal is available to as many people as possible. This is not to maximise the audience; rather, access is viewed as a right of citizenship. For instance, in many parts of remote Australia only the ABC was available until recently.

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2. Universal appeal. Programs are produced to appeal to a wide range of tastes, not just to ‘high culture’ tastes (e.g. opera lovers). 3. Diversity and provision for minorities. Public service media provide access to the media for disadvantaged or minority groups. In a multicultural society, public service media should be pluralist and diverse. 4. Education of the public. Educational programming ranging from school to university material demonstrates the public service broadcaster’s view of audience members as citizens with certain needs and rights. 5. Independence. Public service media can best serve the public when they are independent of both the government and commercial interests. 6. Service to the public sphere. The needs of the citizenry within a civilised society should be served by the public broadcaster. These needs may be related to politics, law, consumer issues, national culture or a whole host of other activities that make up the life of modern society. 7. Criticism. The market opponents of public service media argue that they have been captured by cultural elitists and have imposed a diet of unpopular programs on the public.

Commercial media In commercial media, ‘freedom to’ tends to mean freedom to maximise profits. The principles of commercial broadcasters might be summarised as follows: 1. Diversity. Commercial broadcasters argue that the market creates the best chance of diversity of choice. 2. Consumer sovereignty. Commercial operators see the audience as consumers rather than as citizens. The consumer is king, or sovereign, and rules by casting a vote for a particular program with cash (in the case of pay television) or through the ratings system (in the case of free-to-air television or radio). Of course, consumers with big wallets are worth more than the less well-heeled. 3. Mature audiences. Supporters of the market argue that the contemporary consumer wishes to be exposed to as wide a choice as possible. The consumer does not need educating or regulating. 4. Criticism. The opponents of the market approach say it simply gives freedom to large multinational corporations. They dominate production and reduce the range and quality of programs, catering only for big-spending majorities. They argue that diversity is therefore reduced and national culture is impoverished.

Activities 1. The beliefs that led to a heavily regulated television

3. Evaluate the Australian Broadcasting Corporation

broadcasting environment after World War II still have value for some analysts. Discuss their relevance in terms of today’s television. 2. Can you find any evidence of the idea that television works as a ‘social glue’?

using Michael Tracey’s principles of public service broadcasting. 4. To what extent has Australia’s commercial media lived up to claims of promoting freedom of choice, diversity and consumer sovereignty?

Regulation and self-regulation Regulation or self-regulation of some kind has an impact on the fi nal shape of any media text. Some of these checks are voluntary codes and agreements; others are government regulations.

What are regulation and self-regulation?

MEDIA

Regulation is a process of control by government authorities aimed at ensuring that media organisations operate within set boundaries. In western democracies, media regulation is usually aimed at protecting the rights of citizens or the community. Media regulations

deal with a range of issues, including ownership, types of content and local production. Traditionally newspapers have been relatively free from government regulation. The internet is also relatively free from government control because it has developed across national boundaries and with individuals themselves as ‘media organisations’. Radio is said to have a ‘light touch’ of control. Television and pay television are the most regulated media. Self-regulation, on the other hand, is a process of control that does not involve the government. Rather, the regulation is carried out by the industry or profession itself. A code of practice is usually developed


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that defines the expected behaviour. An example is the Journalists’ Code of Ethics. Self-regulated media usually set up a panel of representatives of each of the major companies involved, together with some representatives of the general public. This panel then sits in judgement on particular cases or complaints. It uses the code of practice to help it decide if there has been any wrongdoing. Media organisations like self-regulation because it frees them from heavy-handed government control or censorship. Self-regulation is also seen as more flexible and more likely to be complied with. Critics of self-regulation argue that it often becomes self-serving. Media companies can create regulations that help them to maximise their profits — rather like putting Dracula in charge of the blood bank.

Regulating authorities The regulating authorities of the Australian media are as follows.

ACMA The Australian Communications and Media Authority was set up by the federal government to regulate broadcasting and telecommunications. It performs the following functions: • Ownership rules. ACMA administers the government regulations on media ownership and enforces compliance. • Licensing. All television and radio licences are planned and approved by ACMA. This includes free-to-air licences as well as pay television and community television. ACMA also licenses telecommunications carriers. • Complaints. The authority investigates complaints about commercial radio and television as well as about the ABC and SBS. • Spectrum management. ACMA manages the allocation of the radio frequency spectrum. • Internet. ACMA administers Australia’s antispam laws and also has a role concerning internet content. ACMA encourages internet self-regulation and investigates complaints about content. It also works with overseas organisations to investigate internet content.

ACCC The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission promotes competition and fair trade in all sectors of the economy. The ACCC (usually called the ‘A-triple C’) deals with the media in the same way as it does any other business. There are no regulations affecting competition in the media as a special case. All business in

Australia is regulated under the Commonwealth Trade Practices Act (1974). The ACCC performs the following functions in relation to all business: • Price fixing. The ACCC can investigate situations where it believes a group of companies are agreeing on a profitable price rather than competing with each other for the lowest price. Petrol pricing is a well-known area of ACCC investigation. • Misuse of market power. If a takeover of one company by another would reduce the benefits of competition, the ACCC can prevent it happening. • False advertising. False claims about the benefits of a product or its ingredients can be prosecuted by the ACCC. • Restrictive trade practices. Withholding supplies of goods to force a company into bankruptcy or to artificially increase the price can be prosecuted by the ACCC.

‘With the media, the ACCC is not the diversity police. But in a merger context, a reduction in competition can lead to a reduction in diversity. Where this arises the ACCC will take this into account as part of its competition assessment under section 50 of the Trade Practices Act. ‘Diversity needs to be seen from three perspectives — content producers, advertisers and consumers. Diversity is about providing a choice of content, views and style. The ACCC needs to assess the likelihood of competition being sustained to provide consumers with choice.’ Graeme Samuel, Chairman, Australian Competition and Consumer Commission

OFLC The Office of Film and Literature Classification is the organisation that classifies films, DVDs, publications and video games. Depending on the medium, the following regulations apply: • Films, DVDs and games. Every game, film or DVD that is legally available must be classified by the OFLC. Some films are exempt. Current affairs films, educational films, religious films and hobby films are included in the list of exempt films. • Print material. Only those magazines or other publications that are restricted to adults need to be first submitted to the OFLC. • Music videos. Any video clip that accompanies a music release is said to be a film and must first be classified by the OFLC. • Music. Songs with lyrics that might be said to be offensive must also be submitted for classification according to the Code of Practice for Labelling

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Product with Explicit and Potentially Offensive Lyrics. Generally acceptable song lyrics do not require classification. The Office of Film and Literature Classification operates under the Commonwealth Classification (Publications, Films and Computer Games) Act (1995). According to the Act, the matters to be taken into account in making a decision on the classification of a publication, film or computer game include: • standards of morality and decency generally accepted by reasonable adults • any literary, artistic or educational merit • the general character of the publication, film or computer game, including whether it is of a medical, legal or scientific character • the persons or class of persons who are the intended audience.

(c) Everyone should be protected from exposure to offensive material that they didn’t actually seek out. (d) There are community concerns about: (i) depictions that condone or incite violence, particularly sexual violence (ii) the portrayal of persons in a demeaning manner.

Self-regulating authorities Various sectors of the media industry have set up self-regulating authorities. The codes of practice in each industry are based on guidelines developed by ACMA. The Broadcasting Services Act (1992) sets out rules for self-regulation, stating that broadcasters must themselves respond to complaints and matters of community concern. These include: • protecting children from harmful material • accuracy and fairness in news • a ban on alarming simulations of news • a ban on hypnosis and subliminal perception • preventing programs that incite or perpetrate hatred and vilification on the bases of ethnicity, nationality, race, gender, sexual preference, religion or disability. The main self-regulatory authorities are listed below.

The Australian Press Council

Figure 6.7: 4HE /&,# ORIGINALLY CLASSIüED THE THIRD INSTALMENT OF THE (ARRY 0OTTER SERIES (ARRY 0OTTER AND THE 0RISONER OF !ZKABAN - WITH THE CONSUMER ADVICE k(ORROR ELEMENTSl 4HIS WAS DUE TO THE PORTRAYAL OF THE k$EMENTORSl q CREATURES WHO SUCK THE LIFE ESSENCE OUT OF HUMANS !FTER AN APPEAL THE üLM WAS RECLASSIüED 0' (OWEVER THE LATER üLM (ARRY 0OTTER AND THE 'OBLET OF &IRE WAS RATED AND THE RATING WAS UPHELD AGAINST AN APPEAL

MEDIA

When the members of the classification panels review a film, the Act says they are to take the following general principles into account: (a) Adults should be able to read, hear and see what they want. (b) Minors should be protected from material likely to harm them.

The Australian Press Council is a voluntary industry body set up by newspaper proprietors in 1976 after threats from the Whitlam government to legislate. The council investigates complaints from the public. However, it has no authority to make a binding judgement on any company. It can only negotiate compliance if the company agrees to it. Media academic Stuart Cunningham refers to this as ‘feather-like’ regulation. The council is funded by the main newspaper and magazine companies. Owners’ representatives, members of the public, journalists and editors make up its 22 members. The journalists’ union resigned in protest in 1987 over the increasing concentration of press ownership. Under its constitution, the council has the following responsibilities: • Adjudicating on complaints about material in newspapers, magazines and journals, published either in print or on the internet • Encouraging the print media to address the causes of readers’ complaints and concerns • Making representations to governments on matters concerning freedom of speech and access to information.


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MEAA The journalists’ union, the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance, represents workers in the media industries. The union has developed a code of ethics that sets out the responsibilities of the profession to the public. The code contains provisions to sanction members who break the code, including the imposition of a fine. In simplified summary, journalists have a responsibility under the code to: • report and interpret honestly, striving for accuracy, fairness and disclosure of all essential facts • not place unnecessary emphasis on personal characteristics, including race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, age, sexual orientation, family relationships, religious belief, or physical or intellectual disability • aim to attribute information to its source and protect anonymity; and not agree to anonymity without questioning the source’s motives • not allow personal interest, or any belief, commitment, payment, gift or benefit, to undermine accuracy, fairness or independence • disclose conflicts of interest • not allow advertising to undermine independence • use fair, responsible and honest means to obtain material • present pictures and sound that are ‘true and accurate’, and disclose any manipulation likely to mislead • respect private grief and personal privacy • ensure fair correction of errors.

The Advertising Standards Bureau The Advertising Standards Bureau, funded by the advertising industry, was set up to self-regulate advertising and adjudicate on public complaints. The bureau uses a document called the Advertiser Code of Ethics as the basis for its judgements. There are also separate advertising codes for different types of products such as health remedies, alcohol and beauty products. Consumers can complain to the bureau if they believe an advertisement has caused offence on the basis of: • discrimination (based on race, gender, sexual preference, religion etc.) • violence • offensive language • portrayal of sex, sexuality or nudity • distress to children. The bureau responds to complaints about the content of advertisements across all media. Women’s groups in particular have criticised the bureau, saying

it is out of touch with community concerns about gender stereotyping. The advertising industry seeks attention above all else, and is constantly pushing the boundaries and creating controversy. The Advertising Claims Board is a section within the bureau that investigates complaints about truth and accuracy in advertising. A team of lawyers investigates each complaint. If they find confirmation of a problem and nothing is done to fix it, the bureau can only contact media owners or alert government departments. It has no power to take any action itself.

Free TV Australia Free TV Australia is an authority that represents the commercial free-to-air television broadcasters across Australia. The role of the organisation is to promote and defend the rights and interests of commercial television stations. It also has a self-regulatory role under the Commercial Television Industry Code of Practice. The code covers the following matters: • Discrimination, violence, portrayal of sex, and distress to children • Program classifications • Accuracy, fairness and respect for privacy in news and current affairs • Advertising time on television • Placement of commercials and program promotions, and complaints handling.

Commercial Radio Australia Commercial Radio Australia is a national body that represents commercial radio broadcasters. The organisation has a role in self-regulation and uses the Commercial Radio Code of Practice (2004) as its guide.

ASTRA The Australian Subscription Television and Radio Association (ASTRA) represents the pay television, radio and telecommunications industries. It has developed a code of practice and self-regulates the subscription television and radio industries. ASTRA has codes covering broadcast subscription television and open and subscription narrowcast television. It also has codes covering open and subscription narrowcast radio.

CBAA The Community Broadcasting Association of Australia represents community broadcasters. It also supports independent groups wishing to start up a community broadcaster. The organisation operates under the Community Television Code of Practice.

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Activities 1. Investigate the website of one of the self-regulating

sectors of the media and provide an analysis of its activities by answering the following questions: (a) Refer to the code of practice the organisation uses to establish its role. What areas are allowable for consumer complaint? What general standards does it set for the media sector? Evaluate the effectiveness and scope (or lack of it) for each of these. (b) Find references to complaints received and adjudications made. What proportion of complaints is upheld compared with those dismissed? What is the nature of the complaints? See if you can divide them into categories and work out the proportions in each category.

Examine a sample of the complaints and decide whether or not you yourself agree with them. 2. Investigate the website of one of the government regulators and provide an analysis of its activities by answering the following questions: (a) Describe the main objectives of the organisation. (b) Examine some of its case study rulings in relation to a media sector. List the main reasons the final decision was reached. Do you agree with the decision or would you recommend an appeal? 3. Present an argument in favour of or against either formal regulation or self-regulation. You should make points in relation to the main reasons for establishing the style of regulation and its effectiveness or otherwise.

Australian content Australian content regulations, separately covering commercial free-to-air television and subscription (pay) television, are set by the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA). The ABC and SBS networks are exempt from these rules because they operate under separate charters. The Australian content rules aim to develop and encourage an Australian cultural identity and diversity. The Australian community, says ACMA, should have access to television programs produced under Australian creative control. Free trade agreements can affect local content regulations. New Zealand programs are counted as Australian under the Australia New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement. However, the Australia United States Free Trade Agreement allows Australian local content regulations to remain in place. Under this agreement, Australia is also able to introduce new local content laws for digital multichannel television and subscription television if necessary.

Free-to-air television The Australian content levels to be broadcast by free-to-air commercial television licensees are set by ACMA in a document called the Broadcasting Services (Australian Content) Standard 2005.

Overall quotas

MEDIA

The transmission quota for Australian content is a minimum of 55 per cent between 6:00 am and midnight. Television stations must also broadcast at least 25 hours of children’s drama and at least 8 hours of repeat children’s drama.

Stations are expected to broadcast at least 130 hours of preschool material each year, some of which can be repeats. All preschool programs must be produced in Australia.

Drama Minimum levels for local prime-time drama are set by a points system. The scores for fi rst-release Australian drama must total at least 250 points in any one year, and at least 860 points over three years. Points are calculated using the following formula: drama score format factor s duration (in hours). The format factors vary according to the estimated quality of the programs and their costs of production, as outlined below: 1. For an Australian serial or series programmed more often than one hour per week, the format factor is 1. Most soap operas fall within this category. 2. For an Australian serial or series programmed for one hour or less per week, the format factor is 3 if it has been made by an independent producer, 2.5 if it has been made by the network. The aim of the factor difference is to encourage the networks to contract out to independent producers. However, some independents say this is not enough. In the European Union as a whole at least 10 per cent of all television transmission time must be contracted from independent producers. In the UK, the minimum is 25 per cent. 3. For feature movies, miniseries or self-contained dramas, the format factor is 4. These programs have the highest costs of all.


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Documentaries At least 20 hours a year of first-release Australian documentaries of at least 30 minutes’ duration must be shown between 6:00 am and midnight. ACMA defines a documentary as ‘the creative treatment of actuality’. Reality television programs do not qualify as documentaries.

Advertising At least 80 per cent of all television advertising on free-to-air stations between 6:00 am and midnight must be Australian.

Pay television ‘Downloads and streaming media may introduce vast amounts of choice for viewers in a way that makes local content rules obsolete. The biggest threat to Australian media is going to be the flood of content from other countries.’ Rob Petty, Roo Media (an online broadcast network)

Pay television is treated separately from free-to-air television in relation to Australian content rules. Since consumers pay a fee for the service, there is a greater sense that they are themselves responsible for what they wish to view. Multiple channels also provide a wide variety of content that cannot be easily regulated. Accordingly, just one simple rule applies: subscription television drama channels must spend 10 per cent of their total program expenditure on first-release Australian (or New Zealand) drama.

Defining Australian television ACMA defines an Australian program as one that meets all the following conditions: • Creative control. The program is seen to be Australian if the producer is Australian, and also if the director or the writer is Australian. • Cast. At least 50 per cent of the leading actors or presenters in the program must be Australian. • Supporting cast. At least 75 per cent of the supporting cast in a drama must be Australian. • Production. The program must be produced and post-produced in Australia, although it may be filmed overseas. Animations are required to have Australians in three of the following roles: production designer; character designer; supervising layout artist; supervising storyboarding artist; or key background artist.

Figure 6.8: 4HE FEATURE üLM (APPY &EET IS DEüNED AS AN !USTRALIAN ANIMATION BECAUSE !USTRALIANS HAD CREATIVE CONTROL 0IXARlS &INDING .EMO WAS SET ON THE 'REAT "ARRIER 2EEF AND USED SOME !USTRALIAN VOICES BUT IS NOT DEüNED AS AN !USTRALIAN ANIMATION

Radio music formats Music is the mainstay of programming on most radio stations. Australian music content on radio has been regulated since the 1940s, when 5 per cent of Australian music content was required. This quota gradually increased, peaking in 1976 at 20 per cent, where it remained until 1992. Free-market approaches to the economy and an environment of deregulation led to changes in the nature of Australian content regulations. The Broadcasting Services Act (1992) allowed commercial radio stations to set their own limits for Australian content. Radio stations have become self-regulating. However, if stations do not regulate themselves properly, ACMA has the power to impose a set quota on them. Community radio stations and the ABC are exempt from the self-regulation provisions. However, the ABC’s policy is that at least 20 per cent of broadcast music be Australian. Commercial radio stations have a voluntary code regulating Australian content in various music formats (see table 6.1).

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Table 6.1: #OMMERCIAL 2ADIO !USTRALIA THE INDUSTRY AUTHORITY HAS A VOLUNTARY CODE COVERING !USTRALIAN CONTENT OF MUSIC BROADCASTS BY MEMBER STATIONS 2ADIO MUSIC FORMATS ARE DESCRIBED ON PAGES #ATEGORY

&ORMAT OF SERVICE • • • • • • • • • • • •

A

B

C

• • • • • • • •

D

E

Mainstream rock Album-oriented rock Contemporary hits Top 40 Alternative Hot/mainstream adult Contemporary Country Classic rock Soft adult contemporary Hits and memories Gold — encompassing classic hits News talk/sports talk Oldies Easy listening Easy gold Country gold Nostalgia Jazz NAC (smooth jazz)

!PPLICABLE PROPORTION Not less than 25%

Not less than 20%

Not less than 15%

Activities Calculate a commercial broadcaster’s compliance with the Australian Content Standard (2005) by following these steps: (i) Select a commercial broadcaster as your subject. Refer to the station’s output between 6:00 am and midnight over a one-week period, using a television guide as your source. (ii) Record the type and duration of first-release content, referring to the format definitions and scoring system used by ACMA. (iii) Calculate the points earned by the station over one week. Multiply this by 52 to determine an estimate for one year. Does the station comply with the standard?

Not less than 10%

Not less than 5%

Australian media ownership Reporters Without Borders, an international organisation defending freedom of the press, produces an annual index of media freedom throughout the world. Australia’s position varies with each index depending on circumstances. In 2006 Australia ranked thirtyfi fth, equal with Bulgaria, just behind Ghana, and well behind New Zealand (eighteenth) and the United Kingdom (twenty-seventh). Australia lost ground as a result of ‘anti-terrorist’ media restrictions and the increasing concentration of media ownership.

Ownership regulations

MEDIA

Two main areas of legislation cover media ownership. These are: • The Trade Practices Act (1974). The Act aims to prevent monopolies and maintain competition in all industries, not just the media. If one media company looks like swallowing up the others, the proposed takeover can be declared illegal under the Trade Practices Act. • The Broadcasting Services Act (1992) Amendment Media Ownership (2006). Australia’s media ownership regulations were redrafted in 2006 by John Howard’s Coalition government. The Act sets out the rules of media ownership. It refers to the media types as being newspapers, television and radio; magazines and the internet are not covered.

Figure 6.9: #ARICATURES OF LEFT TO RIGHT *AMES 0ACKER 2UPERT -URDOCH AND +ERRY 3TOKES !USTRALIAlS MEDIA ARE OWNED BY A FEW MEDIA BARONS AND PRIVATE EQUITY INVESTORS -OST OF !USTRALIAlS MEDIA COMPANIES ARE IN THE ENTERTAINMENT BUSINESS RATHER THAN THE BUSINESS OF REPORTING POLITICAL AFFAIRS 0OLITICAL INČUENCE IS HELD BY THE !"# THE NEWSPAPERS A HANDFUL OF MAGAZINES A FEW CURRENT AFFAIRS SHOWS AND SOME TALKBACK RADIO SHOWS 4WO OR THREE COMPANIES SET THE NATIONAL AGENDA


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‘Whereas Murdoch-owned papers account for around two-thirds of metropolitan daily newspaper circulation in Australia, the biggest American press owner, the Gannett Company, owns papers accounting for just 10.7 per cent of circulation.’ Rod Tiffen, media scholar, University of Sydney

Media ownership amendment 2006 In brief, the rules are as follows: • Cross-media rules. A company can own two of the three traditional media types in any city or regional market. For instance, a company can own the main newspaper and a television station in any city. This applies even if there is only one newspaper, as is the case in Brisbane. Critics say this has increased media concentration. • ‘5/4 Voices’ test. Under this test there must be at least five media operators in the mainland capital cities and four in Hobart and other regional areas before the cross-media rules can apply. Critics say the voices test does not distinguish between a community non-stop classical music station with a few thousand listeners and a mainstream talk radio station with powerful ‘shock jocks’, which are regarded as equal ‘voices’ under the Act. • Foreign ownership. For the first time in Australian history there are no restrictions on foreign ownership of Australian media companies. However, the Treasurer has the power to review foreign investment and in rare cases has been known to use that power. The media are classified as a ‘sensitive sector’ under the government’s Foreign Investment Policy. • Local radio. Radio stations in regional areas must broadcast 4.5 hours of local content each day, including 12.5 minutes of local news.

Enforcing the laws Two federal government authorities have the power to enforce the regulations. The diversity of voices in the media depends on the way in which these bodies interpret and use their enforcement powers.

ACCC The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) is the main watchdog against takeovers that dramatically reduce competition. It has the power to decide if there is reasonable competition in any market. The ACCC is able to look at three areas in media markets. These are: 1. Advertising competition can be reduced if a merger results in one company dominating a market. For instance, a company could gain a stranglehold on classified advertising if it controlled online and newspaper classified space. It could then set an artificially high price. The ACCC is therefore obliged to intervene. 2. Content choices for consumers can be reduced if there are fewer companies offering material. For instance, a newspaper and talk radio station in a country town may together dominate current affairs and news coverage in the whole region. 3. Content supply to providers can be restricted if there is reduced competition between agencies that produce media programming or news information. News reporting agencies such as Reuters or AAP currently supply news content to newspapers and television stations.

‘At this early stage, new media will be a factor in assessing mergers but it won’t be a dominant factor. The new media are starting to move up the scale to possibility and may greatly move up the scale to probability, but let’s wait and see. It’s too early.’ Graeme Samuel, Chairman, Australian Competition and Consumer Commission

ACMA

Figure 6.10: ,OCAL RADIO STATIONS IN COUNTRY AREAS CAN NO LONGER SAVE COSTS BY BROADCASTING THEIR NEWS FROM CENTRALISED CAPITAL CITY NEWSROOMS 4HEY ARE NOW OBLIGED TO PROVIDE AT LEAST MINUTES OF LOCAL NEWS

The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) has powers to regulate the electronic media industry. As a result of the Big Brother — Adults Only scandals of 2006, ACMA has been given powers to fine broadcasters who break certain aspects of their code of practice. ACMA also has the power to begin criminal proceedings against a broadcaster or to cancel their licence in the event of very serious breaches of the Broadcasting Services Act.

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ACMA has ‘first right of refusal’ in relation to any takeover proposal by a media organisation. ACMA is also the first judge of how many ‘voices’ exist in a market. If problems are seen to exist in either case, the matter is then handed over to the ACCC.

is very simple! The disadvantage is that it ignores unequal size and different content. For example, one huge corporation and one small company do not make equal competitors. Similarly one music format radio station and one news station do not equal two sources of political viewpoints.

Earlier laws

Share subtraction. This simple measure subtracts the percentage share of the second-place holder from the market share of the leader. The index runs from zero (50–50 competition) to 100 (full monopoly).

The previous media ownership laws were enacted in 1987 under Paul Keating’s Labor government. Keating said media tycoons could be either ‘Queens of the Screen’ or ‘Princes of Print’ — but not both, as is the case now. Cross-media ownership rules prevented anyone owning more than one type of media outlet in the same city or regional area. Foreign ownership was restricted to 20 per cent in television and 25 per cent in newspapers. Radio stations could be foreign owned. The ACCC had a similar role to its current one — ensuring there was competition. However, it was under these laws that Rupert Murdoch acquired 60 per cent of Australia’s newspapers.

The Herfindahl-Hirshman Index (HHI). This index is used by the American Department of Justice to break up monopolies. It is calculated by squaring the percentage of market share of competing companies and then adding up the results. For example, if three companies have a market share of 50 per cent, 30 per cent and 20 per cent, the HHI is 3800 (50 squared 30 squared 20 squared 3800). The HHI is close to zero if there is perfect competition. Markets above 1800 points are regarded as seriously concentrated.

Measuring diversity Measuring the diversity of the media — or the degree of media concentration — is not an easy job. That doesn’t mean it isn’t worthwhile trying or that the task is impossible. There are several accepted ways of doing it, although each of them has problems. Competition in a market is usually thought to depend on three factors: 1. Number of sellers. 2. Nature of product. For instance, ‘current affairs’ might seem to be a single, unitary classification, but the market for The 7.30 Report or Dateline is not the same as that for A Current Affair. Current affairs competition may therefore be more limited than it first appears to be. 3. Barriers to entry. The media traditionally have enormous barriers to entry. Few people can set up a television station. To a limited extent the internet has broken down some of these barriers. People can now publish their own news. One of the chief barriers remaining is credibility. Who is going to believe your blog when they can go to Ninemsn? Following are some ways to measure competition in the media.

MEDIA

Counting the numbers. One way to measure competition is just to count the number of media companies in the market. The big advantage is that this method

Figure 6.11: .OT MONOPOLY BUT OLIGOPOLY 7HEN A SMALL NUMBER OF COMPANIES DOMINATE A MARKET IT IS REFERRED TO AS AN OLIGOPOLY 4HE (() INDEX IS ONE WAY OF MEASURING THE DEGREE OF CONCENTRATION

Ownership debates ‘Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one.’ A. J. Liebling, press columnist, The New Yorker magazine, 1945–63

Nobody argues against the value of diversity in the media. However, there is debate about whether a concentration of ownership is a problem or not.


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Ownership doesn’t matter ‘Even when property is highly concentrated, the media is not a vast anti-democratic wasteland. There are spaces for conflict and change.’ Silvio Waisbord, Assistant Professor, Department of Communications, Rutgers University

Diversity of ownership may not be the only way to ensure diversity of content, some commentators say. Media consultant Benjamin Compaine believes there are several reasons media concentration may not be cause for undue concern. Concentration, what concentration? Compaine argues that the increase in concentration is less than it seems because of the rise of the internet and the huge increase in content provided by multichannelling. There are also hundreds of news sites and millions of bloggers. Compare this with the offerings of the 1950s. Marketplace rules. For the most part, Compaine says, media content is determined by audience demand. The big media businesses mainly just want to make money. That makes them seek out audiences to give them what they want. Therefore consumers are served. Deep pockets. Global media companies can afford to fund expensive new technology, and this benefits society. Compaine gives the example of the Fox network and its pay-TV satellites.

Ownership matters Concentration is real. Despite the rise of bloggers and the ease of accessing news websites from around the world, most Australians still get their news from the traditional media. Furthermore, the traditional media have moved online and now own the major news websites in Australia. In any case, the golden rule of journalism is that all news is local — meaning we are most interested in what is happening in our own neighbourhoods. Few people in Australia will go to The New York Times website for the news that is most relevant to their own lives in this country.

Conflicts of interest. Big media often has big investments in other companies as well. For instance, the private equity fi rms that have taken over the Packer empire have large investments in other businesses in Australia and overseas. Marketplace destroys public sphere. Profit-driven multinational media companies have shifted towards entertainment and ‘infotainment’ programming in order to attract audiences. This has seen them talk of people as consumers first and not as citizens first. As a result there has been a decline in what is termed the ‘public sphere’. The public sphere is the world of current affairs, community debate and decision making. It is where the media play their role as the fourth estate (see page 207). As technology critic Neil Postman puts it, ‘We are amusing ourselves to death.’ Forming public taste. Rather than responding to public taste and giving audiences what they want, a concentrated media has the power actually to shape public tastes. Powerful individuals. Individual media barons have enormous political and economic power. This concentration of power has the potential to distort the democratic process.

‘How often have you seen meaningful analysis or investigation about the power and influence of Australian media owners in the Fairfax or News Limited newspapers or on commercial TV? How often have you heard any sitting member of Parliament publicly address the issue? ‘You don’t hear or read about this issue for reasons that are obvious to insiders but to which the public is oblivious. Journalists in the commercial media won’t investigate it for fear of jeopardising their career paths, and politicians won’t talk about it for fear of negative coverage by the angry media owners and executives. ‘The spectre of media power suppresses the discussion of media power . . . it’s all so neat.’ Eric Beecher, Crikey.com.au (an independent online newspaper)

Activities 1. In Sweden the government gives subsidies to

smaller newspapers representing a variety of viewpoints. This allows them to stay in business and compete with their more powerful rivals. Could this be done here? Who would pay? Are there sources

of revenue other than taxpayers, such as surcharges on commercial advertising? Discuss. 2. Use one of the means of measuring diversity (see page 118) to calculate the degree of competition in the media market in your city.

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WRITING TASK

SPEAKING TASK

3. Report on the various methods other countries

4. Should a media organisation be owned by foreign

use to ensure diversity and fairness in their media. As a start, investigate the impartiality codes of British news reporting or the American ‘Fairness Doctrine’ (now revoked). Also investigate ideas from outside the English-speaking world. Evaluate the effectiveness of overseas approaches and make recommendations for Australia.

nationals? Imagine you are presenting a television talk show. Gather class members to represent different viewpoints and debate the arguments for and against. 5. Is the concentration and globalisation of media ownership a good thing or a bad thing? Research and debate the main arguments.

The structure of the television industry The Australian television system more closely resembles that of the United States than those of Britain or the countries of western Europe. Australia, unlike Europe, has not experienced decades of government television monopoly. Both the United States and Australia have significant commercial sectors. Since the introduction of television, Australian governments have insisted on ‘structural diversity’. There has been a commercial television market from the

beginning, but there has also always been a strong national, public service broadcaster to provide an extra dimension. In addition, the establishment of the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) produced an organisation unique in the world. Most western countries had pay television before Australia. Subscription television, delivered by cable or satellite, depending on the provider, was introduced in Australia in 1995.

MEDIA

Figure 6.12: 3POILED FOR CHOICE $IGITAL DELIVERY METHODS BRING A VAST ARRAY OF TELEVISION CHANNELS INTO THE AVERAGE !USTRALIAN HOME


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The ABC ‘Because public service broadcasting has always represented the hope of societies to be properly served — journalistically, culturally and in the creation of popular culture — their [possible] demise means the abandonment of such ambitions.’ Michael Tracey, Centre for Mass Media Research, University of Colorado

For most of the past 20 years the ABC has operated in an environment of tight or even reducing government funding, pressure to commercialise and vague threats of some kind of privatisation. Despite this, surveys show as many as 90 per cent of people think the ABC is one of the most valuable institutions we have in Australia. One survey showed the only brand more popular than the ABC was Vegemite! Most people also believe the ABC should be funded at or above current levels and are opposed to advertising.

the national broadcaster. A 2001 study by Macquarie Bank found the ABC was the second-lowest-funded public broadcaster of 18 western countries. The government allocates funding grants on a three-yearly basis, indexed for inflation. At the end of each three-year period, the ABC management negotiates with the federal government for funding for the next period. Funding has been steadily reducing for many years. How much worse the ABC fares today is difficult to estimate. Macquarie Bank analysts believe the budget in the 2000s is at least 27 per cent less than it was in the late 1980s. Others put the figure at a reduction of $100 million and the loss of 1000 jobs since the mid 1980s. A 2006 investigation by the accounting firm KPMG found the ABC is relatively efficient but chronically underfunded.

The ABC’s charter Parliament has given the ABC a charter of functions under the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act. Under the Act, the ABC has the following functions: • Innovative and comprehensive broadcasting. The ABC must provide innovative and comprehensive broadcasting services of a high standard. It is also required to provide: – programs that contribute to a sense of national identity and inform, entertain and reflect the cultural diversity of Australia; and – educational programs. • Delivery of programs outside Australia. The corporation is required to transmit Australian news, current affairs, entertainment and cultural programs to overseas countries. Under the Act, the aims of this provision are: – to encourage overseas awareness of Australian culture and policies; and – to provide a service for Australians living or travelling overseas. • Arts coverage. Under the charter, the ABC must encourage and promote the musical, dramatic and other performing arts in Australia.

Funding The ABC is funded by government grant. This makes it different from many other public service broadcasters in countries such as Japan, Britain, Canada, France and Germany. Most of these countries collect licence fees as the most common method of funding

Figure 6.13: %VERY THREE YEARS !"# MANAGEMENT GOES TO #ANBERRA TO RECEIVE NEW FUNDING ALLOCATIONS 4HE AMOUNT IS DECIDED BY THE POLITICIANS

Programs The ABC has a range of digital television channels. A substantial internet portal has stand-alone content and is also associated with both television and radio content. The Australia Network is an international television service that broadcasts to 39 countries, including India and Mongolia. Programming on standard ABC television (ABC1) is ‘balanced and comprehensive’, according to ABC executives. The balance is between programs catering for a broad audience and specialist programs. The ABC argues that it must have popular programs to

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attract large audiences. For example, the news and current affairs programs are of broad appeal and work as ‘gateway’ programs. They channel audiences towards programs of a specialised nature later in the evening. The digital-only, free-to-air channel ABC2 has attracted a younger audience with more specialised programming. There is a greater connection between the internet site and the audience for ABC2. More populist programming has been scheduled since about 2002, says media analyst Elizabeth Jacka. Less specialised and less intellectual, and with correspondingly broader appeal, populist programming has included reality and lifestyle television shows. Documentaries have become less formal and analytical, says Jacka, while their approach tends to be based more on personal stories and themes.

Audience During peak viewing times, the ABC typically has a market share of around 17 per cent of the prime-time television audience. Unlike commercial free-to-air broadcasters, the ABC is not affected by audience fragmentation. Without advertising pressure, it doesn’t matter if the audience for ABC programs is on television, on the official website or elsewhere. The only issue is that the program is seen.

Figure 6.15: 4HE ALL NIGHT MUSIC VIDEO SHOW 2AGE BEGAN IN AND HAS REPEATEDLY WON AWARDS FOR ITS CONTRIBUTION TO !USTRALIAN MUSIC CULTURE

80

Good

Television — quality of programming 100

75

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60 41

40 20

Per cent (%)

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MEDIA

Very poor

Very good

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Quite good

05 20

04 20

03 20

02 20

99 19

98 19

05 20

04

Commercial TV

20

03 20

02 20

99 19

19

98

100

ABC

Poor

80

54

Statistically significant change

Figure 6.14: %VERY YEAR THE !"# COMMISSIONS .EWSPOLL OWNED BY 2UPERT -URDOCH TO SURVEY COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS ABOUT THE !"# /VERALL SATISFACTION LEVELS WITH !"# TELEVISION ARE MUCH HIGHER THAN THEY ARE WITH COMMERCIAL TELEVISION


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The national broadcaster prefers not to use the commercial ratings system to measure its audience. Rather, it has a measure of audience response called reach. Audience reach measures how many people in a week switch to the ABC to watch a particular program. Recent figures show 66 per cent of Australians watch the ABC at some stage each week. The national weekly reach is estimated to be 13 million viewers. ABC online has an audience of about two million users each month. Since the year 2000 the ABC website has consistently ranked in Australia’s top ten most visited websites each year. Research has shown that the ABC’s audience is not just a highly educated elite of culture vultures. Surveys show this widespread belief has little basis in fact. Blue-collar workers and those with minimum education watch the ABC as often as white-collar workers or university graduates. However, older viewers make up a larger proportion of the audience than younger viewers. There is also a slight skew towards female viewers.

Politicians from both sides of the political spectrum have accused the ABC of bias over the years. Some of the political heat is to be expected given that the ABC is the leading electronic forum for news and current affairs debate. According to the ABC Act (1983), the ABC has a responsibility to ensure that ‘the gathering and presentation of news and information is accurate and impartial according to the recognised standards of objective journalism’. The idea of impartiality (lack of bias) was extended beyond news and current affairs in 2006; it is now taken to cover opinion programs and topical and factual programs, which include documentaries but also children’s programs and religious programs. Topical programs include panel shows and satirical comedies. Whenever an issue of public debate or controversy comes up, a range of different viewpoints has to be presented, although not necessarily within the same program.

SBS

Fairness and impartiality

The Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) was set up in 1980 to provide multicultural and multilingual television. There is nothing like it anywhere else in the world. Other countries often broadcast foreign language shows on television (Sweden has shown many Australian movies, for example). However, no other country has a station devoted exclusively to multiculturalism. Australia is a multicultural society. This means it is a society composed of many different cultures, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander

‘The ABC will not deliver for the government … like Murdoch can, like Packer can deliver. That’s why there’s always been pressure on the ABC when the Labor Party’s in power and when the Liberal Party’s in power. There’s the view [held by politicians] that the ABC can’t do anything for us so why should we do anything for them?’ Quentin Dempster, ABC-TV Sydney

ABC website — quality of content 92

90

89

83

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60 34

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ABC 7 pm News

The 7.30 Report

AM/PM

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2002

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1998 1999 2002 2003 2004 2005

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93

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ABC program does a good job of being balanced and even-handed

% 100 95

2002

% 100

The World Today

Total good job Very good job

Statistically significant change

Figure 6.16: .EWSPOLL SURVEYS SHOW !USTRALIANS HAVE A HIGH LEVEL OF SATISFACTION WITH THE BALANCE AND IMPARTIALITY OF !"# PROGRAMS

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cultures. As a policy of government, multiculturalism has the following three dimensions: 1. Cultural identity: the right of all Australians to express and share their individual heritage 2. Social justice: the right of all Australians to equality of treatment and opportunity 3. Economic efficiency: the need to maintain, develop and utilise the skills and talents of all Australians. SBS says it attempts to cater for the needs of as many of Australia’s cultures as possible. SBS television states its mission as contributing to a more cohesive, equitable and harmonious Australian society.

The SBS charter Like the ABC, SBS has a charter and operates as an independent, semi-government authority. The charter of functions was set up under the Special Broadcasting Service Act (1991). Following are the main functions according to the charter: • Multicultural broadcasting. SBS is required to meet the needs of the variety of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in languages other than English. • Cultural skills. Retaining and further developing the language and cultural skills already present in Australia is a key role under the charter. • Diversity. SBS is expected to increase awareness of the contributions the diversity of cultures has made to Australian society. It should also promote understanding and acceptance of diversity. • Specialised broadcasting role. SBS is also expected to extend the range and diversity of Australian broadcasting.

Funding Like the ABC, SBS relies on government grants for its continued existence. However, SBS has a mixed funding agreement with Parliament, which allows it to sell advertising time and accept sponsorship. Approximately 15 per cent of the SBS budget comes from advertising and sponsorship. Five minutes in every hour of air time can be used for advertising. Commercials can be broadcast only before and after shows or during any ‘natural breaks’ in the program. Natural breaks are taken to include a change in narrative time, a change in continuity or a change of topic. Approximately 25 per cent of the budget of SBS is spent buying programs from overseas.

MEDIA

Programs The programming philosophy of SBS stresses accessibility to the whole community. This has led to a

focus on entertainment programs such as drama, comedy, serials and movies. SBS also operates an internet portal with video on demand in 68 different languages. The multicultural approach to programming aims to reach the wider community through use of English subtitles with foreign-language content. SBS analyst Rosalind Patterson has contrasted this to a purely ethnic approach. Exclusively ethnic programming would be like ‘ethnic radio with pictures’, delivered only in the original homeland languages. SBS programs are subtitled in more than 40 languages. The channel has managed to overcome prejudice against subtitling on television by buying some of the world’s best shows. Programs are selected on the basis of the number of native speakers living in Australia. For example, 8 per cent of programs are in Italian, 7 per cent in German, 2 per cent in Arabic and 2 per cent in Chinese. About 47 per cent of all programs are broadcast in English. Approximately 70 per cent of SBS programming comes from overseas and 30 per cent is produced domestically. News, current affairs and sport make up the bulk of locally produced programs. Under the SBS Act, the broadcaster is seen as a provider of ‘quality’ programming. The government defines quality programs as resulting in high audience involvement and having an impact beyond the moment of their screening. International news, art house and international films, and sport are the strengths of SBS programming. In addition, SBS broadcasts more than 800 hours of documentaries each year — more than any other free-to-air channel.

Audience ‘Viewers don’t use us as wallpaper TV,’ says director of publicity Jenny Looman. ‘They tune in and out because they like our news, a particular program or a movie.’ SBS uses the same measure of audience size as the ABC — audience reach. Research has shown that SBS reaches about 7.5 million people per week (that is, these people watch the station at least once a week). Measured in the same way as the commercial stations, market share is about 5 per cent.

Community television Community television aims to give everyone in the community the chance to participate in television broadcasting, but it has tended to focus on groups in society who do not currently have access to the media. Community television is non-commercial and independent. It is primarily staffed by volunteers


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who receive on-the-job training in television production. The work of the large number of volunteers is supported by a few permanent paid employees. Participation in the day-to-day running of the station is offered to anyone who subscribes to the channel through payment of a membership fee.

‘Community television sees television as a valuable instrument for social change. For this change to work properly, the many communities in Australia must have equitable access to the means of making their own television. And they must have participation in how the system operates.’ Jeffrey Cook, Community and Independent Television

Community television code The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) can issue licences to community television operators after considering a number of factors. These include: • the level of openness in the membership policy • equity of access for members to programming air time • the flexibility of programming policy in allowing new sources of programs • the right of the community to take part in the operation and management of the station. In addition, there is a voluntary code of practice for community television stations. Significant sections of the code include the following points: • Non-profit. Although the stations are not government funded, they are also non-profit making. • Independent. The stations are expected to demonstrate independence in programming, editorial and management decisions. • Equity. The community television code expects stations to have programming policies that break down prejudice and discrimination. • Access. The code asks stations to widen the community’s involvement and to encourage participation, particularly by those most disadvantaged. To encourage this objective, the code makes special mention of volunteer work at the stations. Community television stations have an obligation under the code to train volunteers. • Australian content. Community stations aim to broadcast material that promotes local and Australian culture. The code recommends that as much material as possible be Australian and locally originated.

Funding Community television stations generally do not receive any government funding, although some limited government grants are available. The stations raise money through subscription fees, sponsorships and the sale of air time to other providers (such as educational institutions). Advertising is another source of revenue. The community stations are currently limited to seven minutes of advertising per hour.

Programs ‘The basic principle of community broadcasting is that you start with a group and their idea of what they want to say. They determine the content. You, as a facilitator, help them realise it on tape.’ Cathy Henkel, independent filmmaker

Community television is remarkable for the high level of Australian content in its programming. Stations average 75 to 98 per cent Australian-sourced programming. Programs are diverse and aimed at niche or special-interest groups. Characterised by low-cost production, they may nonetheless be experimental and innovative. The most popular programs on community stations are local sporting programs. For example, harness racing is the number one rating show in both Brisbane and Melbourne.

Audience Neither the ABC and SBS idea of reach, nor the commercial television ratings system, has been rigorously applied to community television across the country. Nevertheless, about one million people are believed to tune in to community stations at least once every week. Melbourne research conducted by a commercial ratings organisation found the community television audience to be evenly spread across age groups, but skewed towards males. The biggest problem the stations face is a general lack of awareness of their existence, compounded by a lack of knowledge about how to tune in. Stations sometimes attempt to combat the lack of awareness with competitions and special programming aimed at particular groups. High-school and university Media Studies students are often targeted. Student productions are sought after as programming in youth-oriented shows. This exercise does more than provide programming; it also delivers a new audience as each student video is shown.

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Commercial television Advertising on the commercial stations is not just an annoyance that interrupts the shows. On the contrary, the shows are there merely to fill in the gaps between the advertisements.

• Ownership. There are limits on ownership and control. As well, a licensee must be a ‘suitable person’ as defined in the Broadcasting Services Act. • Programs. There are compulsory standards in relation to children’s programs and overall Australian content. Beyond these regulations, commercial television operates under a voluntary code of practice. Aspects of this self-regulation code, drawn up by Free TV Australia in 2004 in consultation with commercial broadcasters, include the following: • Classification and programming. The code sets out standards of responsible broadcasting. These refer to a range of program types, including news, current affairs, drama and children’s programs.

Figure 6.17: !DVERTISEMENTS ARE NOT INTERRUPTIONS SAY TELEVISION NETWORKS THEY ARE THE MAIN PART OF THE SHOW #OMMERCIAL TELEVISION OPERATORS WOULD RATHER PEOPLE LEFT THE ROOM DURING THE SHOWS AND CAME BACK WHEN THE ADVERTISEMENTS STARTED The free-to-air commercial television industry body, Free TV Australia, considers the advertisements not as an optional extra, but as an inseparable part of the system, as important as the programming itself. According to Free TV Australia, commercial television is not a broadcasting service that carries advertisements. Rather, it is a commercial service that carries programming. In other words, commercial television is a service to commerce that aims to make a profit. Free-to-air television represents about 87 per cent of the total television viewing in Australian households, although of course some of that occurs in households who have both subscription and freeto-air television. The commercial stations attract 65 to 69 per cent of that total audience and so still generate the major television experience for most Australians.

Regulations and codes for commercial television

MEDIA

The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) regulates commercial television operators through its licence controls. These controls cover: • Limited term. Licences are granted to commercial operators for five-year terms.

• Advertising. The code also sets out hourly limits on advertising. These limits are set at an average of 13 minutes between 6:00 pm and midnight and an average of 15 minutes at other times. A station may choose to schedule an extra one to two minutes of advertisements in any one hour, so long as the averages are satisfactory overall. An exception is made for children’s viewing times, when advertising is set at five minutes in any 30 minutes. No advertising is permitted during preschool programs.

Funding To fund commercial broadcasting, audiences are sold to advertisers. The ratings system determines how much money television stations can charge for the audience. High-rating, popular programs attract large audiences. Advertisers want to reach large audiences and will pay handsomely for their products to appear during these shows. When fewer people are watching, the advertising rate is lower (see table 6.2). Table 6.2: !DVERTISING RATES FOR A SECOND ADVERTISEMENT AT ONE 3YDNEY TELEVISION STATION 4IMESLOT

!DVERTISING RATE PER APPEARANCE

AA (prime time)

$7600

A

$6300

B

$5400

C

$4400

D (morning/breakfast, smallest audience)

$3600

The television station charges advertisers a fee for a timeslot in its programming. Audience size is what the station is usually selling. The largest number of viewers does not always mean the highest prices,


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however, and network television stations are increasingly specialising in certain types of audiences. Just as the taxpayer supports the public service broadcasters, it could be argued that the general community also supports the commercial stations. The cost of advertising is simply passed on to the consumer in the final cost of any products sold.

Interactivity is enhanced with subscription television. For instance, weather channels can provide detailed reports for the viewer’s suburb. News and sports channels allow viewers to select stories they wish to see in more detail. Interactive advertising is also featured. A consumer can ask to see more detailed versions or can register for samples.

Programs

Delivering pay television

Advertising is the first concern of the commercial stations. Advertisers have a right to expect that their products are positioned in the best possible light. The television shows themselves need to provide a positive environment for the advertisements. As a result, many programs on serious topics never get to air. Advertisers simply have not wanted their products to be associated with them and so have refused sponsorship. In one example of this, an American program on the aftermath of nuclear war was hastily pulled off the schedules. This scenario was not seen as an appealing environment for consumers. Commercial stations are not suited to catering for minority or special-interest groups. Popular, massappeal programming is their speciality. Providing this entertainment and information for mass audiences demands that the commercial stations are responsive to changes in mass audience preferences — with some delay.

There are three methods of delivering subscription television. Some companies use one method only. Other companies transmit on all three systems and allow the consumer to choose. The methods are:

Audience Since the early 2000s each of the major networks has managed to capture only 18 to 25 per cent of the market. This is significantly down from the 30 per cent share that was typical before the introduction of pay television and the arrival of digital TV. Recently networks have sought to differentiate themselves by targeting certain broad audience groups. In spite of these early trends towards specialisation, however, all networks continue to appeal to a general audience.

Pay television Subscription television (STV) provides an extended range of television channels in return for a subscription fee. Charges are generally at a flat rate or depend on the number of channels subscribers choose to take. However, some providers are also charging extra for specialty services and events coverage. Currently well over 130 channels are available that offer programming from more than 50 different Australian and international media outlets. Video on demand and two high-definition television channels are also available.

1. Satellite. Radiated subscription television (RST) is transmitted by satellite. The signal is scrambled into a coded form. Subscribers pay for a decoder that unscrambles the signal. 2. Microwave. Multipoint distribution systems (MDS) use microwaves to send signals over short distances. Often a tall city building is used as the transmission tower. This system works best in cities built on flat land, such as Melbourne or Adelaide. 3. Cable. The third method is to bring subscription channels into consumer homes via a fibre optic cable.

Regulations The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) issues licences and regulates pay television under the Broadcasting Services Act. The Act divides pay television into two distinct licence types. ACMA regulations vary accordingly. Following are important aspects of the regulations. Subscription broadcasting. Programs of wide appeal provided to the general public on payment of subscription fees are called subscription broadcasts. They are subject to the most regulation. Subscription broadcasting channels include the BBC World Service, children’s channels such as Nickelodeon, and family movie channels. Subscription narrowcasting. Services of limited appeal are called subscription narrowcasts. These may be targeted at special interest groups or be limited by location. They may also be limited in duration, such as the coverage of a special event. Fewer regulations apply to narrowcasters. Subscription narrowcasting channels may include music channels or sports channels. Ownership. There are limits on the ownership of all pay television licences. For example, foreign ownership is limited to a total of 35 per cent of a licence. No single foreign person can own more than 20 per cent of a licence.

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Australian content. Subscription drama broadcasters must spend at least 10 per cent of their program budget on Australian drama. Syphoning. The right of access that free-to-air viewers have to significant live sports broadcasts must not be ‘syphoned off’ by pay television operators. However, since 2006 there has been a ‘use it or lose it’ clause that prevents free-to-air networks buying the rights to various sports events but hoarding them and not broadcasting them.

Retro-harvesting. One strategy pay providers have used to fi ll the need for unlimited programming is what the industry calls retro-harvesting. Vintage series such as I Love Lucy are bought cheaply and marketed to create nostalgia channels. Typical program mix. Most subscription television companies offer a mix of the following: 24-hour movie channels, news channels, children’s channels, 24-hour rock or country music videos, documentary channels and sports.

Funding pay television

Audience

Pay television means direct billing to the household for the programs received. Payment is usually on a monthly basis. Some providers ask for additional tiers of payment for premium channels. Subscriptions revenue is supplemented with advertising revenue.

The audience for pay television is made up of the traditional heavy television viewers. Families with children are common subscribers. The penetration of pay TV into homes is highest in the higher income groups and of all cities it is highest in Sydney. About 30 per cent of homes in Sydney have pay TV, while the national average is about 25 per cent. A major difference between pay television and free-to-air television is that STV is consumed via a contract between the subscriber and the supplier. Because of this relationship, government authorities such as ACMA have made somewhat different regulations for subscription television. For instance, more adult-oriented content can be screened because it is assumed the audience has chosen to view it. Viewers for subscription television services belong to several niches or subgroups. They use pay channels more selectively than free-to-air viewers. However many channels you give people, it seems they will watch only a handful. American research shows that in a household with multichannels, on average only seven channels are watched for more than an hour each week.

Programs New kinds of programming for pay television have not developed so far. Instead, it has been more of the same. Most channels either show the same generalinterest mix as the free-to-air networks, or else they take some segment of the network’s output and show it all day. Pay programs versus free-to-air. On free-to-air television, audiences are constructed around certain timeslots. Movies are often shown after 8:30 pm Sitcoms or soap operas are shown in prime time between 6:30 pm and 8:30 pm. On pay television, the programs are similar, but they are concentrated into single-genre channels. You get lots of the same programs 24 hours a day. You can dip in and out, knowing they are always there.

Activities

MEDIA

1. Refer to the ABC’s charter. Find a sample program

5. If you were an advertising agent and were asked to

to illustrate each area of endeavour. Use a television guide if necessary. 2. Do you think the ABC lives up to its obligations to be fair and impartial? Explain your opinion in a paragraph. 3. Draw up a strategic plan for the ABC, showing several tactical changes they could make to programming and to online content to attract a younger audience. Be specific about the types of programs, when they might be scheduled and the particular audiences they might attract. 4. Count the number of local and foreign stories on SBS news. Do the same for the news on another channel. Explain your results in a paragraph.

promote SBS, at which groups in society would you direct your campaign? Explain how you would sell the benefits of watching SBS television to each group. 6. Make a comparison of the advertisements on SBS and those on a commercial station. What differences do you notice? 7. Draw up a day’s programming for an imaginary community television station. Explain how you have made an effort to include groups usually denied access to the media. Provide a justification for the station’s role in your community. 8. Film a ‘promo’ for an imaginary community television station featuring images of the kind of programming and the kind of audience the station could aim at.


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9. Small Screen, Big Business, a book by Susan Kippax

and John Murray, gives an analysis of advertising during a breakfast television show. The results are shown in table 6.3. Look at the results, and then answer the following questions. Table 6.3: !NALYSIS OF ADVERTISING DURING A BREAKFAST TELEVISION SHOW !NALYSIS

-INUTES

Total program time

116

Advertisements

24

Other ‘plugs’ for products used during show

11

Total time of advertisements and plugs

35 (33 per cent of total program time)

(a) Explain how a TV station can ‘plug’ certain products during a show. Give some examples. (b) Obvious advertising, during commercial breaks, amounted to 24 minutes during this show. Do you think this is too much or is it a fair deal? Explain your opinion. Refer to the Commercial Television Industry Code of Practice.

10. Commercial stations sell audiences to advertisers.

Choose some programs and outline the kind of audience the station would attract. Then suggest advertisers who would be willing to ‘buy’ that audience. 11. Make a collection of television advertisements. Record separately when and with which program the advertisements went to air. Present the collection to the class and ask them to select a target audience, a timeslot and a suitable program. Compare the class suggestions with your record of the actual placement of the advertisements. 12. Make up your own wish list of subscription channels to appeal to the various interest groups in the community. 13. Consult a pay television program guide or watch a number of pay television stations. List the main types of programming and the main sources as percentages of total programming hours. Where do most of the programs come from?

The structure of the radio industry With the exception of broadcast pay services, the Australian radio system mirrors the television system. As with television, the Australian industry resembles the American industry in structure. Unlike in western Europe, the government has never had a monopoly on radio broadcasting. Structural diversity has been a feature of the Australian system since the beginnings of radio. The majority of the market is provided by commercial radio broadcasters. The ABC is a strong national public service broadcaster. SBS supplies a separate multicultural service. A host of community stations provide broadcasting access for community groups in a number of capital and provincial cities. The radio market is experiencing fragmentation of audiences as more and more alternatives become available. Many new licences are issued every year.

ABC Radio For details of the ABC charter, funding sources and impartiality guidelines, see ABC television, page 121.

ABC Radio services Radio cannot build up its broadcasting from blocks of totally different programs, as television does. Listeners now expect a station to have an identity — a certain sound — whenever they decide to tune in.

Podcasting is becoming an increasingly common way of listening to radio. A podcast is achieved by visiting the station’s website and downloading an audio fi le of the program onto a computer or iPod. The ABC distributes approximately two million podcasts each month. The ABC offers seven services, each with a different character: • The metropolitan and regional service is based in the capital cities and large provincial cities. The stations rely on personalities and broad community appeal. They broadcast news, public affairs, popular music, entertainment and sport. There is a combined-cities audience reach of approximately 2.5 million. Market share is about 10 per cent. • The Radio National service concentrates on programs that explore major issues in society, politics, religion, science, education and philosophy. It plays a variety of specialist music and gives wide coverage to the arts. Weekly audience reach is almost three-quarters of a million listeners. Market share is about 2 per cent. • The ABC Classic FM service concentrates on classical music, opera, drama and experimental arts. Audience reach is almost three-quarters of a million listeners. Market share is about 2 per cent. • The Triple J network is a young adults’ FM network, playing innovative rock music. The network has a

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commitment to promoting Australian talent. Weekly audience reach is almost one million. The audience share is about 5 per cent. Fragmentation of the youth market means that the audience is increasingly involved with a range of different media. • The ABC News Radio service runs news and current affairs programs, and some specialist programs. It also broadcasts Parliament when it is sitting. The weekly audience reach is about 600 000 and the market share is about 1.5 per cent. • Internet radio services are available under the ‘Dig’ title — for instance, Dig Jazz and Dig Country. • Radio Australia is sent overseas via satellite and shortwave services. It broadcasts Australian news and current affairs programming to 40 different countries in South-East Asia together with India, China, Korea and Japan.

sports and entertainment features. SBS Radio operates under the same charter as SBS Television. (See also SBS Television, page 123.)

Community radio ‘Many radio listeners are searching for something different to mainstream formatdriven radio. Every one of our 300+ stations are engaged with their community at the local level. Local news, specialist music, ethnic voices, whatever your interest — it’s available on community radio.’ Barry Melville, General Manager, Community Broadcasting Association of Australia

SBS Radio

MEDIA

Languages other than English were banned on Australian radio until the early 1960s. The breakthrough came when the ABC was allowed to broadcast bushfire warnings in different languages. A little later the law was changed to allow 1.5 per cent content of non-English languages. It was not until 1975 that multilingual radio was introduced in Australia. Non-English-speaking migrants are among the most disadvantaged groups in society. Compared with Englishspeaking Australians, twice as many live in poverty. Ethnic radio allows migrants access to basic information about social welfare, citizens’ rights and so on. But ethnic radio offers migrants more than this: it helps them feel less lonely in their new country and gives them a link with their homelands. Ethnic radio can also help bridge the gap between parents and their Australian-born children. Radio programs can make the children more aware of their parents’ culture. It offers English-speaking Australians a lot as well, broadening their horizons beyond a world view centred on Australia, the United States and Britain. SBS Radio was originally based in Australia’s largest metropolitan areas of Sydney and Melbourne. It has now grown into a national service, broadcasting from 6:00 am to midnight in 63 languages. Its programs include local and international news, community information, cultural events, music,

Figure 6.18: 46 VET $R (ARRY #OOPER AND ANIMAL TRAINER 3TEVE !USTIN JOIN COMMUNITY RADIO PRESENTERS "RIAN 0ICKERING AND +AYE "ROWN BACKGROUND ON 0ET 4ALK 2ADIO WHICH CATERS TO PEOPLE WANTING PET RELATED NEWS ENTERTAINMENT AND ADVICE

Public radio began in 1974. It aimed to make radio a two-way medium, one to be used by the people and not just consumed by them. Public radio has the potential to make everyone a media manipulator. While other radio stations are run by highly paid professionals, public radio is run by ordinary citizens. Everyone is free to volunteer. A report for the prime minister states: ‘a right to broadcast is becoming recognised alongside the right to speak, the right to assemble and the right to publish’.


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Community radio code The Australian Broadcasting Authority issues licences to community radio operators after consideration of criteria similar to those applied to community television (see page 124). A community broadcasting code of practice sets out guidelines for the programming of Australian music. Stations with diverse program formats are obliged to play no less than 20 per cent Australian music. Ethnic and specialist formats are obliged to play no less than 10 per cent Australian music.

Commercial radio makes its profits by selling its listeners to advertisers. In this, radio has an advantage over other media. Radio has the greatest proximity to shopping. Whether they hear it before they leave home or in the car, radio has the last say before the shoppers buy!

Types of community radio Most community radio stations in Australia are now in regional areas. According to a Griffith University study, this could be because commercial radio has gradually centralised its production to capital city studios. There are three basic types of community radio: • Special interest stations have a target audience of one particular group. These people are often neglected by both commercial and ABC stations and are prepared to support their own station. Special interest stations make up about one-third of all public radio stations. • Community stations try to be all things to all people and need the support of large sections of the community to survive. Community stations offer a much broader range of programming than special interest stations. These stations represent approximately 63 per cent of all community radio stations and are the most likely to be based in the country.

Figure 6.19: 2ADIO PERSONALITIES -ARTY 3HEARGOLD AND &Iü "OX WITH 46 HOST 3ONIA +RUGER RIGHT ON 4RIPLE -S RADIO BREAKFAST SHOW 4HE 3HEBANG

Television stations aim to broadcast to the community as a whole. Radio broadcasts to specific categories of people. Listeners are divided into age groups according to their tastes in music and the sorts of products they buy. Radio stations prepare a program format that will appeal to a certain age group. Advertisers then buy advertising time on the station. Commercial radio now broadcasts to a range of specialised groups rather than the whole public.

• Educational stations are based at universities and colleges. However, the stations usually aim for a wider audience outside of educational institutions.

Funding community radio Public radio stations are run by non-profit organisations. Nationally, about 300 paid staff and 25 000 volunteers keep them on the air. They are supported by subscribers and donations. Government grants amount to a further 10 per cent of the total cost of community radio.

Commercial radio It is not the main aim of commercial radio to serve the public, or even to be the most popular station. The main aim is to make the best possible profit.

Figure 6.20: 4HE LAST THING A COMMERCIAL RADIO STATION WANTS IS TO JUST PLAY MUSIC WITH NO ADVERTISEMENTS 4HAT WOULD MEAN üNANCIAL DOOM ! THREE HOUR WEEKDAY SHOW ON A TOP STATION CAN EARN MORE THAN MILLION IN ADVERTISING EACH YEAR

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Activities 1. Select one of the ABC Radio services (see

3. Based on the ideas of the class for topics worth

page 129). Now make a lifestyle profile of your idea of a person who typically listens to that service (e.g. age, career, interests, income). Compile a brief list of what you imagine to be that person’s favourite programs on particular days. Now find someone who actually listens to the programs you listed. How do they compare with your idea of the typical listener? Is there a stereotyped view of an ABC listener? How accurate is it? 2. At set times, sample programs on the ABC networks by flicking across the dial, or by consulting a program guide. Explain how the programs fulfil the requirements of the ABC’s charter (see page 121).

covering on community radio, draw up a day’s programming for an imaginary radio station. 4. Describe and compare the musical styles available on a commercial radio station and a community radio station in your city. 5. Listen to an Aboriginal program on one of the community stations or an Aboriginal station in your area. In what ways does it differ from the programs on commercial radio? What sort of information does it provide? Is there any evidence that people are using the program in a different way from programs on mainstream radio stations?

The ratings system A poll is the only way television stations can fi nd out how many people are watching. In such a poll a small sample of the population is consulted and their viewing habits are used to represent the whole viewing population. The results of this poll are called ratings.

What are ratings?

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Ratings are a set of statistics gathered from a small group of people known as a sample. The sample is carefully chosen to represent a much larger group of people — the national television viewing audience. The ratings are used to buy and sell television viewers. Commercial television stations are in the business of selling audiences. Ratings express the popularity of programs, telling television executives how many people watch certain programs at a particular time. This information can then be used to set a commercial price based on the audience size and type. The buyers are the advertisers. Ratings tell advertisers which groups of people are watching a program and whether that audience is worth buying. Advertisers use ratings as a guide to audience size, and therefore the number of people who will see their product advertised. The higher a program rates, the greater the exposure of the advertisement. Television stations are able to charge advertisers more to run advertisements in top-rating programs. However, rating in second or third place can still be profitable. It depends on the demographics of the audience.

Who uses ratings? According to marketing lecturer Raymond Kent, ratings are of great interest to at least four groups of people. These are: • Program makers and schedulers. Producers need to know about the audiences they are targeting and how successful they are at reaching them. • Media owners. The owners of media outlets fi rst need to know if they have reached their target audience, and second need to sell these audiences to advertisers. They have to convince advertisers that their programming is actually attracting the audiences the advertisers need. • Buyers of ad time. Advertising agencies need ratings to tell them which channels to advertise on, what message to convey and what selling techniques to use. • Manufacturers of products. Like ad agencies, the sellers of goods and services need information about audiences to judge how much to spend and what combination of media to advertise on.

Calculating ratings Ratings are an expression of the number of television sets tuned to a show. For example, if a show has a rating of 30, it means 30 per cent of all television sets switched on are watching that program. The highest rating program ever in Australia was the broadcast of the wedding of Prince Charles and Princess Diana in 1981 — its rating was 75.


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A rating of 30 is now considered extremely high in Australia. The number of channels and the increasing use of pay television have reduced the available share of audience. News programs regularly have the highest ratings. Most commercial news programs rate in the high teens or low twenties. A popular sitcom or soap opera usually rates between 15 and 20.

How ratings are collected The ratings are carried out by two main companies: Australian Television Audience Measurement (Oztam) conducts capital city ratings for all channels and national ratings for subscription television. The Nielsen Media Research company conducts ratings surveys in regional Australia. The company is an American-owned multinational and provides ratings research in many of the major markets in the developed world. An electronic meter is used to collect ratings information. Called the people meter, it fits behind the television set. The device monitors television viewing every 60 seconds and is used with a handheld remote control. The remote control has a button for each member of the household. The viewers punch their individual button to indicate they are present in the room (see figure 6.21). The information is stored in the people meter and is automatically sent to a central computer at 2:00 am every 24 hours. Television and advertising executives pore over the results the next day.

People meters are installed in a variety of homes around Australia, sampling major cities, provincial cities and rural areas. Householders are paid a small fee for their participation. Oztam has installed 3000 people meters in sample capital city homes to measure free-to-air audiences. A further 1000 meters measure pay TV audiences. This sample projects viewing patterns for five million capital city households and 13 million people. A similar process is used for regional centres. People meters are very expensive to install. Households are randomly selected, but they turn over very slowly, which means that meters may be left in place for a number of years. Some researchers have argued that this slow turnover can reduce the effectiveness of the ratings results. Apart from cost, people meters have one other problem — people forget to press the buttons. The more people in the room, the more likely it is someone will forget to push their button.

Figure 6.22: 4HE RATINGS PROCESS USED BY /ZTAM ! LARGE SCALE SURVEY IS HELD AND THEN A SMALLER SAMPLE GROUP IS SELECTED TO REPRESENT TYPICAL !USTRALIAN AUDIENCES 4HE PEOPLE METER IS INSTALLED AND AT AM EVERY MORNING THE VIEWING PREFERENCES ARE TRANSMITTED BY SILENT PHONE CALL TO PRODUCTION SOFTWARE FOR ANALYSIS %XECUTIVES ACCESS THE DATA THROUGH A SECURE WEBSITE

Ratings and programming Following are two ways in which the ratings system affects programming:

Figure 6.21: 4HE VIEWER PRESSES A PERSONALISED BUTTON ON THE PEOPLE METERlS REMOTE CONTROL TO RECORD VIEWING PATTERNS

• Copycat programming is one of the results of reliance on ratings. Suppose a town has two commercial free-to-air television channels. Seventy per cent of viewers want to watch police dramas and 30 per cent want to watch comedies. Both channels will screen police dramas and therefore attract 35 per cent of the viewers each. There is

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a natural economic tendency for commercial stations to show the same sorts of programs. • Low standards come from using ‘cheap tricks’ to attract the crowds. For a program to attract a large number of viewers, it must not seriously offend anyone, it must not make viewers think too hard, and it must be domestic and relaxing. A bit of sex and violence completes the formula.

Are ratings accurate? Critics of the ratings system say they show only what people watch. They do not show what they want to watch. According to critics of the big networks, most people choose the lesser of the available evils. Other critics say that although the ratings are a flawed measurement, they do show audience taste. Ratings, they say, measure the bottom line of Australia’s entertainment preferences.

Figure 6.23: 2ATINGS DETERMINE THE FUTURE OF PROGRAMS )N #HILE A PRODUCER REMOVED A SINGER FROM STAGE HALFWAY THROUGH A LIVE PERFORMANCE BECAUSE HE SAW THE PEOPLE METER RATINGS DROP

Activities 1. Some American television stations are posting

monthly ratings figures on the internet. Other show business organisations provide weekly figures for particular programs broadcast on the three major American networks. Use the internet to research up-to-the-minute information on ratings. Keywords can include Oztam, ‘Nielsenratings’, or ‘commercial televisionratings’. Write a brief report on your findings. 2. It is possible to guess at a program’s ratings and the demographic make-up of its audience by taking note of the advertisements. Select a timeslot and a popular program within it. Note each of the advertisements and the products being promoted.

From your list, try to guess the nature of the viewing audience. For example, a large number of general product advertisements may suggest a large audience; a quantity of specialised luxury products may suggest a small, high-income audience. 3. Look at some of the top-rating programs in the television guide. If you were an advertising agency’s media buyer, what products would you place where? Beside the title of each program, list some products you think would appeal to the probable viewing audience. 4. Investigate the television program guide for examples of copycat programming. Evaluate the effect of this phenomenon on audience satisfaction.

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Narrative

Story elements There are many touching stories from the early days of cinema when audiences saw their fi rst fi lm narratives. Legend has it that patrons ran from the theatre or dived under their seats the fi rst time they saw a train come towards them in the Lumière brothers’ fi lm L’Arrivée d’un Train en Gare de la Ciotat (1895). When a bandit fi red a gun directly at the audience in The Great Train Robbery (1903), the audience literally tried to dodge the bullet. And in her memoirs, the silent fi lm actress Lillian Gish told of what happened when old soldiers from the American Civil War fi rst saw the battle scenes in D. W. Griffith’s fi lm The Birth of a Nation (1915): ‘Their sobs shook the seats.’ It’s probably true that audiences are more hardened and skilled at viewing fi lms these days. But the howls of protest on those rare occasions when the projector breaks down, or when someone presses pause on the DVD player, prove that the power of narrative hasn’t diminished in the past 100 years. A narrative is sometimes defi ned as a chain of events in a cause–effect relationship occurring in time and space. Put another way, a narrative is a story that for a period of time tells a sequence of events with a particular setting. Narratives begin with characters in a situation. An event causes a change that results in a snowballing series of effects. Finally, the changes come to rest in a new situation that brings about the end of the story.

Suspension of disbelief Every human being is born with the capacity to enjoy stories. From the earliest age we will happily settle down to listen as soon as someone begins: ‘Once upon a time . . .’ Few children will ever question that a frog could turn into a prince with just a kiss, but they also know not to try it in the real world! Believing in the world of the story — no matter how fanciful — requires what we call suspension of disbelief. Everyone suspends disbelief when they view a film or television story. Adults know that the police rarely arrive 30 seconds after a fight breaks out. And even primary school children know that few life forms, let alone a large amphibious monster, could have survived in the black lagoon. But for the sake of the story, everyone puts aside these concerns from the real world. Suspension of disbelief is a voluntary contract the audience enters into with a fi lmmaker. The fi lm provides all the assistance anyone could want, with believable actors, surround sound and realistic special effects. In return, the audience agrees to go along with the story and enter the world of the fi lm. When the suspense becomes too much, or the fear becomes overwhelming, people remind themselves of the contract they entered into. ‘It’s only a fi lm,’ they say, or ‘Everything will be all right. The main character never dies — even in horror movies.’

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Diegesis

Conflict

The ancient Greeks called the world of the story the diegesis. Everything on the screen that is part of the world of the story is the diegesis. All the films contain:

Conflict is the basis of all narratives. It relates to the cause–effect structure because it is the outcome of causal agents. There are several categories of conflict in drama, some of which overlap with the notion of cause and effect.

• Diegetic elements. If the actors can hear it or see it, then it is diegetic. Gunshots, street noises or sounds of a band playing on or off stage are diegetic if they occur in the world of the actors. • Nondiegetic elements. Anything added by the director that the audience can hear or see but the actors cannot is regarded as nondiegetic. Romantic orchestral soundtracks and voice-over narration, for example, are nondiegetic elements. They are not part of the world of the story, even though they add to the audience’s experience of the narrative.

Cause and effect The cause-and-effect cycle in a narrative sets up the chain of events; one thing then leads to another in a way that seems natural and lifelike. While the effects of a causal action depend totally on the particular story and are too varied to review, the causal agents themselves usually fall into one of four categories. 1. Human characters. Characters cause things to happen through their actions. In other words, people do things that start the story. This is especially true of narratives in the Hollywood tradition (and in western literature as a whole). The psychology of individuals and their personal motivations is the basis of most Hollywood movies. In western culture, without individual character there is no story. Other cultures do not necessarily focus so strongly on individual motivation. 2. Human society. A narrative can be based on opposition to a whole society. This can be seen in films such as Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984), where individuals are oppressed by the surveillance culture of Big Brother. Usually, however, the society is represented in the narrative by individual human characters. 3. Non-human characters. Animals, monsters, spirits and aliens are common causal agents in narratives. Usually some kind of human motivation is accorded to these non-human characters. King Kong, for instance, is motivated by a combination of protectiveness, pride and even love. The shark in Jaws (1975) is motivated by revenge.

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4. Natural events as causal agents. Meteors, earthquakes, tidal waves and other disasters are also causal agents in narratives, but what interests us is the effects of these natural agents on the lives of individuals who struggle to survive. Disaster movies are examples of narratives in which natural occurrences begin the chain of cause and effect.

• Internal conflict. Person against self is the conflict individuals have with their own weaknesses and failings — or their own emotions. Inner conflict usually pulls the main character in two directions at once. • Person against person. A struggle between individuals is probably the most common narrative conflict. • Person against society. Many narratives with social justice themes use this as the central conflict. • Person against nature. Environmental forces are pitted against individuals. • Person against fate. Fate as an opposing force most often appears in narratives as death or disability. This is clearly demonstrated in Ingmar Bergman’s film The Seventh Seal (1957), in which a medieval knight plays chess with death.

Equilibrium/disequilibrium When a story begins it is usually in the middle of things as they are, before anything happens to change the natural order. This can easily be seen in the most classic of narratives — fairytales. They begin with a world in which everything is in its proper place: ‘Once upon a time there was a king and a queen and they had a daughter.’ The state of normality that opens every story is called narrative equilibrium. Everything is in balance when the audience arrives on the scene. Equilibrium may not be a happy state, and it can be full of unpleasantness, but it is a stable situation because nothing has occurred to unbalance things. The action that begins the cause–effect chain of events is called the disturbance or disruption. The disturbance upsets the equilibrium. It disrupts and unbalances things, sparking off a sequence of reactions that throws everything completely upside down. Complications and conflicts follow as characters react according to their individual psychology. Eventually a new normality or equilibrium is arrived at as all the complications are resolved. This may be a happier state, or it may still be unpleasant. However, the ending of a typical narrative necessarily sees a return to stability and balance. There may be room for a new disruption to enter if a sequel is planned, but the stability is strong enough to hold things in balance for the time being.


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Closing sequences The closing sequence represents the destination of the narrative — the one place it is heading to. One by one, character choices close off all but one possibility. The ultimate choice is made in the final climax. As with the opening scenes, there are some techniques that scriptwriters commonly use to help resolve a narrative, two of which are noted here. • Resolve the central problem. The final climax and resolution should provide an answer to the problem encountered when the disruption first appeared. As well, the resolution should answer all the other minor questions posed throughout the narrative. In film, these minor issues can even be resolved in a single shot. This happens several times in the ‘big finish’ of the musical Dirty Dancing (1987).

Figure 7.1: &ROM 4HE !MITYVILLE (ORROR 4HERE IS A RULE OF THUMB THAT SOME SCRIPTWRITERS FOLLOW THE STRONGER THE NORMALITY AT THE BEGINNING THE MORE SHOCKING THE DISRUPTION WHEN IT üNALLY OCCURS !CCORDINGLY HORROR MOVIES OFTEN BEGIN WITH A HIGHLY STYLISED NORMALITY

Opening and closing Because a narrative is a chain of causes and effects, the opening equilibrium and the closing equilibrium are important areas of consideration.

Opening sequences The purpose of the opening scenes is to introduce the normality and then to create the circumstances that allow the disruption to begin. The opening scenes show the lead characters in their normal world. The disruption then gives the characters a problem to solve or a goal to achieve. In combination, these two aspects of the opening scenes are often called the set-up, and there are techniques that scriptwriters use to establish it: • Introduce the disturbance quickly. A film in which normality goes on for too long quickly becomes boring.

• End straight after climax. It is rare to find a successful film or television narrative that lingers for more than a few minutes after the final climax. In many cases the resolution and climax come together in the same scene.

Narrative possibilities The set-up of a narrative creates a set of narrative possibilities — directions in which the story could go. Part of the writer’s task is to keep the audience guessing all the way to the end of the narrative. This is done by presenting characters with situations that could have multiple outcomes depending on the characters’ actions. Two factors that are external to the actual story can heavily influence the narrative possibilities: • The medium. Whether the story is told on radio, film or television, or portrayed in a video game, determines narrative possibilities. • The genre. The nature of the story is determined to a large extent by the genre in which it is told, even though many basic elements are found across genres. The type of disruption introduced early in the set-up narrows down the narrative possibilities considerably by helping to establish the genre.

• The disturbance is an action. A good disturbance involves something being done. The action that creates change is an unusual or unexpected event. • Start as you mean to finish. Many different genres are composed of the same basic elements: suspense, violence, romance, spectacle and so on (see genre, page 7). The combinations vary from genre to genre, and again with hybrid genres. However, a simple rule of thumb is that whatever element starts the disruption must also finish it. Therefore if love starts the disruption, love must resolve it. Similarly, if a gunfight is the disruption, violent gunfire must eventually restore order at the end of the film.

Figure 7.2: 4HE 'ERMAN üLM 2UN ,OLA 2UN DELIBERATELY PLAYS WITH THE IDEA OF ALTERNATIVE NARRATIVE POSSIBILITIES )T ESTABLISHES A BASIC SITUATION AND THEN PRESENTS THREE POSSIBLE OUTCOMES THAT DEPEND ON SMALL CHANGES IN THE CHARACTERSl ACTIONS

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Foreshadowing The process of suggesting narrative possibilities may include a device called foreshadowing. Foreshadowing involves the early introduction of an element that appears unimportant but takes on much greater significance later. The device discreetly hints at the likely direction of the story, so when it develops in a certain way, the audience has already been cued to accept it. Foreshadowing

occurs, for example, in the orientation stage of Thelma and Louise (1991), when Thelma makes jokes about Louise packing a gun in her luggage. Foreshadowing also occurs in The Wizard of Oz (1939): the entire black and white section at the beginning can be seen as foreshadowing the characters and events Dorothy encounters in the later colour section of the film.

Activities 1. Interview your classmates on one or more of the

following topics: • Memorable moments in film narrative that have really moved them • Moments of high excitement in film narratives that have almost produced a bodily reaction • Times when they have suspended disbelief and been completely taken in, or times when they have had to remind themselves that it is possible or even safer to disbelieve. Share these recollections with the class. 2. View a short film segment and make a list of all the diegetic and nondiegetic elements. Select some set points of progress in the extract and evaluate which elements are more significant and why. Some filmmakers reject nondiegetic elements (see Dogma, page 233). Do you think they are right or wrong to do so? 3. List some films that have used foreshadowing. Describe how the element is introduced and how it becomes significant later. If you are having trouble

getting started, thrillers often use the device. Hitchcock, for example, used it in Psycho (1960). 4. View a film with a powerful title sequence (a sequence of scenes over which the initial credits roll). Suggestions include Garage Days (2002); Idiot Box (1996); Se7en (1995); Spider-Man 2 (2004); Vertigo (1958); and Psycho (1960). Many of the classic Bond movies, such as Dr No (1962) and The Spy Who Loved Me (1977) are also suitable. Then answer the following questions. • How do the titles express the mood and narrative of the film? • How do the titles seem to stand for the whole story or reinforce the central problem that the disruption will introduce? • What images are first seen and what possibilities do they suggest to the audience? • What are the connotations (see page 5) of the text and images. Make a list of all the ideas that come to mind. How many of these eventuate in the film?

Narrative structure Storytelling is a universal human activity, but different cultures have different traditions and uses for stories. In western culture certain patterns have developed that shape the construction of individual narratives.

Three-act structure Traditional narrative is based on the three-act structure. Every story has a beginning, a middle and an end.

First act: orientation stage

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The fi rst act, or orientation stage, brings the audience into the narrative and introduces the characters in their current situation. It orients the audience to the story, engaging them in it. The orientation stage is usually quite short. In a fi lm, it may represent only 15 minutes or so of screen time.

Figure 7.3: )N 7ITHOUT +NOCKING BY #HARLES - 2USSELL 4HE ORIENTATION STAGE OF ANY NARRATIVE ENDS WHEN THE DISTURBANCE CHANGES THE NARRATIVE EQUILIBRIUM NORMALITY AND STARTS A CHAIN REACTION OF CAUSEpEFFECT EVENTS


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The orientation stage ends when the disturbance is introduced. This is sometimes called the first-act turning point. In Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960), the orientation stage ends when Marion steals the money. In the horror classic Nightmare on Elm Street (1984), it ends when Freddie attacks Tina. In Thelma and Louise (1991), it ends when Louise shoots Harlin.

Secondary climaxes help build towards the final climax. This is called the rising tension or rising action model of narrative progression. Final climax

Second act turning point/disturbance

Second act: complications stage The second act or complication stage begins after the disturbance, when the lead characters accept the problem they have been given. What follows is a series of complications or additional problems that flow from the original one. Traditionally, each problem is a little worse than the one before and seems to take the lead characters further from their goal. The second act ends at the second-act turning point. This is an event that shows the characters the enormity of what they are facing. The shower scene is probably the most climactic moment in Psycho. The second-act turning point is when the detective, Arbogast, meets his fate. In Nightmare on Elm Street it is when Rick is murdered. In Thelma and Louise it is when Louise rings on the roadhouse payphone and Hal tells her they will be charged with murder.

Third act: resolution stage The third act includes the final climax and the resolution. The final climax is the ‘do or die’ event with which the characters face the ultimate test. Once their fate is sealed, the resolution happens quickly. The resolution is not merely an ‘ending’; it must close off every other narrative possibility in the film. In other words, it must tie off all loose ends. A narrative that is not fully closed off can leave room for a sequel, but there must be a sufficient sense of completion to meet audience expectations. The final climax in Psycho is the revealing shot of the mother. It is at that point that Sam and Lila face the possibility of their own death. In Nightmare on Elm Street it is when Nancy overcomes her fear and faces up to Freddy. In Thelma and Louise the final climax is the police stand-off at the Grand Canyon.

Climaxes and turning points A climax is a high point in the drama. Narratives have only a few genuine high points — generally, the initial disturbance, the second-act turning point and the final climax. However, every narrative has other, minor high points or secondary climaxes. These are twists and turns that appear to change the fortunes of the characters, or obstacles that must be overcome. Most Hollywood screenwriters aim for a high point for every 10 to 15 minutes of screen time.

First act turning point/ disturbance

Act Three – resolution stage Act Two – complications stage

Act One – orientation stage

Figure 7.4: 4HE RISING TENSION OF THE TRADITIONAL NARRATIVE STRUCTURE IS OFTEN DEPICTED IN GRAPH FORM AS A MOUNTAIN RANGE WITH A NUMBER OF SMALLER PEAKS EVENTUALLY RISING TO THE LARGEST ONE BEFORE FALLING AWAY SHARPLY DURING THE RESOLUTION STAGE *EOPARDY DANGER INCREASES UNTIL THE üNAL CLIMAX 3OME WRITERS USE THE IDEA OF A ROLLERCOASTER RIDE TO DEPICT THE PLOTS UPS AND DOWNS AND TWISTS AND TURNS

Multiple plot lines Movies often have multiple plots. This is also true of television soap operas and some situation comedies. Soap operas rely on multiple plots to keep the audience watching over many episodes. While the main plot is the primary focus of the story in most narratives, this is not always the case. The classic film The African Queen (1951) is one wellknown exception. Other plot lines within the narrative are called subplots. Sometimes they are referred to as the background story. All plot lines necessarily follow the three-act structure, each having its own disturbance, complications and resolution. Subplots are usually only foreshadowed in the orientation stage of a narrative, when the main plot is the focus. Once the lead characters’ world has been changed by the disturbance, the subplots are allowed to develop. All plot lines normally converge in the resolution stage, which is both pleasurable for the audience and economical for the writer.

Action and relationship lines According to television and film scriptwriter Linda Aronson, the main plot line and subplots often work together as an action line and a relationship line. • The action line. The action line is the chain of events or ‘things that happen’ in the main plot line.

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The action line moves from action to action until the resolution. The events of the action line permit the relationship line to happen. • The relationship line. The relationship line explores the emotional relationships between the leading characters. The characters are forced into each other’s company by the disturbance and subsequent events in the action line. ‘A good example of the action line pulling along the relationship line occurs in The African Queen,’ says Aronson. ‘Here, the relationship — that is, the developing love between Rose and Allnutt — could not happen without the action line . . . the journey down the river.’

Citizen Kane (1941) was one of the first films to use flashback narrative, although it is more often associated with modern films. Memento (2000) and Shine (1996) use varieties of this structure.

Multiple points of view narrative Some narratives with a cast of several equally important characters jump between the perspectives of each one. These stories, says Linda Aronson, are often about reunions or sieges. Changing perspectives give energy to the story in a situation that can otherwise lack action and movement. Films using this structure include The Full Monty (1997) and American Beauty (1999). In both these films society puts the characters under siege conditions.

Types of plot progression

Parallel sequential narrative

There are several types of plot progression. All of them rely on the three-act structure at the deepest level, but on the surface some are unconventional.

Aronson uses the term sequential narrative to describe narratives that chop up stories and tell bits of them in sequence, with each left on a cliffhanger. All of these stories are quickly revisited at the end and then united in an exciting final climax. Some analysts call this a ‘braided’ narrative — plaited like hair. Examples of this structure include Pulp Fiction (1994, R rated) and Run Lola Run (1999).

Linear plot progression Most narratives still use linear plot progression. The story starts at the beginning and moves directly through time until the end. Events occur in chronological sequence and appear in the story at the time they are actually occurring — not as flashbacks or flashforwards. Both Psycho and Thelma and Louise use this structure.

Circular plot progression Starting at the end of a story and working backwards to retell how it all happened is probably the second most common narrative structure. Circular plots were particularly favoured by directors using the film noir style (see page 254) during the 1940s and 1950s. These films might begin with a man’s dead body and proceed to tell how it got there. Typically in film noir the voiceover was provided by the dead man himself, which solved the problem of a disembodied voice coming out of the speakers! Another common device was to have someone typing out their police statement. A good example of circular plot structure is found in Billy Wilder’s film Sunset Boulevard (1950). A more modern example within the musical genre (see page 279) is Moulin Rouge (2001).

Flashback narrative

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Flashback narratives consist of at least two stories, says scriptwriter Linda Aronson. One takes place in the present day of the film, while the other story takes place in the past and is told using flashbacks. The two stories are connected in some way that becomes clear, and is resolved, during the final climax. Flashforward narrative is a less common variation of this structure.

Tandem narratives A tandem narrative is made up of several equal-sized stories that are interconnected in some way, says Aronson. Tandem narrative works best in epic films or films about big events that affect many people. Finality is often reached in a big event that draws people together, such as a big wedding or a natural disaster such as an earthquake. An example of a film with this structure is Woody Allen’s Crimes and Misdemeanours (1989).

Structuring time Audiences make sense of a narrative according to the events they are shown. It is natural for people to fill in the gaps and to reorder events to make their own sense of the story. In a film narrative, there are three ways in which time can be manipulated, according to film academics David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson.

Temporal (time-based) order of events The ordering of events is the most important way that a narrative can structure time.

Temporal duration Very few films take place in real time. Nearly all films adjust the events portrayed so that they fit into


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the 90 minutes they have available to tell the story. A whole lifetime of events can be shortened into one fi lm, or all the events can take place over several days, or even within a single day, yet still fit into the screen time. Screen time is expanded to draw out some events, thereby creating tension. A number of codes and conventions have developed to assist this, one of which is parallel editing (see simultaneous time, page 23). With expanded time it can appear, for instance, to take ages for someone in a horror movie to walk up a fl ight of stairs. This can be much longer than the real time it would take.

Screen time may also be shortened to move the story forward. A long road trip can be achieved in three or four shots using montage editing (see page 21).

Temporal frequency The time-based frequency of an event can also be manipulated. An event does not have to appear just once; it can be returned to repeatedly, thereby gaining additional meaning. In Citizen Kane, Susan’s debut is seen several times during the movie from the perspectives of different characters. For information about the manipulation of time as a production element, see language, page 23.

Activities 1. Select a movie with a linear three-act structure

and draw up a graphical representation of the narrative as a mountain of rising tension. Mark on your mountain the three stages, together with the disturbance, the main twists and turns, the second-act turning point and the final climax and resolution. 2. Time the distance between points of high drama (climaxes, twists and turns) in a film of your choice. 3. Select a movie with an alternative structure and devise a graphic representation that suits the way the narrative progresses. For instance, flashback narratives may work with two-level design;

sequential or multiple viewpoint narratives may work with a branching design in the style of a family tree, and so on. Mark the actual events and stages of your chosen movie. 4. Work out the real story time of a chosen movie. This could include the actual time period in which the story takes place, together with any references to past events in the lives of characters — the ‘back story’ as it is called in soap operas. 5. Time an instance of expanded time in a thriller or horror movie and then compare that with a realtime attempt at completing the same activity. What is the effect of the difference?

Characters Characters are people presented in dramatic narratives. Making them come to life for the audience is called characterisation. Across all types of narratives there are basic categories of characters. These categories remain constant regardless of the topic or genre of the narrative, because they exist to perform certain essential narrative functions.

The protagonist The protagonist is the leading character in a narrative. The term, originally associated with Greek drama, is based on the Greek proto, meaning ‘first’ or ‘leading’, and agonistes, meaning ‘one who is engaged in a struggle’. Widely used in reference to all narratives, the term works well because it is precise in its meaning. It is a broader term than hero because the protagonist may be a thoroughly unlikeable character whom we despise rather than look up to. So the term protagonist

may apply to both hero and antihero (someone who lacks heroic traits). Australian television and fi lm scriptwriter Linda Aronson has identified the following characteristics of protagonists: • The protagonist does not die unless it is at the very end of the fi lm. (In a sense this is even true of Psycho (1960), in which Hitchcock substitutes Marion with her sister Lila.) • The protagonist is the character who faces all the difficulties. • We are ‘inside the head’ of the protagonist. • The protagonist changes and develops. • The protagonist usually makes things happen and makes the decisions. • If the voice-over is delivered by a character, it is usually the protagonist. Most noir films (see page 254) operate in this way. So too does The Piano

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(1993). (A voice-over protagonist should not be confused with a narrator, who is not a character.) • The action-line protagonist and the relationship-line protagonist are the same person (see page 139). • Some films have several protagonists. An example is American Beauty (1999). (Traditionally there is only one truly leading character, but modern usage allows for several equal leads.) • The protagonist is present during all the climaxes.

The antagonist The antagonist acts against the protagonist, as an opponent or adversary. Also of classical Greek origin, the word antagonist is built from anti, meaning ‘against’, and agonistes, which has been defined as ‘one who struggles’. Antagonist is preferred to a narrower word such as villain because it can refer to a character who is not evil or bad but simply troublesome to the protagonist; it can also refer to non-human forces. Linda Aronson has identified the following characteristics of antagonists: • Antagonists are stronger than the protagonist, or at least an equal match. • Antagonists cause trouble for, or force change on, the protagonist. • The antagonist fanatical.

is

highly

motivated,

perhaps

• We are not taken inside the antagonist’s head; otherwise we might identify with them too much. • Antagonists often die. Minor ones die early. Major antagonists don’t die until the end. • According to Aronson, the action line of a narrative can accommodate several antagonists — for instance, the villains in James Bond movies have lots of henchmen. However, the relationship line usually has just one antagonist.

Mentor antagonists A mentor is a teacher or adviser. Some antagonists are not enemies of the protagonist, but agents of change whose intervention forces the protagonist to undertake a painful journey of personal growth. According to Aronson, who coined the term mentor antagonist, these people teach the protagonist new values. Raymond (Dustin Hoffman) in Rain Man (1988) is a mentor antagonist whose innocent troublemaking eventually transforms the selfish protagonist.

Foils

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A foil may be an antagonist or just a minor character. The purpose of the foil is to show up the strong points of the protagonist, so the foil often has weaknesses that reveal the protagonist’s strengths.

Two examples of foils are found in the musical Dirty Dancing (1987), in which Francis’s (Baby’s) older sister Lisa is her foil, and Robbie is Johnny’s foil. Lisa and Robbie’s flawed union forms a perfect foil to that of the main couple.

Creating characters Writers need to make us care about the characters in narratives or we will lose interest in the story, says Joseph Boggs of the University of Western Kentucky. Boggs notes the following ways of creating believable characters in films. The list can also be applied to narratives in other mediums. • Characterisation by appearance. Casting is important in character creation, because the audience begins to make assumptions as soon as they see the physical appearance of the character. • Characterisation through dialogue. What a character says and how they say it can be very revealing. • Characterisation through action. What a character does helps to define them and to reveal their psychology and motivation. Ultimately these drive the progress of the story. • Characterisation by reaction of other characters. Sometimes it is easier to portray a character by showing their impact on the people around them. • Characterisation by caricature or motif. Simple characters can be defined by one or two features. In the manner of a caricature, these can be exaggerated to make a strong impression in the minds of the audience. When a character is known for a particular trait or saying that is often repeated, this can be seen as characterisation through motif. • Characterisation through choice of name. There is an audience expectation that certain names will represent certain types of people. This is called name typing. Writers select names that are memorable, have a good rhythm to them and also suggest certain expected behaviours.

Propp and character roles The Russian scholar Vladimir Propp (1895–1970), who studied hundreds of fairytales and folk stories, concluded that there are only seven basic character roles. Propp called these roles spheres of action. The spheres of action that characters fulfil are not quite the same thing as character types. One character, with all his or her individual personality traits, can be involved in more than one sphere. Many people apply Propp’s ideas to modern popular culture, arguing that in some ways television and film


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are just modern ways of telling folk stories. Analysts have applied Propp’s theory to films such as Star Wars (1977), Kiss Me Deadly (1955), Sunset Boulevard (1955) and North by Northwest (1959). Others have criticised Propp’s approach, arguing it is too simplistic and does not apply to a postmodern society. Propp’s character roles are as follows:

• The false hero is at first thought to be the one who will save the day, but is later revealed to be a bad character. The false hero often takes credit for the hero’s achievements and sometimes tries to claim the princess.

• The hero must embark on a journey to overcome the problem posed at the beginning of the story. The hero also restores equilibrium (see page 136) at the end of the story. Propp found two types of hero. The victim hero is the focus of the villain’s troublemaking. The seeker hero is on a quest to help others who are preyed upon by the villain. The hero in traditional folk tales was usually male and won the princess as a prize for undertaking his quest.

Table 7.1: 4HERE IS A NEAT üT BETWEEN 0ROPPlS CHARACTER

• The villain is the antagonist who creates the original problem or disturbance (see page 142) and continues to place obstacles in the way of the hero. • The princess is the prime target of the villain and must be rescued by the hero. • The donor passes on something helpful to the hero for the journey. Sometimes this character gives the hero a magical object to help in the quest. • The helper is a sidekick whose role is to help the hero achieve resolution and equilibrium. The helper may also have some special or magical power.

Figure 7.5: 3AM IN 4HE ,ORD OF THE 2INGS üTS INTO 0ROPPS CATEGORY OF THE HELPER 7ITHOUT HIS SUPPORT ON THE JOURNEY THE HERO &RODO COULD NOT HAVE SUCCEEDED IN HIS QUEST TO RESTORE EQUILIBRIUM TO -IDDLE %ARTH BY DESTROYING THE /NE 2ING IN THE üRES OF -OUNT $OOM

• The dispatcher sends the hero off on the quest. Often the dispatcher is the father of the princess. TYPES AND THE CHARACTERS IN THE ORIGINAL 3TAR 7ARS SAYS 'RAEME 4URNER 0ROFESSOR OF #ULTURAL 3TUDIES AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF 1UEENSLAND k)T IS POSSIBLE THAT THE MODERN FEATURE üLM AND THE FOLKTALE SERVE SIMILAR FUNCTIONS FOR THEIR AUDIENCESl 0ROPPlS CHARACTER TYPES

3TAR 7ARS

The hero

Luke Skywalker

The villain

Darth Vader

The princess

Princess Leia

The donor

Obi-Wan Kenobi

The helper

Han Solo

The false hero

Darth Vader (again)

The dispatcher

R2-D2

Flat and rounded characters In all narratives, certain characters are more important than others. Some are little more than extras, while others become important and familiar to us — almost like real people. These differences stem from the degree of characterisation that the writer has provided. Flat characters have little characterisation. They are not fully rounded people, but instead represent certain character traits that are essential to their role in the story. It is very difficult to ‘get inside the head’ of a flat character. Flat characters are usually antagonists or are given subordinate roles to the protagonist (see page 141). Rounded characters seem like real people. They have multiple personality traits, often including flaws and inconsistencies, just as people do in real life. They frequently come to the narrative with a personal history and a convincing psychology or motivation. While rounded characters can sometimes be antagonists, the protagonist should always be a rounded character. Another way of considering characterisation is to think in terms of developing and static characters.

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• Developing characters. The protagonist is a developing character. Other characters can also change during the course of the narrative. A developing character is any character who is affected and changed by the events in the story. This change is permanent; they can never return to the situation of the old equilibrium or normality.

• Static characters. Static characters remain the same for the entire narrative. This could be because they are not central to the story, or it could be because they are just not sensitive to the events that are happening around them. A static protagonist is taken as a sign of a failed narrative, yet it is common for antagonists to be static characters.

Activities 1. Make a list of films you have seen recently and

decide which of the characters is the protagonist and which is the antagonist. Provide reasons for your decisions based on the identifying factors Linda Aronson has developed. 2. Select three of Aronson’s identifying features of protagonists and antagonists and find film examples that demonstrate the distinction. Edit these together and create subtitles to explain how the film examples fit the criteria. Show your work to the class. 3. List the types of roles that a number of Hollywood A-list actors could undertake on appearance alone.

Also list roles that it would not be possible for these actors to convincingly play. 4. Select a Hollywood blockbuster film and attempt to categorise the characters according to the types identified by Vladimir Propp. Explain your reasoning as you categorise. 5. Chart the changes the characters undergo in a film of your choice. Which characters change and which characters are static? Are there any characters who you believe should change but remain static?

The hero’s journey ‘There are only two or three human stories and they go on repeating themselves as fiercely as if they had never happened before.’ Willa Cather in O Pioneers! (1913)

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Joseph Campbell (1904–1987) and his ideas on ‘the hero’s journey’ have been enormously influential for the writers of Hollywood narratives. Star Wars creator George Lucas was a fan, as was screenwriter Chris Vogler, whose ideas in turn influenced the development of the Disney fi lm The Lion King (1993). Campbell studied myths from around the world during the 1930s and 1940s and came to think that they were all basically the same story. Despite variations across cultures, all the myths seemed to share a certain basic pattern. Campbell was also influenced by the work of the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung, who had developed the idea of archetypes — characters who constantly appear in the stories, myths and dreams of people in all cultures. Jung believed archetypes reflected the deep structures of the human mind. He argued that there exists a ‘collective unconscious’, which is common to all people in all parts of the world. Building on this idea, in 1949 Campbell published his theory of a universal structure common to all myths. He called this the monomyth — the single myth that, at a deep level, lies beneath all other myths.

The hero’s journey — Campbell According to Campbell’s universal structure, the hero’s journey passes through 12 stages. These stages can be grouped into three broad phases. • The departure. The hero receives a call to action in the form of a threat to peace or the community. The hero may initially refuse but eventually accepts the call. The hero receives help from a protector of some kind — sometimes supernatural help. • The initiation. The hero crosses the threshold out of the previous ordinary world and into a special world. To do this, an ordeal must be survived. The hero faces a special supernatural world of obstacles and threats that must be overcome. A helper with supernatural powers may secretly be assisting. A fi nal battle is fought in a life-or-death climax that allows the future resolution of the journey. • The return. The return is often a rebirth or resurrection of some kind, or perhaps just a return into daylight. Having achieved the goal of the quest and overcome the threats, the hero returns to the ordinary world with special powers or gifts that can be used to help ordinary people. Sometimes the gift is no more than an awareness of the hero’s newfound place in the world.


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‘A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons [gifts] on his fellow man.’ Joseph Campbell, scholar of comparative mythology

The hero’s journey — Vogler Hollywood screenwriter Christopher Vogler applied Campbell’s ideas to movie scriptwriting. Vogler’s interpretations were especially influential during the 1990s, and many Hollywood blockbusters of the time were written with the mythic structure in mind. Vogler’s adaptation of the stages of Campbell’s monomyth is set out in table 7.2 together with examples of the stages from several movies.

Table 7.2: 6OGLERlS ADAPTATION OF #AMPBELLlS HEROlS JOURNEY -OVIE EXAMPLES

3TAGES OF THE JOURNEY

4HE 7IZARD OF /Z

3TAR 7ARS

4HE ,ORD OF THE 2INGS 4HE &ELLOWSHIP OF THE 2ING

Act One Ordinary world

Dorothy’s dull life in Kansas

Luke Skywalker as a farm boy

Frodo in the Shire

Call to adventure

Miss Gulch threatens to take Toto.

Princess Leia’s hologram

Gandalf calls.

Initial refusal of the call and later acceptance

Dorothy runs away from home and then a tornado takes them to Oz.

Luke refuses but finds his aunt and uncle murdered.

Frodo is hesitant at first but then realises the danger the ring poses to the Shire.

Meeting with the mentor (teacher)

Glenda the Good Witch

Obi-Wan Kenobi gives Luke the light sabre that belonged to his father.

Bilbo asks Gandalf to keep an eye on Frodo; earlier he gives Frodo the ring.

Crossing the first threshold into the changed world

Dorothy first sees Munchkinland.

Luke commits to the quest.

Ringwraiths/Council of Elrond

Tests, allies and enemies

Dorothy meets friends on the Yellow Brick Road.

Luke forms an alliance with Han Solo but makes an enemy of Jabba.

The fellowship is forged and the journey to Moria shapes group dynamics.

Approach to the innermost cave and facing the ordeal

The Witch is dead.

Luke and his crew are sucked into the Death Star and face Darth Vader.

The mines of Moria and the loss of Gandalf

Reward

Dorothy gets the broom from the Wicked Witch.

The rescue of Princess Leia

Galadriel, Lothlorien and rejuvenation

The road back and the gift, or boon (can be treasure, wisdom, freedom, knowledge etc.)

The wizard’s balloon leaves Dorothy stranded but Glenda explains the way.

Luke overcomes Darth Vader.

Orcs must be faced. Galadriel’s gifts aid the travellers in the next stage of the journey.

Resurrection (a second life-ordeath moment that is cleansing, like a rebirth, or gives insight)

Dorothy tries on the ruby slippers.

The final battle when Luke is almost killed

The sacrifices of friends before Frodo and Sam’s departure

Return with elixir, boons, gifts or newfound place in the world

The discovery that home is the best place after all

Peace is restored to the universe.

Subsequent Lord of the Rings sequels

Act Two

Act Three

Activities Using Christopher Vogler’s Hollywood version of Joseph Campbell’s hero’s journey, apply the stages to a movie of your choice. The stages can be applied to many different genres of movies, ranging from action

movies (e.g. James Bond films) to romantic comedies (e.g. Pretty Woman, 1990). The stages can also be applied to the other Star Wars films (1980, 1983, 1999, 2002, 2005).

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Setting The four factors of setting In the visual narratives of television and fi lm, setting is one of the most important elements. The term refers to the place and time in which a narrative occurs, and it is made up of four factors, according to Joseph Boggs of the University of Western Kentucky. • Time factors. The period in which the narrative takes place is one of the most important aspects of setting and is established in the opening scenes. • Geographical factors. The physical location can have a big effect on the psychological impact of the story. For example, the seedy city locations used in film noir (see page 254) are important in understanding why the characters act as they do. Australian fi lms set in the outback are also heavily influenced by their setting. • Social structures and economic factors. A story can be set within a particular institution or subject to certain economic conditions. The fi lm 8 Mile (2002), for instance, is set within a poverty-stricken urban neighbourhood. • Customs, moral attitudes and codes of behaviour. The point of a narrative can be to explore the customs and morals of a particular group of people or a particular time period. (For setting as an aspect of mise-en-scène, page 17.)

The purposes of setting Setting is used to build on the problems and confl icts faced by the characters in a story. It can be used in fulfi lling the following purposes, says Joseph Boggs: • Determining character. The environment can shape individuals and sometimes even control their behaviour. In some cases, the environment can even be an antagonist in the narrative (see page 142). For instance, the environment is a powerful shaper in Crocodile Dundee (1986) and an antagonist in The Day After Tomorrow (2004). • Reflecting character. The environment a character has created around them can provide important clues about their personality. The picture-perfect setting around Carolyn Burnham in American Beauty (1999), for example, tells us something about her character.

Figure 7.6: 4HE BLOCKBUSTER 3UPERMAN 2ETURNS WAS üLMED AT 3YDNEYS &OX 3TUDIOS AND AT NUMEROUS LOCATIONS IN AND AROUND THE CITY !UTHENTICITY OF SETTING WAS ACHIEVED THROUGH DETAILS OF MISE EN SCġNE SUCH AS THE !MERICAN POLICE UNIFORMS AND MAILBOXES IN THIS SHOT • Providing authenticity. One of the main purposes of setting is to allow the audience to suspend disbelief (see page 135). This is done by providing an authentic sense of a real place and a real time period, which is particularly important in historical dramas. • Providing visual impact. In visual media such as television and fi lm, the setting can provide the audience with a real compulsion to watch. The visual impact of Monument Valley (Arizona/Utah) has been important to the western genre. • Creating emotional atmosphere. In horror, science fiction and fantasy fi lms, an emotional atmosphere can be created by the setting. The Amityville Horror (2005) uses the house to create an atmosphere of terror. • The setting as a symbol. Setting can be used to stand for something else. Usually this is an idea or a way of thinking about the world. The Piano (1993) uses setting as a powerful symbol of entrapment and isolation.

Activities From a range of movies you have seen, find examples in which setting is used for each one of the purposes identified by Joseph Boggs.

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Audience

Characteristics of audiences ‘No-one ever lost money underestimating the intelligence of the audience.’ P. T. Barnum, American show business and circus

entrepreneur

An audience was originally a gathering of spectators for a live performance of some kind, such as a play or sporting event. This audience was sociable, its members discussing the performance among themselves. Is the average audience any cleverer these days? As one commentator has said of the television audience, ‘It’s fatal to start thinking about how smart they are. No-one’s ever seen 10 million people together.’ Modern media audiences are different from the audiences of earlier centuries in seven main ways: • Media audiences are usually located in the private space of the home or the car. The exception is the cinema, which is a public space. • The audience is unobservable because it is so large and fragmented. The idea of a media audience is like the idea of ‘society’ or of ‘normality’. It is vague, debatable and hard to pin down. • Media audiences may be audiences for a particular medium, text or genre. Audiences may be defi ned to

some extent by the media product they consume. Soap opera audiences are not the same as audiences for computer magazines. Players of online games are a different type of audience from viewers of reality programs, even though the membership of the two groups may overlap. • Audiences may be a product of particular institutions or technologies. The audience members of a public service broadcaster or of a subscription television channel may be followers of the institutions themselves (e.g. the ‘Friends of the ABC’ and ‘Friends of the BBC’ organisations in Australia and Britain). Some people are avid fans of the Discovery Channel. Similarly, the internet has created communities of audiences that cross national boundaries. • Sheer size can define some media audiences. Almost the entire world has seen images of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Approximately one-third of the world’s population has seen at least one of the Star Wars movies. An estimated 96 million Americans watched the reading of the verdict in the O. J. Simpson trial in 1995. In the 1980s the wedding of Prince Charles and Princess Diana drew an estimated 750 million people. About 2.5 billion people worldwide are believed to have watched Diana’s funeral.

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• Being a member of a media audience is one sign of citizenship. Membership of modern society requires citizens to be well informed, and for many the media are the most significant source of information. Watching the news on television is therefore an act of citizenship. • Media audiences are multiple. Because of the sheer scale of media audiences, it is impossible for them to behave as one. Media audiences are made up of thousands of subgroups and individuals within those groups. Each audience member is watching for a different reason. No other audience type in post-industrial society has all the characteristics of the media audience. However, there is an example from before the industrial revolution. Traditional church liturgy probably reached a larger and more mixed audience than any other communication form until twentieth-century cinema. The media create a shared experience that crosses national boundaries and makes us citizens of the world. How many of the events listed in the timeline on page 150 have you lived through? Ask friends and family members to recall, ‘Where were you when . . . ?’

‘How do I make a pinhole camera?’

Figure 8.1: 4HE MODERN MEDIA AUDIENCE IS SO VAST THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO COMPREHEND IT AS A SINGLE COHERENT THING YET IT IS THIS VASTNESS THAT GIVES THE MEDIA AUDIENCE ITS GREATEST SINGLE ADVANTAGE q ESPECIALLY APPARENT WITH THE INTERNET

Individual meaning makers In the 1970s researchers from Murdoch University found that Aboriginal children in central Australia were interpreting American crime dramas in unusual ways. The children were seeing the sheriffs in the shows as the ‘baddies’ because they were policemen. The children’s negative experiences with the police led them to this reading. These discoveries led audience researchers away from the idea that everyone was getting the same message from the media. Depending on age, race, gender, community identity, education and social class, each person understands things slightly differently. However, the greatest influence on a person’s understanding of a media text is their life experiences.

Active audiences There are five ways in which an audience can be judged to be active, says F. A. Biocca.

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1. Selective. An audience can be described as active if they exercise choice. The greater the possibility of choice, the more potential there is for an active audience. Active users are also more likely to

choose particular types of programs that fit with their own individual view of the world. 2. Practical users. Active audiences use their media choices for particular purposes. For instance, someone reading a stockmarket report in a fi nancial newspaper is an active audience member. Someone watching The Simpsons so they can talk about it with someone else the next day is equally active. 3. Aware/intentional. Someone who thinks about what they consume in the media and who processes the information can also be regarded as an active audience member. 4. Resisting influence. Active audiences cannot be influenced unless they want to be. Active audiences make personal choices about whether they let a text change their thinking or not. 5. Keenly involved. Anybody who is ‘caught up’ in things is involved and active. This could mean that they are extremely interested in a political debate, or that they are really frightened by a horror movie. The degree of activity might well be the same even if the text is different.


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Ways audiences can ‘read’ texts Everyone has their own view of what a media text means. It is also possible to take a number of different and even contradictory viewpoints or readings of a text at the same time. At least three main perspectives are possible. • Preferred or dominant readings are the readings that are closest to those intended by the producers of the text. If your life experiences and ideas are similar to those expressed in the text, there will be nothing to clash with. For example, if you were a police officer watching a crime drama, you would probably fi nd it easier to arrive at a preferred reading. In reality, however, a complete and exact preferred reading is impossible.

• Negotiated readings are made when mental negotiations are needed to overcome some disagreement with the text. For example, a woman watching a movie with a male hero has to put herself in his place. This takes a degree of mental negotiation. Someone with a recent speeding ticket may enjoy a crime drama, but still experience minor resentment towards police officers. Everyone has to mentally negotiate a reading to some extent. • Oppositional or resistant readings are made when the audience member fi nds their own life experiences are at odds with the views in the text. Crime dramas, for example, are often read oppositionally in prisons. For the inmates, the ‘baddies’ are the ‘goodies’. Prisoners cheer when the criminals get away and boo when the police catch the criminals.

Figure 8.2: !N !MERICAN WATCHING $ESPERATE (OUSEWIVES IN ,OS !NGELES WOULD UNDERSTAND THE PROGRAM RATHER DIFFERENTLY COMPARED WITH AN !USTRALIAN WATCHING IN /ODNADATTA 4HE !USTRALIAN PROBABLY WOULD MAKE A MORE NEGOTIATED READING ENTERING INTO MORE OF A FANTASY LAND

Activities 1. Gender can be one factor contributing to a person’s

2. Attempt to make a deliberately oppositional reading

negotiated understanding of a media text. Explore this with the cooperation of your classmates. As a class, view a film with a strong message about gender, such as Shame (1988) or Thelma and Louise (1991). Survey class members on their readings of the film based on their gender. Discuss their emotional reactions to events. Write a conclusion about the multiple readings it is possible to make from a media text. For example, survey questions for Thelma and Louise might include: (a) How did female members of the class feel about the characters’ partners? How did male members react to these characters? (b) Which parts of the movie did males/females like the best and the least? (c) With whom did the males/females identify? (To identify with someone is to put yourself ‘in their shoes’.)

of a media text. An oppositional reading is one that is opposed to the view the producers intended. Follow the guidelines set out below. (a) Find a media text whose point of view you strongly disagree with. This could be a movie from an earlier era that today seems sexist or racist. It could be an article in a magazine for over-40s that criticises your favourite music. It could be a television documentary promoting a negative view of young people and their subcultures. (b) Watch, read or listen to the media text. Note down your reactions at different places in the text. (c) Deliberately try to side with the group or point of view the producer is criticising. (d) In 200 to 300 words, explain how you arrived at the oppositional reading; refer to your reaction to specific parts of the media text.

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Technology Society 1950s–1960s 1960s–present Spread of television allows millions to view events from within their own homes, creating a mass eyewitness audience. Limited to national audiences until the launch of international communication satellites in early 1960s

Mass communication events create group bonding phenomenon and sense of shared belonging. Media events express mass pain, mass gain or mass ritual, disrupting routine programming to show ‘history in the making’. Foundation media events: Kennedy assassination and first moon landing.

Mid 1960s–mid 1970s Vietnam War dubbed ‘the first living room war’ as relatively uncensored images are shown on TV news bulletins. News reporting credited with helping to end the war.

1970s–1980s Global communications used to arouse a global conscience. Benefit concerts raise funds for developing-world famines.

1980s–present

Media citizenship timeline 1962

Europe.

1963

Martin Luther King delivers ‘I have a dream’ speech. US President John F. Kennedy assassinated.

1968

Martin Luther King assassinated.

1969

First manned landing on the moon

1970

Apollo 13 explosion and return to Earth

1972

Vietnam War images of 9-year-old Kim Phuc running naked and burning after a napalm attack on her village

1972

Massacre of Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics

1974

Cyclone Tracey, Darwin

1975

Dismissal of the Whitlam government, Australia The fall of Saigon and the end of the Vietnam War

1980

Electronic news gathering replaces filmed news: news events beamed live to the TV station for immediate broadcast.

Telstar satellite sends images between US and

John Lennon assassinated. Azaria Chamberlain taken by dingo. CNN introduces 24-hour cable news broadcasting.

Domestic camcorders permit ordinary citizens to record public events.

1981

Marriage of Prince Charles and Princess Diana

1983

Australia wins the America’s Cup.

1985

Live Aid concert Aussat launched.

Subscription television introduces

1989

1989 Tiananmen Square massacre, Beijing

24-hour news channels in 1980. Fall of the Berlin Wall

1990

1990–1991 First Gulf War

Mid 1990s Mid 1990s The internet becomes widely available. News organisations set up websites to deliver news content that is constantly updated and available.

Increasing involvement of citizens in recording events on phones and camcorders. Rise of the so-called ‘CNN effect’ — the influence of live television coverage on global policy-making

2000s 2000s Web 2.0 leads to more participatory news culture. Global communication becomes easier and more immediate. Multiplication of channels can also mean less likelihood of uniform coverage.

Global communications used to orchestrate political pressure on world leaders. Examples include Live 8 and Live Earth concerts. Social networking and blogs amplify media events by stimulating community discussion and commentary.

Nelson Mandela freed in South Africa.

1995

O. J. Simpson trial CNN sets up a news website.

1996

Port Arthur massacre, Tasmania

1997

Princess Diana killed in car accident in Paris.

2000

Sydney Olympics

2001

September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, New York

2002

Bali bombing

2003

Invasion of Iraq

2004

Boxing Day South Asian tsunami

2005

Live 8 concerts (‘Make Poverty History’) Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans

MEDIA

2006

Steve Irwin killed by stingray.

2007

Live Earth concerts


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Constructing audiences ‘Viewers of television certainly exist. However, they are also, all of them, a figment of various imaginings. Imagining them drives billion dollar industries; it determines governments’ relations with their citizens; it goes to the heart of what we think we know about ourselves and how we know it.’ John Hartley, Dean of Creative Industries, Queensland University of Technology

Constructing identity Audiences use the media partly as a way to construct their own individual identities. This process suggests that the audience is actively using the media for its own purposes. At the same time, of course, the media target those individuals and mass them together as constructed audiences (see below). Among teenagers, the use of music in constructing identity is well understood. Young individuals choose music in order to reflect their personality, to connect with others, and to let others know who they are. Music is a means of joining groups. It also reflects moods and gives expression to unformed feelings. Many people use television, fi lms, new media and even newspapers in the same way. You might only listen to certain radio stations, for example, and wouldn’t want to be caught listening to others even if you could stomach the music. Some people will buy only certain newspapers and refuse even to consider any other. Media choice is closely tied up with individual identity. Repetition in viewing or reading patterns confi rms this — until it eventually becomes a completely unconscious and invisible process.

Who constructs audiences? Different groups in society think about audiences in different ways. For example, some groups may think of audiences as a source of vast sums of money. Others may think of them as vulnerable to media manipulation and needing protection. At least three groups in society have different ways of thinking about audiences, says John Hartley.

Business Media companies are big business these days. Advertising agencies and media companies construct the audience as ‘consumers’. They forget about any idea

that media communication is a mind-shaping and cultural activity as well. The fi rst responsibility of a business is to make a profit for its shareholders, and a consuming audience is the ‘golden goose’. For instance, ratings collected via people meters give a detailed picture of the behaviour of television and radio consumers. The ratings show what programs people actually consume. Most importantly, ratings show how best to use advertising to entice the audience to buy. However, ratings are just one method that all the different television companies have agreed on. They are not absolute truth. Based on samples, the results from a few thousand people are used to represent the activities and attitudes of an audience of millions. Audience researcher Ien Ang tells how advertisers and media companies were shocked when the change from the diary method to people meters showed a quite different pattern of viewing. In another example, according to John Hartley, when the free-to-air television stations changed from AC Nielsen surveys to Oztam (see page 133), the long-term front-running Channel 9 lost its overall lead and faced an annual loss of $100 million in ad revenue. Big business doesn’t really know the truth of its audience. It is just a construction, says John Hartley, even if it is worth billions.

Government From the government’s point of view, on the other hand, the audience is composed, not of consumers, but of ‘citizens’ or the ‘public’. And every three years the citizens become ‘voters’. Unlike big business, the government has a duty of care to its citizens and so imagines a ‘regulated’ audience. The regulated audience, says Heather Hendershot, represents a range of beliefs, expectations and prejudices. For instance, they may believe that violent video games are a serious problem or that the internet needs to be better controlled. The government uses opinion polls and political guesswork to judge what audience opinion is, and then it acts according to what it thinks voters will approve of. The government regulates to protect the audience in three main areas, says John Hartley. • Sex is highly regulated in the interests of protecting children and generalised community standards. • Violence is most often regulated in fictional areas. News and documentaries show violence, but rarely show dead bodies or live violence in action, says Hartley.

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• Bad language is still regulated, but there is a different definition of ‘bad’, says Hartley. Now language deemed to support or promote racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination is controlled. In addition, governments tend to think of audiences as belonging to certain identity categories that may require special laws and regulations. They often construct ideas of audience around the following identities. • Gender is a sensitive area for governments, who may believe there is a connection between media portrayals of gender and audience behaviour. • Political characteristics of the audience are regularly examined by government polling and carefully protected by regulation.

• Vulnerable audiences such as children or the elderly are also thought about separately or constructed by government agencies. Different types of these groups are regarded as having different needs for protection.

Educators Universities and schools are also interested in a version of the audience — one that has also been constructed. John Hartley argues that the academic construction of audience has two aspects: • numerical or statistical audiences based on quantitative studies (see page 157) • ethnographic audiences based on interviews and qualitative studies (see page 160).

Activities 1. What difference does it make if an audience is

thought of as being made up of consumers or of citizens? Make a list of how such ways of thinking could affect the behaviour of media companies (including public service broadcasters).

2. Ask class members who have experienced

news broadcasts in other countries (especially continental Europe) to compare differing attitudes to violence.

Targeting audiences

MEDIA

The media are in the business of selling audiences to advertisers. In the words of French fi lm director Jean-Luc Godard, ‘Television doesn’t make programs — it makes viewers.’ The real products of the media are audiences, who are then marketed to advertisers. The texts are just the bait to attract the unsuspecting population. Whether through television ratings, for example, or through newspaper readership surveys, the media accumulate vast amounts of data about who consumes their products. Profi les of the audiences include their income, education level, lifestyle, marital status and age. They even know how many households have cats rather than dogs. The audience profi le is used to convince advertisers they will be targeting the right sort of audience. Advertisers pay a lot of money for a highincome audience, even if it is only small, whereas low-income audiences are only worthwhile if they are purchased in bulk quantities. To understand consumer behaviour, advertisers have turned to the social sciences, such as psychology and sociology. Techniques for predicting consumer behaviour have now become very precise and very expensive. Advertisers believe consumers can be sorted, grouped and delivered to sponsors as neatly

packaged units. For example, in America a research organisation has divided the entire population of the United States into 121 distinct sociodemographic groups. The company believes it can predict the behaviour of each of these groups. Advertising psychology has one basic belief: every group in society has deep-seated needs, fears and weaknesses. Advertising agencies aim to deliver the message that ordinary, everyday products can cure these weaknesses.

Demographic appeals Advertisers buy time in commercial breaks from television stations, and they are very defi nite about whom they want to target before they buy the time. Television stations can supply a demographic breakdown of their audiences for each program they broadcast. (The term demographics is derived from the Greek words demos, meaning ‘people’, and graphe, meaning ‘writing’.) Advertisers, too, have built up people-maps of the population, based on factors such as social class, age, sex, education, religion, family size and so on. To fi nd its target audience, the advertiser then matches


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its data with the television station’s data. Of course, the data must be kept up to date. Advertisers’ peoplemaps are constantly changing as society changes and audiences shift.

The demographics of gender Women are the group most sought after by television advertisers. This is because they spend more money than any other group. For example, of the 20- to 30year-olds who are buying property, 60 per cent are women. Women also make more than 70 per cent of all household purchases. Researchers have divided women into four categories: • Women at home who do not plan to work in the future • Women at home who plan to return to the workforce • Women for whom work is an economic necessity • Women with a career. Men still make 64 per cent of business decisions and may be targeted by business advertisers. Yet males as a group are in a state of upheaval, advertisers say. One advertising research agency has divided males into two intersecting segments. The first segment is based on the degree of economic success achieved; the second is based on the balance between modern and traditional beliefs — that is, ‘new’ men versus ‘old’ men.

The demographics of social class Money talks, as far as advertisers are concerned, and the most desirable audience is the audience with the most cash. Accordingly, advertisers have devised a scale of relative spending power. • A households are successful upper-level professionals or businesspeople. They include doctors, lawyers and company executives (including television and advertising executives). Only 2 per cent of the population falls into this category. • B households are below the top echelon but are still well off. They include university lecturers, pharmacists and directors of small companies. These households comprise about 11 per cent of the population. • C households are of the lower middle class and make up around 23 per cent of the population. They include tradespeople, various white-collar workers and the owners of small businesses. Owing to skills shortages and taxation concessions to small business, many C households now have real incomes that are considerably higher than A and B households. Advertisers of luxury goods, such as BMW cars, have begun targeting C households as well.

• D households are general clerical staff, apprentices, and skilled and semiskilled workers. • E households include manual workers such as labourers, traffic wardens, factory workers and truck drivers. • FG households are people receiving welfare payments, including the unemployed and retired pensioners.

Family life cycle The family life cycle is divided into nine categories: • Singles — young single people not living at home • Newly married couples — young couples with no children • Full nest one — young married couples whose youngest child is under six years old • Full nest two — young married couples whose youngest child is six years old or older • Full nest three — older married couples with dependent children • Empty nest one — older married couples still in the workforce who have no children living with them • Empty nest two — older retired married couples who have no children living at home • Solitary survivor in the workforce • Solitary retired survivor.

The youth market The youth units of the advertising research companies have identified at least five subcultural groups of teenagers. Music remains a powerful influence on each of these, but technology is also something many teenage subcultures identify with. Researchers believe today’s youth are far more divided into ‘tribes’ than previous generations. Some things never change, however. Advertising strategy planner David Hackworthy believes there are three timeless factors relating to teenagers. • ‘My parents don’t understand me’ has been a stage through which all generations of teenagers pass. • Contemporary issues have affected every generation. According to one report, the most important concerns to teenagers are currently the environment, unemployment, crime and drug abuse. • The various ways teens represent themselves to their peers are of great importance to them.

Attitudes and beliefs The Stanford Research Institute’s Values and Lifestyles Program (VALS) has organised people’s attitudes and beliefs into five groupings. People are categorised according to how they spend their

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leisure time, what they consider important in the world, and what they think of themselves and the world around them. • Belongers are traditional, conservative, conformist and family oriented. They like security and a strong community, and hate change. Advertisements aimed at them may show family images. • Emulators are young people searching for an identity. They want to fit into an adult world, but can be discouraged about prospects. Advertisements aimed at them may focus on group images and show heroes and heroines.

• Emulator–achievers are successful, enjoy acquiring things and buy brand names. Advertisements focus on success and taste and often exhibit class consciousness. • Societally conscious achievers believe inner peace and the environment are more important than fi nancial success. They want personal fulfi lment, like to experiment and are lovers of the outdoors and fitness. • Needs directed are survivors on incomes that allow only needs and not wants to be fulfi lled. Examples of this group are pensioners and the unemployed.

Activities 1. Advertisers might study the demographics of the

family if they wish to advertise products that are purchased for family consumption, such as food and household equipment and supplies. (a) Which of the nine categories in the family life cycle (see page 153) would be most profitable for advertisers? (b) Choose three or four of the life-cycle categories and make a short list of food and household products that could easily be sold to people in the categories. (c) Imagine you were asked to produce a series of advertisements for frozen food aimed at each of the life-cycle categories. Explain how each advertisement would differ from the one before.

2. Advertisers group people according to their

socioeconomic status. There are six demographic groups commonly referred to in advertising (see page 153). Watch some television commercials and assign each to one of the six categories. Outline the factors that influenced your decision. 3. Stanford University’s VALS demographic program identifies five groups according to values and attitudes. Certain kinds of television commercials suit certain categories, but most commercials focus on the three groups likely to spend most on consumables: belongers, emulators and emulator-achievers. Watch a number of television advertisements and decide whether you think they appeal to belongers, emulators or emulatorachievers. Give reasons for your choices.

MEDIA


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Media influence

Theories of media influence ‘There is little doubt that media texts affect audiences; what that effect is and how it happens is open to considerable doubt. The debate is clouded with, on the one hand emotion, and on the other the vagaries of social science. The emotion is often a result of “moral panics” and the science has been so agendadriven that conclusions cannot be safely drawn from the research.’ Nick Lacey, British media educator

Modern media effects research grew up in the twentieth century, and it shows. It had its infancy just after World War I and developed its first theories at the time the Nazis used propaganda in Germany in the 1930s. In the United States, the panic that followed Orson Welles’ War of the Worlds radio broadcast led the general public to accept without question the idea of immense media power. The research studies of the time presumed the media directly influenced people. Media research came of age in the 1950s during the cold war, when the United States was gripped by fears of communism. There were concerns about indoctrination and talk of ‘brainwashing’ techniques. Some major media research studies were even conducted under military command. In the 1960s concerns about

the new medium of television came to the fore. A series of assassinations of public figures and the rise of the civil rights and anti–Vietnam War movements led some to point the finger at prime-time television violence as a possible cause of civil disorder. In the 1970s a series of major studies into television violence were conducted by the United States Surgeon General. Also in the seventies, the influence of feminism and a widespread questioning of society led to calls for a greater understanding of the links between media and culture. A shift towards market-based economics and an increased focus on consumerism in the 1980s coincided with theories of media influence that centred on the individual. At the same time the introduction of VCRs caused concern about the influence of ‘video nasties’ — especially in the UK. In the 1990s public anxieties were heightened by the James Bulger murder case (in which two 10-year-old English boys abducted and murdered a two-year-old in broad daylight) and the Port Arthur massacre in Tasmania. Both events resulted in an outcry about violent videos. Cyber-porn and violent video games became the concerns of the late 1990s. By the early 2000s, however, an increasingly fragmented society was calling for more complex approaches to understanding how the media work on individuals and groups.

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Types of theories Theories of media influence mainly fall into two broad categories.

Effects theories Effects studies have tried to fi nd out whether the media change people’s behaviour. The question they have often asked has been, ‘What does consuming the media do to people?’ Another question could be, ‘Does media advertising make us buy products?’ Effects theories concentrate on the media message. There are at least three reasons for this, says Klaus Krippendorf of the University of Pennsylvania: 1. Media messages are describable and transportable unchanged from one location to another. This makes them easy to study. 2. Media messages can clearly affect people. Whatever audiences make of the message, there is clearly some mental work going on. 3. Exposure to the same message causes some degree of shared experience, or ‘commonalities’. Early effects theories were known as ‘hypodermic needle’ or ‘silver bullet’ theories. Later theories became known as the ‘limited effects’ approaches. They include agenda-setting function theory and cultivation theory. The Americans dominated effects studies, especially until the 1970s.

of effects research have been especially interesting to advertisers and marketers. The effects approach aims to show that media content can actually cause a change in the behaviour of individuals in society. Effects studies tend to use simple models of communication based on a straight line between the sender of the media message and the receiver of the message.

Figure 9.1: %FFECTS STUDIES ARE OFTEN BASED ON A LINEAR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION 3IMPLE MODELS SUGGEST THE MESSAGE IS DELIVERED DIRECTLY TO THE RECEIVER IN A PURE FORM q SWALLOWED WHOLE AND PURE LIKE A COATED PILL OR SHOT INTO THEM LIKE A kSILVER BULLETl

Reception theories/constructivist theories Reception studies have tried to fi nd out what sense people make of the media — in other words, how the media are received. Researchers have often asked questions such as, ‘What do people do with the media?’ Another question could be, ‘How do people use the media for their own purposes?’ Reception theories are also sometimes called constructivist theories, because the audience is seen to be constructing their own meanings from the text. They include uses and gratifications theory, encoding/ decoding theory and the reception analysis approach of cultural studies (ethnographic research). The British and, to a lesser extent, Australians have dominated reception studies, especially during the 1980s and 1990s.

The effects tradition

MEDIA

The effects tradition grew out of the social science methods of using statistics to measure human behaviour. It developed at about the same time as the modern study of psychology. One aspect of psychology — called social psychology — shares a similar approach. Social psychology looks at the behaviour of humans in society or large groups. The social psychology aspects

Figure 9.2: -ORE COMPLEX LINEAR MODELS SUGGEST THERE IS SOME DEGREE OF INTERFERENCE OR kNOISEl THAT DISTORTS THE INTENDED MESSAGE q RATHER LIKE WHAT HAPPENS IN THE #HINESE 7HISPERS GAME A simple effects study might undertake the following steps: 1. Perform content analysis. Content analysis can show how highly a media text scores in a certain element, such as violence or swearing. Usually a team of research assistants (often students) would go through media texts, counting up the number of times the chosen element appears. Once the content analysis is completed, researchers would know if they have found a suitable media text to go to the next step. For example, they might select as the test instrument a violent cartoon with approximately 30 violent acts per hour. 2. Establish test and control groups. A simple effects study would then set up two groups. One group would be prepared to view the chosen text and therefore be exposed, for example, to violent media. The other group would view a neutral text.


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3. Expose test subjects. The test group would be asked to watch the chosen program. 4. Measure the response. The behaviours of the two groups would be observed and recorded. Some studies would use scientific devices to measure heart rates or nervous responses to excitement. In other cases, diaries or interviews would be used. Studies of fi lm or television violence and political influence have been the main fare of effects research. As a result, the studies have often been funded by governments keen to pass laws of one sort or another. Governments have often been under pressure to act from lobby groups or the general public. It isn’t always in relation to media violence either. At various times, women’s groups, ethnic groups and disability support groups have also complained to the government about the effects of media depictions. Effects studies often construct a view of the audience as vulnerable and needing protection from a powerful media. Quantitative research is the preferred method of effects studies. This means the fi nal fi ndings are expressed in numbers or quantities. For example, they might say, ‘10 per cent of the test group showed changed behaviour’.

Effects studies and the hypodermic needle Beliefs about media communication followed a very simple approach in the 1920s and 1930s, when it was thought that the message created by the producer was simply taken in whole and unquestioningly. Audiences, it was believed, could be easily brainwashed by a manipulative media. In other words, the intelligence, ideas and experience of the audience members themselves were irrelevant. This perspective is scornfully called the ‘hypodermic’ model because it suggests people can be ‘injected’ with powerful media messages and be unable to help themselves from acting accordingly. Well-known effects researcher Wilbur Schramm called this simple approach the ‘silver bullet’ theory. After the 1960s few academic effects researchers believed the impact of the media was so direct. However, the general public, politicians and parent groups easily fall back into this line of thinking whenever there is a panic about the media and its effects. Oddly enough, it is often the news media themselves that are fi rst to fall into the trap, creating panics about video games and serial killers with collections of violent videos.

Figure 9.3: 4HE kHYPODERMIC NEEDLEl APPROACH TO MEDIA EFFECTS EQUATES THE CULTURAL AND INTELLECTUAL EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA TO THE KNOWN PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION IN MEDICINE

Thousands of effects studies have been conducted since the 1920s. Many of them have been very sophisticated and have developed considerably following the criticisms of the early approaches.

Strengths and weaknesses of effects studies Strengths include the following: • Quantitative basis. If the study is rigorous in its design, the use of numbers and statistics can be an effective and reliable way of seeing trends. Sometimes government and police statistics are incorporated into the design, increasing the scope of the study. • Large size. Effects studies often involve large numbers of participants and sometimes extend over long periods of time. Weaknesses include the following: • Lab rats. People do not live in laboratories, and fi ndings in a controlled scientific setting cannot be transferred automatically to real life. Also, people are often eager to please researchers and may show them behaviours they think the researchers want to see. • Attitudes not visible. Changes to attitude or belief are not observable or easily measured in the way that physical changes are. • Other factors. Something else could have intervened to cause the change. For example, family factors or problems at school could be a more significant cause of changed behaviour than the media.

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networking sites that have developed on the internet in the twenty-fi rst century. The viral spread of media campaigns is based on two-step flow theory. That two-step flow theory seems to assume there are only a few media outlets shows its thinking is limited by its 1940s origins. Another weakness is its inability to prove that opinion leaders are any different from anyone else.

Agenda-setting theory

Figure 9.4: 3TUDIES IN THE EFFECTS TRADITION HAVE TRIED TO SHOW THAT THE MEDIA ALTER OUR THINKING AND OUR BEHAVIOUR 4HE RESULTS ARE NOT CLEAR BECAUSE IT IS DIFüCULT TO PROVE THE MEDIA ARE THE ONLY FACTOR ALTERING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

‘Limited effects’ or ‘two-step flow’ Recognising the problems with early effects studies, Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz developed the ‘limited effects’ or ‘two-step flow’ approach in the 1940s. This approach maintains the basic thrust of the effects tradition but gives greater emphasis to audience intelligence than the hypodermic needle approach. The theory proposes that media effects work in two distinct stages. First, opinion leaders absorb the media message and adapt it to their own beliefs and values. Then, in the second stage, these opinion leaders pass on the slightly altered message to others in their social networks.

Mass media

‘The mass media may not be successful in telling us what to think, but they are stunningly successful in telling us what to think about.’ Donald Shaw and Maxwell McCombs, founders of agenda-setting theory

Agenda-setting theory was developed in the 1970s during an American presidential campaign. Its original focus was on the political effects of the news media, but it can be successfully applied to other media genres — women’s magazines, for instance. The agenda-setting function operates on two levels: 1. Basic agenda. By selecting certain topics and not others, the media tell the audience what are the key issues of the time. That is, the media set the agenda for discussion, even if they don’t tell people exactly what to think. 2. Tone of the agenda. By adopting a negative or positive voice or by showing some sides of the topic and not others, the media set the tone for the way the audience will think. Whether unintentionally or not, the media use the following processes that work to set the agenda: • Gatekeeping. A gatekeeper stands at the gate and decides whether entry will be given or not. News editors perform this function when they decide which topic will be allowed to feature and which will not be covered at all.

Opinion leader

Individuals in social contact with an opinion leader

Figure 9.5: ,AZARSFELD AND +ATZ DEVELOPED A MODEL CALLED THE kTWO STEP ČOWl OF MEDIA EFFECTS 4HE MEDIA WERE BELIEVED TO AFFECT OPINION LEADERS WHO WOULD THEN PASS ON THE EFFECTS TO THEIR FRIENDS 4HE OPPORTUNITIES OFFERED BY SOCIAL NETWORKS SUCH AS -Y3PACE HAVE MADE ADVERTISERS TAKE RENEWED INTEREST IN THE TWO STEP ČOW THEORY

MEDIA

Strengths of the two-step flow method include its recognition of the indirect nature of effects and the role of audience interpretation. Another strength has been the theory’s renewed applicability to the social

• Priming. Just as a small engine must be primed or pumped up with fuel before it will start, the media kick-start certain issues by ‘pumping them up’ or priming them. Thus some issues get sensationalist coverage while others are pushed aside. • Framing. A camera operator can frame a subject so that you can see some parts and not others — or so that it looks good or bad. In the same way, by selecting certain facts, the news media can frame a story. They may not be able to totally control audience opinion, but they can package it to encourage a certain kind of thinking.


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A simple agenda-setting study might undertake the following steps: 1. Pre-test. Subjects might be asked to fill out questionnaires on the topics they think are most important and newsworthy to them personally. 2. Exposure to concentrated media. Subjects then watch or read the news intensively over several days using a number of sources. 3. Post-test. Subjects again fill out a questionnaire on what are the most important issues now that they have reviewed the news media. 4. Matching exercise. The topics listed by the individuals are matched to the topics in the news bulletins to see if there is any correlation. This will show whether the media really do set the agenda.

Strengths and weaknesses of agenda setting Agenda setting has been shown to exist. A strength of the theory is that it explains how the media can influence society and culture. Agenda-setting theory works particularly well when applied to the news media. Recent increases in concentration of media ownership around the world have sharpened interest in agenda-setting theory. However, a weakness of the theory is that media fragmentation has lessened the ability of just a few news media to influence the agenda. This trend has occurred in parallel to increases in concentration of ownership. The agenda-setting theory works best in a traditional environment with limited numbers of media.

Cultivation theory ‘Television is the source of the most broadly shared images and messages in history. It is the mainstream of the common symbolic environment into which our children are born and in which we all live our lives. Television is a centralised system of story telling. That system cultivates from infancy the predispositions and preferences that used to be acquired from other “primary” sources.’ George Gerbner, cultivation theorist, Annenberg School of Communication, University of Pennsylvania

Most effects researchers were looking for small effects resulting from exposure to one or another film or television program. For instance, they asked whether watching Superman made kids think they could fly if they jumped out the window. George Gerbner and others developed the idea that the effects of television in particular are not narrow and specific. Instead the effect of television on the whole of society is massive

— so big that we can’t see it because we are submerged in it. A search for massive effects requires large-scale studies. Cultivation studies often involve large numbers of people and long time frames. For instance, Gerbner has employed university students to perform content analysis counts of the violence on prime-time television every year since 1969. Cultivation studies teams have also studied whole towns before and after television was introduced. Cultivation theory argues that television viewing over a long period of time ‘cultivates’ a certain way of looking at the world. The theory claims that exposure to television affects the whole culture because it changes everyone’s perception of reality. Even light viewers are affected because there are enough heavy viewers whose consciousness is changed to the extent that society as a whole is transformed. Three ideas from cultivation studies are well known, although there is debate about their validity. 1. Mainstreaming. Gerbner argues that television tends to create a huge ‘middle ground’ in society. It helps to flatten out differences between ways of thinking in society, and acts against unusual perceptions or ways of behaving. We all begin to think the same way — television’s way. 2. Resonance. The effect of a television program is much stronger if the viewer has had an experience that is similar — the program therefore resonates or is in tune with them. For example, if you live in a crime-ridden area and you watch violent television it is more likely you will be affected, Gerbner says. 3. Mean streets syndrome. According to cultivation theorists, television makes people think the world is a mean and nasty place full of dangerous strangers. The violence and crime on television has created a belief that this somehow reflects real life rather than being a gross exaggeration of it. Cultivation studies have shown that the mean streets syndrome is much more of a factor in the United States than it is in Britain — possibly because of resonance! Television has changed everything, the cultivation theorists argue, but it isn’t a one-way process; rather, it is a cycle. Because television changes the culture it changes the structure of society, and that in turn changes television. But the effect is difficult to pinpoint amongst everything else that is happening. That is why large-scale studies are necessary. A simple cultivation study might undertake the following steps: 1. Content analysis. A study is made of the content of television. For instance, some studies have used back copies of TV guides to assess prime-time content over many decades.

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3. Assessing beliefs. Questionnaires are used to assess people’s beliefs to see if they are influenced by television. In past studies, questions have focused on the following areas: • Feelings about personal safety levels or fear of being a victim of violence • Political views and voting intentions • Views on social issues such as capital punishment, gun ownership and drug laws • Leisure activities and hobbies • Views about fashion and culture (that may have been transmitted by TV). 4. Cultivation analysis. Comparisons are made between the two groups. For instance, one cultivation study has found that heavy TV viewers are more likely to be in favour of the death sentence and to vote conservative than light TV viewers.

Strengths and weaknesses of cultivation studies The strengths of cultivation studies include the following: • Connections with beliefs. Cultivation studies have been able to show a connection between the beliefs held by audience members and the representations depicted on television.

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• Semi-hypodermic. Many critics say cultivation studies are still operating under the old hypodermic model, even if they have adapted it. • Statistics. Because the studies tend to focus on statistics, critics say they ignore audiences and texts. Cultivation studies might be able to show there is an influence, but they can’t say how or why it works. • Small effects. Critics say that the effects that have been found are only in the order of a few percentage points.

Reception/constructivist theories Reception/constructivist studies have been strongest in their investigations of the entertainment genres of television. Famous studies have included investigations of audience interpretations of soap operas and cartoons. Many of the most well-known studies have been funded by the commercial television networks. Qualitative studies are used in the reception tradition. These studies are based on describing ‘qualities’ or characteristics rather than using numbers. Methods used include interviews and observation. Reception studies tend to describe what the researcher observes. Usually the findings are presented not as percentages but in descriptive paragraphs. Often they include long quotes from people who have been interviewed. 225

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• Statistics. The large scale of the studies and the use of statistics to report the findings have increased their reliability.

The weaknesses include the following:

Standardised homicide rate per 100 000 population (1959 = 100; 3–y moving average)

2. Light viewers and heavy viewers. Two groups of participants are formed. One group watches little TV; the other is made up of heavy viewers.

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Figure 9.6: 4HE MURDER RATE IN #ANADA FOLLOWING THE INTRODUCTION OF TELEVISION COMPARED WITH THAT IN 3OUTH !FRICA WHERE TELEVISION BROADCASTING WAS BANNED UNDER APARTHEID LAWS #ULTIVATION STUDIES OFTEN COMPARE POPULATIONS WHO HAVE ACCESS TO TELEVISION WITH THOSE WHO DO NOT


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Uses and gratifications (UG) Following the disappointments of the effects studies, some researchers in the 1960s and early 1970s (such as Jay Blumler and Elihu Katz) went in a totally different direction. They argued that audiences used the media to satisfy certain basic psychological needs. This shifted the focus from the producer and the text of the media message to the needs of the audience as consumers. The uses and gratifications approach (sometimes called UG) argued that the audience used the media to gratify (or satisfy) certain psychological needs. This was the first step away from effects theories towards recognising that audiences are active. UG is like a bridge between the hypodermic needle approach and later reception theories. Blumler and Katz identified four areas in which the audience can achieve ‘gratification’: 1. Diversion and escape. People often seek to relax and escape their personal pressures. The media can help them achieve this goal. 2. Companionship. The media can enhance personal relationships by giving people something to talk about. For example, laughing about a comedy you and your friends saw on television last night provides social gratification. 3. Personal identity. Audiences can use the media for reasons of personal identity in several ways. People can use their media choices to build up a sense of who they are — and who they are not! For example, teenagers often use their choice of music

to build a sense of identity and exclude other music because it doesn’t fit. People can also use the media to find reflections of their own lives. For example, soap opera viewers often say the shows help them with their own problems. People can also use the media to reinforce their own beliefs. 4. Surveillance. Everybody likes to keep an eye on what’s going on around them. Part of the reason for this is that knowledge about things will help people accomplish something. News, weather reports, advertisements, stock reports, even music video clip shows, all keep audiences in touch with changes and opportunities. A simple UG study might undertake the following steps: 1. Establish sample group. A sample group of media users is established with the aim of finding out why they use a particular media text. For instance, the study could focus on players of games such as World of Warcraft. Often two or three hypotheses are formed that will be tested on the sample group. 2. Qualitative questionnaire and interviews. The group would be asked descriptive questions about the preferred reasons they have for using the media text. 3. Quantitative analysis. Since UG often uses both qualitative and quantitative approaches, typical studies analyse questionnaire and survey data statistically as well. For example, a study found that 48 per cent of World of Warcraft players sought gratification in the excitement of combat while 44 per cent found satisfaction in the teamwork.

Figure 9.7: *APANESE TEENAGERS NEAR (ARAJUKU STATION IN 4OKYOlS MOST FASHIONABLE DISTRICT 5SES AND GRATIüCATIONS THEORY SAYS THE FAMOUS MOBILE PHONE CULTURE OF TEENAGE GIRLS IN *APAN HAS DEVELOPED BECAUSE THE PHONE MEETS THE NEED FOR COMPANIONSHIP DIVERSION AND PERSONAL IDENTITY

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• Active audience. UG represents a move away from the media having all the power to audiences also having some say in what they will use the media for.

Stuart Hall and his team believed there were three possible meanings an audience could derive from a text: • Dominant reading • Negotiated reading • Oppositional or resistant reading. A simple E/D study might undertake the following steps:

• Qualitative approach. By combining interviews and diaries with statistics, UG represents a middle ground between the two approaches.

1. Content analysis/textual analysis. The content of the chosen media text is examined and various coded meanings established.

The weaknesses of uses and gratifications include the following:

2. Interviews with ‘encoders’. The producer of the text is interviewed and asked to discuss the intended meaning of the text.

Strengths and weaknesses of UG The strengths of uses and gratifications theory include the following:

• Dehumanising. Uses and gratifications studies reduce the viewer to a set of needs and the meanings in the text become only gratification. Humans are made of much more than a need for food and social interaction. Needs and desires do not explain everything in life. • Ignores media power. Uses and gratifications theorists have also been blamed for ignoring the complexities of the media’s influence and giving all power to the audience. They haven’t explained how needs can be manipulated by advertising agencies. People are shaped by their society, which is in turn shaped by the media and its advertising. • Negative uses. UG seems to assume that audiences are always finding positive uses for media. It ignores the dysfunctional and antisocial uses that some people put the media to. • Best of the worst. Audiences don’t have a lot of power over what media products are actually produced, therefore their power to pick and choose texts to suit their needs is quite limited.

Encoding/decoding theory (E/D)

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The encoding/decoding approach was developed in the 1970s by Stuart Hall at the University of Birmingham. Hall and his followers believed that the media did place specific and intended meanings in texts, in a process called encoding. However, he believed audiences tended to make their own sense of these texts — decoding. Encoding/decoding (E/D) theory accepts that the media are powerful, but believes that this power is never complete and is always being struggled for and negotiated with the audience. To encoding/decoding theorists, the meaning of a media text lies somewhere between the producer and the audience. Meaning is not totally fixed by the media producer (like a ‘silver bullet’), and it is not so fluid and open that it can mean whatever anyone wants it to.

3. Interviews with ‘decoders’. Sample groups of audience members are interviewed. Sometimes the sample groups are deliberately chosen to represent different cultures or different viewpoints.

Strengths and weaknesses of E/D The strengths of encoding/decoding include the following: • Influential. Hall’s theory has been one of the most influential theories of media influence. This has been particularly true in Britain, where a great deal of reception research has been done. • Active audiences. The encoding/decoding approach has shown that the meaning of a media text is not passively absorbed but is created by the audience in conjunction with the signs coded into the text. The weaknesses of E/D include the following: • Coded meaning. The model still assumes that there is a dominant meaning that is embedded in the codes of the text. It makes you think you have to look for the dominant reading. How do you know when you’ve found it? This idea of a dominant coded meaning downplays conflicting meanings that can appear in the one text. • Is it coded in the text? Some critics have argued that the dominant reading may not be coded into the text at all, but could instead be a reflection of the dominant culture — a sort of mass delusion. As an example of this idea, think of how western society makes a dominant reading of ancient cave paintings — yet for all we know it could be quite different from the reading made by the original society and not coded into the images at all. • Stereotyping of audiences. With just three categories of audience reading, it is possible for some people to reduce audiences to stereotypes — ‘Oh yes, well he’s a resistant reader, but she’s always a dominant reader!’ This doesn’t allow for a wide variety of readings or individual variations.


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Ethnographic or cultural approaches Ethnographic studies are concerned with studying the audience rather than the producers or the text. Audiences and the cultures in which they exist are the main focus, and the text tends to be merely a ‘window’ into that world. Popular since the 1980s, ethnographic reception research has investigated the ways audiences make meanings from media texts. Like anthropologists studying traditional or isolated ethnic groups, media researchers observed and interviewed media fans. Instead of quantitative research or most styles of qualitative research, the ethnographic approach makes use of participantobservation. The researcher observes the audience but is also a participant in the process. Ethnographic studies of fans for certain TV shows illustrate the process of participant-observation. The researchers are often members of a fan group and don’t pretend to be objective or unbiased. Instead, the researchers use their unique position to show the outside world the special meanings that fans attach to the show. Alternatively, researchers will stay with a family and take notes on their media habits. The researchers may interview family members and ask them why they watch certain programs and what they like about them. A simple ethnographic study might undertake the following steps: 1. Participants established. A sample group is established out of an existing category of people, such as fans for a show, members of a subculture or members of a gender or age group. 2. Observer values declared. The observer then declares their own biases and values, and establishes the level of their own involvement in the group. 3. Observation. The researcher observes the group members as they use the chosen media text in an everyday setting. 4. Interviews. The researcher also interviews the group members to find out the meanings they derive from the text. 5. Report writing. A descriptive analysis of the findings is created, made up of the declaration of the participant-observer and the collated observations and interview statements that support them. It is then noted that the findings are applicable only to this group and not necessarily to any others.

Figure 9.8: &ROM 'HOST IN THE 3HELL *APANESE ANIME HAS A STRONG FAN CULTURE IN THE WEST THAT HAS PROVED IDEAL FOR ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES

Strengths and weaknesses of ethnography The strengths of the ethnographic approach include the following: • Not speaking for someone else. A great advantage of ethnographic studies is that the participantobserver approach removes the need to speak on behalf of someone else, says Queensland University of Technology’s John Hartley. Instead there is a two-way communication. • Shows reading variation. Ethnographic studies have been particularly helpful in showing the diverse readings members of different groups make. They have shown that audiences can use texts for many different purposes. Audiences have also been shown to subvert texts and create their own versions of story lines and characterisations. The weaknesses of the ethnographic approach include the following: • Entertainment genres. Most of the studies have been of entertainment genres. The ‘fourth estate’ genres of news, current affairs and documentary have scarcely been looked at. • Navel gazing. At their worst, some ethnographic studies have concentrated on such minute detail about such obscure groups that connection with the mainstream world of media effects has been completely lost. • Too personal. The descriptive style of ethnographic research can allow the researcher to ‘write in’ a personal and biased viewpoint. As well, the presence of the researcher in the living room observing viewers must have an impact on their behaviour.

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Semiotic constructivism An emerging approach to audience study is semiotic constructivism. It is called semiotic because it deals with the signs, codes and conventions of media texts. It is called constructivism because the approach allows that audiences construct meanings from media texts. However, what is new is the idea that the range of meanings audiences construct depends on the discourses that are out there in society (see discourses, page 192). A study of discourses can show that our view of reality is decided by the language signs, codes and conventions we use (page 4). So the discourses we participate in as we interact with society are extremely influential on our thinking. The media are one of the key broadcasters of discourses. Therefore the media are a powerful factor in the way we think about things.

Strengths and weaknesses of semiotic constructivism A strength of the approach is that it is able to show the indirect way in which audiences interpret media texts, so it is able to demonstrate how influential the media are. A weakness of the approach is that it is complex and philosophical. For this reason it may not have wide appeal among the general public or among politicians (who make laws about media content). Figure 9.9: 4HE INTERPRETATION A VIEWER MIGHT MAKE OF A üLM SUCH AS "ORAT WOULD BE DEPENDENT ON THE CURRENT DISCOURSES ABOUT TERRORISM THE -IDDLE %AST AND THE 5NITED 3TATES 3EMIOTIC CONSTRUCTIVISM ARGUES THAT AUDIENCES CONSTRUCT MEANING NOT SO MUCH FROM WITHIN INDIVIDUAL TEXTS AS FROM WITHIN THE DISCOURSES THAT ARE AROUND IN SOCIETY AT THE TIME

Activities 1. Make a timeline of some of the major

MEDIA

‘panics’ about media use over the past century. Briefly outline the background to each panic. Discuss the following questions: • What were the main ‘sides’ in the debates about the issue? • How widely accepted was the threat? • What is your own opinion on the issue? • Select one of the theories of media influence and show how the theory can or cannot explain aspects of the issue. 2. Select an event in the news headlines or a controversy about one of the entertainment genres of the media. Show how one or more of the theories of media influence can be applied to this current event. Explain the perspective the theory would take on the issue. 3. Find an example of a recently introduced technology, such as mobile phone video or invehicle DVD players. Select two of the theories of media influence and plan a study of the audience for the technology. Show how different theories may take different approaches.

PRODUCTION TASK 4. Conduct a full-scale study using one

of the theories of media influence as your starting point. Follow the sample stages given in your chosen theory for a typical study. Conduct the study with a sample group and then present your findings in report style. Use statistics and graphs in quantitative reporting, and use questionnaire and interview responses in qualitative reporting. For ethnographic studies, include your observations and snippets of interview responses as part of the report.

WRITTEN TASK 5. Present a 600-word response to the following topic:

Imagine you are a researcher for a television documentary about the impact of the media on society. Prepare, in essay form, preliminary information on the effects of the media. Give an account of some of the research findings so far. Conclude with your own evaluation.


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Protecting audiences Governments are elected to provide for the needs of the community. Community perceptions about media influence are important because politicians need to respond to widespread beliefs in the community.

Harm and offence Government policy is often aimed at regulating the prospect that the media may do harm or cause offence, according to a British review of evidence by Andrea Hargrave and Sonia Livingstone.

Harm Policy documents tend to defi ne harm as any psychological disturbance or damage that can be measured or seen by others. Much of the media effects research has been aimed at showing some kind of negative outcome from exposure to ‘harmful media’ (see effects, page 156). Evidence has been inconclusive, although this is not to say there is no effect. Harm is understood to vary with the degree of vulnerability of the audience. For example, children are widely seen as the most vulnerable group. Harm is seen as being long lasting.

Offence Offence, meaning displeasure or insult, is usually a personal or subjective thing that need not be observed by others. It may be easier for governments to regulate media that give offence. However, it is a concept that can be easily abused. Anyone can say they are ‘offended’ — there is no way to measure it. Protecting audiences from offence can be the start of a slippery slope towards censorship. Offence is not seen as something that is independent and unrelated to vulnerability. Offence is not taken to last beyond the actual moment, although people may remember the event for some time after.

Susceptible audiences In modern society, the following audiences are often seen as susceptible or (in some cases) vulnerable to harm or offence caused by exposure to inappropriate media texts. Children and young people. The under-18 audience is widely regarded as vulnerable to harm and also susceptible to other influences. Governments in most countries have sought to protect this audience. There are several reasons for this: • Brain development patterns in children and young people mean that cognitive or thinking processes

are not fully formed. Indeed there is some recent evidence that the process of brain development may continue well past the age of 18. • There is a widely accepted belief that children and young people need protection in a number of areas — not just media consumption. All of society accepts the need to protect children from exploitation. • Children are an investment in the future and therefore need careful nurturing. • The under-18 audience are heavy consumers of television, the internet, fi lms and video games. The mentally ill. People suffering from episodes of mental illness, such as depression or eating disorders, can also be viewed as being more susceptible to harm. This group is not necessarily insignificant in size. An estimated one in five people may experience depression in their lifetime, according to the Beyond Blue project. Estimates of the incidence of other disorders vary considerably. There has been little careful research into the vulnerability of the mentally ill. However, the community perception is that sufferers may interpret media texts in unusual ways that can increase their vulnerability. Most often this negatively affects the sufferers (and their families) rather than the general community. The elderly. The increased physical vulnerability that comes with old age makes the elderly more susceptible to what George Gerbner has called ‘the mean streets syndrome’ (see page 159). But older age groups are also more likely to take offence at media content. This has been repeatedly shown in surveys by the Office of Film and Literature Classification (see page 111). Antisocial elements. The community has at times expressed concern that media content will end up in the hands of people whose behaviour places them outside the boundaries of acceptable social norms. This audience is viewed not so much as vulnerable but as dangerously susceptible to media influences. Whether effects are proven or not, community groups have demanded protection from these audiences. They include sexual offenders, pedophiles, aggressive and compulsive abusers and violent young people. Minority groups. Disadvantaged or minority groups may be at risk from negative depictions of them in the media. Groups potentially affected include certain ethnic groups, minority religious groups and people with alternative sexual orientations. There is little

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research in this area, say Hargrave and Livingstone, and it is unclear whether the outcome amounts to offence or harm. Women. Women are not seen as a vulnerable group in modern western society; however, women and older people are more likely to report that media content is offensive to them.

For and against regulation ‘Any talk of restricting what can or cannot appear on television does raise free-speech concerns. But it also involves what we as a society think is appropriate for young people to see and listen to. Any serious consideration of the issue must attempt to balance these competing interests.’ Michael Massing, author and journalist

For regulation There are several arguments in favour of regulating media content: • Harm to minors. Protecting children is more important than total free speech for adults. Those in favour of regulation argue that it is preferable to limit free speech and the rights of adults to access whatever they choose in order to minimise the harm to children. • Parents need help. It is impossible for parents to have full control over what their children access. While parents may be able to limit their children’s media consumption at home, it is difficult to prevent them accessing inappropriate material elsewhere. This argument is strengthened when internet access is considered. • National problem. Excessively violent material, pornography, or material that incites crimes or hatred is seen by many community groups as a national problem. The government is therefore obliged to act in the best interests of most citizens. • Offence to public opinion. Some media material can be shown to be widely regarded as unacceptable or likely to cause offence to the broad general public. Certain kinds of swearing are examples of this. Sexist content is another example.

Against regulation Arguments against regulating media content include the following:

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• Parents’ responsibility. It is not the role of the government to act as a nanny. Parents have the responsibility to set limits on children’s media consumption.

• Slippery slope. Once the government regulates free speech in the media it is a ‘slippery slope’ towards government restrictions on free speech in other forums. Eventually we could lose our freedoms altogether. • Unenforceable. In the borderless media environment created by the internet, it is impossible for national governments to control content anyway. Therefore it is better to use other approaches.

‘What threatens freedoms more than any isolated instance of censorship is the unifying rationale of all censorship campaigns: the presumption that “bad” speech directly causes “bad” behavior and that government officials should be empowered to distinguish good speech from bad.’ Wendy Kaminer, lawyer and feminist writer

Regulating Australian media content The Office of Film and Literature Classification (see page 111) has a classification code for media content in Australia. Since 1996 the OFLC has classified films and literature on behalf of the states; however, the states retain the power to classify or even censor media content if they so choose.

Film and game categories The regulation categories for films and computer games are based on an increasing scale of impact and increasing potential for either offence or harm. The first three categories are advisory only. The final three are legally enforceable restrictions. Cinemas and DVD hire stores can be fined if they are found to be breaking the regulations.

G M

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Restricted to 18 and over

RESTRICTED

G classification. The G classification (General exhibition) is for media content that has a very mild impact on the audience in terms of either harm or offence. G is not restricted to children’s programs, however. Many programs aimed at an adult audience are given a G classification.


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PG classification. The PG classification (Parental Guidance) has a relatively mild impact on the audience but may be likely to disturb very young children.

law and fines are applied to anyone found to be in breach. Category one publications must be displayed in sealed covers.

M classification. The M classification (Mature) is recommended for audiences aged 15 years and over. The content is likely to have a moderate impact. Parental permission is sufficient to see the film or play the video game.

R classification category two. Category two publications are to be displayed only in adult shops.

MA classification. The MA classification (Mature Accompanied) is similar to the M classification except that it is legally enforceable that audience members be over 15 if unaccompanied by an adult. If they are under 15, they must be accompanied by an adult for the entire movie (or game). The content has a strong impact. R classification. The R classification (Restricted) is reserved for films with a very high impact on the audience. It is illegal for people under 18 to view this content. Computer games cannot be given an R rating. In such cases, the game will be refused classification (see below). X classification. The X classification is given to films that are judged to have pornographic content. Currently the classification is available for use only in the ACT and the Northern Territory. The X classification is not permissible for computer games. No classification. Films and games with more extreme material than the classification system will allow are refused a classification. This means cinemas cannot show them and stores cannot sell them. As a result, the film or game is effectively banned.

Literature categories Not all printed literature has to be classified. Only material the publisher believes needs classification is submitted. Usually this means material that is sexually explicit. The classifications for literature are as follows. Unrestricted classification. This means that the material can be distributed to a general audience. Unrestricted (mature) classification. As with the film and computer game classifications, a mature rating means there is a recommendation only that the material be viewed by people over the age of 15. Restricted classification category one. The regulations for restricted print material are enforceable by UNRESTRICTED UNRESTRICTED

OFFICE of FILM and LITERATURE CLASSIFICATION

M(Mature) NOT RECOMMENDED FOR READERS UNDER 15 YEARS


Refused classification Films, games and literature can be refused classification if the impact of the material puts it outside the classification system. It is then illegal to display or sell the material. There are three reasons why a classification can be refused: 1. The material offends general community standards in the depiction of violence, sex, drug use or crime. 2. It depicts minors in a way that is offensive to community standards. 3. It promotes or instructs in crime, violence or drug use.

Community groups A range of community groups have pressed for an input into the decisions about classification. The opinions of these groups are taken into account in the decisions, but so are the views of the broader community. The OFLC conducts regular public opinion surveys to gauge the public mood about community standards. As well, the classification teams are drawn from a wide cross-section of the community. Despite the lack of evidence of direct media effects, community groups have generally taken the view that the risk of harm outweighs any uncertainty about the effects of media portrayals. They argue it is best to err on the side of caution. Groups seeking input include the following: • Parent groups and child protection organisations • Religious groups from various sectors, including the Festival of Light • Women’s groups • Domestic violence support groups • Victims of crime groups • Drug rehabilitation groups • Anti-censorship, free speech groups and adult industry groups such as the Eros Foundation. RESTRICTED

CAT E G O RY 1

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CAT EG ORY 2

R


R


NOT AVAILABLE TO PERSONS UNDER 18 YEARS

NOT AVAILABLE TO PERSONS UNDER 18 YEARS

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Activities 1. Investigate the decisions made by the OFLC using

4. Visit the OFLC website and also the websites of

information on their website. Decide whether harm or offence is the key principle in a selection of decisions. 2. Debate whether the protection needs of susceptible or vulnerable audiences outweigh the principle that consenting adults should be able to view anything they wish to. 3. Debate whether government regulation violates the democratic right of free speech.

equivalent organisations in other countries (such as the British Board of Film Classification in the UK), and find cases of films that have been rated differently in each jurisdiction. Examine the reasons why and provide your own opinion. 5. Research the role a community group has played in making submissions to the OFLC expressing concerns about a film, game or printed publication.

The violence debate ‘Do I think screen violence contributes to violence on the streets? Of course, the answer is yes.’ Dustin Hoffman, American actor

‘A serial killer of children was addicted to The Sound of Music. Literature reports the case of a serial killer whose inspiration was screenings of The Ten Commandments. Fortunately such creatures remain few and far between. My principal concern about violent cinema has not been the turbo-charging of occasional mass murderers. The primary concern should be the deadening effect on the sensibilities of the rest of us.’ Phillip Adams, broadcaster and cultural commentator

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On one side of the debate, fi lm director Alan Pakula (All the President’s Men, Presumed Innocent) says movie violence is like eating salt. The more you eat, the more you need to eat so you can taste it at all. The other side has been quick to counterattack. Actor Tom Hanks has criticised ‘cheap grandstanding’, while leading director Oliver Stone (JFK, Natural Born Killers) has referred to a ‘new McCarthyism’. ‘Maybe we need the catharsis of blood-letting and decapitation like the ancient Romans needed it,’ offers Martin Scorsese, director of Goodfellas (1990) and Gangs of New York (2002).

Figure 9.10: (OLLYWOODlS ESCALATING üREPOWER IS INCREASING THE POTENTIAL FOR VIOLENCE IN THE COMMUNITY SAY CRITICS %XPERTS DISAGREE $OES SCREEN VIOLENCE CAUSE VIOLENCE IN THE STREETS /NE SCEPTIC HAS SAID THE RESEARCH üNDINGS SO FAR ARE kYES NO AND MAYBE al


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Violence defined Cultivation studies expert George Gerbner has used content analysis to study violence on prime-time television every year since 1969 (see page 156). He defines violence as consisting of one or all of the following elements: • The expression of physical force (with or without weapon) against self or other • Forcing action against one’s will on pain of being hurt or killed • Actually being hurt or killed.

Media violence reviewed Story element violence Since the beginning of recorded history, violence has been an important part of storytelling. There are violent themes in the Bible, the classical Greek epics, traditional fairytales, Shakespearean theatre and nineteenth-century novels. Nor is violence restricted to the narrative tradition. Many paintings by Goya and Bosch, for example, depict deep and disturbing horrors. For most commentators, the issue is not the mere presence of violence but its context. Violence in the Bible, for example, is important to the teaching of lessons about life and the establishment of a moral code. In a film, the context includes the purposes of the violence in the overall meaning and the audience’s viewing circumstances. A number of television industry professionals were interviewed by the researchers Muriel Cantor, Thomas Baldwin and Colby Lewis. Although concerned primarily with television, the professionals’ comments are relevant to film violence too. They viewed violence as essential in creating action scenes, arguing it was the best tool for maintaining the interest of the audience — both young and old. They claimed violence was limited to scenes where it was appropriate in the context. They also insisted violence — unless used to enforce the law — was shown to be immoral. Heroes used violence only when absolutely necessary, they claimed. All those interviewed brushed aside criticism, arguing that the violence accurately reflected the real world. Content analysis produces a different story, however. Surveys between 1973 and 1987 found that 88 per cent of all on-screen antisocial acts are rewarded, and that the people committing the acts felt justified 83 per cent of the time.

Industrialised violence The film and video industries operate in a very competitive market. They will exploit anything that attracts attention and draws crowds. The violence formula can

reliably deliver mass audiences and box office success. For example, Basic Instinct (1992) quickly became the most seen restricted classification film at the cinemas, and the next year it became the most rented video. Hollywood has built much of its commercial base on a formula combining sex and violence that is designed to appeal to people under 35 years old. This has led some critics to suggest concerns over violence are at least partly explained by differences between generations. According to one survey, 63 per cent of respondents aged 18–24 had seen films in the restricted category. This compared with 30 per cent of people aged 40–55 and 14 per cent of people aged 55 and over.

‘It’s the studio executives who decide which movies to make. Hollywood now controls 80 per cent of the world’s film culture. They are businesses based on coming up with a product and then repeating it forever. Those are the people who brought you the Big Mac. They are run like corporations are run, whether they are making cars or soap. All they talk about is the first-quarter results.’ Francis Ford Coppola, director of The Godfather (1972, 1974, 1990) and Apocalypse Now (1979)

Artistic responsibility Is the artist solely concerned with art for art’s sake, or does he or she have a responsibility to society? Film director David Cronenberg believes that at the time you’re being an artist, you are no longer a citizen — you have no moral responsibility. Others disagree. According to the early Hollywood director Frank Capra (Mr Smith Goes to Washington), the moviemaker’s responsibility is to emphasise the positive side of humanity by showing triumph over adversities and obstacles. While art for art’s sake was once a liberating notion, says Suzi Gablick, it has become a selfdefeating limitation. We have new urgencies. To keep harping on about a conflict between the individual and society, says Gablick, is irrelevant when both are disintegrating.

Roman circuses Many commentators have compared Hollywood violence to the excesses of the Roman circuses. David Puttnam, a former president of Columbia Pictures, says the Roman circuses, where countless thousands of people were killed, did not start out that way. They started as mild entertainment. But the audience demand for more and more thrills over hundreds of years resulted in the circuses becoming more grotesque

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and bloody. The end came only when Rome could no longer afford the butchery. Puttnam says it is time now for someone to say, ‘stop — this is enough’.

Social ecology The anti-Hollywood crusader Michael Medved says movie death counts are quadrupling and the blast power is increasing by the megaton. Meanwhile the characters are no longer heroically larger than life, but meaner, less decent and less likeable than reallife people. For the conservative campaigner Medved, the Hollywood dream factory has become the poison factory. Phillip Adams argues it is not only the manufacturers of guns, but also the makers of violent films who deal in death.

‘If shoppers are capable of rejecting a brand of tuna because of its links with dolphin slaughter, then surely the public is capable of rejecting base-level splatterpunk if it slaughters our self-respect. ‘I’m not attacking … [artists] sweating in garrets, but global empires which cynically pander to easy profits, cheap sensations and reversed priorities. ‘After years of agitation and argument we’ve finally reached the point where a corporation can be shamed for fouling a river. It’s time to tackle a system which fouls another resource — the river of our dreams.’ Richard Neville, popular culture commentator and 1960s free speech campaigner

Table 9.1: 4HE DEATH COUNT IN RECENT (OLLYWOOD MOVIES -OVIE

$EATH COUNT

The Wild Bunch (1969) Rambo 3 (1988)

89 106

Robocop 2 (1990)

74

Die Hard 2 (1990)

264

Media research and the effects of violence

MEDIA

Research into film and media violence is as old as the media themselves. There have been two main — effects and cultivation studies, and the more recent ethnographic or audience reception tradition (see media influence, pages 156–64). Neither tradition has shown a direct and certain cause–effect link between film or television violence and increased community violence. Indeed, the approaches and the findings of both traditions have been the subject of some criticism.

Figure 9.11: 2ESEARCH HAS SO FAR FAILED TO PROVE A DIRECT CAUSEpEFFECT LINK BETWEEN SCREEN VIOLENCE AND REAL LIFE VIOLENCE "UT OTHER MORE COMPLICATED EFFECTS HAVE BEEN INDICATED

Seeking effects Nearly 80 per cent of all media research has been concerned with violence. For almost a century researchers have tried to find relationships with media violence in the following areas. Direct effects. Researchers have sought direct cause–effect relationships between movie violence and increased audience aggression. The results have failed to prove any direct connection. In this regard, research into the effects of media violence is often contrasted with research into the effects of cigarette smoking. These have proved beyond scientific doubt that there are direct causal effects. Copy-cat effects. Investigations have been conducted into criminal actions that appear to copy previously viewed screen violence. According to the criminologist Dr Paul Wilson, a significant number of documented examples exist. Desensitising effects. Constant viewing of violent material may harden or desensitise audience members to real-life violence. People who watch a lot of violent material may come to believe violence is a normal everyday occurrence. Michael Medved believes people are becoming immune to film violence, and the human suffering and pain of the screen victim becomes lost in the process. Research evidence that points to desensitising does exist. Disinhibition. Some researchers have tried to find evidence of a loss of conscience or a lack of selfcontrol among audience members who are viewers of violent films. The studies have sought to prove screen violence reduces people’s inhibitions against committing violent acts themselves. Evidence similar to that suggesting desensitising does exist. Catharsis. Watching violent movies is said to help people ‘let off steam’. It allows them to release their own aggressive urges, according to this line of thinking.


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The process is referred to in psychology as catharsis, a cleansing and purifying liberation (for example, a sneeze is a form of catharsis). Researchers have found little evidence of cathartic effects from viewing screen violence. Most evidence, on the contrary, points to an increase in tension rather than a release. Like films, sporting events are said to allow people to safely let off excess aggression. But evidence suggests the opposite: women’s refuges regularly report increased domestic violence after major televised football play-offs. The violence of the Japanese entertainment media is legendary. Some commentators say the cathartic effect accounts for Japan’s low level of community violence. Others point to a range of cultural factors that are more likely to be the cause.

The effects and cultivation traditions There have been more than 10 000 studies of screen violence in the empirical effects tradition. A typical effects study sets out to prove something. As with scientific experiments, researchers try to isolate a link between an effect and certain causes. Effects studies tend to use social science methods and often express results as numbers or percentages. This is called quantitative research because the results are expressed as quantities. Quantitative research is similar to that used by advertisers to assess the effectiveness of their sales pitch. In the 1980s and 1990s the effects tradition came in for widespread criticism. In 1989 Guy Cumberbatch, for the British Broadcasting Standards Council, concluded that many of the effects studies had been crudely designed and failed to appreciate increasing public concern about media violence. Some notable effects studies are reviewed below. • In a 22-year study, Dr Leonard Eron of the University of Illinois found children with the heaviest exposure to film and television violence were 150 per cent more likely to be convicted for criminal offences when they became adults than those with the lightest exposure. • In a ten-year study, Monroe Lefkowitz found the more violence an eight-year-old boy watched, the more aggressive his behaviour would be at 18 years of age. Another study showed that males who watch a lot of violence tended to show a smaller increase in heart rate when shown new violent material than males who don’t watch much screen violence. • Copy-cat effects were analysed in one study. Could violent behaviours be learned and stored in the brain for future reference? Could a person retrieve the violent image later in life, when a similar situation is encountered, and then perform it in real

life? The study looked at cases where youths had apparently imitated criminal acts they had seen in movies. In each case, the environment of the reallife crime had definite similarities to the fictional scene. • A few effects researchers have actually put a percentage on the relationship between screen violence and real-life violence. Leonard Eron, for example, believes 10 per cent of the violence in the community is a result of exposure to violent images. • The leading expert in cultivation studies, George Gerbner, believes the focus on whether media violence causes real violence is a mistake. The contribution of media violence to the committing of violence is relatively minor, at maybe 5 per cent, says Gerbner. However, the contribution to longterm perceptions and attitudes to violence is much greater. • Probably no-one in the effects tradition has bettered Wilbur Schramm’s summing up of the few firm conclusions about screen violence. Although Schramm spoke only in relation to children and television, his statement has been echoed in findings about adults and film.

‘For some children under some conditions, some television is harmful. For other children under the same conditions or the same children under other conditions, it may … [have little effect]. For most children under most conditions, most television is probably neither harmful nor particularly beneficial.’ Wilbur Schramm, leading effects researcher

The ethnographic or reception tradition Highlighting the shortcomings of the effects tradition has been the main contribution of ethnographic researchers to the violence issue. Effects studies treated the audience as ‘dopes’, said ethnographic researchers (see ethnographic tradition, page 163). The various ways audiences read films were not taken into account (see audience readings, page 149). And all the social and cultural factors that influence and explain behaviour were ignored, said ethnographers. There has been a flood of criticism aimed at effects studies from those in the opposing ethnographic (reception) tradition. According to Queensland University of Technology’s Stuart Cunningham, it has meant that the ethnographic or reception approach has tended to write off the issue of violence. As a result, few studies have tackled the issue and there has yet to be a full alternative to the effects tradition.

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MEDIA

But one of the main outcomes, says Cunningham, has been an understanding that media violence cannot be seen as separate from society as a whole. Reception researchers point to findings that show social and economic conditions, such as unemployment, family violence, sexism and racism, are major factors in the committing of violence. Stuart Cunningham’s view is that the media play a role in community violence because the media are central institutions in society. The social and economic conditions of a violent society are therefore represented through the media. The media are a symptom rather than a cause. Ethnographic studies use group discussions and interviews to build up descriptions of audience behaviour. The results are usually descriptive and are often pieced together from collections of interview quotes. This type of research is called qualitative research, because it describes the qualities or details of particular subjects. Ethnographic research commonly has a very tightly focused topic. For example, it might look at the reactions of a group of 30 inner-city migrant women to the violence in the film The Silence of the Lambs. One important study in the reception tradition has been carried out by Robert Hodge and David Tripp. The study looked at children’s responses to the mid-1980s television cartoon Fangface. At least two of its findings are relevant to cinema-going adults. Hodge and Tripp concluded that media violence is of a totally different nature to real violence. Without conflict, art, drama and literature would be almost nonexistent. The researchers also concluded that the meanings gained from screen violence are negotiated and altered by each audience member. The effects of media violence on individuals can be understood only in that personally negotiated form. Critics are now taking aim at the ethnographic approach, however. Leading reception researcher Ien Ang outlines some of the criticisms in the introduction to her book Living Room Wars: • The ethnographic approach, say critics, exaggerates the power of audiences to make their own meanings. Instead of being seen as dopes, audiences are now seen as heroes. • One critic, John Fiske, says the power of the audience is only the power of the weak — the power to make the best of things they cannot change and therefore have to put up with. • The ethnographic tradition has also been criticised for the potential it has to include the researcher’s own biases. A researcher can also easily choose which interview quotes and which audience members best suit a personal point of view. In this way, a particular point of view can be written into a reception study.

The criminologists In 1996, in the world’s worst massacre of its type, a lone gunman shot 35 people among the ruins of the penal settlement at Port Arthur, Tasmania. The owner of the video hire store near the killer’s home later spoke of the gunman’s fascination with violent movies. Three years earlier in England, two 10-year-old boys murdered the toddler James Bulger in scenes reminiscent of an American horror movie and its sequels. The American author John Grisham blames director Oliver Stone for starting a killing spree with his film Natural Born Killers and has called on the victims to take legal action against Hollywood.

Figure 9.12: -ICKEY AND -ALLORY 7OODY (ARRELSON AND *ULIETTE ,EWIS ARE YOUNG LOVERS ON A KILLING SPREE !UTHOR *OHN 'RISHAM LOST A CLOSE FRIEND IN A COPY CAT KILLING HE SAYS WAS SPARKED BY THE MOVIE .ATURAL "ORN +ILLERS 4HINK OF A MOVIE AS A PRODUCT SAYS 'RISHAM LIKE BREAST IMPLANTS OR (ONDA THREE WHEELERS )F A FAULTY PRODUCT CAUSES INJURY THE CUSTOMER CAN SUE

‘While I don’t think violent videos are the trigger for mass killers, there is considerable evidence to show violent videos can tell a potentially violent person how to express his violence. The copy-cat phenomenon is real — but only with people who have a predisposition to be violent … And there is no way the experts can predict which one of the viewers will be propelled into murder and mayhem … Normal people do not turn into violent killers simply as a result of watching a film. The roots of criminal violence are enormously complex.’ Dr Paul Wilson, criminologist


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Media as a factor in criminal violence The media’s role in causing violence has been ranked eleventh out of twelve possible factors in a report by the National Committee on Violence. The committee concluded that when it comes to investing limited money and resources for the prevention of violence, the media are a low priority. Table 9.2: 4HE MOST INČUENTIAL FACTORS IN CAUSING VIOLENCE LISTED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF INČUENCE ACCORDING TO THE .ATIONAL #OMMITTEE ON 6IOLENCE 1.

Child development and the influence of the family

2.

Standards of behaviour in general society

3.

Economic inequality

4.

Cultural disintegration

5.

Physical environment (e.g. a run-down environment can promote violence, a clean environment can reduce violence)

6.

Gender inequality

7.

Personality factors (two characteristics of particular importance are a lack of regard for others and impulsiveness)

8.

Substance abuse (especially alcohol)

9.

Biological factors (being male or female, and inherited characteristics)

10.

Mental illness (prediction is extremely difficult)

11.

Media influences

12.

Peer group influences

Short-circuiting the debate With no agreement on the outcomes of media violence, government agencies must still fi nd a way to deal with community concern. The dilemma has led to the study of what is termed community perceptions of violence. The approach may be summed up as ‘balancing the views of ordinary people because there is not yet any other way out of the debate’. According to Stuart Cunningham, the ‘community perceptions’ approach sidesteps the minefield of academic research. However, the interests of the public are

still protected because the major findings of perceptions research are those very community interests, Cunningham says. For example, 60 per cent of one research sample believed there was too much media violence. Women, parents, people with religious convictions and the elderly were shown to be the most concerned. On the other hand, 82 per cent of people surveyed believed adults should be able to watch movies with a restricted classification if they want to. Of those interviewed, 65 per cent believed violence in society was linked to media violence. However, 38 per cent said they personally enjoyed violent fi lms.

‘Society itself will have to act when it senses the limit has been reached. You are not going to end it by censorship, by officially banning violence. My view is there has to be a consumer revolution against it. We will eventually have to say enough is enough.’ Dr Paul Wilson, criminologist

Sexual violence was of greatest concern to the community. Surveys indicate support for more control in this area. The community perceptions approach is like applying the results of opinion polls to the media violence debate. Rather than looking for research conclusions, this approach aims at democratic agreement between different points of view. It’s a matter of balancing out the community opinion in each of the areas of concern, says Stuart Cunningham. A difficult task — but not as difficult as fi nding a simple answer to the question of the influence of media violence.

‘There has been a tightening of community standards in the last seven or eight years. I think it’s probably actions from concerned women’s groups, sending the message out that you don’t have to cop it anymore.’ John Dickie, Office of Film and Literature Classification

Activities 1. Make a collage of print media comments and

questions on screen violence. Below the collage, give your responses and answers to these comments and questions. What do the comments have in common? Has a particular movie or criminally violent event sparked concern? Are there any calls for the maintenance of freedom of expression? What is your own opinion on the issue? Why do you think the print media often run articles on film or television violence?

2. Conduct a content analysis of the violence in

a selected movie or movie extract. This style of analysis is often used in studies within the effects tradition. The steps set out below provide a guide. You may wish to work in groups. (i) Begin with George Gerbner’s definition of violence (see page 169). Count the number of incidents occurring during the movie that fit this definition.

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(ii) Divide the number of violent actions by the overall length of the movie expressed in hours. This gives the rate of violence per hour (R/H). (iii) The role of violence in the movie may be defined by the portrayal of characters who commit violence or are subjected to it. First count the total number of characters (leave out minor parts if too difficult). Then count the number of characters seen as either violent or victims of violence. Make this a percentage of total characterisation (%V). Next, count the number of victims of violence, the number of killers and the number killed. Express these results as percentages of the total characterisation. (iv) Some content analysis studies have compiled a violence index (VI). They calculate the index using a more complex version of the following formula: VI 2 (R/H) s %V. Calculate your own violence index rating for the movie you’ve studied. 3. Ethnographic research has shown that the reactions of individual audience members to violence can be complex. Part of this can be explained by whether they identified with the character committing the violence, or whether they identified themselves in opposition to that person. Interview a small group of people who have recently seen a film with violence in it. Design some survey questions aimed at finding out in what way the identification factor has worked for the interview subjects. Record their answers and write a brief report summarising the findings. 4. Take John Grisham’s advice and sue Hollywood! Or lead the defence. Conduct a classroom court hearing in which evidence is submitted for and against the prosecution’s claim that Hollywood has sold the world a life-threatening product. Arrive at a verdict.

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to one of the following: 5. Review the evidence for and against any negative social impact from film violence. Begin with an introduction to the problem. Research the details of several studies and government investigations. Report on the opinions of various academics, community leaders and industry professionals. Evaluate the extent to which movie violence is also a gender issue. Conclude with your own evaluation of the issue. 6. Select a movie that has had two versions produced, an early original and a recent remake. (You may wish to use extracts from the movies.) Use content analysis techniques (see activity 2) to determine if the level of violence has increased. Evaluate the effectiveness of the remake, with the findings of your analysis in mind.

PRODUCTION TASK Choose one of the following production projects: 7. Imagine you are preparing a research project for the Office of Film and Literature Classification (see page 111). Conduct a community perceptions research survey of a group of people in your school community. You will need variation in age groups and gender balance. Devise several survey questions designed to find out the participants’ views on screen violence and its effects on the committing of violence. Collate the results and present them as percentages. Evaluate the extent to which current movie classifications reflect the community perceptions shown in your survey. 8. Produce a five-minute mini-documentary or current affairs program dealing with the debate about the effects of screen violence. Your program should include interviews or panel discussions and extracts from case study movies.

Do advertisements really work? ‘Advertising is much less powerful than advertisers and critics of advertising claim, and advertising agencies are stabbing in the dark much more than they are practising precision microsurgery on the public consciousness.’ Michael Schudson, Department of Communications, University of California, San Diego

behaviour have been developed. Only a quarter of the money is wasted now, claims Ian Elliott, manager of George Patterson Bates, yet the problem remains: how to know which quarter?

Market research Will they watch?

MEDIA

‘I know half the money I spend on advertising is wasted,’ observed Lord Lever of Lever Brothers, the detergent manufacturers, ‘but which half?’ Since Lever’s famous comment in the 1920s, things have improved. Sophisticated research techniques and models of consumer

Of course, an advertisement must be seen before there is any communication. The television viewer is not waiting breathlessly to see the commercials. Generally the audience couldn’t care less — and may have better things to do.


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About 1 per cent of the advertising budget goes into testing whether or not the advertisement appeals to its target audience. The most popular method is through focus group discussion. A group of people is assembled to represent the target market. They are shown the test commercial amongst a ‘clutter reel’ of various other ads. This is done to see if the ad can cut through the clutter. Afterwards the group discusses how they feel about the ad. Another test method is to use a small meter to monitor audience approval or disapproval. The respondents move a small dial on the meter to register approval or disapproval while the commercial is being shown.

Has it boosted sales? Many factors can influence the sales of products, but most manufacturers believe that advertising is an important determinant, so they encourage market research into the effects on sales. This is done in several ways, including: • Consumer interviews. A sample group of consumers is asked questions about their purchases. The same group is surveyed again after the advertisements have been shown. • Stock on the shelves. Quantities of stock on store shelves are noted before the advertising campaign begins and again after it has finished. • Test markets. An advertising campaign may be conducted in one city and not in another. Consumer purchases in the two markets can then be compared to determine the effects on sales.

ROI Return on investment (ROI) is an idea developed by the advertising agencies to prove to the accountants of their client companies that their advertising dollars are well spent. ROI measures the contribution of advertising to the strength of the business. It is usually measured in two parts: • Short-term ROI. Short-term return on investment is measured by changes in sales volume and market share. • Long-term ROI. Long-term return on investment includes a measure of the long-term reputation of the brand, consumer involvement with the brand and the level of trust the brand generates.

Linear or ‘effects’ models Developing at the same time as the effects tradition in media research (see page 156), linear models of advertising effectiveness followed the same direct effects pattern of thinking. These theories regarded the advertisement as powerful and the consumer as a target or even a victim.

While linear models do not effectively explain much consumer behaviour, they work well for products for which there is a clear relationship between an ad and a purchase. Traditional sales advertising or quick discount ads show that some ads definitely work to increase sales. Linear models assume the following: • Rational consumers. The consumer is thought of as a logical and clear-thinking person who has the time to gather information and explore a range of choices before buying. • Hypodermic injection. The models assume that all the advertiser has to do is ‘inject’ (see page 157) believable and memorable messages and consumers will go out there and buy their products. • Context not counted. Linear models have tended to ignore the context of an ad. Context means the environment in which consumers see an ad, such as at home, where there may be family, work or other pressures. Context also means the clutter of other ads vying for their attention and how all these somehow work together.

Starch model Daniel Starch developed an approach to measuring the effectiveness of ads in the 1920s. He believed there was a sequence of steps the consumer had to go through before an ad could lead to sales: 1. Recognition. Starch saw recognition as occurring on three possible levels of attentiveness. He devised a test that asked whether consumers ‘noted’ an ad, whether they ‘associated’ it with previous sightings, and finally whether they ‘read’ it in depth. The Starch test was widely used from 1923 until the 1960s. 2. Recall. Storage of the commercial in the long-term memory means it can be recalled when prompted. This idea of recall is very important to television advertisers. 3. Persuasion. In order to persuade, a commercial has to affect people’s attitudes. 4. Purchase behaviour. At the point of sale, the advertisement is recalled and acted upon.

AIDA model The AIDA model was developed at the start of the twentieth century, but it did not become popular with advertisers until the 1940s. It was refined by Michael Ray in 1974. The model proposes four steps (combining the first letter of each produces the acronym AIDA): 1. Attention. Advertisers must first gain the consumer’s attention by ‘injecting’ an interesting message.

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2. Interest. The consumer has to be interested enough to begin some sort of thought process — either replaying the ad in their head or pondering its meaning. 3. Desire. The instincts of lust and possessiveness must be awakened to arouse a desire to purchase. 4. Action. The consumer purchases the product.

A ction D esire

For example, an ad aimed at changing the drinking behaviour of teenagers may first work on convincing parents, teachers and older friends of teenagers. The hope is that these people will be able to influence the main target group. Social networking groups popular in the 2000s have reawakened advertisers’ interest in the two-step flow theory. Advertisers see that the choice of consumer goods that group members make can be a part of their identity. The choices of the opinion leader are given greater importance and are often copied by others in the social network. Women’s fashion advertisers have become especially interested in the two-step flow model as applied to social networks.

I nterest A ttention Figure 9.13: 4HE !)$! MODEL WAS POPULAR FROM THE S UNTIL THE MID S %ARLY EXAMPLES REPRESENTED THE MODEL AS A SET OF RISING STEPS ,ATER REPRESENTATIONS USED A HIERARCHY

DAGMAR model DAGMAR, an acronym for Defining Advertising Goals of Measured Advertising Results, was developed in 1961 by Russell Colley. According to this model, to get a sale, an advertiser must carry the consumer through the four stages of DAGMAR: 1. Awareness. The ad must build consumer awareness, since no-one can buy a product they do not know about. 2. Comprehension. The consumer understand the product benefits.

must

3. Conviction. The consumer must be convinced that this product is the one to buy. Conviction matches consumer needs with the promise of satisfaction from the product. In DAGMAR the desire stage in AIDA is replaced with a more rational belief. 4. Action. The final step, the purchase, is not controlled by the advertiser.

Two-step flow

MEDIA

The two-step flow model of communication (see page 158) is often used in advertising. It suggests that opinion leaders and respected friends influence others to make buying decisions. So advertisers need to persuade these persuaders in the community. The two-step flow model is often used by advertisers in campaigns aimed at changing public opinion.

Figure 9.14: 4HE !USTRALIAN !)$3 AWARENESS CAMPAIGN USED IMAGES OF A DECOMPOSING kGRIM REAPERl MOWING DOWN INNOCENT FAMILIES IN A SMOKE üLLED BOWLING ALLEY OF DEATH 4HE IMAGES WERE SO FRIGHTENING THAT MANY CAN STILL REMEMBER THEM TODAY 4HE AD GENERATED A PER CENT INCREASE IN NEWSPAPER DISCUSSION OF !)$3 &ROM OPINION LEADERS TWO STEP ČOW EFFECTS WOULD NATURALLY FOLLOW !N UNPRECEDENTED PER CENT OF SURVEYED VIEWERS AT THE TIME COULD RECALL THE AD


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Attitude measurement In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as cultivation studies became popular in media research (see page 159), advertisers began to question models that claimed ads directly led to sales. Instead of looking for shortterm results, they looked at how advertising changed attitudes over the long term. Advertising was seen as a way of building beliefs and attitudes about products that might not translate into sales until much further down the track. This model can be thought of as cultivation studies applied to advertising. Attitude research, like cultivation studies, uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods (see page 152). Questionnaires and focus groups measure what attitudes the consumer has before seeing the ads. These attitudes are measured again after the campaign.

Later researchers have taken the view that commercials are just one influence among a host of others. They have also acknowledged a greater role for audience intelligence and expertise. Some academics, such as John Corner, question whether people pay serious attention to advertisements. If they don’t, the power of advertisements would be less than that of the mainstream programming. In twenty-first-century society, people, especially young people, often enjoy advertisements for their entertainment value. Some may collect favourite commercials and some even enjoy them as ‘art forms’. Yet they may have no intention of buying the product. This has led some academics to conclude that advertising has very little effect in the short term. Sean Brierley of Liverpool’s John Moores University sees two strands in the later approaches to advertising effectiveness.

Involvement models

Figure 9.15: "Y THE 6OLVO BRAND IMAGE IN !USTRALIA WAS THE WORST IN ANY MARKET IN THE WORLD .O OTHER COUNTRY WAS AS DOWN ON 6OLVOS AS !USTRALIA WAS 4HE 6OLVO IMAGE WAS OF BORING SAFE AND BOXY CARS DRIVEN BY UNSAFE AND UNPREDICTABLE ELDERLY DRIVERS )T HAD GOT SO BAD THAT THE COMPANY WAS THINKING OF PULLING OUT OF !USTRALIA AND SO IT DECIDED ON A LAST DITCH AD CAMPAIGN TO CHANGE ATTITUDES 3AID 'LEN &RASER OF AD AGENCY %URO 23#' k7E WERE ADDRESSING A MENTAL PROBLEM NOT A METAL PROBLEMl &OLLOWING THE CAMPAIGN PER CENT OF PEOPLE RECOGNISED THE k"LOODY 6OLVO $RIVERl TAGLINE 4HERE WAS A SIMILAR INCREASE OF PER CENT IN THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE PREPARED TO CHANGE ATTITUDES AND CONSIDER BUYING A 6OLVO 4OTAL SALES HAD INCREASED PER CENT BY

Reception/constructivist theories Reception or constructivist theories of advertising developed in the 1970s and gathered strength in the 1980s and 1990s. Like reception theories in mainstream media research, the modern advertising industry approach saw the audience as being much more powerful than was first thought. The newer approaches did not see consumers as victims. Instead, they saw the audience as being in control and using ads to suit themselves.

Involvement or engagement approaches to advertising seek to involve the audience in using the ad and the product to meet some sort of want or need. ‘This does not have to be a practical need but it could be an emotional need,’ says UK ad researcher Terry Prue. Consumers are not seen as empty and passive. The aim of the ad is to get a response from the viewer, rather than necessarily injecting a particular message. The response will depend on the life circumstances of the viewer. In the involvement and engagement models, ads work in five ways: 1. Familiarising consumers 2. Reminding consumers who already know 3. Spreading news 4. Overcoming inertia 5. Adding a value not in the product (e.g. romance to chocolate).

Cultural models Cultural models of ad effectiveness aim to study the ways in which people incorporate a product into their everyday culture and use it to create a sense of personal identity. These approaches use techniques of observation and interview to see how membership of a culture or subculture affects people’s response to advertising, says Sean Brierley. There may be no strong connection between liking an ad and buying the product. However, advertisers try to make their brand part of the consumer’s culture or identity. Examples of this approach include ads for iPods and ads for Coke that are inserted into video games such as World of Warcraft.

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Consumers had stalled at the comprehension stage and baulked at conviction. Coke drinkers were active decision makers who were not going to be duped.

The Ford Edsel

Figure 9.16: A glowing neon billboard for Axe deodorant inserted into the Ubisoft game Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory. Cultural models of ad effectiveness study how ads can be incorporated into cultural activities and rituals such as game playing or courting traditions. For example, ads for chocolate or roses on Valentine's Day have been successful with this approach.

Famous flops reception theories reinforced Advertising executives turn pale when mention is made of the following great marketing failures. Flops prove that there is no such thing as direct effects in advertising. Just because you spend the money and people see the ads doesn t mean they will buy your product. Flops tend to reinforce the reception models. Audiences have the power to make their own meanings.

The Ford Edsel (1957 59) was marketing s greatest failure until New Coke came along. The car was named after Henry Ford s son. Wanting to compete with General Motors, Ford introduced the Edsel as a car packed with futuristic innovations. Nearly $2.7 billion was spent on the development of the car and its promotion. A TV show was sponsored by Edsel. The car was hyped as having more YOU ideas . Ads showed only tantalising glimpses of the car. Each car came to the dealers totally gift wrapped. Yet for all the marketing hype, the public didn t want it and refused to buy it. Its futuristic innovations were not crowd pleasers. For example, its automatic gearbox was operated by selecting buttons on the steering wheel. Customers were angered that they would go to honk the horn and would instead find themselves changing gear! Fewer than half the estimated numbers of the car were sold, and by the end they were going for giveaway prices. Ford canned the car in 1959, having sustained one of the biggest losses in motoring history. While the advertisers had stepped car buyers through the first two stages of the AIDA model (see page 175), they had not created desire, and so consumers walked away from action.

New Coke

media

In the 1970s Pepsi introduced the Pepsi Challenge in which consumers gave Coca-Cola and Pepsi a blind taste test. Horrified Coke executives watched as people consistently favoured the sweeter taste of Pepsi. After decades of watching Pepsi gradually increase its market share, Coke decided to act. It changed its formula and with a huge advertising campaign introduced New Coke in 1985 with the slogan The best just got better . Production of the original Coke was stopped a few days later. Despite spending millions of dollars in advertising, the company experienced a massive consumer backlash. People boycotted the product, outraged that their favourite drink had been taken away from them. Analysts suggest that the Coke campaign had not understood the emotional attachment that people feel for the drink. Instead executives had been fooled by people s response to blind taste tests. Emotional attachment, not taste, had been the real key to the success of the brand. Pepsi chief Roger Enrico called New Coke the Edsel of the 80s . The New Coke ads had failed to take the public through the stages of DAGMAR (see page 176).

Figure 9.17: The Ford Edsel was the biggest failure in advertising history until New Coke. So famous is the Edsel that it has now entered popular culture. Many movies and television shows feature the car as a kind of ‘in joke’. In Psycho (1960), Marion bypasses the Edsel to choose another car in the used car lot. The car appears in Pee Wee’s Big Adventure (1985) and on a billboard in Back to the Future II (1989). The story of the car’s failure is echoed in an episode of the Simpsons titled ‘Oh, Brother Where Art Thou’ when Homer Simpson designs his own car called the ‘Homer’.

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Famous successes — effects theories reinforced The following examples are held up as great advertising successes. They show that advertisers must be on to something when they spend all that money. Such success stories tend to reinforce the effects models. They suggest there is a reasonably clear connection between advertising and sales.

Diamonds are forever Advertising by the De Beers diamond mining syndicate convinced the world that diamonds are a symbol of eternal love. Starting in 1948, the campaign used product placement in magazines and movies, celebrity endorsements and Formula One racing sponsorship to sell this idea. Since De Beers control most of the world’s diamond production, they could advertise diamonds generally and still reap huge profits — they did not even have to mention the brand! The advertising slogan aimed at preventing a market in secondhand diamonds that would compete with the market for original diamonds fresh from De Beers mines in Africa. De Beers could keep prices

high without competition. Women were to be encouraged to keep their diamonds forever. The slogan has now entered the popular imagination. Cultivation theorists would be proud of the De Beers campaign because attitudes were not only successfully changed — they were, it seems, changed permanently. Their slogan has even become a James Bond fi lm.

Nike: ‘Just do it’ Since its launch in 1988 Nike’s ‘Just do it’ campaign and its ‘Swoosh’ logo have become recognisable worldwide. With this $300 million campaign Nike increased its market share from 18 per cent to 43 per cent, and by 1998 its profits had increased nearly tenfold to $9 billion. The ads rarely focused on the product but instead relied on humour and celebrity endorsement. Athletes such as Michel Jordan made the connection in the consumer’s mind between the shoes and sporting heroism. Running was no longer a sweaty and timeconsuming exercise; Nike ads had made it cool and exciting. The Nike campaign is an example of successful application of the principles of DAGMAR.

Activities 1. Research into whether or not people remember

television advertisements often begins with telephone calls to a sample group of people. Interviewers ring during the evening and ask questions such as, ‘Thinking about the very last commercial that was shown just before I called, can you tell me what product was being advertised?’ The interviewer scores an answer as correct if the person recalls any of the brands or companies in the last cluster of commercials aired before the call. In the past 30 years the proportion of people who remember the advertisements has dropped from 18 per cent to 7 per cent. Try this research experiment with your class. Watch a commercial television program, stop the program sometime after an advertisement break and then answer the question posed by the television interviewer in the paragraph above. Convert the results to percentages. 2. Using either the AIDA model or the DAGMAR model of advertising effectiveness, survey class members for a chosen ad aimed at a youth audience. Did the ad put them through all the steps including purchase? Write a short report on the results. 3. Using your own or a classmate’s personal experience, explain how two-step flow theory might work on social networking sites on the internet for

a chosen product. Discuss whether it actually has worked that way in your experience.

WRITTEN TASK 4. In a mini case study of approximately 600 words,

research and report on some other great successes and failures of advertising. Apply one of the models of advertising effectiveness to your chosen campaign as a means of evaluating its success (or otherwise). Suggestions for successes include: the 1959 American campaign for Volkswagen (always in the top 100 campaigns of all time); and the ‘C’mon Aussie C’mon’ ads for cricket. Suggestions for failures include: Sony Betamax; McDonald’s Arch Deluxe; Nintendo Virtual Boy.

PRODUCTION TASK 5. Conduct your own ethnographic survey (see

page 163) into product use as part of the rituals of membership in a subcultural group. Interview group members. Clothing, drinks, accessories or music devices are possible choices of product. Talk to them about how they use the product and record their responses. Prepare a report on your findings that also makes recommendations for possible advertising campaigns.

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Effects of playing video games ‘Children have shown that when they’re playing games they’re capable of incredible levels of strategy and thinking, far more than when they’re in school.’ Nicola Yelland, Senior Lecturer in Early Childhood Studies, Queensland University of Technology

Video games are different from traditional media because the player ‘interacts’ with a game. The player is directly involved in the gameplay. The indiv idual’s choices influence the outcome of the game. It is unclear whether interactivity heightens the effects of video games. In addition, the wide range of game types makes any single conclusion difficult. There have been few conclusive studies into video game audience effects. Completed studies are often outdated owing to the rapid rate of game development. Many groups, including religious, family and parent organisations as well as some politicians, educators and psychologists, have raised concerns about the effects of video games.

The main concerns

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The Australian Office of Film and Literature Classification commissioned a review of literature on video games. The author of the report, Kevin Durkin, summarised the concerns that many hold about games. These included: • Aggression. Do video games foster antisocial and aggressive behaviour through the glorification of violence and the use of force as a problem-solving device? • Addiction. Are video games additive? Is video game playing substituting for involvement in other more desirable activities such as sports, reading and homework? Does the time-consuming nature of play impair family life? • Isolation and non-social behaviour. Do games inhibit social development through the non-social nature of the activity? • Physical effects. Are they a health hazard? Do they cause eye, hand, back or other physical damage, including epilepsy? In one high-profi le case, Detroit Tigers baseball pitcher Joel Zumaya injured his arm playing Guitar Hero, forcing him to miss the entire 2006 league series! Many of these concerns are similar to those raised when television, radio and cinema were introduced. Even after decades of study, the issue of whether the media influence the viewer remains a complex one.

Positive effects of video games Researchers have found positive benefits from gameplay. These include the confrontation of challenges and the desire to test one’s skills. Researchers found that games encourage the use of technology, alleviating fear of computers in a recreational manner; enhance educational progress; and improve hand–eye coordination. A study conducted by Dr Tony Liddicoat, head of the Department of Languages at the Australian National University, has found that playing video games involves complex skills. ‘Game playing requires the user to process input from a variety of sources (graphics, text, sound, etc.), synthesising this input, and then building a problem-solving response in order to cope with the challenges posed by a particular videogame.’ Dr Liddicoat believes that playing video games helps to develop strategic problem-solving skills, enhances high-speed recognition, and increases the ability to rapidly process language and numeric data. Players have to learn to solve problems fast, test hypotheses and decode puzzles. Patricia Greenwood, a psychology professor at UCLA, has studied the relationship between video games and intelligence. Her research attributes an increase in worldwide ‘nonverbal IQ’ to the spread of video games. She defi nes nonverbal IQ as spatial skills, the use of icons for problem solving and the ability to understand things from multiple viewpoints. Dr Liddicoat’s study also found that video games tend to promote regular learning as players practise their skills and take on the game’s challenge to reach the next level. Some studies have even shown that children who play video games do better at school than their peers! One study found that children, through their exposure to video games as well as other media, developed the ability to process lots of sound and image information simultaneously. A theatre screening two fi lms at once was fi lled with both children and adults. Most adults were unable to cope and had to leave the theatre. The children meanwhile were able to watch all of the presentation and answer questions on both fi lms. Many children even noted similarities between the fi lms. The researchers reported, ‘you could have added a third fi lm, or even a fourth, and the kids would have kept up’. However, some research suggests this is primarily due to changes in brain function as people age. In other words, your grandparents would have been able to do this at your age!


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Potential negative effects of video games Are games addictive? One of the major criticisms levelled against video games is that they are ‘addictive’. Steven Pace, senior multimedia lecturer at Central Queensland University, found that games can distort players’ sense of time, making them forget essentials such as eating. One Korean Starcarft player died after playing in an internet café for 50 hours without a break, while a Chinese girl starved to death after playing World of Warcraft continuously. The Chinese government has regulated to limit the number of consecutive game hours played to three. Studies in the United States have found that while games are popular among the young, actual time spent playing games is low compared with other leisure activities. Playing games becomes a priority for some in the same way that watching television, playing music or playing sport does for others. However, cases of addictions have been reported. ‘I have seen a steady increase in the number of computer game addicts,’ states clinical psychologist Jo Lamble. ‘Gamers report they feel much calmer when they are playing and feel euphoric when they win. Playing the games sets up a series of patterns, habits and routines that are addictive in the same way drugs are.’ Many of the addictions that have been reported have been transitory cases in which the addiction is short-lived.

‘It seems that the answer lies in the extent to which your game playing affects other aspects of your life. If your grades are slipping, if you’ve lost a job because of your preoccupation with gaming, if you’re constantly tired from lack of sleep due to gaming, if you never have a meal that isn’t delivered to your door in a red car with a sign on top, if you like yourself more as your RPG character than in face-to-face interactions, you might want to take a look at the effect that your game playing is having on your life.’ Dr Kathyrn Wright, game audience researcher

Addiction refers to a situation in which the lack of an addictive substance denies the body an essential component without which it can’t properly function physiologically or psychologically. Game addiction is usually a sign of an immense love for the media form, a lack of other activities in which to engage or inadequate social skills. Analysts suggest these symptoms are not caused by video games. Instead, the symptoms are possibly worsened by the games and by the lack of social contact that comes with their play.

‘So far research has simply suggested that at most, people are becoming addicted to games, not that games themselves are actually responsible for addicting people,’ writes researcher Neils Clark. Games can lead to social isolation in the real world while the player is socialising with online ‘friends’. Critics argue that developing online socialisation skills risks missing the human and nonverbal interaction skills learned in the real world.

Do video games promote violence and antisocial behaviour? Researchers have raised concerns that games with high violence content may promote aggressive attitudes and behaviour in players. Sissella Bok, in her book Mayhem, writes that young people’s lives are saturated with graphic violence in a way that’s different and more dangerous than in previous generations. Author and technologist Mark Pesce is worried about the way games such as Quake detach violence from the usual moral universe that surrounds it. ‘There are few limits and no consequences,’ says Pesce, from the University of Sydney. Children rated themselves with increased aggression after playing violent video games, according to studies undertaken in 2005 by Jessica Nicoll and Kevin M. Kieffer for the American Psychological Association. In the study, 600 eighth- and ninthgrade violent video game players were rated by their teachers as being more hostile than their peers.

‘We have movie role models showing violence as fun, and videogames where you kill, and get rewarded for killing, for hours and hours. It is a very combustible mix, enraged young people with access to semiautomatic weapons, exposed to violence as entertainment, violence shown as exciting and thrilling.’ Sissella Bok, author, Mayhem (1999)

Associate professor and former army lieutenant David Grossman believes that violent video games are ‘murder simulators’ that help break down the natural inhibitions we have against killing. He says that the American military uses first-person shooter games to improve ‘fire-rates’, encouraging soldiers to pull the trigger more readily. Only 20 per cent of US combat soldiers in World War II fired their weapons at the enemy; by the Vietnam War the military had pushed up this rate to 95 per cent, in part through the use of simulations designed to make shooting at humans more routine and ‘normal’. Critics of game violence argue that playing violent video games can cause a lack of empathy for real-world victims.

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person spends playing games, and aggression. There appeared to be either a slight tendency for more aggressive children to play more games, or for games to promote a small rise in aggression for high-frequency players. A 1996 study found aggressive content in films had a greater impact than violence in video games. Video game players were found to be more interested in winning than concentrating on the violent aspects of the games. However, games have changed considerably since then. Dr Jeanne Funk’s research shows that players who prefer games with a lot of violence are more likely to be withdrawn rather than aggressive.

Identification Figure 9.18: 6IOLENT VIDEO GAMES CAN ACT AS kMURDER SIMULATORSl ACCORDING TO ONE CRITIC 4HE 53 !RMY USES GAMES TO TRAIN ITS SOLDIERS TO üRE MORE READILY

Dr Jeanne Funk, a psychologist at the University of Toledo, believes that the main argument against this theory is that of ‘skill-transfer’. ‘There’s a tremendous difference between clicking a mouse in Half-Life and hefting a real eight-pound shotgun.’ Barry Steinhardt, associate director of the American Civil Liberties Union, has found ‘no substantial social-science evidence that shows that entertainment causes violence. The people who commit violence should be held accountable, not the entertainment industry’. Henry Jenkins, a humanities professor at MIT, says, ‘research shows us only that violent play leads to more violent play’. The effects have not been demonstrated outside the realm of ‘play’ in the real world.

Identification occurs when there is intense and close involvement with a particular character or character type. A player may wish to actually become their character, leading to unconscious copying of the character’s actions or adoption of their beliefs. In his study, Kevin Durkin explains: ‘Players enter new and absorbing, simulated environments in which successful performance demands total concentration on the actions, circumstances and potentialities of a particular entity. Given that some of the “star” characters will have violent, often lethal, capacities, the processes and consequences of identification merit careful attention.’

Catharsis ‘A video game where you pretend to beat someone up is probably preferable to actually beating someone up in the backyard.’ Professor Henry Jenkins, Director of Comparative Studies, MIT

‘It’s true that young offenders who have committed school shootings in America have also been game players. But young people in general are more likely to be gamers — 90 per cent of boys and 40 per cent of girls play. The overwhelming majority of kids who play do NOT commit antisocial acts. According to a 2001 U.S. Surgeon General’s report, the strongest risk factors for school shootings centred on mental stability and the quality of home life, not media exposure.’ Professor Henry Jenkins, Director of Comparative Studies, MIT

MEDIA

Video game researcher Kevin Durkin found that in the few studies conducted on this topic, there were small correlations between the amount of time a

Catharsis occurs when the expression of aggressive feelings can discharge built-up aggression. Some say this can lead to a reduced desire for violence. Using video games, a player can release aggressive feelings through simulated violence. Consequently gameplay may reduce the need for violence. Many game players talk about feeling ‘drained’ after playing games. Catharsis has not been comprehensively researched and this conclusion remains theoretical. Some researchers are worried that the cathartic effect of a game may actually intensify the relationship between the release of tension and aggression. Researchers and psychologists Craig Anderson and Karen E. Dill speculate that game violence influences behaviour, not by inciting aggressive feelings, but by teaching only aggressive solutions to problems.


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Activities 1. After playing violent video games, do you feel more

or less aggressive? After a long session of shooting, sniping, fighting, stealing and destroying, what emotions do you feel for the hour afterwards? How is that different from your feelings before the game? Chart the results across the class to see whether there are any similarities. 2. What benefits do you think can be derived from playing video games? What aspects could you add to the games to make them more positive?

WRITTEN TASK 3. Report on one aspect of the effects of video games

based on several recent studies in the field. Evaluate the findings of each study in relation to your own personal experience of game playing or your perception of its effects on people you know. Finish with a statement about the degree to which the research findings seem to support a conclusion.

Positive and negative media effects The media can have both positive and negative effects on both individuals and society as a whole.

How the media affect us The media affect us on three different levels.

Knowledge and thought The media have an effect on our thinking processes and the nature of the information we learn. This is called a cognitive effect. It is the least studied effect of the media because it is very difficult to measure. Watching the news may produce a change in our cognitive processes. However, watching entertainment programs can have the same effect.

Behavioural effects The media can affect our behaviour, but numerous studies have failed to fi nd a direct cause–effect link. It seems the process is much more complicated and difficult to measure. By affecting our thoughts, the media inevitably affect our behaviour — it’s just not clear how. Behavioural effects can be seen only through observable actions.

Emotional effects Media consumption can affect attitudes and moods. For instance, watching a horror movie induces fear, while watching an action movie can be exhilarating. Emotional effects can be felt in society as well as at an individual level. Group attitudes towards something are an emotional effect.

Types of effects Media effects can be positive or negative — pro-social or antisocial. Antisocial effects are against the best

interests of society and individuals. Examples include increases in aggressive or selfish behaviour. Prosocial effects promote the best interests of society and individuals. Examples are the promotion of donations after a disaster or increasing interest in environmental sustainability. Numerous studies have looked at the size of these antisocial and pro-social effects. Hearold (1986) and Paik and Comstock (1994) are examples. Hearold has found the pro-social effects are slightly stronger than the antisocial effects. Examples of studies focusing particularly on the estimated size of effects on antisocial behaviour include Wood, Wong and Chachere (1991) and Hogben (1998). Social psychologist William McGuire has listed the main categories of effects as follows: • Advertising effects. The effect of advertising on consumer behaviour and on the consumerist nature of society as a whole is significant. • Political effects. The media affect voting patterns in the community. Examples include political advertising and the political impact of news construction. • Community service effects. Various community campaigns are conducted by the media aimed at improving standards of personal and social behaviour. Examples include road safety campaigns or anti-smoking advertisements. • Social values effects. Social values spread through the participation of the media in particular discourses are a powerful effect of the media. These effects are wide-ranging and too numerous to list. Examples include attitudes towards consumerism, individualism and acceptable teenage social behaviour. Media discourses have a powerful effect on the ways meaning is made in a society.

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• Social control. The media have an effect on all the controls society places on individuals. The media influence court systems, police behaviour, parental control, school regulations and a host of other social controls. • Violence and aggression. The effect of the media on the level of aggression in individuals and society is one of the most studied media effects. Denis McQuail, an academic who specialises in media audience studies, lists the following additional media effects: • Spreading knowledge. The media have an impact on the way knowledge is learned and distributed throughout society. Consider, for instance, how much everyone learns from television and the internet. If these media were taken away, there would be a dramatic drop in knowledge levels across society. • Spreading change. McQuail says the media provide the main way that social change spreads in a modern society. Today transmission is very rapid. Consider how quickly the media spread changes in music and fashion from leading cities to small country towns. • Spreading norms. The media tell us what is normal and accepted behaviour in all sorts of areas of life. They have this effect on everyone, from early childhood to old age. The media have powerful socialising effects.

Media and change According to Denis McQuail, media effects can: 1. create intended consequences, such as when an advertising campaign succeeds. 2. create unintended consequences, such as occurred following Orson Welles’ War of the Worlds radio broadcast in 1938. Some of these effects can be more powerful than intended effects. 3. cause major or minor change. The civil rights movement, feminism and the anti–Vietnam War movement were all amplified by media coverage, even if other forces had actually started the changes. 4. reinforce what exists. Supporting the current situation, or status quo, is argued to be the most powerful effect of the media on society. Because ‘nothing happens’, no-one notices this dramatic example of media power.

MEDIA

5. prevent change. The media can be powerful in ‘hosing down’ pressure for change from the community. The media can also be used to restore normality after dramatic events such as natural disasters, thereby preventing social upheaval.

Examples of positive and negative effects The following selected examples of media effects can to some extent be explained by the different theories of communication.

Mobilisation in a crisis An important effect of the media is the mass mobilisation of alarm and then the emergency response that occurs in a crisis or after a disaster. A recent example is the blanket coverage of the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York on September 11, 2001. The community relies on the media because of their resources and their access to the highest levels of government. As fear grips the community, dependence on the media increases and the differences among individuals decrease for a time, says Elizabeth Perse. At these times information is limited and tightly controlled by the media. Crisis mobilisation is always a short-lived experience, but its impact seems to support the various direct effects theories of communication (see pages 156–64), suggests Perse. Some commentators refer to the mobilisation of alarm as the ‘CNN effect’. The impact of terrorism is heightened by this effect of the media. Some analysts have positioned terrorism as a function of agendasetting theory (see page 158) or contagion theory (not a widely accepted model and not covered in this text).

Manufacturing consent The media convince individuals in society to go along with the way things are — the status quo. Because the media are largely composed of big corporations, they support the existing capitalist system and the policies of western governments. Their programming and reporting ‘manufactures’ the consent of the public, says linguistics professor Noam Chomsky. This could be by flattering audiences into consumerism with lots of lifestyle programs or by news reporting that continually projects a certain world view. The process of manufacturing consent can be understood in part by referring to the cultivation theory of media communication.

Socialisation Socialisation is the process of learning the norms and values of society. The media are important socialising agents along with the family, school, peer groups and religious organisations. The media lack the personal touch of the other organisations, but they are readily accessible and always available. According to Elizabeth Perse, the media play a significant role in the acquisition of stereotypes and


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Nutrition. The media are one of the forces socialising our eating behaviour. References to food on television occur at the rate of about 10 per hour. According to a study by cultivation theorists Gerbner, Gross, Morgan and Signorielli (1981), most of these references are to snacking and non-nutritious food. Eating disorders. Some studies suggest there may be links between the media and eating disorders. Stice and Shaw (1994) showed that for a sample of university students there was a link between heavy readership of women’s magazines and eating disorders. This link was found to be made mainly through the impact of the media on body satisfaction levels, gender role stereotyping and the idealisation of certain body types.

Community service effects One of the pro-social effects of the media is shown in the promotion of community service messages, usually from government organisations or nonprofit organisations. These messages aim to prevent a behaviour from starting, to stop a behaviour or to encourage a replacement behaviour. The agenda-setting theory of media influence is often applied to community service messages. Problems and solutions concerning a particular issue are raised to the surface of public consciousness, thereby setting the issue on the community’s agenda. Examples of effective pro-social media promotions include the ‘Slip, Slop,

Slap’ campaign and later the ‘Sunsmart’ campaign. When the Sunsmart campaign began, 19 per cent of Australians wore a hat outside and 12 per cent used sunscreen. After the campaign, 29 per cent wore hats and 21 per cent used sunscreen. WA adult fruit and vegetable consumption (mean) 3.0 2.5 2.0 Serves

also ‘prime’ or activate dormant stereotypes. The stereotypes may exist in patterns of thinking that are not active until the media bring them to the surface. For example, music videos often ‘prime’ stereotyped thinking about gender roles, says Perse. Other examples include:

1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

2000

Fruit

2002

2003

Years

Vegetables

Figure 9.19: )N 7ESTERN !USTRALIA THE 'O FOR r CAMPAIGN TO PROMOTE HEALTHY EATING OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES WAS SO SUCCESSFUL IT BECAME A NATIONAL CAMPAIGN 4HE CAMPAIGN BEGAN IN AND LED TO A SIGNIüCANT INCREASE IN CONSUMPTION OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES

Activities Investigate either a positive or a negative media effect in detail using some of the studies listed above as a starting point. Evaluate the evidence from several studies and form your own opinion about the strength of the effect.

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Social values and discourses

Texts and contexts Actors’ hairstyles are perhaps not the most important thing to notice in a movie, but even hair can tell you something. Have you ever watched three or four movies set in the same time period but made in different decades? Often the hairstyles relate more to the decade in which the movie was made than to the period in which it is set. For example, you can expect to fi nd actors in a western made in the 1970s sporting 1970s hairstyles and slightly flared trousers, even if the movie is set in 1850. The time of production is a powerful influence. It shapes the ideas, the way the story unfolds, the characters and a host of other aspects. Most people think the future will be similar to the present. Predictions are based on logical extensions of trends seen in the present day. However, many futurologists argue that the future will not logically follow on from the present, but will contain large elements of the irrational and unexpected. Yet it seems magazine writers and movie makers cannot help falling into the trap of basing the future on the present. Figure 10.1: *OHN 7AYNE IS A CLEAN CUT SHORT

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BACK AND SIDES HERO IN THE WESTERN 7AR OF THE 7ILDCATS 4HE HAIRSTYLES AND CLOTHES REČECT THE TIME OF PRODUCTION ALMOST REGARDLESS OF THE !MERICAN FRONTIER SETTING


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Visions of a future world have featured in movies and fi lled the pages of technical magazines since the days of Jules Verne. Having now arrived at what was once the distant future, we can see that some of these images really tell us more about the time of production than about the future. The time of production is an influence irrespective of the setting, because the image must appeal to the audience of the time. Designs have to suit audience tastes.

Context When the time of production, language, nationality, organisation, government regulations and all other factors of a production environment are combined, they create what is called the context. Context refers to all the natural, cultural and social aspects of an environment that help shape the fi nal meaning of a text. Any media text is very much a part of its context.

The influence of natural aspects Figure 10.2: 4HE CHARACTERS IN "UTCH #ASSIDY AND THE 3UNDANCE +ID WEAR THEIR HAIR TO SUIT THE HIPPIE ERA EVEN THOUGH THE SETTING REMAINS THE SAME !MERICAN FRONTIER PREVIOUSLY INHABITED BY *OHN 7AYNElS S HAIRSTYLE

Natural aspects of a context include the geographical and landscape factors at play in the development of a particular setting. However, the natural aspects of a contextual environment are difficult to separate from

Figure 10.3: !ERIAL WARFARE IN THE FUTURE SEEN FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 4HE REAL FUTURE OF AERIAL WARFARE TURNED OUT TO BE QUITE DIFFERENT

3OCIAL VALUES AND DISCOURSES

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the cultural aspects. What makes England England, for example? Is it the weather? Is it the separation from Europe by the English Channel? Or is it the language and culture? Natural and cultural aspects of context are usually regarded as integrated. The intersection of the two is difficult to identify and almost impossible to analyse as separate elements. Consider a western movie such as Unforgiven (1992). An aspect of the context in this western, as in all others, is the natural geography of the United States. There had to be a ‘west’ in the first place, it had to be habitable, and it had to support certain types of agriculture. These natural elements of the context excluded Australia (whose ‘west’ is largely barren), New Zealand or Britain. The natural aspects of the American environment integrated with certain cultural aspects, and the western genre became possible.

Cultural context The cultural aspects of a context include language, history, values and beliefs, the economic system, technology, and the customs of a particular community or civilisation. Again, using the western as an example, the cultural context of production might include the English language, a transplanted European civilisation, a frontier history, a capitalist economy, a certain ‘American state of mind’, cinema technology and a place called Hollywood.

Social context The social context describes the social interactions of people around a particular text. For example, the social context of the Nine Network television news includes the Nine Network’s work relations, its views of news, the way it organises its journalists and the way it targets the audience. On the audience side, the social context includes audience members themselves, what they do when watching the news and their individual ways of relating to the Nine Network news. Within the cultural context, the social context of a media product includes the nature of the individuals who are communicating as well as the medium they choose to communicate through. For example, the Nine Network chooses television, rather than a newspaper, to communicate its news because it is a television station! It is not primarily because Nine happens to have an Australian cultural context. The factors making up the social context may be described in three different ways.

MEDIA

Subject matter. The subject matter (field) may form part of the social context. The subject matter is the knowledge content of the communication. It tells us who did what to whom and in what circumstances. There is no doubt that the subject matter helps determine the shape of the text. Consider human

relationships and sexuality as subject matter. Whether in a music video clip, a news story or a magazine article, such subject matter is sensitive and, as a consequence, community values and government regulations come into play. So no matter what genre or medium is chosen, the taboos of the subject matter help determine the look of the finished product. The media are thought to be ruled by fashion, yet media genres deal with subject matter that does not age quickly. Soap operas deal with family troubles and crime dramas deal with threats to law and order. Horror movies play on our recurring fascination with the supernatural and our age-old anxieties about death. These are eternal concerns. Roles and relationships. The roles and relationships (tenor) between producers and the audience give meaning to a communication. Media products are produced and consumed by people who exist within one culture but form different social groups, and who all have slightly different ways of relating. Producers belonging to one social group may want to communicate certain points of view. Audience members in another group may derive slightly different meanings. Gender, race and class factors also have an impact. Likewise, producers and audiences may have varying relationships. For example, FM radio hosts have a different relationship with their audience than do AM hosts. Prisoners watching crime dramas have a very different relationship to the story compared with their warders! Mode and medium. The mode and medium, or form, of the communication is another contextual factor that shapes its meaning. The mode may be spoken, written, visual, nonverbal or auditory. The medium may be television, radio and so on. A radio broadcast will be different from an internet home page, no matter what roles and relationships exist and irrespective of the subject matter.

Media texts The products of the media are often referred to as texts. The term can loosely include any sequence of communication, such as a music video, a radio broadcast or an internet home page. Texts have the following features: • A text is a unit of meaning that is complete in some way. A sequence of meaning, or a story, is the most common media text. News stories, television soap operas and movies are sequenced narratives in which the meanings systematically relate to one another — there is a start, a middle and a finish. However, a single image such as a poster could also be a text, since it is complete in itself.


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Cultural context

• Media texts are said to be ‘constructed’ rather than natural. They come with discourses that have attitudes, interpretations and conclusions already built in. This is inevitable, because they come from particular contexts. Institutions such as commercial television stations may have constructed the text, and the text may have been aimed at a certain audience, such as 18- to 39-year-olds. The combination of these factors means that a point of view is always present, even in seemingly neutral texts such as news stories.

Social context

Text meaning Realised through five kinds of text: • spoken • written • nonverbal • visual • auditory.

Critical literacy and media texts

Figure 10.4: ! MEDIA TEXT SUCH AS A DOWNLOADED MUSIC VIDEO COMES OUT OF A SOCIAL CONTEXT 0ERHAPS THE PRODUCERS COME FROM A ROCK SCENE BACKGROUND WITHIN THE PROüTABLE MUSIC INDUSTRY 4HE AUDIENCE COMES FROM ANOTHER SOCIAL CONTEXT THAT MAY BE A LOCAL VARIETY OF THE ROCK SCENE OR A SUBCULTURE !LL OF THEM EXIST IN THE CULTURAL CONTEXT OF THE PRESENT WESTERN WORLD • Media texts are created through a process of selection. For example, what is finally shown on a television program is the end result of selection decisions made by the scriptwriter, producer, director, camera operator, editor and even the actors.

In its simplest terms, critical literacy means being able to read and write thoughtfully. People are critically literate if they understand how media texts work, if they understand the social and cultural contexts, and if they can also produce media texts themselves. Critical literacy requires understanding and the ability to question. A critically literate person will ask three fundamental questions of a media text: • Whose story is being told? (Whose version is presented?) • Who is being left out? • Why is it told this way? (Whose interests are being served?) Critical media literacy also comes from an understanding of the key concepts outlined later in this chapter.

Activities 1. Draw up a context map of a decade of your choice,

such as the 1960s or the 1990s or even the present day. A context map could consist of a circle, like the one used to illustrate cultural and social contexts (figure 10.4), containing the landmark features of the decade. Another example is figure 10.5, which uses the 1980s as an example.

C

o n t e xt Greed

1986 Negative gearing

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ai

1987 Stockmarket crash

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1988 Property boom

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Insider

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Figure 10.5: #ONTEXT MAP FOR THE S

When you have finished your context map, list some television programs or movies that seem to illustrate aspects of the map. For example, the movie Wall Street (1988) reflects the context of the 1980s. The movie’s main character, Gordon Gekko, uttered some of the decade’s most quotable sayings, including ‘Greed is good, greed is right, greed works’. 2. It is often easier to see aspects of context operating in children’s stories, as these are simplified to suit the target age group. The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (2005) was an adaptation of the book written by C. S. Lewis in the 1940s. It is reasonably faithful to the original and therefore largely comes from the context of the 1940s. View the film and analyse it for material that reflects World War II, the context in which it was written. Find characters who resemble Hitler, partisans and resistance fighters, the Gestapo, ‘quislings’ (a traitor who is a puppet of the enemy) and the Allies, as well as places that resemble concentration camps.


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3. Select a visual text you think is embedded in

its context in a significant way. Show excerpts of it to the class and explain the relationship to social, economic, historical or cultural trends. Suggested film texts include: Spotswood (1992, economic rationalism and corporate restructuring), Thelma and Louise (1991, feminism), Easy Rider (1969, counterculture), Strictly Ballroom (1992, multicultural society and individualism), the Batman movies (1989, 1992, 1995, 2005) and the television series from the 1960s (comparative views of crime

and ‘Gotham City’, or New York), the film 1969 (1980s, re-examination of Vietnam veterans), and Babe (1995, 1998, the institutional context of globalisation and international co-production). 4. Select a movie or television program. Decide on aspects of the context of this text that you would like to know about, but that are not clearly visible in the text itself, such as the production house, the costs of production or the salaries paid to the actors. Research these details and present your findings to the class.

Social values Figure 10.6: ! ARTICLE FROM THE !USTRALIAN 7OMENlS 7EEKLY THAT DREW A MASSIVE RESPONSE FROM THE READERSHIP 4HE EDITOR SUMMED UP BY SUGGESTING WOMEN SHOULD STAY IN THE HOME BUT MEN SHOULD MAKE THEIR PARTNERSl LIVES INTERESTING BY REVIVING COURTSHIP 3OCIAL VALUES ARE A PRODUCT OF THEIR CONTEXT AND ARE UNAVOIDABLY REČECTED IN TEXTS Social values are the belief systems and attitudes that are held throughout society and that contribute to its functioning. All human societies are built around social values, because they are connected to the way humans think and interact with one another and the world. Social values can be thought of in the following ways: • Principles and ideas. Social values are like sets of principles or ideas that are thought to be generally true and accurate about the way the world is in a particular culture. They are linked to belief systems, such as political and cultural systems, and also moral and religious structures. • Attitudes. Values contain attitudes about what is desirable or undesirable or about expected behaviours. Alternatively they can contain attitudes about what will work or won’t work or what is considered moral or immoral.

MEDIA

• Ways of behaving. Because values influence the way we think, they also influence the way a society behaves and functions.


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Examples of social values are everywhere, indicated in almost everything we say and do. We see the world and then form a value around it in order to think about it. It is very difficult to do otherwise. For instance, think of the words male and female. The words mean so much more than just simple biology; they cause us to think of a long history of attitudes and expected behaviours.

Discourses and social values Discourses are ways of thinking that are set up by the culture of the language we use (see page 192). Discourses and social values are closely linked. One leads to the other, but no-one is able to say which one came fi rst — it is like the chicken and egg story. In some senses, they are different aspects of the same thing.

Social values and power Those groups with the most power in society are usually able to promote the social values that fit in with their world view. This is because they have better access to the media, the fi nancial system, the government and the legal system. Values can be considered as belonging to one of three categories, depending on their access to power. • Dominant values are those that are most widespread in society and that support the way things are at present. Support for private enterprise and business may be seen as a dominant value in Australia today. • Oppositional values are usually held only by small groups in society and are quite different from the dominant values. Sometimes they are directly opposed to mainstream ideas. For example, the hippie counterculture in the 1960s opposed the existing mainstream values.

• Emerging values are values that are gradually gaining acceptance from a wider group of people. Often emerging values start off as oppositional ones held by a small group classed as weird or fringe. But as society changes, the values come to make sense to the majority. Feminism and environmentalism are examples of emerging values.

Positioning audiences to accept values in texts ‘Sensitive new age guys’ may wish to see men express more emotion on the television screen. They will be waiting a long time according to a study of television fiction, which has found that women characters tend to be shown in tighter close-up than men. Since the close-up allows viewers to see characters expressing emotion, the audience fi nds it harder to identify with the emotions of male characters. Texts position audiences to make certain readings. While some audience subgroups can make alternative interpretations, many texts make this difficult in all sorts of subtle ways. In the Disney fi lm The Lion King (1994), the treacherous hyenas speak in hip AfricanAmerican accents, with Whoopi Goldberg providing one of the voices. There were protests from community groups, who said children watching the fi lm might be positioned to see African Americans as streetwise, threatening and deceitful. In a similar way, British cartoons often use working-class, Cockney voices for criminals. Whether you like characters or dislike them can also be a way of positioning the audience. Characters with major roles are more likely to carry the audience along with the beliefs of the text. For example, in traditional cowboys-and-Indians fi lms, it can be difficult to make a pro-Indian reading, since Indians appear only as minor characters and extras. The fi lms position us to accept that ‘the only good Indian is a dead Indian’.

Activities 1. Look at the picture and text in figure 10.6. It is

impossible to view this today the way it would have been seen in 1959, but the number of letters the magazine received indicates that it was a hot topic then as it still would be now. Nevertheless, the responses would have been from within a different value system. Imagine yourself within the time period and attempt the following tasks: (a) Write two letters to the editor — one within the world view of dominant social values; and one that might be classed as within an emerging world view.

(b) Explain how you think many men might have viewed the article in 1959. If possible, speak to people who were around at that time or close to it. Ask them how it might have been viewed then. 2. Select a film and report on how it has positioned the audience towards a certain point of view. Explain which characters receive more close-ups, which characters appear as more fully rounded individuals, and which points of view are associated with particular characters.


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Discourses Did you know that Albanians have 27 distinct words for different types of moustache? There is even a word that means no moustache — that is, one that has been shaved off! In his book The Meaning of Tingo, Jacot de Boinod shows that different cultures think about things very differently, and they have particular words to describe those ideas. The fact that they have words with no equivalent in English means they can think along different lines and possibly consider different ideas. The word tingo comes from Easter Island and means ‘to borrow things from a friend’s house, one by one, until there’s nothing left’. This word or thought has no place in Australia, where we rarely expect to borrow more than a cup of sugar from a neighbour. Depending on how you think about it, there is a stronger sense of private property or less willingness to share. So the line of thinking that produced the word tingo hasn’t developed in our culture. Lines of thinking that develop around language are called discourses. We think by means of language — even if it is visual or nonverbal signage. Therefore language becomes a way of seeing the world. This way of seeing the world is agreed to or given to us by the society around us, becoming discourses that we can participate in and contribute to. As individuals, we also make our own discourses with particular patterns of thinking and personal usage of language forms. We share these discourses with friends who seem to be ‘on the same wavelength’ and use these ways of thinking to build an identity.

beliefs and social values that work to influence our understanding of the world. Belief and thought often lead to action. Therefore discourses clearly influence the actions of individuals and society as a whole. An example of a discourse triggered by an event can be seen in the discussions of the 438 Afghani people who were taken on board the ship the MV Tampa in 2002. One discourse regarded these people as illegal immigrants and another, opposing discourse regarded them as asylum-seeking refugees. Once the illegal immigrant discourse was triggered, a whole set of words creating certain thought patterns came into the discussion; examples from media reports include queue-jumping, unauthorised, unlawful, detention, border security and people-smuggling. By triggering the opposing asylumseeking refugee discourse, another set of words and thought patterns was brought into play: compassion, traumatised, safe haven, injustice, children in detention, UN conventions and so on. Each of these narrower discourses can be considered a subset of a broader discourse in Australian society about refugees.

Definitions of discourse

MEDIA

A discourse is both a way of thinking of and understanding the world and the language used to describe that view, whether that language is spoken, visual or otherwise nonverbal. Anyone who communicates or even thinks privately to themselves is influenced by discourses, since all individuals have to use some kind of language to make meaning. Social groups and even whole cultures have their own discourses because they are created by shared and group use of language. Discourses often channel our thinking along certain lines and set certain boundaries around our communication. According to theorist Judith Butler, discourses are like frameworks of meaning that we build our thinking around. A discourse, says QUT professor John Hartley, is the social process of making and reproducing sense through language. Because they are socially and culturally constructed, discourses help to shape certain

Figure 10.7: 7HEN -ORPHEUS SAYS IN 4HE -ATRIX k4HE MATRIX IS EVERYWHERE ITlS ALL AROUND US )T IS THE WORLD THATlS BEEN PULLED OVER YOUR EYESl HE MIGHT HAVE BEEN SPEAKING OF DISCOURSES

Social values Social values are inextricably linked with discourse. We use language to form social values and cannot help but develop discourses in the process of using language. However, discourses may be thought of as somewhat wider than social values.


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Discourses contain social values — but often lots of different and competing points of view about them. Consider as an example the large and ongoing discourse of feminism in western society. The discourse contains lots of social values about women and men. But within the discourse there are competing points of view and many different factions. These range from ‘lipstick’ feminism to radical feminism. Another example is the repeated discourse in Australia of mateship. The discourse contains social values to do with group loyalty. But there are competing points of view within the discourse. Some speak of a heroic quality while another point of view sees it as ‘ganging up’ against outsiders (often women).

Types of discourse There are vast numbers of discourses within Englishspeaking cultures. Some are quite easily seen and operate fairly openly — for example, the discourse of schools. All teachers know the belief systems, the set language, the behaviours, the detention rules and so on. Many of the regulations are even posted on school websites. Students also understand this discourse, even if they don’t control it. Other discourses are deeply concealed but are often even more powerful. For example, discourses about sexuality are largely concealed (although surface aspects may be obvious). There is no formal set of documents setting out the required ways of participating in the discourses of masculinity and femininity. The mindset created by these discourses is often understood only when the rules are broken and sharp criticism follows. Society ‘polices’ the boundaries but covers up the deeper levels of the discourse.

Institutional discourses These discourses are ways of speaking and thinking that belong to certain institutions or professions. The medical, legal and teaching professions all have their own specialised discourses, which lead them to think and act in certain ways. If you are ill and go to a GP, you will perhaps discuss infection, bacteria and inflammation and end up with an antibiotic or a surgical operation. The discourse and therefore the actions would be different if you went with the same symptoms to a naturopath; there you might discuss stress, allergy and homeopathic remedies and be treated in a completely different way.

Economic and political discourses Ways of thinking about issues and the language used to describe them are social and cultural constructs. Some political commentators speak of the Anglosphere — the political and economic discourse or way

of looking at the world from within English-speaking countries. This discourse constructs thinking in terms of parliamentary democracy, separation of church and state, a market economy and individual enterprise. Just because this seems to be taken for granted here, it doesn’t mean it is accepted as a standard discourse everywhere.

Social and cultural discourses A host of different discourses exist within the social and cultural arena. For example, many groups have their own discourses on the topics of national identity, mateship, family, social class and race. There are also discourses of different subcultural groups, such as teenagers, music interest groups and people of particular cultural backgrounds.

Media discourses The media have their own specialised way of communicating, such as broadcast news style and newspaper report style. The media also carry a range of texts that are themselves vehicles for discourses. For instance, popular current affairs programs engage in their own social, political and economic discourses, such as stories on the neighbour from hell, welfare bludgers and kids out of control. Musicals may carry discourses about gender. All media genres carry discourses of many different kinds — even within one text.

Gender discourses Gender discourses are among the most analysed discourses in language, but they are also among the most complex. This is because the discourse involves the biological or physical binaries of male and female bodies as well as the social and cultural aspects of gender. Separating one from the other is difficult. Philosophers such as Judith Butler have argued that male and female bodies are like masks that a deep discourse hides behind, and gender is something we ‘perform’ — many times every day. This means that our bodies make it seem ‘natural’ when we display thousands of little actions to perform the discourse of our gender. For a male, this performance could extend to something as seemingly natural as practising the right degree of firmness of handshake.

Religious discourses Ways of looking at the world that are contained within religious discourses have come into sharper perspective since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. There is also increased interest in discourses around religious influence in political and voting behaviour.


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Characteristics of discourses ‘Nobody who has an interest in modern society, and certainly nobody who has an interest in relationships of power in modern society, can afford to ignore language.’ Norman Fairclough, British linguist

According to linguist Norman Fairclough, the world we live in is a massive human-created sphere. This becomes increasingly so as the natural world is transformed to support larger and larger human populations. This human world cannot help being a world of discourses linked to the cultural and social context, so understanding discourses becomes most important. Discourses have the following characteristics.

Social Discourses are social because they are a group activity in which there is some level of agreement among members about how they will construct meaning. In young people this is shown in the language and mindset of different subcultural groups. To fit into these groups, new members often adopt certain ways of speaking and dressing. At this stage they are in danger of appearing to be ‘posers’. Eventually, when they are fully fledged members, this adopted discourse appears completely natural.

Cultural and historical Discourses are cultural and historical because they are based in language, and languages have developed out of different cultures and historical situations around the world. The influences on discourse within English range from (among many others) ancient Greece, medieval England, the British Empire, the rise of the United States, outlying English-speaking countries such as Australia and New Zealand, and English as a global language.

Individual identity

MEDIA

‘We establish and experience our own individuality by inhabiting numbers of discourses,’ says John Hartley. We take on discourses as individuals and with them we construct our own identity. These discourses may be personally adapted, but they are also social, cultural and even historical. As individuals, we keep them alive over time. For example, imagine one of your identities is that of a ‘matey sort of bloke’. This identity has a history in Australia going back 200 years. You use the discourse of this identity, even though it is in your own modern way. Another way of thinking about it is to say the

discourse of mateship is kept alive within you — your mind being a kind of supporting host for the ‘parasite discourse’! You might then pass the ‘mate’ discourse on to your children, who will use it in their own way. And so it lives on. Another way of thinking about discourses is to consider them as clothes, says cultural studies writer Myra Macdonald. We try on different clothes and each morning choose something individual to wear, but the items are not totally individual, even if they feel like ours alone. They are part of a culture and tradition, and they fit into different fashion groupings.

Power Discourses are closely linked to power. If you have access to certain discourses, such as those of the media or politics, you already have a significant power base. In medieval times, the church was the most powerful institution in society and the discourse of religion predominated. In modern society, the rise of individual consumption means the discourse of the consumer world and the business world seem to override all others. When it comes to power, at least three possibilities exist for discourses. • Dominant discourses are those that are constantly sustained in society and that seem to be accepted by almost everybody. For example, for much of last century the male discourse might have been seen as a dominant discourse. • Oppositional discourses are those that occur as a reaction against a dominant discourse. As an example, in the second half of last century the feminist discourse might have been seen as an oppositional discourse. • Emerging discourses are those that may have begun as oppositional discourses but have moved towards the mainstream view. An example might be the environmentalist discourse.

How discourses are maintained Discourses are maintained in society in two key ways. First, if a discourse comes to dominate all others it will be seen as ‘natural’ or ‘the only way’. This is in spite of the often arbitrary nature of the beliefs it carries. In language, discourses are most effective when they are invisible. Up until about the 1970s, for example, it was perfectly normal to use he to mean either he or she. This seemed to be common sense, and few saw any problem until women became aware that the language was sustaining an ideology of male superiority at their expense.


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Today a capitalist, consumer-oriented system seems to be the only natural way to organise a technological society. It appears there could be no other way, especially since the collapse of communism. Capitalism has become naturalised within western discourses. The second means of maintaining a discourse is through repetition. The media are a powerful naturalising force because their effects are cumulative. Whereas a single media text on its own may have a very minor effect, with repetition a discourse eventually appears to be common sense.

different media — for example, as a crime against a person, or as a crime against personal or corporate property.

Discourses in the media The media these days rarely present a single discourse that has no contradictions. Most media texts contain numbers of discourses with multiple points of view. Where a discourse is evident in the media it is often the case that the versions of it change from one media form to another. Cultural studies writer Myra MacDonald points to crime and criminality as a favourite topic of discourse in the media. Crime can be presented as a threat, as a social disease, as an injustice to others or as an exciting narrative, she says. The crime discourse may also be differently framed in

Figure 10.8: $ISCOURSES ARE PRODUCTS OF A PARTICULAR SOCIETY AND CULTURE )N THIS CARTOON THE HUMOUR COMES ABOUT AS THE DISCOURSES AND BELIEF SYSTEMS OF THE CAPITALIST BUSINESS WORLD ARE APPLIED TO THE PRE MODERN DISCOURSES OF NURSERY RHYMES MEANT FOR CHILDREN 4HE HUMOUR DESTABILISES THE DISCOURSE © The New Yorker Collection 1997/Ed Frascino from cartoonbank.com. All rights reserved.

Activities 1. View a short sequence from a law enforcement

reality TV episode. Edit together some footage that may reveal a ‘law enforcement’ discourse. The following suggestions may help. (a) Try a video montage (see page 21) of numbers of officers using standard ‘law enforcement’ kinds of sentences one after another. (b) Show them in certain poses and using the kinds of body language we expect of the discourse. (c) Try to find examples of statements or actions by the officers that seem to suggest they hold certain values or beliefs that you think may go with the profession. Write a short explanation of the law enforcement discourse as you see it portrayed in the television program. 2. Select a favoured discourse of the media, such as crime or competition, and list either programs or media forms that deal with this discourse. Examples for competition might include quiz shows, sports reports in newspapers or business magazines. Specify the ‘angle’ each one takes on the discourse. Highlight any differences in interpretation or opposing presentations. Collect some samples of the discourse in each form. Report on your findings and include the samples, explaining their relevance.

PRODUCTION TASK 3. Make a collage of the discourses that have

appeared in the media around a particular issue. If possible, collect opposing discourses. Collect headlines that appear to represent one discourse and its values, and then contrast them with the other. Add magazine clippings and stills from television.

WRITTEN TASK 4. Collect as much information as you can about the

discourse of a subcultural group among young people you know. This could be a music interest group or a fashion-based group, for example. Collect any examples of sayings or expressions they use. Take photographs of members, or clip similar images from newspapers, magazines or the internet. Interview them about what seems to define their group or what values they hold, or research this from other sources. Assemble the material and present it as a written report of approximately 600 words.


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Discourses and social values by decade Problems with decades and change Associating events, social change and popular culture with certain decades forces a calendar onto history in a way that is artificial. Decades are not sealed off from each other, and people don’t start behaving in different ways as soon as the calendar turns over. Social change and movements in popular culture flow on through the decades in a continuous process. For example, the 1960s is one of the most debated decades of the twentieth century. There are some who say the culture of the 1960s really began in 1958 and lasted until 1974. Cultural historian Arthur Marwick calls this period ‘the long sixties’. On the other hand, many student radicals of the time say the 1960s began in 1963 and were over by the Paris student uprisings of 1968. However, linking cultural events or changes to specific decades is a useful way of thinking about broad trends and it is also the way that popular culture thinks about itself.

Problems with popular culture and values The arts and popular culture reflect the context of the society in which they were produced. They can also lead society into new ways of thinking. However, society at any given time is not monolithic, and films, television and music are not representative of the whole of society. In fact, most of the arts are produced by a narrow section of society. Not only that, but different art forms, such as music or film, may have different perspectives one from another. In the 1960s, for example, popular culture clearly reflected change and led change. This is especially true of popular music groups such as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and Pink Floyd. However, the film and television industries took a long time to react to change. And when they did, with shows such as The Mod Squad (1968–73), many saw their attempts as either a token effort or shameless fakery.

The 1950s

MEDIA

The 1950s began under the long shadow of World War II (1939–45), but by the end of the decade a new prosperity had arrived in the United States, Britain, Australia and New Zealand. It took longer in Europe, but it eventually happened there as well. Young servicemen returned from the war, married and began families. The overwhelming mood of the 1950s was relief — normality

had returned for a generation who had known nothing but war and economic depression. Many millions of children were born between the end of the war and the mid 1960s: these were the baby boomers. The 1950s was a decade of young families and home building.

Discourses and social values of the 1950s Political discourses. The 1950s is often seen as a decade of conservatism, with quite rigid social roles and an emphasis on respectability and keeping up appearances. There were strong divisions based on class in Britain, and divisions based on religion (particularly Catholics versus Protestants) and race in Australia and the United States. There was a fear of communism. Intense suspicion existed about communist infi ltration of trade unions and political parties. In the United States, Senator Joseph McCarthy began his attacks on ‘communist sympathisers’ through the House Un-American Activities Committee. This started a ‘witch-hunt’ aimed at communists and left-wing ‘fellow travellers’ in all walks of life, but especially in Hollywood and the media. George Clooney’s fi lm Good Night and Good Luck (2005) shows the fear and suspicion generated by the politics of the time. However, it is a modern fi lm and reflects its modern political context of concerns about individual freedom in a time of terror threats.

The military, the Bomb and the cold war. The military played an influential role in 1950s life, especially in the United States and Britain. The father in most households had fought in World War II, the grandfather in World War I (1914–18). Young men did compulsory military service, while boys played games with toy soldiers. The British army was four times its present size. The United States and Australia were involved in the Korean War. The cold war nuclear arms build-up with the Soviet Union had begun, and the testing of nuclear bombs was carried out in Australia, the United States and the South Pacific. The film The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) shows concerns about the Bomb, an early United Nations, fears of UFO invasion (or communist invasion in disguise) and beliefs about the military as a protective force in society (as opposed to a 1960s view of the military as an oppressive force). The movie also shows stereotypical 1950s family and gender relations. On the Beach (1959), filmed in Melbourne, shows Australia as the last place on Earth to be devastated by a global nuclear war.


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Race. While there was less of the open racism of earlier times in Australia, Aboriginal culture was still seen as tribal and primitive. Aboriginal people were to be ‘assimilated’ into white culture and their children re-educated or, in some cases, adopted by white families. In the 1990s these children would be known as the stolen generation. The Charles Chauvel film Jedda (1955) depicts assimilationist attitudes and beliefs about the difficulties of ‘educating’ tribal Aboriginal people. The consumer society and suburbia. The ‘mend it and make do’ society of the Depression and the war years gave way before the first wave of mass consumption in the 1950s. Household appliances became a part of most Australian homes. People embraced new products and labour-saving devices enthusiastically. The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (1956) depicts concerns about the new role of the individual in a consumer society and the increasing dominance of American business culture. It also shows the difficulty that an ex-soldier has in fitting into this new materialistic world. Standards of morality. Attitudes towards sex and marriage remained deeply traditional in the 1950s. Abortion was illegal, so illegitimate children were given up for adoption. Divorce was possible but only if fault could be proven. Divorce rates were 20 per cent of today’s rates. These issues are depicted in the film Three Secrets (1950), which tells the stories of three women who each give up a child for adoption. The first youth culture. Consumer society in the 1950s created the first example of youth culture the world had seen. Frank Sinatra and his young fans (the ‘bobby soxers’) began it, and Elvis Presley confirmed it. The older generation had grave concerns about the effects of such performers on the morals of young people. There were also concerns about rockand-roll being ‘race music’, influenced by the ‘immoral rhythms’ of African-American music. Juvenile delinquency rates increased by 45 per cent in the United States, fuelling parents’ worries. Teenage rebellion is said to have been first depicted in Blackboard Jungle (1955). However, The Wild One (1953) and Rebel without a Cause (1955) show the 1950s concern with juvenile delinquency and early youth gangs. They also show the beginnings of youth car ownership and the 1950s motorbike culture. Both films participate in discourses about masculinity from a 1950s perspective and suggest that traditional masculinity might be changing.

Figure 10.9: "ODGIES WERE THE !USTRALIAN EQUIVALENT OF THE !MERICAN GREASERS OR THE "RITISH TEDDY BOYS 4HEIR GIRLFRIENDS WERE CALLED WIDGIES ! MORAL PANIC ABOUT YOUTH GANGS AND DELINQUENCY SPREAD QUICKLY IN THE PERIOD p #OMIC BOOKS WERE ANOTHER SOURCE OF MORAL PANIC AT THE TIME

The 1960s As 70 million American children from the postwar baby boom became teenagers and young adults, the 1960s became the decade of youth. Thunderclap Newman’s song Something in the Air (1969) gives some feeling of the mood. The 1960s was a decade of youth idealism.

Discourses and social values of the 1960s Political discourses. The overwhelming political discourse in the 1960s was of protest against the old ways and the older generation. So different were young people from their parents that the media coined the term the generation gap. Young people wanted change, and the 1960s introduced a cultural revolution that has created the modern world. Some of the 1960s transformations still have repercussions today. Hollywood had never seemed so out of touch, and it took some time to catch up with the social change of the period. The music of the time better expresses the social values of the younger generation. The protest songs of Bob Dylan and Joan Baez are good examples, and Woodstock (1970) depicted the legendary music festival and many of the great performers of the time. Civil rights. Anger over entrenched racism in the United States led to the civil rights movement and the rise of figures such as Martin Luther King and Malcolm X. There were also the beginnings of challenges to bigotry and repression from the gay movement following the Stonewall riots in the United


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States (1969). To a lesser extent these events were reflected in Australia. Melvin van Peebles’ film Watermelon Man (1970) tells the story of a white suburban man who wakes up black. It parallels Black Like Me (book 1961, film 1964), a nonfiction story of a white journalist who undergoes a drug treatment to darken his skin so he can pass as an African American. Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird (book 1960, film 1962) also dealt with established racism. Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner (1967) portrayed a romance between a black man and a white woman. At the time, the US Supreme Court had just overturned longstanding state laws banning interracial marriage. Each of these films reflects a 1960s context of increasing agitation for civil rights reforms and a rising concern about social injustice.

Vietnam. One of the most powerful discourses of the time was centred on the Vietnam War. Many in the older generation were in favour of the war. The younger generation was largely either conscripted to fight in the war or joined huge protests against it. The musical Hair (1967–73) was a part of this anti–Vietnam War protest. It was also famous for a scene in which the cast appeared nude, strongly challenging the censorship codes of the time. The movie of Hair (1979) had a different production context but is useful as an insight into the controversy generated by the musical. There were also hundreds of protest songs about the war, including Marvin Gaye’s What’s Going On? Other protest movements. The discourses of protest and challenge led to the rise of what has been termed the New Left. This was a radical left-wing movement that agitated for social justice for many different groups and causes. The ‘old left’ had tended to restrict itself to industrial organisation and did not engage with social issues. Among the new left were the first environmental agitators. In an Australian first, the ‘green bans’ to preserve the Rocks district in Sydney from greedy developers signalled a new attitude to conservation issues and the beginning of green parties worldwide. Counterculture. The hippie movement began at this time and took up the values of ‘peace and love’ in opposition to the Vietnam War. Hippies also adopted the value of anti-materialism, rejecting the consumerism of their parents and arguing for a ‘return to nature’. The hippies reformed traditional Christian values and brought in values often associated with Eastern mysticism.

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Feminism and gender relations. A vast discourse opened up in the sixties around feminism as the second-wave feminists (see page 44) began to publish their ideas. (See gender representation, pages 40–4.)

Standards of morality. The morality of the 1960s was much looser than that of earlier times, and the media often spoke of the ‘permissive society’. Sexual behaviour changed with the general availability of the birth control pill, which freed young, unmarried women (and others) from fear of unplanned pregnancy. Sexual standards were so transformed from previous eras that the 1960s is thought of as introducing a ‘sexual revolution’ that would have an even greater effect in the 1970s. Feminism, however, had yet to achieve the gains it made in later decades. The film Alfie (1966), set in London in the ‘swinging sixties’, reflected these discourses from a pre-feminist male perspective. Alfie is a cockney Casanova who goes from woman to woman. Also set in the London of the time was Georgy Girl (1966), which looked at 1960s morality, but also portrayed the woman as needing a husband for financial security. Individualism. The 1960s introduced a new discourse of individualism based on the idea of self-growth and ‘doing your own thing’. This was summed up (slightly later) by the Masters Apprentices song Because I Love You (1970) with the chorus, ‘Do what you wanna do, be what you wanna be, yeah’. Easy Rider (1969) was a low-budget cult movie that showed two young men heading off on motorbikes to discover America … and themselves. It depicted the rising drug culture, the hippie movement, the generation gap and the increasing importance of music to young people.

The 1970s ‘We spent the seventies getting over the sixties,’ is an old line that has some truth to it. Many of the revolutionary events and ideas of the 1960s persisted into the 1970s. But the seventies was also a decade when all this turmoil was ‘digested’, and the ideas and values of the 1960s were ‘mainstreamed’. What had seemed outrageous and radical in the previous decade came to be accepted as just part of modern life.

Discourses and social values of the 1970s The rights revolution. What had started as street marches and protest movements in the 1960s became political and legal discourses in the 1970s. All kinds of groups fought for and gained greater legal and social recognition. It came to be accepted that everyone, not just those in the majority, had ‘rights’. The album covers and songs of the Village People illustrated the new acceptance of diversity. The genre of ‘Blaxploitation’ films, such as Shaft (1971), took advantage of the new appeal of African Americans on the screen. M*A*S*H, the 1970 film and the television


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series (1972–83), was an early example of Hollywood coming to terms with the Vietnam protest movement. In Australia, Peter Weir’s The Last Wave (1977) acknowledged surviving Aboriginal culture. At the same time, there was a backlash on the political right. Powerful conservative forces began to muster — initially against abortion but, after 1975, against the progressives of the 1960s generally.

Feminism. Feminism moved out of academic circles and became something that everybody was talking about. (For more on this, see gender representation, pages 40–4.) The television series Charlie’s Angels (1976–81) sought to exploit the new gender values, but the boss was still male and the women were still provocatively dressed sex objects. Rocky (1976) praised the masculinity that feminism attacked, and so represented a kind of backlash in the discourse. Family and living. Discourses concerning the family began to be affected by no-fault divorce legislation (starting in 1969 in America, 1975 in Australia), and single-parent or blended families became more visible. Also around this time, young people started leaving home earlier and entering into house-sharing arrangements more widely than ever before. The film Kramer versus Kramer (1979), centred on a bitter divorce case, depicted the shifts in parental roles and the conflict between 1970s self-absorption and a search for identity. The Brady Bunch (1969–74) exemplified the acceptance of blended families yet also depicted an essentially traditional family structure and sex roles — a morality seemingly caught somewhere between the 1950s and the 2000s. Individualism. In 1975 author Tom Wolfe termed the 1970s ‘the me decade’. The 1960s individualism of self-growth continued, but it became caught up in an obsession with self-centred navel gazing. Aspects of this discourse can be seen in science fiction movies such as Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977). There are many references in this movie to an ‘inner call’ from the real self. Economic and political discourses. The 1974 oil crisis, rising inflation and economic stagnation combined to produce high levels of unemployment. Discourses concerning youth unemployment became prominent. The impeachment of President Nixon in America and the continuing unpopular Vietnam War caused a loss of faith and trust in society’s big institutions: government, the military, the legal system and so on. The idea of a unified society with particular shared beliefs began to unravel. All kinds of splinter groups with different values began to form, and the mainstream no longer recognised a common set of shared standards and attitudes. The old values of

thrift and hard work also began to weaken as people turned to credit instead of savings to support a more materialist lifestyle. Some of the discourses around these changed values are the topic of the early songs of Bruce Springsteen. The Mary Tyler Moore Show (1970–77) often took 1970s social issues as its subject.

Counterculture. Some values of the 1960s hippie movement remained strong and were gradually merged into mainstream society. Others, such as antimaterialism, did not take off. In the mid 1970s another youth movement based on music, the punk movement, developed in the US and the UK. According to critic Robert Christgau, punk ‘scornfully rejected the political idealism and Californian flower-power silliness of hippie myth’. Instead it favoured a return to rock music basics and song lyrics that were political and social. (See The Young Ones in the 1980s.) At the same time, disco music took young people who were bored by the guitar-solo excesses of heavy rock and brought them onto the dance floors, as depicted in films such as Saturday Night Fever (1977).

The 1980s The 1980s invented the term ‘Shop till you drop’ and became known as the decade of greed. The eighties represented a conservative answer to the 1960s and 1970s. Discourses about money making and get-rich-quick business deals rose to prominence in this decade.

Discourses and social values of the 1980s Entrepreneurs. The business tycoon or entrepreneur was publicised in the 1980s as a ‘wealth creator’, often making quick money by buying companies and selling their assets. As the economy moved from an industrial base to an information and financial base, these entrepreneurs speculated in shares and real estate. Ordinary people were awestruck at the size of the fortunes made. As the value of entrepreneurialism took hold, mainstream society did not criticise these tycoons, but instead sought to follow their example. The film Wall Street (1988) expressed many of the values that were dominant at the time, coining the term ‘Greed is good’ and celebrating the emerging workaholic with the phrase ‘Lunch is for wimps’. Wall Street highlighted the extraordinary value placed not just on material possessions, but on acquiring brand-name possessions: Porsche, Rolex, Cartier and the like. The film shows how the Yuppies — young upwardly mobile professionals — and their values came to dominate the 1980s. In the music of the time, Madonna’s song Material Girl (1984) also took pride in eighties-style consumerism.


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Political and economic discourses. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher famously said: ‘There’s no such thing as society.’ Political leaders downplayed the values of the group while individualism was more highly valued. The political discourses of the 1980s were dominated by the idea of society as a marketplace of individuals. ‘User pays’ became a catchphrase, and governments cut back on the welfare support to those in need provided in the 1970s. In the United States, Ronald Reagan and the new conservatives came to power, while in Australia the term economic rationalism was coined to describe the ruthless economic philosophy dominant at the time. The economies of the western world generally moved from being based on industrial and manufacturing workforces to knowledge-based industries and financial services. Manufacturing was moved offshore to developing countries, with their cheaper labour markets. As a result, the value systems of the old working class were disrupted. The generation born between 1965 and 1976, called Generation X, faced reduced job opportunities, aimlessness and difficulties making a start in adult life. Movies illustrating these values tended to be made after the changes had hit home. Brassed Off (1996) and The Full Monty (1997) dealt with the social impact of

industrial restructuring in the north of England, but from a 1990s perspective. The television comedy series The Young Ones (1982, 1984) often commented on the clash of values brought about by the rise of selfish, market-oriented conservatism. Bruce Springsteen’s album Born in the USA reflected popular attitudes to these events.

Family and living. Families changed dramatically during this decade, with increases in divorce levels and in the number of sole-parent families. Individuals adopted the new values of personal improvement and a healthy lifestyle. Nike dramatically increased its sales, taking advantage of cheap offshore manufacturing. A new epidemic, HIV/AIDS, curbed the sexual permissiveness of the previous two decades. Some sitcoms, such as Who’s the Boss? (1984–92), focused on single-parent families. In this show, the female lead was divorced and had a career, a male housekeeper and an aggressively single mother who was still having romantic affairs in her sixties. Technology. Rapid advances in computer technology led to changes in attitudes to technology itself. Whereas the 1970s hippies had been suspicious of technology, computer technology in the 1980s came to be seen as a kind of saviour.

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Figure 10.10: 4HE OBJECT ITSELF EXISTS SEPARATE FROM ANY SOCIAL VALUE THAT MAY ATTACH TO IT 4HE SOCIAL VALUES CHANGE OVER TIME BUT THE OBJECT DOES NOT


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At the end of the cold war, President Reagan spoke of plans for so-called Star Wars technology to intercept nuclear missiles from space. With the newfound importance of technology, nerds were suddenly cool in Hollywood. The success of Bill Gates helped things along. Revenge of the Nerds (1984) began the trend in film. Wargames (1983) depicted a teenager who hacks into cold war defence systems. The 1982 Disney film Tron depicted technology as a god-like force with destructive potential.

The 1990s The 1990s was the decade of globalisation and the internet. It also saw the collapse of communism in late 1989 and the triumph of market-based capitalism as the dominant economic force around the world. The internet and globalisation helped create two key trends in the 1990s. There was increased diversity and yet at the same time there was a blending of differences, according to cultural historian Marc Oxoby. Not only technology converged — so too did differences around the world. Even China got McDonald’s!

Discourses and social values of the 1990s Political and economic discourses. Personal wealth increased considerably in this decade, partly as a result of real estate and share price escalation and partly as a result of the benefits of new technology. The new wealth was not distributed equally, however, with the already rich increasing their share. Globalisation linked western economies with one another and with other economies. More products than ever before became available, and cheap third-world labour kept prices low. The use of credit dramatically increased. Politics remained conservative but voter cynicism and alienation increased. Surveys showed that despite increased wealth, people’s happiness had not significantly improved and might actually have declined. American Beauty (1999) depicted a preoccupation with material wealth and brand consciousness together with a sense that none of this has brought happiness. The opening scenes of Fight Club (1999, R-rated) also reflected this discourse. Standards of morality. Globalisation and the internet contributed to a growing sense of relativism. Relativism suggests that no particular cultural value in one culture is inherently superior to a value from a different culture; all is relative. Values therefore became less clear-cut and more ambiguous.

Youth, families and living. Nineties teenagers are identified with Generation Y (born after 1976 or, some say, 1981). They often had part-time jobs and were described as wealthy but lacking purpose. Mobile communications put young people in constant touch with each other, increasing group values and connectedness, but at the same time other factors created more social isolation. Family diversity increased and the community came to accept a wider definition of the idea of family. The young people in American Beauty exhibit some of the values attributed to Generation Y. A similar portrayal is given in the hit television series Beverly Hills 90210, which placed a high value on materialism and the elitism of the wealthy. Fashionable clothing was promoted, leading the way for The OC in the 2000s. Each episode of Beverly Hills 90210 also dealt with different issues that were current in the 1990s. The Simpsons (1989–) was one of the most popular television shows in the nineties. The show spoofs current issues, but beneath the satire the show portrays relatively traditional family values. Multiculturalism and diversity. Increased immigration and a greater respect for diversity meant multiculturalism was promoted in the 1990s. Subcultures and youth culture became much more diverse and fragmented. Unlike young people in earlier decades, nineties youth listened to a wide variety of music and adopted a greater range of viewpoints and values from different subcultures. Diversity found greater visibility in the media as characters from different cultures or subcultures appeared in television programs and films with greater frequency. Will and Grace portrayed homosexuality positively. African-American sitcoms were produced with much greater frequency, and ethnically diverse characters appeared in a wide variety of films.

The 2000s The 2000s is often termed the decade of insecurity. Insecurity arose on at least two fronts. The decade began with the so-called 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York in 2001. This began a period of increasing concern about terrorist attacks. In the middle of the decade, concern about climate change also spread to the mainstream. Some analysts suggest the insecurity of the decade led to increased ‘cocooning’ — the tendency to retreat to, and perform a greater number of social interactions from, the safe haven of the home. Home theatre systems and the internet made this easier than in previous decades.


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Discourses and social values of the 2000s Environmentalism. Increasingly erratic weather patterns and the release of the Stern Report (2006) into climate change sparked worldwide concerns about global warming. What had essentially been a fringe value since the 1970s became a mainstream or core value that was supported by all sides of politics. The market-based values of the 1980s and 1990s extended to environmentalism. With ideas such as carbon trading, the hope was that the market would fi nd a solution to the problem. Environmental values have shown up in a range of television programs including soap operas and documentaries. In fi lms, the discourse was reflected in The Day After Tomorrow (2004) and the documentary An Inconvenient Truth (2006). Multiculturalism and diversity. Although multiculturalism and social diversity flourished in the 2000s, there were also attempts to redefi ne both. Following a number of terrorist attacks in western countries, governments tried to stimulate debate about core values and what multiculturalism means in relation to citizenship. Bend It Like Beckham (2002) examined the interplay of values between an ethnic minority culture and the mainstream society. Globalisation. Globalisation expanded in the 2000s and came to influence everyday life a lot more. The film industry itself became much more receptive to global influences. Audience interest in films from non-western countries was strong, and foreign directors made fi lms in western countries. Examples include martial arts films from Asia and films from Bollywood.

Religion and spirituality. The 2000s also saw an increased interest in religion and spirituality. Some see this as a development of the ‘new age’ movement of the 1970s and 1980s. Another factor could have been the desire for a return to the security of traditional values in an insecure world. Perhaps because of the increasing impact of the Islamic world on global politics and the rise of new Christian movements, religion has become more important in politics. In Australia, appeals to religious groups were fi rst adopted by the right wing of politics and then by the left. The Passion of the Christ (2004) reflected a return to uncompromising values in the 2000s, in contrast with earlier representations. For instance, Jesus Christ Superstar (1973) had shown softer hippie influences, with an emphasis on love, and the Disney animated Bible stories were influenced by nineties ideas about the hero’s journey (see page 144). Evil seems somewhat less threatening in those fi lms. In The Passion of the Christ, on the other hand, evil is represented directly by Satan — a woman. The violence in the fi lm is as confronting as any modern horror movie. Some analysts say ideas of good and evil became a much stronger discourse in the 2000s following the September 11 attacks and President Bush’s comments about an ‘axis of evil’.

Activities Select a movie or television show from one of the decades listed and report on how it participates in the discourses of the time. Explain how it challenges or supports the social values of the time. Evaluate the significance of context in the creation of text.

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Cross-media genres Television and film documentaries ‘I believe if I’m not provoking people, then I’m not doing my job, which is to reveal certain realities, no matter how troubling they are. How can we progress, if we don’t address these things?’ Dennis O’Rourke, documentary filmmaker, director of Cunnamulla (2001)

Documentaries have taken on a new image with the phenomenal success of Michael Moore’s films Bowling for Columbine (2002) and Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004). In cinemas around the world, Fahrenheit 9/11 was more popular and made more money than any other documentary . . . ever. Also in 2004 came Morgan Spurlock’s Super Size Me, an attack on the American junk food industry. The documentary has now become a popular force in the cinema as well as on television.

What is a documentary? Pioneer British filmmaker John Grierson first coined the term documentary in 1926 to describe a film made about life on a South Sea island. In doing so he defined a documentary as the creative treatment of actuality (or reality). Argument has raged ever since as to just how ‘creative’ such treatment of reality should be. Creative development over the years has meant the term now covers a huge range of production methods and forms. It is getting harder to find agreement among

filmmakers on just what a documentary is. Some analysts have argued that the term should be replaced with an alternative such as non-fiction programming. Despite the lack of agreement about styles, the common thread across all types of documentaries is the use of recorded images and sounds of reality or lived experience. Documentaries are not just about facts, though. Rather, facts are used to create critical argument, thereby inviting the audience to draw conclusions. Documentaries present facts about a subject using real events, persons or places, says Peter Mayeux, Broadcasting Professor at the University of Nebraska. They then creatively interpret or comment on those realities and people’s concerns about them.

Genre The television documentary belongs to the expository genre (see page 8). It is related to the argumentative essay of critical inquiry and to the review genre. The documentary is a complex genre containing aspects of many others. It has some features of the report genre, with its relationship to news reporting. It also shares some of the characteristics of the narrative genre, particularly its heightened sense of drama and confl ict. In addition, the documentary shares with the narrative an involvement with characters, events and settings.

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Features of documentaries There are five central elements of the television or film documentary, according to John Corner of the University of Liverpool. These are observation, interview, dramatisation, mise-en-scène (see page 17) and exposition. Different styles of documentary concentrate more on particular sets of elements. Some of the basic elements also apply to many current affairs stories.

Observation Most documentaries contain sequences of observation. Usually the program makers pretend that the camera is unseen or ignored by the people taking part in the events. This ‘unseen’ observation places the audience in the role of eyewitness to the realities portrayed. The observation sequence then works as witness evidence for the documentary producer’s argument.

Interview Television documentaries generally rely on interviews (nature documentaries being an obvious exception), which can be used to make a contrast with the observation sequences. The interviewer may be seen or unseen, heard or not heard. The speaker is questioned and addresses the interviewer rather than the audience. Sometimes pictures will accompany the speaker’s replies to support what is said. Documentary makers structure interviews in two ways. They can intercut fragments of the interview with observation and other material. Alternatively, they can allow the interview to run uninterrupted.

what already exists. Nevertheless, to advance the argument of the exposition the documentary maker can still carefully compose a shot so that it contains the images he or she wants the audience to see.

Exposition The line of argument in a documentary is called the exposition. An exposition is made up of description combined with commentary; the exposition is what the documentary is ‘saying’. John Corner suggests the exposition in a documentary may be either plain and direct or indirect and hidden. Nevertheless it always exists. For example, some styles of documentary rely heavily on observation. Rather than being told by a narrator what to think, the audience is shown sequences that lead them to draw conclusions. These documentaries can be said to have strong evidence but weak exposition. Other documentaries can be the reverse of this. Exposition in documentaries is usually serious but they can also use humour to make a point. Examples of Australian documentaries using a humorous approach to exposition include Boys and Balls and Cane Toads: An Unnatural History. The use of humour in Michael Moore’s Fahrenheit 9/11 partly explains its success. Audiences associate his films with a comic take on serious issues, in contrast to the dry presentation of information typical of traditional documentaries.

Dramatisation All documentaries use a sense of drama through the observation element. The audience are eyewitnesses to dramatic events that seem to occur naturally in front of the camera. Moreover, all program makers build in a sense of dramatic conflict to heighten audience involvement. Some documentaries use dramatisation to portray people and events that the filmmaker cannot gain access to in real life. These fictional sequences are said to be ‘based on fact’. Here the narratives or stories are used to advance the arguments of the exposition genre.

Mise-en-scène

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In the language of film and television, mise-en-scène refers to things ‘put into the shot’ — things that can be seen in the picture (see page 17). Whereas in a fictional film the director and the creative team can devise a complete décor for any settings they create, in a documentary the filmmaker must usually use

Figure 11.1: !UDIENCES RESPONDED WELL TO -ICHAEL -OORElS üLMS POSSIBLY BECAUSE THEY SAW THEM AS COMIC POLITICAL COMMENTARIES RATHER THAN AS POLITICAL DOCUMENTARIES

Types of documentaries Changing ideas about the role of documentaries, the nature of truth and different ways to reach audiences have produced at least five main documentary styles.

Fully narrated In these documentaries an off-screen voice-over directly addresses the viewer to convey the exposition. The voice-over is used to make sense of the visual


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images and present their meaning. The full narration style is often used in nature documentaries and was popular in the cinema newsreels of the past. The narrator gives an impression of authority about the topic, which has led critics to dub the style ‘the voice of God’ documentary. Nature documentaries narrated by David Attenborough are typical of this style.

Cinéma-vérité This style of documentary relies almost totally on the observational element of the genre. These are fly-onthe-wall documentaries. There is no commentary or narration, and viewers draw their own conclusions. The documentary may consist of no more than a string of informal interviews in place of narration. The camera and its movements can also be used to convey a chilling commentary, as happens in The Battle for Chile, for example, when the camera suddenly falters and drops to the floor, recording the moment when the cameraman was shot. Mad Hot Ballrooom is another example. Critics of vérité documentaries say the fly-on-thewall style hands the control of the exposition from the documentary maker to the subjects. This is a change of control, but it does not alter the relationship to truth — you may not necessarily believe what the subjects of the documentary say either!

Mixed These documentaries use a combination of interview, observation and narration to advance the argument. In contrast to the voice of God style, the narration is often from within the frame (and therefore the action). Narration from within the scene is also the style adopted in modern news reporting. The journalist speaks to the camera, and then pictures of the action continue over his or her voice. While this style uses aspects from most of the other styles, critics argue it still tends to suggest that it is representing objective reality and not just a selective construction.

Critics say self-reflexive documentaries can be confusing and perhaps the filmmakers are just showing off. By drawing attention to themselves as filmmakers, they are seeking self-publicity; the film is more about the filmmaker than the subject.

Docudrama A docudrama is a dramatised re-enactment of events largely as they are supposed to have happened. It re-creates real-life worlds and characters. It does not invent its own dramatic world, unlike a fictional drama. Its primary focus is on real lives and actual events largely as they are documented. Docudramas are often described as nonfiction dramas. In this style, the elements of argument and exposition are combined with those of the fictional narrative. The resulting story is then said to be ‘based on fact’. Critics say docudramas claim to represent truth but can only ever hope to deliver fiction. The program is not a filmed ‘actuality’. Since docudrama is a hybrid genre combining features of factual genres and also fictional genres, there is an ongoing debate about how much fact and how much fiction is permissible.

Docusoap Docusoap is a type of fact-based soap opera set in one location and with a small set of characters. Often a workplace or business is the central location. The focus is on the characters’ lives and events as they unfold in front of the camera. Docusoaps have their heritage in cinéma-vérité, but the docusoap subgenre might also be regarded as a type of reality television. American Chopper, for example, is filmed in the workplace of a successful father-and-son business, Orange County Choppers, which builds custom motorcycles. The show is a docusoap — right on the border between documentary and reality television.

Self-reflexive The subjects of a self-reflexive documentary acknowledge the presence of the camera and often speak directly to the filmmaker. Self-reflexive documentaries make a point of drawing attention to the filmmaker’s role in constructing a view of reality. For example, in Dennis O’Rourke’s documentary Cannibal Tours, the subjects actually talk to O’Rourke while he is behind the camera. He replies and asks them further questions.

Figure 11.2: 3CENE FROM !MERICAN #HOPPER A DOCUSOAP

#ROSS MEDIA GENRES

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Technology Genre and society developments 1900s–1920s

Documentary timeline 1895

Lumière brothers’ short factual films

1914

In the Land of the War Canoes (US)

Travelogue films and films documenting ordinary life

1920s–1940s 1920s Heavy movie cameras with separate sound recording equipment used in documentary making restrict the filmmaker’s ability to follow events as they happen.

Documentary makers seek to present ‘objective truth’ and restrict personal subjectivity.

1914–1918 World War I 1922

first documentary) 1926

John Grierson coins the term documentary.

1935

Triumph of the Will (Nazi propaganda documentary)

1930s–1940s

1950s–1960s Development of smaller, lightweight cameras allows filmmakers to ‘follow the action’.

Documentary production is pioneered by John Grierson (UK). Both Allied and Axis powers use documentary for war propaganda. Newsreels and short films before the main feature are key outlets for documentaries.

1950s–1970s Cinéma-vérité style is made possible by reductions in camera size. The movement (also called direct cinema in the US) originates in France and Italy. Mixed style takes over from ‘Voice of God’ as the preferred approach for formal documentaries. The Vietnam War, feminism and the civil rights movement increase the expository role of the genre.

1980s–1990s 1980s–present The camcorder technology of electronic news-gathering is enlisted in documentary making; broadcast standard video becomes a viable alternative to film. Home camcorders provide the technology for community, advocacy and dissident groups to present their viewpoints.

The rise of postmodernism leads to a more personal ‘self-reflexive’ style.

Nanook of the North (US, silent film;

1939


1940

London Can Take It (UK)

1943

The Battle of Britain (UK), Fires Were Started (UK)

1963

President Kennedy assassinated; bystander Zapruder records it on 8 mm home camera.

1964

7 Up (UK, the first of the Up series — 49 Up released 2005; early docusoap films subjects every seven years)

1965

Letters from Vietnam (US)

1967

Don't Look Back (UK, Bob Dylan tour in cinéma-vérité style)

1970

Gimme Shelter (US)

1975

Fall of Saigon and end of the Vietnam War

1979

David Attenborough’s Life on Earth (UK, TV series)

1980

Sony releases the first consumer camcorder.

1987

Cannibal Tours (Aus., self-reflexive style)

1988

Cane Toads (Aus.), The Thin Blue Line (US)

1989

Roger and Me (US, Michael Moore’s first documentary feature film)

1990s–present Documentary genre includes aspects of reality television genre.

1991

Amateur video of Los Angeles police beating of Rodney King is first widely shown example of citizen news recording.

1992

Sylvania Waters (UK/Aus., docusoap set in Sydney)

2000–present 2000–present Mass availability of DV cameras and high-quality computer-based editing makes independent and citizen documentary making easier.

Documentaries return to the big screen. Documentaries adopt a more personal exposition. Filmmakers themselves become celebrities and their films become box-office successes.

1996

Rats in the Ranks (Aus.)

2001

Cunnamulla (Aus.)

2002

Dogtown and Z-Boys (US), Bowling for Columbine (US), A Wedding in Ramallah (Aus.)

2003

Invasion of Iraq

2004

Super Size Me (US), Fahrenheit 9/11 (US, highest grossing documentary ever)

MEDIA

2006

An Inconvenient Truth (US)

2007

Sicko (US)


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Discourses in documentaries Like news, a documentary is filmed reality but it is also a selective construction. It is common for the ratio of film to edited product to be as high as 20 to one. Documentaries are written using many of the codes and conventions of television news. Like news, they are a discourse in themselves, with their own particular language uses. Also like news, documentaries operate within the prestigious discourses of the democratic process. Documentary production is seen as belonging to democracy’s ‘fourth estate’, the press — the other three national estates in a modern context being Parliament, the public service executive and the legal judiciary. These are said to be kept in line by the scrutiny provided by the fourth estate of the news and documentary media. The public’s right to know is one of the most important claims in support of democracy and free speech. It is also the main justification of the documentary maker. ‘Telling the public’ has definitely made a difference at times. Documentaries have resulted in changes to legislation and, occasionally, even the dismissal of governments. There are many well-known examples. In Australia, the Four Corners documentary Moonlight State, about official corruption, contributed to the fall of the Bjelke-Petersen state government in Queensland. In Britain the documentary drama (see docudrama, page 214) Cathy Come Home (1966) resulted in action to improve the living conditions of the homeless. In the United States, Harvest of Shame (1961) was successful in bringing about legislation to help migrant farm workers. Documentaries have also shamed corporations into changing their behaviour. Super Size Me had a major impact on McDonald’s menus, and Bowling for Columbine convinced Wal-Mart to restrict the sale of ammunition. Other important aspects of documentary discourse include the following: • Objectivity. Like news programs, many traditional documentaries participate in a discourse of objectivity, appearing to present unbiased facts. This might be seen as a ‘closed discourse’, says analyst Myra Macdonald, because the objective point of view seems so natural and fair that it is hard to see any other way of seeing things. • Subjectivity and personalisation. Many modern documentaries have taken a different approach and present intensely personal, individual stories that audiences may unwittingly take to stand for the experiences of whole sections of society. Documentaries share this characteristic with current affairs programs.

• Categorisation. Since many documentaries are concerned with improving the conditions of society, they often tend to place people into categories. This may mean they also give them victim status (see page 208).

Representation in documentaries The documentary is created out of the actual or real by a series of transformations, including scripting, filming, editing and transmission. The documentary therefore represents a transformed world and not the whole truth.

Cause and effect Some analysts have criticised documentary makers for failing to look at the causes of events. They accuse them of glorying in the sensationalism of the problems rather than examining the deeper issues. As a result, such programs merely gain sympathy for those suffering the symptoms and effects. In this way many controversial issues become acceptable subject matter, says commentator Brian Winston. The best that can happen is that the audience will dip into its pockets and donate money for homeless shelters, for example. Documentary makers rarely question the deeper organisation and fairness of society.

Truth ‘It is critical that filmmakers be rid of the fantasy that the documentary can be an unproblematic representation of reality and that “truth” can be conveniently dispensed and received like Valium.’ Dennis O’Rourke, documentary filmmaker

Since the beginnings of the documentary, people have struggled with ideas of truth and reality. Sometimes documentaries have been accused of presenting lies and fabrication. John Corner believes everyone would be better off applying the idea of evidence rather than truth. Recording technologies, he says, produce only traces of the physical world. These traces can be used as evidence of actuality or reality, and this evidence can then support the exposition. On the other hand, reporters can easily do what lawyers are often seen to do in court — find only those experts who support their own point of view, says veteran current affairs presenter Peter Couchman.

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Figure 11.3: %ACH STAGE IN DOCUMENTARY PRODUCTION INVOLVES SELECTION AND THEREFORE TAKES THE PROGRAM FURTHER AWAY FROM ACTUALITY OR kTRUTHl 4HE AUDIENCE IS PRESENTED WITH LIMITED HAND PICKED EVIDENCE UPON WHICH TO MAKE AN INTERPRETATION

‘Now, with regard to the matter of truth, in the natural sciences, for example, no-one hesitates to talk about truth and among ordinary people no-one hesitates either. But among sophisticated people, you’re supposed to question the notion of truth. ‘It is a truism that your point of view on the world is going to colour the way you approach things. But by no means should it lead us to question the belief that we’re trying to find out the truth about the world. The denial of the urge for objective reality, that’s a tremendously effective propaganda weapon. It fully incapacitates anyone who accepts it. ‘Of course, wealthy and powerful people are never going to accept it, but they’re delighted to have everyone else accept it.’ Noam Chomsky, media theorist and critic

Representation of individuals ‘A Vietnamese peasant said, “First they bomb us as much as they please, then they film it”. Film director Peter Davis understood when he commented, “The second confrontation of the Vietnamese with American technology is only slightly less humiliating than the first”.’ Calvin Pryluck, film scholar

MEDIA

There is a complex relationship between the people who are shown in a documentary, the documentary producer and the audience. The complexity comes from three directions. First, there is the importance

of the public’s right to know. Second, there are the rights of the individual being fi lmed. Third, there is the audience’s reaction. Current affairs programs and documentaries are often about society’s ‘victims’ — people who have been unable to defend themselves. Unfortunately this has often included an inability to defend themselves against fi lmmakers. Documentaries use human beings as evidence in their expositions. They exploit people and expose their lives. This may be with good intentions, but the results can be disastrous. Two documentaries concerned with poverty made in Canada in the 1960s turned out badly for their subjects, who felt humiliated and degraded after the screenings. They were mocked by their neighbours and eventually felt they had to remove their children from local schools. More recently in Australia, a pregnant teenage girl who featured in Dennis O’Rourke’s fi lm Cunnamulla threatened legal action, saying she was embarrassed and upset at her portrayal.

Institutions and documentaries Unlike current affairs programs, documentaries are not good ratings boosters for the commercial networks. They are the fi rst programs to be cut if money is tight. Commercial networks often see documentaries made in the public interest as non-profit items of little interest to advertisers. Commercial interests also influence the subject matter of documentaries. In a New York Times article, John Culhane listed a number of subjects that are taboo on commercial television. They included controversial investigations into big business, the networks themselves, the military–industrial complex and nuclear power. Controversy that risks offending advertisers is not popular with commercial television networks. Public service television, such as the ABC, features many more documentaries than the commercial networks. Yet public service television can also operate under pressures that affect the subject matter of programs. Too much criticism of the government of the day can result in future budget ‘efficiency cuts’. So program producers will sometimes censor a program themselves to avoid the risk of giving offence.


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Audience When documentary producers talk of the ‘public’s right to know’, they are making an assumption about the audience. They are suggesting that if the audience is shown that something is wrong, public opinion will mobilise to correct it. There are many cases where this has occurred, but there are also many where it has not. Modern audience research has shown that media effects and audience reaction are highly complex (see pages 156–64). Figure 11.4: &RIES WITH EVERYTHING IN -ORGAN 3PURLOCKS 3UPER 3IZE -E 7HETHER A DOCUMENTARY HAS THE POWER TO INČUENCE AUDIENCE MEMBERS AND CHANGE BEHAVIOUR IS AS YET UNPROVEN

Activities 1. Watch a documentary to identify its use of the

2.

3.

4. 5.

6.

five central elements described by John Corner (pages 204). Briefly describe the sequences in the documentary that illustrate particular elements, including the exposition or argument (what the documentary is saying). Make a list of documentaries you believe have made a difference in national affairs. Why do you think they’ve made a difference? Review a documentary on a controversial topic to see if it examines the deeper causes of the problem or merely sensationalises the symptoms or effects. Debate whether there is a place for the search for ‘truth’ in the modern documentary. View a documentary and select some significant shots for analysis. Does the framing or shot size affect the meaning in any way? Would different points of view have been implied with different framings? Suggest framings for different effects. Compare several documentaries dealing with the same subject. Discuss the differences in the exposition.

7. Some analysts argue that documentary makers have

a duty of care to the people who are the subjects of their programs. What do you think? Discuss this issue in class. 8. Watch a selection of documentaries and classify them according to the main style they adopt (see page 204). Justify your decisions about the classifications. 9. Watch some older documentaries and discuss any variations you perceive in the presentation of ‘reality’ compared with that presented in modern programs. Documentaries dealing with nuclear power, the environment or transport are good for comparison. Also good are Australian historical documentaries about rural development.

Documentary writing ‘You don’t so much make the film as the film makes you!’ Dennis O’Rourke, documentary filmmaker

Planning Many documentaries look as though they are just fi lming something that was already there. No need for much planning — just pick up the camera. Nothing could be further from the truth. Most documentary fi lmmakers spend months in planning.

The topic Out of the vastness of actuality or reality, the documentary creator chooses a topic. The topic does not just come out of thin air. It is not objective and neutral. The topic a fi lmmaker chooses will be influenced by a range of factors, including institutional factors and the fi lmmaker’s own life experiences, personality and political beliefs, as well as the nature of the institution in which he or she works. The documentary maker Michael Rabiger suggests choosing manageable topics that match the

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producer’s budget and capabilities. Newspapers, magazines, books and even noticeboards can be sources of documentary topics. Rabiger proposes the following questions: • Do I already have some knowledge and opinions about this topic? • Is this a subject I have a strong emotional connection with? • What is unusual or interesting about it? • How narrowly attention?

can

the

program

focus

its

Think small, think local, Rabiger advises. A film about inner-city life may be too large and unwieldy. However, 24 hours in the life of a particular café in the city may offer a great deal. Experience in the small world can represent the larger world around it. Once the topic has been settled on, the filmmaker can plan to use certain people, places and events to present a point of view of the topic. These are carefully selected, but are presented as being somehow typical of the way things are. This planning process involves research, visualising, arranging interviews and developing the central idea, or exposition.

Research In large production units, a team of researchers works on a documentary. By contrast, in a smallscale independent production, individual filmmakers and writers must often do the research themselves. However, all tend to follow a concept development scheme based on the stages outlined on this page.

Visualising

keep the discussion lively and spontaneous, the most interesting questions are left until the actual filmed interview. An interview can be held anywhere, but the setting does affect the meaning. An interview subject may be more relaxed and communicative at home, or they may feel more anonymous — just one of the crowd — in a park. Unusual settings can add drama and interest to the interview. The setting can also provide a comment on the interview. For example, a documentary series on car crash safety carried out many of its interviews with automotive experts in a car wrecker’s yard. In the controversial documentary Against Nature (1997), interviews with environmentalists were often filmed against odd backdrops, such as rows of nude mannequins. At the time, many environmentalists said this made the interview subjects look absurd. Interviews usually begin with factual questions. These put the interview subject at ease. The more emotionally gripping questions are asked towards the end of the interview.

‘The current affairs reporter may desperately want an expert to interview, but also must consider whether the “talent” is good for television. I once interviewed someone who was so nervous [that] their shaking legs were making a knocking sound and the sound recordist complained. The reporter must consider whether the line-up of experts has appeal, as well as providing a range of viewpoints.’ Peter Couchman, current affairs reporter and anchor

MEDIA

What can be shown? Television and film are visual media, and a documentary uses what can be seen as its main evidence. Action-filled pictures are preferable to lots of shots of people talking. This is the restriction of television, according to veteran current affairs anchor and reporter Peter Couchman. ‘You can only tell the part of the story the pictures will allow you to tell.’ Documentary makers select pictures of specific people and events from the full range of all possible people and events. These limited selections are then used to represent the larger reality associated with the topic.

Vox pops can be used as light or humorous relief from serious narration or in-depth interviews. The term vox pop is short for the Latin vox populi, which means ‘voice of the people’. The technique consists of interviewing seemingly random members of the general public on the street, with each person being asked the same question. The replies are then strung together in a sequence. Vox pops are useful for suggesting there is general agreement about an issue. They can also suggest the opposite — that there is a wide disparity of opinion.

Arranging interviews

Developing the central idea

The researcher or producer arranges the interviews during the planning and development stage of a documentary. In current affairs programs, the reporter arranges the interviews. Before filming, some general questions are asked of the interview subjects to determine if they will make ‘good television’. To

Once research has clarified the exposition, many documentary makers attempt to write it out as a single sentence. The supporting evidence is then listed in point form under the statement of the exposition. Interviews and action footage are included in the plan.


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One unique aspect of the documentary is that the exposition is often modified as the production of the program continues. The full expression of its ideas may not be finalised until late in the production.

The documentary structure After the initial development work on the documentary, the material must be organised into a logical pattern. The resulting framework should show the relationship between the ideas and the supporting evidence.

Narrative conventions The documentary genre borrows some of its characteristics from the narrative genre (see page 8). The structure of most documentaries is dramatic. In other words, there is a definite beginning, middle and end, and a focus on character and conflict. Other conventions of the narrative media forms are also used, including music, special settings and lighting. The beginning. The orientation has to capture audience attention as quickly as possible. There are many ways of doing this. The central question of the documentary can be posed at the beginning in an intriguing way. The most dramatic piece of action footage can be placed at the beginning, or quick interview cuts showing conflicting opinions can be used to capture audience attention. The middle. The complication stage should be the most compelling. The middle section often examines the issue in human terms, with a focus on people and their opinions. Conflict is heightened in the middle section of the program. The script may even develop this conflict to provide blockages to the fulfilment of the exposition. For example, just when the exposition seems to have been made clear, a piece of apparently conflicting evidence may be introduced. However, all complications must eventually support the exposition, just as the narrative hero triumphs at the end of a dramatic movie. An example of complication built into the narration is shown below.

At this point the audience is in no doubt as to what the program is saying. It may even suggest a course of action the audience can take to address the problem.

Conflict Issues that involve some kind of conflict make good documentary topics. Conflict can be between people with different beliefs, different goals, different circumstances or ambitions. The conflict can also be within an individual, between individuals and their surroundings, or between generations or social classes. Conflict in documentaries is often shown as developing through several stages. This allows the documentary to use the narrative technique of complication and tension. The conflict must be shown in action; otherwise it remains no more than an abstract idea in the mind of the filmmaker. Usually some kind of confrontation is orchestrated for the cameras so the audience can see the conflict for themselves. For example, a program may be about a young woman’s battle with longterm unemployment. The conflict can be shown if she is filmed visiting an employment agency or at a job interview. Clashes with parents or meetings with luckier friends or successful classmates may also illuminate the conflict.

Movement Additional strength can be given to the narrative elements of a documentary if the action has a sense of development or movement. According to documentary maker Michael Rabiger, this movement can take at least three forms: • Physical movement, which can be represented by a journey, a change of job or a change of city • Movement in time, which can be represented, say, by the change of seasons, the growth of a child or a change over a historical period • Psychological change, which can be represented, say, by an athlete overcoming fear of failure or an ex-prisoner adjusting to the world outside.

.ARRATOR

Music and sound effects

AND THE STREET KIDSl PROBLEMS ARE THE RESULT OF INCREASING YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT A POVERTY CYCLE AND THE BREAKDOWN OF THE FAMILY

Sound is effective in producing an emotional response in the audience. Sound can also work to either support the image or conflict with it and create an alternative meaning (see pages 25–6). In Dennis O’Rourke’s documentary Half Life, about nuclear testing in the South Pacific, the sound conflicts with the images. Hawaiian guitar music mocks the idea of a South Pacific paradise. Meanwhile beeping noises mixed over the interviews create the impression of background radioactivity.

"UT FOR SOME THIS SIMPLY ISNlT TRUE 3AMANTHA IS AND FROM A WELL TO DO NUCLEAR FAMILY UNIT 3HElS A STRAIGHT ! STUDENT AND A PRIVATE SCHOOL RUNAWAY

The end. The documentary makes the exposition fully apparent by the resolution stage. Any complication built into the exposition must be resolved.

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Structuring the exposition Edgar Willis and Camille D’Arienzo have suggested five commonly recurring patterns used to structure documentary expositions: • Chronological order of events • An order based on location, such as a journey • Classification order, such as the effects of a problem on different groups of people or different environments • Cause-and-effect order, such as program on drugs and their effects

a

• Problem and solution order.

Narration Narration holds the documentary together, providing links between segments and controlling the flow of information. On television, narration serves to make things clear. It can also be used to comment on and reinforce what the pictures already show. Peter Mayeux, Professor of Broadcasting at the University of Nebraska, suggests the following techniques for writing effective narration. • Keep the narration sparse and concise. It should not dominate the program. Narration should not tell the viewers what they can see already. • Give a mixture of on-camera and offcamera narration. • Keep the style conversational. • Relate the narration directly to the progress of the exposition. • Use narration to either support the image or conflict with it to create another meaning. Mayeux gives the example of pictures showing a war-torn city while a poetic voice-over describes the city as it once was. The narration conflicts starkly with the image and thus creates a sense of great loss.

MEDIA

Two other aspects of narration to consider are style and timing. Like news reports, documentaries use the specialised writing style of broadcast journalism (see pages 325–30). In relation to timing, documentary makers sometimes write the narration and cut the pictures to suit; at other times they may write the narration to suit already edited film sequences. In either case it is important to know the exact length of the narration. A rule of thumb is to aim for a speed of three words per second.

Figure 11.5: )N -ARK ,EWISS DOCUMENTARY #ANE 4OADS !N 5NNATURAL (ISTORY HUMOUR FORMS PART OF THE POINT OF VIEW OR EXPOSITION

Scripting Scripting for a documentary normally progresses alongside the other production stages. For example, aspects of the narration may not be written until the end of production. There are usually three stages in script production: these are the treatment, the outline and the full script. • The treatment sets out most of the main ideas, and shows the relationship between the main points and supporting evidence. It also suggests the final structure of the program. The treatment is a ‘living’ document that changes as the documentary production proceeds.


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• The outline gives an explanation of the basic topic and exposition. It describes the purpose of the program, the audience and the content for major sequences, as well as the overall style of the documentary.

• The full script is often not completed until near the end of production. A variety of script styles may be used. However, news journalists often work on documentary projects, so many of them continue to use the news script style (see page 328).

Activities 1. Think of three or four topics you believe could make

5. Storyboard several scenes showing the conflict

effective documentary subjects. Now consider the questions Michael Rabiger asks when choosing the topic for a documentary. Apply them to your topics and write down your responses. 2. Using a documentary topic as the starting point, develop an exposition based on research, visuals and interviews. Follow these stages in the development process: (a) Begin by listing all possible interview subjects for the topic. (b) Make a list of supporting resources such as library references, magazines and newspaper articles. (c) List some visuals that illustrate the topic. Aim to include as many shots of action and movement as you can. 3. As the basis for an exposition, develop a point of view on a topic of your own choice. Follow these stages: (a) Research the topic using at least three or four sources. Take notes. (b) Script and structure the documentary. (c) Once you have some knowledge and understanding of the topic, develop the point of view you will take. (d) Express this point of view as a single sentence. (e) Present the single-sentence viewpoint on a page supported by notes from the sources as evidence. 4. Analyse and evaluate a documentary focusing on the following key aspects of its structure: (a) The beginning — how has audience attention been gained? (b) The middle — how does the program use people to focus on the problem? (c) Complications — list any complications in the middle section. Explain how these are introduced (for example, in the narration or via interviews). (d) Conflict — list the main conflicts and evaluate one or two scenes in which the conflict is actually shown rather than described. (e) Movement/development — how has the program created a sense of movement, progress or development to add to the narrative elements?

behind an issue at your school. To begin, think of some current issues in your school that would suit the documentary makers’ criteria of conflict. Write down one topic and then picture how you could show the conflict in action. Draw the scenes. For example, the conflict could be as simple as an individual’s struggle to gain a good academic result. A few scenes before and during a stressful exam could show this conflict. 6. View a documentary and note how the program moves from one sequence to another. Is the linkage made by narration, sound or visual means? Is the linkage made through time or location connections? Is it made by cause and effect or problem and solution? Suggest other ways the linkage could have been made.

PRODUCTION TASK 7. The style of a documentary can have a significant

impact on the meaning communicated. Make two documentaries on the same topic with the same exposition. Each documentary should be three to five minutes long. One documentary should be in the self-reflexive style, acknowledging the presence of the filmmaker. The second may be in one of the other styles, such as fully narrated, mixed, cinémavérité or docudrama (see types of documentaries, pages 204–5).

WRITTEN TASK 8. Analyse and evaluate a documentary of your choice,

and then produce a 600-word written response. Your report should deal with the aspects set out below. You may find it easier to write the report using headings. (a) Describe the style of the program. (b) Investigate the use of generic elements (observation, interview, mise-en-scène, exposition). (c) Provide a plan of the structure. (d) Analyse the use of elements from the narrative genre (beginning, middle, end, conflict, movement, music and sound). (e) Analyse the use of narration. (f) Evaluate the effectiveness of the program and its particular representation of reality.

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Docudrama If you reflect on the impact of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the ordinary people involved, do you think of the characters in the movie United 93 (2006)? What pictures come to mind when you think of the assassination of US President Kennedy in 1963? The presidential motorcade? Jackie Kennedy in the back seat of the car? Kevin Costner as Jim Garrison? When you think of the Jewish experience of the Nazi Holocaust, do you still see the little girl in the red jacket in Schindler’s List (1993)?

What is a docudrama? A docudrama is a television or fi lm narrative based on real people and actual events. Docudramas could well be called nonfiction dramas. Docudramas are re-enactments of events as they are supposed to have actually happened, and most are produced as realist fi lms (see page 229). Typically, docudramas do not use the voice-over techniques of traditional documentaries. Once events have begun, docudramas rely on the same conventions as fictional narrative. Being part documentary, the docudrama shares most of the features of the expository genre (see page 8). There may also be elements of the report genre. For example, actual news reports are included in JFK. But in most docudramas, these aspects are subservient to a strong Hollywood-style story because the docudrama also follows the conventions of the narrative genre. The docudrama’s use of the narrative structure of fictional drama means that aspects of the real story may be changed. It is a matter of constant debate among producers just how much dramatic licence is permissible. Some say it ultimately depends on what changes the audience will accept before they dismiss the docudrama as ‘unrealistic’ or ‘inaccurate’.

Docudrama and traditional documentary The genre of docudrama developed as a result of three problems fi lmmakers found with the traditional documentary genre.

MEDIA

• Traditional documentaries claim to deliver the truth, but they can never present more than a very selective view of reality.

Figure 11.6: )N *&+ DIRECTOR /LIVER 3TONE INTERCUT ACTUAL NEWS FOOTAGE WITH DRAMATISED RE CREATIONS 7HAT IS THE EFFECT OF THIS ON THE PUBLIC MEMORY OF THE EVENT &OR ANYONE BORN AFTER THE MOVIE MAY BE THE PRIME SOURCE OF THEIR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE ASSASSINATION

• Traditional methods of documentary exclude reenactments and scripted dialogue; therefore they can never penetrate beyond the surface. They can never show thoughts or inner feelings. • Vast areas of subject matter are closed to traditional documentary makers. Nothing can be shown that occurred before the 1890s, when fi lm was invented. No secret deals behind closed doors can be shown. Events that turned out to be important but were not fi lmed at the time would be off limits. Excluded would be some of the most significant events of the twentieth century. For example, no fi lmed record of the operation of the Nazi extermination camps has survived (if it ever existed). The makers of docudramas claim they give audiences a deeper understanding of people and events. Traditional documentaries can’t provide this because they can never get beneath the surface of the people involved. Dramatisations have the power of narrative to absorb the audience.


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Features of docudrama ‘I think the artist has the right to interpret and reinterpret history and the events of his time.’ Oliver Stone, film director

In the social sciences, the idea of cause and effect is very important. Social forces produce significant change. Economic data, graphs of community health spending, population trends and so on can be used to show cause and effect. In docudramas, however, these forces are shown through the codes and conventions of visual language (see pages 5–6). Critics say this obliges an audience to judge matters of accuracy and truth by aesthetic standards — audiences don’t say, ‘That was accurate’; they say, ‘That was a good film’. Cause and effect, accuracy and truth are expressed in the docudrama through the elements of plot, character, setting and exposition.

Plot In the best Hollywood tradition, a docudrama is usually centred on a good story. This restricts the film to what some historians have scornfully called ‘the history of happenings’, relying on great events, names and dates. The traditional narrative stages of orientation, complication and resolution are imposed on real people and events. The genre chosen to present the story provides a further restriction on the presentation of real events. For example, the genre may demand a love interest and a strong climax through a personal confrontation. The director of a docudrama is always torn between two imperatives — whether to be true to the demands of telling a good story or to be true to the facts.

Character ‘The classic Hollywood model makes history unknowable apart from its effect upon individual characters.’ David Bordwell, film academic

A central theme of most feature docudramas is the relationship between the individual and society. As a result, docudramas tend to highlight individuals rather than social movements or impersonal processes such as international money flows. Characters are expanded to represent the individual and collective causes that may be operating in any social or historical event.

Figure 11.7: -ERYL 3TREEP AS ,INDY #HAMBERLAIN IN %VIL !NGELS -ANY DOCUDRAMAS ARE DOMINATED BY THE STORYTELLING IMPERATIVE 4HE DEMANDS OF GENRE AND NARRATIVE ARE IMPOSED ON THE DOCUMENTED MATERIAL OF REAL LIFE Jim Garrison in JFK is a strong expanded hero whose motivation is a desire to solve the unknown and make the world a better place. He holds the docudrama narrative together. By overcoming a series of conflicts, intrigues and blockages, he single-handedly brings about a resolution to the film. The real-life Garrison, however, is held in much lower regard by assassination researchers. While the movie version of Garrison is a lone crusader, the character actually personifies about 12 researchers, including the real-life Garrison. ‘We take liberties, make his work larger and make him more of a hero,’ says Oliver Stone.

‘What matters is not the re-telling of great historical events, but the poetic awakening of the people who figured in those events. We should re-experience the social and human motives which led people to think, feel and act just as they did in historical reality.’ Georg Lukacs, philosopher and literary critic

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According to film analyst Leger Grindon, central characters in docudramas appear and interact in the following ways. Generalised characters. If the focus of the docudrama is on the experience of ordinary people, the scriptwriters may assemble characters to represent their class or culture or a social movement. The events in the film may touch on the lives of these ordinary people and leave them changed in some way. Generalised characters are similar to the ‘everyman’ characters of medieval morality plays. One person is meant to stand for everyone. Oliver Stone says of Jim Garrison: ‘I was taken with the way a man starts to investigate one small corner of the conspiracy and comes to realise a small-town whodunit has global repercussions. He is darkened and sacrificed, yet he wins his soul in the end.’ Great leaders. If the story cannot be generalised to the level of ordinary people, filmmakers tend to deal with the subject matter through a heroic leader. Events are at least partly explained by the psychology of the leader. For example, the events that led to the creation of the Church of England may be explained in part by Henry VIII’s appetite for wives. The Indian independence movement is symbolised through the heroism of one man in Richard Attenborough’s film Gandhi (1983).

Setting ‘In making the viewer an eyewitness to what purport to be past events, the historical film must pretend to show more about the past than its makers could possibly know. It must fill the field of vision with objects that serve to maintain the illusion of reality. For example, Charlemagne was crowned emperor at Rome on Christmas night 800 AD; several chronicles record the event. But they do not describe what the interior of old St Peter’s looked like.’ David Herlihy, historian

Film is a descriptive medium. The camera records minute details placed within the frame to give the impression of authenticity (see mise-en-scène, page 17). Part of the appeal of the docudrama is the experience of ‘being there’, at the place where it happened.

Romance. Unions between characters can be used to represent the alliances of social groups, political forces or other cause agents. According to Leger Grindon, the chief stereotypes are of the great leader and the lover. The fate of the lovers points to the underlying exposition. A positive union can mean the reconciliation of conflicting forces while a negative outcome may suggest that the competing social forces can never be resolved.

MEDIA

Alternatives to heroes. Soviet filmmakers of the 1920s, such as Sergei Eisenstein (Battleship Potemkin), searched for ways of treating docudrama without focusing on individual characters. Eisenstein reduced characterisation to basic stereotypes so that the mass movements themselves could be the heroes. ‘We brought collective action onto the screen,’ said Eisenstein, ‘in contrast to the individualism of the bourgeois cinema.’

Figure 11.8: 5NITED IS A DOCUDRAMA CLAIMING TO RECONSTRUCT THE EVENTS ON BOARD ONE OF THE FOUR AIRLINERS HIJACKED ON 3EPTEMBER ,EARNING THAT THE PLANE IS TO BE ČOWN INTO THE #APITOL "UILDING IN 7ASHINGTON SOME PASSENGERS TRY TO OVERPOWER THE HIJACKERS AS A RESULT THE PLANE CRASHES IN A üELD 4HE üLM IS CONTROVERSIAL BECAUSE SOME FAMILY MEMBERS DISAGREE WITH SOME OF THE EVENTS SHOWN .O ONE WHO WAS THERE SURVIVED 4HE üLM SHOWS MORE THAN ANY üLMMAKER COULD POSSIBLY KNOW


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The setting of a docudrama has several uses for the filmmaker. Spectacle. Historical docudramas, in particular, can use setting to create a sense of visual grandeur. According to Leger Grindon, the elements of spectacle include: • period setting, including costumes, architecture and vintage cars • mass action, such as conquering armies or riot scenes • environmental spectacle, such as the Australian outback, violent seas or the Scottish highlands. Authenticity. The dramatisation of events can be cut together with shots of the larger setting to suggest that the events really are happening at this time and place. This is a technique Oliver Stone consistently uses in his film Salvador (1986), based on the experiences of a journalist in war-torn El Salvador. Integration of the hero. A focus on settings and their spectacular elements allows a filmmaker to suggest that characters are linked to the forces affecting larger society. These forces may be social, geographic, economic or military. For example, a shot of a young conscript in a war docudrama as he kisses his girlfriend goodbye can be cut with footage of crowded wharves and farewell parades. The central character is thereby integrated into the larger events.

Conveying the exposition. The setting can express a point of view about the subject of a docudrama. For example, in Eisenstein’s Strike (1924), the factory building represented a point of view on the powerful forces of ‘the bosses’ in the movie.

Exposition Behind the narrative, at the heart of every docudrama, is the exposition. An exposition is an argument supported by evidence (see page 204). The exposition in Jim Sheridan’s In the Name of the Father (1993) is that the four Irishmen accused of the IRA-style Guildford bombings in England were innocent and were wrongfully imprisoned. In JFK the exposition is that there was a conspiracy to kill President Kennedy with involvement from the highest levels of government.

Discourse and representation in the docudrama Discourse Given that the justification for making such films is often ‘the public’s right to know’, the docudrama is typically a political genre. Docudramas share with documentaries the privilege of belonging to the fourth estate, even if they cross the border into fictional

Figure 11.9: )N THE DOCUDRAMA )N THE .AME OF THE &ATHER 'ERRY #ONLON $ANIEL $AY ,EWIS AND HIS LAWYER 'ARETH 0EIRCE %MMA 4HOMPSON GO OVER THE EVIDENCE THAT WILL EVENTUALLY LEAD TO HIS RELEASE 4HE BASIS OF EVERY DOCUDRAMA IS AN EXPOSITION )N THE .AME OF THE &ATHER ARGUES THAT 'ERRY #ONLON WAS WRONGFULLY IMPRISONED FOR AN )2! STYLE BOMBING

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genres (see page 8). Docudramas use the prestigious discourses (see page 192) associated with the information genres such as news, which makes them influential. Thus, in the political fallout following the release of JFK, President George Bush Senior established an independent five-member committee to review and release some of the secret fi les stored since the assassination of President Kennedy. Films set in the past can present a political message to the present. Often the historical subject and setting disguise a message aimed at contemporary society. For example, Michael Collins (1996) commented indirectly on the violence in Northern Ireland at the time. Present-day fi lmmakers may have a variety of motives for proposing historical docudramas. There could be a desire to search for and examine national origins, for example. Many Australian docudramas, such as Breaker Morant (1979), have fulfi lled this need (see Australian fi lm, pages 235–43). There may be nostalgia for a simpler time, or even a desire to criticise a present-day government by implication by focusing on similar events in the distant past.

Representation Docudramas present information differently from written reports. Some of these differences are listed below. • Film focuses on individuals rather than on the underlying structures that produce change. • The amount of conventional information in a fi lm is significantly less than can be conveyed by written accounts. • At the same time, fi lm can cram hundreds of tiny details about life into a single frame. The biggest advantage fi lm has over the written word is its use of mise-en-scène (see page 17). In the case of historical docudramas, antique objects, furnishings, costumes and so on can convey an idea of what it was like to live in a certain period. • Docudramas nearly always sacrifice complexity for action. Their plots must be in constant movement from orientation to climax. Any aspect of the real events that is too complex or is not visual will be ignored. (For more on representation in docudramas, see page 53.)

Activities 1. List some real-life events of public interest that

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

MEDIA

have a strong story line suitable for docudrama treatment. The events could be from the present day, the recent past or some earlier historical period. Analyse the characterisation in a docudrama of your choice. Comment on whether the film uses generalised ‘everyman’ characterisation or relies on the ‘great leader’ approach. Describe the use of setting in a docudrama. Is it used as spectacle, to integrate the hero, to lend authenticity or to convey the exposition? Explain. Suppose you were planning a docudrama of a suitable subject. Select several narrative film genres you could possibly use to convey the subject matter. What variations to the treatment would be required? For example, how would the treatment change if it was presented as a romance as opposed to a thriller? Compare a docudrama and a traditional documentary dealing with the same subject. Evaluate the presentation of information. Which genre do you think has a more valid claim to ‘truth’? List the expositions of several well-known docudramas you have seen. Write a paragraph explaining the argument and presenting some of the supporting evidence.

WRITTEN TASK 7. Analyse and evaluate a docudrama of your choice

on one of the topics set out below, and then write a 600-word report. (a) Plot (b) Character: Is a generalised or great leader used? Is there a romantic interest? (c) Setting: Is the setting used as spectacle, integrating device, authenticating device or vehicle for conveying exposition? (d) Exposition (e) Representation of the topic 8. Select a docudrama film and a traditional documentary dealing with the same topic. Compare the representation of the topic made by each form. Evaluate the relative accuracy and the justification of any claims to truth.

PRODUCTION TASK 9. Make a 30- to 60-second promo (promotional

trailer) for a docudrama film on a topic of your choice. The voice-over in the promo should express the exposition of the program as a question the film will answer. For example, the exposition of JFK could be expressed as, ‘Who really killed Kennedy and what was the involvement of the US government?’ The promo shots should give an indication of plot, character and the use of setting.


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Technology and society

Genre developments Pre-1950s Origins of docudrama in documentaries and newsreels and Hollywood studio epics Early docudramas include ‘story documentaries’ made during World War II to show life during wartime.

1950s–2000 1950s–present British docudrama often associated with political journalism and sociology. US docudrama often focuses on biographies and scandals.

‘Ripped from the headlines’ approach to docudrama takes current events and dramatises them while they are still fresh in the public mind.

1960s–1970s 1960s–mid 1980s Vietnam War, feminism and the civil rights movement increase the involvement of the genre in the political and social culture. Watergate scandal and US bicentenary increase American interest in docudrama.

The docudrama is primarily a ‘made for TV’ genre; relatively few docudrama films are made. Made-for-TV movies overtake Hollywood movies in the US television ratings in 1971.

Made-for-TV movies overtake Hollywood movies in the US television ratings in 1971.

1980s–present Growth of subscription television in the US and later the UK and Australia leads to increase in docudramas as content for factual channels. Pay television companies such as HBO become major producers of docudramas.

Docudrama timeline 1914


1925

Battleship Potemkin (USSR)

1935

Mutiny on the Bounty (US)

1939


1941

Target for Tonight (UK, wartime story documentary)

1943

Silent Village (UK, wartime story documentary)

1953

1953–1957 You Are There (US, early TV series docudrama)

1954

Back of Beyond (Aus., story of the Birdsville mail truck)

1958

A Night to Remember (UK, re-creation of Titanic sinking)

1962

Mutiny on the Bounty (US)

1963

President Kennedy assassinated.

1966

Cathy Come Home (UK, drama on homelessness; leads to a change in British law)

1970

Tora! Tora! Tora! (US/Japan)

1975

End of Vietnam War Dismissal of Whitlam government

1977

Roots (US, TV history of slavery)

1980

Death of a Princess (UK)

1981

Reds (US)

1982

Bodyline (Aus.)

1983

Gandhi (UK), The Dismissal (Aus.)

1984

The Bounty (US remake)

1987

Cry Freedom (UK)

1988

Evil Angels (Aus.)

1989

The Final Days (US, Watergate scandal)

1990s–present

1991

JFK (US)

Cinema release of blockbuster docudramas becomes more common; the genre is less dominated by television releases.

1992

Malcolm X (US)

1993

Schindler’s List (US), In the Name of the Father (UK)

2000

13 Days (US, Cuban missile crisis), The Perfect Storm (US)

2001

September 11: terrorist attacks on New York Nuremberg (US, TV)

2003

Invasion of Iraq

2005

Goodnight and Good Luck (US), End Day (UK)

2006

United 93 (US), The Road to Guantanamo (UK)

2007

Breach (US)

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Film

The medium of film

MEDIA

The audience stampeded in terror at one of the fi rst cinema showings in Paris in 1895. The fi rst movies were made in France by the Lumière brothers (whose name, appropriately, means light). One of the fi lms, L Arrivée d’un Train en Gare de la Ciotat, showed a section of railway station platform bathed in sunlight. Suddenly a train appeared, heading straight for the camera — and the audience. As the train approached, panic broke out in the theatre: people jumped out of their seats and ran for their lives. Audiences are more fi lm literate now. They have grown up with fi lm, know the language and are no longer so easily frightened. But fi lm still possesses the power to transform an ordinary object, such as a train, and make it extraordinary. David Lynch’s Wild at Heart (1990) begins with a fierce explosion. As it turns out, it is nothing more than a match being lighted. The ordinary is instantly transformed by the power of the cinema, suggests fi lm critic Brian Appleyard. For the Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky, the real magic of fi lm is that it has allowed us to turn time into space. The cinema experience is based on time. The audience spends a certain amount of time in the theatre while the camera creates a recorded flow of events. In return for spending time, the audience is transported to all sorts of places and spaces.

The cinema is larger than life. It can amplify both the best and the worst in humanity. It has had a powerful role in twentieth-century tyranny as well as in democracy. The tyranny of Stalin’s Soviet Russia was powerfully reinforced by Sergei Eisenstein’s fi lms. Eisenstein is credited with developing the editing technique ‘collision of images’ or montage (see page 21). Battleship Potemkin (1925), Eisenstein’s heroic fi lm about working-class struggle, was used to support a cruel regime. The Nazi regime in Germany was boosted by the majestic fi lms of Leni Riefenstahl. Her tribute to Hitler and the Nazi movement, Triumph of the Will (1936), although morally abhorrent, is still regarded as one of the masterpieces of fi lm. Hollywood fi lms were as influential as US military and industrial strength in making the twentieth century the American century. The power of fi lm has sold the American dream to millions around the world, while at the same time exposing its dark underside.

Film: a primary medium Jeremy Tunstall has defi ned three levels of attention people typically pay to different forms of media. People can pay primary or close attention, for instance when reading a newspaper. They can pay secondary attention, for example to radio or television while they are


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doing something else. Or they can pay tertiary attention to a medium when it is in the background and below conscious attention, as with department store muzak (uninteresting piped music).

Features of the film experience Film requires complete audience attention. People make a conscious decision to go to the movies. Once there they enter a darkened theatre, which (usually) prevents them from concentrating on anything other than the fi lm. In a darkened cinema, audiences are more prepared to suspend disbelief and be drawn into a story. An audience can experience a fi lm in many ways, including: • Collective and individual. In the cinema the audience experiences the fi lm as isolated individuals but also as part of a large and unknown crowd. In this anonymous gathering, there is plenty of scope for mass behaviour, such as laughing or booing. But there is also opportunity for private reflection. • Voyeuristic. The fi lm experience transforms the audience into ‘peeping Toms’, say some fi lm academics. The fi lm events take place while the audience, invisible in the dark, observes all the characters’ secrets.

• Quality. High-quality sound systems and a large screen reinforce fi lm’s power as a primary medium. Television images are made from pixels or electronic dots. In contrast, fi lm has grain. Being created from light, fi lm images more closely resemble what the eye sees in the natural world.

The storytelling medium The Lumière brothers knew when they showed their early fi lms that people were fascinated by pictures that moved. However, it was not clear what the new invention would be useful for. At the time, people thought of fi lm as a kind of fairground attraction. It was predicted that the novelty would soon wear off. Cinema could have gone in several directions, suggests Brian Appleyard. It might have become a solely documentary medium, or it might have developed into a kind of television, with a variety of different types of programs, such as game shows, news bulletins and music clips. Instead, fi lm became a medium for telling stories. Originally they were short, onereel stories; later they became full-length features. Documentaries and non-narratives are produced, of course, but they are a minor component. The novellength story with well-developed characters and a strong plot has remained the dominant form in the cinema.

Figure 12.1: 4HE 2OOFTOP #INEMA IN -ELBOURNE 4HE CINEMA FEATURES STRIPED CANVAS DECKCHAIRS SYNTHETIC GRASS AND AN ADJOINING BAR AND GRILL 4HE CINEMA EXPERIENCE IS BOTH COLLECTIVE AND INDIVIDUAL ! LARGE PUBLIC GATHERING CREATES A SHARED EXPERIENCE AND THE OPPORTUNITY FOR SHARED BEHAVIOUR

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Activities 1. Determine some of the characteristics of the film

audience by conducting a simple survey. Ask classmates, teachers and family members how often they have been to the cinema within the past month. Collate the responses according to age groups. Use the following categories: 0–14 years; 15–24 years; 25–34 years; 35–44 years; and 45 years and over. Analyse the results and discuss any trends. 2. Film theorists say that film has subsumed (taken over within a larger category) all of the traditional

art forms such as literature, music, art and drama. List the elements from each art form that film has used. For example, film uses plots and characters (among other elements) from literature. 3. Contrast the characteristics of film with those of television (see page 316). 4. Some see film as a transitional technology, halfway between live theatre and virtual reality entertainment. Discuss this idea. Do you think the film medium will be replaced by high-tech screen entertainment?

Film response and promotional texts Film reviews ‘I go to the movies with every experience I can muster — not only in terms of knowing what a particular movie is, but also my experiences of life. Once I start watching a film, I let the movie happen to me. Then I try to combine myself and the movie into my review.’ Roger Ebert, film critic, Chicago Sun-Times

The fi lm review is a personal and critical response to the experience of watching a movie. It belongs to the expository genre (see page 8). Like all expository genre texts, the fi lm review contains a point of view and provides evidence to support that point of view.

Television movie shows The format for most television movie review shows has at least some of the following features.

Duo of reviewers. Around the world, most television movie shows have a pair of presenters. The idea is that two people see a movie and then come out and start talking about it. A duo allows the expression of confl icting points of view — the more opposed their views, the better the television. Audiences have the opportunity to side with one presenter or the other. It helps if the pair is an unlikely or odd couple. For instance, Margaret Pomeranz and David Stratton often disagree with each other’s viewpoint. That he represents a male perspective and she a female perspective is one difference between the two. Also, one is a quietly encyclopedic fi lm expert, while the other is an ordinary viewer with strong opinions. The American reviewers Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert are from opposing Chicago newspapers and use this rivalry to generate confl ict. Film clips. Television’s great strength is its ability to show or demonstrate. Movie review programs usually include clips from the chosen movies. These scenes help the audience understand the presenters’ critiques. They also allow audience members to form their own opinions independently of the reviewers. As TV reviewer and newspaper columnist Kerrie Murphy puts it, ‘What means more . . . that Stratton and Pomeranz said the movie was childish or that you sprayed a mouthful of coffee across the room laughing at a scene from it?’

MEDIA

Figure 12.2: &ORMER -OVIE 3HOW PRESENTERS -ARGARET 0OMERANZ AND $AVID 3TRATTON WHO NOW FRONT THE RIVAL !"# SHOW !T THE -OVIES )N TELEVISION MOVIE REVIEWS THE PRESENTERSl ON SCREEN BICKERING PROVIDES MUCH OF THE SHOWMANSHIP OF THE PROGRAMS

Interviews. Most television review programs include interviews with fi lm directors and independent fi lmmakers. This follows a tradition begun by fi lm societies and cinema clubs.


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Industry information. Occasionally review programs include discussions of new filmmaking techniques and new film technologies. Controversial issues such as the colourisation of older films and the use of digital special effects are also debated. Plot summaries. A basic plot summary that doesn’t give away the ending is common to all types of movie review. The usual approach is to give the ‘premise’ of the movie — the basic narrative idea or situation. Rating system. The tradition of the movie review requires that reviewers give some sort of rating. Since television does not allow much complexity, most simply follow a star rating system. Some, such as Siskel and Ebert’s show, simplify this even further to a ‘thumbs up’ or ‘thumbs down’ rating. Another approach is to use a moving line on a graph (sometimes called a ‘worm’) that plots interest levels during different scenes.

Podcast movie reviews

can also offer a specialist perspective on the film that might not have been immediately apparent to the untrained audience. • Persuasion. Some reviews perform an advertising function for the movie. Studios regard positive film reviews as free advertising. • Entertainment. The average person attends a cinema five times in a year. The readership of film reviews is significantly higher. It follows that many of the people reading film reviews do not go on to see the movie. To some extent, the enjoyment of reading the review substitutes for the pleasure of seeing the film. Both filmmaker and critic are in the entertainment business. Some reviewers deliberately set out to write in an exciting style to capture some of the energy of a popular film. Bad-mouthing a film also draws in audiences for reviewers. Everyone loves to see reviewers really skewer a film occasionally.

Podcast movie reviews are the briefest of all. Mostly they consist of a brief plot summary and a simple star or ‘thumbs up’ rating.

• Psychological needs. The review also meets other needs, such as the need to appear knowledgeable among friends (see uses and gratifications theories, page 161).

Magazine and newspaper reviews

Features of the film review

‘In a daily newspaper,’ says Courier-Mail film reviewer Des Partridge, ‘basically all the reader wants to know is: Is this new movie worth seeing?’ The magazine or newspaper audience is crucial in deciding the tone of the review. A daily newspaper may encourage a loose, informal style. A magazine may be still more informal. At the other end of the spectrum, specialist journals require the reviewer to provide deeper critical analysis. Readers of movie magazines such as Metro or Empire, for example, demand that the reviewer research extensively and present sophisticated interpretations of the reviewed films. The central exposition or argument may be developed over several pages.

The film review is a very flexible genre whose form and content vary according to the medium and the outlet. One important variation is length. Long reviews in quality newspapers can exceed 1000 words. Short reviews may be just four or five sentences long. Even a short review will give plot details and an evaluation (usually in the last sentence). Following are common features of film reviews:

Purposes of the film review

• Classification, cast and credits list. Most reviews provide basic information about the film, perhaps in table format, near the start of the article. Although these details are minimal, they provide some evidence for the exposition and reader evaluation.

Film reviews have the following basic functions: • Analysis. Reviewers analyse a movie by breaking it down into its component parts. These may include film techniques, actors’ performances and the story line. The amount and kind of information readers demand depends on the type of publication. • Evaluation. Audiences expect the reviewer to make critical judgements about the movie. If they haven’t seen the movie yet, the audience expects a judgement about quality. On the other hand, if the audience has already seen the movie, they may expect a ‘re-view’, or second look, contributing a deeper level of understanding. This second look

• Exposition. A review is a personal critical response and therefore consists of a point of view supported by evidence from the film. This use of an argument sustained by evidence is called an exposition. The reviewer uses analysis and evaluation to carry the exposition to its conclusion.

• The plot. The plot gives the story line or the outline of what happens in the film. Reviews usually provide the main details of the plot, except the ending, and also evaluate the plot. • The stars. Filmgoers are interested in the acting stars and will often choose a movie on the basis of who appears in it. Responding to audience demand, reviewers devote some of the review space to evaluating the performances of well-known actors.

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• Other elements of the film. Evidence to support the exposition is often drawn from a number of other film elements as well. These include the following: – The theme of the fi lm is the point it is trying to make, or what is learned from the fi lm. For example, the fi lm may be about gender or racial issues, love or courage. – The script is the written text of the fi lm, including dialogue and stage directions. Reviewers may examine the effectiveness of dialogue, characterisation and the use of climaxes. – Acting is important to the success of the fi lm and a significant area of comment for reviewers. – Setting, costumes and make-up help give life and atmosphere to a fi lm. They are especially important in period fi lms. – Direction of the fi lm is crucial in bringing all the component parts together. Some fi lm theorists regard the director of the fi lm as similar to the author of a novel. (This is called auteur theory.)

But most blurbs are manufactured specially for the studios, who ask fi lm critics to produce a catchy sentence for their fi lm. Some critics make their living as professional blurb writers. One such writer was Jim Whaley, a TV host based in Atlanta, Georgia. Whaley called Home Alone (1990) ‘The funniest fi lm of the year!’ He later insisted, ‘I honestly thought it was.’ As soon as a fi lm came out, Whaley would send a list of five or six ‘raves’ to the fi lm studios. One or two would usually be chosen to feature in the advertising. For the movie Die Hard 2 (1990), Whaley wrote, ‘More nerve tingling excitement than any movie in memory. You simply haven’t seen an action movie unless you’ve seen Die Hard 2.’ Occasionally there is a movie every major critic hates. But the studios are not discouraged. As Frank Thompson puts it, ‘You can always fi nd somebody in some small town who sees his only chance to have his name flash across the country and have his mother see it.’

– Cinematography is the art or technique of fi lm photography. It is often evaluated in aesthetic terms. – Editing in fi lm involves techniques that help build the story. (See pages 21–6.) – The sound is important both in creating a sense of reality and in intensifying emotion. Diegetic sound (e.g. lifelike sound effects) helps create reality. Nondiegetic sound (e.g a music soundtrack) does the opposite in helping build drama. Some realist drama has little or no nondiegetic sound (see page 25).

Movie blurbs

MEDIA

‘One of the top movies of the year!’ This kind of praise is typical of the classic blurb. A blurb is a short publicity statement written by the fi lm producers. Lift-out quotes from the blurbs are often featured on movie posters and billboards. Have you ever wondered how the studios fi nd these ecstatic comments? Very occasionally they are taken from glowing reviews by well-known reviewers. If the studios are lucky, a respected reviewer will say their fi lm has ‘screen excitement like you’ve never seen before’. The publicity staff can then splash these words across every poster. More often, the studio has to go digging for good blurbs. The American fi lm commentator Frank Thompson says, ‘You might wonder if publicity dispensers look for a few positive words in an otherwise negative review. You know the kind: “It’s a wonder smelly garbage like this can even run through a projector!” shows up in the ad as “. . . It’s a wonder . . .!” ’

Figure 12.3: 3OME MOVIE CRITICS EARN EXTRA INCOME BY WRITING BLURBS FOR MOVIES AS SOON AS THEY ARE RELEASED 4HE CRITICS SEND LONG LISTS OF BLURBS HOPING THE STUDIOS WILL BUY ONE OR TWO

Internet sites Most movie production houses have websites. The sites are a kind of advertising. People visit them for information about movies, but may spend hours exploring the site and downloading games, gimmicks and promotions. Teaser clips are offered by most sites. Often the clips are accompanied by stills, sound bites and background information on the characters. Competitions and quizzes based on the movie further encourage the audience to see the fi lm.


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Film posters The fi lm poster is a form of advertising that is similar to a magazine or newspaper display advertisement (see pages 506–10). As with all advertising, the poster can draw on a range of genres to persuade people to buy. It shares some characteristics of texts belonging to the literary non-narrative genre, along with the social comment cartoon (see page 480). Because its subject is a fi lm narrative, the fi lm poster also includes some characteristics of the narrative genre, such as character, setting and (suggested) action.

Although these advertisements must also stop people in their tracks — in this case as they thumb through a magazine — display advertisements often feature substantial text. This can be read at leisure once the reader’s attention has been captured.

Purposes of the film poster As advertising for the movie, the fi lm poster’s main function is to increase box office sales. It aims to create an identity for the fi lm as a single product different from its competitors. According to television and fi lm theorist John Ellis, the creation of a narrative image is a key function of the poster. The narrative image seeks to capture what the fi lm is like. Audiences gain an idea of the narrative image of a fi lm that helps them make a decision as to whether to see it or not. The narrative image of the fi lm is not a summary of the fi lm or its story line. It is, rather, a tantalising promise of what the fi lm may deliver. So the fi lm poster is a kind of bait for fi lm audiences. The poster designer aims to create in the minds of the audience a desire to know more. It builds audience expectations. The poster poses a question the audience can answer only by attending the movie. Stripped to the bare essentials, the question is, ‘What happened?’ John Ellis calls this question the enigma (or riddle) of the fi lm. Film publicity deepens the enigma to encourage the audience to see the fi lm. The poster of the 1996 fi lm Loch Ness creates an enigma for the fi lm by using an image of the lake and the tag, ‘Undiscovered . . . undisturbed . . . until now!’ The audience wants to know what happened. They can answer this riddle only by seeing the movie.

Features of film posters Like magazine display advertisements, fi lm posters have a headline, an image and some very brief text. The text is usually in the form of a caption (also known as a tag) and cast details. The poster is different from the magazine display advertisement in that it targets an audience that is physically on the move — usually walking or driving past. The fi lm poster must capture the attention and interest of the passer-by. So the message is almost all in the picture, headline and tag — the audience barely glances at any other text on the poster. This is in contrast to most magazine display advertisements.

Figure 12.4: 4HE POSTER FOR *AWS HAS BECOME ONE OF (OLLYWOODlS CLASSICS 4HE THEME OF THE MOVIE IS REDUCED TO A SIMPLE IDEA q INNOCENT SWIMMER MONSTER SHARK 4HE BATTLE BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL IS CLEARLY REPRESENTED AS IS THE GENRE OF THE MOVIE 4HE IMAGE IS SIMPLE AND EASILY REMEMBERED Poster design incorporates some or all of the following features: • Genre references. The picture in a film poster usually gives an indication of the film’s genre. For example, a poster for an action movie might suggest a lone hero and high-powered gun violence. A poster for a musical may suggest sexual attraction and romance.

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• The stars. Audiences have expectations of movies starring their favourite actors. Many stars are referred to as ‘bankable’ because their power to draw audiences virtually guarantees fi nancial success. Posters focus on these stars. For example, the headline from the Terminator 2 (1991) poster simply says ‘Schwarzenegger’. The lettering is bigger than the movie title. • The narrative image. Although it is a still image, the picture on a film poster suggests a story. Sometimes this image does not appear in the movie at all. More often, a key visual from the narrative is frozen into a

single striking picture that represents the whole film. Ideally the frozen visual should contain or suggest the main elements of the theme. If the movie deals with a battle between good and evil, then the poster should represent these elements. • Simplicity. Simplicity helps audience recall. Film posters aim to create a narrative image that the audience can easily remember. Film posters have simple pictures and text. When designing a poster, the advertising agency often tries to reduce the theme of the fi lm to one or two very short sentences. The poster is then built up from there.

Activities 1. Collect several reviews by the same reviewer.

2.

3. 4.

5.

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Analyse them according to the following questions: (a) What are the most common film elements the reviewer chooses to evaluate? For example, does the reviewer concentrate on the stars, the camera work or the director’s vision? (b) How much of the review is analysis and how much is evaluation? Mark the areas of evaluation with a highlighter pen. (c) What seems to be the personal taste of the reviewer? Using the reviews as evidence, try to work out this reviewer’s various viewpoints and prejudices. Collect reviews of the same film drawn from a wide variety of publications, such as newspapers, magazines and cinema journals. Analyse them according to the following questions: (a) What audience is each review intended for, and how can you tell this from the review itself? (b) Which areas of interest in the film are common to most of the reviews? (c) Is there a common negative criticism of the film, or, alternatively, is one review very different in its criticisms from most of the others? Select a movie and summarise the plot in 120–180 words. Do not reveal the ending. In 180–240 words, analyse and evaluate one of the common review elements in a movie of your choice. For example, concentrate on sound, editing, plot, the stars or the themes. Some examples of movies that are useful for particular review elements are listed below. • Sound: Citizen Kane • Editing: Alfred Hitchcock’s movies • Plot: action movies Imagine you are a professional ‘blurb machine’ who sends blurbs to major studios hoping they will be used to promote new films. Write blurbs for some recently released films. Write five or six blurbs for each film.

6. Design a website for a movie. Plan the quizzes,

games and teaser clips you will include on the site. Design a front page for the site, complete with images, links and background graphics. 7. From your favourite film, select a key scene to freeze for use in a film poster. Refer to the features of posters before selecting a scene. 8. Reduce the theme of a film to one or two sentences. Then suggest tags (captions) for posters advertising the film.

WRITTEN TASK 9. In 600 words, review a film for a magazine or

newspaper of your choice. Your review should display the main features of the genre. Focus on those elements of the film your audience would be most interested in.

PRODUCTION TASK 10. Prepare a poster advertising a movie of your choice.

The poster should display the main features of the genre. Attach a written description of the advertising appeal of the poster and its target audience. 11. Prepare a comprehensive marketing strategy for a movie of your choice. Suggestions for movies include a non-Hollywood, non-mainstream, arthouse movie or a movie from Asia, Africa or South America. (a) Prepare an advertising poster. (b) Provide a description of any merchandising, such as clothing, computer games, toys, food specialties or other franchising arrangements. Following the description of each item, explain the role of the item in the overall marketing strategy and its target audience and projected appeal. (c) Suggest some marketing stunts or events that would attract large crowds and wide news coverage as free advertising. Briefly explain the role of the event in the overall strategy.


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Film movements Whether or not a fi lm belongs to a fi lm movement depends on two criteria, say fi lm academics David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson. 1. Does the fi lm share features and characteristics of other fi lms from a particular time period or nation? For example, consider any Hong Kong martial arts fi lm made between 1979 and 1989. If it is similar to other Hong Kong fi lms of the 1980s, then it may be part of the ‘Hong Kong New Wave’. 2. Do the fi lmmakers share a belief about what makes a good fi lm with a circle of other fi lmmakers who work in a similar system? For example, after 1945 a group of French fi lm writers discussed good and bad fi lms, and then went out and fi lmed their own. Their fi lms became part of the ‘French New Wave’. Their ideas and writing still influence fi lmmakers today.

Soviet montage cinema Soviet montage cinema was a fi lm movement in Russia during the 1920s that developed around an editing technique called montage (see page 21). Editing styles developed in the early Soviet cinema are still used in most modern fi lms. Soviet montage cinema is based on the experiments of Lev Kuleshov. In one experiment in his fi lm workshop, Kuleshov edited together camera shots of an actor’s face with shots of a bowl of soup. Audiences assumed that the man was looking at the soup and was hungry. In a later experiment he cut together separate shots of a Russian man in Moscow pointing, the White House in Washington DC and the steps of a church in Moscow. Audiences concluded that the man was in Washington pointing at the White House and about to walk up its steps. This false connection created in the minds of the audience is called the Kuleshov Effect. The idea underpins all modern editing. Sergei Eisenstein used Kuleshov’s fi ndings to come up with his own ideas about collision of images (see page 21) or montage. Eisenstein believed that if one shot was ‘collided’ or juxtaposed with another confl icting shot, the audience could infer a third meaning. For instance, when a shot of a man holding his shoulder is collided with a shot of a gun being fi red, audiences will commonly derive a third meaning (which is not shown in either shot): that the man has been hit by a bullet. Eisenstein’s collision of images idea was a product of his culture — revolutionary communist Russia. The idea was based on the Marxist theory of the dialectic, one of the foundations of communist thinking.

The dialectic theory states that when opposite forces of history clash, they create a third way that is new and different from either.

Films of the Soviet montage cinema The best known examples of Soviet montage include: • Battleship Potemkin (1924). Sergei Eisenstein’s fi lm is based on the true story of a mutiny on board the Potemkin in St Petersburg in 1905. The Tsar’s soldiers later opened fi re on the ship and its supporters on shore. The use of collision of images in the ‘Odessa Steps’ sequence (see page 21) makes the scene the most famous example of editing technique in cinema history, with the exception of the shower scene in Psycho (1960). • The End of St Petersburg (1926). Images of soldiers dying in the muddy trenches of World War I are intercut with shots of the sharemarket in St Petersburg in Vsevolod Pudovkin’s film. The point is made that the war was for the profit of capitalists.

Features of Soviet montage cinema Key elements of early Soviet fi lmmaking include: • Editing for emotions. Soviet cinema used innovative editing techniques to manipulate the emotions of the audience. Collision of images (A B C) editing was used by Eisenstein. Linkage editing (A B AB) was used by Pudovkin. • Types, not stars. Communist philosophy favoured the action of groups over that of individuals. Soviet fi lms of the time did not have individual fi lm stars. Battleship Potemkin, for instance, does not even have a main character. Instead the fi lm focuses on types of people — those who are typical of and can be used to represent a group. A protagonist (see page 141) appears in some fi lms but only as a representative of a group. • Social forces, not individual stories. In keeping with early communist thinking, Soviet fi lms do not have narratives that focus strongly on individual lives. Instead, stories are about groups of people who take collective action. Events in the story are not motivated by the individual actions of the hero.

German expressionism German expressionism was a style of fi lm production that emerged in Germany just after World War I (1914–18) and persisted into the mid 1920s.

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Like the expressionist movement in visual art, expressionist films sought to convey human emotion and feeling rather than to depict conventional reality. One of the most famous expressionist works of art is Edvard Munch’s The Scream (1893). Just as that painting uses a distorted image to express human feeling, German expressionist film used distorted narratives, sets and mise-en-scène (see page 17) to show emotional truths. Several factors contributed to the decline of the movement and its disappearance by the early 1930s. The collapse of the Weimar Republic and the rise of Hitler’s Nazi Party meant censorship and stronger controls over filmmakers. The persecution of Jews, artists and intellectuals forced many to leave Germany. Large numbers of filmmakers migrated to Hollywood in the 1930s, and they took their style of filmmaking with them. Expressionism reappeared as an influence on American film noir (see pages 254–60) and horror (see pages 265–72).

Some expressionist films The best known examples of German expressionism include: • The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (1919). Robert Wiene’s film is the first and one of the most famous German expressionist films. A psychotic hypnotist uses a murderous zombie to kidnap a beautiful woman.

• Nosferatu (1921). F. W. Murnau’s film was one of the first vampire films to feature Count Dracula. Later Murnau moved to Hollywood. • Metropolis (1926). Fritz Lang’s film is set in the year 2000. An inventor creates an evil girl to incite a revolt in a futuristic city. Lang fled Germany and moved to Hollywood in 1935, leaving behind his pro-Nazi wife.

Features of German expressionism German expressionist films are highly stylised and unrealistic looking. They have many of the following features in common: • Settings and mise-en-scène. Bizarre and oddlooking settings with distorted buildings create a disturbing impression that seems the stuff of nightmares rather than reality. Mise-en-scène is an important off-balance element in these films. Objects are misshapen or exaggerated in appearance. • Characters and actors. People in these movies are often eccentric or even mentally ill. Actors are heavily made up and their whitened faces and dark lips give them a ghoulish appearance. Characters move with odd jerky actions or overly fluid, floppy movements. The actors’ bodies are part of the graphic design. They seem to be part of the landscape or artistic backdrop — and every bit as weird! • Camera work. The camera uses unusual angles to create the feeling that the world is off balance. There is very little depth in the focal length. Everything appears to be two-dimensional — the opposite of Hollywood’s deep focus (see page 14). • Lighting. Chiaroscuro or high contrast lighting is preferred. A shaft of light illuminates the action while deep shadows surround it. This type of lighting is also called ‘low key’ (see page 19). • Narratives. The subject matter of German expressionist films often concerns unnatural acts or disturbed psychologies. Gothic horror is also a common theme. Figure 12.5 (LEFT): ! SCENE FROM 4HE

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#ABINET OF $R #ALIGARI 'ERMAN EXPRESSIONIST üLMS USE ODD ANGLES AND PERSPECTIVES AND UNUSUAL PROPORTIONS TO EXPRESS AN EMOTIONAL STATE RATHER THAN PORTRAY A REALISTIC VIEW OF THE WORLD


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Realism ‘Film is truth at 24 frames per second.’ ‘Cinema is the most beautiful fraud in the world.’ ‘Cinema is not the reflection of reality, but the reality of the reflection.’ Jean-Luc Godard, French New Wave director and critic

More than other media, film is seen as the medium of realism. This is because audiences believe the camera actually reproduces what is ‘there’. In more innocent times, audiences used to say ‘the camera does not lie!’ Nowadays we know better, but the desire for realism in the cinema has never gone away. The aim of realism is to capture on camera life as it really is. This may sound simple, but it causes much argument. What does a film have to do to be ‘real’? More film movements have been born out of the question of what is real than out of any other debate in cinema history. The growth of digital effects and computer-generated imagery will probably only intensify the arguments.

What is a realist film? A realist film aims to project onto the screen actual experience as it is lived by the characters in their own environment. The film convinces its audience that it is presenting a direct and truthful view of life in the real world. A realist fiction film is a drama that seems to be true to life. A realist documentary captures actual life experience as it happens in front of the camera (see cinéma-vérité, page 205).

Types of realism There are two main types of realism in the movies, says the University of Exeter’s Susan Hayward: • Seamless realism. The purpose of seamless realism is to hide from the audience any sense that things are ‘just made up’. The construction, the sets, the camera work and editing all conspire to make you think that what you see is real. There should be no visible joins or ‘seams’ stitching the different elements together. Most Hollywood movies take this approach. • Aesthetic or artistic realism. Aesthetic realist directors try to make the film ‘super-real’, for example by replacing actors with authentic nonprofessionals. Sometimes a director will purposely let the audience know that the film is a construction. A jump cut might be deliberately inserted, for instance. The idea behind this is usually to allow the audience greater flexibility to make their own decisions about how much ‘reality’ the movie has captured.

Features of realism There is limited agreement among film writers as to what constitutes realism. However, many agree on the following four aspects. Surface reality. The film needs to look real to convince the audience to suspend disbelief (see page 135). Period dramas, for example, need to look authentic, with nothing out of place that could disrupt the realism. Some directors go to extraordinary lengths to achieve authenticity. To film All the President’s Men (1976) the entire newsroom of the Washington Post newspaper was re-created in a film studio — right down to the scattering of original waste paper from the Post’s office! Realistic acting and characters. The actors’ inner emotions need to be believable. In the Australian war film Kokoda (2006), for example, realism is achieved when the actors allow us to feel what it must have been like to have been there fighting in the jungles of New Guinea. But for some of the World War II generation watching that film, realism was disrupted when the language used by the soldiers appeared too modern. Plausibility. A film will be accepted as realistic if it coincides with generally accepted ideas about what is and is not believable. The plot of the film should not have too many unbelievable coincidences, for example. What the audience will accept as believable determines the standard. For instance, if 70 per cent of people say they do not believe in ghosts, then a film about ghosts cannot be a realist film — irrespective of whether or not ghosts actually exist! Technical and symbolic codes. Films use technical and symbolic codes (see page 5) to communicate meaning. Over time audiences have come to accept certain codes as realistic. We accept music playing in the background, for instance. But in a realist film, we might not accept fades to white because they tend to represent dreams or other unreal experiences. Similarly we might not accept certain lens filters or colour saturations.

Aesthetic realism Aesthetic realism may have some of the following features in addition to those above: • Locations, not studios. Many directors make a point of shooting only on location and never using studios. • Natural lighting. Hollywood studio lighting — traditional three-point lighting — is abandoned in favour of natural lighting with its shadows and imperfections.

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• Non-professional actors. Certain aesthetic realists choose their actors from people in the street. Their reasoning is that it brings greater authenticity. Says director Bruno Dumont, ‘I choose actors who resemble the characters I’ve written. I take their physique, I take their psychology. I don’t need to discuss with them if they understand the character.’ • Real-life camera. Some realist directors place cameras at random and then edit footage based on what they have been lucky enough to capture. What happens on film is left to chance. The Italian movie Rome, Open City (1946) tells of the Italian resistance’s struggles with the Gestapo in occupied Rome. The film uses footage of life in Rome filmed in secret just as the Nazis are leaving and the city is liberated. The shots are of streets filled with a mixture of exhausted and demoralised citizens and panicking German soldiers. • Unmediated shots and deep focus. It is common for realist films to use a lot of long shots and long takes of these shots. This demonstrates the authenticity of the scene, because the illusions created by editing are reduced to a minimum. Deep focus (see page 14) is used because it resembles the natural focusing power of the human eye.

message. Often people ‘just talked’ in these films, even improvising at times. • Non-professional actors. To really capture ordinary life, the Italian directors dispensed with highly paid actors and instead recruited people off the streets. • Location shooting. Even though the films are fictional, the directors used documentary-style location shooting with random camera placement and sometimes even handheld cameras. Lighting is natural and without the benefit of studio lights.

Examples of neo-realist films The most widely available and best known Italian neorealist film is Vittorio De Sica’s Bicycle Thieves (1948). It is the story of a poor man whose job is putting up posters around the city. When his bicycle is stolen, he and his young son begin a search for it. The film is about the father–son relationship, but it is also about the causes of poverty and despair in postwar Italy. Another famous neo-realist film is Rossellini’s Rome, Open City (1945), which centred on three days in the occupied city just before the German soldiers left.

Italian neo-realism Italian neo-realism first appeared in the mid 1940s, and the movement remained popular until the mid 1950s. The movement came to an end partly because the government film sponsorship body refused to fund films that might give Italy a bad name. Neo-realism was a reaction against the Fascist domination of the film industry under the dictator Mussolini. An ally of Hitler, Mussolini used propaganda techniques in much the same way as Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels. When the Americans liberated Italy in 1944, filmmakers found a new freedom to tell the truth about life.

Features of neo-realism Neo-realist filmmakers felt they had a mission — to produce films that told audiences about the harsh realities of life in modern society. Their films had the following characteristics: • ‘Slice of life’. The Italian filmmakers believed their films should focus on everyday life and give audiences a taste of what it was like to live in the cities of Italy as the war ended.

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• Natural dialogue. To reflect life as it was, people should talk naturally without the advantage of clever scriptwriting that could hide the real

Figure 12.6: "ICYCLE 4HIEVES WAS ONE OF THE MOST INČUENTIAL %UROPEAN üLMS OF THE IMMEDIATE POSTWAR ERA )T DEMONSTRATES MOST OF THE ATTRIBUTES OF )TALIAN NEO REALISM


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French New Wave

British New Wave

The French Nouvelle Vague (New Wave) was a youthoriented film movement that came about as an influx of young directors took over from France’s old-style movie makers in the late 1950s. About 170 new directors came onto the scene, at least half of them with no previous film experience. So they broke all the old rules! And with so many new filmmakers, funding was spread thin so their movies were nearly all made on very low budgets. A number of the most famous directors were young film critics who worked for the magazine Cahiers de Cinéma (Cinema Papers). Having begun writing about films, they decided to make their own. As a result, many Nouvelle Vague films are experimental and very intellectual. Best known among these critics-turneddirectors are Jean-Luc Godard and Francois Truffaut. The French New Wave had two stages — the first wave from 1958 to 1962, the second from 1966 to 1968. The second wave was very political and coincided with the student demonstrations and riots across France that almost came to a revolution in 1968.

The British New Wave was a movement in the British social realism tradition. It dealt with the issues of the early 1960s — rising youth culture, changing sexual values and changes in music and fashion. It also focused on the difficulties of ordinary life for working-class people in postwar Britain. The British New Wave developed in 1958 and continued until Hollywood’s export push into Britain decimated the local film industry in the mid 1960s. The British New Wave movement grew out of the ‘kitchen sink’ drama movement of the mid 1950s. A group of writers called ‘the angry young men’ wrote gritty plays about working-class people and the dramas of their domestic lives. They angrily expressed the disappointment of a generation of people who had come of age during or just after the war. The promised new society was failing to deliver. That wouldn’t come until the ‘Swinging Sixties’ and the era of the Beatles. The British New Wave was controversial by 1950s and early 1960s standards. For the first time in British film, characters had sex lives and money worries and faced major social problems. Themes included abortion, workplace bullying, unhappy marriage, runaway teenagers, the urban poor and depression. A typical protagonist (see page 141) was a young working-class male. As traditional industries closed down and the old working-class culture was lost, the hero had to cope as best he could and find a new identity and way of living.

Features of French New Wave The New Wave became a major international influence in filmmaking. New Wave movies tend to have the following characteristics: • Inexpensive and democratic. The expensive sound stages and studio post-production of the old cinema were seen as belonging to cinéma de papa (old fogy cinema). The new directors shot films quickly on cheap, portable equipment. • Disjointed stories. The narratives of Nouvelle Vague movies often lacked a clear ending and sometimes even a beginning. The directors rejected the old storytelling techniques. The characters in these movies are complex and serious young people wandering around 1960s France. • Broken codes. Many of the long-established codes and conventions (see pages 5–6) of the cinema were challenged by the New Wave. The editing style was very fast. Traditional seamless editing was abandoned. Jump cuts (see page 229) were purposely inserted. Even establishing shots (see page 23) were often left out.

Some British New Wave films Some important films in the movement were: • Room at the Top (1959). Based on John Braine’s novel, the film tells the story of an ambitious young man who seeks to escape his working-class background in a bleak northern factory town. • Look Back in Anger (1959). The film was based on the play (and early experiences) of another of the ‘angry young men’, John Osborne. It is about working-class life and class friction in a dreary one-bedroom Midlands flat.

Some French New Wave films

• The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962). While running a race against a team from an exclusive private school, a Borstal (British reform school) boy thinks about his depressing, poverty-stricken life, comparing it with theirs.

Jean-Luc Godard’s movie Breathless (1959) is seen as one of the best examples of Nouvelle Vague. It is the story of a young delinquent in Paris who falls in love with a visiting American student. Towards the end of the movie she betrays him to the police. Filmed during the same year, and also featuring a young petty criminal, was Francois Truffaut’s The 400 Blows.

Much later, in the 1980s and 1990s, the concerns of the British New Wave found new relevance. With the ‘restructuring’ of traditional British industry, and coal-mine closures, many working-class people lost their jobs and their hopes for the future. Two movies were made in the style of British New Wave — Brassed Off (1996) and The Full Monty (1997).

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The Hollywood style is so effective in convincing us what we see on the screen is real that we often have to forcibly remind ourselves that it is ‘only a movie’. Oddly Hollywood, so often associated with everything that is fake, is also the home of classical narrative realism. ‘Tinsel town’ has spent a fortune every year since the 1920s faking realism.

What are classical Hollywood narrative films? Classical Hollywood narrative films have plots that progress through time in a linear way, are based on character-driven action and use the continuity editing style (see page 233). The style is ‘classical’ because it is based on the classical principles of literature and art. A work is described as classical if it has perfect balance and symmetry. It must also be clear, simple and free of excesses of emotionalism or irrelevant detail. From beginning to end, all elements must be integrated and the resulting sense of harmony should reassure and satisfy the audience.

Features of classical Hollywood narrative

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Classical Hollywood narrative ‘Classical Hollywood cinema possesses a style which is largely invisible and difficult for the average spectator to see. The narrative is delivered so effortlessly and efficiently to the audience that it appears to have no source. It comes magically off the screen.’ John Belton, film scholar, Rutgers University

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Classical Hollywood narrative refers to the filmmaking tradition established in Hollywood during the 1920s and 1930s. It became the dominant style throughout the western world against which all other styles were judged. While there have been some challenges to it in recent years, it remains the accepted style for most Hollywood films today.

The Hollywood style takes advantage of the compact people make with the filmmaker when they pay their ticket price. They willingly want to ‘suspend disbelief’ (see page 135). Deep down, people know it is tomato sauce, but they really want to believe it is blood. In a conspiracy with the audience to make movies believable, classical Hollywood narrative has developed the following features.

Three-act narrative. Hollywood plots are set out according to the three-act structure of orientation, complication and resolution (see pages 138–9). A situation is presented, a disruption is introduced, and then the resolution ties everything up in a strong closure. Life is not so simple, of course, and actual events rarely have such neat starts or finishes. Even so, the word realism can be applied to Hollywood style because it is based on classic literary narrative realism. Objective storytelling. The audience in a Hollywood film knows more than the characters do. We are able to see what is happening in other places at the same time, and we can see what other characters are doing. In this respect we are god-like — we can see everything! This makes the style of storytelling objective, according to film academics David Bordwell and Kristen Thompson. It also allows us to accept simultaneous time or parallel editing (see page 25). Character driven. The American style of cinema is almost exclusively concerned with individual characters (and stars). This contrasts sharply with the


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Soviet montage style of filmmaking. The objective of the Hollywood movie is to relate what happens to the characters and whether or not they got what they wanted. The films have strong individual characters who struggle to fulfil their hopes and goals. These characters are arranged in a hierarchy, from hero or protagonist (see page 141) to antagonist and then down to minor characters and supporting cast. While earthquakes, alien invasions or cyborgs may act as catalysts to events, the stories generally focus on the personal choices of individual people, say Bordwell and Thompson. To confirm this point, Susan Hayward gives the example of Vietnam War movies. Many movies take an anti-war stance. But in Hollywood movies we learn about the impact of the war only by seeing how it affects our main ‘G.I. Joe’ character. Only a few other surrounding characters suffer. We don’t get to see how the war affected society, or what caused the war, or what its long-term effects were. Even if a cause for a war is proposed, it tends to be marked down as the responsibility of one sole individual. For example, in Hollywood movies Hitler is shown to be solely responsible for World War II.

Mise-en-scène. One of the most important aspects of Hollywood style is the mise-en-scène (see page 17), whose sole function is to manufacture realism. Time and space. American movies have a strong sense of movement — either through time or through geography. The story movement through time most often follows a straightforward line of episodic events. Flashbacks or flashforwards may be used, but the overall linear direction is strongly maintained. Whether through time or space, movement is totally subordinate to the action, say Bordwell and Thompson. Only the bits that are important to the story are shown. Classical continuity editing. A typical feature film has between 800 and 1200 shots. Editing is designed to render all these shot changes invisible or imperceptible. Editing in the invisible style serves to hide any jumps or discontinuities that would alert the viewer to ‘non-reality’. Following are some of the features of continuity editing (more detail is provided in chapter 2): • Shot progressions in the classical Hollywood style — ELS, LS, MS, CU • Continuity cutting — for example, cutting on action or movement to distract the viewer • Matching techniques to hide cuts — for instance, eyelines are matched • Transitions such as dissolves smooth the remaining joins where necessary • Simultaneous time or parallel editing (crosscutting) • Point-of-view shots

• Application of the 180 degree rule • Use of three-point lighting to naturalise appearances • Use of music is subservient to the story — it just reinforces the meaning.

Dogma 95 ‘In 1960 enough was enough! The movie was dead and called for resurrection. The goal was correct but the means were not! The new wave proved to be a ripple that washed ashore and turned to muck. The movie had been cosmeticised to death, they said; yet since then the use of cosmetics has exploded. ‘The “supreme” task of the decadent filmmakers is to fool the audience. Is that what we are so proud of? Is that what the “100 years” have brought us? Illusions via which emotions can be communicated? By the individual artist’s free choice of trickery?’ Dogme 95, Filmmakers’ Collective, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1995

The principles of Dogma 95 Dogma 95 (Dogme in Danish) is a radical film movement originating in Denmark in 1995. In Paris, at the celebrations for the hundredth anniversary of motion pictures, the Danish director Lars von Trier announced the rules for Dogma 95 films. These rules, reproduced below, were referred to as the filmmaker’s ‘Vow of Chastity’. 1. Shooting must be done on location. Props and sets must not be brought in (if a particular prop is necessary for the story, a location must be chosen where this prop is to be found). 2. The sound must never be produced apart from the images or vice versa. (Music must not be used unless it occurs where the scene is being shot.) 3. The camera must be hand-held. Any movement or immobility attainable in the hand is permitted. (The film must not take place at the convenience of the camera; shooting must take place where the film takes place.) 4. The film must be in colour. Special lighting is not acceptable. (If there is too little light for exposure the scene must be cut or a single lamp be attached to the camera.) 5. Optical work and filters are forbidden. 6. The film must not contain superficial action. (Murders, weapons, etc., must not occur.) 7. Temporal and geographical alienation are forbidden. (That is to say, the film must take place here and now.)

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8. Genre movies are not acceptable. 9. The fi lm format must be Academy 35 mm. 10. The director must not be credited. The Dogma fi lm movement is a kind of antiHollywood movement that sets out to do the reverse of what is expected in classical Hollywood narrative fi lms. All the techniques of the Hollywood style are regarded as ‘cosmetics’ that hide the truth and turn fi lms into mindless entertainment. Audiences of Dogma 95 fi lms cannot ignore the fact that fi lms are constructed. Whereas Hollywood uses the invisible style to hide the ‘machinery’ of fi lmmaking, Dogma fi lms put the machinery on show. ‘Dogma 95 is very visible in that it disappoints audience expectations and prevents automatised reception,’ says the Danish academic Ove Christensen.

• Dancer in the Dark (2000). Starring Björk and directed by Lars von Trier, Dancer in the Dark is about a poor factory worker whose desire to save her son from blindness leads to tragedy. This is not an official Dogma 95 movie, but as a founding member of the Dogme 95 Collective, von Trier has followed some of its principles. • Dogville (2003). Starring Nicole Kidman and directed by Lars von Trier, this movie is not an official Dogma 95 fi lm but shares some of their characteristics. The fi lm breaks a key rule — that shooting must take place where the action takes place. However, it does reflect other aspects of Dogma 95.

Some Dogma 95 films Very few fi lms in the movement have managed to conform to all the dictates of the Dogma 95 manifesto. Between 40 and 80 fi lms are believed to have been made worldwide that follow at least some of the rules. However, most of these are not available in Australia. Films that are available and give some idea of the movement include: • Mifune (1999). This Danish fi lm is the third Dogma 95 fi lm to be made. During the accreditation process, the director made several confessions about rules he had broken. Among other wrongdoings, he confessed to having chased some chickens onto the set and having moved some furniture in the house to better suit the fi lming!

Figure 12.8: $ANCER IN THE $ARK STARRING "JÍRK AND #ATHERINE $ENEUVE IS DIRECTED BY ONE OF THE FOUNDERS OF THE $OGMA MOVEMENT ,ARS VON 4RIER 4HE üLM HAS DIVIDED CRITICS WHO EITHER LOVE IT OR HATE IT &OR INSTANCE ON 4HE -OVIE 3HOW -ARGARET 0OMERANZ AWARDED IT üVE STARS WHILE $AVID 3TRATTON GAVE IT ZERO

Activities 1. Some of the experiments conducted by the Soviet

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montage directors are fun to try yourself! (a) Try reproducing the Kuleshov Effect by filming action in one location and then linking it to another. Use well-known locations so your audience will feel the Kuleshov Effect but know it isn’t true. For instance, film inside the principal’s office and open the door to leave. Cut to an exterior shot outside a door at the tuckshop and walk away. Your audience will be led to believe the principal’s office is in the tuckshop — even though they know better! (b) Either storyboard or shoot some collision of images sequences. In a short action sequence of about three or four shots, use collision of images to suggest to the audience that something occurred when no shot actually shows it happening. For instance, show a close-up of a gun, then a long shot of a body; or show a close-up of a fist, then someone on the ground.

2. View the ‘Men and the Maggots’ sequence in the

Soviet film Battleship Potemkin, and comment on Eisenstein’s use of group motivation instead of Hollywood-style individual motivation to move the narrative forward. Compare this with the ‘Odessa Steps’ sequence. Debate whether or not Eisenstein does use individual characters in this sequence. Compare the ‘Odessa Steps’ sequence with the way you think Hollywood would treat the subject matter. 3. Sketch a set design for a film in the German expressionist style. Design your set so that it reflects a state of mind rather than a strictly realistic rendition. 4. Compare the appearance of the city in Metropolis with the city imagery for the science fiction film The Fifth Element (1997) and the sci-fi neo-noir film Blade Runner (1982). Comment on the influence of German expressionism on contemporary cinema.


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5. Select a fiction film and evaluate it according to

the four standards used to determine film realism. The standards are: surface reality; realistic acting and characters; plausibility; technical and symbolic codes of realism. 6. The Italian neo-realist director Vittorio De Sica used non-professional actors in his film Bicycle Thieves. View a sequence from the film and discuss whether non-professionals improve or detract from the film. 7. View a sequence from the French New Wave film Breathless and make a list of the standard Hollywood codes that Godard deliberately breaks. For instance, jump cuts are a favourite of Godard’s. Discuss the effectiveness of innovative technique in the film. 8. Research some of the social issues facing British youth in the early 1960s just before the advent of the Beatles. Make a list of these concerns and then view a film from the British New Wave of social realism. Report on the extent to which the concerns are evident in the film.

9. Evaluate a contemporary Hollywood film according

to the basic standards of classical Hollywood narrative. Determine to what extent classical style is still being used. Consider especially aspects of plot, objective storytelling, character causality, linear time and continuity editing. 10. Some critics have accused the Dogma 95 Collective of hypocrisy. They seem to believe in some technology and not other types. They seem to believe in some ‘cosmetics’ but not all. They have been accused of just being antitechnology (but only modern technology). What do you think? In small groups, discuss whether or not you believe the Dogma 95 principles are hypocritical.

PRODUCTION TASK 11. Film a short fiction sequence in the style of one

of the film movements discussed in this section. Follow the basic principles of the movement and use the techniques favoured by its followers.

Australian film ‘If there’s one thing to be said about Australian cinema at present, it’s that those of us who actually care about it … are caught in a state of what can only be described as perpetual [anxiety].’ Matthew Clayfield, independent filmmaker

In a history spanning more than one hundred years, Australian fi lmmaking has had good times and bad. Always there has been a sense that it is a fragile industry.

What is Australian cinema? Film historians Susan Dermody and Elizabeth Jacka defi ne Australian cinema as being made up of three parts: 1. It is a national industry or business. 2. It is a cultural experience that contributes to a sense of national identity. 3. The national cinema is also an exportable set of images and ideas about Australia that are projected overseas.

Historical context Pre-1920 boom Australia was one of the biggest fi lmmaking countries in the world in the years before 1914. What’s more, we went to the movies more often than any other nation

in the world. Local movie production hit an all-time high in 1911, when 51 movies were released. This number has never been equalled in the years since. Before World War I (1914–18) there was a global market for fi lms, and travelling exhibitions showed fi lms from all over the world. A German exhibition showed the fi rst fi lms in Australia in 1896, but soon Australian fi lms would also travel the world. Silent fi lms have no language barriers. At fi rst, presenters read a commentary in the language of the host country. After about 1906 fi lmmakers began to explain the plot using inter-titles — text on the screen in between scenes. These inter-titles were easily substituted in different languages. According to Australian fi lm historians Ina Bertrand and William Routt, no English-speaking fi lm industry outside of Hollywood was as ready to go global as the Australian fi lm industry. Unfortunately Australian companies failed to seize the opportunity. The fi rst Hollywood studio distribution office opened in Australia in 1915. By 1918 all the Hollywood majors had offices in Australia. The cheaper American competition killed off the Australian industry before it could properly develop. The Australian fi lm industry does have the honour of having produced the world’s fi rst feature fi lm, however. (The criteria for a feature fi lm are that it be a work of fiction and a continuous story, and that it be longer than 60 minutes.) Some historians argue

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that the world’s first feature-length film was the Salvation Army’s Soldiers of the Cross (1900). Made in Melbourne at the ‘Limelight Department’ studios of the Salvation Army, the presentation was a collection of slides and filmed sequences that lasted more than two hours. Its depiction of the life of Christ included such explicit violence that several women in the first audience were said to have fainted. Most film historians, however, agree that the 1906 Australian film The Story of the Kelly Gang was the world’s first feature film. Only a few fragments of this film survive. Bushrangers were a popular theme with filmmakers of the time. Occasionally police banned bushranger films from theatres on the grounds that they encouraged crime.

The film uses stereotyped Australian characters in a similar way to the movie comedies of Dad and Dave, Barry Mackenzie and Crocodile Dundee.

1920s–1940s: the ‘grim years’ The ‘golden years’ of Hollywood were grim years for Australian filmmakers, writes Ina Bertrand. For 20 years after the arrival of the Hollywood distributors in Australia, local film production sank to rockbottom levels. The Great Depression (1929–33) made the challenge of finding financial backing even more difficult. Australian identity was an important theme in this period, and historical events provided a way of exploring this. For the Term of His Natural Life (1921) spotlighted Australia’s convict history. Family relationships were another notable feature of Australian films of the period. More than half of all Australian films made in the 1920s and 1930s dealt with family issues, says film academic William Routt. The hillbilly Rudd family is typical. A number of Dad and Dave comedies were made, beginning with On Our Selection (1932). Dad is a strong country father figure, while his son Dave is a stereotypical comic simpleton. Mum is a fairly weak character, always agreeing with Dad, but one of the daughters is a strong female figure. According to Routt, the figure of the strong bushwoman is common in Australian films of the period. This follows a tradition in bush literature and seems to be a uniquely Australian theme. For example, says Routt, she is not a feature of American westerns.

Figure 12.9: ! SHOT FROM 4HE 3TORY OF THE +ELLY 'ANG BEFORE AND AFTER RESTORATION -OST üLM HISTORIANS REGARD 4HE 3TORY OF THE +ELLY 'ANG AS THE WORLDlS üRST FEATURE üLM /NLY FRAGMENTS SURVIVE BUT RESTORATION WORK CARRIED OUT IN HAS REASSEMBLED ABOUT PER CENT OF THE üLM

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Probably the best known film of the era is a working-class romantic comedy called The Sentimental Bloke (1918). Based on a popular poem by C. J. Dennis, it retells the story of Romeo and Juliet from the point of view of an Australian larrikin.

Figure 12.10: &ROM $AD AND $AVE #OME TO 4OWN ,OVABLE COUNTRY BUMPKINS HILLBILLIES THE 2UDD FAMILY TAPPED INTO RECURRING THEMES IN !USTRALIAN COMEDY THAT WOULD ALSO PROVIDE THE HUMOUR IN 4HE #ASTLE AND #ROCODILE $UNDEE


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Film production was boosted by the arrival of World War II (1939–45), when most production efforts turned to newsreels and government documentaries. In 1944 Charles Chauvel produced the feature film The Rats of Tobruk, starring the famous Australian actors Chips Rafferty and Peter Finch. The Overlanders (1946), a British and Australian co-production, told of a great wartime cattle drive from the Northern Territory, under threat of Japanese invasion, 2400 kilometres to Queensland. Chips Rafferty played an Australian bushman not unlike Crocodile Dundee. There was also a bushwoman who was an expert horse rider. The film played up the importance of mateship and community spirit in overcoming the odds. It also showed an Australia where agriculture was still the most important industry.

1950s–1960s: ‘barely there’ The arrival of television spelt the end of regular movie-going around the world. Where Australians had gone to the cinema once or even twice a week, in the 1950s and 1960s cinema attendance plummeted, almost killing off the local film industry. American and British control of Australian movie distribution and exhibition meant that there was little support for local filmmaking. Only a handful of films were made during the entire 20-year period, and from 1959 until 1966 no films were made at all. The pioneering bush spirit and mateship remained strong themes in those films that were produced in the 1950s, such as A Town Like Alice (1956), Smiley (1956) and The Sundowners (made in 1959 but released in 1960). The locally made films were often international co-productions in which Australia was merely a location — a mildly interesting backdrop. An example is On the Beach (1959), set in Melbourne after a worldwide nuclear holocaust. Despite these difficulties, some films were innovative. Charles Chauvel produced Jedda in 1955. The seed for the film was sown when an American reporter told him overseas audiences wanted to see something uniquely Australian and suggested Aboriginal culture as a subject. Jedda was the first film to explore the theme of Indigenous culture in any depth. It was also the first Australian film to be shown at the Cannes Film Festival in France. They’re a Weird Mob (1966) was popular because it allowed Australians to see themselves on the big screen for the first time in many years. According to Stuart Cunningham, Professor of Media and Communications at QUT, the film is important for three reasons: it gave a focus for the movement for government funding of the film industry; it was the first ‘multicultural’ Australian film; and it kick-started the ‘Ocker’ movies of the 1970s film revival.

Figure 12.11: 4HEYlRE A 7EIRD -OB TELLS THE STORY OF AN )TALIAN IMMIGRANT TO 3YDNEY WHO GETS INTO TROUBLE TRYING TO UNDERSTAND !USTRALIAN SLANG "Y THE END OF THE üLM HE IS SPEAKING THE LINGO LIKE A LOCAL

1970s–1980s: revival The golden age of Australian film arrived in the 1970s and 1980s. Calls for a ‘genuinely Australian’ film culture and a questioning of British and American dominance led to unprecedented government support for a national film industry. Local television programs such as Skippy, Bellbird and Homicide proved that Australian audiences wanted to see Australians on screen. In the early 1970s the Whitlam government set up the Australian Film Commission and the Australian Film and Television School (now AFTRS). Most states established their own film commissions as well. To qualify for funding, films had to contribute to the national identity. As a result, the films of the 1970s tend to be of a certain type. Film industry analysts Susan Dermody and Elizabeth Jacka suggest these seventies AFC films have the following characteristics: • They tend to be art films rather than Hollywoodstyle movies because they needed to find a special niche in a competitive market. • They often have a period setting, or focus on historical events, because they had to prove they contributed to Australia’s national identity. • They have good production values and a ‘beautiful image’ because many of the film crew also worked in advertising.

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• They follow the style of television naturalism — with its soap opera–style close-ups and reverse shots — because many crew also worked in television drama. Finding the right national identity proved to be a challenge. According to Tom O’Regan, Professor of Media and Cultural Studies at the University of Queensland, Australian filmmakers ‘tried on’ a sequence of different national identities — a number of them incompatible with one another.

Ocker films. The ‘Ocker’ films of the early seventies featured loud, rude, beer-swilling males. They took advantage of the relaxation of censorship in the 1970s. The characters were young suburban workingclass men and the films relied on stereotypes about typical Australian language and vulgar behaviour. An example is The Adventures of Barry McKenzie (1972) about an Aussie ‘yobbo’ in London.

Figure 12.12: 4HE !DVENTURES OF "ARRY -C+ENZIE FOLLOWS AN OAüSH YOUNG !USSIE MALE AND HIS EXPLOITS IN ,ONDON /CKER üLMS OF THE S TOOK ADVANTAGE OF A RELAXATION OF THE CENSORSHIP LAWS

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Art films (1970s). Art-house films targeted a segment of the market that Hollywood could not capture. The films were often period dramas drawing on historical themes and set in the bush. Examples of films in this style are Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975) and Sunday Too Far Away (1975).

Art films (1980s). In the 1980s a tax law called 10BA allowed investors to write off film production against their tax at special rates between 133 and 150 per cent! Investors flocked to filmmaking and the budgets for films doubled in two years. Profit and loss calculations dominated filmmaking. Overseas sales became essential and films had to be tailored to the tastes of overseas audiences, sometimes at the risk of compromising their ‘Australian-ness’. For instance, the American actress Meryl Streep was cast as Lindy Chamberlain in Evil Angels (1988). The ‘bush myth’ appealed to overseas audiences and so continued to dominate as a theme. Films from this era include Gallipoli (1981), The Man from Snowy River (1982), and Crocodile Dundee 1 and 2 (1986, 1988).

1990s–2010: mature phase The 1990s ‘unmanned’ Australian cinema, suggests political analyst George Megalogenis. The nineties marked the disappearance of the ‘bloke’ from the movies. In 1988 Crocodile Dundee 2 topped the Australian cinema box office. In 1992 the frontrunner was Strictly Ballroom, and by 1994 it was The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert. This change roughly corresponded to the end of the Bob Hawke era. Hawke was incidentally also the last ‘blokey’ prime minister, says Megalogenis. Australian society had become more complex and multicultural over these years. Films moved away from the traditional male-dominated Anglo-Celtic outback legends. By 1995 close to 40 per cent of the filmmaking workforce was female. Globalisation also had a considerable impact on the Australian film industry. Many Hollywood directors produced their films in Australia because the lower exchange rate meant lower costs. Australian expertise was also respected. A number of prestigious films were produced here, including Star Wars 2 and 3 (2002, 2005), The Matrix (1999), The Matrix Reloaded (2003) and Superman Returns (2006). The drain of Australian talent to Hollywood became a two-way flow. Australians came back from overseas to produce films at home. George Miller filmed Babe (1995), Babe: Pig in the City (1998) and the photo-realistic animated musical Happy Feet (2006) in Australia. Baz Luhrmann came back to film Moulin Rouge (2001), a movie that transformed the musical worldwide. Globalisation made Australian films more economically viable. Diversity and difference became much more acceptable to audiences worldwide. Indeed, money could be made from being different. Globalisation also forced Hollywood to change. The percentage of revenue earned from Hollywood’s local American


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market declined to less than half its world revenues. So Hollywood had to be more tuned in to what other nations wanted to watch. The big studios became more willing to source films from Australia. In the 1990s and 2000s the main characteristic of Australian film was diversity. Films were much more personal and ‘quirky’. This can be seen in Muriel’s Wedding (1994) and Shine (1997). Australian life was explored from many more viewpoints than had ever been attempted before. The complex interweaving of lives in Lantana (2001) is an example of this. For most of this 20-year period Australia produced films at a steady rate that ensured at least the survival of an Australian film culture. In the 1990s an average of 27 films were produced each year. In the 2000s the number fell slightly to an average of 22.

Australian identity Australians have spent more than a century debating national identity. Australian language analyst John Douglas Pringle called the search for identity ‘that aching tooth’. Historian Donald Horne, on the other hand, argued that there never has been and never will be a unique and definable Australian identity. In a 2003 reprint of a 1958 book called The Australian Legend, Russell Ward wrote that national character is a people’s idea of itself. While it is often romantic and out of touch with reality, it does influence how people behave. Ward believed Australians see themselves as: • practical, inventive and good at improvising • rough-and-ready in manners • quick to criticise authority or show-offs

Olympics and the World Cup. After dwindling in the 1970s, the Anzac legend was revived in the twentyfirst century as important to modern Australians. Aboriginal culture has a place in national identity after having been ignored for most of the past 200 years. Multicultural Australia has replaced the older idea of Anglo-Celtic Australia. The idea of a ‘fair go’ for all is still seen as important. The beach is an icon of modern identity today in the same way that the bush was in the nineteenth century. The life-saver has replaced the bushman as one of our most important role models. The suburbs, too, are being recognised as uniquely and positively Australian. Increasing interest in environmental issues has changed the character of the bush myth, but the love of nature has remained. There is no more agreement about the Australian identity now than there was when Russell Ward wrote in the 1950s of the typical Australian. But one element is common to almost all interpretations — the importance of landscape. Most Australians live in cities, points out political and social commentator Don Watson, but they still think of Australia as a landscape. ‘As we globalise, this will become our great national advantage, the one thing that defines us.’

Discourses in Australian film ‘Maybe the audience’s need for an allencompassing and singular national identity for Australia has disappeared and maybe filmmakers have begun to flog a dead horse.’ Matthew Clayfield, independent filmmaker

• willing to ‘have a go’ • believing ‘near enough is good enough’ for most tasks • swearing, gambling and drinking often • capable of hard work if required, but don’t normally see the need • preferring leisure over hard work (despite statistical evidence of heavy work habits) • not keen on intellectual ideas and culture • believing Jack is as good as his master

‘Australia is only physically an island … its history is enclosed within a larger western history. The examination of our narratives is not an argument for their uniqueness, but rather for a kind of Australian accent which is audible and distinctive when placed in relation to that of other English speakers.’ Graeme Turner, Professor of Cultural Studies, University of Queensland

• believing in a ‘fair go’ • sticking by their mates through thick and thin. Even in 1958 many disagreed with Ward’s ideas of the typical Australian. They pointed to the fact that he appeared to have ignored females entirely and had focused too much on the time-honoured workingclass male — the stereotypical bushman. Today there are many other competing ideas of national identity. Sport is influential in Australia’s national identity — from Don Bradman and Phar Lap to the Sydney

Australian filmmakers have explored a number of themes and discourses over the past one hundred years of movie-making in this country. Some of these themes have featured strongly in certain periods in history. For instance, Australian identity films often crop up during times of national crisis and change. Other themes do not seem ever to go away and have been revisited again and again throughout the period.

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Every filmmaker has dealt with the theme in a slightly different way — and of course audience members have had different understandings of the theme in different time periods and locations. Watching a 1970s film at the time it was made is not the same as watching it now. Sometimes Australian filmmakers have had an eye for overseas markets and used stereotypes they think would appeal to international audiences. Paul Hogan did that with Crocodile Dundee (1986). At other times a film may be directed to a local Australian audience, perhaps attempting to change opinion or engage in a debate. Jindabyne (2006) is a film that engages in a localised Australian debate. Surprisingly, the most revisited themes of the Australian cinema are not the same as those in Australian television. And the themes do not necessarily represent the same concerns that Australian people have in their daily lives. They do represent our imaginations, however. They are like conversations — with different points of view expressed as the discourse progresses.

Common themes or discourses Mateship. According to Brian McFarlane, ‘The sentimental ideal of mateship may well be Australia’s chief contribution to the history of human relationships.’ Mateship depicts a code of equality, solidarity and friendship — usually amongst males. It isn’t unique to Australia, but it probably became important in early colonial times because the harsh environment meant sticking together was essential for survival. The idea of mateship has become significant in the Australian cinema, where male to male relationships often seem as important as male to female ones. Two forms of mateship are common in the cinema. 1. Inclusive mateship is seen in a positive light as a response to overwhelming hardship. This is the mateship of war shown in Gallipoli (1981) and Kokoda (2006). It is the mateship that allows survival in hostile environments, as in The Overlanders (1946). In these films a strong woman can sometimes be ‘one of the boys’. This kind of mateship can also be multicultural, as in Footy Legends (2006).

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2. Exclusive mateship in Australian movies is usually demonstrated when a group bands together to exclude anyone different. Between 1970 and 1990 this form of mateship was usually directed against women — as in Shame (1987), a movie said to be based on a series of real-life assaults.

Figure 12.13: -ATESHIP AS DEPICTED IN 0ETER 7EIRS üLM 'ALLIPOLI HAS BEEN A RECURRING DISCOURSE IN !USTRALIAN üLM SINCE ITS EARLIEST DAYS &ILMS HAVE SHOWN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REPRESENTATIONS IN A DEBATE THAT SHOWS NO SIGN OF LOSING ITS STRENGTH

The Aussie larrikin. The tradition of the larrikin is strong in Australian cinema. A larrikin is someone who mocks authority in a playful and comic way. A larrikin doesn’t go along with the usual polite norms of society and loves to ‘upset the apple-cart’. The best known film larrikin is Crocodile Dundee. Mick Molloy in Crackerjack (2002) is another example. The Aussie battler. The tradition of the battler in Australian literature and film extends back to Henry Lawson. The Aussie battler is an underdog who struggles for survival with great determination against enormous odds. Early-twentieth-century films showed battlers overcoming environmental or economic odds. Films of the 1970s and 1980s often showed the battler pitted against society and conformity. It is not unusual for the battler to be a woman struggling against social pressures, as in My Brilliant Career (1979) and Muriel’s Wedding (1994). The films Tom White (2004) and Three Dollars (2005) feature middle-class battlers in the 2000s who struggle with job retrenchments and mortgage repayments.


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Victory in defeat. According to film critic Tom Ryan, Australian films tend to place the protagonist (see page 141) as the ‘victim’ of events rather than as the shaper of them. He contrasts this with American films in which the protagonist drives events and ‘makes things happen’. This can possibly be traced back to Australia’s roots as a penal colony and to the Australian experience of defeat at Gallipoli. Similarly, the inhospitable Australian environment often makes us the victim of events beyond our control, such as floods and droughts. Gallipoli and the Boer War movie Breaker Morant (1980) are examples of films where defeat is in some way recast as victory.

B

A

Figure 12.14: 4HE ICONIC !MERICAN AND !USTRALIAN IMAGES FROM 7ORLD 7AR )) q A *OE 2OSENTHALlS )WO *IMA AND B $AMIEN 0ARERlS SHOT OF A WOUNDED SOLDIER ON THE +OKODA 4RAIL 3OME HISTORIANS SAY THAT RATHER THAN FOCUS ON THE JOY OF VICTORY HIGHLY SYMBOLIC !USTRALIAN IMAGES OF WAR HAVE FOCUSED ON SACRIüCE 4HIS CAN BE SEEN IN THE IMAGES SHOWING 3IMPSON AND HIS DONKEY AT 'ALLIPOLI IN 7ORLD 7AR ) AND k7EARYl $UNLOP ON THE "URMA 2AILWAY IN 7ORLD 7AR ))

Outback landscapes. Most Australian films have been about the landscape in some way, says writer and filmmaker Ross Gibson. Landscape has almost become a character in our films and is often shown to have shaped the natures of the human characters. Part of the reason for this, Gibson suggests, is that non-Aboriginal Australia is a young country that has few myths of belonging. The culture and most of its people are relatively recent transplants who have had to come to terms with their new environment. For modern Australians, the outback has become a recognisable national symbol — filmed to look aweinspiring and grand, or inhospitable and sometimes eerie or haunted. Another explanation for the outback motif (see page 18) is that international audiences expect it when they see an Australian film. For them, it has become the one symbol that has a unique Australian identity.

While there are many different portrayals of the Australian landscape, two landscape discourses are common. These are: • The bush as paradise. Many films celebrate the bush as a place where the natural world allows people to reach their full potential. In the bush there is a purity and honesty not found in the city. People can build proper relationships with nature and with one another. This can be seen in The Man from Snowy River (1982) and Crocodile Dundee (1986). • The bush as unknowable and hostile. The overwhelming sense of emptiness in the outback can often inspire fear. Films often portray the Australian landscape as an awesome opponent or as the source of some mysterious terror. These movies show how the outback twists and disturbs people in some way. Examples include Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), Japanese Story (2003) and Wolf Creek (R-rated, 2005). In each case there is a sense of something overpowering or supernatural in the bush. In 1992 the Mabo decision on native title established that Australia was not an ‘empty land’ at the time of white settlement but was in the possession of its Aboriginal people. This changed the portrayal of landscape in Australian cinema, especially in the 2000s. There is now an increasing recognition in modern Australian cinema of the Aboriginal presence in the landscape.

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(2000) and Looking for Alibrandi (2000). Questions of Australian identity still arise in these films, however, as in the experience of the Vietnamese characters in Footy Legends (2006).

Figure 12.15: 0ETER 7EIRlS EERIE üLM 0ICNIC AT (ANGING 2OCK IS PART OF A TRADITION OF !USTRALIAN üLMS USING THE EMPTINESS OF THE OUTBACK TO CREATE A SENSE OF FEAR

Country towns. Film academic Tom O’Regan points out that small country towns have come to represent all that is bad in Australian culture, and all that city people can pretend they are above, such as racism, sexism, violence, homophobia and aggressive male dominance. Examples extend from The Cars That Ate Paris (1974) to The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994). This trend in the cinema is the opposite of that in television soap operas, where small towns are generally portrayed in a positive light, reflecting a yearning for traditional close-knit communities. Suburbia. Australian film has demonstrated mixed attitudes to suburbia. It can be seen as a supporting and very personal place that is somehow essential to Australian life, as in The Castle (1997). It can be a threatening and dysfunctional place of unemployment and petty crime, as in The Boys (1998) or even Idiot Box (1996). A third discourse about suburbia sees it as an appallingly dull and conformist place that has to be escaped from, as in Muriel’s Wedding (1994). In this third discourse, suburbia is often a source of humour.

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Multiculturalism. Immigrants have come to Australia from all over the world. Films have explored the migrant experience in various ways in different eras. The first Australian film to deal with non-Anglo-Celtic immigration was They’re a Weird Mob (1966). The film took an assimilationist approach. It showed how an Italian migrant to Sydney fitted in, learned Aussie ways and became an ‘ocker’. Silver City (1984) told of the bigotry that often confronted postwar migrants. Since the 1990s a number of films have presented a multicultural rather than assimilationist view. Examples include Head On (R-rated, 1997), The Wog Boy

Aboriginal culture. For the first 50 years of Australian cinema Aboriginal Australians were notable by their absence. Charles Chauvel’s Jedda (1955) was the first film to give Aboriginal people starring roles. Jedda was an Aboriginal girl raised by a white family. At the time, the government took an assimilationist approach to Aboriginal people — believing their culture should and would be absorbed by European culture. The 1970s revival of Australian film and the political upheavals of the time led to a renewed interest in Aboriginal Australia. Aboriginal activist and academic Marcia Langton says films of this era tended to portray Aborigines as romantic figures, often with special mystical powers. Examples include The Last Wave (1977) and The Chant of Jimmy Blacksmith (1978). Between the 1970s and the 2000s several factors changed the film discourses around Aboriginal Australians. 1. Multiculturalism as government policy rejected the assimilationist approaches of the past. 2. Aboriginal filmmakers such as Rachel Perkins, who directed One Night the Moon (2001), Tracey Moffatt (Bedevil, 1993) and Ivan Sen, director of Beneath Clouds (2002), produced feature films. 3. The 1992 Mabo decision overturned the founding myth of terra nullius (‘empty land’). This changed filmmakers’ relationship to Aboriginal characters in their films; it also changed the cinema’s attitude to landscape. 4. There was a growing international interest in collecting Aboriginal art. 5. Aboriginal actors, such as Deborah Mailman, Ernie Dingo and David Gulpilil, became well known. 6. The 1997 report into the ‘stolen generations’ of Aboriginal children removed from their families was released. The ‘stolen generations’ is the subject of the film Rabbit Proof Fence (2002). Dead Heart (1996) was one of the first new films to address the social crisis in Aboriginal communities. During the 2000s there has been a greater emphasis on Aboriginal people telling their own stories. Films such as Ten Canoes (2006) have a positive story of Aboriginal culture to tell. The film draws on Aboriginal oral storytelling traditions. Kanyini (2006) attempts to show from their own point of view why Aboriginal people are struggling. Other films, such as Jindabyne (2006), have used dramatic narrative to engage in the debate about reconciliation from the perspective of white society.


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Uncommon themes or discourses Some themes or discourses that are common in the cinemas of other nations are notable by their absence in Australian fi lm.

Grand romantic love. Unlike the French or American cinema, there are few great romantic love stories in Australian cinema, says fi lm and television writer and reviewer Debi Enker. This is not because Australian fi lms reject love stories, she suggests, but because love seems to be rarely explored in any depth. As subplots in movies, love and passion are often shown to be doomed or beset with problems, says Enker. One Australian love story is A Town Like Alice (1956), which tells of a couple kept apart by World War II. Another is Paperback Hero (1998).

Figure 12.16: *AMES 'ULPILIL IN 4EN #ANOES 3ET IN THE MYTHICAL DREAMTIME 2OLF DE (EERlS üLM IS THE üRST FULL LENGTH FEATURE üLM SPOKEN ENTIRELY IN AN !BORIGINAL LANGUAGE

Social class. Australian fi lms do not often address social class or economic inequality. Rich and poor rarely come together in one fi lm, and any form of serious social class confl ict within the fi lm is even rarer. Brief encounters with class differences are usually smoothed over, with people found to ‘all be the same underneath’. This occurs in The Castle (1997), when Darryl and the Queen’s Counsel lawyer fi nd a bond in shared fatherhood. Where class does appear as an issue it tends to be in fi lms about work, showing the divisions between the boss and the worker, as happens in Spotswood (1991).

Activities 1. Present to the class a review of your favourite

decade of Australian filmmaking, discussing aspects such as the mood of the decade, and key social and political events of the time. Your presentation should include several clips from films of the era, along with a brief overview of each of your chosen films. 2. Make a collage of film clips or still images from Australian films to explore points of view around one of the common discourses of the Australian cinema. Follow the steps below to complete the collage. (a) Select a theme or discourse (e.g. mateship or landscape). (b) Collect clips or stills from films that have contributed to the discourse. You could choose films that have taken similar or opposing points of view, or ones that show some sort of progression over time. (c) Write an explanation of the contribution of each of the films to the theme or discourse, detailing what meanings you can find in each clip.

(d) Conclude with an evaluation response from yourself as an audience member, giving your opinion of the relevance of the theme to everyday life in Australia. 3. Select an Australian film and outline what key Australian themes or discourses form the basis of the movie. Find another movie underpinned by this discourse and contrast the differing meanings it creates. For instance, contrast the discourses about Australian identity, culture and mateship in the film Footy Legends (2006) with the underpinning discourse in a film such as Australian Rules (2002). 4. Contrast the presentation of a discourse in Australian movies with the treatment such a discourse would be likely to receive in a Hollywood movie. 5. Has the Australian film industry planted a stereotypical view of Australia in the minds of overseas audiences? Discuss by referring to particular films. Are there films that have presented opposing views?

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6. Independent filmmaker and freelance writer

Matthew Clayfield says, ‘Australian feature films are so preoccupied with what they believe — incorrectly, in my opinion — to be the obligation of Australian cinema that they ultimately fail to speak to anyone at all. They say “this is Australia and these are Australians”, when really it’s not and they’re anything but. They create broad cultural caricatures that may look and sound Australian but have nothing important to say about this or any other country at all.’ Discuss this statement with reference to some films that support or refute the argument.

7. A Sydney advertising agency asked groups of

people to take seven photographs of things they hold dear about Australia. They then analysed these images to discover some core beliefs that Australians hold about what it means to be Australian. Attempt this yourself. Take seven photographs that you think could represent life in modern Australia. 8. In groups, think of ten or so Australian films you have seen recently between you. Map the locations of these films. What common aspects do you notice? Report to the class.

World cinema ‘World cinema’ usually refers to fi lms from countries outside of the English-speaking world. However, the term can also indicate fi lms from countries outside of one’s own country — as long as that excludes Hollywood! Before world cinema, Americans tended to use the term ‘foreign fi lms’. Some video hire stores in Australia still put world fi lms under that category. A classification system for fi lms from around the world has been prepared by Stephen Crofts, an authority on national cinemas. He lists eight different types of cinemas:

2. Second cinema. Art-house, auteur-style and independent means of production represent the second mainstream type of cinema.

1. United States cinema: may include US independent and also English-speaking cinema that imitates US cinema production style

Bollywood/Hindi films

2. Asian commercial cinema: includes Hong Kong, Japan and ‘Bollywood’ 3. Entertainment cinema: in Europe and the developing world 4. Totalitarian cinema: includes cinema in states such as Iran where there is considerable political or religious control 5. Art cinema 6. International co-productions 7. Third cinema: political and revolutionary in nature (see below) 8. Sub-state cinema: small centres of fi lmmaking within a larger country — for example, Frenchspeaking Quebec in Canada or possibly (since 1997) Hong Kong within China. Another system was devised by Argentine fi lmmakers Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino, who list three cinema types in the world:

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1. First cinema. First cinema is large-scale commercial production along Hollywood lines. It includes Bollywood and Hong Kong cinemas. ‘Third-world’ India hosts a ‘fi rst cinema’ commercial industry.

3. Third cinema. Third cinema is made up of political fi lms of liberation from national and corporate oppression. Third cinema is not necessarily ‘thirdworld’ cinema. It can be made in the fi rst world (developed countries). For instance, Morgan Spurlock’s Super Size Me (2004) might be called ‘third cinema’.

‘Cinemas are the temples of modern India.’ Das Gupta, Indian film critic

Indian movie production is twice the size of Hollywood’s. The statistics are staggering. Close to one thousand new fi lms each year are distributed to more than 13 000 movie theatres, with an average audience of 11 million each day. More than 800 languages are spoken in India, and there can be as many as 20 different language versions of the same fi lm. The cinema is perhaps the sole model of national unity, says Indian cinema analyst Vijay Mishra.

What is ‘Bollywood’? ‘Bollywood’ was originally a nickname for the Indian fi lm industry, but it has now gained wide acceptance as a term for the Hindi-speaking fi lm industry based in the city of Mumbai. The name is a combination of Hollywood and Bombay, the old name for Mumbai. The Bollywood style of fi lmmaking is also used in other fi lm centres throughout India. The Tamil, Telegu and Malayalam commercial cinemas produce fi lms in their own languages but use Bollywood conventions.


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India (1957) showed the ability of the film industry to reflect the national mood and become a uniting force in Indian culture. ‘Playback singers’ gained wide acceptance at this time as the links between the film industry and the music industry developed. On-camera actors mimed to the off-camera voice of the playback singer. The practice became so widespread it was soon normalised. Even today Indian audiences readily accept singing voices that are dramatically different from the actors’ real voices.

‘Most Bollywood films do not shoot what we know in the West as sync sound. Large numbers of Indian films are totally dubbed after the movie has been edited. ‘As much as 30 per cent of a film’s financing can come directly from the “music launch” of an upcoming release. This usually takes place a few weeks before the general release of the picture.’ Larry Englemann, Bollywood film colourist

Figure 12.17: 4HE )NDIAN CINEMA PRODUCES MORE MOVIES EACH YEAR THAN (OLLYWOOD )N THE CITIES AS WELL AS THE VILLAGES THE CINEMA HAS AN IMPORTANT CULTURAL PLACE IN )NDIAN DAILY LIFE

Cultural context After their shows in Paris the Lumière brothers (see page 21) brought the first moving pictures to India in 1896. The first Indian feature film was made in 1913 and dealt with themes from Indian mythology — gods and demons in combat. Cinema became immensely popular very quickly, partly because most Indians could not read and had relied on an oral tradition of storytelling. By the 1930s India had developed a studio system very similar to that used in Hollywood. Just as the American cinema developed the classical Hollywood narrative (see page 232), India developed its own pattern of storytelling. Many films had a mythological basis and used song and dance extensively. A Bollywood film of the 1930s could have 50 or 60 song sequences. As box office prices were relatively high, audiences wanted their money’s worth, so the length of a feature film was established at about three to four hours. Around the time of Indian independence from Britain, movie stars became prominent in Indian life, and magazines and newspapers began writing about their exploits. The huge success of the film Mother

Today 70 per cent of India’s population lives in villages. In the mid twentieth century that figure was even higher, but by the 1970s the great movement to the cities had begun. Cinema-going audiences grew. Action and revenge movies became popular. Bollywood films began to take a mixed approach to filmmaking, combining all genres in a single movie. Sometimes this is referred to as Bollywood Masala (spice). ‘This can translate into the hero fighting a sinister politician in one scene and serenading his heroine, with forty dancers moving in unison behind him, in the next,’ says Indian film expert Nasreen Munni Kabir. In the west, the music recording industry developed separately from the movie industry. In India these industries are intertwined. By the 1970s films had become one of the prime sources of recorded music. Pop music is the song-and-dance music from Bollywood films. Cheap cassette players make it possible for the bulk of the population to listen to much-loved film soundtracks. Television and video came to the Indian villages in the 1980s and 1990s, changing film viewing habits dramatically. Many villages pooled their funds to install satellite dishes. As a result, Bollywood suffered a temporary decline. One way Bollywood countered the influence of television in the 2000s was to increase the spectacle and glamour in movies. Another response was the rise of independent producers, many of whom rejected the escapism of traditional Bollywood in favour of social realism (see page 231).

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Features of Bollywood cinema Like Hollywood, Bollywood makes many different kinds of films. India also has a significant independent sector producing what might be called art films. However, some features of Indian filmmaking have remained consistent over the past century. Certain themes or discourses crop up regularly, even though filmmakers address them in different ways and from different points of view.

Length and time. Bollywood films are usually between three and four hours long. Hindi films also structure time somewhat differently from Hollywood films. Flashbacks are used extensively. Stories are not always told using the sequential time structure of the average Hollywood blockbuster. Indian nationalism. Many films raise questions of Indian identity. Some films are concerned with the Indian nation and its history. Others touch on national identity only as it affects individuals. Mythology. Like many Western epics or fantasy films, Bollywood films often refer to mythological characters such as gods and demons. They may also draw on traditional religious stories or folk tales. Lovestory 2050 (2007), for instance, combines science fiction with an Eastern mystical approach to reincarnation. Traditional plots. According to Indian film critic Asha Kasbekar, certain plot lines crop up frequently in Bollywood films. • Family relationship plots are very common and often focus on an individual character and his or her response to dilemmas relating to family duty. Family plots also often involve a search for a lost brother or a quest to be reunited with the character’s mother. Arranged marriages are another common plot element. One film that demonstrates this concern with family is Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham (2002). • Romance stories are the main theme of Bollywood. In a typical story an impoverished young man falls in love with a wealthy woman. Her father disapproves and the young man must prove his worth — perhaps by saving her father’s fortune, or even his life. Love triangles also feature regularly in Bollywood plots.

Song and dance. Every film typically has five to ten songs, often dubbed by professional so-called playback singers. Film soundtracks represent 75 per cent of the total music market. Most films feature at least two dance items. The dances are a loose mixture of traditional and western music styles.

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Emotion. Emotional appeal is considered very important in Indian film, says Asha Kasbekar. ‘It must reach out and touch their hearts.’ This tradition goes back to ancient Indian theatre, which is governed by eight

emotions (love, humour, energy, anger, fear, grief, disgust and astonishment) and eight matching sentiments (erotic, comic, heroic, furious, apprehensive, compassionate, horrific and marvellous).

Spectacle. Traditional Indian entertainment uses elaborate costumes, make-up and masks. Bollywood has incorporated these traditions into spectacular visual displays. Lavish sets and exotic locations make expensive backdrops for actors in glittering costumes. Love songs and dances are often performed as elaborate dream sequences. Often a new panoramic setting and complete costume change accompanies each verse of the song. Switzerland is a favourite location because it resembles the alpine beauty of war-torn Kashmir. Salaam Namaste (2005) was filmed in Melbourne. Lovestory 2050 (2007) was filmed in Adelaide. Other films set in Australia include Janasheen (2006); Hollywood (2002), filmed in Queensland; and Prem Agan (1998). Stars. It is possible that the stars in Bollywood are more important to a film’s success than they are in Hollywood. Male stars earn much more than female stars, but both earn vast sums of money compared with ordinary Indians. Unlike Hollywood stars, Indian stars work on numerous films at once. It is not uncommon for them to be acting in 10 to 12 films at the same time. Huge hand-painted billboards of stars are all over Indian cities. These stars often appear in national television commercials as well, and many go on to pursue political careers. Every leader in the state of Madras, for instance, has been from the cinema. Genre ‘masala’. Bollywood films almost always include a mix of family drama, action sequences, romance and music. Many genres can appear in one film. The primary focus is the emotion of the film (see above). The dominant emotion determines the style of film. Censorship. Just as Hollywood was constrained by the Hays Code (see page 258), Bollywood has its own censorship code. The focus is on perceptions of decency and morality. Nudity is forbidden. A discreet kiss is all that is permitted in a love scene. Seductiveness is therefore transferred to the song-and-dance sequences. That is where the famous ‘wet sari’ performances come in!

Audience issues in Bollywood cinema Young males under the age of 25 are one of the key target groups for Bollywood films. Nearly half of India’s population of one billion is under the age of 30, and so they are the main group going to the movies. In urban areas it is acceptable for the genders to mix in the audience. But in the villages the audiences are mainly male. Females are segregated when they go to the cinema in more traditional areas of the country.


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The following titles are among those that have been released in Australia on DVD: • Earth (1996). While not strictly a Bollywood film, Deepa Mehta’s feature Earth addresses Indian nationalism. • Monsoon Wedding (2001). Although funded internationally, Mira Nair’s film contains many of the traditional elements of Indian cinema. • Salaam Bombay (1998). This moving film is in the Indian independent social realist tradition rather than commercial Bollywood style, but it makes a useful contrast. Many of the actors are amateurs and street children. It was funded internationally.

Figure 12.18: ! TRAVELLING CINEMA SET UP IN THE VILLAGE OF 0ALLI 7ITH NEARLY HALF OF )NDIAlS POPULATION LIVING IN VILLAGES "OLLYWOOD üLMMAKERS MUST TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THAT THEIR üLMS MAY BE SHOWN ON ANCIENT PROJECTORS WITH THE SOUND SYSTEM TURNED UP HIGH TO DROWN OUT THE NOISE OF COOLING FANS

• Salaam Namaste (2005). This traditional Bollywood film was actually filmed in Melbourne. It tells the story of a year in the lives of two young Indians living in Australia. The movie was the highest grossing Bollywood film in 2005.

‘Watching a movie in an Indian cinema hall is a lively experience. The audience makes itself seen and heard at every turn of the plot — wolf whistling at a sexy ‘wet sari’ number, egging on the hero as he takes out ten bad guys and applauding melodramatic dialogue about lost values. Once it becomes clear that there will be a happy ending, the audience often does not bother to wait for the last scene but starts making its way out of the cinema before the film actually finishes.’ Nasreen Munni Kabir, Indian film critic, television producer and film director

The Indian diaspora (Indians who live outside of India) around the world is estimated at about 11 million. The largest community is in Britain. Sizeable communities live in the Middle East (as guest workers), as well as in Africa, the US, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and Australia. Bollywood movies, delivered by satellite or on DVD, provide these communities with an important emotional support and a link with ‘Mother India’.

Some Bollywood movies Bollywood titles are becoming more widely available in Australia and can often be found in the ‘foreign’ section of video stores. Large Indian supermarkets in capital cities are also good sources of Bollywood films. MG Distribution in Melbourne distributes Bollywood films and DVDs.

Figure 12.19: 3ALAAM .AMASTE FOLLOWS TWO YOUNG )NDIANS LIVING IN -ELBOURNE !S WITH MANY "OLLYWOOD üLMS THERE IS A STUDIO ALBUM OF THE SOUNDTRACK AND A POPULAR HIT SONG 4HE )NDIAN üLM INDUSTRY IS CLOSELY ALLIED TO THE MUSIC INDUSTRY

Chinese cinema Chinese-language cinema has at least three distinct branches, based in mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Since 1997 Hong Kong has been incorporated into China as a Special Administrative Region (see martial arts movies, pages 273–8). Mainland China also has a diverse cultural mix, embracing the majority Han people and at least 55 minority cultures.

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Chinese cinema is taken to refer to the movie production of mainland China. Most of these films are produced by graduates from the state-approved Beijing Film Academy. Production output varies between 100 and 200 films a year. Mainland Chinese films are subject to state censorship. The government-controlled press can also be highly critical of movies that pass censorship regulations but still meet with state disapproval.

Context

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After the 1949 communist revolution the government used movies as a propaganda tool. The Soviet style of filmmaking (see page 12) was the biggest influence during the Mao era. All foreign films were banned. Chinese films focused on revolutionary heroes and the struggles of working people to overcome oppressive landlords and capitalists. Under Chairman Mao, boy–girl romance stories were discouraged. Rather, young men and women shared political idealism and revolutionary goals. The state called this style of filmmaking ‘socialist realism’ or ‘revolutionary romanticism’. Directors were ordered to integrate revolutionary movements into their films and to portray characters as class types. For instance, a hero would always be a factory or farm worker, whereas a villain would always be from the capitalist class — perhaps a landlord or a foreign factory owner. Directors were also ordered to make their films as Chinese as possible. Often they would include symbols from traditional poetry or painting. For example, a shot might be framed by branches of blossoms in the style of traditional ‘bird and flower’ painting. Or a film might start with a long tracking shot or pan to represent the unrolling of a scroll. After the opening of China to world trade in 1978, a new generation of filmmakers emerged. They were called the fifth generation because they were the fifth generation of directors to come out of the Beijing Film Academy since 1949. Unlike earlier graduates, they were allowed to begin directing straight away, and their films began appearing in the 1980s. Fifth generation directors abandoned the socialist realist model in favour of a return to historical Chinese literary and artistic traditions. The best known of these films are Yellow Earth (1984), Raise the Red Lantern (1991) and Farewell My Concubine (1993). Foreign distribution and funding has ensured these films are well known in the west. Increasing industrialisation has brought many problems to China’s cities. Despite state censorship, a ‘sixth generation’ of filmmakers is beginning to depict these problems. Their films are often privately financed and shot in low-budget digital formats using handheld

cameras. Sometimes they are filmed in secret. The underground nature of sixth generation films has meant that western funding has tended to stay with fifth generation directors. One sixth generation film that is readily available in the west is Beijing Bicycle (2001). Epics are not favoured by sixth generation directors. Neither are mythical heroes and spectacle — so loved by western audiences. The films are likely to be structured around the daily lives of ordinary people. The narratives are sometimes called ‘stream of life’ stories because of their natural flowing style and nonpolitical subject matter. Films of broad international appeal are now being made in China. They star Chinese actors and are produced with a combination of Taiwanese and Hong Kong expertise. Some of these have toppled Hollywood films at the US box office. These internationally produced Chinese films are often in the wuxia genre (see martial arts, pages 273–8); examples include Hero (2002) and House of Flying Daggers (2004).

Features of Chinese cinema Before the 1980s and the fifth generation of Chinese filmmakers, films kept to the socialist realism style. The fifth generation of films in particular are a return to classical Chinese traditions. Chinese painting has been a key source of inspiration. Some critics have referred to this as the ‘re-Orientalising’ of Chinese film. According to Hao Dazheng, professor of film theory at the China Film Art Research Centre in Beijing, these films share many of the following features. Traditional painting style. Historically, Chinese painting uses a different sense of perspective from that used in western art since the Renaissance. Western art uses a perspective based on the point of view of one person, with the distance disappearing away from a single vantage point. Chinese landscape painting, on the other hand, uses a multi-focal perspective that is based on multiple viewpoints. Chinese painting aimed to represent spiritual rather than physical truths. In film, this multi-focal approach influences camera style, mise-en-scène and plot lines. Large-scale framing. In ancient Chinese thinking, humans are mere specks in nature’s grand scheme. Chinese painting dwarfs humans in vast natural landscapes. Newer Chinese films reflect this with an emphasis on scenic shots on a larger scale than is typical in western films. In fifth generation films and beyond, more of the screen is occupied by space. High or low shots often fill the screen with earth or sky. If humans are represented as only a small part of nature, then there is no need for the traditional Hollywood sequence of shot sizes that moves from long shots to close-ups.


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Chinese directors often use one primary shot for a whole scene. Transitions to different shot sizes are very gradual. Zooms are viewed as an unnatural progression and are rarely used by the fifth and sixth generations. Lateral tracking through landscape. The return to oriental traditions has meant that lateral tracking shots are often used. In these shots the camera moves sideways on tracks past a landscape, revealing an expanding natural environment, rather like multi-focal painting. Lateral tracking makes it possible to shift focus from one character and set of events to another, a little like unrolling an ancient scroll. One result of lateral tracking, however, is that the mise-en-scène can look rather flat — it has length, but little depth. Flat lighting. The Beijing Film Academy approach has been to use flat lighting, rather in the traditional Hollywood studio style. They have not favoured sharply contrasted shafts of light in the low key style called chiaroscuro lighting (see page 19). Flat lighting allows for a more neutral viewpoint, from which audience members can take their own meaning from a scene. Use of colour. Drawing on the style of the ancient woodblock printers, Chinese filmmakers use primary colours to represent moods and to create episodes within a film. According to traditional Chinese cosmology, a colour can induce certain feelings. The meaning of the colour is not fixed. It can be changed by the content of the scene. For instance, in Yellow Earth, red at the beginning of the movie is a positive colour symbolising freedom. It is a masculine or yang colour that is positive for males in the film, but in the scenes involving females it is negative.

Figure 12.20: )N TRADITIONAL #HINESE PAINTING HUMAN üGURES ARE OFTEN DWARFED IN A LANDSCAPE THAT OCCUPIES MOST OF THE FRAME &IFTH GENERATION #HINESE üLMMAKERS HAVE USED THE SAME KIND OF FRAMING Mid shots emphasised. Traditional Chinese social taboos did not allow for the sort of close-up, faceto-face interaction that is permissible in the west. Lots of close-up shots can be a source of uneasiness. Fifth and sixth generation filmmakers have preferred medium shots that show a character’s activities but do not invite overly personal inspection. Limited shot size variation. According to Hao Dazheng, Chinese directors avoid sudden changes of shots. In the west, a jump from a long shot to a closeup may give force and rhythm to a scene. In contrast,

Multi-focal narration. Chinese storytelling tradition is based on the same ancient world view as Chinese painting, says Hao Dazheng, The narrative technique is multi-focal, with events and characters represented in parallel. In contrast, the Hollywood style more commonly places events in sequence, usually with one other subplot that joins the main plot at the resolution. Chinese narrative also tends to avoid description of people’s inner worlds. Instead, says Hao Dazheng, the movies try to affect the viewer through the plots and the vast scale of events.

Representation issues in Chinese cinema The China Film and Television Bureau controls all filmmaking in China. The Bureau has the following powers: • Film studio executives must meet with the Bureau to discuss quotas and targets as well as types of films to be made. • All scripts must be submitted and approval gained before filming can begin.

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• Films can be censored after they have been produced. The Bureau can demand that a film be reshot. To avoid this, communist party officials within each of the film studios must make sure that the film is in line with government policy. • The Bureau is able to control film release dates and their distribution. If a film is controversial, for instance, the release date can be delayed indefinitely until the subject matter seems no longer relevant. An outright ban is also within the Bureau’s powers. Censorship of nudity, graphic violence and explicit sexual content is a form of social control exercised by the Bureau. Political controls are also applied to films. Political control has become the main activity of the Bureau. Films must not question the government or show negative social or environmental conditions. Since the 2000s there has been some slight relaxation of the controls, allowing films such as Beijing Bicycle to be released.

• Beijing Bicycle (2001). This film by Wang Xiaoshuai, from the sixth generation of filmmakers, is concerned with the issues facing ordinary Chinese people as industrialisation rapidly changes their lives. The film pays homage to Vittorio De Sica’s Italian neo-realist film Bicycle Thieves (1948).

Latin American cinema ‘There is an international division in cinema. Hollywood administers entertainment, Europe art, and Latin America social conscience.’ Ambrosio Fornet, Cuban film critic and scriptwriter

Third cinema (see page 244), a term used to describe revolutionary political films, originated in Latin America. However, greater commercialisation has meant that South American films are becoming more entertaining and less political. Mass mobilisation of the people to overthrow fascist governments is less often the goal of modern films. This is partly because of the slow spread of democracy in South America since the turn of the twenty-first century, says Latin American film specialist Ruby Rich.

What is Latin American film?

Figure 12.21: "EIJING "ICYCLE IS A üLM FROM THE SO CALLED SIXTH GENERATION OF #HINESE üLMMAKERS )T DEALS WITH ISSUES FACING PEOPLE IN #HINA TODAY q INDUSTRIALISATION UNEQUAL WEALTH DISTRIBUTION AND POLLUTION %ARLIER #HINESE MOVIES MASKED THIS KIND OF CRITICISM BY SETTING THEIR NARRATIVES SAFELY IN THE PAST

Latin American film refers to the films of the 20 countries within continental South and Central America and the nearby Hispanic islands of the Caribbean. The region is called Latin America because the primary languages spoken are Spanish and Portuguese. These are European languages descended from Latin — the language of the ancient Roman empire. Many Latin American countries do not have longstanding, internationally recognised film industries. The key film industries of South America are located in the larger countries such as Mexico, Brazil, Chile and Argentina, and also in Cuba.

Some mainland Chinese movies

Context

Some mainland Chinese films from the fifth and sixth generations are available on DVD in specialty video stores in Australian capital cities. These include:

Many of the nations of South America have had similar histories and shared social problems. The continent is torn by class conflict and huge gaps between rich and poor. Dictatorships and corrupt governments have been common. Drug lords and organised crime have created further problems in some of the countries.

• Yellow Earth (1984). The fifth generation director Chen Kaige is well known in the west. His Yellow Earth is regarded as the first film of the fifth generation. It is the film that demonstrated the new Chinese film language with its return to traditional national styles.

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• Farewell My Concubine (1993). This movie, also by Chen Kaige, gives an overview of China’s turbulent twentieth-century history through the eyes of two stars of the Chinese Opera. It was banned twice in China before its international release.

Cuba. In 1959 the US-supported dictatorship in Cuba was overthrown by a communist revolution led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara. Castro became president and, facing hostility from the US, formed an anti-American alliance with the Soviet Union. Moscow provided funds to Cuba — partly in return for a base close to the US. With state funding, the Cuban film industry thrived. Cubans had always been avid cinema-goers,


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and attendances at film theatres provided a strong support base for the industry. Cuban films became a significant force in Latin America. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 plunged Cuba into an economic crisis aggravated by the continuing American trade ban. Funding for films dried up. Now only between four and twelve films are produced in Cuba each year. Among the best known Cuban films are Memories of Underdevelopment (1968), Strawberries and Chocolate (1993) and Guantanamera (1994).

(1991), Amores Perros (2000) and Y tu mamá también (R-rated, 2001). Chile. Chile had a democratic tradition but fell under the military regime of General Augusto Pinochet in 1973. Thousands were killed in the brutal intimidation exercises that followed. When his dictatorship ended in early 1990, Chile began its slow transition back to democracy. But Pinochet had effectively destroyed the film industry. During the Pinochet years many filmmakers continued to work in exile. After Pinochet, film became an important therapy for the nation, as tragic stories that had been suppressed for 17 years were told for the first time. Two of the most successful films from this time are The Frontier (1991) and Amnesia (1994). Argentina. Once a wealthy country like Australia, Argentina was ruled by various forms of civilian and military dictatorship from the 1930s until just after the Falklands War in 1983. Currency troubles, hyperinflation and a huge international debt have led to great poverty and social unrest in Argentina. The country’s film industry is small, but it has had success at international art-house festivals.

Figure 12.22: 4HIRD CINEMA q MEANING REVOLUTIONARY POLITICAL üLMS q WAS A TERM üRST USED IN ,ATIN !MERICA 4HE -OTORCYCLE $IARIES TRACES THE EARLY ADVENTURES OF THE #UBAN REVOLUTIONARY %RNESTO k#HEl 'UEVARA Mexico. In 2000 Mexico became a democracy after 71 years of one-party rule, although public concerns remain about the conduct of elections. The Mexican film industry is the most productive and the wealthiest in Latin America. It provides competition with nearby Hollywood for the Spanish-speaking audiences of Latin America and the southern United States. At its peak in the 1960s, the Mexican industry was producing hundreds of films each year. Whereas many Latin American filmmakers rely on state funding, most Mexican films are commercially funded. Three Mexican films have been highly successful in the English-speaking world — Like Water for Chocolate

Brazil. Brazil, now a democracy, has been controlled by various military dictatorships since the 1930s. The most recent military government held power from 1964 until 1985. Brazil is the largest South American country and also has the largest Catholic population in the world. But great poverty exists side by side with great wealth. Apart from sub-Saharan Africa, Brazil has the most unequal distribution of wealth in the world. Ten per cent of the population owns half the wealth of the country. Film production for most of Brazil’s history has been sponsored by the state and subject to strict censorship. After a disastrous collapse in the 1990s, the film industry has been revived with increased private investment. About 35 to 40 films are made each year, but production levels vary widely. A recent Brazilian film that has been widely distributed in Englishspeaking countries is Central Station (1998).

Themes in Latin American cinema Many of the following features appear in Latin American films. Magical realism. A popular style in Latin American literature and film, magical realism combines everyday reality with supernatural events. Spirituality, folklore and legend merge with the physical world to create a ‘magical’ reality. Characters seem to accept both real and magical events as of equal significance. For instance, in Like Water for Chocolate, Tita’s cookery has magical powers of seduction.

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Social realism. Many Latin American filmmakers have used the social realist style (see film movements, page 231) to focus on the political and social realities of life for the vast numbers of poor in South America. Casting non-professional actors in these films, such as the street children in Central Station, adds to the social realism.

• Consumerism and greed that is valued over human life • Brutal intimidation, whether by governments or by drug lords • Organised crime.

Historical themes. With more than 500 years of interaction between Spanish and Portuguese Europeans and native South Americans (Amerindians), historical themes are a common feature of Latin American films. Films focus on stories of the ancient cultures of the Aztecs and Incas, Amerindian folklore and stories of revolutions and political events. There are perhaps two main reasons for this focus on history. One is that the safe distance from the current political events makes historical subjects safer territory for state-sponsored filmmakers. The other is that damaged societies need to come to terms with their troubled histories in order to move on.

Like Water for Chocolate (1991). This is a romance movie in the magical realist style. The film is set during the Mexican Revolution (1910–17). Although it has been one of the most successful Mexican films ever, critics say the movie masks the problems of life during the 1990s by focusing on a safe and conservative past. The film was sponsored by the Salinas regime during the time of one-party rule.

Religion. Latin America has the world’s largest Catholic population and a growing evangelical Christian presence. Some film critics say religion is a popular theme because these communities have been abandoned for so long they no longer expect anything from earthly powers! Gender and families. Critics note variations among Latin American countries, but a concern with families and gender relations is a common theme. Ramirez Berg argues that recent Mexican cinema represents masculinity in crisis. Traditional machismo has been shattered and films seek to redefine masculinity. Often women are portrayed as victims in this crisis. Sometimes the figure of an absent or failed father may symbolically represent the failure of the government or the state. In Brazilian film, children are used symbolically, says Ismail Xavier. ‘They feature as an innocence not yet polluted, but about to be if society continues to be what it is.’ This idea can be seen in Central Station.

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Economic and political themes. These themes are never far from the surface in Latin American films, even if they appear in a disguised form. Directors often see filmmaking as a chance to send a political message. Many films have dealt with the following issues: • Social class and the huge gap between rich and poor • Economic policies that please world bankers but leave the poor worse off • National interest versus American business imperialism • Corrupt or incompetent government agencies • The cruel and ruthless growth of cities and urban slums

Some Latin American movies

Central Station (1998). Unlike earlier films, Central Station deals with the abandoned children of Brazil in a positive way within the social realist style. The lead character, a nine-year-old boy, is offered hope in the form of a mother figure who saves him from the fate of most street children. Through the boy’s journey, the movie also offers hope of reconstruction for Brazil. Central Station casts a real street child in the main role. In real life the former shoeshine boy turned actor used the success of the film to help other abandoned children he had left behind. The Motorcycle Diaries (2005). Based on an Argentinean book, this film is a co-production starring a number of well-known Latin American actors. Officially the film is Brazilian. It is a road movie that recounts the early adventures of freedom fighter Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara, one of the leaders of the Cuban revolution. His experiences as a young man on a motorcycle trip through South America sow the seeds of his revolutionary ideals.

Figure 12.23: #ENTRAL 3TATION USES A REAL STREET CHILD AS THE LEAD ACTOR 4HE FORMER SHOESHINE BOY TURNED ACTOR USED THE SUCCESS OF THE üLM TO HELP OTHER ABANDONED CHILDREN HE HAD LEFT BEHIND


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Activities 1. Using one of the typologies of world cinema,

provide examples of representative films for each of the categories. 2. Discuss any problems you can see with the two typologies of world cinema. Do you believe they are adequate? Are there cinemas from some countries that don’t fit? Are there other types of films?

BOLLYWOOD/HINDI FILM 3. One New York Times movie critic believes Salaam

Namaste sets a world record for genre pile-up! This may well be true for many other Bollywood movies as well. Select a Bollywood movie and list the western genres it seems to bundle together. 4. View an Indian movie and comment on its use of traditional ideas of emotion. Which of the classical emotions and/or sentiments is dominant? What others are present? 5. Compare a Bollywood movie and its use of song and dance with a typical Hollywood musical. In particular, compare the way Bollywood inserts musical sequences into the narrative with the way Hollywood has developed to move narrative forward through music (see musicals, pages 279–84). 6. Australian director Baz Luhrmann visited the Mumbai film industry before making Moulin Rouge (2001). What influences from Indian cinema can you see in this film?

CHINESE FILM 7. View a film made by a fifth generation director

and compare it with one made by a sixth generation filmmaker. What differences do you see in subject matter and in characterisation? Can you see similarities in filming style? Write a short report comparing the two generations. 8. Select a landscape shot from a well-known fifth generation film (such as Yellow Earth) and compare it with a landscape painting from traditional Chinese art. Discuss the similarities and differences. 9. Select a Chinese film and review it with reference to its use of the new Chinese film language as outlined by critic Hao Dazheng. Show excerpts of the film to the class, noting where it follows these conventions and where it breaks them.

LATIN AMERICAN FILM 10. View a Latin American film and evaluate to what

extent it addresses social and political concerns. Research these concerns and report to the class on each situation. Decide whether the film presents

a sense of hope about the situation. Make a judgement on the extent to which improvements have been made since the time in which the film was set. 11. View a Latin American film that uses the magical realist style. Discuss the use of symbolism in the film and the way in which the fantastical elements are explained. Analyse the amount of time the film spends exploring human emotion. To what extent does the film use folklore as a basis? Use the internet to research the folklore basis to the magical element. 12. Use the internet to research the funding received by a Latin American film of your choice. Has the film been funded by state or commercial funding (or both)? On the evidence of the film and your research, briefly evaluate the extent to which the funding source may have influenced the themes of the film. For films that have international funding, take into account what world audiences may expect in a South American film. How do you think this may have influenced the filmmakers?

PRODUCTION TASK 13. Australia is the ‘back lot’ for the production of

a film by a crew from India or mainland China or Latin America. You are the director. Prepare a ‘pitch’ for the film that follows many of the conventions of the national cinema and deals with familiar discourses or themes. • Outline the planned narrative and some of the complications, explaining how the traditions of the national cinema will be explored in fresh ways. • Give an indication of the conventions of film language and the stylistic production elements you will use to communicate with the home audience. • List locations you will use and how these will be acceptable to an audience ‘back home’. • Detail how workplace health and safety provisions will be met and how any action sequences will be fully supervised. Film and edit the production.

WRITTEN TASK 14. Select a film from world cinema. Outline the main

themes of the film. Evaluate to what extent the themes reflect the social and cultural context (see pages 188–9) of the country in which it was produced. In your evaluation, refer to historical, economic or cultural trends in that country and/or other national films/texts that deal with similar themes.

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Film noir If you’ve watched a lot of late-night movies on television, chances are you have seen film noir. These fi lms have names like Nightmare (1942) or The Big Sleep (1942). They are about fatal sexual attraction, with titles like Kiss of Death (1947) or Human Desire (1954). And they are about cunning crimes and betrayals, with titles like Double Indemnity (1944) or The Killers (1944). Most were made during or just after the Second World War. Paranoid characters struggle to survive in a corrupt, unpredictable world that seems to be without morals or hope — and without sympathy.

What is film noir? The term film noir was coined by French movie critics in 1946 as they watched American fi lms just after the war. It translates into English as ‘black fi lm’. This is not because they are often fi lmed in black and white, but because their mood is black. They are unsettling, anxious fi lms with dark, shadowy themes about life and crime in the underworld of big cities. The French critics intended a double meaning for the word noir (black). Not only were the fi lms moody and bleak, but they were often fi lmed at night or indoors in shafts of light cast by venetian blinds. Most Hollywood productions of the time were flooded by artificial studio light, but noir often used pools of light emerging from blackness. Usually noir fi lms involved detectives, private investigators or insurance agents. Often they began with a murder. But unlike the gangster movies that had gone before them, they were brutal, pessimistic and set in a world fi lled with loneliness.

Science fiction fi lms with noir features, such as Blade Runner (1982) and Minority Report (2002), are sometimes referred to as tech-noir.

Context The huge social, political and economic upheavals of the fi rst half of the twentieth century helped to generate film noir. The end of World War I (1914–18) brought to the United States a decade of economic boom times and a stock market that by 1929 had reached dizzying heights. This period is often called ‘the Roaring Twenties’. In October 1929, however, the market lost more than 30 per cent of its value in just five days. By 1932 the stock market had lost almost 90 per cent of its value. (It would not recover 1929 levels until 1954.) The stockmarket crash of 1929 began the worst economic collapse the modern world has ever seen. The Great Depression (1929–33) threw millions out of work around the world. For many workers and their families, life became a constant struggle to survive. The Depression led to the collapse of the democratic government in Germany, and Adolf Hitler seized power in 1933. After the Nazis began persecuting German Jews, many of them fled the country. They were joined by many leading intellectuals, actors and artists, who were also targeted by the regime. Many of these exiles found refuge in the United States. Among the German refugees were some of the country’s leading fi lm directors, who brought with them a style of fi lmmaking called German expressionism. Known for its geometric set designs, stark lighting and bleak perspectives, expressionism influenced noir fi lms (and also horror fi lms).

Types of film noir There is a debate among fi lm analysts as to whether film noir is a genre or a style. A genre has defi nable narrative conventions. A style just has a ‘look’. Both points of view can draw on reasonable arguments. Taking this into account, the fi lms can be divided as follows: • Classic film noir. Hollywood produced film noir for only a short period of time — from the early 1940s until about 1960.

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• Neo-noir. Films that copy some aspects of the noir style are called neo-noir. These are revivals of the film noir movement. Neo-noir fi lms use either character or plot attributes or the visual style of film noir. Neo-noir includes fi lms such as Chinatown (1974) and L.A. Confidential (1997).

Figure 12.24: 7OMEN ASSEMBLING SHELLS IN A MUNITIONS FACTORY IN 7ITH THE MEN SERVING OVERSEAS WOMEN MOVED INTO THE FACTORIES TAKING ON JOBS THAT HAD ONCE BEEN REGARDED AS SUITABLE ONLY FOR MALES


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World War II (1939–45) was the deadliest war ever known. Estimates of the total number of civilian and military dead range between 50 and 60 million. In the United States, about 16 million soldiers were mobilised. During the war, while the men served overseas, women entered the factories, taking jobs that had previously been considered the preserve of men. This movement of women into the workforce is considered to be one of the factors behind the rise of modern feminism. It gave a new power to women that some men found threatening. This social shift is reflected in the strong women characters of noir movies. Barbara Stanwyck in Double Indemnity (1944) is an example. Soldiers left behind wives and girlfriends. Separated by vast distances, each worried about the possibility of wartime affairs. Many men found future partners overseas and brought them home. Death and grief were everywhere. In Europe the survivors struggled to get by and scarcity drove a black market in essential goods. These circumstances were portrayed in the film The Third Man (1949).

until the 1970s in relation to veterans of the Vietnam War. Demobilised World War II soldiers were simply given a new suit and sent out into the city streets. They had to find work and fit back into civilian life as best they could. Some of these themes are found in the film The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (1956).

Figure 12.26: 2ETURNING FROM 7ORLD 7AR )) AND HAUNTED BY MEMORIES IN 4HE -AN IN THE 'RAY &LANNEL 3UIT AN EX SOLDIER 'REGORY 0ECK TRIES TO SETTLE BACK INTO CIVILIAN LIFE WITH A NINE TO üVE JOB A FAMILY AND A MORTGAGE

Figure 12.25: 4HE DEVASTATION IN %UROPE LEFT BY 7ORLD 7AR )) IS THE SETTING OF 4HE 4HIRD -AN 4HE MOVIE TELLS THE STORY OF AN !MERICAN WHO COMES TO 6IENNA TO TRACK DOWN AN OLD FRIEND TO üND HE IS RUNNING A BLACK MARKET RACKET IN WATERED DOWN MEDICINES At the end of the war the US dropped two atomic bombs on Japan. For the first time the possibility existed that humanity might totally destroy the planet. Within a few years the cold war had begun a nuclear arms race between the United States and Soviet Russia. When soldiers returned home after the war, they received no psychological support. The term ‘posttraumatic stress disorder’ would not be widely used

Film noir was produced by a bleak and disrupted world. The 1940 film Stranger on the Third Floor is said to be the first example. One of the last films in the classic noir style is Touch of Evil (1958). As many as 20 per cent of the noir stories are based on the ‘hardboiled’ detective stories of Raymond Chandler, Dashiell Hammett and others, says John Belton. These and many lesser authors wrote novels about ‘tough guy’ private investigators in the 1930s and 1940s. Their books were produced in their millions and sold as cheap entertainment. Because of this mass production, a derogatory name for them was ‘pulp fiction’ — a name later borrowed by Quentin Tarantino for his 1994 neo-noir film. The classic period of film noir came to an end for three reasons. First, in the 1950s and 1960s America experienced levels of prosperity it had never known before. The returned soldiers settled down and had families. It was the time of the postwar ‘baby boom’. Many families could afford a house in the suburbs. Life no longer seemed so bleak. Second, the censorship of the Hays Code (see page 258) was relaxed somewhat, and what film noir coyly suggested, newer films could show explicitly. Third, television almost totally destroyed the B-grade movie-making industry. Instead of film noir, cheap production houses moved to TV police serials such as Dragnet, situation comedies and game shows.

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Technology Genre and society developments

Film noir timeline Prehistory German expressionism; the novels of Raymond Chandler and Dashiell Hammett; pulp fiction ‘dime’ novels

1920s The economic good times of the 1920s end abruptly in the Wall Street sharemarket crash of 1929. A worldwide economic depression follows.

Mid 1930s German and central European filmmakers come to Hollywood to escape Nazism. Directors/producers include Fritz Lang, Otto Preminger, Michael Curtiz, Robert Siodmak, Billy Wilder and Sam Spiegel.

1927

Metropolis (German expressionist film)

1929

1929–1933 The Great Depression

1930s

1933

Hitler seizes power in Germany.

European film directors bring with them ideas from German expressionism, especially in the use of chiaroscuro lighting and evocative settings.

1935

Exodus of filmmakers and other artists from Nazi

1940s–1960s 1940s During World War II Hollywood studios operate on low budgets. Women enter the workforce to replace servicemen.

Classic period of film noir. Often B-grade films based on the private-eye stories of popular pulp fiction novels. B movies receive less funding but are also subject to less supervision from the studio bosses, so have more freedom to experiment.

Germany 1939


1940

Stranger on the Third Floor (first film noir)

1941

The Maltese Falcon

1942

Casablanca

1944

Double Indemnity, Laura, The Woman in the Window

1945

Scarlet Street

1946

The Big Sleep, The Blue Dahlia, The Postman Always Rings Twice

1947

The Lady in the Lake

1950

Sunset Boulevard

1955

The Big Combo, Kiss Me Deadly

1958

Touch of Evil

Mid 1970s

1974

Chinatown

Renewed interest in film noir as a narrative approach rather than nostalgic ‘look’. Films use 1970s settings and situations that suit genre.

1975

Farewell, My Lovely

1976

Taxi Driver (R-rated)

Mid 1960s–early 1980s

1981

Body Heat, The Postman Always Rings Twice

American inner-city areas experience problems with poverty and crime as the more well-off head for the suburbs. Some inner urban areas become lawless no-go zones.

1980s–present

1982

Blade Runner (sci-fi noir)

1992

Basic Instinct

1994

Pulp Fiction (R-rated)

1998

Dark City (sci-fi noir)

2000

Memento

2001

The Man Who Wasn’t There

2002

Minority Report

2005

Sin City, Brick

Postwar economic recovery is slow at first, and the return of millions of servicemen and dispersal of refugees create social dislocation.

1950s–mid 1960s Colour film and rising prosperity and aspirations of baby boomers spell the end of film noir. Television delivers the final blow as cinema audiences plummet and the golden era of the Hollywood studios draws to an end.

Neo-noir revival: films copy visual style or plot and character attributes. Neo-noir becomes popular in science fiction films as a way of depicting a dark future.

2000–present Renewed interest in film noir as ‘graphic novels’ are brought to the screen

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Features of film noir Many film noir elements are the result of artistic decisions by directors influenced by the German expressionists. However, noir films were often B-grade: wartime scarcity meant reduced budgets, making necessity the mother of invention. Common features include the following. Deep focus. When everything is in focus from the foreground to the far distant background, the camera operators are using deep focus (see page 14). Deep focus became possible with faster film and was used in film noir for two reasons. First, it lent an air of realism — deep focus is how the human eye works, so deep focus films tend to look more realistic. Second, it cut down on the number of set-ups needed. If all the actors were in the shot, there was no need to cut from one to another when they spoke, and this saved production costs. Complex compositions. Partly as a stylistic effect and partly to save money, noir films often excelled at complex shot composition. For instance, several actors would be framed in a shot — perhaps standing in a triangular pattern so that each could be seen talking. Complex mise-en-scène. In noir films, the mise-enscène is usually cluttered and claustrophobic. Rooms seem to be over-furnished. Lots of objects in shot can create feelings of entrapment and danger, especially when the lighting casts lots of shadows in tightly framed shots. Noir motifs. An object or image that recurs in a film is called a motif. A number of motifs came to be seen as symbols of the film noir genre. The most well known is the venetian blind that casts slats of light across the set. Spiralling cigarette smoke is another. Mirrors were a common feature, often suggesting a split personality, as in Psycho. Spiral staircases are also common. In The Third Man, for instance, a spiral staircase winds up four or five floors. The camera shoots directly upwards from the very bottom, creating a strange optical effect. Low key lighting. The use of low key lighting creates an effect known as chiaroscuro. This is when there are sharp, clearly defined contrasts between light and dark. Studio lighting has a key light, a fill light and a backlight (see page 18). If the key light is dropped down low, it will cast shadows directly across the set. Normally studio lighting tries to avoid shadows by raising the key light up high. Directors of noir films deliberately lowered the key light until it was almost at eye level, creating threatening shadows. Low key lighting also has a high ratio of brightness variation between each light. This is often as high as 8:1,

meaning the key light may be eight times brighter than the fill light or the backlight. Backlighting. Directing a light towards the camera produces a more obvious shaft of light and reduces the detail in the foreground. Disorienting camera angles. When the horizon isn’t straight, everything else seems off balance. Noir directors often used strange camera angles to disorient the audience and to build a sense that the world wasn’t ‘right’ somehow. First-person voice-over. Double Indemnity begins with a confession from the male protagonist. He is fatally wounded and makes his declaration of guilt into the latest recording device — a 1944 dictaphone. His confession becomes the voice-over for the movie. Sunset Boulevard (1950) begins with a disembodied male voice-over (the man’s body is floating in the pool). Narration is commonly used in noir films to provide the background information needed to understand the complex plots. Complex plots. Like the thriller genre (see pages 295–8), the noir film uses a plot with lots of twists and turns. Many of these films were based on novels. As a result, the stories often seem compressed. The films try to deceive the audience, so that nothing is what it seems. Flashbacks combined with present action also complicate the time sequence. Sense of entrapment. The central themes of noir films are betrayal, murder and psychological entrapment. Neither male nor female characters in noir escape their fate.

Figure 12.27: (UMPHREY "OGART IN 4HE -ALTESE &ALCON ,OW KEY LIGHTING THAT CASTS THREATENING SHADOWS IS A DEüNING FEATURE OF üLM NOIR

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Plot Murder and sexual psychology are the most common plot concerns of noir films. According to genre analysts Alain Silver and James Ursini, noir films parade a range of cruelties and torments. Silver and Ursini identify a bizarre ‘ceremony of execution’ in these films. For instance, in T-Men (1947) an informer is locked inside a steam bath. In Red Light (1949), one victim is crushed when a car jack is kicked out. The noir movie often begins with the planning of a crime or the investigation of a murder. Violence begins the disequilibrium or disruption (see page 136) and will usually reappear at the end of the film. Unlike gangster movies, in which violence is large scale and appears to threaten the order of society, in noir films the violence is often restricted to one or two people. But the setting is a society in decay, lacking integrity and order. Chance plays a large part in setting off the story. For instance, in Sunset Boulevard the male protagonist is being chased by debt collectors who want to repossess his car. Driving at high speed down Sunset Boulevard, one of his tyres blows out and he swerves into the driveway of a large mansion. Thereafter events snowball, until eventually he is found dead in the swimming pool. Violence ends the film as two characters come unstuck. Most often the man dies as the trap is sprung. Occasionally, as in Double Indemnity, the woman dies as well, but more often she simply loses her magnetic allure — perhaps being carted off to jail, as in Sunset Boulevard. A twist of fate brings the male lead character into the world of a beautiful, sensuous and entrancing woman. She uses her sex appeal to manipulate and trap the man, but she herself is not after love. She craves power or money, and sex is just a means to an end. Between them, the male and female leads conspire to commit a crime or to investigate one already committed. Each becomes trapped in their doublecrossing plans.

demands of the Hays Code, which prohibited the portrayal of crimes that escaped punishment. A last-gasp confession at the beginning could show the punishment and also permit the guilt to be forgiven. The circular structure also allowed the filmmaker to capture the audience’s attention with a murder and then keep them enthralled with the complexities of character and plot for the rest of the movie (see set-up, wrap-up in crime dramas, pages 358, 360).

Plot discourses Because it relied on racy detective novels for its stories, film noir is noted for its witty dialogue and clichéd tough talk. The characters speak in a straightforward, streetwise style that is delivered in short, sharp, punchy sentences. Sexual banter keeps the audience on tenterhooks as the man and woman engage in a kind of verbal joust or duel. This sort of sexual tension can be seen in the film Double Indemnity, for example. The male protagonist lives by his wits, and often all he has to defeat his opponents is his ability to be a bigger ‘wise-guy’ than them. He has to bluff his way out of confrontations and outfox them through strategy. This can be seen at the start of Sunset Boulevard when Joe Gillis hoodwinks debt collectors attempting to repossess his car.

Plot progress

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One of the most noticeable features of the film noir is that it often starts with the end of the story. The male protagonist has been defeated somehow. We find out how it all happened as the movie retells the story. Then at the end we return to the final scene, usually a death — the same scene we saw at the beginning. But often there is some other twist that is yet to be revealed. Usually the film progresses a little further to bring about the final resolution. This framework is called a circular plot structure. Its popularity in film noir is partly explained by the

Figure 12.28: ,! #ONüDENTIAL SET IN ,OS !NGELES IN THE EARLY S EVOKES THE MOODS MORAL CORRUPTION ALIENATION CYNICISM AND ADOPTS THE CHARACTER TYPES HARDBOILED COPS THE FEMME FATALE SEEDY VILLAINS AND STORY ELEMENTS A TWISTED PLOT INVOLVING MURDER SEX AND CROOKED POLITICIANS OF THE CLASSIC üLM NOIR )T ALSO USES COMMON NOIR CONVENTIONS SUCH AS VOICE OVER NARRATION AND ČASHBACKS


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Character The criminologist Nicole Rafter says, ‘noirs expose a murky world in which everyone is tinged with sin and despair’. There are no heroes or heroines — everyone is just trying to get by.

The male protagonist Humphrey Bogart in The Maltese Falcon (1941) is probably the most memorable example of a male protagonist. A protagonist is the character the story happens to (see page 141). Private detectives, insurance agents, journalists and writers are common leads. Each of these occupations involves some sort of investigative work. This justifies voice-over narration; it also gives the character a reason to mix with the underworld of the city. He is a streetwise tough guy with divided loyalties who is as likely to be pursued by the police as by criminals. The noir protagonist is a loner whose tough, ‘hardboiled’ exterior conceals a sense of disillusionment and alienation. His masculinity requires that he appear detached and tight-lipped. His world is full of corruption and cruelty. He’s seen it all! The male lead character is not a hero to be admired. He lacks moral strength and is often motivated by selfinterest, greed and lust. These hardboiled American detectives are not smart like Sherlock Holmes, says John Belton. They use animal cunning and brute force. But, says Belton, these wise-guys make up for their lack of brilliant detection skills with verbally witty street talk. Still, they are no match for the females.

The femme fatale The French term femme fatale means literally ‘deadly woman’. She is a beautiful seductress, often referred to by critics as a ‘spider woman’, who ensnares men in her web of deceit and intrigue. The femme fatale uses her sexual allure to enlist the male protagonist into some scheme that inevitably leads to his death. Barbara Stanwyck in Double Indemnity and Joan Bennett in Scarlet Street (1945) are memorable femmes fatales. It might be expected that such a sensuous woman would be driven by love or lust, but most femmes fatales in noir films are searching for something else. Often their scheme is to use the man to acquire money, power or revenge. Sometimes they are searching for independence or escape — perhaps from a loveless marriage or a jealous husband. While the traditional roles for women were as a wife or mother, the femme fatale chose a different path. Her goals are not focused on the family. Instead she has ambitions in the world outside. Some feminists say she represents the newly independent women who had entered the workforce during the war.

Figure 12.29: "ARBARA 3TANWYCK IS THE CALCULATING FEMME FATALE IN $OUBLE )NDEMNITY WHO PERSUADES INSURANCE SALESMAN &RED -AC-URRAY TO TAKE OUT AN ACCIDENT POLICY ON HER HUSBAND AND THEN TO MURDER HIM

The good marriage prospect Not all the women in noir films are man-eaters. Some, such as Betty Schaefer in Sunset Boulevard, offer an attractive marriage prospect. She is obviously capable of being a good housewife and mother, and she has an innocence that contrasts with the femme fatale’s manipulativeness. But Betty’s purity puts her just beyond reach. Her welfare may be somewhat compromised by the plotting of the femme fatale, but the noir male is completely trapped by events and ultimately doomed.

Setting The world of noir is bleak and dangerous. The settings strongly reinforce this view of the world. The influence of German expressionism is strong in the stylised urban settings. A film noir city is as you would imagine a sinister city to be — rather than like any particular city, although Los Angeles often ‘plays’ itself. Interiors are almost always constructed in the studio and create a claustrophobic and stuffy atmosphere. Curling cigarette smoke caught in the shafts of light from a venetian blind seems to suggest that even the windows don’t open. There is no sense of a world outside the edge of the frame. The furnishings reinforce this sense of entrapment. The room is crowded and complicated, with shadowy corners — just like

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the noir world. It is a jumbled setting pierced by shafts of threatening, interrogating light. It’s not easy for anyone to look honest and trustworthy in such a context. Exteriors reveal a city in decline. Streets are slicked with water before shooting to create reflections, and rain increases the sense of depression. Flashing neon signs are signals of sleazy nightlife. Alleyways give the impression that the characters inhabit some sort of evil maze. Noir city streets are often spooky and empty. Even the support of other human beings is unobtainable. Alternatively the streets are impossibly crowded with remote, unreachable people. For example, the fi lm may be set in an ethnic quarter of the city where the language barrier isolates the protagonist from any sense of community. The city streets in the neo-noir fi lm Blade Runner (1982) are like this.

Representations and discourses Because noir fi lms are so stylised, the distorted character representations are very noticeable.

Women Feminists argue that film noir made strong women into man-eating monsters. Noir fi lms seem to see women’s attainment of a new independence in the 1940s as a threat. The message tends to be that if a

woman does not devote herself to family duties she is wicked and scheming. Noir women use their sexuality against men. Men are used by the femme fatale as a means to an end. These women are not just independent, say feminists; they are portrayed as blatantly sexually aggressive, but because these fi lms are almost exclusively made by men, women’s power is seen as being sexual only. No women in noir fi lms are respected because of their career achievements, for instance.

Men Men are portrayed as morally weak and unable to recognise that they are being manipulated. In the noir world, men drift without being anchored to a secure job, home or family. The choices the fi lm offers them are as restricted as the women’s. The male protagonist can become a family man and live forever in a dull domestic rut, or he can choose excitement with the femme fatale, which will surely kill him.

Families John Belton believes that noir families are exaggeratedly dysfunctional. Wives kill their husbands, as in The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946); or children kill their parents, as in Angel Face (1952). (And, of course, lovers kill each other, as in Out of the Past, 1947.) Crime has moved right inside the family, says Belton, and ‘the impetus for crime comes as often from women as from men’.

Activities 1. Try your hand at filming a noir-style shot

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composition. You will need to arrange characters so each can speak and reply in turn. You’ll also need a striking set design with complex miseen-scène, and a low key lighting set-up. Follow recommended health and safety procedures when using lights. 2. Using variations on a three-point lighting set-up (see page 18), light a scene with traditional high key studio-style lighting and then light the same scene with a low key noir-style set-up. (Follow recommended safety procedures.) Describe the psychological effect of each design. 3. Create some noir lighting effects. Cut some horizontal slits into a stiff, flat piece of card. This will leave strips of card to represent the blades of a venetian blind. Leave a border around the card to keep it in one piece and hold each strip in place. Now hold the card up to a light (but far enough away to prevent it from getting hot). It will cast shadows similar to a venetian blind. Use a blue gel over the lights, as this is very effective in picking up

particles like smoke. Follow recommended health and safety procedures when filming with lights. 4. Discuss whether neo-noir films are merely ‘nostalgia’ or whether they really are an extension of the genre. Refer to plot and narrative aspects, costume, character types and mise-en-scène. Are there features of society today that resemble some of the characteristics of the classic noir period? 5. Make a list of locations in your city that could be used as settings for a noir film.

PRODUCTION TASK 6. The State Film Corporation is calling for people to

submit concepts for a new film noir production. Prepare a ‘pitch’ for a noir film that follows many of the conventions of the genre. Outline the narrative and give an indication of some of the climactic scenes. Discuss your use of flashbacks or a circular plot structure. Develop profiles of your male protagonist and your femme fatale. Describe the opening and closing use of violence. Give an idea of the setting and how it suits the story.


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Gangster movies ‘Gangsters both real and fictional, and big businessmen real and fictional, all go about their business for the reason that it earns them money which they can then use to purchase items with the intent of extending their happiness. Like the bumper sticker says, “He who dies with the most toys wins.” ’ Timothy Sexton, freelance writer

The day-to-day business of gangsters is petty crime, extortion, illegal drugs and prostitution. When gangster movies hit the screens in the 1930s, the audience found the combination of sex and violence irresistible. The success of these movies was guaranteed. Gangster movies have long been regarded as a typically American genre — a kind of dark side to the ‘rags to riches’ stories of American business tycoons. Critics often say the main American goal in life is to acquire riches. The possibility of going to America and becoming rich has sustained American culture since its beginning. This yearning for wealth and opportunity is known as ‘the American Dream’, according to which anyone can climb the ladder of success and become rich, no matter how humble their beginnings. American society also believes in individualism. Individuals are said to control their own destiny, and so a lack of success is seen as an individual problem rather than one that may be linked to other factors, such as poverty or social status. Yet during the Great Depression of 1929–33 millions of impoverished ordinary people saw how the wealthy class still had riches beyond belief. The only way many people could access the American Dream would be to steal their way into it! Gangster fi lms told the stories of ordinary workingclass people who had gained riches through violence and robbery. This took a different sort of enterprise from that of the business tycoon.

What are gangster movies? Gangster movies are about greed, aggression and violence in an urban setting. They are closely associated with both the film noir genre and the thriller genre. According to Hollywood genre analyst Thomas Shatz, what sets gangster films apart are their colourful and outgoing characters and their action-filled story lines. While a gangster fi lm may be shockingly violent, it usually isn’t depressing — unlike film noir. In this sense, it is more like a western, except that the gunslinging hero is a ‘bad guy’. Both types of fi lms are violent and focus on a battle for power and territory.

Figure 12.30: -ARLON "RANDO AS $ON #ORLEONE IN 4HE 'ODFATHER 'ANGSTER MOVIES ARE ABOUT GREED AND AGGRESSION IN AN URBAN SETTING 4HE LEAD CHARACTERS LIVE THE kČIP SIDEl OF THE !MERICAN DREAM OF BECOMING A RICH BUSINESS TYCOON

Context Films about crime date back to the silent era and D. W. Griffith’s 1912 fi lm The Musketeers of Pig Alley. But the gangster fi lm came into prominence in the 1930s. ‘Unlike the western and the hardboiled detective who were adapted from popular literary genres,’ writes Thomas Shatz, ‘the screen gangster was lifted directly from the current newspaper headlines.’ In the United States after World War I (1914–18) industrial city populations were exploding with the influx of immigrants from both rural America and across the world. Ethnic gangs and ‘strong-arm’ thugs ruled the streets. America was turning from its agricultural frontier traditions to an urban society. At the same time religious and Temperance groups had persuaded Congress to pass a bill banning the manufacture and sale of alcohol. The National Prohibition Act was passed in 1919 and would not be repealed until 1933. The huge cost of enforcement, general public defiance, the associated crime wave and the impact of the Great Depression (1929–33) had made the law practically unworkable. ‘Prohibition’, as it was called, had a number of social effects — few of them good. Alcohol consumption did drop — some figures show a decline of around 20 per cent — but the growth in organised crime and the cost of enforcement were dramatic. What’s more, alcohol became much more dangerous to drink. Crime gangs took over the manufacture and sale of alcohol. Since no American manufacturers were allowed to continue production, the gangs imported alcohol from other countries. This imported alcohol was called ‘bootleg’ liquor. Illegally brewed local

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alcohol was sometimes called ‘moonshine’ because it was brewed secretly after dark. Undercover bars run by crime bosses were called ‘speakeasies’. The origin of this word is unclear. Some say it came from patrons needing to speak softly to avoid drawing suspicion. Others say the term arose because people had to ‘speak easy’ to the bouncer at the door to be let in. This was the 1920s equivalent of the modern expression ‘Be cool’. Anyone who could not speak easy might be suspected as a ‘dry’ enforcer. Newspapers were full of stories of crime gangs and violent struggles for power and territory that ended in shoot-outs such as the St Valentine’s Day Massacre in Chicago in 1929, when Al ‘Scarface’ Capone tried to eliminate his rival George ‘Bugs’ Moran. Seven of his henchmen were killed, but Moran himself escaped. Studios cashed in on the public’s appetite for stories about these crime bosses. Almost every famous gangster of the time has had a movie made about them, including John Dillinger, ‘Pretty Boy’ Floyd, Bonnie and Clyde, Al Capone and ‘Baby Face’ Nelson. By the early 1930s there was increasing public concern about the portrayal of these gangsters as heroes. Under pressure from the churches, Hollywood strengthened the moral guidelines outlined in its production code. According to the code, ‘the sympathy of the audience was never to be thrown to the side of crime, wrongdoing or sin’. By 1934 the Hays Code (see page 258) was enforceable. After 1934 gangster movies became uplifting tales of law and order. Gangsters always came to a sticky end. The message was that crime does not pay. In 1967, however, the Hays Code was abandoned in favour of a system of movie ratings, similar to what exists today. That year saw the release of the movie Bonnie and Clyde, which depicted the gangsters Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker as sympathetic, even heroic Robin Hood–type characters. Francis Ford Coppola’s The Godfather (1972) not only portrayed the gangsters in a positive light; it was one of the first gangster films since 1934 in which the lead character did not meet his death at the end of the film. Indeed, the ‘Godfather’ at the end of the film goes on to become even more powerful. The Godfather was a blockbuster — one of the highest grossing films of all time. It resurrected the gangster genre and has influenced gangster films ever since. The rise of the illegal drug trade in the late 1960s and early 1970s created an organised crime culture that was similar in some ways to the bootleg culture of the 1920s. By the 2000s the primary focus of gangster films was on the criminal rather than the detective, says crime genre specialist Ron Wilson. Quentin Tarantino’s films are an example of this return to the

1930s roots of the genre. Modern crime films have tended to focus on the business of crime, says Wilson, but at a lower level within the empire. Often the characters of modern films are petty criminals whose goals in life are modest.

Features of gangster movies The main elements of gangster films are as follows: • Violence. While many genres feature violence as a central element, gangster movies often take violence to extremes. • Anarchy. Gangsters know no rules, but only death, says Susan Hayward. Power, wealth and success are the only goals; morals just get in the way and must be dispensed with. Hayward says the viewer experiences this world without ethics or rules for the duration of the film as the plot takes us to almost complete social breakdown. • Individualism. The self-made man on the wrong side of the law — that’s the typical film gangster. The conflict between the individual and lawful society is the result of an extreme form of individualism. The gangster uses violence to get what he wants; there is no question of compromise. • Success and constraint. The gangster chooses to risk dying young rather than submit to society’s constraints, says Hayward. This explains the air of resignation in these films — the audience knows there will be death. The reward is material success and the riches of the American Dream.

Plot Typically the gangster film starts with a violent event and order is restored through further violence at the end. Violence occurs at all the high points of the plot, building towards the resolution in which the lead character often meets a violent death. The plot commonly follows the rise and fall of the gangster’s career. Films such as The Godfather, Goodfellas (1990) and New Jack City (1991) all follow this type of structure. As the violence snowballs, there is also a build-up of tension as each climactic high point succeeds the last. Towards the end of the movie the lead character is often at the peak of their career — but the cost has been high. Just before the resolution, big plans may be foiled or a close ally or friend may die. By this time the gangster has often become bloated and overconfident — an incarnation of immorality responsible for heavy bloodshed. This brutality leads to the inevitable downfall. In the resolution of the movie, the gangster typically dies in a hail of bullets.


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Gangster film timeline Prehistory Outlaw and western gunslinger stories; Jesse James, Billy the Kid; stories of robberies and piracy

1912

The Musketeers of Pig Alley

1914


1919

1919–1933 Prohibition of alcohol in US

1929


1931

Public Enemy, Little Caesar, Quick Millions

1932

Scarface, Blondie Johnson

1934

Hays Code made enforceable.

1935

G Men

1937

The Last Gangster

1939


1920s Prohibition leads to 30% drop in US alcohol consumption but big increase in crime, including bootlegging, hold-ups, petty crime and gang crime. Peaks in 1930s. Celebrity crime bosses emerge — e.g. Al (Scarface) Capone, ‘Bugs’ Moran, ‘Pretty Boy’ Floyd, ‘Baby Face’ Nelson.

1935–1965 Under the Hays Code, gangster movies tend to be morality tales teaching that crime does not pay. Plot lines are relatively simple and do not draw out wider implications of crime, focusing instead on a crime ‘hero’ who is eventually brought down.

1940s 1940s World War II brings about enormous social dislocation.

The gangster movie often merges with film noir as the focus shifts to the private detective instead of the crime hero. The crime figure becomes less heroic and more desperate.

1941

High Sierra (based on gangster John Dillinger’s story)

1946

The Killers

1947

Kiss of Death

1948

Force of Evil

1954

On the Waterfront

1967

Bonnie and Clyde

1971

Dirty Harry

1972

The Godfather, Superfly

1973

Dillinger

1974

The Godfather Part II

1987

The Untouchables

1990

Goodfellas (R-rated)

1992

Reservoir Dogs (R-rated)

1994

Pulp Fiction (R-rated)

1995

Casino (R-rated)

1998

Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (UK)

1999

Two Hands (Aus.)

2000

Traffic, Snatch (UK)

2002

Road to Perdition

2007

American Gangster

1950s–1960s 1950s–1960s Rise in prosperity creates broader opportunities and a more positive mood in society. Increased interest in crime as a socioeconomic and psychological problem

Dormant period for gangster movies. Criminal heroes largely disappear, replaced by cops as ‘good guys’. Gangster depicted as a psychological misfit.

1970s 1970s–present Emergence of illegal drugs as a big crime business

1980s Significant US federal prosecutions in the late 1970s and 1980s have a brief impact on real-life organised crime.

1990s–present Organised crime goes global on the back of the international drug trade.

Revival of genre. Movies focus on organised crime and big-business crime bosses who make handsome returns. Gangster heroes are more sophisticated and in control. Violence levels increase. Films about illegal drug organisations of the modern period echo the films about illegal liquor syndicates of the prohibition era. A nostalgic return to biographies of the early gangsters

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Character The following characters are common in gangster films: • Mr Big. In most gangster movies, the lead character is male, although there have been some exceptions. Film critic Tim Dirks believes the film gangster has been elevated to the level of a tragic hero. The audience secretly enjoys the ruthless violence and the craving for wealth and success. The scheming intelligence combined with brutality fascinates audiences. Yet there is often a charm about the ‘big fella’ as well. Says Thomas Shatz, ‘We all sympathise with the trace of humanism that invariably leads to his downfall.’ In a way, the lead gangster is a ‘good’ character or ‘hero’ because the story is told from his point of view. • The families. There is a tribal closeness about the families in gangster movies, says John Cawelti. The old-fashioned father figure is almost like a god or king. The chain of command stops at his desk. The tightly knit mob family contrasts with the declining status of the family in western culture generally. More in line with modern behaviour, perhaps, the television series The Sopranos depicts a family that is not so easy to control. • Small-time hoods. Whereas the movies of earlier periods focused on the big bosses, recent gangster films have chosen to focus on the ‘little people’. These characters aren’t larger than life; rather, they are smaller and meaner. But, says Ron Wilson, they are motivated by the same desires for success. These are bottom-rung thugs, he says, who yearn to climb the ladder of success. They fail because they step beyond their level of competence. • Female characters. There are romantic subplots in gangster movies, but women have rarely played main character roles in the films. Their parts have been limited to mistresses or wives in the background. Television, rather than film, has provided relief from this tradition with shows such as The Sopranos.

Setting

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The gangster setting is the modern American city — usually New York, Chicago or, increasingly, Los Angeles. The focus is on places that most of us read about in newspapers but never frequent — secret drug factories, brothels, sleazy basement clubs, dark alleyways and courtrooms. The gangster’s own home is like a parody of a Hollywood mansion. It is lavish and luxurious but also garish and tacky. Recent gangster movies, with their focus on small-time characters, show living quarters that are sleazy and cheap.

The classic period setting is the 1920s or 1930s, but films are often set in the present day of their production. This may be because the stories are drawn from current news, or it may be to impose a greater sense of immediacy and threat on the audience.

Figure 12.31: &ROM 4HE 2OAD TO 0ERDITION STARRING 4OM (ANKS 4HE S AND S REMAIN THE CLASSIC SETTING FOR GANGSTER MOVIES 0RESENT DAY SETTINGS ARE ALSO COMMON BECAUSE THE MOVIE STORY LINES ARE OFTEN DRAWN FROM NEWS HEADLINES

Representations, discourses and audience Representations Criminologist Nicole Rafter believes gangster films appeal to audiences because they offer representations of society and variations on discourses about evil and cruelty. What is a crime is closely linked to (but often the opposite of) what is regarded as ethical and moral behaviour. Because gangster films reflect social norms, rules and values, Rafter suggests, they can tell us much about what it is that society values.

Discourses The discourses of gangster films deal with conflicts in values that are deep within our culture. These can be about selfishness versus commitment to others, about freedom versus responsibility, or about force versus persuasion.

Audience In the gangster film we are often invited to identify with the gangster as a kind of upside-down hero, or even as a tragic figure. Typically the gangster dies violently or is punished. But first the audience gets the thrill of going along for an adventurous ride. Rafter suggests the films ‘provide a cultural space for the expression of resistance to authority’. While watching these films, she says, it is acceptable to fight the justice system and stand against conventional society.


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Activities 1. List some gangster movies that focus on the ‘Mr

Bigs’, and then list some that focus on petty villains. What do you notice about the different styles and how you as the viewer respond to them? 2. In groups, brainstorm an outline for a gangster movie with a female lead character. Discuss the following: her likely rise and fall; her power over her henchmen; relationships with rivals; her use of violence or other persuasion techniques. 3. Make a comparison between the ‘business tactics’ and goals of a movie gangster and those of a legitimate businessperson. What are the similarities and differences? 4. How do you think the gangster genre will change in the future? Consider the following social trends and

suggest ways they will influence the genre: greater multiculturalism and more diverse ethnic groupings; more women in the workforce and in leadership roles; an ageing population with fewer young people; a decline in large extended families.

PRODUCTION TASK 5. The State Film Corporation has approached you

to submit the concept for a gangster film. Prepare a ‘pitch’ for the film that follows many of the conventions of the genre. Outline the narrative, profile the characters and give an indication of some of the climactic scenes. Describe the opening and closing use of violence. Give an idea of the setting and how it suits the story.

Horror movies ‘Nothing is so frightening as what’s behind the door … You approach the door in an old deserted house, and you hear something scratching at it …’ William F. Nolan, horror and science fiction writer

Boris Karloff, Hollywood’s fi rst Frankenstein’s monster in the 1930s, once said of horror, ‘It’s what we try to get away from throughout our lives.’ Stephen King, the most significant modern horror writer, reflects, ‘I recognize terror as the finest emotion and so I will try to terrorize the reader. But if I find that I cannot terrify, I will try to horrify, and if I find that I cannot horrify, I’ll go for the gross-out. I’m not proud.’ Horror fi lms focus on the dark side of life. They are about our fears and nightmares. It may be fear of the dark, where we cannot see potential threats; it may be fear of dismemberment; or it may be sexual fear. At the deepest level, horror fi lms are about our fear of death and dying.

What are horror movies? Horror movies may be defi ned as fi lms that aim to create feelings of dread, panic and terror in the audience, often by exposing deep-seated fears that exist within all of us. This means horror movies do not need vampires or ghosts. They can take place in the ordinary day-to-day world. The essential condition is that they can create a sense of terror. Horror movies provide an experience of fear within safe boundaries. Audiences know it’s ‘only a movie’.

Founding member of the Horror Writers Association Robert McCammon defi nes a horror story as a ‘guided nightmare ride that can shock, educate, illuminate, threaten, shriek, and whisper before it lets the readers loose’. Australian horror writer Marty Young believes horror works on three levels. First is the terror when the threat is fi rst specified. Second is the horror of coming face to face with it. Last is disgust as the ‘gross-out’ factor takes hold.

Types of horror There are five main types of horror fi lms. • Supernatural horror. Supernatural horror is regarded as ‘traditional’ horror. It plays on fears of the unknown, superstition, legend and mythology. Haunted house stories are typical of the supernatural subgenre. Here the power of the antagonist (see page 142) is superhuman. Poltergeist (1982) is an example of supernatural horror. • Gothic horror. Gothic horror relates to the subject matter that fascinated the nineteenth-century creators of ‘gothic fiction’. These writers include Bram Stoker, Mary Shelley and Robert Louis Stevenson. Stories of vampires and werewolves are common in gothic horror. Dracula is a gothic horror character. Frankenstein’s monster and Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde are characters created by the gothic writers. Like supernatural horror, gothic horror relies on superstitions, myths and legends. Antagonists also possess special powers.

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• Creature movies. In creature films the antagonist is not (and never was) human. The fear aroused by the creature is the fear of being hunted by something ruthless and predatory — whether animal or alien. Alien (1979) is a science fiction film that also follows the conventions of ‘creature movie’ horror. • Psychological horror. These films dwell on the dark side of human nature more than on blood and gore. Evil lies in the disturbed mind of the main character, who in other respects may appear charming and reasonable. The Silence of the Lambs (1990) is an example of this subgenre. • Slasher. Slasher films became common in the late 1980s and through the 1990s. The ravaging and dismemberment of the body is the chief fear these films prey upon. They often feature a killer who murders again and again by means of some sort of bladed instrument such as a knife. The films centre on a small group of people, and often the killer is one of them. Wes Craven’s Scream trilogy (1996, 1997, 2000) are well-known examples that at the same time parody the conventions of slasher films.

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Figure 12.32: *ACK .ICHOLSON IN 4HE 3HINING (ORROR MOVIES PROVIDE A SAFE EXPERIENCE OF FEAR 7E KNOW THAT THINGS WILL BE ALL RIGHT WHEN THE MOVIE IS OVER

Context Horror stories are as old as humanity itself. All societies have had myths and legends that deal with the darker emotions. In the history of western civilisation, horror stories can be traced back to the Greeks. Indeed, Plato worried about the effects of these stories on the young. Many fairytales are horror stories. Some research into children’s responses to fairytales has informed audience research into emotions released during horror movies. Horror films are directly descended from the gothic novels of the nineteenth century. These novels, often set in medieval castles with gothic architecture, aimed at terrifying their readers. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) became one of the best known. The macabre stories of American writer Edgar Allan Poe, written in the 1840s, would later become material for horror films. Many of the films about Egyptian mummies owe a debt to Poe. In the 1880s there was a gothic revival. Bram Stoker wrote his novel Dracula (1897) to supplement his income as a theatre manager. This book became the basis for Nosferatu (1921) and every Dracula film since. The first horror film is usually named as Le Manoir du Diable (The Devil’s Castle), produced in 1896 by the French director Georges Méliès. Filmmakers of the German expressionist movement of the 1920s were to have the greatest influence on the genre in the early period. They based their films on Germanic myths and the German equivalent of gothic novels — called ‘shudder novels’. Many of these directors later fled Hitler’s Germany and moved to Hollywood (see film noir history, pages 254–60). In the 1930s the Hollywood movie studio Universal began large-scale production of horror movies. The first Dracula (1931), Frankenstein (1931) and The Mummy (1932) were released in this period. At this time, according to historian of horror Paul Wells, the ‘monster’ was portrayed as something foreign and distant — not located in familiar suburbs — and often non-human. It was alternately attractive and repulsive, in the manner of Dracula. Before World War II horror plots were likely to end with a return to full normality. In his book Monsters and Mad Scientists, Andrew Tudor refers to the classic period of horror films as providing ‘secure horror’. Audiences were given a fright but were ultimately comforted by a safe ending. With the very real horrors of World War II it was considered inappropriate for the studios to focus on creating horror movies for entertainment, and the genre declined. Films about Egyptian mummies remained in production, however. During this time


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the focus of horror began to move from foreign, nonhuman monsters towards psychological horror. After the atomic bombs were dropped on Japan at the end of the war people experienced an increased sense of anxiety as they came to terms with the devastating power of nuclear weapons. Paul Wells believes the cold war and fears of communist infiltration and invasion led American filmmakers to produce a different kind of horror movie. These movies focused on invasion narratives and the possibility that ‘monsters’ were living amongst ordinary suburban Americans. Such concerns are especially evident in the ‘creature feature’ horror movies of the 1950s. Meanwhile in the UK, Hammer Horror produced a string of gory horror movies with gothic themes. The focus on blood and violence shocked audiences at the time. These films from the Hammer studios were a powerful influence on later horror films. ‘One word sums up the shift from classic horror to modern horror: Psycho,’ says professor of film studies Ronald Humphries. Psycho (1960) showed how horror could invade the lives of ordinary people. The monster was the boy next door. Psycho was the first slasher film. In Lila Crane, the victim’s sister, it also featured one of the first appearances of the ‘final girl’ character type (see characters, page 270). Psycho marked the shift from the ‘secure’ horror of the pre-war period to the unsettlingly insecure horror plots of the modern period. In future movies, normality would no longer be fully recaptured. The relaxation of the Hays Code (see page 258) in the 1960s allowed movie makers to introduce more and more violence. The Exorcist (1973) was among the first R-rated horror movies. In 1974 The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, also R-rated, began Hollywood’s movement towards the slasher subgenre. ‘The McDonaldisation of horror’ is how one critic describes what has happened in the period since the 1980s. McDonald’s is a highly efficient industrial organisation dedicated to making money through franchises. From the 1980s until the early 2000s, suggests Paul Wells, horror became a ‘franchised’ formula. This trend can be clearly seen in the Friday the 13th movie series, but also in the adaptations of Stephen King novels and the Scream movies.

Australian horror A few horror films were made in Australia in the first half of the twentieth century. Fisher’s Ghost was produced in 1924. Alfred Hitchcock made a fairly mild psychological horror movie set in 1830s Sydney called Under Capricorn (1949).

The 1970s was the most productive decade for Australian horror. At least three films made during this period were international hits. Each of them has a very Australian idea of the monstrous — the empty isolation of the outback. The first, Wake in Fright (1971), told the story of a school teacher’s horrific experience in the outback. The Cars That Ate Paris (1974) is set in an isolated bush town that has gone feral. A haunting Australian landscape features in Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975). Australia’s Aboriginal heritage provides creative inspiration for a strand of Australian horror. The Last Wave (1977) takes Aboriginal myths to create supernatural horror in urban Sydney. Kadaicha (1987) is a teen slasher movie set in a housing estate built on an Aboriginal burial ground. Tracey Moffatt’s Bedevil (1993) tells several Aboriginal ghost stories remembered from her childhood. An isolated and hostile outback crops up again as the ‘monster’, together with a kind of evil Crocodile Dundee character, in the gruesome slasher movie Wolf Creek (R-rated, 2005). This movie plays on several highly publicised crimes and a national history of missing young travellers (see phobic pressure points, page 269).

Features of horror While the themes of horror have changed over its history, the basic features remain unchanged.

Monstrosity The monstrous is one of the most important features of horror. Monstrosity represents evil. The original monster is therefore the devil. But what the movie defines as monstrous has changed across different periods of the genre’s development. The monster creates disorder in the film by disrupting normality and creating an unnatural world. Genre specialist Stephen Neale says the monster upsets the division between what is human and what is unnatural. This division works in a similar way to the division between ‘law and order’ and ‘crime and disorder’ in detective or gangster movies.

The body Monstrosity is usually focused on the body in horror movies. Barbara Creed, of the University of Melbourne, suggests the grotesque body of the horror movie monster is created by crossing the boundary between human and non-human. It can also be created by crossing the boundary between inside and outside. Blood, for instance, which should be contained inside the body, is forced outside by violence. In the slasher movie, this is a cause of revulsion and horror.

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Horror film timeline Prehistory Fairytales, myths, folk history, Brothers Grimm, gothic novels, Edgar Allan Poe stories

1896

Le Manoir du Diable

1910s–1930s

1914

Avenging Conscience (D. W. Griffith, based on

German expressionism is a major influence on the development of early Hollywood horror movies.

1919 1920 1922

The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (Germany)

1931 1933 1934

Dracula, Frankenstein

German director F. W. Murnau comes to Hollywood.

Mid 1930s German and central European filmmakers come to Hollywood to escape Nazism.

Early horror movies draw on superstition and myth to create monsters that are nonhuman, bestial and ‘other’. There is also a fascination with science and ideas of creation.

1940s Real horror of World War II brings temporary decline of genre.

1950s–mid 1960s 1950s The cold war and the threat of nuclear annihilation intersect with fears of mutation linked to atomic bomb fallout. Psychology makes important advances and gains popular interest.

Mid 1960s–mid 1970s Social movements around the Vietnam War, the civil rights movement, youth protests and feminism bring major cultural changes. Assassinations and a spate of bizarre murders and serial killers (e.g. Charles Manson) make world headlines.

1990s–present Viral marketing using the internet helps promote films such as The Blair Witch Project

Rise of ‘creature feature’ in US and Hammer Films’ gothic horror in the UK

1960–present After Psycho, horror focus shifts from animalistic, ‘foreign’ monsters towards psychologically disturbed humans. Realism arrives — the monster may be ‘the boy next door’. Horror violence becomes more graphic. Narratives move from ‘secure’ horror to stories with strong closure to stories with less secure endings. Rise of slasher movies, the destruction of the body their main theme. ‘Franchise’ horror titles produced as money-making brands with open-ended sequels. The Scream franchise merges horror with satire.

Edgar Allan Poe) The Golem (Germany) Nosferatu (Germany)

Hitler seizes power in Germany. Hays Code made enforceable — horror violence and topics restricted.

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1935

Exodus of filmmakers from Nazi Germany

1939


1942 1945

Cat People (first horror film to not show the monster)

1951 1954 1957 1958

The Thing

1960

Psycho (redefined horror genre)

1970 1973 1974 1975 1976 1978

Wake in Fright (Aus.)

1981

Friday the 13th

1991

The Silence of the Lambs

1996 1997 1999

Scream, The Craft

2002

The Ring (Japan)

2005

Wolf Creek (R-rated, Aus.)

Atomic bombs dropped on Japanese cities.

Creature from the Black Lagoon Curse of Frankenstein (Hammer, UK) The Return of Dracula (Hammer, UK)

The Exorcist (R-rated) Texas Chainsaw Massacre (R-rated) Picnic at Hanging Rock (Aus.) Carrie Halloween

I Know What You Did Last Summer The Sixth Sense, The Blair Witch Project


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Phobic pressure points Author Stephen King uses the term phobic pressure points to describe our secret phobias and fears. These pressure points might be, for instance, snakes, spiders or being alone in a house during a storm. All the horror writer has to do, says King, is press the right buttons. Exaggerating the phobia until it becomes all-consuming is how the movie creates terror in the audience. Movies that do this include Arachnophobia (1990), which features a plague of killer spiders; Christine (1983), which focuses gruesomely on teenage boys’ love of cars by creating a car that satanically possesses its owners; and The Dentist (1996), which turns the sound of the drill into something truly horrific. Not only individuals but societies and nations have phobic pressure points. Many Australian horror movies have focused on our collective fear of isolation and the harshness of the outback. National concerns or historical events can also produce phobic pressure points suitable for horror movies. Childcare is one example. Another is the Japanese interest in mutant monsters (such as Godzilla) after the dropping of the atomic bombs in 1945. Trespass. Horror crosses boundaries, trespassing on what most people think are taboo subjects. The taboos might be about death, good taste, sex or religion. Anything society doesn’t want talked about can be exploited in a horror movie. Violence. Most of the shock factor in horror movies comes from gory, gut-wrenching violence. According to Stephen Neale, horror movies are unique in the way they use violence in conjunction with images of monstrosity. Violence may be used throughout the movie, beginning the moment the monster first appears and disrupts the everyday world. A series of violent attacks will follow, increasing in destructiveness until the monster is itself destroyed with violence. World turned upside down. Barbara Creed uses this term to describe the irrational world we enter once the monster has first attacked. All the laws of nature and science — the entire logical basis of society — are turned upside down by the intruding horror. For example, in Alien, a male astronaut gives birth to an alien monster through his chest. The idea of a natural order being disturbed by something monstrous goes back at least to Shakespearean literature. Many ‘upside down’ events occur in Macbeth, for instance.

Figure 12.33: &REDDY +RUEGER 2OBERT %NGLUND IN .IGHTMARE ON %LM 3TREET -ONSTROSITY IN THE HORROR MOVIE IS FOCUSED ON THE BODY )T IS CREATED BY CROSSING THE BOUNDARIES BETWEEN WHAT IS HUMAN AND WHAT IS NOT HUMAN

Shock. Just as suspense is a key element in thrillers, shock is a key element in horror. Shock effects are used throughout the movie but are especially powerful at the climax. There, a combination of surprise and what Stephen King calls ‘gross-out’ can set the audience screaming.

Plot Horror films follow the conventional orientation, complication and resolution stages of narrative (see page 138). The narrative is based on the monster’s rampage and the often doomed efforts of people to resist it. Violence both disrupts normality at the beginning and restores it at the end. Anticlimaxes are a common plot element in horror movies. An anticlimax occurs when the tension builds and the audience expects something momentous to happen — only to find it is a false alarm. Suspense is also a common plot factor. Suspense in a horror movie is often different from that in thrillers, however. In horror, the audience knows something horrible will happen, but they don’t know what. In thrillers, the audience often knows what the threat is, but the characters don’t.

Plot progress Because horror is essentially about disruption of normality, the orientation stage of the film offers a glimpse of a normal world. This glimpse is usually brief, but the normality shown is often exaggerated

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and stereotyped. This is so audiences can quickly get the feel of it and be all the more shocked when it is violently disrupted. In the complication stage, normality is blown apart by the first attack of the ‘monster’. There follows a battle between natural and unnatural, as irrationality invades the formerly ordinary world. Often there is an attempt to seek a rational explanation for events. After all, rationality has always triumphed in the past. But this time it fails. Characters who persist in applying logic are usually doomed. Once everyone acknowledges that the monstrous antagonist (see page 142) is beyond normal human capabilities, the protagonist (see page 141) often seeks expert help. This expert is not the usual scientific type but is knowledgeable about the dark arts of dealing with the unnatural order. For instance, in The Dark Half (1991) the expert is a professor of medieval superstitions. At this stage, the screenwriters face the problem of ‘what’s behind the door’, as Stephen King puts it. The problem is that the unknown is always more frightening than what the filmmaker can show. ‘There is a school of horror writers (I am not among them) who believe the way to beat the rap is to never open the door at all,’ says King. Examples of films where ‘the door’ is never opened include Picnic at Hanging Rock and The Blair Witch Project (1998). The resolution stage has been handled very differently in the different eras of horror. In early horror movies the hero and the expert would typically defeat the antagonist in a final show of violence combined with skill and wit. In the Hammer horror film Dracula (1958), the monster is destroyed when a stake is driven through his heart. Normality is restored. The audience feels secure again. In later films the narrative is not always so tidily resolved. Sometimes we are not sure whether the ‘monster’ has really gone — as in Friday the 13th and its sequels (1980, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989). Sometimes the resolution points to a new unleashing, as in Bride of Chucky (1998), which ends with the suggestion of a new birth. The modern audience generally comes away from a horror movie feeling insecure.

Character The following character types appear commonly in horror movies.

The monster

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Sometimes sympathetic and sometimes repulsive, the monster is a key character in horror films. There are two main sources of monstrosity — the monster

within and the monster that is external. A psychological disturbance of some kind establishes the monster within. The external monster takes one of two forms. Either it is a supernatural force of some kind, or it is some kind of non-human creature. While the monster is often male, there are also films in which the monster is female. Typically slasher horror has cast male monsters. However, supernatural horror has often featured female monsters.

The victims The audience is only briefly involved with the victims. But during the frenzy of the attack this involvement is intense. Critics have argued that most horror victims are female. However, content analysis studies of slasher horror movies show that victims are not always female. In fact, they are now more likely to be male. The female archetype (see page 144) has changed over the history of horror. Women used to be portrayed as martyrs or victims, but in modern films they are as often portrayed as warriors.

The final girl Feminist Carol Clover, in her book Men, Women, and Chainsaws, first coined the term final girl, referring in particular to slasher films in which the killer is usually male but the survivor is female. Clover argues that the audience identifies with the final girl and lives their own fear through her. Therefore the final girl must show abject terror, which is just what the filmmaker wants from the audience. They feel sympathy for her and barrack for her to win. According to Clover, this is why there can be no ‘final male’ — because audiences would reject an abjectly hysterical and terrified male, and would not want him to win. The final girl overcomes her fear and almost singlehandedly defeats the monster. Typically the final girl is not promiscuous and does not use drugs. And she often has a name that could be either male or female — Sidney, in Scream (1996), for example.

Setting Vlad the Impaler’s fourteenth-century fortress in the Romanian province of Transylvania is probably the most common single setting for horror movies. This is Dracula’s castle, seen most recently in Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1992). In early horror films the source and location of the horror was usually foreign, often somewhere in far-away eastern Europe. This made it easier to portray monstrosity as being different from the norm. A heavy foreign accent was an essential part of the typecasting. The Hungarian actor Bela


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Lugosi, who played Dracula in the 1931 film, became the early stereotype of the horror movie monster. Other actors also adopted foreign sounding names to suit the demands of the genre. For instance, Boris Karloff, the first Frankenstein’s monster, was born William Pratt. Alfred Hitchcock’s 1960 film Psycho marked a turning point in settings for horror movies. To American audiences, the monster had become suburban and local. ‘The great man’s laboratory, the gothic castle, the ruined mansion and the pharaoh’s sacred tomb have been dismissed from the screen,’ writes Jonathon Crane in his book Terror in Everyday Life. In modern times, ‘our town, the everyday present, is where menace is given substance. Monsters now thrive along Main Street and Elm Street.’

Representations, discourses and audience ‘Monstrosity fascinates us because it appeals to the conservative in a three-piece suit who resides within all of us. We love and need the concept of monstrosity because it is a reaffirmation of the order we all crave as human beings.’ Stephen King, Danse Macabre (1981)

Discourses — deviance and normality What a society views as monstrous can tell us about what it regards as normal. Dr Jekyll is a model of upright English good manners and virtue. Mr Hyde’s uncontrolled, deranged rampages contrast shockingly with Jekyll’s Victorian rectitude. In previous times sexuality was more repressed than it is today. Some critics suggest nineteenth-century gothic horror stories are really stories about normal and abnormal courtship at the time. Stories about handsome and attractive vampires stealing blood from the necks of young girls in white robes don’t seem so necessary these days. A more sexually open society will seek monsters elsewhere than in cultural taboos.

Representations — gender Feminists have argued that women are portrayed primarily as victims in horror movies. They are shown as the stereotypical ‘damsels in distress’ who are helpless to defend themselves against the monster. It was assumed that the helpless female was featured in order to appeal to the largely male audience of horror movies. However, both the idea of the helpless female and the notion that the audience is largely male have been disputed. Since the rise of slasher movies, feminists have revised the ideas through discussion about the role of the final girl. Content analysis studies (see page 156) also discount the myth that it is most often females who die in horror movies. According to audience researchers Barry Sapolsky and Fred Molitor, there is only a minor difference between male and female death rates. Furthermore, content analysis showed that the camera dwelt on the bloody display of male victims for longer than it did on female victims. However, it was also clearly shown that female victims are more often seen suffering fear. The camera showed females experiencing fear for much longer than it did males. Table 12.1: 6ICTIMS OF VIOLENCE IN SLASHER MOVIES p ACCORDING TO GENDER 'ENDER

#OMBINED

Males

4.7

7.9

9.4

7.3

Females

5.3

7.4

4.9

5.9

15.3

14.3

13.2

Combined

10

Table 12.2: $URATION IN SECONDS OF VICTIMS SEEN SHOWING FEAR IN SLASHER MOVIES p 'ENDER Males

#OMBINED

13.1

156.0

172.1

113.7

Figure 12.34: "ELA ,UGOSI IN THE ORIGINAL $RACULA

Females

711.1

450.8

536.5

566.1

3OME CRITICS SAY THIS KIND OF GOTHIC HORROR WAS REALLY ABOUT THE STRICT COURTSHIP RITUALS OF THE TIME

Combined

724.2

606.8

7008.6

679.8

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Research into audiences of horror movies has raised the following issues. Gender socialisation. One reason often given for going to horror movies is ‘to show I’m not a coward’! Audience researchers Dolf Zillmann and James Weaver have found that horror movies can be a kind of male and female initiation rite. Just as traditional tribes set tests to prove bravery and manhood, so too do modern social groups. Zillmann and Weaver have studied how young men use horror movies to show their mastery of fear and distress. Young women, on the other hand, tended to play up their distress levels to appeal to the males. Males were shown to enjoy the same horror movie almost twice as much if they were accompanied by an acutely distressed female. Female enjoyment of the movie dropped to one-third if they were accompanied by a male showing distress. Catharsis. Catharsis is the psychological release of pent-up tension (see page 171). Many horror writers claim that audiences find horror movies beneficial because they relieve deep-rooted fears and anxieties. So far no audience studies have proved this to be the case. Thrill seeking. Experiments by Marvin Zuckerman and others have shown that individuals who rate

themselves as ‘thrill and adventure seeking’ also tend to enjoy horror movies. On the other hand, individuals who are low on the sensation-seeking scale indicate they do not like horror movies.

Self–rated level of enjoyment

Audience issues

Mastery

Distress

Males with female

Mastery

Distress

Females with male

Figure 12.35: %NJOYMENT OF HORROR MOVIES AS STATED BY MALES AND FEMALES DEPENDS ON WHETHER THEIR PARTNER SHOWS DISTRESS OR MASTERY 2ESEARCH BY :ILLMANN AND 7EAVER APPEARS TO SHOW THAT MALES ENJOY THE MOVIE MORE IF FEMALES SHOW DISTRESS 4O A LESSER EXTENT FEMALES ENJOY THE MOVIE MORE IF MALES SHOW MASTERY 4HE GRAPH SHOWS THAT AUDIENCES MAY BE USING HORROR MOVIES IN WAYS RELATED TO THEIR PERCEIVED GENDER IDENTITIES

Activities 1. Stephen King says that horror and comedy are the

MEDIA

only two film genres where you can stand outside the cinema and actually hear the audience react. Sometimes horror movies deliberately combine humour and horror. In small groups, discuss what you think is the reason for the connection between the two. Is it appropriate that filmmakers exploit the connection? Report the outcome of your discussions to the class. 2. Discuss audience research among teenagers showing that the horror movie can be seen as a rite of passage or a demonstration of bravery. Also discuss the findings that show males enjoy a horror movie more if they are with a female showing distress while females prefer a male to show mastery. Should this be challenged as sexist? 3. Undertake a content analysis of a horror movie (with an appropriate age-based rating). Below are a number of steps to assist in your content analysis. • Count the total number of violent attacks made by the ‘monster’ (see violence definition, page 169). Include verbal abuse and record violent acts up to death. Compare your count with the average of 52 acts per film during the decade of the 1980s. • Perform a ‘body count’ and allocate these according to gender. Compare your finding with

the 1980s average of 14 per film (or 25 per cent of all violence). • Count the number of seconds the camera lingers over the spectacle of bodily destruction according to gender. • Count the number of seconds a person is shown ‘in fear’ according to gender.

PRODUCTION TASK 4. The State Film Corporation has called for

expressions of interest in producing a horror movie that will appeal to modern Australian audiences. Prepare a ‘pitch’ for a horror movie that follows many of the conventions of the genre but also explores new directions to bring fresh life to the genre. Outline the narrative and give an indication of some of the climactic scenes. Explain how you have defined ‘monstrosity’. Develop a profile of your hero and some of the other characters. Discuss whether you will use the ‘final girl’ character or change this convention in some way. Describe the opening normality and the invasion of the ‘monster’. Decide whether you will have a ‘secure’ or ‘insecure’ ending. Give an idea of the setting and how it assists the development of the story.


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Martial arts movies ‘The problem is that it is fantasy. Once someone shoots someone else, everybody understands it. That’s reality. But when somebody does fantastic martial arts — that’s fantasy. ‘You never see that in life. You never see that on the news. What you see is people shot and run over. When you’re working in martial arts, you’re working in fantasy. You’re working with ballet.’ Fred Weintraub, the movie producer who brought Bruce Lee to the United States

‘Its like tap dance. Before I choreograph the fighting, I write down all the tempos — because our fighting is so long — then music. When the music comes up, you just keep punching, keep kicking. And then, “ah, yeah” — it’s not violent anymore.’ Jackie Chan, martial arts star

Most martial arts movies are produced in Hong Kong, mainland China, Korea, Japan and other countries of Asia, such as the Philippines. In those countries they are aimed at a young audience who understand tradition but who at the same time may be rebelling against it. Kung fu is a traditional term that has come to refer to all varieties of Chinese martial arts. It roughly translates into English as ‘ability’ or, more specifically, ‘accomplishment through tremendous effort’. Chinese martial arts are often divided into hard and soft arts. Hard martial arts stress powerful hand and foot strikes. Soft martial arts focus on the force of inner energy called chi. The Japanese and Koreans have their own martial arts systems, such as judo, aikido and tae kwon do. Most countries of northern Asia also have a tradition of swordplay. The best known in the west is the Japanese tradition of the samurai, a professional class of aristocratic warriors, but swordplay is a respected part of the histories of mainland China and Korea as well.

What are martial arts films? Martial arts fi lms are action fi lms that most often feature open-handed combat or rely on traditional pre-modern weaponry such as swords and other blades. These movies are characterised by extensive and violent fight scenes.

Figure 12.36: &ROM 4HE (OUSE OF &LYING $AGGERS -ARTIAL ARTS MOVIES USUALLY FEATURE OPEN HANDED COMBAT BUT MAY ALSO FOCUS ON TRADITIONAL PRE MODERN WEAPONRY SUCH AS SWORDS AND KNIVES

Types of martial arts movies There are two main types of Chinese martial arts movies and within those a number of subgenres. The main division is often understood in terms of the differences between northern or southern Chinese approaches to martial arts. The northern approach stresses the summoning of inner forces — spiritual or soft martial arts. The southern or Shaolin Temple approach is based on physical skills — down-to-earth martial arts.

Kung fu Movies using the southern approach are best known in the west as kung fu movies. These movies can be broken down further into subgenres depending on the type of fighting philosophy featured. There are also kung fu movies that focus on acrobatics and comic routines. Recently a ‘new wave’ of kung fu movies made by John Woo has incorporated guns and other modern weapons into the action. Kung fu movies may be set at any time within the past 400 years of Chinese history, although modern settings are quite common. Bruce Lee and Jackie Chan movies are based on the southern kung fu.

Wuxia The more spiritual northern approach, wuxia, is famous for its airborne wire work. Showing the special supernatural powers of the characters, the actors fly through the air suspended on wires. Sometimes wuxia is jokingly called ‘wire-fu’. Wuxia fi lms blend martial arts with stories of chivalry. Western equivalents might be stories of medieval knights or the fantasy epics of Tolkien. Most of the extended fight scenes use swordplay or sometimes knives and lances. Most often the swordplay fi lms are set in the

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ancient dynasties of early Chinese civilisation. The House of Flying Daggers (2004) and Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) are wuxia films.

Chinese ghost stories These movies blend Chinese horror and martial arts. They differ from western horror movies in that many of the supernatural beings reflect traditional beliefs in regions of China. Examples from this subgenre include The Butterfly Murders (1979) and A Chinese Ghost Story (1988).

Japanese samurai films Like the wuxia films, samurai films are concerned with chivalrous deeds. But, like the southern Chinese kung fu movies, they focus more on the physical martial arts. Many critics have pointed to the similarities between Japanese samurai films and American westerns. Akira Kurosawa’s The Seven Samurai (1954) is the most influential of these films.

Context History of Chinese martial arts Kung fu martial arts are said to have originated with the founder of Zen Buddhism, Bodhidarma. He came to China some time around AD 500 and settled at the Shaolin Temple in Hunan province in southern China. Many different forms of kung fu were taught by the monks of Shaolin. Around 1735 the Manchu government decided kung fu was subversive. The monks were killed and the temple burned to the ground. The story goes that five monks survived the massacre and passed on their different fighting styles by disguising them as performances for the early Beijing Opera.

Chinese martial arts films

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The roots of martial arts films go back to the stylised acrobatics of the Beijing Opera. Chinese opera features open-handed combat, gymnastics, music and extravagant costumes. In the 1920s a few martial arts films were made in mainland China, but the Chinese films are mainly a product of the Hong Kong film industry. Occupied by the British after the Opium War of 1842, Hong Kong became an east–west trading colony. The Chinese leased the colony to the British in 1897 for 99 years. Hong Kong prospered as a banking and commercial centre. When the communists took control of China in 1949, the colony was flooded with refugees. Hong Kong became one of the most densely populated places on Earth. Many of the refugees were rural people from traditional farms and villages. Faced with a crowded and confusing modern life, they sought comfort in the old Confucian values of the past.

According to Hong Kong University sociologist Dr Ben Leung, Chinese martial arts movies in the 1950s and 1960s had a therapeutic value. They reassured and comforted the former refugees who were from a pre-modern world and found themselves for the first time in an overcrowded commercial city. The stories were often set in mythic ancient China. They showed kung fu masters teaching Confucian values of ability gained through hard work. Whenever those early movies were set in modern times, they showed good clearly winning over evil. A favourite film series was based on a real-life Confucian hero who lived near Hong Kong. He was Wong Fei-hung, a martial arts master and doctor of traditional Chinese medicine. He was also reported to be a champion of justice. He died in 1924, but stories of his legendary adventures were made into more than 60 films between 1949 and 1970. Once Upon a Time in China (1991) depicts some of his supposed exploits. Shaw Brothers studio in Hong Kong is credited with having built the martial arts genre. In the 1960s Shaw produced hundreds of films, and in 1966 they announced their intention to break into the western market. In 1972 they chose King Boxer to send to Warner Brothers to spearhead the kung fu invasion of the west. But it was the Bruce Lee films that created the international kung fu craze. Even today the four films he made before he died in 1973 are the most viewed Hong Kong martial arts films in the world. A rival to Shaw Brothers, Golden Harvest Studios, discovered Jackie Chan. His blend of kung fu and comedy made him the only star to really qualify as a successor to Bruce Lee. In the 1980s a new generation of directors, called the Hong Kong New Wave, combined the new computerbased special effects and the old wuxia traditions to produce grand fantasy films such as Tsui Hark’s Zu: Warriors of the Magic Mountain (1983). Some did away with tradition altogether. Director John Woo armed his actors with modern automatic weapons in A Better Tomorrow (1986). Some critics have jokingly referred to his style as ‘gun-fu’. When mainland China reclaimed Hong Kong in 1997, film production declined to about half its former output. Many of the Hong Kong directors moved to Hollywood. The Hong Kong style is now a global product.

Japanese martial arts films Japanese martial arts films were influential in both the east and the west in the 1950s and 1960s. The most famous director of this period, Akira Kurosawa, filmed a samurai trilogy that was well received in arthouse cinemas. The first film of the trilogy, The Seven


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Samurai (1954), is regarded as one of the masterpieces of world cinema. Hollywood produced a western based on the film called The Magnificent Seven (1960). In the mid 1960s Hong Kong directors from Shaw Brothers studio went to Japan to study Japanese filmmaking, and then announced their new ‘realistic’ style.

Features of martial arts movies The main types of martial arts films share many of the following features.

the style of film production. In the fight scenes, shots are held for longer than normal in Hollywood action movies. The less post-production editing there is in a fight sequence, the more the authenticity of the stars is proven. A stylised Jackie Chan fight, says Aaron Anderson, may extend to 20 or 30 attack-and-parry actions before there is a cut.

Myths and legends Magical elements are common in martial arts movies. Characters may have special powers. They may be able to fly or to kick a man clean through a wall. The movies combine tradition with historical legends and the physical skills of a real performer.

The body A number of movie genres are described by analysts as being genres of ‘the body’. In horror movies, for example, the body is often monstrous (see page 267). In action movies, the focus is on the bulked-up, muscular body. In martial arts movies the body is an athletic one. The emphasis is on the body itself as a weapon — especially in bare-handed combat movies such as those in the kung fu subgenre. There is pleasure in seeing the highly trained body of an expert overcoming normal physical laws. For instance, martial arts experts are shown performing incredible acrobatic leaps into the air. Martial arts movies also seem to act on the viewer’s body, as though the viewer feels some of the power in their own body, which almost by reflex mimics the athletic actions of the performers on screen (see audience below).

Violent fight sequences Martial arts expert and film fight director Aaron Anderson says fight scenes exist on a scale of reality from highly stylised to authentic violence. In realistic fight scenes the opponents are shown on screen to be seriously injured after the attack. The violence in stylised fight scenes resembles that in cartoons where no-one seems to get hurt. Stylised fights can have a lot of action, but opponents are rarely seriously injured.

Fight choreography Many film fight directors use the language of dance and music to describe what they do. The fight sequences in martial arts films are like violent dances, says Aaron Anderson. Fight director Allen Suddeth suggests there can be ‘music in the blades’ and that fights should have tempo and rhythm.

Stars and virtuosity A virtuoso is an outstanding individual performer. Martial arts audiences place great importance on the stars and their ability to perform the fighting action shown. Audiences expect authenticity, and this affects

Plot In many martial arts films the plot is less a focus than the fight scenes. As film critic Roger Ebert says of Jackie Chan movies, the story exists only in order to allow for the spectacular displays of action and movement.

Plot progress The most common martial arts film plot follows what story analyst Robert McKee calls the vengeance trail. The hero or protagonist (see page 141) is the victim of an abusive crime that brings suffering upon his family or friends. To reclaim his honour, or to prevent further bloodshed, the victim learns a martial art from a trusted master. Skilled in fighting, he finally faces his antagonist again and this time wreaks a bloody revenge. In the orientation stage the hero is shown as a victim of abuse. During the complication the hero must undergo a series of tests of strength or endurance as he learns to rebuild his strength and gather his forces to face his enemy. Finally, in the resolution stage the recovered hero wreaks vengeance upon his tormentor.

Plot discourses Film fight director Aaron Anderson argues that movie fights are different from real-life fights because they are trying to convey a story to audiences. The fight is choreographed so that audiences can understand what is going on. This is the opposite of a real fight, where the participants often try to hide their game plan. Real combatants would be disadvantaged if their opponent knew what to expect. Fight sequences do not freeze the narrative, says Anderson; rather, the martial arts display itself ‘progresses’ the story. The narrative simply shifts to another register — the register of physical action and movement rather than that of storytelling through dialogue.

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Martial arts timeline Prehistory Beijing Opera, combining martial arts and theatre. Novels about Wong Fei-hung, Shaolin Temple

1924

1930s Wuxia style is favoured in early films but then abandoned in favour of kung fu.

1949–1970 1949–1965 Communist revolution in China sends many mainland refugees to Hong Kong. Many are from traditional pre-modern rural society. Traditional martial arts stories appeal to them. Film production shifts to Hong Kong. Chinese diaspora: an estimated 36 million Chinese around the world are a ready market for martial arts films, helping introduce them to the west.

Wong Fei-hung films focus on physical martial arts with real kung fu action performances.

Death of Wong Fei-hung. Many martial arts films are based on stories of his life.

1928

Burning of the Red Lotus Monastery

1949

Communist revolution in China The Story of Wong Fei-hung (first Wong film)

1954

The Seven Samurai (Japan)

1956

How Wong Fei-hung Vanquished the Bully at the Red Opera Float

1960

Yojimbo (Japan)

1962

Sanjuro (Japan)

1970

Wong Fei-hung: Bravely Crushing the Fire

1965 Shaw Brothers directors visit Japan to study martial arts films, then introduce the ‘New Style’ — ultra-violent, realist, use of colour. The following year Shaw announce plan to break into western markets.

Formation (last Wong film) 1971

Fist of Fury (aka The Big Boss, Bruce Lee)

1972

King Boxer (first kung fu movie exported to the west), The Big Boss (aka The Chinese Connection,

1970s Bruce Lee films start international kung fu craze. Over 300 films exported to the west. Re-emergence of wuxia swordplay films

1980s–1990s 1980s–1990s Hong Kong cinema dominates the region’s filmmaking. Improved special effects help reinvigorate the wuxia subgenre.

Hong Kong New Wave launched. Jackie Chan introduces comedy elements combined with dangerous stunts.

Bruce Lee) 1973

Way of the Dragon (Bruce Lee) Death of Bruce Lee

1978

Spiritual Kung-fu (Jackie Chan)

1979

The Butterfly Murders

1983

Zu: Warriors from the Magic Mountain

1988

A Chinese Ghost Story

1991

Once Upon a Time in China, Out for Justice

1994

Drunken Master II (Jackie Chan)

1995

Rumble in the Bronx (Jackie Chan)

1996

First Strike (Jackie Chan, Australian setting)

1997

Mainland China takes over Hong Kong.

1998

Hitman

2000–present

2000

Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon

Wuxia films gain widespread popularity in the west.

2002

Hero

2000s

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Chinese political and economic influence grows. Western audiences more receptive to Chinese martial arts films. International co-productions common. Chinese directors work in Hollywood.

2002–2003 Infernal Affairs trilogy 2004

House of Flying Daggers


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Physical martial arts register

Climax 1: Fight scene. Hero suffers attack from antagonist.

Main climax and resolution: Hero wreaks vengeance on antagonist and restores family honour and dignity.

Climax 2: Fight scene. Hero trains and rebuilds.

Dialogue register

Character Martial arts characters are like comic book heroes, says Louis Paul. ‘They can battle dozens of opponents simultaneously, leap from incredible heights, take an extraordinary number of potentially crippling blows and continue to fight. They invariably end up standing amid the bodies of their fallen foes.’ Social class, wealth and physical appearance do not matter. Only one thing is important — how well a character fights. The typical martial arts hero is a saintly figure who is chivalrous, humble and patient. The hero is slow to anger and uses his skills only in self-defence or to protect others.

Setting Some modern martial arts fi lms use exotic settings in much the same way as James Bond movies do. For instance, Jackie Chan has set movies in New York, Russia and Australia, as well as Hong Kong. More commonly martial arts fi lms are set in the traditional Chinese society of an unnamed dynasty. When the fi lm is set in an unspecified past, it is easier to incorporate displays of special powers: myth and legend can be combined with real life.

Representations, discourses and audience Representations Unlike Hollywood, the Hong Kong cinema has a long history of casting women as warriors. Since the beginning of martial arts fi lms, women have taken roles as martial artists skilled in swordplay and unarmed combat.

Figure 12.37: &IGHT SCENES IN MARTIAL ARTS MOVIES MOVE THE NARRATIVE FORWARD 4HE PROGRESS OF THE STORY DOES NOT SLOW DOWN OR STOP TO PERMIT THE üGHT SCENES )NSTEAD IT IS TRANSFORMED THROUGH VIOLENCE INTO SOMETHING ELSE q A DISPLAY OF MARTIAL ARTS PROWESS

Chinese folklore features many stories of fighting women, and the Beijing Opera often had scenes of white-clad fighting women in martial arts performances. When martial arts moved from the opera to the movies, women performers came too.

Discourses Popular discourses in martial arts movies revolve around respect and persistence in learning; and also ideas of right and wrong.

Audience ‘I think that to some extent the vicarious association we achieved through watching Bruce Lee that evening before our martial arts training did not happen just mentally. Our mental association with the invincible character we saw on screen expressed itself through our own physical actions as we consciously attempted to recreate elements of Lee’s movement within our own bodies. This physical re-creation of movement, in turn, constituted a type of muscular memory.’ Aaron Anderson, martial arts instructor and film fight director

Aaron Anderson argues that viewing a martial arts movie has an effect on the viewer’s own body. He believes we experience a ‘kinaesthetic’ sensation when we see these movies. Our muscular system responds in sympathy to the performance of the athlete. In other words, the acrobatic movements are felt as well as viewed. This kinaesthetic sensation is strongest when the actors perform their own stunts. A major part of the

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appeal for martial arts audiences is the authenticity of the performance. In a world in which computerbased special effects create unbelievable illusions, it is a welcome change for an audience to see an actor who is not faking it.

Some critics suggest martial arts movies also satisfy a deep cultural need within audiences for authentic traditions. The settings and the heroic characters are as much a comfort to modern audiences as the fi rst martial arts fi lms were to refugees in Hong Kong.

Figure 12.38: "RUCE ,EE üGHTS #HUCK .ORRIS IN 7AY OF THE $RAGON 4HIS üGHT SEQUENCE IS OFTEN CITED IN LISTS OF THE GREATEST EVER üLMED ! MAJOR PART OF THE APPEAL FOR MARTIAL ARTS ENTHUSIASTS IS THE KNOWLEDGE THAT THE PERFORMANCES ARE REAL

Activities 1. In small groups, make a list of recent martial

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arts films and classify them according to the recognised types or subgenres. Discuss and report on differences in setting, character portrayal and martial arts skills. 2. Analyse the portrayal of women martial artists and compare them with your perception of the western portrayals of fighting women. 3. Conduct a simple ethnographic or audience reception survey (see page 163). Observe a small group of martial arts film fans watching a film and then interview them afterwards. Make notes on their reactions during the film and discuss with them how they felt while the action was taking place. Devise some questions that make it possible to test if kinaesthetic sensations were being felt. Report on your findings. 4. For a chosen martial arts film, map the points of intensity when the discourse turns to a fight

sequence. Explain what aspect of the story each fight sequence expresses and how this progresses the narrative towards the resolution.

PRODUCTION TASK 5. The State Film Corporation is planning to fund a

martial arts movie. Prepare a ‘pitch’ for a film that follows many of the conventions of the genre. Outline the narrative and some of the complications, explaining how the staged fight sequences will be integrated into the story. Will tradition play a role in the movie or not? Explain how the fight scenes will be choreographed and give details on the use of post-production editing to minimise danger. All scenes showing physical force must be constructed by editing and not actually performed. Provide an explanation of the resolution. Detail how workplace health and safety provisions will be met and how any action sequences will be fully supervised.


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Musicals No genre is so uplifting, so life-affi rming and positive as the musical. According to fi lm critic and academic Richard Dyer, musicals function as a ‘gospel of happiness’. The musical celebrates love. In a shameless rip-off of every love song ever written, Christian tells Satine before bursting into song in Moulin Rouge (2001), ‘Love is like oxygen . . . love is a many splendoured thing . . . love lifts us up where we belong . . . all you need is love!’

What is a musical? A musical is a fi lm in which song and dance are integrated into the narrative. All movies have a musical score to heighten the emotional response of the audience. However, musicals use song and dance to create the high points of the fi lm. They are part of the story. In other fi lms, characters are unaware of the music — it is for the audience’s benefit. In musicals, the characters actually perform the song and dance inside the story. Film scholar Thomas Shatz sees the musical as a genre of social integration. Its characters are friends, lovers, family and other intimates. Shatz contrasts this with war fi lms or gangster fi lms, for example, which he defi nes as genres of order, concerned with power and violence. Perhaps because of this, the musical is also regarded as one of the most ‘fictional’ or stylised genres. It is the genre that is least based on factual reality. Rather than believable realism, the musical offers a poetic or psychological reality. It’s about how the world feels rather than how it actually is.

Types of musicals There are two stylistic approaches to the musical narrative.

Fantasy-based (expressionistic) musicals In the highly stylised, imaginative, fantasy-based musical there is little attempt to create a real world. Instead the movie focuses on an emotional reality where people (like Gene Kelly in Singin’ in the Rain) ‘gotta sing, gotta dance’. The defi ning aspect of this type of musical is that actors can burst into song in the middle of everyday life and no-one looks twice at them. In fact, passers-by often join in!

Figure 12.39: 3ATINE .ICOLE +IDMAN AND #HRISTIAN %WAN -C'REGOR IN -OULIN 2OUGE 4HE MUSICAL CELEBRATES LOVE )T IS PROBABLY THE MOST STYLISED OF GENRES BECAUSE IT IS ABOUT FEELINGS RATHER THAN FACTUAL REALITY

Reality-based (realistic) musicals In the later years of the twentieth century audiences demanded more realism in their musicals. In the 1970s and 1980s an actor bursting into song for no reason was more likely to provoke laughter than inspire joyfulness. The defi ning aspect of realitybased musicals is that the song and dance is justified in reality (see diegetic sound, page 25). Reality-based musicals invented practical reasons for their actors to sing, such as at concerts or other performances. Music could also come from live bands, sound systems or car radios. Practising a routine could be a reason to dance. Dirty Dancing (1987) is an example of a realistic musical that uses these conventions.

Context The musical is the second oldest genre in the history of fi lm after the western. However, its roots are much older and it is more of a hybrid than the western. Musicals descend directly from the minstrel, music hall and vaudeville shows of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These shows were aimed at the working people of the factory towns of Britain and the United States. They featured song-and-dance routines, comedy skits and circus animal acts.

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Some say musicals go back even further to the European opera tradition of the eighteenth century. This connection flows from formal grand opera to the late-nineteenth-century comic operas of London’s West End and New York’s Broadway, such as Gilbert and Sullivan’s HMS Pinafore (1878). Film historians disagree over whether the first musical was also the first sound film, The Jazz Singer (1927), or Broadway Melody (1929), which included talking, singing and dancing. Soon after the first musicals were produced in New York, the stockmarket crash of 1929 plunged the world into the Great Depression. Studios found that audiences loved the overwhelmingly positive and happy messages of the musical — perhaps as an escape from the harshness of their real lives. Early musicals during the 1930s and 1940s had simple plots and focused mainly on song-and-dance routines. Plots were simple ‘boy meets girl’ affairs. Characters burst into song without warning, and music and narrative were not well integrated. The need to entertain people during the grim years of the Great Depression (1929–33) brought the idea of spectacle to the musical. Busby Berkeley’s films of the 1930s elevated dance routines to a spectacular art form with precise geometric choreography and a focus on erotic sensuality. The rise of the musical coincided with the rise of the Hollywood studio system. In those days it was common for certain studios to specialise in particular genres. Although Warner Brothers made The Jazz Singer, it was MGM that was most closely associated with musicals. For 30 years the fantasy-based musical style dominated, and these musicals were some of the studios’ most prestigious films. For instance, The Wizard of Oz (1937) was produced in colour at a time when nearly all other films were still in black and white. By the 1950s MGM had developed the narrative aspects of the genre to the extent that song and dance became an integral part of the plot. The progression from speech to song and dance became smoother and more natural. In the 1940s and 1950s MGM gathered together a small, talented creative team led by songwriter Arthur Freed. This team made the musical MGM’s own genre. By the late 1950s and early 1960s, however, the studio system was in crisis, partly because of the impact that television was having on audiences. MGM’s Singin’ in the Rain (1952) was about the impact of talkies on the silent film industry, but might just as fittingly have been about the impact of television on the Hollywood studios. This movie marks the beginning of the studios’ downhill slide that continued well into the 1960s.

As the studios declined, the musical came to be seen as old-fashioned and out of touch with the rising new generation’s demand for rock-and-roll and youth culture. The Sound of Music was a blockbuster in 1965, but it also signalled the end of an era for the fantasy-based musical. In the era of Vietnam protests, feminism and the civil rights movement, audiences wanted greater realism in films, says the University of Exeter’s Susan Haywood. Realitybased musicals such as Saturday Night Fever (1977) and Dirty Dancing (1987) showed a more believable world. Successful musicals still appeared from time to time during the 1970s and 1980s, but there were many more failures than triumphs. By the 1990s the musical was looking like a relic genre. The nineties generation had video clips and walkmans. Musicals were scorned as a leftover from their grandparents’ day. The musical was saved by Walt Disney Pictures. According to Disney composer and lyricist Howard Ashman, ‘the animated feature has become the last refuge of the musical. It’s the only place where you can still get away with a character spontaneously bursting into song!’ Beginning with The Little Mermaid (1989), Disney produced animated hit musicals year after year, including Beauty and the Beast (1991), Aladdin (1992) and The Lion King (1994). Perhaps as a result of the shelter the genre had enjoyed at Disney, when live-action musicals returned, with Moulin Rouge (2001) and Chicago (2002), it was again as fantasy-based extravaganzas. The sense of spectacle in these early-twenty-first-century musicals was almost cartoon-like!

Bollywood musicals Sexual taboos in Indian culture have kept the musical song-and-dance routine alive in the Indian film industry — known in the west as Bollywood (see page 244). Hundreds of lavish and spectacular musicals are produced every year in India. In fact, the vast majority of Indian films are musicals. Young men and women are not allowed to kiss or even touch in movies. But a song-and-dance routine can make plenty of suggestions. Another reason for the strength of musicals in India is the lack of an independent music industry to record, promote and distribute Indian popular music. India’s film and music industries are closely related, and popular artists use films to promote their recordings. This interdependence ensures the survival of the musical film.


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Musical timeline Prehistory Vaudeville, music hall, opera

1920s

1927

The Jazz Singer

‘Talkies’ introduced in 1927, completely supplanting silent films by 1929. The Great Depression creates an intense audience desire for escapist, uplifting, ‘feel good’ movie genres such as the musical.

1929

1929–1933 The Great Depression The Broadway Melody

1930–1965 The musical ‘golden age’ coincides with the heyday of the Hollywood studio system. Dominance of ‘fantasy-based’ musicals. Busby Berkeley brings element of grand spectacle to musicals. Each Hollywood studio adopts its own style of musical.

1933

based) 1935

Top Hat (Ginger Rogers, Fred Astaire)

1939

The Wizard of Oz (fantasy based) 1939–1945 World War II

1940s During World War II the ‘values’ of Hollywood musicals include promoting the war effort.

Footlight Parade (Busby Berkeley, fantasy

1946

Ziegfeld Follies

1949

The Barkleys of Broadway (Ginger Rogers, Fred Astaire)

1952

1950s–mid 1960s Colour film, rising economic prosperity and the postwar baby boom create a new family audience for musicals. But television causes cinema audiences to plummet. The golden era of the big Hollywood studios comes to an end.

Mid 1960s–mid 1970s Society is redefined through Vietnam War opposition, the civil rights movement, youth protests and feminism.

Singin’ in the Rain (fantasy based), Million Dollar Mermaid

1955

Oklahoma (fantasy based)

1956

The King and I (fantasy based)

1958

South Pacific (fantasy based)

1962

Billy Rose’s Jumbo (last Busby Berkeley film)

1964

Mary Poppins, My Fair Lady

1965

The Sound of Music (Rodgers and Hammerstein,

1960s The musical loses favour with young adult audiences. The genre seems out of touch with rapid changes in society. Children’s fantasy musicals remain popular.

fantasy based) 1971

Fiddler on the Roof

1972

Cabaret

1975–1992

1975

Rocky Horror Picture Show

Rise of the ‘reality-based’ musical to appeal to young adult audiences

1977

Saturday Night Fever (reality based)

1978

Grease (fantasy based)

1979

The Muppet Movie, Hair

1980

Fame (reality based)

1982

Victor/Victoria

1985

A Chorus Line

1987–2001

1987

Dirty Dancing (reality based)

The musical ‘dark ages’: audiences decline. The musical finds refuge at Disney.

1989

The Little Mermaid

1990s–present

1991

Beauty and the Beast (Disney)

Computer-based special effects allow a return of the fantasy-based subgenre.

1992

Sister Act (reality based), Aladdin

1994

The Lion King (Disney)

2001–present

2001

Moulin Rouge

Post-Disney return of the fantasy-based musical, but the genre again struggles after a number of unsuccessful films.

2002

Chicago (fantasy based), 8 Mile

2005

The Producers

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Features of musicals According to Richard Dyer, the aim of the musical genre is to provide the audience with a vision of utopia — a pure and perfect world of sheer entertainment and spectacle. The main elements of musicals are as follows:

‘musicals within musicals’ include Singin’ in the Rain, Moulin Rouge and, to some extent, Dirty Dancing. The idea of having a musical within a musical, says genre analyst Jane Feuer, is to use the theatrical audience as a reference point for the real audience.

Plot progress

• Song and dance. At the points of highest emotional intensity in the film, the narrative is channelled through song and dance. Defining moments of the film are put to music. These include: when lovers meet; the moment they split; and the ending, when everything comes together. A typical musical has about eight song-and-dance sequences.

Orientation. The musical usually begins by establishing a normality or social order that is expressed through music. Thus the music represents the established order and the relationships between the characters. The established social order in Dirty Dancing, for instance, is expressed through old-style big band jazz music.

• Spectacle. When the characters in Moulin Rouge decide to put on a musical themselves, they call it ‘Spectacular, Spectacular’. Spectacle is a central element in any musical. The effect is to overwhelm the audience with entertaining glamour, promoting a sense of wealth and wellbeing.

Disequilibrium/disruption. Disruption to normality is often caused by what Stephen Neale calls ‘the eruption of heterosexual desire’ or ‘boy meets girl’. This male/female duality sparks off another opposition — that between the old order and the new order as represented by the young lovers. Often the old order will be represented by the parents of one of the lovers. This is the case in Dirty Dancing, for example. The music of the young lovers is a raunchy rock-and-roll that poses a direct threat to the more sedate music of the parents’ generation.

• Oppositions. The musical is structured according to a chain of opposites or dualities, says film academic Rick Altman. These include tensions between male/ female, old/young, rich/poor, as well as opposing ethnic groups and personalities. The aim of the musical as a genre of social integration is to resolve these differences and bring people together. The musical is therefore about overcoming the fear of difference. • Intimacy. Richard Dyer suggests audiences derive pleasure from musicals as they watch the human body perform, whether it is song and dance or the sexual tension between the male and female lead characters. Often the high point of musical pleasure is a substitution for the male and female leads expressing their love physically. • Community. The overwhelming feeling at the end of the musical is one of togetherness, says Dyer. The lead couple is united. All other characters are paired off. The whole cast is fully integrated. Perhaps only the villain is alone. Society as a whole has been strengthened as everyone enjoys the final musical piece — the big finish.

Plot

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The standard plot of many musicals, it is said, may be summed up as ‘boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy gets girl’. Often all this happens within the context of a musical performance or stage show. A common structure is the musical within a musical. Films that are

Figure 12.40: k"ABYl *ENNIFER 'REY AND *OHNNY 0ATRICK 3WAYZE IN THE üNAL SCENE OF $IRTY $ANCING 4HE MUSICAL kBIG üNISHl USUALLY REPRESENTS A PUBLIC DISPLAY OF THE YOUNG LOVERSl UNION AND THE PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE BY THOSE WHO HAD HITHERTO TRIED TO BLOCK IT

Complication. Complications are presented by the established social order (perhaps the parents) as blockages to the fulfilment of young love. As the musical progresses, the blockages become more and more hopeless until a low point is reached when the odds seem impossible. This is when ‘boy loses girl’. Resolution. Nothing really compares to a musical ‘big finish’. According to Jane Feuer, successful


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performance and public success in love integrates the couple into the community. The big fi nish is a triumphant moment of community integration as the old order fi nally is forced to accept the virtues of the new. The young lovers broadcast their love in a public display of union through the ultimate songand-dance sequence. Here ‘boy gets girl’, and usually the old order (parents or teachers) indicates approval by smiling and tapping along to the music.

Plot registers Stephen Neale argues that the musical uses two channels (or registers) to move the narrative forward — the register of dialogue and everyday life; and the register of spectacle and song and dance. At the most intense moments in the plot, the dialogue-driven narrative switches register and becomes song and dance. The rhythmical interaction of the actors’ bodies with the music represents a different kind of storytelling. These moments of spectacle are cut off from the linear narrative in some way, says Patricia Mellencamp. They work in the opposite way to how tension works in a thriller, she argues. Instead of delaying and suspending enjoyment (as in a suspense), they give small doses of immediate pleasure at regular periods. These culminate in the fi nal, irresistible pleasure of the big fi nish.

Character Characters are developed both through dialogue and through song and dance. Composers write songs and lyrics to suit the characters, and to some extent this restricts the range of characters possible. Just as the music represents the old order or the new order, so too do the characters.

Music and dance register

Dialogue and action register

Climax 1: Musical register or discourse — ‘boy meets girl’

Climax 2: Musical register or discourse — ‘boy loses girl’

The characters in musicals include: • The male and female leads. Since the musical is about reconciling opposites, the male and female lead characters are often cast as opposites in temperament, ambition or social class. The oppositions initially create some of the blockages. Love works to overcome the differences. Opposites attract and then merge together, says Rick Altman. • Minor characters. A feature of musical characterisation is that there are lots of minor characters, many of whom eventually pair off just like the lead characters. Their role is to mirror the leads and also to provide depth to song-and-dance routines. • Helper characters. A helper character is one who helps the hero or heroine to achieve their goal (see Propp, page 143). With the focus so strongly on the romance narrative, there is a significant role for the ‘helper’ who brings the couple together. • False hero. The false hero initially seems honourable but is later proven to be unworthy (see Propp, page 143). In a musical, the false hero is usually a rival suitor or lover. It is also common for the false hero to be a suitor for one of the minor characters. Because the minor characters provide a mirror to the leads, the virtues of the true lovers — the leads — can be more easily shown if there is also a false hero in relationship with a minor character. • Villain or antagonist. Because the musical is a genre of social integration and togetherness, the blockages are often provided by members of the ‘old order’ acting within the value systems of their day. True villainy is usually not the real issue. Rather, the problems come from misunderstandings, opposing beliefs and changing social values.

Main climax and resolution: ‘Boy gets girl’. Big finish. All loose ends tied up in music-anddance finale.

Figure 12.41: 4HE SONG AND DANCE IN A MUSICAL STILL MOVES THE NARRATIVE FORWARD )N FACT MUSIC OCCURS AT THE MOST INTENSE MOMENTS OF THE NARRATIVE WHEN IT SEEMS TO BE THE ONLY WAY EMOTIONS CAN BE EXPRESSED !UDIENCES DONlT FEEL THE MUSIC IS AN INTERRUPTION BECAUSE THE PLOT IS STILL PROGRESSING

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Setting Like the situation comedy, the musical is often set within a ‘small world’ such as a Broadway theatre, a Hollywood fi lm studio, a high school or a holiday camp. With a sense of community or togetherness as one of its key elements, the small world allows a feeling of safety and stability. So when the fi nal integration comes in the big fi nish, the audience feels they are coming together in song with people just like them — ‘just regular folks!’ In this sort of setting, even big cities appear friendly and homey kinds of places.

Representations and discourses While other genres deal with threats on a grand scale — to all society, or even total world destruction — the musical deals with families and small communities. Film academic Rick Altman argues that the musical is no more than an audiovisual discourse about marriage and fi xed gender roles. The world it shows is safely conservative. The disequilibrium in a musical, suggests Stephen Neale, results only in a kind of ‘inhouse’ rearrangement.

Activities 1. Discuss whether the live-action musical genre is

2.

3. 4.

5.

dead and whether it is now possible for anyone other than an animated character to burst spontaneously into song. In small groups, suggest with reasons why animated characters seem to be able to get away with this. Debate whether particular movies that contain music, song and dance can be classified as musicals. For instance, is Eminem’s semi-autographical film 8 Mile (2002) a musical? Debate the arguments for and against. Make a list of the ways reality-based musicals use sound. View Moulin Rouge and analyse how the discourse or register is able to move from dialogue and action to song and dance using lines from well-known songs. Explain and present a short sequence to illustrate your arguments. For a chosen musical, map the points of intensity when the discourse turns to song and dance.

Explain what each song sequence expresses and how this moves the narrative towards its resolution. 6. View several ‘big finishes’ and analyse how each of the loose ends of the plot is tied up. A good starting point is the resolution scene from Dirty Dancing (1987). 7. Identify the character types in a chosen musical. 8. Compare a Bollywood musical with a western musical. How similar are the conventions they use?

PRODUCTION TASK 9. The State Film Corporation has decided to fund

a musical and has invited submissions from local filmmakers. Prepare a ‘pitch’ for a musical film that follows many of the conventions of the genre. Outline the narrative, profile the characters and give an indication of some of the music. Explain how song and dance will work to move the narrative forward. Give some indication of the resolution and ‘big finish’.

Road movies ‘I have never seen such smooth amiable roads as those that now radiated before us, across the crazy quilt of 48 states. Voraciously we consumed those long highways, in rapt silence we glided over their glossy black dance floors …’ Vladimir Nabokov, Lolita (1955)

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The open road is often seen as representing life itself. In the road movie an individual, or more often a duo, seeks to discover life by setting out on a journey. They escape the trap of the world they live in and start out on the road, perhaps hoping for some sort of salvation. ‘The road movie reflects an American cultural

psychosis that not only is tomorrow another day, but the road is the passage to which a new beginning is possible, free from the bonds of the past,’ says writer Sam North. The road movie is most often associated with America, but there are several other countries that have explored the genre. Australia has produced a large number of road movies. South American countries are increasingly taking to the genre. The common factor seems to be vast distances crossed by long highways. Not surprisingly, Britain is not a significant road movie producer. Germany, however, with its network of autobahns, is an occasional contributor to the genre. A German example is Kings of the Road (1976) by Wim Wenders.


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What are road movies?

Context

Put simply, road movies are movies in which most of the action takes place during a road trip and in which the end of the journey is also the end of the movie. Some film analysts go further, however. David Laderman, author of Driving Visions, defines a road movie as one in which the vehicle is in some way a character in the film. This happens when the movie takes its point of view from inside the vehicle. The sense of development or progress in the movie, Laderman suggests, should occur mainly when the vehicle is actually moving, rather than at a stop along the way.

Self-discovery during a long journey through distant lands is not a new theme in the narrative traditions. Neither is the story of the exile or the fugitive. Road movies can trace their ancestry back to the earliest writings in ancient Greece — Homer’s epic stories in The Odyssey, written around 850 BC. More modern antecedents, according to Sam North, include American frontier stories of adventure from the days of the covered wagons. For the wagoners, the road west represented the chance for an escape from poverty and the opportunity for a new life. This theme, North argues, has persisted in modern American culture and reappears in road movies. In the 1850s travelling showmen would bring enormous painted panoramas to towns and unfurl them as they told tall tales of adventure. The stories might be of travelling down the Mississippi or crossing the Rockies into California. Mark Twain’s 1884 novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is an adventure story based around a journey of escape and freedom. Henry Ford’s Model T brought mass transportation to America in the 1920s and 1930s. In John Steinbeck’s 1939 novel The Grapes of Wrath, Ma and Pa Joad and family pile into an overloaded Hudson automobile and head west to California after losing their tenant farm in Depression-racked Oklahoma. This novel is a historical relative to the road movie. In 1945 a movie named Detour told the story of a hitchhiker. Detour is usually regarded as a bleak example of film noir, but it can also be seen as a prototype road movie. Jack Kerouac’s 1957 novel, On the Road, is regarded as the literary prototype of the genre. The book told of the escapades of two young beatniks during a journey from New York to Mexico, listening to jazz and meeting all sorts of odd people along the way. The book is considered the bible of the ‘beat generation’ (the beatniks were a subculture of the late 50s that predated the hippies). On the Road inspired the television series Route 66 (1960). Easy Rider (1969) was a movie of the hippie generation. This film defined the road movie of that era. It combined all the basic elements of the modern road movie for the first time. In the late 1970s and early 1980s Australian road movies came to world attention through the Mad Max series. Up to the 1990s road movies were usually maleoriented, escapist adventure stories, says Jessie Gibbs of the University of Manchester. The road offered an escape from the largely feminine domestic sphere. Like westerns, the movies were about masculine individuality. Since the 1990s, Gibbs argues, road

Figure 12.42: 0RISCILLA IS THE BUS IN THE !USTRALIAN MOVIE 4HE !DVENTURES OF 0RISCILLA 1UEEN OF THE $ESERT 3OME ANALYSTS SUGGEST A DEüNING FEATURE OF ROAD MOVIES IS THAT THE VEHICLE IS IN SOME WAY A CHARACTER IN THE üLM

Types of road movies Road movies can be classified according to the motivation behind the journey. Types include: • The journey as rite of passage. This is a common type when the lead characters are young. In the movie Sideways (2004), however, two middle-aged men decide to journey through California before one of them gets married. • The journey as flight. The fugitive road movie is a common type, and a menacing police officer often becomes one of the key obstacles the lead characters must overcome. Thelma and Louise (1991) belongs to this category. • The journey as quest. In these movies a character searches for some kind of meaning in life or authentic experience. In the low-budget cult film Easy Rider (1969), the characters leave the city in search of the ‘real America’, which they never find. In the Mexican road movie Y tu mamá también (2001), the young male characters are in search of a fabled beach, but theirs is also a journey of sexual self-discovery and a rite of passage.

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movies have become a means of representing those marginalised by race, class, gender or sexuality. The focus in these movies has been on people who are different — outside the mainstream in some way. Thelma and Louise (1991) and Australia’s The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994) are examples.

South American road movies Like Australia, the countries of South America have a geography that lends itself to road movies. These countries also include a variety of different political systems and ethnic mixes. Latin American road movies tend to follow Hollywood conventions, but often focus on the quest subgenre. The search for meaning and identity may also involve a look at politics and divisions between rich and poor. Perhaps the best known example distributed in the English-speaking world is The Motorcycle Diaries (2004), about a journey taken by the young revolutionary Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara.

Features of road movies The main elements of road movies are as follows: • Music. Music plays a significant part in the road movie. As the landscape flashes by, the film music is often channelled through the car’s sound system. The song lyrics often reflect the emotional mood of the characters or help tell the story. • Landscape. A lot of film time is devoted to landscape shots. In part this reflects the ‘ground covered’ both geographically and in terms of a spiritual journey. The amount of ground covered may also relate to the chances of successful escape.

Yet the landscape is also the source of all sorts of dangers that lie in wait for the lead characters. Landscape reflects the emotional state of the characters. For instance, desert scenes are often associated with desperate outlaw characters who may never be able to return to civilisation. The road movie often finishes at some sort of geographical ‘end of the road’, such as the ocean or the Grand Canyon. The road often leads not just to nowhere but into emptiness. Just as geography can provide freedom, it can also lead to defeat. No-one can drive forever, and the hoped-for discovery is often an illusion. • Movement as a source of identity. Road movies involve parallel journeys of internal and external discovery, writes Jessie Gibbs. By travelling, the characters discover their identity and begin a spiritual journey. As they drive, they leave behind their original selves. And as they discover their own identity, their bond with each other strengthens. • Freedom and rebellion. The freedom of the road includes the freedom to have encounters with whomever you like — away from the gaze of friends or parents. Motels provide anonymous accommodation where you are free from the obligations of husbands or wives. But in the road movie sex is often a trap and one-night stands may sow the seeds of doom. • Violence. In some road movies, especially the fugitive type, violence plays a significant part in beginning the narrative and also in finishing it. However, in quest or rite-of-passage movies, where the search is for personal identity, violence may not figure very much at all.

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Figures 12.43: #OLLISION OF IMAGES SEE PAGE CREATES A VIOLENT ENDING TO THE CULT ROAD MOVIE %ASY 2IDER )T IS COMMON FOR A ROAD MOVIE TO END IN THIS WAY 4HE CHARACTERSl LIVES HAVE BEEN CHANGED SO MUCH BY THE ROAD THAT THEY CAN NEVER GO BACK


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Road movie timeline Prehistory Homer’s Odyssey (850 BC), Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn (1885), westerns

1908–1920s

1908

Cars replace horses as individual mode of transport.

First Model T Ford rolls off production line; 15 million built by 1927.

1929


1939


1940

The Grapes of Wrath

1930s–1950 The Great Depression begins mass migration of people looking for work. World War II creates even more population shifts. Mass car ownership in the US (1930s) and Australia (1950s) makes the experience of the road a natural part of cultural life.

First McDonald’s opens on Route 66 in California.

1950s–1960s 1950s Radio common in cars in US (1950s) and Australia (1960s). Rise of rebellious youth culture in western societies

Early movies set on the road introduce the idea of youthful rebelliousness and an episodic structure based on adventures on the highway. The protagonist is usually reintegrated into society at the end of the movie.

1960s–1970s 1960s Youth-oriented, free-spirited beatnik movement evolves into the ‘drop-out’ hippie movement. Society is redefined through Vietnam War opposition, the civil rights movement, youth protests and feminism.

1970s–present

The genre is firmly established by Jack Kerouac’s novel On the Road and the spin-off television show Route 66. The road movie ‘comes of age’ in the hippie era with Easy Rider. Since the 1960s the protagonist is often unable to reintegrate and usually dies on the journey. A duo of male leads becomes the standard.

Car radios, cassette players, CD players and MP3 players make the experience of combining music with the passing landscape a common part of any road journey.

1945

Detour (also seen as film noir)

1953

The Wild One, The Hitch-Hiker

1955

Rebel Without a Cause

1957

Jack Kerouac publishes the novel On the Road.

1958

Term ‘beatnik’ first used to describe nonconformist artistic subculture.

1960

Route 66 (TV show based on Kerouac’s On the Road)

1967

‘Summer of Love’ celebration of hippie lifestyle in San Francisco

1968

Bonnie and Clyde

1969

Mass adoption of car cassette players Easy Rider

1971

Two Lane Blacktop, Vanishing Point

1974

Road Movie, Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore, Alice in the Cities (Germany)

1975

Wrong Move (Germany)

1976

Kings of the Road (Germany)

1979

Mad Max (Aus.)

1981

Mad Max 2 (Aus.)

1984–present

1985

Mad Max: Beyond the Thunderdome (Aus.)

Road movie directors use the genre as a way of showing ‘otherness’ and representing various kinds of marginalised groups. Thelma and Louise wrests the

1991

Thelma and Louise, My Own Private Idaho

1994

Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (Aus.)

genre away from its traditional male focus.

1998

Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (R-rated)

1999

The Blues Brothers

2000

Oh Brother Where Art Thou

2001

Y tu mamá también (R-rated, Mexico)

2004

The Motorcycle Diaries (Brazil), Sideways

2005

Broken Flowers, TransAmerica

Natural Born Killers (R-rated)

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Plot Like the ancient stories of Homer, or the western tales of American frontier adventurers, the road movie plot progresses through episodes of dramatic action. Each episode is separated by driving and music. Usually in each episode the characters meet some sort of challenge. If they succeed, they can move on to the next stage of the story. With each episode their courage and experience grows. The Motorcycle Diaries is an example of the growth and development of the lead characters. But this can happen in an upside-down way as well. Each adventure on the road may make the characters worse off, with each event making it less likely that the characters will ever be able to go back to their old lives. In this type of plot structure, as exemplified by Thelma and Louise (1991), events lead to a tragic conclusion that is inescapable. Commonly a bond develops between the lead characters that strengthens at each episodic turning point. Their shared spiritual and emotional journey brings them closer together. Analysts often identify four possible ends to a road movie: • The lead characters’ lives have been altered so dramatically that they can never go back. They reach the ‘end of the road’ — and also meet their deaths (as in Thelma and Louise and Easy Rider). • Things go on this way forever — a much happier kind of ending. The movie finishes with shots of the vehicle driving off into the sunset. Something similar to this occurs in the alternative ending available on the Thelma and Louise DVD. • The lead characters return home changed by their experiences and somehow ‘grown up’. This type of ending is common in the rite-of-passage type such as The Motorcycle Diaries, in which the lead character, Che Guevara, is politically transformed. • There is a new home waiting at the end of the journey — the quest has been successful. This is the road movie equivalent of the happy ending. There are not many examples of this type, but Sideways (2004) comes close.

Character Road movies usually have only a small number of lead players or protagonists. On the road they meet a variety of characters and experience a voyage of self-discovery.

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The duo The protagonists (see narrative, page 141) are often a duo of the same gender. These are the classic ‘buddy

movies’, but there is a more practical reason for using a same-sex duo. A male and female couple are a closed system as far as scripting is concerned. There is less opportunity for the couple to interact and form relationships with outsiders. A male or female duo is an open system that draws others in and provides more scripting opportunities. In the same-sex duo, it is common for one character to lead the other into trouble. The trouble-making character often creates the problems and blockages in the narrative, functioning in almost the same way as an antagonist (see page 142). The lead characters are often weak in their previous lives, stuck in dead-end jobs or unsatisfying relationships. On the road, says Sam North, they discover a courage and determination they never knew they had.

The vehicle The car (or motorbike or truck) functions as a character to some extent. The vehicle is almost never a boring and nondescript one. For instance, in the movie Thelma and Louise 1991), the car is a 1963 Ford Thunderbird convertible that is symbolic of the golden era of the American automobile. Convertibles are commonly used because they symbolise freedom, but also because they are easy to record dialogue in. Boom mikes can be placed above the characters. In Easy Rider, the bikers are riding equally iconic Harley-Davidson motorbikes.

The cop The freedom of the road is not unlimited. The police lie in wait. The cop is often a blockage to the lead characters, thwarting their dream of escape. In fugitive road movies a senior policeman is the main antagonist. In episodes through the movie a number of his subordinates block the progress of the lead characters. At the end of the movie the antagonist and the protagonists come face to face in a final confrontation.

Setting Not just any road will do as the setting for a road movie. Some roads have particular symbolism. Route 66 used to be the primary route from the eastern states and midwest to Los Angeles, California. Since it was popularised in a song by Chuck Berry and written about by Jack Kerouac, Route 66 has appeared in more road movies than any other road. The road no longer goes by that name, but it lives on in the cultural imagination. Route 66 passes through the small-town American farmlands of the midwest to Texas and the Arizona


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desert. It passes through all the states that border with Mexico, and it passes by the Grand Canyon. It ends on California’s golden beaches in the home of Hollywood! Australian road movies inhabit countryside in a different way. With no terrible snow-fi lled winters to escape, any trip into the continent means leaving the beach behind, not heading towards it. Of course, no California is waiting, although Queensland is a possible substitute. In Australia there is the ever-present red centre. Heading that way, any real sense of a destination very quickly becomes equated with ‘nothingness’. In the overpowering landscape of the outback, a sense of desperation in the characters can set in much earlier!

Figure 12.44: 2IDLEY 3COTTlS 4HELMA AND ,OUISE STARRING 3USAN 3ARANDON AND 'EENA $AVIS BROKE THE TRADITION OF THE ROAD MOVIE AS A STRONGLY MASCULINE GENRE (OWEVER THE MOVIE MAINTAINED OTHER TRADITIONS SUCH AS THE CLASSIC CONVERTIBLE THE DUO AS FUGITIVES AND THE CLIMAX AT kTHE END OF THE ROADl

Representations and discourses The road movie has been compared to the masculine frontier tradition of the western. John Durham Peters believes travelling has traditionally been a ‘gendered’ experience. Embarking on a journey was usually more acceptable for a man; for a woman to travel could suggest immorality or promiscuity. Thelma and Louise (1991) changed that forever. But there are other representations that seem eternal: sex as danger; life as a trap; cities as representing corrupted civilisation; and road trips that start hopefully but lead to despair. As road movie buffs Steven Cohan and Rae Hark put it, ‘Road movies have always been songs of the doomed, warnings that once you enter the open hinterlands between cities, you’re on your own.’

Activities 1. There are said to be four types of endings in road

movies. Suggest movies that conform to each of the possibilities. Also make a list of other movies that challenge this statement. 2. In groups, suggest movies that illustrate what Jessie Gibbs says is the divide between the road movie as masculine, frontier-style adventure and the modern style that seems to create a space for the marginalised. 3. Debate whether a movie in which part of the action takes place on a road and that features a vehicle almost as a character — such as Speed (1994) — can be seen as a road movie. Develop arguments for and against the proposition.

4. Suggest some symbolic vehicles that would be

suitable for a road movie. 5. Examine some of the representations in road movies

considering the following: gender (especially in Thelma and Louise), locals, landscape, cities and solutions to life’s problems.

PRODUCTION TASK 6. The State Film Corporation wants to fund a road

movie with an Australian setting. They have called for filmmakers to present submissions. Make a ‘pitch’ for a road movie covering the basic aspects of characters and their motivations, setting, plot episodes and turning points, music and ending.

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Romantic comedies Romantic comedy fi lms carry some simple messages: No matter who you are, there is someone out there for you — you just have to search for them. True love really does exist. And true love conquers everything. For audiences, says romantic comedy writer Bill Johnson, watching these movies offers a lesson in how to conduct a love affair in keeping with the manners of the time. Young males and females get to learn from ‘old masters’. For the couples in the audience, the fi lms offer an experience of shared intimacy. The on-screen togetherness can be especially pleasurable for those who are shy or not comfortable expressing feelings, Johnson believes. But why mix comedy with romance? Australian romantic comedy writer Anne Gracie has this to say: ‘Falling in love is a huge challenge, because if it does not go smoothly (and no romantic comedy will go smoothly) it challenges all we like to believe about ourselves. And this is a positive mine of comedy material because we all do silly things when we are falling in love.’

What are romantic comedies?

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Romantic comedies are about a man and a woman fi nding each other. The audience feels these two people should be together — not least because they are the fi lm’s two main characters. But simply falling in love is not enough to sustain interest in the story. There has to be a sequence of complications that keep them apart until the end of the movie. The comic aspect of romantic comedy is generated by the witty banter between the two leads. As the story progresses, the flaws in their characters thrust them into comic situations, or society’s courtship rules present ridiculous problems that their love must overcome. Romantic comedies often have two almost equal lead characters. But usually the movie will be told rather more from one character’s point of view. This person is the protagonist (see page 141). It is possible to say that romantic comedies have two protagonists — one male and one female. Quite often each of them will start out as the other’s antagonist (see page 142). The story plots the journey from initial dislike or even hatred to eventual romantic love. All fi lms have elements of romance and comedy. What distinguishes romantic comedy is that the courtship between the two main characters forms the basis of the main plot. Any subplots are secondary to the development of the love between the two leads.

Context Romantic comedy has roots that go back at least to the time of William Shakespeare. A Midsummer Night’s Dream, for example, has many elements that are typical of today’s romantic comedies. Shakespeare also wrote within a genre called comedy of manners. Comedy of manners is related to romantic comedy in that both genres tend to satirise polite society’s rules and rituals. Shakespeare’s best known comedy of manners is Much Ado about Nothing. The 1990s television show Seinfeld is a modern example of a comedy of manners. The style of clever banter between characters in Seinfeld is also a feature of many romantic comedy films. Because romantic comedy is about love, it reflects the nature of gender relations within the society of the time. There have been several distinct phases of romantic comedy.

Screwball comedies Screwball comedies became popular in the 1930s and 1940s and were among the first examples of the romantic comedy genre on film. They brought to life the ‘battle of the sexes’ by pitting male and female characters against each other. Instead of love at first sight, the two leads were instant antagonists who later came to see they could not live without each other. Usually the female had the moral advantage and the task of the male in the story was to see if he could get the better of her. In screwball, the woman needed ‘taming’. Screwball comedies were so named because the wacky characters would throw each other off balance — just as a screwball pitch in baseball puts the batter at a disadvantage (like a spin bowl in cricket). The zany humour would also catch the audience off guard with clever verbal gymnastics. A typical plot involved the conventional male lead living an orderly life only to have it completely disrupted by the arrival of an unruly and quirky female. While the characters were equally witty and clever, often the female was from an upper-class, wealthy background while the male’s was less privileged. While the screwball provided clever, sexy comedy, under the Hays Code (see page 258) all the excitement of male– female relations was restricted to verbal exchanges. Many critics believe that screwball comedies grew out of the changes in women’s roles in the period. In 1920, a decade or so before the rise of screwball comedies, women in the United States gained the right to vote. During World War II women took over men’s jobs in factories and heavy industry to help with the war


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effort. In that 20-year period the relations between men and women had dramatically altered.

The marriage trap In the 1950s and early 1960s romantic comedy focused increasingly on stability and marriage. Love meant starting a family. According to genre analyst Stephen Neale, the 1950s was the era of the playboy character in romantic comedy. He needed to be tamed and married off. But marriage, says Neale, was often portrayed as the end of freedom for the male. Hence the title of movies such as The Tender Trap (1955).

Jones’s Diary (2001) and Love Actually (2003). Another factor has been Hugh Grant’s success as the endearing bumbler, which has made him a British star with unique appeal to American audiences. Cultural factors have also been important. The British have a long tradition of comedy in all its subgenres. Comedy of manners, however, has been a specialty. The Ealing Studios comedies of the 1950s were highly regarded. These comedies of manners are closely related to later British romantic comedies. Surviving aspects of the English class system add to the appeal of the British comedies to American audiences.

Nervous comedies In the context of dramatic changes brought on by feminism, the Vietnam War and the civil rights movement, romantic comedies went into a decline in the 1960s and 1970s. In the late 1970s the genre returned with films such as Woody Allen’s Annie Hall (1977). Confusion about the roles of males and females tended to be a central concern of romantic comedies of this period. Stephen Neale calls the seventies films ‘nervous comedies’. No-one seemed to be sure whether to laugh or not!

The revival Many critics have commented on the revival of the genre since the late 1980s. Frank Krutnik shows that fewer than ten romantic comedies were made in 1980; in 2000 nearly fifty were made. Peter Evans points out that many of these films focus on the changing nature of gender relations at work and in the home. He names Broadcast News (1987) and Working Girl (1988) as the first of this new wave of films. The newer films are about love as a partnership based on equality and companionship. Since the 1990s, suggests Krutnik, the romantic comedy genre has returned to the traditional Hollywood pattern of love eventually leading to marriage — or something resembling it.

British romantic comedy The revival of romantic comedy from the 1990s onward owes a great deal to British films. Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994) is the movie most often credited with having led the way. Notting Hill (1999) confirmed the British presence in the genre. Both films paired the British actor Hugh Grant with an American actress. This provided a star for both British and American audiences. British success in producing romantic comedies may be due to several factors. Particular individuals have been significant. The scriptwriter and director Richard Curtis has had an enormous personal influence. Among the hit films he wrote or directed are Four Weddings and a Funeral, Notting Hill, Bridget

Figure 12.45: *ULIA 2OBERTS AND (UGH 'RANT HAVE MADE SIGNIüCANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE RISE OF MODERN ROMANTIC COMEDIES 4HE "RITISH PRESENCE IN THE GENRE HAS ALSO BEEN A SUBSTANTIAL INČUENCE

Features of romantic comedies Romantic comedies usually have several of the following features: • Stars. Because romantic comedies are about people, the star is very important — more so than in many other genres. Their personality influences the audience response to the film. Each era has had stars that seemed to personify the ideas of the time about gender relations. Cary Grant and Katharine Hepburn were the key stars of screwball comedies. Marilyn Monroe and Doris Day represented two kinds of femininity of the 1950s. Julia Roberts was an important factor in the success of 1990s romantic comedies. • Repartee. From the comedy of manners tradition romantic comedy inherits its reliance on witty dialogue and banter between the genders. In the older screwball comedies, witty banter was a way to make sexual suggestions that would get past the Hays Code censorship. • Physical comedy. Physical comedy is based on visual physical events, such as being bumped on the head or falling over something. While the emphasis usually remains on verbal repartee, physical comedy also makes an occasional appearance.

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• External causality. In romantic comedy characters meet their ‘soul mate’ — the one person they are meant to be with. The movies have a strong sense of fate. Higher external forces are seen as bringing the two people together. As a result, the writers can get away with a lot of unlikely coincidences and chance meetings. • Music. The soundtrack to the film is an important marketing tool. But it also shows the extent to which modern romantic comedies rely on music to provide a window into the inner emotions of the characters. Film professor Catherine Preston says the music is like a confidante — a special friend who knows how the hero is feeling (and then tells the audience!). • Romance. Romance is depicted in these films in a certain way. It is a magical and spontaneous event that erupts into people’s lives and transforms everything, says Catherine Preston. The disruption to personal and working life is enormous. And it takes a huge amount of energy to resolve all the surrounding difficulties. Even in modern films, romantic love usually ends in marriage and is then frozen in a perfect state of happiness. What happens after marriage is never investigated.

• Disequilibrium/disruption. When boy meets girl, the world is turned upside down for one or even both parties. But the writers must keep them apart until the end of the film, so a series of complications are introduced. • Complications stage. Something bigger than either of them prevents the couple from uniting. This could be some quality within them. In As Good as It Gets (1997), for example, the male lead has obsessive compulsive disorder. Alternatively, it could be something external that prevents the couple from becoming lovers. In many films, one or other lead character is already in a relationship with someone else. The hero must first dispose of the wrong partner before the right couple can be together. If the film has a love triangle, which of the rivals will ultimately win must remain a mystery until the end of the film. • The grand gesture. When Bridget Jones runs through the snow in her underpants to announce her love, she is performing an age-old tradition of romantic comedy — the grand gesture. In older films it is the male who must prove his love in some spectacular way. The grand gesture marks a change in direction of the plot and prepares the way for the climax of the film. • The resolution. The traditional resolution is sometimes called ‘the final embrace’. Defying all odds, the couple come together, and as the movie ends there is usually the prospect of marriage.

Character

Figure 12.46: 2ENÀE :ELLWEGER IN "RIDGET *ONES 4HE %DGE OF 2EASON 2OMANTIC COMEDIES USUALLY EMPHASISE WITTY DIALOGUE AND CLEVER INTERCHANGES BETWEEN THE TWO LEAD CHARACTERS (OWEVER PHYSICAL COMEDY ALSO PLAYS A PART

Plot As with musicals, romantic comedy plots can be loosely summed up as ‘boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy gets girl’. For the audience, the outcome is clear from the start. The interest lies in the journey the characters take to achieve it! As in other narrative genres, the plot commonly progresses through several stages, including:

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• Orientation stage. In the orientation stage the lead characters are introduced and shown going about their normal lives.

Difference is the key to characterisation in romantic comedy. The greatest contrast is the gender difference between man and woman. But others, such as differences in social class or in personality (perhaps one is introverted and the other extroverted), add to the conflict and complications. Who is the wackier character in romantic comedies has changed over time. In earlier films, such as screwball comedies, the female character was the zanier. In later films the male character has often taken over this role. This can be seen in films starring Hugh Grant. For writers of romantic comedy, the challenge in characterisation is to persuade the audience that the two people are meant to be together. As Bill Mernit says, the audience has to believe the chemical equation he she perfect match. Each of the characters should seem incomplete without the other. This means, says Mernit, that one character often has an inner conflict that can be resolved only through a relationship with the other person.


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Romantic comedy timeline

Technology Genre and society developments 1920s–1930s The potential of witty dialogue–based comedy is realised when film sound is introduced in 1927. The Great Depression creates an intense audience desire for escapist, uplifting, ‘feel good’ movie genres such as romantic comedy. The Hays Code blocks explicit sexual references until mid 1960s.

1930s–present Romantic comedies reflect the courtship rituals of the time and the changing relations between the sexes.

Romantic comedy genre relies on charisma of leading actors. Key male actors: Cary Grant (1940s–1950s); Rock Hudson (1950s); Hugh Grant (1990–2000s). Key female actors: Katharine Hepburn (1940s), Marilyn Monroe, Doris Day (1950s); Julia Roberts, Meg Ryan (1990s).

1931

Front Page

1934

Hays Code made enforceable. It Happened One Night, The Thin Man

1936

My Man Godfrey

1937

The Awful Truth

1938

Bringing Up Baby

1939


1940

His Girl Friday, The Philadelphia Story

1949

Adam’s Rib

1951

The African Queen

1953

Gentlemen Prefer Blondes

1955

The Seven Year Itch

1959

Pillow Talk, Some Like It Hot

1963

Charade

1964

Send Me No Flowers

1967

The Graduate

1970

The Owl and the Pussycat

1977

Annie Hall

1979

Manhattan

1985

Desperately Seeking Susan

1987

Broadcast News

Late 1980s–present

1988

Working Girl

Revival in both UK and US, with Julia Roberts, Hugh Grant and Renée Zellweger as key leads. Romantic comedies become more reality based, dealing with serious life issues. Less of ‘Prince Charming’ myth. Equality of sexes

1989

When Harry Met Sally

1990

Pretty Woman

1993

Strictly Ballroom (Aus.), Sleepless in Seattle

1994

Four Weddings and a Funeral (UK)

1997

My Best Friend’s Wedding

1998

You’ve Got Mail

1999

Notting Hill (UK), Runaway Bride

2000–present

2000

High Fidelity

Female characters tend to be successful but conventional; male characters tend to be messy slobs but cool. Male tends to make the jokes.

2001

The Wedding Planner, Bridget Jones’s Diary (UK)

2002

My Big Fat Greek Wedding

2003

Love Actually (UK), How to Lose a Guy in Ten Days

2004

Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason (UK)

1931–1944 Screwball comedies — sexuality redirected into verbal duelling.

Romantic comedies in which love means marriage and kids. The ‘Prince Charming’ myth prevails.

Mid 1960s–mid 1970s 1965–1985 Society is redefined as Vietnam War opposition, the civil rights movement, youth protests and feminism bring about major cultural changes, including in sexual mores and dating behaviour.


1930s–present

1950s 1950s–early 1960s Increasing social and economic stability and the subsequent rise in the marriage rate lead to the postwar ‘baby boom’. Television brings about the decline of the Hollywood studios.

1929

Decline in genre

Late 1960s–present More openness about sexuality and less emphasis on marriage

1980s–present Dramatic increase in women’s participation in the workforce and economic independence. Increased numbers of people living in single-person households. Rise of online dating

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The main characters are: • The female lead. The typical female lead in a romantic comedy is independent and strong but a little unconventional, says scriptwriter Anne Gracie. These characters tend to be complex emotionally, but they aren’t overly vulnerable. They have to be able to compete successfully in the ‘battle of the sexes’. • The male lead. The man must appeal to the audience, even if he doesn’t immediately appeal to the heroine, says Anne Gracie. Often the male lead has a goal or project he is involved with that seems worthwhile to the audience. This qualifies him as a future marriage partner. • The cad. The cad is a dishonourable and morally corrupt man who uses women for his own purposes. His role in the romantic comedy is often as false hero (see Propp, page 143).

Setting Romantic comedy is about the love between two everyday if somewhat loopy people. The settings are similarly commonplace. A small, contained world is useful in these fi lms because it allows the characters to interact regularly during the courtship phase. It also allows chance meetings and coincidences to appear more natural. When romantic comedies are set in cities, it is often in small communities or precincts with their own special sense of place. Portobello Road in the exclusive London borough of Notting Hill was the setting for the fi lm Notting Hill. New York’s

Greenwich Village was the setting for Desperately Seeking Susan (1985). The workplace is a common setting. It allows fi lms to explore aspects of women’s role in the modern world and provides a commentary on gender relations. The workplace also provides a small world with a diverse range of characters. Some of these characters are regulars and some come and go. Thus boy has a variety of opportunities to meet girl.

Representations and discourses Representation in romantic comedy has changed over time in line with the changing nature of society. However, several aspects of representation have remained reasonably stable over the history of the genre. Discourses about love have tended to centre on love as a magical and transforming experience that somehow ‘just happens’ irrespective of what anyone does. It is a poetic notion of love that is not often tested beyond the fi nal moment of high romance — marriage. Love portrayed in romantic comedies is starry-eyed rather than practical and commonplace. Many feminists believe that Hollywood romantic comedies set up marriage as the solution to all the woman’s problems. She may be frisky, independent and even quarrelsome, but by the end of the movie she has been tamed by marriage. Feminist critics see this as an ‘induction’ into women’s place in society’s patriarchy.

Activities 1. Conduct a mini-reception study (see page 163)

MEDIA

into what meanings audiences gain from romantic comedies. Devise questions aimed at finding out how people respond to the films. Areas of investigation might include: • Does the romantic comedy provide a way for couples to live out their own romance for the time they are in the cinema? Survey some couples you know. • Do young people use the films as a guide to their own love lives? Do the films work as ‘teaching texts’? • How do people respond to particular characters such as the male or female leads? What do they like or dislike? Do they see aspects of themselves or their friends in the character? 2. As a class, discuss the feminist criticism of romantic comedy as inducting young women into the system of patriarchy. Can you see other ways of interpreting the films, or is there another way in which these films work for women?

3. Make a list of romantic comedy stars and discuss

what special quality each seems to bring to the film narrative. One way to find this out is to swap one star for another and see if there is any change to the ‘feel’ of the story. For instance, what if Julia Roberts were replaced by Marilyn Monroe?

PRODUCTION TASK 4. The State Film Corporation is planning to fund a

romantic comedy. Prepare a ‘pitch’ for a romantic comedy that follows many of the conventions of the genre. Provide an outline of the special chemistry that exists between the two main characters and profile each of them. What is it about them that needs completion? Outline the narrative and some of the complications, explaining what it is that keeps the two apart until the end of the movie. Decide whether or not to include a ‘grand gesture’. Provide an explanation of the resolution, whether traditional or innovative.


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Thrillers ‘Anyone who has ever edged towards the front of that upholstered seat, who has unconsciously reached out a hand to seek a consoling grip on the hand of a companion when the tension flitting across the screen becomes unbearable — that cinemagoer knows what a suspense film is.’ Lawrence Hammond, Thriller Movies: Classic Films of Suspense and Mystery

Alfred Hitchcock, speaking to the French fi lmmaker François Truffaut, said this: ‘If you have a scene where two characters are conversing in a cafe, and a bomb suddenly goes off under the table, the audience experiences surprise. On the other hand, if the audience sees the saboteur place the bomb, is told that it will go off at one o’clock, and can see a clock in the scene, the mundane conversation between two cafe patrons now becomes one of intense suspense, as the audience holds its collective breath waiting for the explosion. Fifteen minutes of suspense, as opposed to fi fteen seconds of surprise.’

is quite simple — people would not go to the fi lm for the basic story alone. What creates the thrills is the addition of twists and turns, or complications, in the plot. Thrillers also contain plenty of ‘cliff-hangers’ and ‘red herrings’. A horror movie aims to create fear and action movies create a sense of excitement. Thrillers, by contrast, create worry and anxiety. For most of the movie the audience is held in suspense, nervously anxious that something will happen. The thriller typically places the main character in a menacing, life-threatening situation. What is most suspenseful for the audience, says movie critic Tim Dirks, is that the lead character is often unsuspecting, unaware of the danger.

Types of thrillers Thriller specialist Charles Derry has isolated the following six types of thrillers: • The thriller of murderous passions. A murder is committed involving a husband, a wife or a lover. The lead character is usually the murderer and is driven by passion or greed. Usually they are brought to justice by a fault of their own, rather than through the work of a detective. • The political thriller. A plot or conspiracy is the basis for these stories. Often the plan is to assassinate a political figure or to overthrow a government. • The thriller of acquired identity. In these fi lms the lead character acquires a new identity and must come to terms with the consequences. Occasionally in this type of fi lm the character suffers amnesia. • The psycho-traumatic thriller. Some critics call this type ‘psychological thrillers’. In these movies, the plot is organised around the psychological effects of a past trauma. They often involve a killer who is psychologically disturbed, and this provides the motive for their actions.

Figure 12.47: /NE OF THE ORIGINAL CLIFF HANGERS q *AMES 3TEWART IN !LFRED (ITCHCOCKlS 6ERTIGO )N A THRILLER AUDIENCE SUSPENSE OFTEN COMES FROM KNOWING WHAT IS ABOUT TO HAPPEN BUT NOT KNOWING WHEN

What is a thriller? A thriller, says genre analyst Susan Hayward, is a fi lm that relies on intricacy of plot to create fear and apprehension in the audience. Often the story itself

• The thriller of moral confrontation. A confrontation occurs between a good character and one who is ‘evil’. These fi lms are centred on the differences between good and evil. They often feature striking parallels between the victim and the criminal. • The ‘innocent-on-the-run’ thriller. By chance an ordinary person becomes mixed up in a world of violence and mystery. A series of adventures follows.

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Thriller timeline Prehistory Stories of Edgar Allan Poe

1930s–1940s Rise of Nazism in Europe and World War II

1948–1989 The cold war between capitalist and communist countries begins with the Berlin airlift and ends with the fall of the Berlin Wall. Gives rise to the spy thriller genre and the James Bond franchise

1950s–1960s Hitchcock’s films mark a high point of the thriller genre. Psychological thrillers become a significant subgenre. Spy thrillers emerge as the cold war deepens.

1950s–mid 1960s

1926

The Lodger

1929


1931 1932

M Murders in the Rue Morgue

1939

1939–1945 World War II The 39 Steps

1946

The Spiral Staircase

1948 1949

Berlin airlift The Third Man

1954

Rear Window

1956

The Man Who Knew Too Much

1958 1959 1960

Vertigo, The Quiet American North by Northwest, Our Man in Havana Psycho

1963

The Birds, From Russia With Love

1965

The Spy Who Came in from the Cold

1967

Point Blank

1971

Play Misty for Me, The French Connection

1973

Day of the Jackal

1975 1976

Three Days of the Condor All the President’s Men

1981

Body Heat, Blow Out

1983

Witness

1986

Manhunter

1989

Fall of the Berlin Wall

1991 1992 1993

The Silence of the Lambs Single White Female, The Hand That Rocks the Cradle, Basic Instinct The Pelican Brief, The Firm

1995

Se7en

1999 2000

The Sixth Sense Memento

2002

The Quiet American, One Hour Photo The Bourne Identity, Phone Booth

2004

The Bourne Supremacy

2006 2007

The Departed Gone (Aus.)

Popular interest in psychology increases.

Mid 1960s–mid 1970s Sensational publicity around a spate of stalkings and bizarre murders involving serial killers (e.g. Charles Manson) creates world headlines. Watergate scandal arouses interest in political thrillers.

1970s Box office decline for the thriller as audiences favour more graphic horror movies. Stalking becomes a more common character motivation.

1990s–2000s Return of interest in thrillers as adult audience attendance increases. Serial killer thrillers intersect with horror movies and escalate violence and gore to attract audiences. Increased interest in legal and spy thrillers

2001–present

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September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, New York, and introduction of sedition laws in western countries set off new subversion fears and conspiracy theories.


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Context Thriller writing was popularised in novels and stories of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) is credited with pioneering the psychological thriller. The first movie thriller is said to be The Great Train Robbery (1903). It was also one of the first movies to tell a full-length action-filled story. The genre took shape in the 1930s. Early German filmmakers such as Fritz Lang contributed to the genre, but it was shaped most decisively by Alfred Hitchcock, beginning with his early film The Lodger (1926). It is no coincidence that the golden age of the thriller is also the period that was dominated by Alfred Hitchcock, often called ‘the master of suspense’. Hitchcock perfected his art in the 1930s and continued making films into the mid 1970s. The thriller went through a period of box office decline in the 1970s. It returned to popularity in the 1990s with films such as Single White Female (1992) and The Hand That Rocked the Cradle (1992).

Features of thrillers While the thriller genre includes a vast range of films, they share many of the following basic elements: • Suspense. The aim of the thriller is to create anxiety or worry that something bad might happen. The essential ingredient is suspense. Suspense is the sense of uncertainty or dread that creates nervous tension in the audience. Literally, it is a state of being suspended! • Plot twists and turns. A thriller film can be like a maze, says the French theorist Pascal Bonitzer. The plot structure is extremely complex and full of twists and turns. Watching one of these films can make you feel like you are lost in a labyrinth. • Narrative that provokes questions. According to Noel Carroll, suspense is created when the story moves the audience to start asking questions — either consciously or unconsciously. • Manipulation of time. Since the aim of the thriller is to promote anxiety, drawing out climactic events can help to build suspense. Tense moments are often expanded in thrillers. Consider, for instance, how long it takes Arbogast to walk up the staircase in Psycho (1960). Time is expanded using parallel editing or simultaneous time to cut between the victim and the source of the threat. • A struggle between good and evil. The thriller is a very moral tale, says C. A. Lejeune, because it seeks to find out what has caused evil in the first place.

• Violence. While violence is an important aspect of the genre, it is common for this violence to be withheld to lengthen anticipation and so create anxiety. When it finally arrives, it seems as though the wait was the worst thing!

Plot The thriller begins with a threat to the ordinary, safe world of the main character. The disequilibrium/ disruption (see page 136) creates a sense of threat that undermines our confidence in the ordinary world. What follows is a series of twists and turns that keeps the audience anxious and on edge. Plot is more important than character in thrillers; the characters are often quite ordinary people like ourselves. Events place them in danger at regular intervals — at each twist and turn. The climax of the movie provides a final twist through which all is revealed to both the lead character and the audience. The plot has to be fast moving and is often structured in defined episodes within the story, each of which ends in a climactic event or ‘cliff-hanger’. This is an event that endangers the lives of the main characters, but whose outcome is uncertain or suspended for a period of time. Subplots and parallel storytelling are also used as a means of delaying outcomes or building tension and suspense. But both the main story and the subplots are filled with action. Quite often the film involves a chase. The audience identifies with the person being pursued rather than with the pursuer. This heightens the sense of anxiety. Foreshadowing (see page 138) is important because the objective of the thriller is to prompt conscious or unconscious questions about the narrative. Foreshadowing is a way of introducing elements into the narrative before they become significant. Thus foreshadowing can be a way of making twists and turns seem to make sense after they have happened. But it is important that the plot twists still leave the audience dumbfounded. They must be blind to all the foreshadowed clues until their meaning is revealed. The movie will fail to create suspense if the audience can guess what will happen!

Character The lead characters of thrillers are usually ordinary people who are thrown into a nightmarish situation, says thriller genre analyst Nicole Rafter. They keep ahead of the situation by using their common sense and by being on their guard. But, says Rafter, eventually they must confront the peril, face to face.

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The audience admires these characters because they are forced to fi nd courage in frightening circumstances. They often have to fight their opponent to the death. Since they are ordinary people, violence does not come naturally. The audience shares their anxiety and empathically plucks up a nervous kind of courage with them. The main characters are often tormented before their fi nal triumph, says Rafter. For Carol Clover this makes them ‘victim-heroes’. A victim-hero can be male or female, says Clover.

Setting The most noticeable thing about the setting of a thriller is its ordinariness. For instance, Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho opens with a pan across a very ordinary city skyline. This shot dissolves into a shot of a very ordinary-looking hotel building before entering — seemingly at random — one of its many windows. Evil, it suggests, can happen anywhere. Thrillers deal with issues that are current in society at the time the movie is made. The world we are shown is an ordinary one that is similar in most respects to our own.

Audience issues in thrillers All movies offer the pleasure of escape, says Nicole Rafter, but thrillers offer the additional pleasure of watching others suffer. ‘People just love watching others suffer,’ believes actor Pierce Brosnan.

Figure 12.48: 4HE THRILLER 0HONE "OOTH IS SET ALMOST ENTIRELY IN A -ANHATTAN PHONE BOOTH )N MOST THRILLERS SINCE (ITCHCOCKS 0SYCHO THE SETTING IS NOTABLE FOR ITS ORDINARINESS

More than most movie genres, the thriller aims to manipulate audiences. University of Illinois movie analyst Robert Baird suggests the key to this is the human startle effect. This is different from surprise, as it often results in a distinctly noticeable physical response. A startle reaction occurs when we fail to anticipate something that is threatening. In a thriller, this is achieved through a slow scene build-up followed by a sudden release.

Activities 1. Analyse the manipulation of time in a thriller movie.

MEDIA

Explain the differences between the actual time the event would take, the cinema time it takes and the audience perception of how long the event takes. Also examine the use of simultaneous time/parallel editing to lengthen time (see page 25). 2. Make a ‘road map’ of the plot twists and turns in a thriller of your choice. To do this, depict the narrative as a winding road. Mark climaxes and turning points in the narrative as bends or corners in the road. 3. Explain how foreshadowing is used in a thriller movie of your choice. Begin by indicating when the element is first noticed in the film, then note any other appearances or references and conclude by explaining its final significance. 4. Select several thriller movies and discuss whether or not the characters are portrayed as ordinary people

just like any of the target audience members. Indicate which attributes of the character support your point of view.

PRODUCTION TASK 5. The State Film Corporation is calling for

expressions of interest in producing a thriller movie for Australian audiences. Prepare a ‘pitch’ for a thriller that follows many of the conventions of the genre. Outline the narrative and give an indication of some of the climactic scenes. Discuss your use of suspense to delay action. Develop profiles of your main character and explain how the audience will relate to them. Describe the opening and closing use of violence. Give an idea of the setting and how it supports the development of the story.


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Westerns ‘From roughly 1900 to 1975 a significant portion of the adolescent male population spent every Saturday afternoon at the movies. What they saw there were westerns. In one way or another, westerns have touched the lives of virtually everyone who lived in the first three-quarters of the twentieth century.’ Jane Tompkins, West of Everything

Until 1970 Hollywood produced more westerns than any other genre of fi lm. Almost one quarter of all American fi lms of this period were westerns.

What is a western? A western is a fi lm set in the American west. Sometimes jokingly called ‘horse-operas’, westerns are violent, action-oriented fi lms set in harsh and rugged landscapes. Westerns of the early period of fi lmmaking are mostly set in the country west of the Mississippi River during a narrow, 30-year time period of the late nineteenth century. This is the last of the American frontier period between the end of the Civil War (1861–65) and the declaration of the closure of the frontier in 1890. Westerns of the 1960s and 1970s are sometimes set in the period after the closing of the frontier but before World War I (1914–18). Mexico is sometimes included as a setting in these later fi lms. Today a fi lm may be classed as a western even though it is set in contemporary times — so long as it deals with the traditional themes of ranching, gold mining or battles for territory. The main theme of the western fi lm genre is the conquest of nature and the staking out of territory to create civilisation through law and order. Battles over territory typically fall into two categories. They can be between Europeans and Indians. Or they can be between cattlemen (who were often a law unto themselves) and settler farmers or homesteaders.

Types of westerns

Wright isolates three main story types within the classic western. • The classic heroic western is the story of a stranger who rides alone into a lawless town and singlehandedly cleans it up. Shane (1953) is an example of this type of fi lm. • The vengeance western is the story of a man seeking revenge for past wrongs. He defeats the villains and in so doing is also persuaded to give up his desire for revenge and rejoin society. Stagecoach (1939) is an example of a vengeance western. • The professional gunfighter western is about a character who is hired to defend a town plagued by lawlessness. Often the villains are skilled fighters as well and the movie then becomes a contest of ability. High Noon (1952) and The Magnificent Seven (1950) are examples of professional gunfighter westerns.

Spaghetti westerns In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as the censorship restrictions of the Hays Code (see page 258) were relaxed, westerns became more violent and less heroic. European studios began to produces westerns, and to cut costs, many of these were shot in arid southern Italy or sometimes in Spain. Clint Eastwood’s fi rst fi lms were low-budget ‘spaghetti westerns’. Perhaps the most famous of these was The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966).

Revisionist westerns In the years after the anti–Vietnam War protests and the rise of feminism and the civil rights movement, stories that glorified the violence of the frontier era lost their general appeal. Audiences could no longer accept massacres of native peoples as a topic for entertainment. They were also more likely to question the nature of heroism. Revisionist westerns often reversed the point of view of the classic western. For example, Posse (1993) uses African-American cowboys who defeat the Ku Klux Klan. Dances with Wolves (1990) focuses on Native American environmental spirituality. Battle scenes are shown from the point of view of the Indians.

Classic westerns

Modern westerns

The classic western was the most common style of fi lm made by the big studios in the fi rst half of the twentieth century. John Ford was one of the most famous directors of the classic western, and his star actor was John Wayne. In Six Guns and Society, Will

A number of films have used the traditional stories of the classic westerns but transferred the action to a modern setting, in either the United States or Mexico. Examples include The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada (2005) and Once Upon a Time in Mexico (2003).

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Western timeline Prehistory American folk myths (e.g. Buffalo Bill, Wild Bill Hickok, Davy Crockett, Calamity Jane, Wyatt Earp). Novels by Zane Grey

1860–1910 America evolves from a rural society to an industrialised society. In urbanised audiences this will create a longing for an earlier, simpler era.

1917–1964 The career span of John Ford, the essential director of the genre

1930–1979 The career span of John Wayne, the essential actor of the genre

1940s During and after World War II the western is used to reinforce American values, notably the righteous use of violence to gain justice for the underdog.

1950s McCarthy era prompts many Hollywood directors to use western settings to critique the politics of the time (e.g. High Noon).

1903–1960 Classic period of westerns was a product of the Hollywood studio system. Experienced, often mature-aged heroes portrayed virtues of honour, self-sacrifice and integrity. Yet the portrayal of Indians was crude and racist — ‘The only good Indian is a dead Indian.’ The genre peaked in the 1940s and 1950s.

1950–1970 Signs of a more sympathetic portrayal of Indians, with a reconciliation message — an assimilationist approach to Indian culture

1960s–1970s Civil rights and feminist movements reshape society and change western portrayals of both women and Native Americans.

1965–1970 Spaghetti westerns, including many Clint Eastwood movies, shot in Italy or Spain. Younger males take leading roles as desperado anti-heroes, marginalised and alienated. Decline of genre in the late 1960s and early 1970s

1861

1861–1865 American Civil War and abolition of slavery

1890

Closing of the American frontier

1903

The Great Train Robbery

1914


1917

The Tornado (first film directed by John Ford)

1925

The Vanishing American (first film made in Monument Valley)

1939 1946

1939–1945 World War II Stagecoach My Darling Clementine

1948

Fort Apache

1950

Broken Arrow (signals a change in Indian portrayal), Rio Grande

1952 1953

High Noon Shane

1956

The Searchers

1960

The Alamo The Magnificent Seven (based on Kurosawa’s Seven Samurai)

1962 1964 1965 1966

The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance A Fistful of Dollars, Cheyenne Autumn (John Ford’s last film) For a Few Dollars More The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

1969

The Wild Bunch (turning point for increased violence and savagery), Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

1970

Little Big Man (hippie view of Indians)

1973

High Plains Drifter

1976

Buffalo Bill and the Indians or Sitting Bull’s History Lesson (satirises racist attitudes in westerns)

1985

Pale Rider

1990

Dances with Wolves

1992

Unforgiven

2005

The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada

1980s–present Audiences move to other genres such as gangster and science fiction. The influence of the western genre declines.

1990s–present

MEDIA

Postmodern western revival. Indian and other perspectives incorporated into narrative. Genre is now largely superseded.


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Context Although it is one of the oldest genres in cinema, the western has quite a short history. It has its beginnings in two sources. In the late 1880s William Cody set up a travelling entertainment show called Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show. His show toured the United States (and later the world) until the late 1930s. It featured horseriding and sharpshooting displays. It also presented ‘historical’ recreations of battle scenes from the ‘wild west’ in which Indians were employed to attack white settlers before Buffalo Bill rode in to save the day.

as Riders of the Purple Sage (1918), would also inspire western movies. The first film western is generally agreed to be The Great Train Robbery (1903). Countless films followed until the 1930s. The coming of sound meant that the films could be shot on location away from the studio. In the 1940s and 1950s there was a huge resurgence in the genre. Many critics attribute this to the work of the director John Ford. His film Stagecoach (1939) is seen as an early example of the western as art form. Another Ford film, The Searchers (1956), marked the end of the classic era of westerns. The old conventions were changing, just as society was changing. The portrayal of Indians was also undergoing a transformation. The 1950 film Broken Arrow showed Indians sympathetically and seemed to suggest there could be a reconciliation between settlers and Indians. The relaxation of the Hays Code introduced significantly more violence to the genre. However, the western seemed to be in decline throughout the 1960s. The genre was saved by the westerns starring Clint Eastwood shot cheaply in Italy and Spain — the so-called spaghetti westerns. There was a revival of the genre in the 1990s, when a number of movies seemed to reverse all of the old conventions. These include Dances with Wolves (1990) and Unforgiven (1992).

Features of westerns Audiences around the world are familiar with a number of the symbolic elements of classic westerns — horses, steam trains, Stetson hats, stagecoaches, ghost towns and so on. Not all of these are essential. The following elements appear in most westerns and help to define the genre.

The frontier landscape

Figure 12.49: "UFFALO "ILLlS 7ILD 7EST 3HOW TOURED THE 5NITED 3TATES AND FEATURED DISPLAYS OF HORSE RIDING AND SHARPSHOOTING (IS SHOW IS REGARDED AS THE FORERUNNER OF THE WESTERN MOVIE From the early nineteenth century until the early twentieth century, cheap novels told stories about outlaws, cowboys and Indians. The most famous of these is James Fenimore Cooper’s story The Last of the Mohicans (1826). Later the novels of Zane Grey, such

A frontier refers to a borderline or limit. In the United States the word frontier was used to refer to the edge of European settlement as it pushed westwards. In classic westerns, the myth of the frontier takes two forms, says Melinda Szaloky. First, the films depict territory beyond the frontier as free and abundant. Second, they portray the taming of the west as a necessity. Therefore the films show a violent yet heroic war against Indians for territory.

Violence To some, the western is simply a vehicle for justified violence. In westerns, violence seems to solve all the problems posed by the frontier. Violence also provides a resolution to all of the genre’s oppositions.

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Clear oppositions A number of oppositions are posed in westerns. • The most basic opposition is between good and evil. In westerns this is often very clear-cut. Early westerns even used black hats and white hats to distinguish for the audience which character was the villain. • Wild, untamed nature versus civilisation gives the hero a justification for using violence — to subdue nature by force. Associated with this is the opposition between what critics have called the desert and the garden. Wild Indian lands represent the desert, while spreading farms and ranches represent its transformation into a garden. The garden idea can be extended to include the religious idea of the ‘garden of Eden’. • Morality and law and order versus lawlessness and disorder provide another justification for heroic violence. The cowboy’s code of honour is often favoured in westerns over the weak legal regulation of townsfolk. • Interior versus exterior, according to Will Wright, contrasts the civilised indoor world of society and female characters with the wild, male-dominated outdoors. • Strong versus weak, says Wright, is another opposition that allows filmmakers to separate the heroes from the villains. The villain is shown to be weak and is ultimately defeated. Westerns also portray women, old men and society as a whole as weak and in need of protection. Oddly, audiences never seem to question the principle that the fastest draw and the strongest fist fighter should without fail be the good man. This association of physical strength with virtue is an ancient idea in literature, going back to Beowulf. • Society versus the hero provides a contrast between insiders and outsiders, says Wright. The hero is an outsider. He is antisocial when he arrives in town, and often returns to being an outsider when his responsible use of violence has achieved the right result. In Shane, the hero rides off alone into the sunset, having rejected the temptation to join society.

Plot

MEDIA

‘Films about horses for horses’, sniffed the Hollywood scriptwriter Ben Hecht. The basic plot for most westerns has the lone hero riding into town to right the wrongs perpetrated by the villain. They are simple tales of law and order with plenty of fast-paced action.

In a study of hundreds of westerns, Will Wright has identified the plot structure of the classic western as follows: 1. A stranger enters town. He is later revealed to have exceptional ability, usually in the justified use of violence. While town society does not completely accept the hero, he is given special status. 2. In the next stage, a conflict of interest occurs between the villains and the town. The villains are much stronger than society. They treat society with contempt, seeing the people as weak. But the villains do have respect for the hero. 3. The villains threaten society, but the hero attempts to avoid any involvement in the conflict until a friend of the hero is endangered. 4. The hero fights the villains and defeats them. Society praises the hero and accepts him, but he turns his back on this admiration and rides off into the sunset. (Alternatively, the hero may marry and settle down in the newly law-abiding community.)

Character The following character types appear in many western movies: • The hero. ‘To be a man in the western is to seem to grow out of the environment,’ says western specialist Jane Tompkins. ‘It means to be hard, to be tough and to be unforgiving.’ Whether they are lawmen, cowboys or just wanderers, western heroes must live or die by their physical skills. Naturally they are superb gunfighters, horse riders and bare-knuckle fighters. They can take a beating that would kill other men. Heroes must obey a strict code of honour. This moral code is the chief difference between the hero and the villain. • The villain. He is usually as skilful as the hero, but is motivated by the lowest of human emotions — greed or ambition for power. Often the villain’s plans fall just within the law, but they break the moral code and exploit the weak. • The Indians. Early westerns used the Indians as a failsafe plot device to create climaxes. Indian tribes in full battle dress provided spectacular massed enemies. They are portrayed as cunning and brutal menaces — scalping innocent cowboys. But, especially after the film Broken Arrow (1950), Indians are also portrayed as ‘noble savages’. The idea of a noble savage is common in industrial societies feeling a sense of loss. It is a romantic and idealistic view of native people as being similar to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden before the fall. In modern revisionist westerns, the Indians are environmental guardians as well as noble savages.


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• Female characters. Schoolmarms or barmaids are two of the most common roles for women in classic westerns. Virtuous women such as the rancher’s daughter, the pioneer’s wife or the school teacher bring gentle civilisation to the wild and masculine west. These women are traditionally carriers of Christianity, of learning and of family values. In contrast to them are the easygoing saloon girls and dancers. Both types of women need the hero’s protection.

Setting Many westerns begin with a landscape shot because the landscape is so central to the genre. The western is about the conquest of nature. The fi lmmaker needs to show that the struggle is worth it. Magnificent and dramatic landscapes also suggest a sense of space and abundance. Directors use the landscape to suggest mood and distance from civilisation. In the classic western era, it was common for particular directors to be associated with particular locations. John Ford, for instance, set most of his westerns in Monument Valley. These buttes, mesas and canyons eventually came to represent the stereotypical western setting.

They can’t read or dance or look at pictures. They can’t look at flowers … or carry on a conversation.’ • The frontier. Rather than being speared by Indians or shot by outlaws, most pioneers died from accidents or disease. For instance, in one study historian John Unruh shows that of 10 000 deaths over 20 years on the frontier, only 362 were caused by Indians. • Political and social discourses. The western is emphatically in favour of capital punishment. It favours private property and puts the rights of the individual fi rst and foremost. It shows that might is right and that violence is justified. It suggests that culture is ‘women’s business’. Nature and indigenous peoples are to be conquered in the name of progress. In many respects, it is a genre of its times.

Representations and discourses As one of the oldest genres in the cinema, the western has a history of representation that parallels the history of movies. Common issues include: • Gender. A stereotyped division between the genders has sparked much critical comment. For example, Jane Tompkins says the western is a masculine retreat into a world where emotions are repressed. ‘The western struggles to cast out everything feminine. Heroes strive to be the opposite of women.

Figure 12.50: )N +EVIN #OSTNERlS $ANCES WITH 7OLVES THE 3IOUX )NDIANS ADOPT A CAVALRY OFüCER AS AN HONORARY MEMBER OF THEIR TRIBE (E COMES TO SEE THE VIRTUES OF THE )NDIAN WAY OF LIFE q A REVERSAL OF THE ATTITUDE OF EARLIER WESTERNS

Activities 1. View a classic western and then a revisionist

western. Discuss the differences between them. Can they be explained as a reversal or are there more important differences? 2. Find examples in specific westerns to support or contradict the critics’ view that there is a narrow representation of political and social beliefs or attitudes towards women.

PRODUCTION TASK 3. An American film corporation has advertised

worldwide for filmmakers interested in

submitting a concept for a western. Prepare a ‘pitch’ for a western that follows many of the conventions of the genre. Outline the narrative and give an indication of some of the climactic scenes. Explain how you will use some of the great oppositions of the western. Develop a profile of your hero character and explain how he operates according to a code of honour. Profile some of the other characters. Describe the opening and closing use of violence. Give an idea of the setting and how it supports the development of the story.

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Science fiction

(by Darren Sinclair)

Many fi lm genres explore the extremes of human emotion and experience. These narratives often focus on the internal confl icts people face. Science fiction takes these extreme possibilities out into the real world and makes them visible. It allows a religious audience to explore the monstrous, such as in Alien (1979), without the taint of the occult that horror often brings. And it allows the non-religious to contemplate the grand scale of the universe without necessarily getting spiritual, as in Carl Sagan’s Contact (1997). Science fiction allows the young to explore a larger universe. At its best, it has the potential to provide the most abstract of modern human parables, like the retelling of the journey of Moses in the sci-fi origins of Superman (fi lm 1978, serial 1948).

What is science fiction? ‘Science fiction reflects scientific thought; [it is] a fiction of things-to-come based on things-at-hand,’ according to novelist Benjamin Appel. It involves an experience of humanity that has not actually occurred yet is told with scientific credibility. The visual deceptions of special effects have been a feature of the genre since George Méliès’s A Trip to the Moon (1902). It is ‘fiction’ because the narrative usually features an extrapolation of our scientific knowledge. The roots of the genre extend back to the common ancestor shared by both science fiction and horror movies — Mary Shelley’s 1818 novel Frankenstein and the 1931 movie made of her book. The difference between science fiction and the other two speculative genres of horror and fantasy is that where they offer imaginative impossibilities, sci-fi is more thoughtful. Rather than show what is clearly impossible, it ‘works to entertain alternative possibilities’, suggests Barry Keith Grant, professor of fi lm studies at Brock University in Canada.

measured as damage to ourselves. Steven Spielberg’s Jurassic Park (1993) explores the disastrous potential consequences of the commercialisation of science. • The invasion (political). The invasion subgenre of science fiction works on deep-seated human fears of being overwhelmed by an external aggressor. The antagonist (see page 142) in the narrative is often a metaphor for the enemy of the country of production. Fear of the ‘other’ is reflected in the level of aggression. During times of attack, the enemy must be completely exterminated. They usually arrive as a result of an accidental invitation. Sometimes they are allowed in by a stupidly optimistic do-gooder or a negligent ‘border patrol’. The box office success of 1996, Independence Day, portrays American patriots with no empathy for the alien adversary. • The fantastic future (glorification). The science fiction of glorification presents a view of an inspirational future that is worth striving for. Settings can include elements of fantasy and propose colonial conquests of new scientific frontiers. Awe-inspiring ingenuity solves problems and provides a backdrop for human interactions. The distant future setting and futuristic travel supply the exotic. Armageddon (1998) and numerous Star Trek (1966–69) scenarios are examples of this subgenre. • The post-apocalyptic future (dependence). Set after an apocalyptic event, these films show the potential for the future to see a return to the primitive past. Overdependence on technology leads to collapse and then calamity. Technological advancement is usually accompanied by human enlightenment, but over-reliance on it is a danger. Planet of the Apes (1968), Omega Man (1971), Mad Max (1979) and its reworking as Waterworld (1995) warn of overdependence on systems that could collapse.

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Types of science fiction

Context

There are four main subgenres or types of science fiction fi lm. These are:

Time travel was popularised in the science fiction novels of Jules Verne and H. G. Wells around the same time that Arthur Conan Doyle wrote The Lost World, says Jonathan Bignell. This coincided with the discovery of Roman relics in Britain and a fascination with ancient Egypt. Such themes can be seen in King Kong (1933), which features a lost island that harbours live dinosaurs, and Battlestar Gallactica (1979), in which ‘Viper’ pilots wear Egyptian-style combat helmets.

• Order disturbed (horror). This subgenre, a cross between horror and science fiction, serves to warn the human race against upsetting the natural order of the universe. It can be set in the past, present or future. When set in the present it invites us to evaluate the way we do things now. When set in the future, it can warn us about damage we may cause to the natural universe, which is ultimately


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Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein at a time when experiments on frogs had shown that electricity could fire muscles. She built on the latest scientific understanding that (contrary to previous ideas about its flowing through the blood or residing in the heart) the essence of life was a spark of energy. Pioneering filmmaker Georges Méliès brought the art of illusion to the screen in 1902. Special effects such as back projection and miniatures, along with claymation, were used in King Kong. While early science fiction shares its roots with horror, it was the futuristic city of Metropolis (1926) and vehicles from comic strips that defined the genre. Germany’s defeat in World War II created a technological race between the Soviet Union and the US. Both could see the military value of the rocket technology that had delivered remote-controlled destruction to London during the Blitz. The threat of atomic annihilation that grew out of the arms race would drive the science fiction genre for decades to come. The monster movies of the fifties called for a team response to the threat of invaders, who often appeared from outer space. Critics see these invaders as a metaphor for Soviet communism. It was terrifying for America to hear the radio bip of the first Russian satellite passing overhead. With the Korean War fuelling the cold war fear that communism would spread, films like Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) struck a chord. Apparently normal citizens were turned to ‘pod people’ as they slept. A flying saucer invasion was one thing, but

even greater terror lay in the idea that ‘one of them’ could look like ‘one of us’. The ‘enemy within’ was the new threat, and anti-communist hysteria — often directed against supposed left-wing sympathisers in Hollywood and the media — reached its peak with the ‘witch-hunts’ led by Senator Joe McCarthy (see page 196). As special effects budgets began to play a larger role in science fiction, Hollywood became the natural home for the genre. Television sci-fi, such as Thunderbirds (1965–66), maintained a trans-Atlantic cooperation theme. However, British sci-fi tended to focus increasingly on the quirky, such as Doctor Who (1965), or the comical, such as The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (2005). As cold war tensions subsided, the invasion threat theme was toned down. Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) and E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial (1982) suggested aliens were just misunderstood. Aliens on exchange visits to Earth became part of the family on television in Mork and Mindy (1978–82) and ALF (1986–90). The mountain-sized Close Encounters spaceship of 1977 was a far bigger threat than the lone invader of The Day the Earth Stood Still. The arms race had moved concerns on from ‘Reds under the bed’ to a nuclear standoff between superpowers. Disturbingly, watching some scenes from Independence Day was not unlike watching film of the World Trade Center attacks of 2001. Aliens target the architectural symbols of western power and by interfering with satellites ‘use our own technology against us’.

Figure 12.51: 4EXTS REČECT THEIR CONTEXT SEE PAGE 4HE FULL SIZED PLYWOOD HALF SPACESHIP IN 4HE $AY THE %ARTH 3TOOD 3TILL REČECTS THE STREAMLINED CARS AND CHROMED KITCHEN APPLIANCES OF THE ERA 4HE ALIEN CHARACTER IS ABLE TO HIDE AMONG NORMAL PEOPLE WHILE HE REPORTS HOME SECRETLY AT NIGHT (E BEHAVES LIKE A SPY AND IS BROUGHT DOWN BY THE MILITARY "UT THE CHARACTER THAT DISTURBED US AT THE START OF THE üLM IS ACTUALLY HERE TO SELČESSLY WARN US OF THE DANGERS OF OUR NUCLEAR FUTURE

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Since September 11, 2001, the ‘enemy within’ theme has been revived. The remake of War of the Worlds (2005) makes some changes to author H. G. Wells’ original attack from Mars to fit in with new scientific understandings. Changes are also made in the symbolism. Rather than spaceships simply descending onto cities, long-buried craft planted below the suburbs erupt on cue to join the battle, like a general call to terrorist sleeper cells. Citizens are astounded to find the real threat has been hiding right under their noses. Other themes punctuate science fiction in line with current scientific advances or issues. Concerns about genetic manipulation are evident in Jurassic Park (1993), about global warming and environmental damage in The Day After Tomorrow (2004) and about infectious diseases in the wake of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Outbreak (1995).

Features of science fiction

• Grand implications. The appeal of the science fiction film is that it represents the reunification of science, art and religion in a single package. Where our species came from, what the future holds, our rightful place in the universe, the very purpose for our existence are the fundamental questions addressed by the church. Sci-fi also asks those questions of science.

Plot Narrative structure will depend on the type of sci-fi and which genre it has borrowed features from. Some examples are listed in table 12.3. Alien is an example of a sci-fi horror story with horror-style visuals and plot structure, while Blade Runner could be considered horror/film noir. In both films the natural order is disturbed by monsters on the loose. But the resolution of each is quite different.

Common features of science fiction movies include: • Borrowed features. Science fiction has been able to assimilate elements of many other genres. For instance, Star Wars (1977) combines many elements from the fantasy genre, such as strange creatures with special powers, a princess in need of rescue, and the ‘magic’ of the Force. Aspects such as barroom brawls, frontier towns and gunslingers come from the western, as in Outland (1981). Many sci-fi films, such as Blade Runner (1982), draw on film noir (see page 254). Others, such as Alien (1979), use devices straight from horror. • Visual effects. The success of the special effects is usually measured in terms of realism and can justify the remaking of previous releases. • Scientific principles. Current theory is explored and credibility is maintained by justifying elements within established scientific knowledge. Often an explanation of how something works will be contrived. • Rich soundscape. Unusual sound effects, grandscale orchestral music and distinctive instruments such as the theremin (an early electronic instrument) used by Bernard Hermann in The Day the Earth Stood Still, have become important features of the genre.

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• Ethical dilemmas. As science claims to be emotionally impartial, it needs to have a social brake applied occasionally. As the west has substituted technology rituals and its related consumption for traditional religion, sci-fi has functioned not only as a temple for the glorification of technology, but also as a confessional for those responsible for scientific risk.

Figure 12.52: "EING ABLE TO SEE THE END OF SOMEONElS LIFE ON A PREMONITION SCREEN IN THE TECH NOIR üLM -INORITY 2EPORT IS REMINISCENT OF THE TRADITIONAL CIRCULAR PLOT STRUCTURE OF üLM NOIR 4HE ACTION OF SCROLLING THROUGH DISCONNECTED PICTURES TO üND A NARRATIVE EVOKES THE ACTIONS OF üLM EDITORS THEMSELVES Independence Day is a political or invasion story, but the response is western-like as the townspeople unite to protect their land from attack. The invasion


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in Signs (2002), on the other hand, demands a personal response, so the film borrows from the devices of the haunted house genre.

Plot progress The progress of the plot in science fiction films depends on the way the elements of other genres are used. The horror subgenre usually begins with normality, disrupted by the violence of a monster escaping or something that foreshadows that event. The monster must be subdued by violence to return order to the universe. Often the creation will turn on the creator — a warning that humanity should not play God. The political or invasion subgenre will often start with low-key but ominous mistakes or negligence. Most characters misunderstand the nature of the threat, but once they face a common threat they can eventually be united across boundaries such as ethnicity. The glorification types of sci-fi can begin with goal setting, such as the Star Trek (1966) voice-over. A holy grail is attained through a journey or pursuit of knowledge. Human enlightenment is increased and barbarism defeated. Stanley Kubrick’s 2001, A Space Odyssey (1968) is an example of this pattern with the addition of a significant horror element. Films that warn of overdependence on technology usually begin with a lament for what is lost, or sometimes blissful ignorance of impending doom. They feature images of desolation, and a decline in standards of human behaviour tends to parallel a technological decline.

Character As with plot, certain character types may be borrowed from other genres, and several attributes may be combined.

These types include: • The messianic one. In any other genre the heroic character may lay down his or her life for chosen others. However, on the grand scale of sci-fi, the messianic character may literally ‘save the world’. Self-sacrifice is offered by Ripley in Alien 3 (1992) and Neo in The Matrix (1999). In Armageddon (1998) the Earth faces complete destruction and an ‘ordinary’ man has the power to save all of humanity through the sacrifice of his own life. • The anointed one. This character or another may be chosen for a special task. As in the fantasy genre, they often have special parentage. Anakin Skywalker in Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menace (1999) is an example of this character type. • The professor. The learned, brilliant but eccentric professor is traditionally based on a wild-haired Einstein. The mad scientist, the incompetent inventor and the visionary are variants. • The freelancer. A mercenary straight from the western may be a gunslinger or smuggler. They see their role as the hired help. They usually lack a moral commitment beyond earning their pay. • The princess. The princess may be a damsel in distress direct from the fantasy genre or a woman facing a peril that she does not recognise. • The automatons. These may be people or robots who do not question orders and can function as drone characters. • The community representative. The spokesperson for the community may serve as a ‘mouthpiece’ to convey an attitude shift from a divided and gullible public to a united community. They can also be the ‘nay-sayer’ — the last doubter on board used to highlight the shift from earlier public opinion.

Table 12.3: 4HIS MATRIX SHOWS POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS THAT WILL SHAPE THE WAY THE SCI ü PLOT UNFOLDS 7HILE THE SCENARIO IS SET BY THE STORY TYPE THE PROGRESS TO A RESOLUTION IS SHAPED BY THE STYLISTIC FEATURES BORROWED FROM OTHER GENRES 3CIENCE üCTION STORY

4YPE

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'ENRE INČUENCE

"ORROWED FEATURES

Natural order disturbed

Horror

Aliens

Horror

superhuman adversary fight to the death lone defender

Invasion

Political

Independence Day

Western

population rallied town damaged in brawl dispute over territory

Fantastic future

Glorification

Star Wars

Fantasy

mystical predestination damsels in need of rescue mythical creatures

Post-apocalyptic future

Dependence

Total Recall

Film noir

non-linear/circular plot complexity of deception betrayal/femme fatale

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Science fiction timeline

1890s–1930s Archaeological discoveries channel the public imagination towards exotic times and places, while new scientific knowledge propels engineering and medical advances. Advances in aerodynamic design ahead of the jet age

Prehistory Novels of H. G. Wells, Jules Verne and Mary Shelley Circus-style illusions make the jump to the screen.

A Trip to the Moon

1914


1920s–1930s

1926

Metropolis

Horror/sci-fi roots intertwine.

1931

Frankenstein

1933

King Kong

1936

Flash Gordon

1939


1930s Comic book characters are brought to the screen.

Buck Rogers 1945

Mid 1940s–mid 1960s In the wake of the atomic bombs, sci-fi embraces warnings about nuclear technology. The cold war raises fears of ‘Mutually Assured Destruction’.

1902

Russia. Atomic bombs dropped on Japanese cities. 1950

1950s

1950–1954 McCarthy trials in US 1951

The Day the Earth Stood Still

paranoia of the time and fears of the

1953

War of the Worlds

require citizens to unite in defence from

1954

Creature from the Black Lagoon

alien invasion.

1955

Godzilla, Invasion of the Body Snatchers

1957

Sputnik, the first satellite, launched by the USSR.

1960

The Time Machine

1960s 1960s

Late 1960s–late 1970s Fear of outsider in film gives way to insecurity about internal system collapse.

Many sci-fi productions on TV (e.g. Star

Governments, corporations and technology are viewed with suspicion. The ‘other’ becomes a visitor to be understood; parallels the thawing of cold war tensions.

DNA/double helix unveiled by Watson and Crick.

1961

Russian Yuri Gagarin is the first man in space.

1962

The Day of the Triffids

Trek) generally view technology

Cuban missile crisis threatens nuclear war.

positively. Stingray, Fireball XL-5,

1963

Dr Strangelove

Thunderbirds and Captain Scarlet bring

1965

Dr Who and the Daleks

marionette animation to futuristic

1968

Planet of the Apes, 2001 A Space Odyssey

spacecraft.

1969

Neil Armstrong is the first man to walk on the moon. The Forbin Project

Special effects as spectacle become entrenched in the genre. Sophisticated motion capture techniques are used in Star Wars miniatures.

Late 1970s–1980s

1950–1953 Korean War

Invasion stories feed on the political ‘enemy within’. Creature features

Early success for Russia marks the first milestone of the space race. US President Kennedy announces a manned mission to the moon by the end of the decade.

German rocket technology captured by US and

Computers are used for image manipulation. Processing power increases exponentially. ‘Realism’ dominates special effects.

1971

Silent Running, Omega Man

1973

Soylent Green

1977

Star Wars, Close Encounters of the Third Kind

1979

Alien

1982

E.T., Blade Runner

1984

The Terminator

1986

Aliens

1990

Total Recall

1991

Terminator 2: Judgment Day

1996

Independence Day Dolly the sheep is cloned.

1990s–2000s

1998

Armageddon, Deep Impact

Questions of reality and predestination with spiritual overtones emerge, along with millennial paranoia about the Earth in peril.

1999

The Matrix

2001

September 11 terrorist attacks on World Trade Center,

2000s Video game creation builds on special effects technology, often combining sci-fi and fantasy scenarios.

New York 2002

Minority Report

2003

International project to sequence the human genome on databases

Post-9/11 return to the idea of the

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‘enemy within’.

2004

The Day after Tomorrow; I, Robot

2005

Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, War of the Worlds

2006

Children of Men


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Setting Science fiction cities are settings that show the best and worst of modern life, observes Eric Avila. While cities have been a repeated theme since Metropolis, sci-fi events can take place under the sea, beneath the Earth or even inside your brain. From the micro to the macro worlds, there are no real boundaries to sci-fi settings. Space isn’t the ‘fi nal frontier’; it is just the American frontier with special effects. The genre will happily borrow settings from other genres, such as a spaceship that functions as the haunted house, as in Alien. Seamless special effects are essential to presenting a self-contained world. Travel to forgotten portals and undiscovered frontiers requires a significant suspension of disbelief on the part of the audience. They must immerse themselves in extraordinary settings foreign to their actual experiences.

Representations and discourses

• Fear of technology. Paranoia about machines grew with computer capabilities. This tradition links the computer of The Forbin Project (1969) with the rebellious replicants of Blade Runner. In The Matrix (1999) artificial intelligence (AI) is the great deceiver, maintaining a reality that enslaves and blinds humanity. • Faith. The Star Trek TV series (1966–69) arrived at a time when God was disappearing from science fiction. Typically, backward planets would have religion while developed civilisations had technology, although traditional religion is restored in later fi lms such as Signs and Independence Day. Often belief in a dream or a nightmare scenario is critical for survival. Whether or not God is directly involved, science fiction requires a leap of faith. The Force in the Star Wars fi lms is an example. • Individualism. People are trapped by societal systems. Often punishment is associated with being different. However, in sci-fi the brilliant and persistent can eventually escape their bondage.

Science fiction participates in many of the discourses of contemporary society. Some have become longterm preoccupations, including:

• Slavery. Explored through the thankless, servile life of robots, issues concerning the morality of slavery merge with a debate about what constitutes life and consciousness. In I, Robot (2004) freedom from slavery becomes the solution as well as the problem.

• Fear of ‘the other’. The 1956 fi lm Invasion of the Body Snatchers brings out one of the recurring themes in science fiction, writes professor of literature J. P. Tolette. ‘It is largely about a fear of the other, about what is out there . . .’

• Predestination. Genetic discoveries reopen the nature versus nurture debate. In Minority Report, our specific actions are predetermined, so people who are capable of murder are just as guilty as those who actually commit it.

Activities 1. Search current news sources and science texts

for an existing or emerging technology. List the pros and cons of the particular technology taken to its extreme conclusions. Identify the impacts this technology may have on individuals and script a scene with a minimal number of characters to demonstrate some implications of the technology. 2. Choose a problematic social issue and invent a

fictional technology that solves the problem in some way. Construct a public relations list of ways to promote acceptance of this invention in the public arena. Consider the representation you are trying to construct and effective delivery of that message to the desired market. 3. Refer to the section on plot with regard to a

number of science fiction films you are familiar with. Identify the science fiction story type, and

the borrowed stylistic elements used in the plot. Look for evidence of other genre influences in your examples.

PRODUCTION TASK 4. A production house has research showing there is a

market opportunity for science fiction productions. They intend to rework an existing script from another genre to suit the conventions of sci-fi. Several of the scenes had already been shot in the other genre by the second filming unit ahead of the main production. You need to use this footage. Use the video footage that is not science fiction to accompany a sci-fi soundtrack. Plan a soundtrack redub that may include prerecorded library effects or revoicing to create the appropriate atmosphere. Record and/or arrange the tracks to replace the original soundtrack.

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Film adaptations of novels ‘There is a basic conflict of visions. The author of the novel has seen in his mind’s eye for many months, or for years, the faces, the gestures, the mannerisms of his characters. Then on the screen appear total strangers displacing those images, asserting new characteristics, outward and inward. The writer almost can’t help being outraged.’ John Hersey, American novelist

Why bother with the movie if you’ve read the book? For increasing numbers of people, the opposite question can be asked — if you’ve seen the movie, why read the book? As for filmmakers themselves, not many seem to lose sleep over either question. Some don’t even bother to read the books they are about to adapt, working instead entirely from chapter summaries. Novels provide the raw material for much of the world’s fi lm production. More than 30 per cent of all fi lms ever made derived from novels, according to estimates. Throw in adaptations from plays and short stories and the figure rises to 65 per cent. There have even been at least 12 major feature movies based on poems, including The Man from Snowy River (1982) and The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936). The trade in stories is now turning the other way, with a growing trend towards turning successful

fi lms into books. While literature has been a powerful influence on fi lm, the reverse is also the case. Keith Cohen argues that the dynamics of exchange operate in both directions. For example, the American crime thriller writer Dashiel Hammett was influenced by early gangster movies. His novels then influenced the movies based on them. The modern narrative would not be what it is without the precedent set by the movies. Cohen sees several changes in literature that appear to be the result of fi lm’s influence, including the following: 1. Changes in the storytelling point of view can be traced to the fi lm technique of moving the camera from one position to another. The novel Catch-22, for example, uses this technique. The perspective shifts from one character to another. Only every so often does it return to the viewpoint of the main character, Yossarian. 2. Since the arrival of fi lm, literature has been forced to move away from realism. Instead of focusing on the external world, it has become increasingly concerned with the realities inside the heads of its characters. This is easier to express in a novel than in a fi lm. The invention of photography had much the same effect on modern art. Realism largely became the province of photography, and art became more concerned with expressionistic styles.

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Figure 12.53: &ROM 4HE ,ORD OF THE 2INGS 4HE 2ETURN OF THE +ING !DAPTATIONS OF NOVELS PLAYS AND SHORT STORIES MAKE UP APPROXIMATELY PER CENT OF ALL üLM PRODUCTION


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What is a film adaptation? A film adaptation of a novel is a movie that uses the essential narrative of a novel and expresses it in the visual medium of film. Like the novels and plays they are based on, film adaptations belong to the narrative genre (see page 8). The most common type of narrative is a causal chain of events — a step-by-step series of happenings, each one of which leads to the next. An important element of narrative is character, because events and actions must be performed by someone, or at least must be relevant to them. Film is a relatively recent kind of narrative medium, but the need to tell stories has been with us since the beginning of human history. Before the widespread use of print, stories were told in the oral tradition. The novel had its beginnings in the eighteenth century, but it reached its maturity in the nineteenth century. Since the twentieth century film has taken on the role of chief storyteller in our culture.

Narrative People who study narratives and the structure of stories are called narratologists. One of their most important findings is that narrative is a very deep structure that seems to be embedded in human psychology and operates independently of any medium. Narrative is a kind of text organisation, says Seymour Chatman, one of the foremost scholars of film adaptations. Narrative is a time-based structure, a sequencing of story events in time. Chatman calls this ‘story-time’. Story-time is the pure or raw sequence of events as they may exist in time before being retold. In a biography, story-time is the subject’s actual life span. In Cinderella, it is the essence of the story sequence before it becomes a ballet, an opera or a comic book. The medium used to tell the story has its own language of time. This is the time taken by the medium to spin out the story. Depending on the medium, this may be called ‘movie-time’ or ‘book-time’. Movie-time can be different from story-time. It can be spun out to add tension or dramatically shortened to remove boring bits. Flashbacks, flashforwards and other time manipulation devices alter the chain of events that make up the narrative. For example, a movie about a man’s life story could open with a shot of the subject on his deathbed, flashback to early childhood and then flashforward to adulthood. A novel may treat events differently because it has a different discourse or language. Both movie-time and novel-time are different from actual story-time.

Figure 12.54: -ARIANNE $ASHWOOD +ATE 7INSLET AND *OHN 7ILLOUGHBY 'REG 7ISE FROM THE üLM OF *ANE !USTENlS NOVEL 3ENSE AND 3ENSIBILITY ! NOVEL AND A MOVIE MAY EACH TELL THE SAME STORY IN A DIFFERENT WAY

Only some texts can handle a time-based structure. Not all texts have their own discourse-time. Some, such as expository essays, use logic-based structures. Or they may operate outside either structure. Consider the painting Mona Lisa. You could spend two minutes or six hours in front of it and still be unsure whether or not she is smiling. The effect is the same regardless of time. That is not the case with a movie or novel. A painting does not use a logic- or timebased discourse. These two ideas of time explain why a story can be given new life in a different medium, explains Chatman. A narrative can be transposed to any medium, as long as it operates within the two systems of time — actual story-time and the medium-time (book-time, movie-time etc.). At a deep level, the story of a novel can be transferred quite naturally to film. The movie-time structure will be different, but the deeper story-time structure remains the same.

Features of film adaptations of novels ‘Film is a multi-sensory communal experience emphasising immediacy, whereas literature is a mono-sensory experience more conducive to reflection.’ William Jinks, The Celluloid Literature

The features of film adaptations of novels are best highlighted by making comparisons of the different ways films and novels work. Many academics have attempted this task. Their findings centre on differences in six areas: narrative, methods of description, use of imagination, authorship, point of view and aspects of artistic interpretation.

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Approach to the narrative

Description

In the early days of film it was said that the length of a movie is directly related to the capacity of the human bladder. While a book can be put down and picked up again later, even today with DVDs a movie is most often viewed in one sitting. An average book may take eight to ten hours to read, whereas a movie is rarely much longer than two hours. Movies of novels have to be selections of the story, rather than the whole thing. Wayne Wang’s The Joy Luck Club (1993) did not include all of the stories in Amy Tan’s novel. Even so, the rough cut is reported to have been four hours long. So with the release length of the film being just over two hours, even more had to be cut out. Since film is a medium that requires action, it is often only the story action that is selected. Inner thoughts and motivations, which take up much of a novel, are usually eliminated in film.

People often say the film version of a novel is not as descriptive as the novel. All of the describing power of the prose has been lost. Nothing could be further from the truth, argues Seymour Chatman. Film possesses a vast array of descriptive detail in each frame. Indeed, some art critics refer to it as overdetailed, says Chatman. Film uses the power of mise-en-scène to describe even the minutest details (see page 17). Descriptive data can be delivered from within the frame to show details of costume, props, landscape and weather that would be beyond even the longest novel. Yet no-one complains there is too much description. According to Chatman this is because of a unique property of film’s language. Film doesn’t have to suspend the narrative in order to describe a scene.

‘Film is found to work from perception (sight) towards signification (meaning), from external facts to interior motivations and consequences — from the given world to the meaning of a story. Literary fiction works oppositely. It begins with signs (words) which attempt to develop perception. It elaborates a world out of a story.’ Dudley Andrew, film theorist

MEDIA

In the final scenes of Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1994), played out on the Arctic ice, the film is able to make a much more direct appeal to the senses than the novel can. Whereas the novel has only words to prompt the reader’s imagination, the film can show the grieving Creature as it destroys itself on Frankenstein’s blazing funeral pyre. With film, the scene is re-created in light and sound. Film is more direct in its storytelling approach than the novel. The audience sees a filmed construction of events as they happen. In a novel they must imagine it. Some say this greater directness accounts for film’s larger audiences. On the other hand, the directness of film tends to limit it to realism. Film cannot easily avoid a sense of the factual or the realistic, even in fantasy. Fantasy, psychology, feelings and emotions are much easier to explore in a novel.

Figure 12.55: )TlS IN THE SCIENCE üCTION üLM 4HE #HILDREN OF -EN BASED ON A NOVEL BY 0 $ *AMES 4HE HUMAN RACE IS STERILE BUT MIRACULOUSLY ONE WOMAN HAS BECOME PREGNANT 4HERE IS MORE DETAIL IN THIS SINGLE FRAME FROM THE MOVIE THAN WOULD APPEAR ON THE RELEVANT PAGE IN EVEN THE MOST DESCRIPTIVE NOVEL !UDIENCES SKIM ACROSS THESE DETAILS OFTEN SUBCONSCIOUSLY 4HIS HASTE IS BECAUSE OF THE üLMlS POWERFUL PRESSURE TO TELL A STORY AND KEEP THE NARRATIVE MOVING

Descriptive passages in most novels come as interruptions to the narrative. Critics sometimes speak of ‘blocks’ or ‘chunks’ or even ‘islands’ of descriptive writing inserted into the story. Have you ever skipped


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a long section of description to find out what happens next? Description in a novel is often the author’s way of suspending story-time (see page 305) and putting plot, characters and setting under the microscope. Everything is frozen until we have finished looking. Some readers find this frustrating. This use of description is a unique aspect of the novel’s medium-time (book-time), according to Seymour Chatman. It is part of the novel’s special language that allows it to tell the story. Film has another medium-time (movie-time). It operates in a different way. In film, you can never stop the action. The pressure of the narrative in film is so great that the audience does not want to stop and contemplate things for a while. Events must move along. The descriptive details in a film are mixed in with the narrative so that we barely notice them. During the course of Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel Remains of the Day, many paragraphs are given over to describing Darlington Hall. In the opening shots of the 1993 movie, we see the house and simply say to ourselves, ‘Oh, a big English country house in the 1920s or 1930s. What is going to happen?’ In a novel, description often contains evaluation. The author judges the scene and the people in it as well as providing visual information. Film does not readily evaluate what it describes. This has led some critics to argue that film merely ‘presents’ descriptive information. There is no easy way for the audience to know what the director thinks of a character. There is often no judgement. Other critics have pointed out that judgement can be strongly hinted at through camera angle or lighting. Symbolic codes such as clothing or body language can also express judgement.

Imagination and the audience At a very basic level of communication, both words and images are signs. Communication takes place by arranging these signs into systems (see signs, codes and conventions, pages 4–6). Words are signs that are a long way removed from what it is they refer to. For example, the type letters on this page forming the word ‘Sydney’ have no resemblance to the city itself. A filmed image is much closer to what it signifies. A filmed image of a street in Parramatta may not have been what most people thought of when they saw the word Sydney. But it is definitely a version of Sydney, and much closer than the alphabetical symbols for it. The greater gap between the word and what it signifies means there is a greater role for the imagination in the novel. Therefore, explains film and literature academic Brian McFarlane, the novelist has less control than the filmmaker over how the created sign

system will be received. The novelist can choose the words, but is unable to prescribe what each reader will make of them. On the other hand, the filmmaker has less opportunity to create fantasy or other-worldly images because films tend to realism. Computer-generated special effects have freed filmmakers of this limitation to some extent, but it is still easier (and cheaper) to create fantasy in a novel. However, according to Brian McFarlane, the filmmaker has more control over how the audience receives the images. The visual sign is closer to reality than the alphabetical sign. People’s interpretation of a visual image does vary, but within certain limits (see page 5).

Multiple versus single authorship A novel or a play is the work of a single author. Editors and other advisers certainly have input, but the author has sole control over the vast bulk of the work. A film, on the other hand, is the product of a cooperative effort. The director must rely on the camera operators, editors, scriptwriters and a host of others to create the movie. The director must also rely on actors. According to Brian McFarlane, even if the director can completely dominate the cast, the gestures and movements of an individual actor remain uniquely a product of that particular person. They can never wholly be the property of the director’s imagination. A result of film’s multiple authorship is the dilution of the strong individual vision that often characterises a novel.

Point of view A novel can be told from varying perspectives. The author can be an all-powerful storyteller. The novel can be a first-person narrative, or it can be told from the viewpoints of several different characters. The storytellers can be authoritative, or they can be unreliable. The readers can decide who they believe and who they discredit. With film, you tend to believe what you see. Film seems to present the world objectively. The illusion of reality in film is strong, so it is more difficult to represent the world from a subjective point of view. For example, while a novel can be told from the point of view of someone gradually going insane, this is more difficult to show in a film. Film and literature critic Stuart McDougal has described some attempts films have made to overcome this hurdle. Jack Clayton’s film The Innocents (1961) tried to put into film terms some of the subtlety of Henry James’s novel The Turn of the Screw. Henry James’s narrator is unreliable. The film uses sound to highlight the subjectivity of what is being seen.

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Interpretation ‘A faithful translation is often a betrayal of the original.’ René Clair, French film director

Veteran film and literature theorist George Bluestone suggests the filmmaker is not a mere translator for the author of a novel or play, but a new author — an independent artist in his or her own right. For René Clair, the filmmaker’s role is to make a new story from the elements of the old — the plot, characters, settings and themes.

The cost of production is one of the most important considerations. The average literary novel costs around $80 000 to produce. Not even a low-budget independent film could be made for this cost. In contrast, the film adaptation of Rose Tremain’s novel Restoration (1995) cost $19 million. Francis Ford Coppola’s Vietnam classic Apocalypse Now (1979) used Joseph Conrad’s novella Heart of Darkness as its inspiration. The film cost $23 million. A novel may be judged a financial success if its sales reach 10 000 copies, whereas a mainstream film must record attendances in the millions to recoup costs. This means commercial films must aim at mass audiences. Commercial films can’t appeal to special interest groups unless the mass audience can be attracted as well. On the other hand, novelists can afford to cater for much smaller segments of the reading public. The need to be responsive to a mass audience explains at least two other differences most people notice between the novel and the film version, says Brian McFarlane. Romance is often expanded in the film version. It draws crowds. Standards of public decency are also higher for the movie version. The public is much less likely to be offended by a suggestively descriptive novel than it is if the images are actually shown. With the audience being much larger, an explicit film is more likely to come to the public’s attention than its counterpart in novel form.

Figure 12.56: $IRECTOR 2ICHARD ,ONCRAINE AND PRODUCER AND LEAD )AN -C+ELLEN PICTURED SET THE üLM OF 3HAKESPEARElS PLAY 2ICHARD ))) IN %NGLAND IN THE S 0RO .AZI RALLIES AND THE RISE OF FASCISM PARALLELS THE VIOLENCE OF THE ORIGINAL SETTING 3OME THEORISTS BELIEVE üLMMAKERS SHOULD FEEL FREE TO ADAPT THE ORIGINAL WORK RATHER THAN COPYING IT SLAVISHLY

The social context of film adaptations ‘The Hollywood producer is governed less by the laws of aesthetics than by the laws of the marketplace.’ George Bluestone, film and literature theorist

MEDIA

Some of the most important differences between a novel and its film counterpart are owed solely to the context of the industry.

Figure 12.57: ! SCENE FROM (OWARDlS %ND WITH %MMA 4HOMPSON AND !NTHONY (OPKINS AN )SMAIL -ERCHANT AND *AMES )VORY üLM 4HIS üLM ADAPTATION OF % - &ORSTERlS NOVEL COST MILLIONS TO PRODUCE AND NEEDED MASS AUDIENCE APPEAL TO RECOVER COSTS -ERCHANT)VORY üLMS ARE NOTED FOR THEIR RICHLY DESCRIPTIVE MISE EN SCġNE


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Activities 1. Read a selected novel (or play) and view the film

version, then try the following tasks: (a) Write an outline of what Seymour Chatman calls the story-time. This is the basic sequence of story events as it may exist in time, without yet being either a novel or a film. (b) Next, outline the medium-time arrangement of this story in each medium. This is the way the story is expressed in the novel and in the film. For example, the film may start later in the story, while the novel may not dwell on action scenes. Or the novel may be divided into chapters, whereas the film is a single unit. (c) Compare the two versions as interpretations of the deeper sequence of story events. How have events been presented in each medium? Has the novel or the film chopped up the sequence to a greater degree? 2. Find sections of block description in a novel.

What purpose do these fulfil in that particular novel? Do they interrupt the narrative? How would they be dealt with in a film? 3. Conduct a survey designed to discover the

different reading experience people have with novels as opposed to films. Read William Jinks’s comment on page 305. Devise several questions aimed at exploring the differences he describes. Survey a range of people and collate the results. 4. According to Dudley Andrew, film has trouble

showing people’s inner thoughts and moods. List some ways a director could use landscape to indicate the mood of a character. 5. View an extract from a Merchant/Ivory adaptation

such as Howard’s End or The Remains of the Day. What descriptive data can you discover from the film extract’s mise-en-scène (see page 17)? Compare this with a passage of description in the novel. 6. Select a novel that has had a film adaptation

made of it. When you have read the novel, but before you have watched the film, write down descriptions of the main characters and the landscapes as you imagine them to be. Describe what you see in your mind’s eye, rather than repeating the author’s vision. Discuss the descriptions with other class members. Now view the film and compare. Discuss your findings in class. 7. Find examples of film adaptations of novels that

told the story from the perspective of a variety of

characters. Analyse the methods the filmmaker has used to overcome the problem in particular extracts. For example, compare extracts of the film Catch-22 (1970) with extracts from the novel.

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to the task below. 8. Make a detailed comparison of a novel and its film

adaptation. Analyse and evaluate each using the following areas of investigation. Conclude with an opinion on the overall effectiveness of each version. (a) The basis of the story and its treatment in each medium (consider Chatman’s story-time and discourse-time) (b) Description (c) Audience reception and imagination (d) The effect of the context of production (including multiple authorship) (e) Storytelling perspective (e.g. first-person, multicharacter, omniscient author).

PRODUCTION TASK 9. On video, produce a two- to three-minute extract

from a novel or short story of your choice. The extract should include a suitable mix of dialogue, action and description. Write a short paragraph to accompany the video, explaining some of the choices you faced and the reasoning behind the decisions you made. 10. Either script or storyboard an extract or scene from

a novel that was not shown in the film adaptation. For example, consider scenes in the novels and films of My Brilliant Career (1979) or One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975). Write a short paragraph to accompany the script or storyboard, explaining some of the choices you faced and considering possible reasons for the scene’s exclusion from the filmed adaptation.

SPEAKING TASK Prepare a five-minute oral presentation for the following task. 11. Compare two film adaptations of the same novel.

Analyse the variations in interpretation they contain and illustrate your comments with excerpts from the films. Suggest reasons for the differences. Suggested films to analyse are Little Women (1933, 1949, 1978, 1994) or films of Dickens novels, such as Oliver Twist (1922, 1948, 1982).

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Television

The medium of television ‘Television is the first mass-produced symbolic environment. The significance of that can be reflected in the word that sums up the most distinctive element of human life, the most crucial distinction between humans and other creatures — storytelling. We experience the world through stories. Whoever tells the stories of a culture defines the terms, the agenda and the common issues we face. ‘Television has replaced most stories told by parents and has either replaced or organised what we learn in schools or in church. ‘We need a new environment movement, addressing the environment that is most crucial to our humanity — the environment of the stories we tell; the environment that shapes so much of what we think and do in common.’ George Gerbner, Professor of Communication, University of Pennsylvania

MEDIA

Across the nation, thousands of people flush their toilets at the same moment. Regularly every evening, at set times, city water authorities record dramatic losses in water pressure. What unearthly force causes this mass robotic behaviour? The commercial breaks on television!

Figure 13.1: .OWADAYS SAYS "RISBANE üLMMAKER 3ARAH *ANE 7OULAHAN k0EOPLE WANT TO BE ABLE TO CHOOSE WHAT THEY WATCH q THEY DONlT WANT SCHEDULED TELEVISION ! LOT OF PEOPLE ARE STARTING TO WATCH TELEVISION ON THE NETl 4HE TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES OF THE S HAVE LED TO A BOOM IN kCITIZEN SCHEDULINGl THROUGH WHICH THE INTERNET ALLOWS PEOPLE TO CHOOSE THEIR OWN TIMESLOTS


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Television has been called ‘the most awesome godless force’ in the modern world. It is a force many people feel they cannot do without. The State of New York has enacted a law declaring the television set to be ‘a utensil necessary for a family to survive in this society’. Should a New York family go bankrupt, their television set, along with clothes and kitchen utensils, cannot be taken from them. Surveys indicate that the average person watches about four hours of television a day. This is a quarter of a typical person’s waking hours. It is almost as much time as is spent in the classroom — except that television viewing continues over a lifetime. The impact of television on human civilisation may yet prove greater than any other invention except, perhaps, the wheel!

‘In just 50 years, television has stripped away our sociable natures. Cocooned in the glowing world of the cathode tube, people no longer know their neighbours. It has dammed the natural flow of human contact that builds friendships, neighbourhoods and ultimately nations. Millions of modern, well-educated people barely speak to strangers outside work and shopping trips. As a result, one of the most precious resources — simple human trust — has been all but eradicated. We don’t trust one another as much simply because we don’t know one another as much. ‘Television has made our communities wider and shallower.’ Dr Robert Putnam, Professor of Public Policy, Harvard University

What is television? Television — from the Greek tele meaning ‘far’ and the Latin visio meaning ‘sight’ — is a telecommunication system for sending audio and video signals either via cable or through the air (terrestrial or satellite signals) between distant points. The word also refers both to the electronic device used to receive and reproduce the audio and video signals in your living room, and to the content or programming that is broadcast.

Features of the television medium The medium of television has the following general features.

A domestic medium ‘Anything on telly?’ ‘No, nothing!’ This is a common household exchange, according to Paddy Scannell

of the University of Westminster. What people really mean is that there is nothing out of the ordinary on TV — only the usual programs on the usual channels at the usual times. This ordinariness, he argues, is precisely the intended effect of broadcast television.

Figure 13.2: 4HE üRST TELEVISION STILL IMAGE A FACE WAS TRANSMITTED IN -OVING IMAGES WERE üRST TRANSMITTED THE FOLLOWING YEAR %VEN TODAY THE SOMEWHAT BLURRY INDISTINCT PICTURE QUALITY OF TELEVISION COMPARES UNFAVOURABLY WITH THE SHARP IMAGES OBTAINED ON üLM 4HIS ADDS TO THE ORDINARY AND DOMESTIC NATURE OF TELEVISION Television needs to be ordinary because it is a constant presence in everyone’s living room. It is a domestic medium that is viewed while people are doing a variety of other things. Television is a regular part of our daily life.

Flow of content Television has a voracious appetite for program content, because there is a constant flow of programming. This has led many academics to speak of television as being defined by the idea of ‘flow’. Programs are not so important individually (as movies are, for example), but for being part of a series that is itself part of a timeslot that is part of a vast flow of content. Free-to-air television is like this. Pay television, with its dedicated channels, is even more a continuous flow.

Inattentive viewers Research shows people pay attention to the TV screen only 65 per cent of the time. By installing a small camera behind the TV screen, researchers found viewers involved in a range of activities apart from watching the television set. Even when they were watching, many people constantly switched channels — often in rapid bursts. The research also showed that many people do not bother to watch programs all the way through. The average amount watched was 80 per cent of the whole program.

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Technology and society 1920s–1950s Television is set up as a monopoly public service in the UK (like water supply) and as a commercial service in the US, following the pattern of radio institutions. Australia favours a mixed approach. Early consumption of television for most people is a collective or group experience, as only the wealthy can afford television sets costing at least eight times the average weekly wage. Some countries establish community viewing rooms (e.g. Nazi Germany). Live-to-air studio broadcasting is preferred mode, as pre-recording is difficult and expensive. This establishes television as a live-action medium (in contrast to film).

1950s–1960s The so-called golden age of television, when many institutional regulations, and program genres and conventions, were established. Programs move away from older radio formats. Black and white era. Audiences of attentive viewers gather in small family groups in the living room for the evening’s viewing. The TV set is the focal point of the living room.

Television timeline 1925 1926

First still image broadcast on television (UK, John Logie Baird). First television moving image broadcast (UK, John Logie Baird).

1928

First regular public television broadcasts (US). First test of colour television

1935

Brisbane windmill (Wickham Terrace) — first Australian transmission of a face Television broadcast from tower of Empire State Building, New York. BBC begins TV broadcasts (UK).

1936

1939


1949

Wide coverage of TV begins in US. 1949–1963 Fireside Theatre — for the first time film is used for pre-recording instead of live-to-air broadcasting.

1951

First network broadcast in colour (US)

1955 1956

First wireless remote control (Zenith) Introduction of television in Sydney and Melbourne. First two-inch videotape systems (Ampex) available to television stations

1959

Introduction of television in Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth

1964

Australia’s third network introduced.

1966

All-colour broadcasting begins (US).

1968

Almost all of Australia can now receive TV. Editech electronic editing means videotape no longer has to be spliced like film.

1975 1976

Colour TV introduced in Australia. First home VCR available (Sony)

1980

SBS Television launched (Aus.).

1985

AUSSAT satellite launched, allowing networks to aggregate audiences in regional areas.

1994 1994 1996

Community TV introduced in Australia. Pay TV introduced in Australia. HDTV approved in US.

1999

Internet television available via video streaming. TiVo hard disk recorder released.

2001

Digitisation of TV signal (Aus.)

2003

DVD tops VHS as hire format.

2006 2007

Most large towns have a digital signal. Extra digital multichannels launched.

1970s–1980s Colour television era. Loss of local and regional television stations and spread of network television throughout the country via aggregation policies. Competition from VCR and video stores

1990s Pay television makes inroads into free-to-air TV audiences. After pressure from community groups, a program rating system is introduced on free-to-air TV.

2000–present

MEDIA

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Programs Television programs contain different, unrelated items just as a newspaper or magazine does. However, almost all program material on television has a series format. A series is a group of thematically related programs, such as the animated comedy series The Simpsons. The series format was developed in the first half of the century as a way of answering the need for a ceaseless supply of new programs. The content of a show could vary from episode to episode, but the format remained the same and could be repeated over and over again. As a result, television became a medium of ‘difference within a flow of sameness’, churning out repeated patterns of programming.

Timeslots On free-to-air television, the viewing day is divided into a number of time zones. The most important time zone is peak time or prime time. Prime time is from 7:00 pm to l0:00 pm, and it is at this time that the television audience is largest. Prime time gradually tapers off until most viewers have left at around l0:30 pm. Specialist audience programs are shown after l0:00 pm. Early morning programs tend to combine news, interviews and light entertainment. This timeslot has not attracted a large audience. Early afternoon programs feature soap operas and old movies. The late afternoon (after 3:30 pm) concentrates on children’s shows, comedies, youth and pop music shows, and cartoons. Pay television is divided according to channels of content. However, within those dedicated channels the broadcast day is still divided into distinct rhythms. This is called dayparting (see page 455).

Video streaming Since the early 2000s there has been an increasing movement towards what is called citizen scheduling. Audiences are downloading news, sport and entertainment programs directly from the internet and watching them whenever it suits. This growing group of people have effectively freed themselves from the limits of the timeslot. It is now common for network television companies to preview their programs on their websites. More and more companies are opting for free downloads supported by advertising. A few are charging viewers a download fee.

Dreamlike reality A recent US Surgeon-General’s report on television and violence reported that those who watch more television tend to dream less. This has led some to contend that if television can affect the dreaming of individuals, then maybe television is itself dreamlike.

Television may therefore represent the collective dreams of society as a whole. Peter Wood, of Duke University in North Carolina, in the US, believes television shares six basic similarities with dreams. 1. Television and dreams are both highly visual. According to the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, most dreams consist of visual material. Television is also primarily a visual experience. Sound is secondary. 2. Television and dreams are highly symbolic. Both television and dreams transform experience into visual symbols. 3. Television and dreams both involve wish fulfilment. Many people have the experience of dreaming about something they greatly desire. Whether it be quiz shows or prime-time violence, television offers the same experience. 4. Television and dreams contain disjointed and mismatched material. The editing practices of television, for example, offer the chance to ‘collide’ images in the same way that dreams do. 5. Television and dreams are both forgotten in the same way. The content of television is enormously powerful, yet like most dreams it is quickly pushed under the consciousness and forgotten, except for a few memorable fragments. 6. Television and dreams make use of recent experience. Critics accuse television of having no past. Television news, in particular, seems to report endless streams of events, but never asks why these things happen. Dreams also tend to repeat what is known and has happened recently.

The purposes of television Why is television so powerful? The eyes are superior to the other senses as information receivers. Hearing is the second best sense. The combined impact of these senses is formidable. There is no doubt that television has changed society. It now performs a number of important functions that would be hard to do without. A modern world without television is inconceivable.

Television as bard or town crier British media academics John Fiske and John Hartley have developed the idea of ‘bardic’ television. Whenever there was a battle, a noble wedding, or a murder, the balladeers (bards) of medieval times wrote songs and verse about it. The ballads were sung in every town and village and the ideas of the time were passed from person to person. The verses of the balladeer reflected the central concerns of the society. Today television fulfils this function, giving society at least one version of the concerns of the present day.

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When television was first introduced, this ‘town crier’ function was very evident. Most people did not own sets, so they gathered outside electrical retail stores to watch ‘the bard’. Television told them, and is still telling them now, of the world outside. As the home becomes an ever greater focus for leisure activities, the ‘town crier’ role of television will become even more important.

Television as modern folklore Folklore refers to the traditional beliefs and tales of oral cultures. It allows individuals to be part of a group, a culture and a heritage and promotes social solidarity. Television works the same way. It presents a view of the current morality of society. It shows a selection of the achievements, the problems and the meaning of life within the group of ‘folk’ in the ‘global village’.

Television the educator Television can fulfil the need for information. All people have a desire for knowledge and understanding. Television can be a great educator on a huge range of topics. Reporting current events is also one of television’s duties. It therefore has a responsibility to be truthful.

Television the entertainer Television can provide entertainment. In this it has taken over the roles of the circus, the theatre, the

concert and the cinema as mass entertainment. It has borrowed heavily from all of these and created a great deal that is unique to itself. Table 13.1 reflects the importance of entertainment and information to television audiences. Table 13.1: )N A SURVEY OF TELEVISION AUDIENCES VIEWERS WERE ASKED k7HAT REASON FOR WATCHING TELEVISION IS MORE IMPORTANT TO YOU q FOR INFORMATION OR ENTERTAINMENTl 4HE RESULTS OF THE SURVEY SHOW THAT ENTERTAINMENT IS THE MAIN PURPOSE OF TELEVISION "UT MANY ALSO SEE TELEVISION AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION 2ESPONSE

0ERCENTAGE OF GROUP SURVEYED

Information

31

Entertainment

61

Half and half

7

Don’t know

2

Television the caregiver Television can fulfil emotional needs. When the preschooler is sat in front of the television set, the parent watches a midday movie to relieve boredom or the tired office worker switches on the set after the evening meal, the television is being used to fulfil emotional needs. It may be the need for love, for company, for tension release or for escape. Its ability to meet these needs is one reason television is so powerful.

MEDIA

Figure 13.3: 4ELEVISION AS THE kTOWN CRIERl IN DOWNTOWN "RISBANE IN THE LATE S 7HEN TELEVISION üRST APPEARED PEOPLE GATHERED AROUND ELECTRICAL SHOP WINDOWS TO WATCH THE NEWS


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Activities 1. Conduct your own class survey of television

viewing habits. Prepare a graduated scale of hours watched and then record the numbers of people watching for particular numbers of hours. Present your results as percentages of the total number of people. Evaluate the results in a paragraph. 2. The television set does not get the undivided attention of its viewers, much to the dismay of television executives. Research has shown a remarkable range of viewer activities while the set is on, such as reading, eating and squabbling. Observe your family for an evening. What other activities do they engage in while viewing? Alternatively, write a short paragraph outlining the range of things you do while watching television. Do your habits differ according to whether you are with family or friends? 3. Compare a traditional ballad with a television drama using the following guidelines.

(a) What is the main subject of each? Compare the subjects. (b) Why would people listen to the traditional ballad? Why would they watch the television drama? Compare the reasons. (c) What does each tell about the society it came from? Make a list. (d) What (easily understood) rules govern the making of these formats? (e) Do you think they are similar? If so, what are the similarities? Explain your answer. 4. Television is like folklore — it allows people to belong to a group. What do you watch on TV that confirms your membership of a particular group? Make a short list. 5. Study the television viewing guide. Count the number of information programs and the number of entertainment programs. Write down the findings and provide an analysis of the result in a short paragraph.

Television news ‘The news was pretty much the same today, only it happened to different people,’ said a mock newsreader on a recent comedy program. Media analysts Johan Galtung and Mari Ruge suggest that all news is actually ‘olds’. The regular structure of the story, the kinds of people interviewed, the sorts of pictures, are all part of a pattern. The stories and topics that have always made good news stories are the same topics that make the news today. Stories have become traditional. Murders, disasters, crimes and accidents are really endless repeats. Even new, unexpected events are shown in terms of traditional and regular patterns. The old ways are not examined through new perspectives. Rather, the new is constantly evaluated using old perspectives.

What is television news? Television news consists of a series of short, dramatic current events stories broadcast through free-to-air or pay television, or by video streaming over the internet. Usually there are about 15 to 20 stories in a news bulletin and each story is a little more than 60 seconds long.

Television news belongs to the report genre (see page 8). It shares many features with radio news, and both these genres developed from the newspaper report. The recount genre may form part of the television news story. As the name suggests, the television news story also shares characteristics with the narrative genre. Like the narrative, it has characters (even heroes and villains) and describes events that take place within settings.

Types of television news Whether broadcast over television or streamed via news websites over the internet, television news falls into two main types. These are: • Hard news. Political, crime and war stories are examples of hard news. Hard news is immediate and happening now! It is also event based, dramatic and full of confl ict. Hard news is usually some kind of action that has a defi nable beginning, middle and end — even if that end is in the distant future. • Soft news. A soft news story is a story with a ‘human interest’ angle. Soft news focuses on celebrities and the extraordinary achievements of ordinary people.

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• Information. Television news should present an accurate and factual account of the events of the moment. It should broadcast all issues of public importance, including the most controversial. • Explanation. More than bare facts are needed. Events need to be explained, placed in perspective and analysed. News and current affairs programs should examine issues from the variety of viewpoints that exist in society. Discussion should reflect the true weight of opinion in the community. • Entertainment. Television is an entertainment medium. News and current affairs should be prepared in an interesting and appealing format. At the same time, entertainment should not undermine the community’s right to knowledge and information. • Independence. The news should be reasonably independent from the commercial pressures that apply to other sections of the television station. It also should be free of government manipulation.

Subject matter Figure 13.4: %NTERTAINMENT VALUE SHOULD NOT UNDERMINE THE COMMUNITYlS RIGHT TO INFORMATION (ARD NEWS HAS AN INFORMATION FOCUS 3OFT NEWS IS ENTERTAINMENT ORIENTED

Functions of television news According to G. K. Chesterton, the business of news is to tell the world that Lord Jones is dead when most of us did not even know he was alive. Chesterton aside, aspects of what the news should provide in a modern society include: • Fairness and balance. The news should offer a balance of opposing viewpoints. The weight of differing opinion in the community should be reflected in the news services so that the community sees more than one point of view from each channel.

Although news on television is often thought to be about the unexpected and new, it is easily divided into routine categories. Anything outside the categories, or anything too unusual, does not appear. The categories are: • Politics: covers government, Parliament, politicians and policies. • The economy: features the stock market and national economic performance, including trade, unemployment, interest rates and inflation. • Foreign affairs: presents news on international relations and also shows events in overseas countries. • National affairs: concerns major crime, industrial relations, the environment, the law and so on. Conflict is an essential ingredient for audience interest. • Human interest stories: concentrate on entertainment rather than information. Celebrities make regular appearances, along with extraordinary animals and amazing ‘believe it or not’ stories. • Disasters: appear regularly on the news. If the pictures are dramatic, the story could go to the top of the bulletin. • Sport: almost always appears at the end of the bulletin. Confl ict is the essential ingredient and competitive sport the main focus.

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Figure 13.5: $ISCUSSION SHOULD REČECT THE TRUE WEIGHT OF OPINION IN THE COMMUNITY

So what is it that we don’t get? There are vast areas of social life that never appear on television news. Little is said about the lives of ordinary people. Men appear more than women. Public life is shown while private life is seen as unimportant. Personal relations, sexuality, family life and working conditions are all invisible.


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Roles and relationships in news The news hierarchy The news ranks both people and events according to their significance or power. This gives them a position of importance in the bulletin. The structure of the news story itself is also a hierarchy. Important facts come first, less important facts are stated later in the story. The ranking is as follows: • The newsreader. The all-knowing newsreader speaks directly to, and looks directly at, the audience. The newsreader is shown in medium close-up and dominates the screen. He or she appears to be in command, delegating stories to the reporters.

This position of authority corresponds to that of a priest behind the pulpit or a school teacher at the blackboard. Newsreaders aim for authority and credibility, says news controller Bob Kearsley. ‘We pride ourselves on these qualities. The reporters are in the field and the newsreader is almost like a ringmaster.’ Newsreader Frank Warwick believes success comes to newsreaders who make people feel comfortable. To give the viewers the impression that his or her presentation is ‘just for them’, the newsreader must constantly look the viewer in the eye. Newsreaders avoid having to look down at their printed script by using the autocue.

• The reporters. The news reporter also looks the audience directly in the eye. Reporters are usually shown in a medium shot of head, shoulders and upper body, or sometimes in medium long shot. • Community leaders. Reporters ask questions of community leaders, who are never given access to the newsreader. While talking, community leaders look at the reporter. Media advisers often tell them not to look directly at the audience as it makes them seem shifty. • The viewers. Those at the bottom of the hierarchy, the viewers, are never seen (except in the ratings).

Newsreader Reporters Community leaders Ordinary viewers

Figure 13.6: 4HE NEWS HIERARCHY RANKS INDIVIDUALS ACCORDING TO THEIR IMPORTANCE !T THE TOP IS THE NEWSREADER !T THE BOTTOM ARE THE VIEWERS

The newsreader ‘The newsreader reassures the viewer and acts to calm them after each story. Certainly they have a lot of power. People rely on them for their information each day.’ John Stock, news director

Television news is a series of disjointed reports. The newsreader is the only link between them. The newsreader is also the only link between the reporters, the events and the audience. He or she appears to know how everything happening in the world fits together.

Figure 13.7: 4HE AUTOCUE ALLOWS THE NEWSREADER TO READ THE NEWS FROM THE LENS OF THE CAMERA 4HE ANGLED GLASS OVER THE LENS ACTS AS A MIRROR 4HE AUTOCUE FACES UPWARDS )T PROJECTS THE SCRIPT ONTO THE ANGLED GLASS AND INTO THE NEWSREADERlS LINE OF SIGHT

Video streaming of news Since 2004 video streaming over the internet and mobile phones has changed the way many people view the television news. The driving force behind this development has been the news portals such as those run by the ABC and NineMSN. There, visitors can select the news stories they want to watch from a display of thumbnail images. Research shows that audiences watch five clips on average — only about one-third the number of stories on a typical evening television news bulletin. NineMSN chief executive Martin Hoffman suggests, ‘It’s about information snacking, catching up on something.’ The target audience for video streamed news consists of those who work during normal broadcasts and want to catch up later on the day’s news. Broadband users access the news websites from their desks.

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Those away from the office receive stories via their laptops, palm computers or mobile phones. Prime time for the internet news is the middle of the day, in contrast to the 6:00 pm or 7:00 pm television news bulletins. Traffic spikes at 9:00 am when people arrive at work, but the main activity is around lunchtime and in the early afternoon. Online audiences tend to be more varied than audiences for broadcast news. There is a wider range of age groups and backgrounds among the online audience. But the most striking difference is that many of the viewers are from overseas. On Australian news sites an average of 10 per cent of the audience will be from overseas. However, the big US sites such as CNN average 25 per cent of the audience outside the home country.

Representations and discourses in television news The news is not just out there, fully formed, waiting to be recorded. It is a construction. It is collected according to the routines of the news reporters. In other words, lots of things happen, but only some of them are considered to be news. Anything we say about the world takes place within a discourse (see page 192), and news is no

exception. It has social, economic and political values and viewpoints. As well as being a carrier of various discourses, news is a discourse in itself. It has its own language codes and conventions (see writing television news, page 325). According to Queensland University of Technology’s John Hartley, news is a prestigious discourse in society. Like the documentary, news operates within the privileged discourses of the ‘fourth estate’ of democracy. These discourses gain their authority from their connection with all of the other powerful ‘estates’ in society: Parliament, the public service and the judiciary (legal system). An important aspect of news discourse is the placing of people into categories, some worth more than others, says professor of linguistics Roger Fowler. Thus people become police officers or ‘junkies’, unemployed labourers or business executives. Like advertising, the news operates within a personalising discourse, says Fowler. Individuals crop up again and again. But deeper social processes or movements that take an extended time to develop are invisible. Within these larger discourses, a host of smaller ones are supported and broadcast by the news. These include discourses about crime and punishment, international alignments, political divisions, fear, gender, race and class.

Activities 1. On the news, new events are defined using old

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patterns and perspectives. A radio telescope has received coherent signals indicating signs of life in outer space. Few details have been deciphered except that the life forms are at least as advanced as us and are relatively nearby. The world is at once overjoyed and panicked. Make sense of the event by planning a news report using the traditional patterns. Use the following questions as a guide: (a) Who would you interview? What would you ask them? (b) What other film would you take? (c) What graphics or maps would you use? Describe some examples. (d) Are there any people or scenes you would not include? 2. Pick an important story on the television news that interests you. Jot down all the facts. Now compare your list with the coverage in a major newspaper. Write a brief report of your findings. 3. The conventions of news are deeply engrained, but they can be challenged. Film a short segment that challenges the traditional hierarchies and roles expected from news reporting. Alter the

relationships between newsreader/anchor and reporter; between reporter and community member; and between the media and the viewer. Screen your short segment to the class and discuss the results.

Figure 13.8: k7ELL THATlS IT FOR TODAY a LETlS SEE YOU TRY AND SLEEP THAT OFFl


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News writing When radio news bulletins were fi rst broadcast in the 1920s and 1930s, the news was read directly from a newspaper. Gradually, broadcasters realised that people did not understand what was being broadcast. What suited the eye did not suit the ear. The style was altered over the years, and by the time television arrived in the 1950s broadcast news had become quite different from print news.

The structure of television news

• Who is important because the news is about people. In television news, titles are often combined with the names of important or well-known people — for example, Prime Minister Y of Israel. Often fi rst names will be left out if the name is familiar to listeners. Ordinary people are usually given labels such as ‘a woman’ or ‘an unemployed labourer’. • What is the key element. Unless something has happened there can be no news.

Types of leads

Television news reports begin with a lead of about 25 words. This is similar to a newspaper story intro. The remainder of the report tends to be structured conversationally. As in a conversation between two people, the events naturally unfold in chronological order.

There are four main types of leads. A number of factors can influence the writer’s decision to use a certain type of lead. Some leads are suitable for certain types of stories. For example, currently breaking news stories cannot be given leads suitable for feature stories.

The lead

Hard news leads. These are used for fi rst-release stories and updates. They stress the immediacy of the event and rely on timely information. Hard news leads diminish in value as time passes. An example of a hard news lead is shown below.

The fi rst one or two sentences of a television news story are called the lead. Television news is written for people who are probably not paying full attention. Leads must therefore catch and hold the viewer’s attention and summarise the important parts of the story. ‘Hey, Jennie, did you hear that?’ is the perfect response to a good lead.

Features of the lead A lead is written in a conversational or narrative style. One way of writing a lead is to imagine you are preceding it with the phrase, ‘Hey, Fred, listen to this …’. The exciting and important parts of the news story should follow, just as they would if you were relating them to Fred. To tell who, what, when and where is the aim of all news stories. Broadcast news leads tend to emphasise a couple of these, rather than trying to force them all into the lead at once. • Where the story is located is important. It will attract viewers who live in that area. It will serve to connect stories in the same area. It will also determine the importance of the news. Far-away disasters rank lower than local disasters. • When is indicated by the verb tense. If the verb is in the present tense, the news is assumed to have happened today, or to still be happening. Otherwise the time should be stated. A fresh story is always more interesting than an old one. ‘When’ also determines the importance of the news event.

TWO PEOPLE ARE DEAD AND 40 000 ARE HOMELESS TONIGHT IN THE WAKE OF CYCLONE NAMU, WHICH RIPPED THROUGH THE SOLOMON ISLANDS.

Feature and soft news leads. These are used for background stories if ‘when’ is not a main factor. For example, a story on a terrorist group planting a bomb is hard news. A story about the growth in public fear of terrorism is a feature story and could be held for several days without losing its importance. An example of a feature lead is shown below. THOUSANDS OF TOURISTS COULD BE HOLIDAYING IN SPACE WITHIN THE NEXT 30 YEARS UNDER A BOLD NEW AMERICAN SPACE PROGRAM.

A soft news story is a story with a human interest angle. Soft news focuses on celebrities and the extraordinary achievements of ordinary people. An example of a soft news lead is shown below. THE LOVE STORY OF THE YEAR IS HAPPENING IN AUSTRALIA TONIGHT, AND THERE IS DIPLOMATIC INTEREST IN THE OUTCOME. THE GIRL IS CHINESE AND A MEMBER OF THE WORLD-FAMOUS CHINESE CIRCUS, AND THE MAN WHO HAS CAPTURED HER HEART IS A SYDNEY QANTAS STEWARD.

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tie them together. An example of an umbrella lead is shown in table 13.2. Table 13.2: %XAMPLE OF AN UMBRELLA LEAD USED TO CONNECT TWO STORIES ,EAD

4EXT OF LEAD

Umbrella lead

THE NATION’S ECONOMY DOMINATES THE NEWS TONIGHT

Lead for story one

BUSINESS HAS GIVEN THE THUMBS DOWN TO TALK OF FURTHER INTEREST RATE RISES { (the rest of story one follows)

Lead for story two

THE JOBLESS RATE HAS GONE UP MORE THAN ONE PER CENT THIS QUARTER { (the rest of story two follows)

Television news grammar In the half century or so since the first broadcasts, television news has developed its own grammatical conventions.

Verb tenses

Figure 13.9: ! NEWS WRITERlS DECISION TO USE A CERTAIN TYPE OF LEAD CAN DEPEND ON THE PERSONAL STYLE OF THE NEWSREADER

Throw-away leads. These leads were developed with the understanding that people do not pay full attention to television news broadcasts. They may be involved in any number of distracting activities. To help the audience, the facts are repeated later in the story — often in the second sentence. But viewers do not notice because the wording is different and detail is added. The throw-away lead simply cues them to listen to the story and catch the details the second time round. An example of a throw-away lead is shown below, with the repeated information underlined. Note that in this case a few extra facts are added to hide the repetition, although many throw-away leads simply repeat the same details in a different way. THE MELBOURNE HEADQUARTERS OF A BIKIE GROUP WAS BLOWN APART EARLY THIS MORNING. THE FRONT OF THE HELLS ANGELS’ BRICK HIDE-OUT IN SUBURBAN GLEN WAVERLEY WAS BLOWN OUT BY THE BLAST AT ABOUT 8:30 AM.

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Umbrella leads. These are used to connect two or more stories to give the appearance of a flow of stories. An element common to the stories is used to

Television journalists write in the present tense or the present perfect tense. This is because those tenses go naturally with the pictures on the news clip, showing events as they are actually happening. Newspapers, on the other hand, write in the past tense. • Present tense says something is happening now. The immediacy of present tense can be used to impress viewers with a sense of urgency. For example: THREE PEOPLE ARE DEAD TONIGHT FOLLOWING A FREAK STORM IN SUBURBAN SALISBURY.

• Present perfect tense says something has just happened. It sounds almost as recent as present tense but suggests the action has been completed, or perfected. The finished event is then seen from the viewpoint of the present. Present perfect tense is made up of two verb parts. One part is a present tense verb (e.g. have). The second part, the main verb, is in the past tense — the action is completed. The past tense verb combined with the present tense gives a feeling of greater urgency and immediacy than straight past tense. THE NATIONAL CRIME AUTHORITY HAS LAUNCHED A MAJOR PROSECUTION IN ITS FIGHT AGAINST THE DRUG TRADE.

• Past imperfect tense says something was happening. Imperfect tense suggests the action was ongoing in the past or hasn’t been completed. Past imperfect tense means the happening action is


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combined with a past tense verb to suggest it was ongoing or continuous in the past. It is as effective as present perfect in conveying a sense of urgency and immediacy: A MAN WAS RIDING DOWN THE STREET ON A BICYCLE WITH A PURSE ON HIS HANDLEBARS. A WOMAN WAS RUNNING AFTER HIM SHRIEKING, ‘STOP, YOU’LL NOT GET AWAY’.

• Future tense is commonly used since prediction is a part of the news service. Future tense says something will happen. A GREENS SENATOR SAYS FREE PUBLIC TRANSPORT WILL PROVIDE AT LEAST PART OF THE ANSWER TO CITY CONGESTION AND SAVE MILLIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF NEW ROADS.

• Past tense is heard less often on broadcast news. This is mainly because it has less immediacy and doesn’t flow so well with the images. It says something happened. Past tense uses a single verb alone (e.g. killed) or combines two past tense words (were killed). Past tense is often pushed towards the end of the sentence or story by present tense verbs at the beginning. In the following story, the past tense does not appear until the second sentence: A NATION IS IN MOURNING TONIGHT FOLLOWING THE DEATHS OF NINE PEOPLE IN A HORROR ACCIDENT ON THE BRUCE HIGHWAY AT COLVILLE. THE VICTIMS DIED WHEN …

Active voice Journalists usually write stories in the active voice. The active voice makes news interesting by focusing on the action. Consider the following sentences. THE MAN’S CAR WAS STRUCK BY A TRAIN. (Passive voice) A TRAIN STRUCK THE MAN’S CAR. (Active voice)

The active voice sentence focuses attention on the train, which was the cause of the action. The passive voice sentence focuses on the man’s car, which was receiving the action. Action makes interesting news, so news writers prefer the active voice. The key to writing in the active voice is word order. The subject must control the action. In other words, someone or something must do the action rather than have it done to them. A simple way to recognise passive constructions is to look for the word by. A passive object has something done to it by an active subject. News writers use the passive voice when using active voice would sound ridiculous. For example, A MAN

WAS KILLED BY A CAR TODAY would not be written A CAR KILLED A MAN TODAY.

Putting the news first People watch the news to find out what happened. The television news lead must summarise what happened, putting the most important information towards the front. The aim is to capture the audience’s attention in the face of other distractions. Consider the following lead: A HELICOPTER WAS USED IN A DARING DAYLIGHT ESCAPE FROM A PARIS PRISON TODAY.

In this story the most newsworthy item is that a helicopter was used in the escape, rather than the escape itself, so this detail is placed at the front. However, putting the most newsworthy information first in the sentence can change the meaning, since it tends to remove considerations about who did the action and the circumstances behind it.

Attribution A news writer has to make it clear who actually made the statements quoted in the news story. Failure to do this will lead the public to think the statements belong to the writer, drawing accusations of bias. Statements that lay blame, give opinions or may be disputed need to be attributed to someone. Even first reports of disasters, often sketchy and uncertain, must be attributed to someone in authority.

Attribution in newspapers. Newspapers usually put the attribution at the end of the quote or summary of the quote. An example is shown below. LAVATORY PAPER WAS TOPS IN INFLATION LAST YEAR, A SURVEY HAS FOUND. IN THE YEAR TO FEBRUARY A POPULAR TOP BRAND WENT UP 41 PER CENT WHILE UNBRANDED VARIETIES ROSE 38 PER CENT, ACCORDING TO THE LATEST CHOICE MAGAZINE SUPERMARKET SURVEY.

Attribution on television. The listener needs to be warned beforehand if what he or she is about to hear is a quote or a summary of a quote. Later may mean never for some viewers. Something may cause a distraction, so that a quoted opinion may be remembered as a fact. For broadcast, attribution goes at the head of the sentence. Usually the person’s title is given before their name so the audience is prepared or ‘tee’d up’ to catch the name. For example: THE BREAD FOR THE WORLD FOUNDATION PRESIDENT, DAVID BECKMANN, SAYS AUSTRALIA HAS THE SECOND HIGHEST LEVEL OF CHILD POVERTY IN THE INDUSTRIALISED WORLD.

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Tight writing Stories must be told in the fewest words. They must be concise but at the same time informative. Being brief does not mean leaving out the facts. For example, if there are ten main points people need to know about a story, all should be mentioned.

‘Broadcast news writing is to be read aloud. Short sentences and simple language are needed. Facts should be given one at a time and in separate sentences. It should be read back after it has been written to see if it is suitable. The viewer only gets one chance to understand. A newspaper reader can read something over and over again, but on television it is all over in seconds.’ Damien Ryan, television news director

The news script Format Television news script is always written in block capitals. This is because block capitals are easier for the newsreader to see. The television pictures are listed on the left-hand side of the script and the short grabs of speech to go with the pictures are written in block capitals on the right-hand side. Sentences do not have to be completed before the change of picture. A sentence can run over several pictures without being difficult to read.

Putting the picture in the script ‘When writing for television you must keep the picture in mind as well. The whole story does not need to be told in words. The words should point out what the picture does not say. Instead of writing, “Here is the Prime Minister …” (viewers can see that anyway), you should explain why the Prime Minister is “here”.’ Damien Ryan, television news director

‘TV news is an appeal to two senses — sight and sound. The words must complement the picture. Words are lost as soon as they are said, so they must always be simple and concise. This does not mean we talk down to viewers, but to be effective, language must be simple. Reading speed is usually three words per second. The pictures are probably more important than the words because television is a visual medium.’ John Stock, news director, commercial broadcaster

Each picture is numbered and placed on the left-hand side of the script directly in line with the short grab of speech that is to go with it. Often the journalist briefly describes the picture so that the editor gets an idea of what is to go with each short speech. The shots are numbered in sequence.

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Figure 13.10: "ROADCAST NEWS WRITING IS MEANT TO BE READ ALOUD $IFüCULT WORDS AND TONGUE TWISTERS ARE TO BE AVOIDED 4HE SENTENCES SHOULD BE SHORT AND SIMPLE


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Pictures and script should reinforce each other, but they should not compete for the viewer’s attention. The script should not tell the viewer what he or she can see already.

In the following classic news story, the voiceover supports what is seen on the screen and adds a host of other information the viewer could not have known.

Shot of newsreader with Michael Jackson in the chroma-key text box

Newsreader: { AND SINGER MICHAEL JACKSON’S STAR CERTAINLY ISN’T FADING. THE RECLUSIVE POP STAR HAS JUST SIGNED A $15 MILLION CONTRACT TO MAKE THREE COMMERCIALS FOR THE PEPSI-COLA COMPANY.

Shot 1: Segment from ad showing ghetto kids street dancing to ‘You’re the Pepsi Generation’

Reporter: JACKSON GOT $5 MILLION IN 1984 FOR THE COMMERCIALS IN WHICH HE WAS BURNED AFTER AN ‘ON SET’ ACCIDENT.

Shot 2:

DESPITE THE ACCIDENT THE COMMERCIALS WERE WINNERS. THEY MADE PEPSI THE BIGGEST SELLING SOFT DRINK IN AMERICA. LITTLE WONDER, THEN, THAT AS ARCH-RIVAL COCACOLA CELEBRATED ITS 100TH ANNIVERSARY, PEPSI DECIDED TO STEAL THE LIMELIGHT.

Shot 3: Pepsi management and Jackson

IT’S TO PAY JACKSON $15 MILLION DOLLARS FOR THREE MORE COMMERCIALS. IT’S A RECORD FEE, WINNING MENTION IN ‘THE GUINNESS BOOK OF RECORDS.’

Shot 4: Jackson’s agent chewing a cigar

JACKSON, ACCOMPANIED BY HIS AGENT, REFUSED TO ANSWER ANY QUESTIONS.

Shot 5: Jackson making speech

‘THIS IS A GREAT HONOUR. THANK YOU MR. ENRICO, PEPSI AND ASSOCIATES. LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, THANK YOU.’

Shot 6:

IT’S ALSO NOT A BAD DEAL FROM A PRODUCT THE STAR HIMSELF DOESN’T DRINK. FADE TO MUSIC ‘YOU’RE THE PEPSI GENERATION.’

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Writing the rest of the story Here is the transcript of a telephone call. Is that you, Kevin? Barry here. Listen, I just witnessed a disaster! Tonight, I’m driving along. Suddenly this massive great explosion happens on the freeway. A busload of people just about got killed. Yeah, listen! This petrol tanker crashes into a truck. Petrol everywhere! Anyway, this stupid jerk in a Ford stops and lights up flares to warn oncoming cars. What a try-hard idiot! One of the flares lit the petrol and KABOOM! Luckily, no one was hurt. But this big Greyhound bus was caught in the flames and everyone had to jump out the escape window …

Here is the television news for that night. Shot of newsreader with ‘Freeway Disaster’ in the chroma-key text box

Newsreader: A MOTORIST WANTING TO BE HELPFUL LIT A PETROL EXPLOSION ON THE SOUTH-EAST FREEWAY EARLIER TONIGHT. NO-ONE WAS INJURED, BUT FOR A GREYHOUND BUS FULL OF PASSENGERS, IT WAS CLOSE.

Shot 1: Charred truck and tanker

IT BEGAN WHEN A SEMITRAILER COLLIDED WITH A PETROL TANKER, SPILLING TEN THOUSAND LITRES OF PETROL.

Shot 2: Fire-blackened guard rails

A MOTORIST LIT FLARES TO WARN ONCOMING TRAFFIC OF THE ACCIDENT. ONE FLARE WAS TOO CLOSE AND LIT THE PETROL. THE FLAMES RACED 500 METRES DOWN THE ROADWAY.

Shot 3: Police cars and an ambulance

THERE ARE NO REPORTED INJURIES …

Shot 4: Greyhound bus

… BUT A BUSLOAD OF PEOPLE HAD TO SCRAMBLE FOR THEIR LIVES …

Shot 5: Open fire-escape window at back of bus

… OUT THE BACK WINDOW AS THE ROADWAY IN FRONT OF THE BUS WAS ENGULFED IN A SEA OF FLAME.

This sample television news story closely resembles the telephone conversation about the event. This is not a coincidence. An informal narrative structure is best suited both to the needs of broadcast news reports and to the recounting of events over the telephone. Barry’s telephone call has a lead just as the television news story does. He too was attempting to grab his listener’s attention. The rest of the story in both cases is in step-by-step sequential order. If anyone had been killed, Barry would have announced it to Kevin at the beginning of the call. The television news would also have placed it in the lead. (The phone conversation was fictitious but the news story is based on an actual accident in California.)

Planning the news bulletin Bulletin flow

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The most important news stories go to the front of the news bulletin, just as a newspaper puts them on the front page. Similarities with newspapers end there,

however. Viewer tune-out would be a serious problem if the bulletin started with important stories and finished with dull ones. The aim of television news editors is to keep a balance of interest throughout the program.

‘The news bulletin must have flow. There should be a good mix of the important but visually dull stories with the visually grabbing. It is like sugaring the pill. Getting the right mix comes with practice. It’s a balance between show business values and news values.’ Damien Ryan, television news director

‘News value judgements vary from day to day. The question that always has to be asked is, “Of what importance is this to the community?” Not, “Will they be grabbed?” but “Ought they to be grabbed?” Unfortunately, “ought to know” stories don’t often have good pictures. The economy, for example, does not present exciting visuals. ‘Some news editors always start with the question, “What are the best pictures?” We try to have a balance, but it varies from day to day. On a day without major events, a visual story like a big fire or a bombing can go right to the front of the bulletin.’ Damien Ryan, television news director

Bulletin segmentation Basic divisions into news, sport and weather are common to all stations. However, some stations divide the bulletin into more segments. A segment of international news is quite often used to add interest to the middle of the bulletin. Lighter stories or human interest stories are used to brighten up the end of the news segment before the sports news. Some stations finish the whole bulletin with a human interest story before the weather. Nearly all stations recap the main news headlines at the end of the newscast.

‘We try to strike a balance between information and entertainment on our news program. We are a product, let’s face it, because we are in commercial television. There is no point in us having the most serious news in the country if nobody is watching. We try to run a positive story every night.’ John Stock, news director, commercial broadcaster


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Activities 1. Watch the television news or view some news clips

from the website of a news organisation. Find and record/download examples of each of the major types of leads. 2. Select some stories from the newspaper that have

not been broadcast on television news bulletins. Convert the newspaper lead into suitable leads in the style of broadcast news. 3. The following leads are all written in the passive

voice. Convert them to active voice so they will be stronger and more interesting. (a) MILITARY ACTION AGAINST ISRAEL WILL BE INCREASED BY GUERRILLA GROUPS FOLLOWING THIS WEEK’S RAIDS.

The most important detail is that 88 were killed; the second most important detail is that among them were orphans.) 7. Use the information below to create leads for

television news items. Include almost all of the information in the lead. The story to follow will contain additional information not given here. Note that each story neglects to say when the event occurred. This is because the event itself is so newsworthy that words cannot be wasted on the time factor. (a) The story takes place in Atlantic City, USA. A man puts three 25 cent coins into a poker machine.

(b) BEACH PROPERTIES ARE THREATENED BY RISING SEA LEVELS BROUGHT ON BY GLOBAL WARMING.

On his final pull he won $1.3 million.

(c) AN AUSTRALIAN TOURIST WAS ATTACKED BY A BEAR YESTERDAY.

His name is Anthony Lattanzio.

4. Change the leads below into present perfect

tense. (a) A JERRY-BUILT THREE-STOREY BLOCK OF FLATS FELL DOWN TODAY IN SYDNEY’S WESTERN SUBURBS. (b) IN SWEDEN THE GOVERNMENT TOOK IMPORTS OF FRESH FRUIT FROM EASTERN EUROPE OFF THE MARKET. (c) HE CAME BACK. 5. Convert the following leads into past imperfect

tense: (a) PARENTS LINED UP OUTSIDE CLINICS AND CHEMISTS HOPING FOR MORE. (b) THE GOVERNMENT TOLD PARENTS NOT TO WORRY. (c) 600 WORKERS THREATENED TO LEAVE. 6. Rewrite these leads so that the important news

comes first. (See the note for item b.) (a) ROYAL NORTH SHORE HOSPITAL REPORTS THREE PEDESTRIANS RUN DOWN BY AN OUT-OF-CONTROL CAR ARE IN A CRITICAL CONDITION. (b) A CHARTERED JET CARRYING ORPHANS ON HOLIDAY HAS CRASHED ON TAKE-OFF IN SRI LANKA, KILLING ALL 88 ON BOARD. (Note: if there was a total of 88 people on board, this would include an unknown number of crew. Write the lead without actually mentioning the words crew or passengers.

He said that last week he lost $217 in ‘that damn machine’. (b) Diane Hunt is a cleaning lady. She works at an exclusive department store. The store is Neiman Marcus in Dallas, Texas. She stole 343 designer gowns by hiding them in her vacuum cleaner. She did this during her nightly rounds. A total value of $l million was placed on the gowns. 8. Record a television news story and make a list of

the shots used. Transcribe the verbal report (the voice-over). Combine the two into the format of a television news script. 9. Find a short newspaper report and lay it out in

the style of a television news script. Imagine the pictures you could use and set them out on the left side of the script, numbering them appropriately. Remember to change verb tenses where necessary. Past tense may be acceptable in places.

WRITING AND PRODUCTION TASK 10. Following is a partly completed news script. The

journalist had prepared the lead, assembled the pictures needed and completed a conclusion, but was then called away urgently. A quote from an interview had also been placed with the matching pictures. The news editor has asked you to complete the story for tonight’s news.

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Use the facts provided to complete the story and then film the scenes using class members as actors and extras. The original journalist has left all the necessary facts, which are listed in the fact sheet below. The news editor reminds you about three things: (a) Time limits are strict. Calculate the length of the report by using the three words per second rule. (b) Sentences can run from one picture to another — use dots to indicate a break. For example, in Shot of newsreader with chroma-key graphic ‘War Toys’ in the text box

shot 1 you need six words before the picture changes to shot 2, where you need three words. (Shots 3, 4 and 5 in the Greyhound bus story on page 330 show how dots are used to break a sentence across shots.) (c) The newsreader’s intro is not the lead of the story itself. The story has its own separate lead, which needs to be different again. (d) Remember to reword the story to conform with the broadcast style of writing.

EVER WORRIED ABOUT CHILDREN PLAYING WITH WAR TOYS? WELL IN TEL AVIV A FORMER ISRAELI FIGHTER PILOT DECIDED TO DO SOMETHING ABOUT IT.

Shot 1: 2 seconds Children smashing toys Shot 2: 3 seconds Toys thrown into box ready to be smashed Shot 3: l second Close-up of war toys, guns etc. Shot 4: 2 seconds Small boy with toy gun Shot 5: 4 seconds Crowd scene Shot 6: 5 seconds Toy tank is smashed. Shot 7: 20 seconds Abbie Nathan, former fighter pilot

Abbie Nathan: ‘WE ARE TRYING TO CREATE A NEW GENERATION OF CHILDREN, WHO WILL STOP PLAYING WITH WAR TOYS, TRYING TO GIVE THEM SOME OTHER, CREATIVE THINGS. MAYBE ONE DAY WHEN THEY GROW UP, AND THEY REMEMBER THE DAY THEY DESTROYED THE TOYS, MAYBE THEY WILL TRY TO DESTROY THE REAL THING, IN TIME TO COME.’

Shot 8: 8 seconds Trestle where war toys are being exchanged for other types of toys Shot 9: 2 seconds Boy eating ice-cream Shot 10: 10 seconds More toy smashing

AND AT THE END OF THE DAY, AS THE TOYS WERE STACKED READY FOR A CEREMONIAL BURIAL, THE CAMPAIGN WAS JUDGED A SUCCESS — SO MUCH SO, IN FACT, THAT NATHAN AND HIS ORGANISERS ARE PLANNING ANOTHER.

FACT SHEET • PEOPLE WERE INVITED TO TEL AVIV TO WAGE WAR ON WAR TOYS.

• HE IS FLAMBOYANT, A FORMER FIGHTER PILOT AND RESTAURATEUR.

• ABOUT 5000 PEOPLE TURNED UP.

• HE IS NOW A PEACEMAKER, HE SAYS.

• THERE WERE LONG QUEUES AT THE SMASHINGS.

• PSYCHOLOGISTS SAY IT IS DEBATABLE WHETHER SMASHING TOYS WOULD DECREASE VIOLENCE.

• THE CHILDREN CAME TO SMASH THE TOYS WITH HAMMERS PROVIDED BY THE ORGANISERS.

• THE CHILDREN SEEMED TO ENJOY IT.

MEDIA

• THE CROWD WAS MADE UP MOSTLY OF CHILDREN AND THEIR PARENTS.

• IN RETURN FOR THEIR SMASHED TANKS AND M16s, THE CHILDREN WERE GIVEN PEACE TOYS SUCH AS BUILDING BLOCKS AND BOOKS.

• THE CAMPAIGN IS THE BRAINCHILD OF ABBIE NATHAN.

• ICE-CREAM AND CHOCOLATE WERE HANDED OUT IN LARGE QUANTITIES.


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Soap operas Soap operas are probably Australia’s most important and successful media export. Neighbours is now seen in 25 countries around the world. The Neighbours export alphabet starts with Bulgaria and ends with Zambia. Amazingly it is the Americans who now have much to learn about successful soap opera production from countries that were once seen as being on the edge of things — Australia, Mexico and Brazil. Brazilian telenovellas, as soaps are called in Latin America, are now exported to 100 countries, including the United States. After years of scorn, soap operas are receiving praise from some unexpected sources. One media critic sees them as a high point of television art. Some feminists see new hope in them because a large number of leading characters are women. Certainly no other genre has attracted so many viewers across so many countries over such extended time periods. The American soap The Guiding Light has been on air for more than 70 years!

What are television soaps? Television soap operas are serialised narrative dramas. Soap operas, therefore, belong to the narrative genre (see page 8). The programs are based on sequences of events that include an orientation stage, a complication stage and a resolution stage. However, soap operas are characterised by a vastly expanded middle section of complications that extends over many episodes.

Soap opera styles Some analysts suggest that soap opera styles fluctuate between the opposite poles of melodrama and realism. The American soap tends to melodrama. The British soap tends to realism. The Australian soap opera, with its emphasis on suburban life, alternates between the two. The styles may be summarised as follows: • Melodrama. Soap operas share many features of melodrama. In melodrama, the focus is on the emotional side of the narrative and mild to high suspense. Good and evil exist in extreme forms. The good are persecuted but fi nally rewarded. • Realism. The social issues and dramas faced by ordinary people have always been the mainstay of soap operas. This places them within the realist approach to narrative.

Figure 13.11: 4HE WORLD OF THE SOAP OPERA CAN BE EVEN HARSHER THAN REAL LIFE 4HE MID S STORY OF 3HANE AND !NGEL IN (OME AND !WAY WAS JUDGED IN TO BE ONE OF THE TEN BEST OF THE SERIES 3HANE IS A TROUBLEMAKING TEENAGER SENT TO 3UMMER "AY WHERE HE MEETS !NGEL A MALNOURISHED STREET KID 4HEIR BICKERING TURNS TO LOVE BUT THEN 3HANE IS FRAMED FOR ARMED ROBBERY AND SENT TO PRISON !NGEL CLEARS HIS NAME 4HEIR MARRIAGE DATE IS SET BUT THEN !NGEL REMEMBERS A CHILD SHE HAD GIVEN UP FOR ADOPTION 3HANE EMBRACES INSTANT FATHERHOOD BUT THEN THE COUPLE ARE INVOLVED IN A CAR ACCIDENT !NGEL IS PARALYSED !T THE WEDDING !NGEL COMES DOWN THE AISLE IN A WHEELCHAIR ! SHORT TIME LATER 3HANE DIES OF SEPTICEMIA AFTER A MOTORBIKE ACCIDENT

Julia Smith, the creator of the BBC soap opera EastEnders, says the show owes much to the style of Charles Dickens, the great nineteenth-century English writer. Dickens based his stories on the social issues of the day. Smith says that from the beginning she wanted EastEnders to have ‘documentary realism’.

Beginnings on radio Soap companies and breakfast cereal companies sponsored hundreds of serialised dramas on American radio in the 1930s and 1940s. The serials would hook a huge audience of housewives, who would then be captive for advertisements from Colgate-Palmolive, Procter & Gamble or Kellogg’s. When television came,

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serial dramas such as The Guiding Light easily moved across to the new medium. Advertising promoted more than just soap and breakfast cereals, but by then the term soap opera had been coined.

Television as the ideal medium for soaps Television is a domestic medium, watched at home, informally and often inattentively. Unlike movies, television does not offer the feeling of a special event. People often just collapse in front of it and let the programs flow in front of them. Soap operas are ideally suited to this sort of viewing. They are both domestic and continuous, says Newcomb. Plots and characters continue indefinitely. People identify with the characters, and that tends to encourage audience involvement. Soap operas are famous for their huge followings. Television critic and academic Horace Newcomb believes that this indicates soap operas are using the characteristics of television in a unique way. At least in this sense, says Newcomb, they could be seen as the furthest advance of television art.

Types of soap operas

perspective of different characters. Often these soap operas provide games, quizzes and voting opportunities to keep the audience involved. Online soaps are sometimes called episodic websites. • Multi-platforming. Many longstanding television soap operas now offer online versions of the main program to cater for new generations who find more of their entertainment online. The Guiding Light (US) is one example of a daytime soap that is doing this.

Features of soap operas Two features of television soap operas further distinguish them from other television narrative forms.

Relationships Concentrating on relationships and emotions, soap operas offer a style of narrative Tanya Modleski sees as feminine. In her book Loving with a Vengeance, Modleski calls for a feminist narrative style to be developed from the lead given by soap operas. Far from being escapist, says Renata Adler in The New Yorker magazine, soap operas present ‘the most steady, openended sadness to be found outside of life itself’.

Television

The soap opera close-up

There are two main types of television soap operas.

The camera styles of a soap opera require close-ups that bring us so close to the character we can see their tears or hear their breathing. Often it is only the audience that is able to see the character’s expression. ‘A face in close-up is what, before the age of film, only a lover or a mother ever saw,’ writes media analyst Dennis Porter. For Tanya Modleski, ‘soap operas appear to activate the gaze of the mother — in order to provoke anxiety about the welfare of others’.

• Daytime soaps. At one time television soap operas were broadcast only between 9:00 am and 3:00 pm. Once they were watched by women at home during the day, then students and the unemployed became a target audience in the 1980s. But since the early 2000s the daytime audience has dwindled — partly because of the rise of two-income families, and also because of the impact of other media options. Daytime soaps tend to be slow moving, with a style that emphasises the emotional side of relationships. More recently, however, daytime soap operas have been influenced by the quicker moving prime-time shows. • Prime-time soaps. Since the 1980s soap operas have moved into evening timeslots previously reserved for crime dramas and movies. Prime-time soap operas tend to have much more action. The focus moves away from the home and family to include more of the outside world.

Online Two main usages for online soap operas have evolved since the first soap operas appeared on the web in 1996.

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• Interactive/audience participation. Interactive online soap operas allow audience members to influence the plot and to see story lines from the

Figure 13.12: 4HE SOAP OPERA CLOSE UP ALLOWS THE AUDIENCE TO FEEL WHAT THE CHARACTER IS FEELING


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Soap opera timeline Prehistory Serialised novels of Charles Dickens published 1830s–1860s 1914


1937

1937–present The Guiding Light (US, moved from radio to TV in

1930s Soap operas begin on radio as programming for housewives.

1952; now on internet) 1939


1949

These Are My Children (US, first soap opera on television)

1956

1956–present As the World Turns

1960

1960–present Coronation Street (UK)

1950s–1960s

1963

1963–present General Hospital

Soap opera narratives concerned with a wide variety of social issues. Greater focus on romantic and social story lines

1964

1964–1969 Peyton Place (first prime-time soap, first to focus

1940s 1940s Soap operas move to television, along with a number of other former radio program formats.

Soaps established in an early afternoon timeslot on daytime TV, still with housewives as the target audience.

1960s Traditional ‘respectability’ discarded with Peyton Place (1964–1969), reflecting social changes and the declining influence of the Hays Code.

1969–1975 1964–1985

Changes in family law in the US and Australia lead to changes in family composition and an increase in family and marital stories in soaps.

on sex lives) 1965

1965–present Days of Our Lives

1967

1967–1977 Bellbird (Aus.)

1969

Family Law Act (California, US) introduces no-fault divorce, changes in family composition.

Soap operas also established in prime-time TV timeslots. 1972

1972–1977 Number 96 (Aus.)

1973

1973–present The Young and the Restless

1975

End of Vietnam War Family Law Act (Aus.) introduces no-fault divorce, changes in family composition.

1978–1988 ‘Golden age’ of soap operas in US, UK and Australia. In 1977 typical soap operas have ratings of 64 — that is, 64% of all viewers watch.

1988–2000s Subscription television leads to the industry’s becoming more precise at targeting particular audiences and demographics with characters and story lines. This leads to the rise of the teen soap in the 1990s, and the rise of the ‘sea change’ phenomenon.

1976

1976–1983 The Sullivans (Aus.)

1978

1978–1989 Dallas

1981

1981–1987 Sons and Daughters (Aus.)

1980–1995 Increase in soap opera stories about youth, drugs, unemployment and other community issues. Multiculturalism gives rise to a greater variety of characters. Australian soap changes focus from small country towns to beachside communities.

1981–1989 Dynasty 1982

1982–1993 A Country Practice (Aus.) 1982–2003 Brookside (UK)

1984

1984–present Neighbours (Aus.)

1985

1985–present EastEnders (UK)

1987

1987–present The Bold and the Beautiful

1988

1988–present Home and Away (Aus.)

1989

1989–1996 GP (Aus.)

1990

1990–2000 Beverly Hills 90210 (teen soap)

1992

1992–present Shortland Street (NZ)

2000–present

1996

1996–1998 The Spot (first online soap)

Renewed audience interest in big-budget prime-time soap operas. Greater use of crime as a plot device

1998

1998–2003 Dawson’s Creek (teen soap)

1999

1999–present Passions (romantic and supernatural story lines) 1999–2001 SeaChange (Aus.)

2003

The OC (teen soap)

2004

2004–present Desperate Housewives

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Plot ‘To watch real life on a television screen would be a very boring exercise indeed. A serial takes a real life situation and condenses the time span of it, which in turn heightens the drama. The criterion for plotting a good serial is always “Is it telling a good story?” If not, then don’t use it. Story almost invariably takes precedence over character. It doesn’t matter how interesting the characters are, if the story is weak then the show will be dull. And a dull show means the viewers switch off.’ Peter Pinne, formerly Head of Production, Grundy Television

An American study found eight divorces, two bigamous marriages, four separations and six planned divorces in six months of viewing one daytime serial. Soap opera plots centre on relationships and personal problems — at a frequency well above that of real life. Soap operas are open texts, unlike most narratives, which are said to be closed. An open text is one that allows multiple interpretations. Open texts such as soap operas contain many characters and points of view. There is usually no single hero. Characters often experience changes. The plot is rarely resolved. Any resolution simply allows for the next conflict. The structure of a soap opera is different from that of most other narratives. The Greek philosopher Aristotle first argued that drama has a beginning, a middle and an end. Detective stories are directed towards the solution — the end. Soap operas or serial dramas, however, consist of an infinite middle that offers no suggestion of ending.

• Rotating plot lines. Another feature of soap operas is rotating plot lines. The plot shifts from one set of characters and their story, to another set of characters and their story. The serial’s plot line rotates in this way to the end of each episode. • Cliff-hangers. A standard feature in all serial dramas is the cliff-hanger, so named after the predicament many matinee idols of the silent era seemed to find themselves in at the end of each episode. Action-based cliff-hangers were relatively rare in soap operas until recently. Instead, at the end of an episode viewers are left pondering emotional options. A character may have received bad news or made an unexpected discovery. The audience can speculate on the future direction the story will take.

Plot styles There are two styles of soap opera plots commonly in use. • Serial plot style is the traditional format used in shows such as Neighbours. The stories build to an emotional cliff-hanger at the end of each episode. At times an action cliff-hanger is used. Some plot lines can go on for months. • Block plot style is a hybrid that combines the self-contained story of a series drama with the continuing story of a serial. This form was created in Australia and is made only in this country. Each two-hour block has a central story or issue that is resolved within the two hours. At the same time the serial element is used as a background to the episodes.

Common plot themes

Plot features

Common soap plot themes include the following:

Common features of television soap plots include the following:

• Love is at the centre of every plot. Soap operas are a kind of romance and the emotions springing from love provide a reservoir of stories. Love makes people ambitious, jealous, vengeful or even happy.

• Emotional complications and climaxes. Actions and climaxes are usually of secondary importance in a soap opera. Catastrophes merely provide convenient occasions for people to come together and work out confrontations and intense emotions. The emphasis in soap operas is not on the significant event, but on its build-up and aftermath.

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• Plot expansion. As more and more people react to significant events or climaxes, the plot is said to expand rather than progress. In a hospital drama, plot expansion may begin when a patient is found to have a fatal disease. First, doctors and nurses expand on the crisis, perhaps as they hold up the telltale X-rays. Then plot expansion occurs again as relatives react to the news.

• Sickness and injury are common problems in soap operas. Some soap operas are even set in hospitals. Most characters die from accidents or violence rather than disease, however. When soap opera characters do die from disease, it is usually a rare and sensational affliction. • Confused identity very often plagues the children on soap operas. The painful discovery that they are someone else’s child adds to the agonies of growing up. Critic Manuela Soares says this answers a common fantasy children have of being adopted.


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Writing soap opera plots Every soap opera has a ‘bible’. This is an enormous reference book outlining the past, present and projected future of the program. A page is added to the book each episode.

‘On our serials, we have a team of four storyliners and one story editor who create the plot progression of the program. Once the storylines have been created they are farmed out to a team of freelance writers who then develop the script from there. The team numbers about ten or twelve. Once written, they are then edited by the script editors. There are usually two to a show. ‘The writer gets one week to write the script and the editors have to edit two half-hour episodes per week. It’s all based on how many episodes are made of the show on a weekly basis. Serials are usually produced at the rate of two hours per week (or five half hours). The writers work six weeks ahead of studio production.’ Peter Pinne, formerly Head of Production, Grundy Television

Character ‘For a good soap, good writing is absolutely essential. Believable characters of different age groups and behaviour patterns so that you’re going to get a natural conflict of ideas. Some characters are slightly larger than life so that people will either love them or hate them.’ Julia Smith, creator of EastEnders

They are all well known to you. You recognise them as they flicker to life on the screen in front of you. There is the scheming villainess, her decent and long-suffering victims, the mixed-up children, the romantic hero and beautiful heroine, and the ruthless villain greedily notching up the scores in his little black book or his fat chequebook. Familiarity with the characters is the basis of the soap opera experience. Most soap operas have a cast of 15 to 20 regular characters, although not all of them will be on deck at any one time. Soap operas always have many more characters than other programs such as crime drama or situation comedy series. This is because soap operas must have enough characters to populate the various rotating plot lines. As well as the complement of regular characters, there must be provision for new entrants. These characters can introduce fresh story lines.

‘For any program to be successful, it has to have across-the-board appeal; that is, children, teens, young marrieds and the older bracket. The 20- to 30-year age group are the hardest to attract, as most people in this group won’t watch television on a regular basis. In order to maximise a serial’s potential, the age range of the characters reflects the age range of the viewers. People like to identify with their own peer group. They also like to watch attractive looking actors. Therefore, a conscious effort is made to find and cast the best looking talent available.’ Peter Pinne, formerly Head of Production, Grundy Television

Types of characters See also the character archetypes outlined by Vladimir Propp (page 143).

The scheming villainess. The villainess is often the star of the show. Her name is known widely, even to people who aren’t fans of the show. One of the attractions of soap operas is evil challenging good. The villainess is a complicated character, however, and sometimes evil is only one aspect of her nature. She may also be presented as a victim — an unhappy child, an abused wife or someone who is unlucky in love. But unlike the good characters, the villainess uses and manipulates people to save her own skin. While everyone has problems, the villainess connives to work her way out of her disadvantages through ruthless scheming. For the viewer, the villainess is a welcome relief. Forced to sympathise with almost every other character, the viewer is free to hate the schemer. The long-suffering woman. The female victim is the character many viewers feel for the most. They tend to put themselves in her shoes — that is, they identify with her. Watching her through daily crises several days a week, some viewers know her better than they do their own friends and neighbours. The long-suffering victim must have some obvious strengths. She must be caring and loving and she must have great stocks of willpower. Above all, she must be seen to be a creative force rather than a destructive one. The helpful problem-solver. The problem-solver is a person of great experience and sound judgement. This character often has a regrettable past and is therefore protected from accusations of being a ‘do gooder’. The problem-solver provides guidance to younger characters and often fosters troubled teenagers.

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Figure 13.13: #ONSERVATIVE GROUPS HAVE CRITICISED $ESPERATE (OUSEWIVES BECAUSE ALL THE CHARACTERS ARE VILLAINOUS )N SOAP OPERAS THE VILLAINESS IS IMPORTANT TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLOT 3HE REPRESENTS THE ANTAGONIST SEE PAGE WHO HELPS TO DRIVE THE ACTION

The romantic hero. If it were a fairytale he would be a handsome prince. In the soap opera the romantic hero is single, handsome and available. Often a tearaway or rebel, he is never allowed to be too wild. He must be available for a stable, wedded life. The romantic hero walks a tightrope between boring reliability and an attractive sense of danger. The innocent heroine. The heroine has to be flawlessly beautiful. She is also good, kind, hopeful, honest and devoted. One day she will meet the right man, but viewers will have to wait. Heroines must stay in service for years. While heroes come and go, the heroine’s search for love is never-ending.

MEDIA

The ruthless villain. Like the villainess, the villain is popular with fans. This is not so much because they like him as a person; it is because they appreciate his importance in dealing up a good story. He ravishes all the pretty girls (except the heroine), he spends money extravagantly, gets drunk and is insulting; and he ruins his rivals. Whatever he does, the ruthless villain will have an evil motive. That makes things very simple.

Figure 13.14: )RENE FROM (OME AND !WAY HAS BATTLED ALCOHOLISM IN THE PAST BUT NOW FOSTERS YOUNG PEOPLE 4HE PROBLEM SOLVER IS A PERSON OF GREAT EXPERIENCE AND SOUND JUDGEMENT q OFTEN GAINED THROUGH TOUGH EXPERIENCES EARLIER IN LIFE


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‘The bedrock of Home and Away is that the adult characters are smarter than the kids. The kids can do lots of bad things. They can go off the rails. But at the end of the day, when those kids feel they really need help, those adults will ultimately be there for them.’ Greg Haddrick, Head of Drama, Screentime Production, former story editor of Home and Away

Soap opera settings The strong melodramatic plots of soap operas are sometimes called potboilers. The setting is like the pot or the cauldron — it holds all the ingredients within it. Soap opera settings create the sense of community and provide opportunities for the characters to become involved in one another’s lives.

is now a yearning throughout the western world for the secure communities of an imagined ‘golden past’.

‘The most appealing aspect of soaps and serials is that people are always connected to each other, whether through love or hate. They have time to drink cups of tea, to gossip, speculate and interfere in each other’s business. This can be reassuring in a world where most people wouldn’t have a clue whether they’re living next door to the Yorkshire Ripper, where families communicate through the Family Law Court and anyone unfortunate enough to collapse in the street could lie for hours before someone is willing to notice.’ Anna-Maria Dell’Oso, newspaper columnist

Setting requirements

‘Homey’ soap communities

Soap opera settings have several basic features in common. These are:

Many people find solace in the secure communities of soap operas. After all, some have lasted for more than 40 years. In this small world people have time to care. According to soap opera analyst Ruth Rosen, the soap community is an idea rather than an actual place. It is known only through the lives of its inhabitants and their interlocking networks of relationships. Often only the interiors of its buildings are seen. Occasionally an establishing shot will make the exterior world visible. A close-knit community that also has a sense of connection with the outside world is not easy to find. When the BBC began planning a soap opera that would later become EastEnders, they received dozens of ideas for settings before they finally settled on the East End of London.

• Regulars and newcomers. A good setting allows for a number of main characters as well as the arrival of newcomers when needed. • Meeting places. The ideal setting should have a regular meeting place or at least provide a reason for the characters to meet one another. Neighbourhood hotels or bars are often included for this reason. Coffee shops have the same purpose. • A mix of ages or chosen demographics. Traditional soap operas feature a mix of age ranges. In mixed-age soaps, characters of diverse ages must be able to interact naturally. The mix of ages is needed to guarantee broad target audiences. A common age range for the cast of soaps is early teens to late forties — exactly the advertising target group. Some soaps (such as the teen soaps) may choose to focus on a particular demographic. • A limited world. The soap opera setting should have clearly defined limits. The soap opera world is a closed world — a small pond with a mixture of big fish.

Real communities Ever since the industrial revolution people have been told that the only constant is change. Soap opera viewers are members of a society that has long been in a state of unending transformation. Increasing commercialism, lack of employment security, geographic mobility and the decline of extended families have all taken their toll. Most analysts believe there

‘They just wouldn’t have worked. There was one about a mobile home site, which wasn’t a starter — far too limiting and restricting in the way it could be presented. There was another about a shopping arcade — nice idea but too expensive with all the extras that would be needed. There was just one part of London that seemed right — the East End. It appeared to have absolutely everything — vitality, community spirit, ethnic minorities, strong family ties, young people, the right atmosphere and of course, all those larger-than-life Cockney characters.’ Julia Smith, creator of EastEnders

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Figure 13.15: !PART FROM 2AMSAY 3TREET ITSELF ONE OF THE MOST COMMON SETTINGS FOR .EIGHBOURS IS k,ASSITERlS #OMPLEXl AT 'LOBAL 3TUDIOS -ELBOURNE 4HERE A SMALL WORLD HAS BEEN BUILT INCLUDING A HOTEL STORE RESTAURANT HAIRDRESSING SALON AND MEDICAL CENTRE

Families as a setting

Soap opera producers have a liking for certain types of ‘homey’ physical settings. • The country town provides the necessary interlocking relationships. General Hospital has Port Charles, for example. It is typical of many American soap opera towns. It is an intimate and sheltered community of neat frame houses located somewhere on the Great Lakes in the north-east of America’s midwest. Australian soaps have chosen small country towns, small beach communities and close-knit streets in anonymous suburbs. All are safely away from the evils of the city and the isolation of the outback. Yet refugees from these threatening places can still provide story lines.

MEDIA

• The marginalised subculture provides a closed world with potential for interaction with the larger world. Suburbs with a high proportion of minority groups or a strong class culture provide this kind of setting. The British soap EastEnders has a strong subcultural setting.

All soap operas rely on the family as the basis of character relationships. Most soaps focus on the family in the community. Some realist soaps see the community as a declining force. The level of support offered by local busybodies and neighbours is seen as likely to provoke audience disbelief. Soaps in the realist style have tended to narrow the focus to the family alone.

Caring workplace settings The caring professions make an excellent basis for soap opera settings. Some of them — medical practitioners, vets, even the police force — have been used repeatedly. High schools and the teaching profession tend to appear in phases. Standing like a great brick and concrete outcrop in a sea of suburbia, the general hospital is the perfect ‘world within a world’. This bustling community offers its own social system of doctors, nurses and patients. Ready-made plots with life-and-death climaxes lie in every bed. That love should spring up easily seems only natural in a place of everyday miracles. Like the hospital, the police station is a refuge of safety in a heartless world. And veterinary practices in small country towns combine people’s fondness for animals with that most basic feature of soap operas — the community in which everyone knows one another.


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Discourses and representations Soap operas had been around for nearly 50 years before they came under serious study. In the 1980s a number of American and British analysts turned their attention to soap opera discourses and representations.

Discourses Soap operas engage with discourse in a number of ways that are unique to the genre.

line proves unpopular, the writers can drop it. In this way, the program can test the discourse ‘on the run’. Another means of testing discourses, says Robert Allen, is to attach them to unpopular or minor characters.

‘Teacherly text’. Media educator David Buckingham argues that soap operas are ‘teacherly’. They teach by framing issues in certain ways, suggesting to the audience how they might start thinking about things. Episodes are about problems and suggest certain solutions by applying them successfully in the story.

Soap is discourse. Soap operas are a specialised discourse in the same sense that news is. While there is some specialised film language involved (e.g. the close-up), the bulk of the specialised language relates to the program’s traditions. Every soap opera is informed by its own bible — the history of happenings since the program’s genesis. Fan discourse. The fan audience for soap operas has built up a substantial discourse of its own around each particular show. Each character has a history. Indeed, the shows themselves, sometimes running for many years, are steeped in their own history. There is plenty of time to build up a specialised way of talking about a favourite show. Many studies show that soap operas are important in building a sense of community and identity among fans. And you need to have a good knowledge to participate. Soap fanzines have also helped to create the discourse of the soap opera. The market for the magazines, which feeds off the fan discourse, is huge. Serial drama suits open discourses. Soap opera plots never really finish but instead consist of an infinite middle (see plot, page 336). This means the audience does not have to come to firm conclusions by the end of the episode, suggests Robert Allen. This is different from a closed, resolved narrative like a movie, where it is more common for the filmmaker to have a ‘moral’ in mind. Gaps. Serials have gaps in the plot structure — in between episodes. While they wait for the next episodes, viewers can think about issues and come to their own conclusions in ways that they cannot in a closed film narrative. The progress of the film narrative is uninterrupted, which denies the audience time to ponder developments. Soap operas offer more flexibility (while still communicating society’s beliefs). Dabbling in discourses. Multiple plot lines mean that writers can engage with any number of different current social discourses without ever making a firm commitment to one point of view. If a story

Figure 13.16: 3CRIPTWRITERS OFTEN WRITE INTO THE STORY LINES VARIOUS SOCIAL DISCOURSES AND DEVELOP THEM OR DROP THEM DEPENDING ON AUDIENCE RATINGS &ROM TIME TO TIME THEY ARE ALSO ASKED TO PORTRAY MESSAGES FROM ALL TYPES OF ORGANISATIONS AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES &OR EXAMPLE SOAP OPERAS HAVE BEEN VEHICLES FOR PRO SOCIAL INFORMATION ABOUT CROSS CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES EATING DISORDERS AND ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION As well as the many social discourses soap operas participate in daily, there are four deeper level discourses that help to structure these programs, according to Nicholas Abercrombie. 1. Soaps are concerned with the everyday world of domestic life. The stories are set in what is called the ‘private sphere’ of households rather than the public sphere of government, law or police action. 2. Feminine discourses are most commonly the basis of the plot lines. The stories demand of the characters the supposedly feminine skills of empathy, perception and sensitivity. Men are often portrayed as emotionally weaker or serve primarily to support the women in their role in the story. 3. Relationships are the main focus. Everyone seems to be related to someone else on the program — or later discovers surprise parentage. Thus social discourses are important only in terms of their impact on family or friends. Larger, more general

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discourses (wealth distribution, for instance) cannot easily find a platform. 4. The discourse of local community is favoured over others such as national or global connectedness.

Representations See soap opera representation, page 60.

The soap opera audience When the first man walked on the moon in July 1969, most of the world were glued to their television sets. According to Donna Woolfolk Cross, one irate woman called an American television station angrily demanding to know why her favourite soap opera was not being shown that day. The station manager replied, ‘This is probably the most important news of the century!’ Still angry, the woman replied, ‘Well, I hope they crash!’ Fans of soap operas become very involved with the characters. Stars of soap operas tell hair-raising stories of fans who confuse them with their characters. While such extreme responses are relatively rare, most viewers do get engaged with what they see on television. Anthropologist Lionel Tiger has observed, ‘Our sense of community apparently may include fictional television characters.’ Relationships with fictional characters are not new. People in the past have often been on very familiar terms with the heroes of myths or fairy stories.

Who watches soap operas?

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A surprising number of people watch daytime soaps. The American afternoon audience, for example, was estimated to be more than 50 million in the late 1970s. New media options, work commitments and changing family structures have been eating into those audience numbers over the past decade. Today it is estimated that about 20 million Americans tune into a daytime soap. About 80 per cent are women. The swelling of the ranks of the unemployed and underemployed during the 1980s and early 1990s increased the number of daytime viewers. Growing audiences among university and college students in that period also altered the traditional viewer profile. Since 2000 the television audience has been falling and soap operas are now investigating ways to increase their presence on the internet. For prime-time soap operas, the bulk of the audience is still female, but a large minority is male. Apart from this gender bias, other aspects of the audience are comparable to television audiences in general. Similarly, the levels of education among soap opera viewers are the same as in the community as a whole.

‘The bulk of the audience is female in all age groups. If you have a product that will attract women first, then the men will automatically follow. A program designed for male viewers only will have limited appeal.’ Peter Pinne, formerly of Head of Production, Grundy Television

A spectator sport Sports fans talk in a language of tactics and principles that outsiders can find hard to follow. The rules and the officials’ decisions are one way of getting the spectators involved. Soap operas work in a similar way. Characters are heavily interrelated. While one purpose of this is to rule out the need for outsiders to create action, another reason is to encourage audience involvement. Viewers know the details of every relationship and follow characters often until death, and sometimes even beyond. The more complicated the background, the more those viewers who know what’s going on can enjoy being spectators. The more the spectator knows, the more likely he or she is to keep watching to see how everything turns out.

Why they watch Some researchers say the elderly, for example, watch soap operas for friendship and company. Other researchers have found soap operas are often discussed among friends and so give viewers something to talk about. A common statement is, ‘My friends and I like to try and see who can figure out what will happen next.’ One of the main findings to come out of audience research into soap opera viewing is that viewers are capable of complex judgements about the program. At the same time they are very willing to suspend disbelief and enjoy the story.

Uses and gratifications Richard Kilborn, of the University of Stirling, has examined uses and gratifications research (see page 161) and noted seven main reasons audiences find soaps ‘gratifying’. 1. Soap opera scheduling provides for a regular encounter. 2. Sharing opinions provides social interaction. 3. Soap operas fulfil person-centred needs (viewing pleasure). 4. People identify and get involved with the programs. 5. Soaps provide escapism. 6. People learn from the program. 7. Watching a soap is like watching a game.


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Activities 1. Make a list of the products promoted during the

advertising breaks of a modern television soap opera. In a paragraph, report your findings and comment on any changes in sponsorship since the 1930s. 2. How many crises have threatened to overwhelm your favourite soap opera character? Select a character and draw up a dramatic profile of events. 3. Look at the table below, then answer the following questions. (a) Conduct a content analysis (survey of content) of soap operas for one week. Categorise the problems and calculate the percentage of each type of problem dealt with, then complete the last column in table 13.3. Compare your results with those from 1941 and 1977. (b) How would you explain the increase in family and marital problems? (c) Why has the percentage of social and romantic problems declined, do you think? (d) ‘Soap operas seem to have narrowed in scope since 1941.’ Would you agree or disagree? Use the figures to support your answer.

6. Many production houses use a conference of

7.

8.

Table 13.3: 4YPES AND PERCENTAGES OF PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN SOAP OPERAS !MERICAN PROGRAMS PER CENT

!MERICAN PROGRAMS PER CENT

Family

18

28

Marital

10

22

Medical

9

16

Social

22

11

Romantic

16

11

Crime

9

11

Other

16

1

0ROBLEMS

#URRENT YEAR PER CENT

4. Identify the plot rotation in an episode of a soap

opera. Note each change of character group, setting and plot as it occurs. Comment on the degree of advancement of the plot. Would you say much happens in each segment? 5. When an actor has to leave, writers are sometimes forced to use the most unlikely stories to write out the character. Suppose you are a scriptwriter. Choose a famous soap opera character and suggest ways to write him or her out of the series. Set out a brief plot line that matches with the character’s expected behaviours.

9.

10.

11.

12.

writers to start off a story. Act out one of these conferences. Use the following steps as a guide. (a) Form groups of 4–5 people. (b) Decide on the general story. It could be an original idea or it could be based on an existing soap opera. (c) Allocate to each member a point of view about the progress of the story. For example, one writer wants the hero to marry, while another wants him to die tragically. (d) Hold the conference and try to bring the group to a compromise on the story. If scriptwriters allowed characters to remain totally stereotyped, the shows would become boring. Select a soap opera star and explain what it is that adds depth to that character. Outline any vulnerable points, any soft spots, any examples of a capacity to love, good and bad points, and so on. Explain what motivates the character. What aspects of the character are not stereotyped? Suppose you are an executive of a television production company selling serials in a foreign country. Prepare an advertisement for one of the well-known soaps with an introductory guide to characters. Outline their personalities and their place in the overall scheme of things. Soap opera characters rarely develop and change. Instead it is the plot situation that changes. Choose a soap opera and — either by watching several episodes or by remembering those from previous weeks — consider characters as they are involved in two separate plot incidents. Discuss the following questions. (a) Was there any change or development in the personality of the character? Did he or she appear to learn anything from the experience of plot line one? (b) In your opinion, would character development make scriptwriting of plots easier or more difficult? Explain your answer. What characters are absent from Australian soap operas? Consider the range of possible characters to choose from within a multicultural society. Suggest reasons for the omissions. The creator of EastEnders, Julia Smith, thought a mobile home site was too limiting for a soap opera. Can you think of any likely limitations? Do you agree with her? Suggest some fresh ‘small world’ settings for soap operas that have so far been ignored by producers. What advantages do they have? What are their limitations?

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13. Plots are complicated so that viewers in the know

can enjoy being knowledgeable. Soap operas are a kind of spectator sport. Demonstrate this by forming a panel of soap opera fans. Write a quiz on the fine details of plot and character in one soap opera and award points according to how much each fan knows.

WRITTEN TASK 14. In a written report, analyse a chosen soap opera.

Your report should cover the areas of investigation set out below. (a) Investigate plot development and the use of rotating plot lines, story expansion, cliff-hangers etc. (b) Examine the characterisation and compare it with the common stereotypes in soap operas. Also provide a comparison with the archetypal characters outlined by Propp (see page 143). (c) Show how the setting has been used to sustain the program over many episodes. (d) Evaluate the extent to which the program participates in certain common discourses and representations.

PRODUCTION TASK 15. Choose one of the following assignments.

(a) Film a 60-second commercial or trailer for a new soap opera of your creation. The pictures can be shot with the aid of roleplay, drawings, sketches, pictures from books, models and footage you take on location. The trailer should give some idea of the following: • title and theme music • ‘small world’ setting • characters, including the expected heroine, villainess, hero, helpful problem-solver etc. • possible plot developments, showing at least glimpses of two rotating plot lines. (b) ‘Minutes of Our Lives’ is the title of a comedy sketch you are filming. In two minutes of potboiling anguish, you will use all the conventions of soap operas. You can introduce all the characters, make them miserable, give them exotic diseases and then kill them off in heartwrenching close-up.

Television comedy Nobody knows for certain why laughter developed in humans. But a 2006 study by evolutionary biologists reviewed over one hundred other studies and came up with a likely theory. According to this thesis it all began four million years ago when humans fi rst walked, slipping and stumbling, on two legs. When a member of the group lost their footing, the others would laugh as a sign that the mishap had been seen but was not considered too serious. And slapstick humour was born, so the biologists say. The theory may help explain why strange walking styles, as exemplified by Monty Python’s ‘Ministry of Silly Walks’ and Rowan Atkinson’s Mr Bean, are funny today. ‘When we laugh at slapstick we are laughing at the same things that amused our early ancestors,’ suggests Matthew Gervais, the leader of the study.

• Black comedy takes what would normally be tragedy and makes savage, sometimes cruel humour of it. It is meant to be taken as both serious and funny. Black comedy is also known as tragic farce.

What is performance comedy?

There are three common genres of television comedy — situation comedy, sketch comedy and variety shows. Situation comedy belongs to the narrative genre (see page 8). Sketch comedy may belong either to the narrative genre or to the non-narrative genre, depending on the sketch. Variety is most often of the non-narrative genre, but some sections may be narrative.

Over its long history, performance comedy has settled into several basic categories.

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• Farce is comedy with a crazy, exaggerated plot. Anything can happen. Characters in a farce are usually outlandish and odd rather than believable people.

• Burlesque pokes fun at serious, formal styles of tragedy or romance. A modern, comic version of Romeo and Juliet is a burlesque. Burlesque depends on a wide gap between mundane, day-to-day subject matter and the grand style. Many funny advertisements use a burlesque style. • Comedy of manners uses clever, witty characters to poke fun at the awkward, stuffy and boring. • Satire uses humour as a weapon of criticism.

What is television comedy?


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Situation comedies Sitcoms, or comedy dramas, place regularly appearing characters in funny situations. Just as you have to ‘be there’ to see the funny side of some things, in situation comedies you have to know the characters and watch the mess they get into. Since they are usually short, 30-minute dramas, the basics of plot, character and setting are very important. Situation comedies are a distant relative of comedy of manners. Both are comedies of character and personality.

Absurd, parody or sketch comedy Sketch comedy depends on a series of sketches or skits for its humour. The sketches are usually unconnected and the show jumps from one topic to another. Characters are exaggerated and may even be grotesque, as in the Monty Python series. Traditional farce, burlesque and black comedy provide the bases of sketch comedy.

Variety show comedy Variety show comedy features music and dancing as well as comedy sketches. Variety shows were popular in the 1950s and 1960s but became rare until a revival in the 1990s. Hey Hey It’s Saturday was one particularly long-lived Australian variety show.

Features of comedy Most comedy follows basic conventions, or traditional ways of doing things. There are three central elements. Different styles of comedy favour some elements over others.

Stereotypes Comedy deals in stereotypes and caricatures because the audience needs to recognise the humour quickly. There is no time for them to get to know a welldeveloped character and then see the funny side of this person. The character needs to be immediately funny.

Startling events Comedy usually begins with a startling announcement or event. The beginning of a comedy plunges the audience immediately into a world of humour. A general rule says, the more startling or difficult the beginning, the sweeter the ending. Even the first lines of jokes follow this basic rule. Consider this first line: ‘A man swallows his glass eye and goes to the doctor for advice …’. This surprising mishap sets the scene. We have entered a strange, funny world where anything can happen. Whatever

conclusion follows the opener, it has to satisfy all our expectations of a sweet ending.

Snowballing action The action in comedy snowballs towards a conclusion. Comedy requires a simplification of the world so that everyone can understand and see the joke. Simplified characters plunged into a startling world accumulate one set of troubles after another. Repetition of confusion or absurdity also creates a snowballing effect. The comedy then accelerates to its conclusion. This works in a similar way to the climaxes in drama. The excitement of the audience rises and the desire for the resolution mounts. There is great relief when it finally comes, heightening audience pleasure.

Comedy theory: what makes us laugh? ‘Television is a medium of entertainment which permits millions of people to listen to the same joke at the same time and yet remain lonesome.’ T. S. Eliot

The companionship of laughter is one of comedy’s most important elements. Laughter is not often a solitary experience. After all, that is why comedies on television have laughter tracks (canned laughter). Humour has a number of other important elements that are present in some form in all television comedies.

Triumph Primitive laughter is said to spring naturally from the throats of the victors after a battle. It expresses their joy in victory and also releases the emotional strain of combat. The losers demobilise in the opposite way: they weep. A number of theorists now believe laughter can be traced to aggression and even hatred. Someone slipping on a banana skin is greeted by a chorus of laughter. The audience has triumphed. The more dignified the victim, the more humiliating the defeat. A battle can be fought with words alone. New York society wit Dorothy Parker was famous for her verbal triumphs. When informed that a certain actress was always kind to her inferiors, Parker replied, ‘And where does she find them?’ Bette Davis once described an ambitious and flirtatious starlet as ‘the original good time who was had by all’. To ridicule someone or something is to triumph through language.

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Figure 13.17: 3OME SAY THE BASIS OF HUMOUR IS TRIUMPH 4RIPS SLIPS STUMBLES AND SQUASHINGS ARE FUNNY BECAUSE THEY MAKE US FEEL SUPERIOR )N THE CARTOON WE NATURALLY EXPECT THAT $AVID WILL WIN AGAINST 'OLIATH 7HEN $AVID GETS HIS COMEUPPANCE IT IS AMUSING NOT LEAST BECAUSE IT IS UNEXPECTED

Incongruity (mismatches) Placing together two elements that usually do not belong together will often provoke laughter. Comedy is created when the usually serious logic of most events is broken up and something unlikely appears. Sometimes even a contrast can make us laugh. A thin Stan Laurel and a fat Oliver Hardy, a small Ronnie Corbett and a large Ronnie Barker, prepare audiences for comedy. Incongruity in language is one explanation for the humour of the Monty Python review of the London Hitler Hotel. Here, there is also an element of surprise because the audience expects ‘Hilton’ rather than ‘Hitler’.

Exaggeration. If a situation is blown out of all proportion, the usual rules of logic no longer apply. Exaggeration is a common way of introducing incongruity. Comic possibilities then arise naturally. For instance, a comic character may react in extreme ways out of all proportion to reasonable behaviour.

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Animation. When nonliving objects are brought to life, the result is an incongruous situation. In one episode of the British comedy The Young Ones, the refrigerator door opened and a tomato began conversing with the other rotting vegetable matter inside. Other episodes saw the toilet, an appliance plug and an electric power socket also speaking.

Figure 13.18: )T IS MOST UNLIKELY THE üRE DEPARTMENT WOULD RUSH TO THE SCENE OF A BURNING KITE )T IS ILLOGICAL TO SEND A üREMAN UP THE LADDER TO DOUSE THE üRE WHEN THE KITE COULD BE WOUND DOWN INSTEAD )T WOULD BE NONSENSE TO EXPECT A KITE TO ACCIDENTALLY CATCH üRE ANYWAY )NCONGRUITY IS AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT IN HUMOUR


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Surprise A man attempts to sit down but someone has snatched the chair away and he falls to the floor. When something expected does not happen, the result is comedy. A bucket of water fi nds an unsuspecting victim. It can be equally funny for something to occur when not expected. The element of surprise can be defi ned as the absence of what ought to be.

Figure 13.19: 7E EXPECT A WOMANlS HEAD AS A üGUREHEAD AT THE FRONT OF THE BOAT (OWEVER üNDING HER HINDQUARTERS AT THE STERN IS A SURPRISE 4HE RESULT IS COMEDY Surprise is easy to achieve through language. The huge number of English words with more than one meaning constantly ambush the unwary.

Puns. Puns are one form of surprise in language. We expect one meaning but encounter another. A riddle based on a pun asks: ‘Why was there no card playing on the Ark?’ The answer: ‘Because Noah sat on the deck!’ The humour is based on the two meanings of the word deck. Double entendres. These lurk everywhere in English. From the French words for double understanding, double entendres are puns usually of a sexually suggestive type. Any vague use of it or do, for example, almost automatically evokes sexual possibilities. Primitive tribes are said to have a highly developed sense of humour based on surprise in language. Where there is no written language allowing for different spellings to indicate specific meanings, there are more opportunities for puns and double entendres. Surprise in language can also be introduced by switching a listener from one logical train of thought to another, less logical one. Humorist Stephen Leacock once wrote, ‘The legendary Bulbecks were a fabulous race; half man, half horse, half bird.’ He seemed to begin seriously, but then the logical structure collapses into nonsense.

Activities 1. Do certain television channels have a programming

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4.

5.

6.

7.

preference for one type of comedy? Consult a television guide for scheduling information. Report back to the class on your findings. Set up a classroom television talk show with a host, where panellists can debate the merits of their preferred comedy type. While panellists discuss which type of comedy they think is best, have someone film the presentation and later edit in some examples of comedy footage. Traditional comedy styles have given rise to some famous works. Research plays, films, books, shows and other media to find some well-known examples of each category. Write down the first lines of as many jokes as you can think of. How many of these make a startling announcement or plunge the audience into an unreal world? Explain how this is achieved in one of the lines you have thought of. Watch a comedy on television and count the repetition (or snowballing) in the action. The repetition could be a continually mistaken identity, a repeated fault (such as snobbery), or a repeated phrase or line. Watch a television comedy show and try to find examples of the following elements of humour: triumph, incongruity, surprise. Listen to the first five minutes of a TV comedy. Does it begin with a startling event? Explain.

8. Write down as many puns as you can think of. 9. Here are some famous insults from the early days

of Hollywood: Groucho Marx: ‘I never forget a face, but in your case I’ll make an exception.’ ‘I can’t bear fools.’ Dorothy Parker, replying: ‘That’s funny, your mother could!’

Now write down some of the funniest insults you have heard. If you can’t remember any, try making them up. 10. Create some unlikely mismatches from the two columns in table 13.4 to form the basis of a comedy skit (e.g. ‘Heavy Metal News’). Then sketch out a scene or dialogue as an example of the comedy of incongruity. Table 13.4 4YPES OF 46 SHOWS

)NGREDIENTS

soap opera

tear jerking

interview

probing

TV wrestling

heavy metal

news

dignified

rock/pop show

extravaganza

wildlife documentary

furry friends

weather report

half accurate

police drama

car chases

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Situation comedies Situation comedy, or sitcom, has been the longest lasting style of entertainment on television. Other genres, such as westerns and variety shows, have come and gone. It seems the sitcom has a special appeal to television audiences. Part of the charm is in the situation itself. People often say about a funny event they are describing, ‘You had to be there.’ A regular and stable situation allows audiences to experience the special humour of ‘being there’.

What is a situation comedy? A situation comedy is usually a 30-minute series with a continuing cast of characters who are locked into the same situation or condition. At the start of each episode, the cast fi nd themselves facing a new problem or threat to their situation. Usually the disruption is provided when one member of the group misunderstands something or suddenly develops a desire that could threaten everyone’s stability. At the end of each episode, normality is returned and the original situation or condition is restored. Story lines are closed off at the end of each half-hour episode and almost never referred to in the next episode. Traditionally sitcoms were performed before live audiences. Modern sitcoms recreate this experience by providing a laughter track. The sitcom narrative works on the audience by stringing together a set of jokes for comic effect.

The situation or ‘comic trap’ ‘All successful situation comedies have a “trap” in which people must live — like marriage,’ says British scriptwriter Barry Took. The perfect situation for a sitcom, he suggests, is ‘a little enclosed world where you have to live by the rules’. Comic traps include: • The family. The most popular of the enclosed worlds is the family. The family is seen as a source of individual strength. Family support is based on respect and love for the individual, and this is confi rmed at the end of each episode. Episode plots are built on the minor ways in which family members annoy or hurt each other.

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• Other comic traps. There are other comic traps. The army is an enclosed world that has been used in many sitcom series. A highly successful British series, Porridge, was set in a prison. Flat-share comedies are another variation on the enclosed world format. The Young Ones, although bizarre, follows

the flat-share tradition. So, too, does the American sitcom Friends, although some of the characters live nearby rather than together.

Flow of humour Once the situation has been established, the humour comes from the characters. The flow of humour in sitcoms can be unidirectional or multidirectional. Unidirectional comedy allows just one person to make all the jokes. Rowan Atkinson in Mr Bean has total comic authority. The only truly funny character in the program is Mr Bean. However, Atkinson’s Blackadder series are different. The humour is multidirectional — that is, many characters are allowed to be funny. In programs with a comic duo, the humour is shared between them, often at the expense of other characters. Eddie and Patsy in Absolutely Fabulous share the laughs. A number of straight characters, such as Eddie’s daughter Saffron, are regularly humiliated.

Plot They may be just an ordinary, all-American family living in a quiet, suburban street, but in each episode the darnedest things happen to them. The reality in situation comedies is all on the surface. The sitcom plot is the story outline of the funny thing that will happen to the characters in each episode. Plots are sometimes fairly slight. This is not a problem because the plot serves mainly to carry the 50 or so gags and one-liners that provide the humour.

The situation Situation comedies tend to be long-running. The situation, or comic trap, must be sufficiently stable to withstand the minor upsets that begin each episode. Unlike a serial, there must be no threat of change at the end of each episode. They always end happily and no-one gets killed. The family is the most common comic trap in sitcoms. The Simpsons departed from tradition in many ways, but not from this most fundamental convention. The situation comedy is a series that must be capable of endless reproduction. Whatever happens each episode must not change the characters or the overall situation. The next episode must be able to start with the same basic series ingredients. The importance of this rule can easily be seen when it is deliberately broken. Final episodes often


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introduce a plot line to destroy the series. In the final episode of The Young Ones, the characters commandeer a bus and drive it along a dangerous winding road. Neil calls out, ‘Look out for that cliff face!’ But his warning comes too late. The bus crashes through a giant billboard picture of Cliff Richard’s face and rolls over in flames to the bottom of a rocky cliff. The characters have gone the same way as the bus. The formula has been broken. Too much has now changed and the series can no longer be revived.

Stages in the sitcom plot The plot of a sitcom is made up of three basic parts: establishing the problem; complication and confusion; and resolution.

The sitcom revolves around its characters. There is usually little development of ideas or of plot and conflict. The characters carry all the action and create all the gags.

Stereotypes The sitcom cannot function without stereotypes (see page 37). A 30-minute episode does not allow for character development. For a character to be immediately funny, he or she must be a recognisable type. Over time, situation comedies have the power to create their own ‘types’. A long series will provide enough repetition for a character to become known and recognisable.

• Establishing the problem takes up several scenes at the beginning of the show. In each episode the characters need to face some new comic difficulty. • Complication and confusion are the result of the problem. Complication usually develops out of some sort of human error or mistake. Humour is extracted from the resulting confusion. Characters interact with one another and heighten the confusion. The snowballing confusion works on the audience of a comedy in the same way as suspense does in a thriller. Quick scene changes build a frenzied pace. It is rare for a scene to last longer than two minutes. Some scenes last only 90 seconds. • Resolution of the confusion comes just when it seems things could not get any further out of hand. All the errors are quickly put right. Everything soon returns to normal. The audience breathes a collective sigh of relief. This relief contrasts with the audience response at the end of a crime drama or thriller. In a thriller, as the last jigsaw piece is put in place, the audience is more likely to say, ‘Aha!’ Sitcom plots often resolve themselves through a resort to proverbs, sayings or commonsense folk wisdom. Simple remedies allow the characters to solve their problems and even learn to laugh about them. When it is all over, everyone delights in the restored companionship, and even the audience feels reassured.

Characters The golden rule of situation comedy is that a character must never face the world alone. He or she needs to be part of some larger social unit. Comedies starring loners have never rated well (unlike westerns, for example).

Figure 13.20: 4HE SITCOM NEEDS STEREOTYPES FOR CHARACTERS TO BE IMMEDIATELY FUNNY 4HE HUMOUR IN 2OWAN !TKINSONlS "LACKADDER COMES FROM THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FAMILIAR STEREOTYPES

Recognisable stereotypes that often appear in sitcoms include: • Gender stereotypes. Since a major discourse in situation comedy is the ‘battle of the sexes’, gender stereotypes are common, especially in older sitcoms. The stereotypes often exaggerate aspects of gender, and writers often pair opposing types to create humour, such as pairing weak, flabby men with sexually aggressive women. • Family stereotypes. Family comedies align character roles with society’s expectations. Fathers are kind, wise advisers. Mothers are reassuring and comforting, even when they must meet the demands of a high-powered career. Teenagers are always in the process of ‘growing up’, experiencing discreet sexual encounters. Small children are like dolls or toys. They often remind both adults and teenagers of their grown-up shortcomings: ‘out of the mouths of babes’ comes much of the humour.

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Situation comedy timeline Prehistory Shakespeare’s comedy of manners Much Ado About Nothing; early Hollywood ‘screwball’ comedies 1939


1947

1947–1950 Mary Kay and Johnny (possibly first-ever sitcom)

1950

1950–1953 Korean War 1950–1965 The Jack Benny Program (moved from radio to TV, another candidate for first sitcom) 1951–1957 I Love Lucy (refined genre) 1954–1960 Father Knows Best

1940s–1950s

1950s Economic prosperity following World War II leads to a growth in the middle class and in materialism. Women commonly leave the workforce after having children.

Sitcom depicts stable family units based around nuclear family, with father as respected leader and mother as home-based caregiver: the ‘Hi honey, I’m home’ comedies. Early sitcoms (e.g. The Jack Benny Program) resemble filmed stage plays with stand-up segments. I Love Lucy refines the genre with a three-camera set-up and studio audience.

1960s–1970s 1965–1975 Changes in family law in the US and Australia (‘no-fault divorce’) lead to changes in family composition and an increase in non-standard families in sitcoms. Vietnam War opposition, the civil rights movement, youth protests and feminism bring about major cultural changes. Sitcoms (e.g. M*A*S*H, The Mary Tyler Moore Show) comment on these.

1980s Industry restructuring and computerisation create unemployment, especially among youth. Comedies (e.g. The Young Ones) indirectly address this.

Sitcoms still family centred, but rise of ‘kooky’, non-standard families (e.g. The Brady Bunch)

1960 1962 1964 1965 1969 1970 1972 1975

1980–present Brief return of traditional nuclear family (e.g. The Cosby Show). Increased power to female characters (e.g. Roseanne). Blurring of power relations between parents and children. Increase in ethnic minority characters and families. Rise of substitute family settings — e.g. flat-share, workplace- and friendship-based sitcoms

1990s–present 1990s–present The ‘generation gap’ between baby boomers and their offspring becomes less pronounced. Most households have more than one TV, and families spend less time in shared activities.

1951 1954

Sitcoms target specific audience groups. Different household compositions common. ‘Friends are the new family.’ Increased use of documentary codes and conventions such as handheld camera, no laughter track (The Office, Kath & Kim)

1980 1982 1983 1984 1987 1988 1989

1992 1993 1994 1996

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1997 1998 2001 2002

1960–1966 The Flintstones 1962–1963 The Jetsons 1962–1971 The Beverly Hillbillies 1964–1966 The Addams Family 1964–1972 Bewitched 1965–1970 Get Smart Family Law Act (California) introduced no-fault divorce in US. 1970–1977 The Mary Tyler Moore Show 1972–1983 M*A*S*H (satirical commentary on Vietnam War, safely set during Korean War) End of Vietnam War Family Law Act (Australia) introduced no-fault divorce in Aus. 1980–1984 Yes, Minister (UK) 1982–1984 The Young Ones (UK) 1982–1989 Family Ties 1983–1993 Mother and Son (Aus.) 1983–1989 Blackadder (UK) 1984–1992 The Cosby Show 1987–1997 Married with Children 1988–1997 Roseanne 1988–1997 Red Dwarf (UK) 1989–1998 Seinfeld 1989–present The Simpsons 1992–2005 Absolutely Fabulous (UK, intermittent series) 1993–1997 Beavis and Butt-head 1993–2004 Frasier 1994–2004 Friends 1994–1997 Frontline (Aus.) 1996–2005 Everybody Loves Raymond 1996, 2002–2005 Kath & Kim (Aus.) 1997–present South Park 1998–2004 Sex and the City Futurama 2002–2003 The Office (UK)


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Setting Unlike soap operas or crime dramas, situation comedies do not focus on the community or the outside world. A crazy family is one thing, but a crazy community would be quite another!

The family home ‘Hi honey, I’m home’, was the industry nickname for American family sitcoms in the early years of television. In many ways, characters are still coming home to the same house. Always wealthy and spacious, they are comfortably furnished with lounge suites, couches, coffee tables and breakfast nooks. Small objects are scattered around the room. Conventional paintings hang on the walls. Teenagers who open refrigerator doors always find an abundance of food within. Well-to-do family settings are used for the following reasons: • Advertisers. Families in poverty have homes that are too bare. Sets containing few luxuries would contrast too starkly with the advertisements. Advertisers want their commercials to appear in a pleasingly consumer-oriented setting, such as a luxury home. • Audiences. The success of many home-based sitcoms relies on the sense of comfort the audience feels within the environment. Since shows continue for years, audiences must feel the environment they are entering is broadly comfortable, safe and unlikely to offend. • Institutions/industry. Production budgets favour the family home as a setting because it calls for just a few stock sets. A combined kitchen/living room, a bedroom and a hall can be enough for even the longest running series.

The workplace Serious drama, police series and situation comedies all find the workplace a perfect setting. Here a set of characters must report for duty every day. There is always some new problem to overcome — a difficult customer, a new client, a critically ill patient. Minor characters can bring in fresh story lines as they come and go. The family can also be the workplace, as in The Nanny. Sometimes work and home can be combined in a small family business setting, as in Fawlty Towers. A work setting needs only a small number of stock sets. The need for expensive outside shots can be kept to a minimum. For example, Are You Being Served? takes place entirely within the store.

Figure 13.21: 2ICKY 'ERVAIS AS THE BOSS IN 4HE /FüCE ! WORKPLACE SETTING IS THE PERFECT ENCLOSED WORLD FOR A SITCOM THAT üNDS HUMOUR IN PERSONAL FOIBLES AND CORPORATE BUREAUCRACY

The time setting ‘There was a time when people said you couldn’t write a comedy show set in the past. It had to be in the present or it couldn’t be funny. We proved them wrong with Dad’s Army.’ David Croft, scriptwriter

Dad’s Army, set in wartime Britain, and the American comedy M*A*S*H, set during the Korean War, are among the rare sitcoms to find anything funny in the past. Rowan Atkinson’s Blackadder has also challenged the conventional wisdom, with episodes set in various historical periods. Sitcoms are almost always set in the present. Even the title usually suggests a timeless ‘nowness’. If there is a verb in the title, it is always present tense or present perfect, as in Everybody Loves Raymond.

Representations and discourses Representations See representation in situation comedies, pages 45–9.

Discourses Situation comedies have participated in the discourses on all the major social issues that have emerged from the past 60 years of social change. But the sitcom itself has rarely, if ever, led the changes. Because sitcoms are centred on domestic life, they respond to issues as they affect the family and the individual. The topics are mostly dealt with a safe time after they have affected society as a whole.

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Comedy can be an effective means of expressing social power. Having the power to use the comic discourse and make jokes means having the power to determine what is funny and what isn’t. It also confers the power to decide who will be laughed at and who is secure from such treatment. For example, the longsuffering Irish have been the butt of jokes made by the English for generations. But the Irish have not had the social power to broadcast ‘English’ jokes in return. Comic discourses can be socially progressive, working to support ‘the underdog’. They can also be conservative and prejudiced. It depends on whether they ‘kick up’ or ‘kick down’. Comedy can be radical. But comedy can also support those who already have power and help them hang onto it. Consider, for example, how all the jokes against women drivers that were common in the 1950s and 1960s helped men stay in the driver’s seat. The laughter of comedy may defuse anger about issues and allow people to accept things as they are, suggest media academics Michael O’Shaughnessy and Jane Stadler. The stereotypes that are common in comedy work in complex ways. Sometimes they help the underdogs; sometimes they kick them further down. According to Bernadette Casey, groups that are discriminated against in the outside world (gay males, for example) are also often ridiculed in situation comedies via stereotypes. While situation comedy participates in a large number of social discourses, several deeper underlying discourses have been consistently favoured over the past half century.

The battle of the sexes. The conflict between the sexes provides much of the story material for situation comedies. This is to be expected since the family or household is the key setting for many sitcoms. How the conflict is resolved has changed over the decades. In 1950s sitcoms such as Father Knows Best and I Love Lucy, the female was seen as unpredictable and the male as stable and reasonable. By the time The Simpsons arrived in 1989, these positions had been reversed. Feminism. Patricia Mellencamp’s research has found a line of feminism running though situation comedies where disruptive or ‘unruly’ women have been presented as refusing to bow down to men. These women have been characterised positively as funny.

MEDIA

The family. As you would expect in a genre based on domestic life, the family is one of the most enduring discourses. The nature of the family has become progressively diverse over time, permitting involvement in a greater range of concerns. However, the overwhelming discourse is of the family as a place of harmony and supportiveness.

Class. One very restricted discourse in television is class, according to the University of Queensland’s Francis Bonner. It is a theme that is often referred to indirectly rather than dealt with head on. Sitcoms tend not to mix social classes and to neutralise real concerns of wealth distribution. Usually a sitcom is contained within the one social class. Class is a more common discourse in British situation comedy than in Australian or American comedies. British sitcoms tend to have working-class or middle-class settings. The truly wealthy almost never appear. Absolutely Fabulous is an exception. American sitcoms over-represent the upper middle classes. The poor almost never appear. Australian comedy tends to centre on the lower middle class. In Australian comedies since the 1970s, such as Kingswood Country and Kath & Kim, there has been a tradition of the ‘bogan’ as the butt of all humour.

Figure 13.22: -ANY CRITICS SEE +ATH +IM AS A COMEDY ABOUT SOCIAL CLASS IN !USTRALIA

Race. Another almost silenced discourse is race, says Francis Bonner. While people of different races commonly appear in television sitcoms, any real cultural differences are totally ignored. Bonner says it is a ‘bland and happy world where some people “just happen” to have different coloured skins which have no meaning attached to them’. The issues faced by people because they are not Anglo are almost never addressed in the comedy. For example, AfricanAmerican people in American sitcoms are never portrayed as the working poor that many of them are. Instead, their households are as upmarket and wealthy as any other setting in American television.


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Figure 13.23: 4HE SITCOM CAN BE USED AS A CHANNEL FOR SOCIAL COMMENT 4HE 6IETNAM 7AR WAS THE REAL FOCUS OF THE COMIC SOCIAL ANALYSIS IN - ! 3 ( 4HE SERIES SHOWED THE CASUALTIES OF WAR RATHER THAN THE USUAL kHEROESl 4HE STARS WERE THE DOCTORS q SENT OFF TO WAR TO SAVE RATHER THAN TAKE LIVES 4HE SERIES üNISHED EIGHT YEARS AFTER THE END OF THE 6IETNAM 7AR WHEN IT HAD RUN OUT OF THINGS TO SAY 3OCIAL COMMENT IN COMEDY DATES BACK TO ANCIENT 'REECE

Activities 1. Make a list of current situation comedies. Beside

2.

3.

4.

5.

each one explain the ‘trap’ or enclosed world that provides the comic action. The humour in sitcoms can be unidirectional or multidirectional. Describe the flow of humour on one sitcom. Give some examples to illustrate your report. Think up a setting for a situation comedy — an enclosed world for the characters. Now suggest a number of story lines for some episodes in the series. Base these plot lines on small upsets to the stability of the comic trap. Suppose you wanted to kill off a situation comedy now popular on television. How would you introduce change in a final episode that would prevent it from returning to normal? Identify the three main parts of a sitcom plot as they occur in a comedy you are familiar with. For

each stage (problem, complication and resolution) provide a brief summary of events. Time the duration of each stage and record the results on a program timeline. 6. Watch a popular television sitcom and identify the use of stereotypes to develop the humour. List the stereotypes and evaluate their contribution to the comedy. 7. Suppose you were going to make a modern sitcom aimed at youth and based on the comic trap of a shared student household. What youth stereotypes would be available? List them. Comment on the comic potential of each. 8. Make a list of comedies with a workplace setting. Analyse the benefits this setting provides to the writers and producers.

Sketch comedies ‘A lot of it is cruel, verging on the sadistic. A lot of it is fairly rude. A proportion of it is fairly naughty. And a lot of it is very silly,’ says John Cleese of the Monty Python shows. He could be speaking of most sketch comedies made since Monty Python’s Flying Circus fi rst went to air in 1969.

What are sketch comedies? Sketch comedies create a comic universe of exaggerated characters appearing in brief cartoon-like skits that usually last for a single scene. Genre analyst Stephen Neale says typical sketches have a single setting, one or more characters and an internal time frame — all of which allow for the development of a comic idea. The comic idea is a way of framing the comedy. It may be a situation, a relationship, a conversation or a way of talking or behaving. The comic idea is pursued to a climax. Alternatively it may be suddenly

abandoned — as ‘too silly’, for instance. Spike Milligan pioneered this technique, says Neale, but it is also commonly found in Monty Python sketches. Traditional sketch comedy consists of unconnected sketches. This reflects the genre’s roots in stand-up comedy, variety shows and vaudeville acts. Modern sketch comedy may have recurring characters and themes that link different acts in the show. The British sketch comedy Little Britain has extensively developed these linking techniques.

Sketch comedy humour Concentrating humour into 90-second skits ensures that the raw materials of humour are present in their purest form. These include: • Surprise. Surprise is essential, especially in language. A Monty Python newsreader begins: ‘Good evening. Here is the news for parrots.’

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• Incongruity. Incongruity works in language and also very effectively through visual images. In a Monty Python sketch the British Secretary of State removes his clothes while speaking on agricultural subsidies. • Triumph. A very raw form of triumph appears sometimes as sadism. In the Monty Python quiz game ‘Take Your Pick’, Mrs Scum competes for a blow on the head. Others choose to have an enormous weight dropped on them.

Features of sketch comedy Since The Goon Show on radio and then Monty Python’s Flying Circus on television, sketch comedy has refined some basic techniques. These include: • Satire. The basis of most sketches, satire aims to send up or ridicule foolishness, pride or evil. Satire is able to venture ‘where angels fear to tread’, because in most people’s view comedy is specially privileged. Religion, politics or sex, often sensitive or taboo areas, are constant topics of satire. • Surrealism. Surrealism (literally ‘above realism’) creates a world that is beyond reality. In art, the aim of surrealism is to release the unconscious mind through startling and illogical images. Surrealism uses the crazy upside-down logic of dreams. When applied to comedy, it makes for sheer absurdity. • Parody. To parody something is to make fun of or mimic it. Parody is an essential part of satire. Comedy sketches often end up sounding exactly like the subjects they are ridiculing. It is just that they are talking nonsense.

Discourses Sketch comedy is free of the limits of narrative — it doesn’t have to tell a story. This means it is able to say things that other forms of television cannot. Sketch comedy is more able to participate in the discourses of contemporary issues than any television genre except news and current affairs. Two of the most common discourses of sketch comedy are the medium of television itself and the tradition of challenging authority.

Television itself. Sketch comedy is increasingly turning to television itself to provide the sources for sketches. Much sketch comedy now requires a detailed knowledge of television in order to ‘get the joke’. This self-referencing is called intertextuality (see page 9). A reason for self-referencing in sketch comedy is that the audience is likely to understand the joke. In an increasingly diverse world it is getting harder to persuade audiences to agree on anything. But they all watch television, so referring to television provides common ground. The Benny Hill Show (1955–1989) was among the first sketch comedies to refer to television itself. Challenging authority. Satire has a long tradition of challenging authority, and since many sketches are satirical it is common for sketch comedy to participate in critical discourses. For instance, Stephen Neale says, ‘Monty Python consistently lampoons judges, accountants, doctors, politicians, military officers, and all who claim, assume or aspire to institutionally established modes of authority, control and social status.’

Representations and discourses Representations Stereotypes are the mainstay of sketch comedy. They can work to support the powerful or the underdog. Sketch comedies have often been criticised for their crude and cruel representations. (See also representation in sketch comedies, page 45.)

MEDIA

‘Little Britain has been a vehicle for two rich kids to make themselves into multi-millionaires by mocking the weakest people in Britain. Their targets are almost invariably the easiest, cheapest groups to mock: the disabled, poor, elderly, gay or fat. In one fell swoop, they have demolished protections against mocking the weak that took decades to build up.’ Johann Hari, The Independent (UK newspaper)

Figure 13.24: *OHN #LEESE AS THE -INISTER OF 3ILLY 7ALKS IN -ONTY 0YTHONlS &LYING #IRCUS 3KETCH COMEDY HAS A LONG TRADITION OF RIDICULING AUTHORITY ! ""# POLL IN THE 5+ RATED THIS SKETCH THE SIXTH GREATEST SKETCH OF ALL TIME -ONTY 0YTHONlS DEAD PARROT SKETCH WAS NUMBER ONE


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Sketch comedy timeline Prehistory Music hall, vaudeville, minstrel shows, variety, burlesque

1939


1947

1947 Edinburgh Fringe Festival established.

1951

1951–1971 The Red Skelton Show

1955

1955–1989 The Benny Hill Show (UK)

1959

1959 Second City Comedy Theatre opens in Chicago (US).

From mid 1960s

1960

1960–1961 That Was the Week That Was (UK)

Use of pre-recorded sketches as inserts or as part of an overall pre-recorded show — e.g. Monty Python (UK) and Laugh-In (US). Techniques pioneered by Monty Python dominate sketch comedy to present day.

1964

1964–1968 The Mavis Bramston Show (Aus.)

1965

1965–1970 Not Only But Also (UK)

1967

1967–1970 The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour

1945–1960s 1950s–present Like most television genres, sketch comedy was influenced by radio comedy. The Goon Show (1951–1960) influenced a number of British sketch comedies including Monty Python’s Flying Circus. Radio remains a significant influence on British sketch comedy. Little Britain began on radio in 2001. The Second City improvisation comedy theatre in Chicago and other American cities provides a starting point for US sketch comedy.

Sketch comedy often broadcast live from the studio using stand-up comedians.

1970s From 1970s Huge growth in the Edinburgh Fringe Festival creates a new nursery for UK sketch comedy.

TV itself becomes the shared reference point for much situation comedy.

1967–1973 Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In (one of the few influential US sketch comedy series) 1969

1969–1974 Monty Python’s Flying Circus (UK)

1972

1972–1973 The Aunty Jack Show (Aus.)

1975

End of Vietnam War 1975–present Saturday Night Live 1975, 1979 Fawlty Towers (UK)

1979

1979–1982 Not the Nine O’Clock News (UK)

1986

1986–1987 D-Generation (Aus.)

1987

1987–2005 French and Saunders (UK, from ‘alternative

Early 1980s 1980s Adelaide Fringe Festival begins ‘Little Sisters Cabaret’ venue, which helps stimulate Australian sketch comedy.

The ‘alternative comedy’ movement launched in UK: stars include Rik Mayall, Ben Elton, Alexei Sayle, Dawn French, Jennifer Saunders.

comedy’ movement; among first wave of women comedians on TV)

From 1985 Comedy boom in Australia helped by rise in stand-up comedy venues, especially in Melbourne: stars include Rob Sitch, Magda Szubanski, Santo Cilauro, Mick Molloy, Eric Bana.

1987–1990 The Tracey Ullman Show 1989

1989–1995 A Bit of Fry and Laurie (UK) 1989–1992 Fast Forward (Aus.)

1990

1990 Ben Elton — The Man from Auntie (UK)

1992

1992–1993 The Ben Stiller Show

1993

1993–1997 Full Frontal (Aus.)

1994

Big Girl’s Blouse (Aus., first skit with Kath & Kim)

1995

Funky Squad (Aus.)

2001

The Sketch Show (UK)

2003

2003–2004 The Skithouse (Aus.)

2000–present The internet and online video sites create a new audience for sketch comedy. Brevity makes for lower download costs.

2003–2006 Comedy Inc. (Aus.) 2003–2007 Little Britain (UK) 2005

2005–2006 The Ronnie Johns Half Hour (Aus.)

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Activities 1. Incongruity is important in sketch comedy. A

7. Compare absurd comedies with situation comedies.

normal world is presented, until viewers drop their guard — then something absurdly out of place occurs. Watch a sketch comedy (preferably with plenty of dialogue) and answer these questions. (a) Does the sketch begin apparently normally? Is there any hint of absurdity, even in the first few seconds? (b) Note when the madness begins. Use a timer to work out how far into the segment this is. (c) Does the sketch keep the audience on the edge of their seats by almost, but never quite, returning to normal several times? (d) How does the sketch end? Is it by a sudden return to normality? Is it with a surprise? Comment on the effectiveness of the conclusion. (e) Does the sketch use satire? Does it have a point to make, however small? Explain your answer. 2. Watch a comedy sketch show and identify the subjects being satirised. Is there a trend? Are there certain recurring categories of topics? 3. Look for any link between individual sketches in a sketch comedy. Explain how it works. 4. Watch several episodes of a sketch comedy. Are there any regular characters or skits? Outline them and give possible reasons for their regular appearances.

Which do you think are funnier? Use examples of dialogue and situations in your comparison. 8. Provide a detailed analysis of a situation comedy. Comment on the following elements of the plot: stereotyping; startling first scenes; snowballing confusion; quick scene changes; resolution. How closely does your chosen comedy follow these conventions?

WRITTEN TASK Choose one of these assignments and write a 600-word response. 5. Absurd comedy uses satire extensively. Define satire and select some satirical skits from your favourite program. Explain what is being satirised and how it is made to look ridiculous. 6. What is the appeal of family situation comedies? Explain the importance of setting, characters, dialogue and plot, and how they relate to one another.

PRODUCTION TASK Choose one of these assignments and produce a 60-second video. 9. Situation comedies usually have these key ingredients: • stereotyping • startling first scenes • snowballing confusion • quick scene changes • resolution of the confusion. Create your own sitcom with its own comic trap and shoot key scenes in brief. Use stereotyped characters to obtain one or two quick laughs. 10. Film a commercial or promo for a new sitcom of your own creation. Roleplay the characters and key scenes. Additional pictures can be shot with the aid of drawings, sketches, books, illustrations etc. The promo should give some idea of the following: • title and theme music • the comic trap • stereotyped characters • the development of the humour — show a few of the gags. 11. Surrealism, parody and satire are three common elements in sketch comedies. Film, script or storyboard an original comedy sketch using these elements. They can be used in either a visual or a verbal way.

Crime drama Crime has been called ‘the great American imaginative obsession’. Few who watch American television would argue with this statement. But it isn’t restricted to the Americans. Crime dramas or police shows make up approximately 20 per cent of prime-time programming in all television markets throughout the English-speaking world.

MEDIA

What are crime dramas? Crime dramas are fictional television programs that deal with issues of crime and law and order — usually

within a one-hour timeslot. On free-to-air television these shows are usually shown during prime time. One critic has called crime shows ‘comedies of public safety’. The demands of series programming mean the main characters are never killed off. In traditional tragedy, the death of the hero is always likely — usually as a result of his own weaknesses. In traditional comedy, everything ends happily and no-one is killed. Television conventions mean that the crime show is closer to TV comedy than it is to traditional tragedy.


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The crime drama belongs to the narrative genre (see page 8). The programs have an orientation stage, a complication stage and a resolution. Since the programs work within the series format, the three stages usually occur within each episode.

from the audience. They are never developed as characters. Instead, they usually die on the streets as they began — alone.

Types of crime dramas Television crime dramas fall into four broad categories according to their subject matter. • Police procedurals. Shows that focus on the processes of police work and the systematic way that crimes are solved are called police procedurals. Often these programs depict teams of police officers and have multiple plot lines involving more than one crime. Because the emphasis in police procedurals is on the way a crime is solved, the perpetrator is often known to the audience from the start. Examples include The Bill and Law & Order. • Detective shows. In a detective crime drama the narrative is based on the exploits of a private detective. Usually there is only one crime to solve and there aren’t multiple plot lines. There are fewer cast regulars, although the detective may have a sidekick. The perpetrator is usually unknown to the audience until the end of the show. Examples include Magnum P.I. and Veronica Mars. • Legal dramas. In a legal drama the story lines centre on events leading up to a court appearance. The heroes are usually the lawyers for either the defence or the prosecution (most often in modern legal dramas). An example is Law & Order. • Mobster shows. A lesser number of crime dramas are based around the criminals as central characters. The Sopranos is an example of this subgenre.

Features of crime dramas Over their 60-year history, crime dramas have developed into four main formats, each with distinct features.

Traditional crime drama The traditional crime drama style follows many of the conventions set up in the 1952 series Dragnet. These shows are not unlike urban westerns. The novels of Raymond Chandler and Dashiell Hammett are also a major influence. A small number of hardboiled detectives are central characters. They confront a crime every episode, and it is always solved. The plot is carried by the action of the detectives. In the early shows they are clearly heroes beyond reproach. Most of them live to fight crime and their personal life is nonexistent. Criminals are remote

Figure 13.25: 4HE DETECTIVES FROM THE CLASSIC !USTRALIAN COP SHOW OF THE S (OMICIDE q üLMED IN -ELBOURNE 4RADITIONAL CRIME DRAMAS ARE LIKE URBAN WESTERNS 4OUGH HEROES ALWAYS kGET THEIR MANl

Soap opera–influenced crime drama A less clear-cut boundary between goodies and baddies and a greater focus on character became fashionable during the 1980s. Hill Street Blues began the change in the United States in 1981. In Britain, The Sweeney had set the pace in the mid 1970s. Soap opera influences can be seen in several aspects. A large number of central characters (13 principals in Hill Street Blues) share the focus of the plot between them. Private lives and personal problems account for important subplots in the overall story. Sometimes several story lines operate in a similar way to rotating plots on soap operas. The world view of the soap opera–influenced crime drama is different from that of the old cops-androbbers shows. The police are shown to be caught between savage criminal violence and a set of procedures that are no longer working. They sometimes break the law themselves if it means catching a lawbreaker. They are trapped in a system that makes their job harder.

Situation comedy–influenced crime drama Action shows with an injection of humour began appearing from the late 1970s. Moonlighting (1985–89) was an example. The humour was usually built around smart wisecracks and police station banter. A small

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number of characters provided the plot lines. Often the show centred on a partnership between male and female colleagues. The plot usually had a high level of fantasy or improbability. By the 1990s the sitcominfluenced crime drama had failed to develop any further and had largely disappeared from view.

Forensic crime drama ‘The doctors on ER race to save a person’s life. The cops on CSI, fibre by fibre, wound by wound, work to capture the perpetrator of the fatal blow, and thus, by finding the agent of the formative wound, they do not save a person’s life — they resurrect a person from the dead.’ Lee Siegel, New York writer and cultural critic

Since the 1990s crime dramas have taken inspiration from medical dramas and horror movies. Forensic crime drama is much more focused on the body as corpse than other crime shows. It shares this fascination with medical dramas and horror movies. Also from horror movies it highlights the monstrous and the deviant. Some shows have been labelled ‘tabloid’ for this reason. Like cheap and sensationalist tabloidformat newspapers, they focus on gory and graphic details.

Plot Crime dramas follow the traditional narrative structure of orientation, complications and resolution. Crime show scriptwriters often refer to the first and final stages as the ‘set-up’ and the ‘wrap-up’.

The set-up The first scenes should grab the viewer’s attention. Usually enough is revealed to let the viewer know what the rest of the program will be about. The main problem is set up or established within the first five or six minutes. Often the opening scenes will contain hints about the resolution through careful use of foreshadowing (see page 138). In forensic crime dramas the opening scenes are where the investigation begins, as evidence is carefully collected and the first theories are advanced.

Figure 13.27: 4HE üRST FRAME FROM A SEND UP OF A SOAP OPERApINČUENCED CRIME DRAMA 4HIS REPRESENTS THE SET UP 3OME OF THESE CRIMES WILL BE TAKEN UP IN THE PROGRAM AS ROTATING PLOT LINES

The complications

MEDIA

Figure 13.26: 4HE FORENSIC CRIME DRAMA #3) HAS LINKS TO MEDICAL DRAMAS AND HORROR MOVIES IN ITS FASCINATION WITH THE BODY AND THE MONSTROUS

Once the main problem in a television drama has been set up, the plot proceeds with a series of small problems or tests. Every step of the way the main characters are threatened with more crises — until the capture of the lawbreaker. Scriptwriters say each new crisis should seem more difficult than the one that went before. Each should seem to put the main character even further from the moment of victory. The tension builds progressively to the main climax.


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Crime drama timeline Prehistory Detective novels of Raymond Chandler, Dashiell Hammett and pulp writers; film noir

1950s–early 1960s

1960s–1980s Political issues of gender, race and socioeconomic status, and psychological issues, become important legally and feature increasingly in crime shows.

Early 1970s Offender profiling using behavioural psychology becomes an accepted investigative technique.

Crime shows — sometimes called ‘comedies of public safety’ — portray a safe, reassuring image of police work. Cops are always honest and just. Traditional-style crime series often centre on a detective; sometimes a private eye.

Late 1960s–1970s Trend to greater realism and moral ambiguity in portrayal of police (e.g., in the UK, Z-Cars, but especially The Sweeney)

US and British police forces first use DNA profiling in forensic investigations.


1952

1952–1959, 1967–1970 Dragnet (US, series began on radio in 1949)

1955

1955–1976 Dixon of Dock Green (UK)

1958

1958–1963 Naked City (US) 1958–1964 77 Sunset Strip (US)

1962

1962–1978 Z-Cars (UK, among first realist portrayals of police work)

1964

1964–1977 Homicide (Aus., first Australian crime series)

1968

1968–1980 Hawaii Five-0 (US)

1969

1969–1974 Division Four (Aus.)

1971

1971–1978, 1989–2003 Columbo (US)

1973

1973–1978 Kojak (US)

1974

1974–1980 The Rockford Files (US) 1974–1998 Derrick (Germany)

1980s

Mid 1980s–1990

1939

Soap opera–influenced crime drama established — ‘cops with a heart’ but burnt out by the system (e.g. The Bill, Hill Street Blues). Female cops feature increasingly (e.g. Cagney and Lacey).

1975

1975–1978 The Sweeney (UK)

1976

1976–1981 Charlie’s Angels (US)

1981

1981–1987 Hill Street Blues (US, among first soap-influenced crime dramas)

1982

1982–1988 Cagney and Lacey (US, first to feature two female leads)

1984

1984–present The Bill (UK, soap-influenced serial structure) 1984–1989 Miami Vice (US)

1987

Pitchfork murder case in UK first uses DNA evidence successfully.

1990s–present 1990s–present Hard-line conservative backlash against 1960s–1970s social concerns. Calls for tougher law and order and sentencing. Huge rise in imprisonment rate in US New social issues lead to increased awareness of specialised policing units (e.g. anti-terrorism, border protection).

Arrival of the ‘franchise’ crime drama (Law & Order, CSI). Also crime drama influenced by science and the science fiction and horror genres — ‘tabloid television’. Strong film noir influences. Blurring of good and evil. Increased interest in forensic investigations, aided by computer graphics (bullet trajectories, blood spray etc.)

1989

Cop (US, influential reality TV)

1990

1990–present Law & Order (US)

1993

1993–2005 NYPD Blue (US) 1993–1999 Homicide: Life on the Streets (US)

1994

1994–2006 Blue Heelers (Aus.) First nationally televised real courtroom trial in the US

1996

1996–present Silent Witness (UK)

1999

1999–present Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (US)

2000

2000–present CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (US)

2001

2001–present Law & Order: Criminal Intent (US)

2002

2002–present CSI: Miami (US)

2003

2003–present Cold Case (US)

2004

2004–present CSI: NY (US)

2005

2005–2007 Numb3rs

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The climax

The wrap-up

Just before the end the climax is reached and the outlaw is caught. The climax is the high point of excitement and the most important scene after the first scenes. A car chase, a brawl or a verbal confrontation ending in the capture of the lawbreaker are the most popular climaxes. The complications have built up tension so that when the climax arrives the audience is already anxious.

The final scenes are the next most important in the program. All of the loose ends of the plot must be satisfactorily tied up. The audience must be able to accept the solutions, no matter how far-fetched they are. Usually some kind of preparation has been done earlier in the plot. A character may behave strangely; a clue may be dropped. This sort of preparation is called foreshadowing (see page 138). In one episode of a crime drama, an anonymous figure wearing a black motorcycle helmet is murdering police sharpshooters outside the local bar and games room. In the wrap-up the motive was almost beyond audience belief. The cops kept beating the motorcycle ‘tough’ at a video game called Sharpshooter — so he murdered them. However, the audience was carefully prepared for this far-fetched conclusion. Several times, the motorcyclist is shown challenging anyone who will accept a game and then being a violent bad loser. Foreshadowing of some kind is present in all crime dramas and ‘whodunnits’. This is why some people are able to guess the outcome. They have recognised the carefully planted clues.

Pace in crime drama plots Figure 13.28: !N ARREST IS MADE 4HE MOMENT OF CAPTURE IS THE CLIMAX IN THIS SEND UP OF A TRADITIONAL CRIME DRAMA

Car chases, shootouts and brawls are the traditional bases of crime dramas. Action shows demand a fast pace. Scene changes are rapid, with some scenes lasting less than a minute. In some shows there are as many as 120 scenes in just 48 minutes.

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Figure 13.29: 4HE WRAP UP ON THE "RITISH SHOW 4HE "ILL


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Characters British police did not at first support the early 1960s Z-Cars series because it presented the police as human beings. To show the police suffering from the problems and pressures of everyday life would undermine public confidence in the force, it was thought. Times have changed. Cop shows once reinforced the authoritative position of the police in society; now many programs question that authority. Characterisation in crime dramas has reflected the changes in society, attitudes to the police and the attitudes of the police themselves. Today a range of personality types may be the heroes of crime dramas.

The law enforcers Only the law enforcers are allowed to have identifiable characters in most television series. The character type of the hero depends on what style the crime show adopts. • Traditional genre law enforcers are like soldiers enlisted in the war against evil. They are singleminded in their goal — the eradication of crime. These hardboiled detectives are men and women of virtue in a sinful and corrupt world. Toughness and cynicism hide a noble and honourable heart. In a civilisation under threat, television encourages the detective to take over the basic moral functions of capturing, judging and even executing. • Soap opera–influenced crime drama encourages audience involvement in the private lives of the law enforcers. Often the story gives more attention to personal dramas than to crime fighting.

• Sitcom-influenced crime drama concentrates on human foibles as much as on the evils of the criminal underworld. Sometimes the crime fighter is shown as unconventional and even bumbling. Often one character in the sitcom style creates comedy with smart wisecracks. This type is strongly individual, relaxed and offhand. Sitcom-influenced crime drama works best if there are two lawmakers working as partners. Two conflicting personalities in a partnership allow for an easy flow of humour. • Forensic crime drama heroes engage in the cynical and hardboiled dialogue that is common throughout the genre. They are usually state police and prosecutors. Often they are cynical loners with past problems in their private lives, reflecting the increasing influence of film noir (see pages 254–60) on the genre.

The lawbreakers The villains on television crime dramas are almost characterless. While regular law enforcers appear week after week, the criminals make fresh appearances each episode. There is no time for character development so the lawbreakers appear as crude stereotypes. Clothing, physical characteristics and accents are used to brand the criminal and make him or her instantly recognisable. Antisocial behaviour such as violence, disloyalty and cowardice complete the picture. As in most television genres, there is little attempt to relate characters to larger social concerns. The criminals in crime dramas are really caricatures who are motivated solely by their own personal failings. The criminal is a weak character who commits crimes because of personal weaknesses or individual psychology.

Setting The city

Figure 13.30: )N THIS FRAME FROM A SEND UP OF A SOAP OPERApINČUENCED CRIME DRAMA PERSONAL TROUBLES SEEM MORE IMPORTANT THAN CRIME üGHTING

The menacing and dangerous nature of the city matches the threat of the crime. The action happens ‘out there’ — on the wrong side of town. The viewer is made to feel that the naked city is a monster about to break out. Only the heroes offer protection. Crime dramas began as urban westerns, and detectives still need the city as much as cowhands need the wide open spaces. For some crime dramas, the actual city is unimportant. A menacing urban environment is all that is needed; the city is not necessarily specified. The opening shots can be taken in one city and the action scenes could be shot in another. In the era of television globalisation (see page 108), the anonymous setting appeals to importers. The show is set everywhere and nowhere.

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In other crime dramas, the setting and the specific city play more important parts.

The travelogue setting. Some cities have scenery and weather that give the citizens a sense of being on holiday. Honolulu and Miami, for example, boast spectacular scenery that adds zest to even the weakest of plots. Miami in particular is also a believable location. The glittering pleasure capital is the entry point for one-third of the illegal drugs coming into the United States. On television, the dreamlike landscape of white sands and hotel towers contrasts dramatically with the nightmare underworld of the drug trade.

Los Angeles, once a travelogue and lifestyle setting, has now become a favoured crime setting. Los Angeles has the advantage of being the centre of American television production.

The office Back at the station or office, a regular flow of characters can provide story lines for the main characters to take up. Suspects can be shuffled in and out. Private lives can be discussed with colleagues. To establish the feeling of a cramped police station or private eye’s office, plenty of tight shots are used.

The time setting Perhaps to increase the feeling of threat, crime dramas are usually set in the present. The results of events in the past are known. The present does not offer that safety. A present-time setting makes the capture of the lawbreaker more urgent and the need for reassurance more crucial.

Representations and discourses Representations Television crime is a much bigger problem than reallife crime. It occurs much more frequently, and it is usually portrayed as a vicious attack on an innocent victim. Murder is the most common crime on television. In real life, murder is rare and property crimes are more common. See also crime drama representation, page 56.

Discourses Figure 13.31: #3) -IAMI USES THE TRAVELOGUE SETTING OF THE BEACHSIDE CITY THAT WAS SO SUCCESSFUL IN -IAMI 6ICE 4HE SENSE OF BEING kON HOLIDAYl ADDS TO THE AUDIENCElS VIEWING PLEASURE

The ‘specific is universal’ setting. Locating a drama in a specific city may be a means of safely commenting on the problems of the larger world outside. This use of setting is often reserved for minor cities off the well-worn crime trails. The same effect can be gained by using a specific time period to comment on the present.

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The ‘capitals of crime’ setting. New York, with its vast areas of urban decay and extremes of wealth and poverty, has always been the model setting. Likewise, London can be a dangerous place, even for the heroes. In one episode of a crime show a cop says, ‘Each time I stop a car I don’t know if I’m going to get my head blown off or not.’

Crime shows participate in a range of discourses current at the time of production. However, there are certain ones that constantly appear. Some critics argue that the shows also tend to promote certain ways of thinking within these discourses.

Law and order. The discourse of law and order is a troubling one for most people because they usually experience it only as victims, says discourse analyst Francis Bonner. On television it appears only in news, documentaries and crime dramas. Crime shows are significant and influential participants in law-andorder discourses. Several studies show a movement in the crime drama discourse about law and order over the past 20 years. The discourse has moved steadily from one based on a concern for the underlying social and economic causes of crime to one based on punishment and imprisonment. Crime dramas now seem to be suggesting there is a need for increased and harsher policing in order to


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maintain society, says Bernadette Casey. This discourse can combine with other discourses about terrorism and social decay to create the impression that for our safety the state must become more repressive.

Police as society’s ‘good guys’. A natural part of the discourse around law and order is the way the narrative of crime shows naturalises the idea that police can solve society’s problems — if only they weren’t held back by the system!

‘The real effect of this exaggerated emphasis on crime and criminality is its polarizing effect on public debate. Most people now believe, against the grain of actual facts, that crime is the most important issue facing our nation.’

Prosecution not defence. A study by Elayne Rapping has shown that there has also been a movement away from what might be termed a ‘defence discourse’ towards a ‘prosecution discourse’. The type of lawyer we associate with Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird rarely appears in the modern crime drama — although defence attorneys, such as Perry Mason, were common in the 1960s.

Elayne Rapping, Professor of Media Studies, University of Buffalo

Activities 1. Consider several crime dramas now being screened

and decide whether they are examples of the traditional type, the soap opera– or sitcominfluenced type, or the type influenced by horror movies. 2. Some crime shows have a standard way of

presenting the main problem or the set-up. For example, a common format has the superintendent calling the detectives in to parcel out the assignments. Make a list of shows that follow a routine style. Beside the title of the show, describe how the problem is always set up. 3. Watch an episode of a crime drama. Set out the

stages of the plot. Provide details on the set-up, the build-up of minor problems and the wrap-up. 4. Count the number of scenes in one episode

of a crime drama. Time the shortest scene and the longest scene. Write a short paragraph commenting on the pace of your chosen crime show. 5. Imagine you are a writer on the production team

of a crime drama series. Writing is running about six weeks ahead of the shooting. More plots are needed, so more baddies are required. Draw up a list of stereotypical television villains you could use. Include details of motivation, dress and behaviour. 6. You are a series creator who has to create the

basic personality details of a detective team you would like to see in a new series. The series will be influenced by soap opera and will encourage audience involvement in the human as well as the professional side of the team. Prepare an outline of the series to present for a network vice-president’s consideration. 7. What reasons are offered for the crimes committed

on television crime shows? Describe the personality

and motivation of the villain in several of the crime shows you have seen. 8. Women’s roles in crime dramas have undergone

a dramatic change over the past 40 years. In the 1950s and 1960s women were usually pretty decorations, or else they were housewives. Even in the 1970s programs such as Charlie’s Angels relied heavily on sex appeal. In today’s crime dramas, female detectives can be at the centre of the action. Watch an old crime drama and compare it with a modern show featuring a female lead. Write a report on your comparisons using the following areas of investigation: (a) character of the female lead versus that of the male lead in a 1960s show (b) types of stories that demand a female lead (c) effect on violence or mode of action (d) progress of women as shown by changes in the roles played by women. 9. Make a list of crime shows in which the settings

are very important to the plots. Make another list of crime shows that could take place in any major city. 10. What suitable settings for a television crime

drama can you suggest apart from New York, Los Angeles, Miami or London? The setting must offer the possibility of plenty of believable crime. 11. Your production company has negotiated with the

networks to create a crime drama set in the past. This unusual concession has been granted because the program can safely offer comment on presentday problems (not necessarily law-and-order problems). Provide a selection of eras that would make good settings. Explain their believability and relevance to today’s audiences.

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WRITTEN TASK

PRODUCTION TASK

Choose one of these assignments and write a 600-word report. 12. Make a comparison of television crime dramas of different styles. Consider the conventions of plot, character and setting. Which style do you prefer? 13. Analyse the progress of the plot in a crime show of your choice. Discuss the set-up, the build-up of problems, the climax and the wrap-up. Outline the probable reaction of the audience to each stage. What evidence of foreshadowing can you find before the conclusion? Evaluate the overall story line. 14. Evaluate the characterisation in television crime dramas. Consider both stereotyped and rounded characters. What improvements would you like to see? 15. Analyse the discourses around law enforcers and law breakers on a popular crime show. Support your analysis with particular incidents and characters from the show. Speculate on the possible effects of these representations.

Choose one of these assignments. 16. Mad magazine and television comedy programs

often create send-ups of popular crime dramas. Try producing one of these yourself, in either script or cartoon form. Your production should clearly make comic reference to the set-up, the build-up of problems and the wrap-up. Remember, there is also plenty of potential for humour in stereotyped characters, exaggerated violence and extreme moral viewpoints. 17. Film a commercial or promo for a new crime

drama of your creation. Roleplay the characters and key scenes. Additional scenes can be shot with the aid of drawings, pictures, sketches, book illustrations etc. The promo should be 60 seconds long and give some idea of the following: title and theme music; setting; style (forensic, soap opera influenced etc.); characters; and possible plot developments (e.g. glimpses of the crimes to be solved). Your production should show your familiarity with the crime drama genre.

Music videos ‘Anything that is too stupid to be spoken is sung,’ said the French writer François Voltaire more than two hundred years ago. Had he been writing today he might have added: if it still sounds stupid then spend a million dollars on the video clip. Women in bridal dress turn into hideous monsters, massed crowds join together in Nazi salute, one thousand wine glasses shatter in slow motion. The ridiculous, the shocking and the bizarre are normal in video clips. Experienced clip maker Russell Mulcahey says, ‘You don’t have to explain why you do something. If it looks good, go for it.’

What is a music video?

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A music video is a fi lm clip produced to go with a song. Although there is no requirement that this be a pop or rock song, it almost invariably is. This is partly because music videos are produced as short promotional fi lms to sell CDs and downloadable songs. Music videos are three to five minutes long. They do not follow a traditional narrative structure; rather, they reflect the structure of the accompanying music. They rely on rhythm, pace and lyrical imagery for their effect. As a communication form, music video works by combining images and sounds together inseparably.

Figure 13.32: 6IDEO CLIPS MAKE HEAVY USE OF SPECIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC EFFECTS 4HE AIM IS TO GRAB VIEWERSl ATTENTION AND TO KEEP HOLD OF IT


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The clip could belong to either the narrative or the non-narrative genre (see page 8). Music videos in the non-narrative genre are more common. However, more than any other television form except perhaps advertising, music video experiments with genre to create hybrids or multigeneric texts.

‘Most rock videos do not aspire to tell stories with beginnings, middles and ends, but instead impart meaning through visual collage. What makes a video memorable is not what happens but what it looks like. ‘No attempt is made to convey a reality. Instead, videos are liberated into a timeless dreamworld.’ Douglas Rushkoff, media analyst

Some critics argue that music videos are really a form of advertising. Audiences see video clips as entertainment. For the filmmaker and the artist, many clips are regarded as short artistic films. However, music companies see them as providing free advertising for their products. An American survey found 60 per cent of pop compact disc sales came as a result of video clip exposure. Video clips aim at an audience age range between 14 and 34 years. This is also the age range of the big CD spenders. It is no accident that many clips are made at studios well known for their production of television commercials. Sometimes the same directors do both. Packaged into rock programs, music videos amount to wall-to-wall commercials. And obsolescence is built in. No sooner is the record bought than the clip is out of date. There is a new video and another urge to buy, to stay with the fashion. Nonetheless, unlike the television commercial, the music video is not explicitly selling anything. It is a disguised commercial, but still a commercial.

Types of music videos The music industry divides clips into two main types: conceptual and performance.

Conceptual clips Conceptual music videos are based on a central theme. They often have a plot and tell a story, but sometimes they are made up of jumbled images that work with the music. Conceptual videos can be further divided into two types.

Narrative music videos. A simple or complex narrative can turn music videos into mini-films. Simple

narrative video clips provide a basic situation for a fantasy, but lapse into jumbled imagery in between. The spaces in the story allow the audience to create their own fantasy. Complex narrative video clips often demonstrate the genre divisions of their full-length counterparts. There can be horror clips, melodrama clips, film noir clips and so on. Complex narrative video clips move the song towards the ballad.

Non-narrative music videos. A dreamlike reality can be created by non-narrative music videos as images and music combine to produce an emotional effect. Hundreds of scenes can be cut into a clip lasting just three minutes. This constant shifting of topic resembles the structure of dreams. Like dreams, nonnarrative music videos follow a loose theme rather than a story. Often the topic is approached from many angles in a short space of time. But perhaps the factor most similar to dreams is the use of images with powerful mental associations. These work like symbols, calling to mind thoughts that would normally take much longer to express.

Performance clips Performance music videos concentrate on the actual stage appearance of the musicians. The performance clip can look old-fashioned to modern audiences, as it was at its most popular in the 1960s and 1970s. Some modern artists use the performance clip as an anticommercial statement. It is rare for a music video not to show the performers somewhere in the clip. When they do appear, they often look directly at the camera — something movie actors avoid. Looking at the camera is a direct appeal to the imagined audience and follows the conventions of musical performance on stage.

Features of music videos Music videos have several general features: they use poetic imagery, they use a high number of symbolic images and they have rapid shot changes.

Poetic images Music videos use poetic visual imagery to build ideas and emotion in the minds of the audience. Grabbing attention and holding on to it are the two main aims of video clip makers. This has led them to search for ever more bizarre and shocking images.

Symbolic images Video clip makers rely on images that are easily understood. The images are often highly symbolic. They create a host of associations (see language, page 5) in the audience. In three minutes, a huge number of shots are screened. None of them must be allowed to confuse

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the audience. Nazi rallies, scenes of witchcraft, images of romance are all easily understood by the audience in a few seconds. References to famous works of art or well-known movies will also be easily understood. Music videos rely on these flashes of understanding to keep up the rate of ideas per minute.

Rapid shot changes ‘Keep the interest — that’s an obsession with us. We know why people are turned on or turned off. You’ve got to keep their attention — create movement where there isn’t any. Keep the rhythm. Eliminate any visual slack. We measure in IPMs — ideas per minute. If you keep up your IPM, you’ll do all right.’ John Weaver, KEEFCO (production company)

To keep the ideas-per-minute rate high, clip makers make rapid-fire shot changes. A three-minute video may contain hundreds of shots, often cut to the beat of the music. One songwriter and singer says his music video contained 206 separate shots in just over three minutes of video. A clip for another well-known band consisted of about 3000 still photographs, which took four weeks to assemble. Until the arrival of the music video clip, most filmmakers considered the shortest possible shot to be two seconds. Anything shorter was considered too brief to be understood. Today clips often have shots lasting less than one second and occasionally one-third of a second. The increase in shot speed corresponds to an increase in the amount of visual information the viewer receives.

How video works with the music Music video analyst Andrew Goodwin believes there are three ways that music can be visualised in a music video. • Illustration. The video is illustrative if the imagery tells the story of the lyrics. It is also possible to think of the music as illustrated if the imagery is cut to the beat and the visuals seem to give a rhythm and feeling to the music. Video clips can illustrate a singer’s or band’s performance. Dance can also be used to illustrate the song.

MEDIA

• Amplification. The video is amplifying if it adds new layers of meaning to the music or the lyrics. The performance can also be amplified through the use of close-ups to give a view that would not be possible if you attended the live performance.

• Disjuncture. A video can stand in contrast to the music and lyrics, and the disjointed feeling this creates can add extra meaning.

Audience Some research shows that young people watch music videos up to 70 per cent more intently than ordinary television programming. Music videos are tremendously popular with youth audiences, suggesting that for them their entertainment value comes first.

Giving youth an identity Several studies have highlighted how young people often use music videos in developing their own personalities. Music videos can work as a means of self-expression for young people and help them create a world that is separate from that of their parents. The rewards offered by rock music often seem more pleasing than those of adult society. The taste for a type of music allows entry to peer groups. Watching a music video allows young people to experience being one of the ‘in’ group. While it is playing, they can feel they are part of a youth tribe. Music can also express separateness from school or family. Studies show this is a common use for music. Music gives the impression of communicating on a one-to-one basis. The message of the song becomes a very personal one for the viewer. Studies also show that video clips, and indeed rock music in general, allows young people an alternative way of feeling knowledgeable and successful.

‘Commercials have always sold the sizzle, not the steak — that is, depended on atmosphere. Usually, however, they have promised consumers that the produce will permit an experience (“don’t leave home without it”) or enhance it (“adds life”, “takes the worry out of being close”). But music videos are themselves primary experiences. Music videos give the product a new location on the consumer’s landscape, not as messengers of a potential purchase or experience but as an experience in themselves, a part of living. For young people struggling to find a place in communities dotted with shopping malls but with few community centres, in an economy whose major product is information, music videos play to the search for identity and an improved community.’ Pat Aufdeheide, Professor of Communications, American University, Washington DC


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Genre developments

Music video timeline Prehistory Hollywood musicals

1950s–1960 Modern youth culture evolves out of political and cultural influences (e.g. consumerism). It is characterised by a sense of difference between generations and often attaches to music genres. Early examples include ‘bobby-soxers’, rockers and beatniks.

1955–1962

1956

Full-length feature movies based around performances of famous rock-and-roll artists such as Elvis Presley

1957

Rattle and Rock (US, feature film) 1957–1987 American Bandstand (US, pop music program) 1962

1960–1970 Children born during the postwar baby boom become adolescents and young adults. The term ‘generation gap’ first used. The 1967 ‘Summer of Love’ in San Francisco marks the high point of the hippie movement.

Rock Around the Clock (feature film, US), Shake,

Top of the Pops (BBC, UK, refined the genre of TV program based on pop music performance)

1966–1972 Music videos tended to be performance clips with simple visual effects (e.g. smoke and lighting effects, camera zip zooms and bizarre angles, negative/film reversal effects).

1964

A Hard Day’s Night (UK, Beatles feature film)

1966

1966–1968 The Monkees (US, TV program based on formulated pop group)

1968

Yellow Submarine (UK, Beatles animated feature) 1968–1974 Getting to Know GTK (ABC TV, Aus., video clips)

1969

Woodstock Festival (US)

1970s–1980s

1970

Woodstock (US, feature film on rock festival)

Australia’s Countdown is credited as the world’s first program to focus mainly on music video clips. Australia’s distance from music centres means live performance is difficult. Emergence of punk culture in late 1970s. Rise of disco

1972

David Bowie, ‘Jean Genie’ (UK, clip reputed to be first to combine modern conceptual elements) Morning of the Earth (Aus., surf film)

1973

Aquarius Festival, Nimbin (Aus.)

1974

1974–1987 Countdown (ABC TV, Aus.)

1975

Queen, ‘Bohemian Rhapsody’ (UK, clip marked turning point for music industry: promotional

Growth of satellite and cable subscription TV leads to dedicated music channels. Music video emerges as promotional tool.

videos became mandatory with single release. Often cited as the first commercially successful music video) 1979

Buggles, ‘Video Killed the Radio Star’ (first song broadcast on MTV)

1980

David Bowie, ‘Ashes to Ashes’ (UK, clip credited with creating the hit)

1981–1990s 1981–present Dance clubs (house music, hip-hop etc.) use music video to enhance experience. MTV creates a permanent demand. Rise of karaoke

2000–present Increasing influence of new media on youth culture

Increasing dominance of conceptual music video relying on imagery and physical appearance of artist rather than music. Videos become as much a visual as a musical experience. Wider variety of musical genres

1981

MTV channel established in US to play music video 24 hours a day.

1982

The Wall (Pink Floyd concept film)

1984

Michael Jackson, Thriller (US, short film with narrative structure)

1987

1987–present Rage (ABC TV, Aus.)

1991

Nirvana, ‘Smells Like Teen Spirit’ (begins grunge

2000–present

influence on MTV)

Rise in narrative music videos and use of computer-generated special effects

2003

Music video on demand via internet

2005

MySpace founded on internet. Apple opens iTunes store in US. Arctic Monkeys reputed to be first band to gain fame from file-sharing music and video

Google acquires YouTube; licensing agreements with some companies permit music video content.

downloads. YouTube allows users to place music video clips online.

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Representations and discourses

Discourses Music video clips participate in a vast range of discourses, but several recur frequently.

Representations The world of the music video is a world of extremes. The images are designed for emotional and poetic impact rather than any sense of realism. • Natural landscape images are extreme — hot, red deserts, stormy oceans and deep forests. At its most extreme, the landscape becomes post-apocalyptic. Colour and mood are most important. • Male images often represent extreme examples of traditional sex roles. Thugs, gangsters, musclemen, soldiers and construction workers appear regularly. • Female images are often restricted to goddesses, temptresses or whores. Some video artists toy with these stereotypes and change their meanings. • Androgyny is common. Androgyny is when a unisex image is promoted. • Authority figures such as parents, teachers, police and judges are portrayed as party poopers at best, or cruel oppressors at worst. • Nostalgia is common, with scenes referring back to the good old days, but only to the good old days of rock and roll — the 1950s. History in music video clips rarely extends beyond the history of rock. • Hollywood fairytale story lines.

Consumerism. Since the music video is also a form of advertising, its underlying message is that the purchase of the song will improve the viewer’s life. Product placement as well as messages about money and success increase the power of the consumer discourse. Gender. As might be expected in a genre aimed at young people, music video explores a wide variety of gender constructions. But there are also discourses of sexual discrimination and exaggerated gender roles in certain types of music. Often the only role for women is to support the hyper-masculinity or macho image of the male characters. Sex and violence. A short cut to attention grabbing in videos is to use sex or violence or both. With only three minutes of screening time, music videos do not have time to go beyond the shock of a moment of violence or the thrill of nudity. Music videos are often shown during family viewing time. Commonly, music videos aim to obtain a G or PG censorship rating to ensure commercial play time. Complete nudity or really gruesome violence will mean the clip will be banned in prime time. An adolescent fantasy style is used so that sex or violence can be suggested, even if not pictured.

Activities 1. Make a list of all the factors that make

MEDIA

music videos similar to commercials. Then make a list of the factors that make them different from commercials and more like entertainment programs. Compare the two. In your opinion, are video clips closer to advertisements or entertainment? 2. Clips can be divided into two main types — conceptual and performance. Watch a number of clips, write down their titles and decide into which category they fall. 3. The images used in video clips can be divided into several categories. A study by Richard Baxter and others separated the images into categories and then counted their frequency. Look through the results in table 13.4, then answer the following questions. (a) Can you suggest any reasons for the heavy use of visual unreality in music clips? (b) Account for the high incidence of sex, dance, violence and celebration.

Table 13.5: #ATEGORIES OF IMAGES AND FREQUENCY WITH WHICH THEY APPEARED IN MUSIC VIDEO CLIPS

#ATEGORY OF IMAGE Visual unreality (use of special effects to produce odd, unusual and/or unexpected images)

&REQUENCY IMAGES APPEARED PER CENT 90.3

Sex (portrayal of sexual feelings or impulses)

59.7

Dance

56.5

Violence and/or crime

53.2

Celebration (portrayal of happy, festive occasions)

45.2

Friendship

41.9

Isolation (alone or apart from others)

41.9

Wealth

38.7

Transportation (use of vehicles)

35.5

Bizarre (odd)

27.4

Physical restraint (holding back a person or thing)

24.2

Androgyny (gender combination)

22.6

Religion

17.7

Political issues

14.5

Fitness

14.5

Animals

14.5

Maturation (growing up)

12.9

Death

9.7

Health

1.6


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(c) Explain how the words of most popular songs support the findings of Richard Baxter’s study. In other words, what sorts of image are most often suggested by the lyrics? (d) Images of wealth are often found in music videos. Look at the frequency of images of wealth in Baxter’s study. What do you think makes groups constantly refer to wealth? Do you think it has audience appeal? Is it a good thing? (e) Watch a number of music videos and score the frequency of Baxter’s categories of images for yourself. Baxter’s team scored the videos by stopping them every 30 seconds and ticking off each category that had appeared. How do your findings compare with his? 4. Count the number of ‘shots’ or scenes in several music videos. What seems to be the normal number of scene changes? What is the rate of ‘ideas per minute’?

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to the following task. 5. Prepare an analysis of five music video clips. Analyse the clips as a whole, discussing their type and theme. Analyse at least ten images from the clips, describing the meanings they conjure up for you. Evaluate the effectiveness of each clip, ranking them in order from one to five. Give clear reasons for your judgements.

PRODUCTION TASK 6. Create a three-minute music video clip. The video

may be in the narrative or non-narrative genre. The images in the clip should be united through a central theme or narrative, but also leave space for images that allow the audience to create their own meanings. The vision should interpret and amplify the meaning in the song as well as illustrating it.

Television advertising ‘Programs are to television what bait is to fishing. The catch, as large as possible, is then sold to hungry advertisers to be tossed on the barbecues of their businesses: grilled on packaged holidays, boiled in beer, battered in cosmetics and fried in fast food.’

agencies to produce the ads, and then air time is bought within the timeslots watched by the target audience.

Phillip Adams, broadcaster and cultural critic

Today you’re probably going to see about 70 television advertisements. Watching an average amount of television until you’re 17 will expose you to more than half a million commercials. You’re not alone if you feel bombarded. Even fi nding someone who can remember life before advertising is now almost impossible. Advertising is increasingly regarded as a natural part of life in a post-industrial society. The advertisement is probably television’s most intense moment. According to John Corner, of the University of Liverpool, the tight time constraints and the need to get the message across make the commercial an extraordinary form of television. Television’s routine and domestic nature (see page 317) is the element commercials use to woo viewers. They are repeated regularly and, depending on the circumstances, they are dramatic, comic, personal, frantic or relaxed. Just like television at its best.

What is television advertising? Basically defined, television advertising is a means of promoting goods and services over the medium of television. Companies or organisations hire advertising

Figure 13.33: !DVERTISING HAS TAKEN A MORE CENTRAL POSITION IN SOCIETY IN THE PAST DECADE )T IS NOW LINKED WITH SPORT AND POLITICS AND IN SOME COUNTRIES IT EVEN SPONSORS PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION But there are other ways of looking at advertising. Advertising is the powerful force that supports every other commercial medium. The variety of formats within television advertising has caused some analysts to ask whether advertising might be better described as a medium in itself. Television advertising is like a

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medium within a medium and carries a range of genres in miniature. John Corner sees advertisements as being worked into a variety of ‘micro-formats’ or mini-genres. Indeed, it is possible to see many commercials as mini-musicals, thrillers, westerns, soap operas and so on. Many commentators suggest that advertising is a kind of ‘anti-news’. By this definition its purpose is not to inform but to mislead. For instance, advertising aims to promote selfishness instead of democratic involvement in society. People are constantly given the message that their quality of life can be measured by the possessions they buy. Naturally advertisers themselves see television advertising as simply an information service that promotes greater competition among producers of goods and services.

Hard centres Each advertisement has two parts, suggests advertising analyst John Thompson. First there is a rational and logical core. Around this is spun a decorative, often irrational outer coating. The core of the commercial is the central message providing knowledge about the product. Advertisers have become very cunning at working just inside the regulations concerning truthful advertising. Consequently this core of product information is getting smaller and smaller.

Soft coatings The soft exterior of the advertisement is the image the advertiser wishes to associate with the product. This provides the entertainment value of the commercial and the attractive lure to the consumer. Unlike the core, the decorative periphery is not governed by laws of truthful representation. The decorative lure of advertising is increasing in size as the core diminishes.

Types of television advertisements Television commercials can be divided into a number of general categories or combinations of categories. The main categories are dramatisation, testimonial, demonstration, spokesperson/sales pitch, documentary, song-and-dance productions, and analogy.

Dramatisation

MEDIA

Television commercials that involve the product in a story are referred to as dramatisations. The story structure usually follows a simple plot with a beginning, middle and close. Within the time frame of the advertisement, the plot develops in a step-by-step, logical order.

Until recently, in most dramatised advertisements the product was the hero. As advertising becomes more sophisticated, however, the product is beginning to take a back seat. The story is used to create a lifestyle image statement, which just happens to contain the product. Slice-of-life commercials are dramatised situations in which the product saves people from their reallife problems. ‘Big date tonight — but what about my breath?’ ‘Don’t worry, Charlie, gargle with this …’. The product is introduced, praised and tried. At the end of the commercial it is revealed that the user is now a better, happier and more popular person for having used the product.

Testimonial advertisements When someone uses a product, is satisfied with it and tells others about it, the commercial is called a testimonial. • Average consumer testimonials are created with very ordinary people singing the praises of the product. Viewers are expected to relate to these people as their peers. Advertisers usually choose people who are not too beautiful or handsome but have faces full of character that will quickly win over viewers. It is said that the more amateurish the performance, the more believable the audience finds it. • Famous faces are also used to give testimony to the worth of a product. Getting a celebrity to move the merchandise is a technique as old as advertising. The fame of the celebrity rubs off onto the product.

Spokesperson/sales pitch The use of an on-camera announcer speaking directly to viewers dates from the earliest days of television and is a carry-over from radio. This type of advertisement is generally just talk, although it may be accompanied by selling aids such as charts and demonstrations. The hard-sell commercial is usually short, because the viewer’s attention wanders if the sales talk is too long.

Documentary Commercials can adopt the style of a documentary or a news bulletin. The advertisement may show a new way to use a product or explain its processing or testing. Another technique is to show the product being used in a newsworthy situation.

Demonstration commercials Demonstrations get to the heart of television’s impact. Probably no other medium can show a demonstration of the product in use. Here television comes closest to the idea of a door-to-door salesperson.


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Figure 13.34: (OWEVER IRRITATING VIEWERS MAY üND DEMONSTRATION COMMERCIALS MANY ADVERTISERS STILL RELY ON THEM TO SELL THE PRODUCT ,AUNDRY DETERGENT SPONSORS HAVE USED DEMONSTRATION COMMERCIALS SUCCESSFULLY SINCE THE BEGINNING OF TELEVISION ADVERTISING

Song-and-dance productions Advertisers of soft drinks, cars and other products aimed at young people often use commercials with original music and dancing. With fast movement, intricate dance routines and rapid changes of shot, this type of commercial is very expensive to produce.

Analogy commercials An analogy is similar to a metaphor or a simile. It shows the likeness between two things. An analogy commercial will take a product and show its relationship to something else. In one commercial, for example, a stampeding herd of colts was compared to the performance of a car.

Features of advertisements Ninety-five per cent of all commercials telecast are of 30 seconds’ duration; 15-second and 60-second advertisements are also made; 45-second advertisements are rare because they are hard to place. The shorter commercials are increasing in popularity, partly owing to rising advertising costs. Advertising is a form of communication aimed solely at promoting the purchase of products. The television advertisement has several basic communicative elements, suggests John Corner. • Real time. Advertising on television places a greater burden on consumers than does advertising in other media. Advertisements demand that viewers both listen and watch. As well, commercials take up real time, and viewers must wait until they are finished before they can return to the program. • Repetition. The need to repeat advertisements to increase the chances of reaching the audience is a factor in the design of the commercial. With layers of meaning, they are made for multiple viewings.

There should always be something extra for the viewer to notice, copywriters say. Commercials are also made to be viewed in fast-forward mode. Advertisers are only too aware that many people record programs and later zip through the advertisements with the remote control. • Speech. The direct address voice-over can control the meaning of a commercial. Voice-overs can also personalise the commercial, assuming a relationship with the viewer. The television advertisement also gains dramatic qualities that it shares with other television drama genres. This sets it apart from newspaper and billboard advertising, and many internet banners and pop-ups. • Dramatic action. Many advertisements with a micro-format structure follow the traditional structure of the dramatic narrative. They have an orientation stage, a complications stage and a resolution stage — all in 30 seconds. • Demonstrative action. Television commercials are the next best thing to the door-to-door salesperson. The break in the main program is their ‘foot in the door’. They offer the chance to demonstrate the product in action in the consumer’s own home. • Symbolism. A symbol is anything that is used to suggest or stand for something else. The dove is a symbol of peace, for example. Advertisements rely on symbols more heavily than any other media form. This is because of the symbol’s ability to communicate a message quickly, emotionally and powerfully. • Music and sound. Commercials are brief and intensive television events. Music and sound are very important parts of the message. Music can provide the mood and establish the plot, characters and action. Music also links scenes and can lead the commercial to a strong conclusion.

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‘There needs to be discipline. Creativity does not come out of a vacuum, but is the end result of a mind being programmed with all the component parts of the problem (marketing objective, product benefit, consumer attitude, competitive activity). To honour all these disciplines in one simple and memorable idea is not so much the result of dreaming as of sweating.’ (The late) Peter Heathwood, Creative Director, George Patterson Bates

Interrogating the product Knowledge of the product is the first stage in writing a television commercial. The copywriters of the television commercial repeatedly ask themselves questions about the product. How new is it? How and where is it made? What is it used for?

Figure 13.35: 4HE AWARD WINNING kDANCING TRANSFORMERl COMMERCIAL FOR THE #ITROÂN # WAS üLMED WITH THE HELP OF *USTIN 4IMBERLAKElS CHOREOGRAPHER -ARTY +UDELKA -OTION SENSORS WERE PLACED ALL OVER +UDELKAS BODY TO RECORD THE DANCE MOVEMENTS 4HE ANIMATION TEAM THEN kATTACHEDl THE TRANSFORMER IN POST PRODUCTION 4HE THEME OF THE AD SUPPORTS THE YOUTH ORIENTED TARGET MARKET 4HE VISUALS LEAD TO THE TAGLINE k!LIVE WITH TECHNOLOGYl AND BUILD THE IMAGE OF THE #ITROÂN AS A TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED CAR

Creating the television advertisement Getting the idea

MEDIA

Although the flash of inspiration has its place in advertising, the process of composing an advertisement involves many considerations. The usual procedure is for the advertising team, including a writer and an art director, to be supplied with a range of information about the client and the future commercial. This would include details about the product, the potential consumer, the time and length of the commercial, and the size of the budget. Armed with this information, they can begin to formulate their ideas.

• Is it new? – New invention: a new product may open up a market that did not exist before. – New model: this could be a refinement of an existing product. – New feature: an existing product could have an added feature. • How is the product made? – The ingredients: the product may have some special ingredient that would appeal to people. – The manufacturing process: how the product is made can be something that appeals to consumers. – The reputation of the company: many people will buy a product because they have faith in the company. • Where is it made? An unusual place of origin can become a selling point. • What are its uses and features?

The key selling point The key selling point is an aspect of the product that makes it different from its competitors. The difference can be real or imagined. Claude Hopkins once wrote a toothpaste slogan that stated ‘Gets rid of film on teeth’. All toothpaste gets rid of film on teeth; even just a brush will do that. Hopkins said it first and so it appeared to be a special feature of his product. The key selling point can be highlighted by creating a problem and allowing the product to solve it, by showing the results of using the product, or by


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showing the results of not using the product. It is most common for a commercial to show the good things that happen when the product is being used. Detergents get out stains; drinks provide satisfaction. Some commercials reverse this and show the bad or amusing things that can happen when the product is not used. Collars are still grey, hair is still stringy and so on, until the product is used — with amazing results. Commercials must establish a feeling of need in their audience. Consumers must be made to feel they need the product. With a product that is not essential, or a product line in which there are many competing brands on the market, the ad writer appeals to basic human desires. With toothpaste and soap advertising, for example, the need to be clean is often passed over in favour of the desire to be attractive to the opposite sex.

The consumer Advertisers need to know the customers and their hopes and aspirations. Who uses the product? Where? How often? Why? Research can provide a lot of the answers. The right audience can be a bonanza for the advertisers. ‘We now ask: where is the gold so I can go dig there?’ says Ian Elliot of George Patterson Bates. ‘The older style approach was to just dig holes somewhere in the middle of anywhere.’

Identity or image of a product The aim of advertising is to help make products appear as pleasing as possible, whether or not they are actually of use or benefit to anyone. Most products face competitors that are much the same as they are. To survive, the product must be given an identity or personality.

‘The process commences with market research when groups of people in the target market are questioned in order to find out their attitudes, emotions, likes and dislikes. ‘The next step for the advertising agent is to find aspects of the product that can fit into that system of belief or emotions. ‘The creation of the “image” is stimulation to get a response from the potential consumers and working out what response you want so people buy the product. ‘In this way, we built up an image for Tia Maria, bringing to mind those romantic dinners women in the target market fantasised about having 20 years ago. The advertising was designed to get a response to romance and elegance in terms the women in the target market understood.’ Geoff Wild, Chairman and CEO, Ogilvy & Mather

‘ “Identity” or “personality” are better words than “image”, which has about it connotations of unreality and lack of substance. ‘First, use market research regularly to establish what the most favourable identity should be and what the current one is. Then use creativity as the tool to turn the one into the other. ‘The “Come on Aussie come on” television commercials reshaped the identity of oneday cricket by putting back into it the magic ingredient of patriotism (and by using powerfully emotional anthemic music to do this). This was the identity that cricket had when your dad used to sit up all night listening to shortwave English test broadcasts. It had just got lost along the way. Newspaper ads that said “Watch the white ball fly” were replaced with “Come on Aussie” and empty stands filled overnight.’ (The late) Peter Heathwood, Creative Director, George Patterson Bates

Types of signifiers One way to achieve an identity is through the use of signifiers, or objects that have a special significance for the audience. For example, a yacht can signify wealth and leisure. Signifiers include: • The brand name. Even though constant repetition can be irritating, most advertisement writers repeat the brand name as often as possible. A 30-second commercial can contain anywhere from 5 to 15 mentions of the product name. The main purpose of this is to burn the brand name into the listener’s brain. • Slogans. Catchy slogans are a good way to make the audience remember the advertisement. Techniques of poetry are useful in slogan writing. Poetry is easier to learn than prose, and this principle is used to advantage in advertising. • Use of ordinary language. Commercial writers use words and phrases the audience is sure to understand. The main ideas are always expressed simply and in familiar terms. • Adjectives and verbs. Writers often use double adjectives to add power to their statements while keeping them short. Bread becomes ‘oven-fresh’ and grapes are ‘sun-ripened’. The choice of verb in a commercial is very important because verbs suggest action. Advertisement writers substitute strong action verbs for weak ones.

Humour Research shows that humour attracts attention and helps the audience remember the message. Humorous advertisements also create a positive mood, and this may increase the power of the ad to persuade.

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‘Humour must come out of the brand. It can’t fit a dozen other products. Humour has to create a point of view about the product.’ Manning Rubin, former advertising executive, J. Walter Thompson Co.

‘Humour grows out of the idea. It is not the punchline, but the telling of the joke. It must bear repetition, so little touches are needed to give the viewer something different to look for each time.’ Joe Sedelmaier, advertising copywriter

Pictures tell the story When television fi rst began, it was thought of as radio with pictures. The dream of radio listeners had been answered — they could now see as well as hear their favourite programs. Advertisers still relied on words to do the selling. Pictures were thought to be of lesser importance. Today advertisers rely on pictures to tell the story. What they show is often more important than what they say. Words are still important, and because there are often so few of them they must be chosen carefully. However, more than half the weight of the message is carried by the pictures. Try watching a commercial with the sound off. More than likely the pictures will still tell the story and the advertising message will be conveyed almost as clearly.

Editing Commercials are rarely made up of just a few shots and scenes. A feature of commercials is the large number of different shots crammed together in a very short space of time. A 30-second commercial may have as many as 30 or 40 separate shots and five or six scenes. The opening seconds of a commercial are vital. These either grab and hold viewers’ attention or send them off to the bathroom. A visual surprise in the fi rst shot is often used to grab attention. Close-ups are a feature of television commercials. Showing details provides an answer to the consumers’ demand to examine the product. In commercials for food, the closer the shot, the more viewers’ mouths water.

Jingles and music ‘When you’ve got nothing to say, sing it!’ is an old saying among advertisers. There have been some very effective jingles, and some lyrics have even entered our daily vocabulary. Two popular ways of using jingles are as a simple sign-off (e.g. Toyota’s ‘Oh what a feeling!’) and as a full jingle soundtrack. Music in advertising is not restricted to jingles. With television air time so expensive, advertisers want music with instant impact. Well-known pop songs are often used in commercials to take advantage of the good feelings they generate in the target audience. It may cost four times as much to buy the rights to an old hit as to write an original jingle, but advertisers do not mind the price. Songs full of memories don’t take time to grow on people. Original jingles cannot produce the same impact. Music recording companies have whole departments devoted to recommending and fi nding tracks for commercials. One company has a computer classification of more than 20 000 song titles crossreferenced to contain every word an advertising agency could need. For example, if a real estate company wants a song with the word ‘house’ in it, a list of at least 50 songs can be provided.

Representations and discourses The marketing environment advertisers face today is a complex one. Public perspectives and discourses are constantly changing, and if advertisers fail to keep up with these shifts they risk the success of their products. Consumers can make a lot of noise if they complain about ads. The successful participation of an ad in the appropriate discourses can be evaluated as follows: • Sales reports and marketing research surveys • Letters of complaint or thanks • Retailer feedback • Boycotts, public outcries and protests by interest groups • Whether the ad gets adopted into general public speech (e.g. Nike’s ‘Just do it’).

MEDIA

Figure 13.36: #LOSE UPS ARE A FEATURE OF FOOD AND DRINK COMMERCIALS &OOD IN MOTION LOOKS PARTICULARLY GOOD !DVERTISERS SHOW SAUCE BEING POURED OR STRAWBERRIES BEING DIPPED )N THIS ANIMATED ADVERTISEMENT FOR 3UNRICE !USTRALIA RICE FORMS AND RE FORMS INTO ALL KINDS OF DIFFERENT SHAPES


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Advertising participates in and helps to shape a large number of discourses. The main discourse of television advertising overall is that of consumerism. Consumerism is the faith that purchasing consumer products will lead to happiness. Discourses are also specific to the target audience. Advertising discourse is made complex because it is based on appeals to different audience demographics (see page 152). Rather than an overall stance on anything, there is a vast range of possible approaches based on appeals to different groupings of people. For information on representation in television advertising, see page 58.

Intertextuality Commentator Phillip Adams once referred to television advertisements as ‘little 30-second pieces of cultural baggage’. The more cultural associations an ad can bring to an audience, the better the response to the product. Intertextuality (see page 9) refers to the way a text cross-references other texts. Advertising is one of the heaviest users of intertextuality as a technique of production in itself. Intertextuality in advertising can be achieved in a variety of ways to bring associations to the minds of the audience within a limited time frame.

‘To argue that Nike is a heroic brand is to link these brand meanings to a long history of warrior archetypes that have populated the world’s literature. Nike’s success purportedly derives from consumers’ favourable feelings toward the meanings of strength, bravery, nobility, and achievement on the athletic field (i.e. battlefield) encoded in its heroic brand image.’ Craig Thompson, writing in the Journal of Consumer Research

Culture jamming Culture jamming is a way of inserting radical messages into the discourses of mainstream society. Since television advertisements are one of the main ways in which big business, government and mainstream society establish their discourses, ads are often the targets of culture jammers. Comedy programs send up ads and this weakens their message. But some activist groups set out to totally change the ads. Thus Nike’s ‘Just do it!’ campaign becomes ‘Just stop it!’ Or, in response to Nike’s notorious use of cheap off-shore labour, ‘Just do it — or else!’ Well-known culture jamming groups include the anti-consumerist Canadian magazine Adbusters and the feminist activist group Guerrilla Girls.

Activities 1. Find examples of advertisements on television

2.

3.

4.

5.

that seem to have been created as micro-formats. The micro-format commercials follow the key conventions of the mainstream television programs they interrupt. Describe the scenes that represent the main stages of the progress of the mini-genre or micro-format. View a collection of television advertisements and classify them according to the main types of ads. Evaluate each ad for its effectiveness. Film and edit a 30-second ad for a product of your choice. Select the appropriate advertisement type and decide on an approach that suits the product. Find a product that you have not seen advertised on television. Ask yourself about the product, using the four questions listed on page 373. From your answers, make notes that might be used to create an idea for a television advertisement. Analyse a television commercial that attempts to build up an identity for the product, using the following questions: (a) What is the favourable identity the advertiser is trying to create? (b) What group in society is the image aimed at?

(c) What signifiers help to build up the image and are a clear indication of the appeal to the target audience? Make a list. (d) What aspects of the product fit the image created by the advertiser?

WRITTEN TASK 6. Prepare a 600-word report on a single commercial

or a collection of two or three commercials. Report on the key selling point of the commercial, the decorative periphery and the rational core. Discuss the representation of people, ideas, places or events in the commercial. Explain some of the discourses you can see evidence of. Report on the apparent target audience and discuss the appeal the commercial makes to this audience. Conclude with your own evaluation of the effectiveness of the commercial.

PRODUCTION TASK 7. Make a television advertisement storyboard for a

client of your choice. On a separate sheet include a description of the product you are advertising, and explain the key selling point, the image you are trying to project and the market you are hoping to appeal to.

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Reality television ‘In the future, everybody will be famous for 15 minutes.’ Andy Warhol (1928–1987), pop artist and avant-garde filmmaker (statement made in 1968)

Reality television shows have proven to be incredibly popular with audiences. The fi nal episode of The Block (2003) was Australia’s most watched television broadcast since the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Before that, only one other television broadcast had had a bigger audience — the funeral of Princess Diana.

What is reality TV? Reality television is a broad category that includes a wide range of programs aiming to be both factual and entertaining. There are various defi nitions. The creator of the Survivor format, Charlie Parsons, defi nes reality TV as shows containing ‘producer created environments that control contestant behaviour’. But this defi nition excludes, for example, emergency services and police force programs. Television reviewer Kerrie Murphy has a broader defi nition. She says reality TV generally involves fi lming the actions and reactions of people in a set situation. This situation can be a natural one, as in Airport (UK, 1996–present), or it can be completely contrived, as in Big Brother. Jonathon Bignell defi nes reality TV as programs ‘where the unscripted behaviour of ordinary people is the focus of interest’. An important aspect is the comprehensive monitoring of everyday behaviour. The boundaries to the reality television genre are blurred. Some programs, such as Big Brother, are like sitcoms. Contestants are trapped together under one roof in the same way as characters in a flat-share sitcom. Others, such as Border Security (2006) or Airport, are more like soap operas or dramas. Some reality programs resemble documentaries while others have characteristics in common with talk shows or game shows. Programs such as Australian Idol are like talent quests. An important factor that separates reality television from other genres based on real-life contestants is the focus on their private thoughts and reactions to the situations.

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Types of reality television Different types of reality television have developed as a result of the use of elements from other genres.

• Observational docusoap. ‘Fly on the wall’ docusoap reality television combines observational documentary (see page 205) with the dramatic conventions of soap opera (see page 333). The camera observes people in their everyday lives. Docusoaps are often based on high-stress work situations such as border security, law enforcement or medical emergency. Docusoap reality television has its roots in cinéma-vérité documentary (see page 205). • Formulated docusoap. These reality shows take people out of their own worlds and place them in a formulated or specially constructed environment to see how they behave, says Kerrie Murphy. The Big Brother format is an example of a formulated docusoap. So too are the shows that place modern people in specially reconstructed historical settings. • Reality game shows. Some analysts call these types of programs ‘gamedocs’. As in formulated docusoaps, contestants are placed in a demanding artificial situation. However, says Kerrie Murphy, an extra element of competition is introduced together with the threat of elimination. The Survivor format is an example of a reality game show. Big Brother also fits into this subgenre. • Lifestyle reality. Ordinary people and their lifestyles are transformed by experts, who make them extraordinary in lifestyle reality shows. It’s not the winning of a prize but the ‘reveal’ of the transformation that is the climax of the show. ‘It’s the reaction, not the action that matters,’ says Annette Hill of the University of Westminster. • Talent show reality. Reality shows based around talent quests differ from conventional talent quests in that they focus on the participants’ lives during the quest. An example is Australian Idol. • Clipshow reality. Clipshows are made up of amateur video clips sent in by audience members — often for prize money. An example is Australia’s Funniest Home Videos. Clips of surveillance video or CCTV footage from crime scenes are another variation.

Context Reality-based entertainment has a history as long as human civilisation’s. It ranges from harmless ‘people watching’ to the depravity of Roman circuses. On the big screen, the fi rst fi lms of the Lumière brothers in the 1890s (see page 220) could be called reality-based entertainment. They showed ordinary people going


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about their daily lives — clocking off at a factory or catching a train. The first reality television show is generally agreed to be the American comedy program Candid Camera (1948). The show used hidden cameras to film unsuspecting ordinary people faced with odd or embarrassing situations — such as a coin glued to a footpath or a talking mailbox (that only they could hear). When the embarrassment reached its peak, the camera would be revealed with the line, ‘Smile, you’re on Candid Camera!’ The cold war period during the 1950s and 1960s increased public anxieties about spies, hidden bugging devices and secret surveillance. Candid Camera humorously tapped into this anxiety. Smaller, lighter cameras made possible the cinémavérité style of documentary in the 1960s. This, in turn, created interest in other types of ‘fly on the wall’ observational entertainment. An American Family (1973) was the first program to use cinéma-vérité techniques to record family life in a long-running series. As it turned out, the show recorded a painful and unplanned family break-up. Cops (1989) and Crimewatch UK are credited with kickstarting the latest wave of reality television programming. Like Candid Camera, modern reality television is a product of a surveillance culture. Nowadays CCTV security cameras and mobile phone cameras mean we are constantly observed. In the form of the reality television program, surveillance has now become entertainment.

‘Reality TV is format based and can be successfully franchised globally. A format is a tried and true program template that is proven to appeal to a large audience. This lessens the financial risk to the producers.’ Sarah Malcolm, author of a PhD thesis on reality television narrative, Flinders University

‘Reality television is suited to adaptation because once you’ve made the adjustments the show becomes local,’ says Kerrie Murphy. She cites Southern Star Endemol producer Paul Romer: ‘When you put twelve Aussies in a house it’s a typical Australian format. When you put twelve Italians in the house it will be a typical Italian format. It works all over the world because the content is being decided by the people inside the house.’ Not only can global formats be repackaged using local content. Most reality television is much cheaper to produce. It is true that high-budget programs such as Big Brother or Survivor have expensive upfront costs. However, programs are often more than a third cheaper than equivalent prime-time drama.

The exportable formats and the cheap production costs suited the changed landscape of the television institutions of the late 1980s and 1990s. Many public service broadcasters had their funding cut back (see page 109). At the same time television markets around the world — especially in Europe and New Zealand — were being deregulated, and commercial operators were in a rush to compete with one another. Low-cost reality television suited small, newly deregulated markets such as New Zealand, the Netherlands and even Australia. As a result, a large number of the successful reality television formats have been devised outside of the United States. Americans came late to the genre, but brought high-budget productions when they did.

Features of reality television Reality television programs vary considerably; however, most display some if not all of the following features. • Real-life participants. Much of the appeal of reality television is that it is based around real people, not actors playing parts. But because this is television, there is an inevitable tendency to create characters out of these people, says Sarah Malcolm of Flinders University. • Unscripted performance. People being themselves is the basis of the genre. The programs are largely unscripted, although that does not mean that producers can’t deliberately set up situations. A narrative structure is usually imposed on the reallife events, but it is created during the editing and isn’t necessarily there from the outset. • Voice-over narration. The actions of the participants are explained to the audience through the use of voice-over narration. Mostly this narration is in the present tense and is about what is happening as we watch. The narrator adopts an informal style. • Observation/surveillance. Like the documentary, reality television relies on observation. But in these shows it is taken one step further to become actual, sometimes intrusive surveillance — around the clock. For professor of media studies Mark Andrejevic, this is a natural outcome of the culture of CCTV we live in now. Reality television is suggesting that surveillance can be fun! • Voyeurism. A voyeur is a peeping tom. Many commentators believe that reality television has moved beyond surveillance into voyeurism. Audiences are positioned as peeping toms who gain pleasure from the exhibitionism of the participants. There is also voyeuristic pleasure to be gained from knowing the emotions displayed are real. If someone is crying, for instance, it means they are really upset.

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• Audience participation. What was unique about reality television when it took the world by storm in the 1990s was its use of audience participation. Fans were more than observers — they became participants in the narrative. Because they could influence the outcome of shows such as Big Brother, viewers to some extent became producers. Audience participation also proved to be an effective way of enticing viewers to become committed fans. Some analysts suggest that reality shows offer the chance for a renewed interest in ordinary people. Just as new digital media have partly democratised communications, reality television has partly opened up the traditional media. However, says Mark Andrejevic, the power relations between the audience and the producers remain essentially unchanged. The television producers still have the real power in creating the format. The audience merely votes on who wins. • Convergent technologies. Reality formats are also designed to utilise convergent media technologies, such as the internet and the mobile phone, says Sarah Malcolm. In the early days of reality television, viewers were enthusiastic. For example, the first Big Brother website in the Netherlands recorded 52 million hits in its first three months

online. (There are only 15 million people in the Netherlands.) Viewer voting by phone keeps audiences involved, and the phone charges are another big revenue stream for the production company. • Big event television. Many reality television programs become media events in themselves. They can generate major ‘moral panics’ in the community. They receive lots of newspaper coverage and sometimes even get mentioned in Parliament. For example, Big Brother scandals have been the subject of criticism from the prime ministers of both Australia and the UK.

Plot ‘The significant thing we have done is try to emulate the pace and grammar of the soap opera. This means you can come into a scene two-thirds of the way through it as long as you know what the plot line is.’ Peter Abbott, Executive Producer, Big Brother

Real life is not a narrative — although it can lend itself to being made into one. Reality television uses the narrative structures of soap operas to give shape to the events on camera.

MEDIA

Figure 13.37: -ANY REALITY SHOWS SUCH AS "IG "ROTHER RELY ON THE PUBLICITY GENERATED BY THE SCANDALS THAT CROP UP EACH SEASON !CCORDING TO 4ONI *OHNSON 7OODS OF THE 5NIVERSITY OF 1UEENSLAND !USTRALIAN "IG "ROTHER SCANDALS HAVE MOSTLY BEEN OF A SEXUAL NATURE 4HEY HAVE NOT INVOLVED THE VIOLENCE OR RACISM THAT HAVE OCCURRED ELSEWHERE


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The programs are often divided into segments in between the ads. Each segment may have two to three stories that run for a few minutes each. Although soap operas do not have as many stories in each segment, the use of multiple story lines is similar. Reality shows also use rotating plot lines in the same way as soap operas (see page 336). The plot lines are often based on developing relationships between the different characters — just like soap operas. Parallel editing or simultaneous time is another way of imposing a narrative structure on reality. If events are happening in parallel, there is a tendency to see them as connected in some way. ‘The narrative structure of soap opera reinforces the sense of immediacy and reality by appearing to unfold in real time,’ says Sarah Malcolm. Malcolm believes the future of reality television may well lie in the merging of reality show narratives with the plots of immersive video games. ‘Reality in this type of narrative may take on more of the characteristics of virtual reality. The television of the future may well be a screen window on a performative world of virtual reality.’

Character ‘Most reality television is built entirely around character, not plot,’ says Jonathan Bignell. For most fans the attraction of the programs is in following the characters and gradually getting to know the kind of people they are. The climaxes in the narrative are often built around moments of self-disclosure or revelations about identity.

Casting is often a long process that involves finding real people who have the characteristics the producers are searching for. Often people are chosen because they fit into certain dramatic character types. For instance, there may be characters who represent villains or heroes. Other people may be cast because they are likely to provoke conflict or perhaps even create headlines. Celebrities are increasingly used in reality television. Part of the reason for this is that they are instantly recognisable. They come to the program with a personality that is already known to the public. But key moments in the program, says Jonathan Bignell, are when the celebrity’s public personality is stripped away to reveal the real person underneath. ‘If reality television offers to make stars out of ordinary people, it also offers to make real people out of stars,’ says Mark Andrejevic. The host or narrator plays an important role in reality shows. The narrator establishes the narrative by interpreting the events for the audience. While editing helps establish the narrative behind the scenes, the narrator has the public role of making sense of people’s actions.

Setting The settings used for reality television programs are most often closed systems. In this respect they are similar to soap operas or situation comedies. Observational docusoaps are usually set in a ‘small world’ with a familiar set of characters. These characters interact with a constant flow of incoming

Figure 13.38: 2EALITY TELEVISION LOCATIONS ARE DESIGNED TO FORCE CONTESTANTS INTO THE SORT OF BEHAVIOUR THAT MAKES GOOD TELEVISION

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strangers. Police docusoaps, customs and national security shows, and emergency services reality programs all work in this way. Often the professional community has a ‘them against us’ siege mentality that helps to unite the lead characters. Formulated docusoaps and programs based on game shows tend to operate within closed systems. In the case of Big Brother, for example, the closed system is a specially built house that is sealed off from the rest of the community. These locations are specially designed to force contestants to live in certain ways. For example, the Big Brother house has mixed-gender shared bedrooms that encourage housemates to form couple relationships. At the other extreme, the Survivor format uses locations that force contestants to undergo physical challenges.

Audience ‘The more you watched the program, the more you knew about all the inmates, their personal traits, the ways they interacted with each other. Just as in soap operas, the more you watched the more expert you became in evaluating character and behaviour.’ Paddy Scannell, Professor of Communication Studies. University of Michigan

MEDIA

Just as soap opera audiences are said to follow the characters in the manner of a ‘spectator sport’, so too do reality television fans. Sports fans enjoy the tactics of the game play and know the rules in the sort of detail that outsiders struggle to understand. Soap opera fans know the idiosyncrasies of their favourite characters like sports fans know the rules of the game. Reality television viewers follow characters and come to know their tactics in much the same way. Part of the pleasure of watching reality shows is in the interpretation of a moment as being ‘real’. Viewers decide something is real through a combination of their knowledge about the characters and the understanding they have about themselves, says Jennifer Gillan, of Bentley College, Boston. They match up how the contestant is acting according to how they themselves would act in the same situation, says Annette Hill. A survey of 8000 people conducted by Annette Hill found that people watched shows such as Big Brother for two reasons. First, because the programs were popular with others and everyone else seemed to be watching them, viewers felt they had to watch as well. The programs gave people something to talk about in social groups at school or at work.

Second, reality TV audiences valued the moment when someone revealed his or her true self on television. Hill called this ‘the moment of authenticity when real people are really themselves in an unreal environment’.

Representations and discourses At first audiences accepted the promise of reality television at face value. However, recent surveys show that nowadays as many as 70 per cent of people think the stories on the shows are too contrived or exaggerated.

Representations ‘The overriding rule is that reality TV bears about as close a relationship to reality as one of those banana lollies does to an actual banana.’ Kerrie Murphy, television reviewer

Several factors guarantee that reality television is in fact quite unreal — almost as unreal as many fictional programs. These include the following: • Settings are specially built and sealed off from the real world in formulated docusoaps and reality game shows. • People and personalities are not a randomly chosen representative sample but are purposely picked to create good drama. • A narrative is imposed over real events, sometimes distorting reality significantly.

Discourses While the discourses of reality television are as diverse as the formats on offer, there are some clusters around particular types of discourses, including: • Personal identity. To be open and honest about your inner self is regarded as one of the foremost virtues of reality television. Participants often speak in terms of finding their ‘real’ identities on the shows. As part of this discourse, housemates on Big Brother, for example, even participate in ‘confessionals’ with Big Brother and the audience. • Friendship and intimacy. A common discourse in formulated docusoaps is around the idea of sharing of identity through friendship and intimacy. • Personal bests. Discourses around personal achievement and success are common in all reality television shows but especially in game show and talent show formats.


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Reality TV timeline 1948

Candid Camera (US)

1949

Big Brother (novel)

1964

1964–present Up! documentary series (UK)

1973

An American Family (US)

1974

The Family (UK)

1976

Network (film predicts future use of reality shows to

1950s–1960s 1950s–1960s ‘Surveillance society’ is a product of cold war fear-mongering, but technology limited.

Early genre developments are influenced by the documentary genre, game shows and prank shows (e.g. Candid Camera). Cinéma-vérité style in documentary is made possible by reductions in camera size.

boost ratings)

1980s–1990s Countries with small television markets (e.g. New Zealand, Belgium, the Netherlands and Australia) develop low-cost reality TV concepts. Increase in popular concerns about ‘law and order’. Rise in reality TV shows with policing themes (e.g. Cops) Webcams used to broadcast the daily lives of ordinary people on the internet.

Late 1980s–1990s

1984

1984–present Crimewatch (UK)

1989

1989–present Cops (US, influential in establishing genre

Interest in docusoap grows following Sylvania Waters. Emergency services and police reality shows become popular as infotainment. Cops (US) and Crimewatch (UK) do much to establish the genre, especially in their use of handheld camcorders. Reality TV franchises established (e.g. Big Brother). Genre convention of active audience participation also established.

conventions) 1990

1990–present Australia’s Funniest Home Videos (Aus.)

1991

Trojan Room Coffee Pot — first webcam, used by computer scientists to check if coffee was brewing in the pot upstairs Nummer 28 (Dutch precursor to Big Brother)

1992

Sylvania Waters (Aus.)

1996

Jennifer Ringley webcam — first 24/7 broadcast of daily life

Pay television makes significant inroads into free-to-air TV audiences, creating need for a new and cheap form of free-to-air programming.

Changing Rooms (UK, said to be first home renovation reality program) 1996–present Airport (UK) 1999

Big Brother (Netherlands, first of the franchise) Popstars (NZ)

2000–present 2000–present Increased use of surveillance cameras in shopping malls and public spaces to combat crime and possible terrorism. Technology no longer a barrier to surveillance society. House price booms create interest in home renovation reality programs. US producers take on reality TV, drawing on big budgets for expensive settings and high production values.

Reality TV shows are seen to ‘push the boundaries’ of safety and good taste. For example, Fear Factor contestants are made to eat maggots and Big Brother is involved in a number of publicity-seeking scandals. Increasing number of programs follow the exploits of community service officials and paraprofessionals.

2000

Castaway (UK), Backyard Blitz (Aus.)

2001

Fear Factor (US), Pop Idol (UK)

2002

I’m a Celebrity Get Me Out of Here (UK) 2002–2007 Extreme Makeover (US), The Osbournes (UK)

2003

American Idol (US), Australian Idol (Aus.) The Block (Aus.) Queer Eye for the Straight Guy (US)

2004

Border Security (Aus.), Supernanny (UK), The Biggest Loser (US),

2006

The Force (Aus.) Liberal/National MPs criticise sleaze on Big Brother Adults Only. 2006–2007 Bondi Rescue (Aus.) 2006–2007 Saving Babies (Aus.)

2007

Carbon Cops (Aus.)

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Activities 1. Select one of the global formats of reality television,

2.

3.

4.

5.

such as Big Brother, and research the differences between programs in different parts of the world. Discuss possible reasons for these differences and what they tell you about the tastes of different national audiences. Comment on the similarities as well. How significant are the differences when compared with the similarities? Make a list of situations in which reality television participants have complained that the editing significantly changed the nature of events as they actually happened. Explain how these changes may have helped sensationalise the narrative. Some analysts refer to reality shows as ‘event television’, because many of the shows become headlines and news stories in themselves. Make a timeline of news events or scandals arising out of a chosen reality program. If possible, illustrate the timeline with headlines and images from other media. List some key ‘moments of revelation’ (when characters have revealed something about their true selves) you can remember from reality shows. You have been asked to cast a celebrity reality program in which the participants occupy a closed, formulated environment. Prepare an initial cast list based on the known personalities of ten celebrities. Select characters based on the goal of creating possible conflict and controversial interactions.

PRODUCTION TASK 6. Devise a reality television format and present the

concept as a ‘pitch’ to production executives. Your format should provide the basic premise (idea), a location, a preliminary set of rules and suggestions as to how the show will progress from beginning to end. Your pitch should include the format together with a proposed target audience and possible advertisers.

WRITTEN TASK 7. Analyse the discourses and social values that seem

to be present within a reality television program of your choice (see discourses, page 192). Make a list of the discourses that both the participants and the host appear to be involved in and then discuss the different positions the program takes. For instance, these could be discourses about friendship, teamwork and loyalty versus individual competitiveness, materialism and greed. There could also be discourses about masculinity, femininity, youth and age, sexuality, permissiveness and so on. Explain how the different discourses on the program seem to be received in the outside world. Outline any opposing points of view and provide details as to where they appear. Conclude with your own view of the discourses.

MEDIA


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The internet

The medium of the internet ‘It becomes clear that we’re entering a new era, the post-internet age, a world in which the Net will be everywhere, like the air we breathe, and we’ll take it for granted. It will be neither the glossy nirvana of technophilic dreams nor the dystopia of traditionalist nightmares. It will look a lot like today — but with higher contrast, sharper focus, and a wide-angle lens.’ Bruce Sterling, science fiction author and futurist

The internet is widely acknowledged to be the most influential communication development since Gutenberg invented the printing press in the 1450s. It may be the most ‘hyped’ communication medium ever developed. The growth of the internet has taken everyone by surprise. It is certainly the fastest growing medium yet recorded. The fi rst website was published in August 1991. In 1995 almost 19 000 sites were online. In late 2006 the 100 millionth website was launched.

Figure 14.1: 4HE üRST 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB PAGE PUBLISHED IN !UGUST WAS AN INSTRUCTIONAL SITE EXPLAINING HOW TO BUILD OTHER WEBSITES 4HE AUTHOR 4IM "ERNERS ,EE PIONEERED THE WEB AT #%2. THE %UROPEAN /RGANISATION FOR .UCLEAR 2ESEARCH


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Telecommunication companies have found their systems straining under the pressure of so many users. Governments have not yet been able to implement effective regulation or censorship. The business sector has not been able to fully capitalise or control it through ownership, as they have other media forms (see media ownership, page 116). The internet has grown from just a few academic users in the early 1990s to an audience expected to reach 2.8 billion by 2010, including 14.18 million in Australia (10 million classified as regular users).

What is the internet? The internet refers to the hardware and equipment required to use and operate the vast connected network of websites and other electronic resources, as well as defining the communication media that the physical internet enables.

In the 1980s the Computer Science Research Network was added to the global network, giving researchers remote access to costly supercomputers housed at large US universities. Each one of the universities then added its own networks to the system, further increasing its power. In the early 1990s commercial interests gained access to the system, and this opened the internet to the general public. The internet now runs on networks operated by major telecommunication, internet, computer and media companies as well as academic networks. No one organisation in any one country has overarching control.

Who governs the internet? Technical control and management of the internet continues to rest with the US government and with institutions charged by the government. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (or ICANN) is the agency that handles the day-to-day tasks related to maintaining and controlling the internet and internet traffic. It is not a regulator, however.

How the internet works

Figure 14.2: 4HE üRST WEB IMAGE PUBLISHED IN WAS OF A ROCK GROUP FROM #%2. ,ES (ORRIBLES #ERNETTES 4HE (ORRIBLE #%2. 'IRLS WHO SING ABOUT HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS !CCORDING TO THEIR WEBSITE THE GROUP ARE STILL LOVED BY PHYSICISTS WORLDWIDE

The development of the internet

MEDIA

The internet had its origins in a 1969 US Department of Defense computer network called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Network) that allowed contractors and universities undertaking military research to exchange information. It was deliberately constructed as a ‘decentralised’ network — that is, there was no central computer in control; instead, all the connected terminals contributed to its overall power and security. In the event that a military attack destroyed part of the network, the rest would continue functioning.

The internet is accessed through an internet service provider (ISP). Subscribers buy access using the ISP’s ‘gateway’. This gateway is usually an optical fibre cable link to the intercontinental telephone and data cables that run across the ocean floor. Information is transmitted in digital form as tiny ‘packets’ of data. Text, image, video or audio files are broken up into small packets and transmitted bit by bit from one machine to another, where it is reassembled. Each packet represents only a tiny part of the huge amounts of information being sent. Packet switching, routing pieces of data simultaneously through multiple connections, overcame telephone system limitations, making the internet a reality. While the World Wide Web (WWW) was developed by Tim Berners-Lee and CERN (the European Organisation for Nuclear Research) in 1991, it was the 1993 creation by Marc Andreesen of the Mosaic internet browser using simple-to-write HTML (hypertext markup language) that spurred the internet’s popularity.

A many-to-many medium The internet is the first mass media form to allow individual users to select the content they wish to view. It also allows each user to interact with other users and contribute content directly. While radio and television broadcasters communicate to audiences of millions, on the internet millions of people communicate with millions of other people. The internet is a ‘many-tomany’ medium.



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There are two main ways of using the internet. 1. As a viewer. Users explore the internet, visiting ‘sites’, subscribing to content feeds or downloading content for later consumption. They can use the internet much like an interactive newspaper, book, video game console or television. Internet content may contain text, images, video, audio, interactivity or games. The internet also allows the user to access services such as banking or other online applications such as data storage and office suites including word processing and spreadsheets. Uses of the internet become broader and more innovative every year.

2. As a broadcaster. Users create their own content with information they wish to share with others around the world. Interactive group discussion through ‘chat’ networks, blogs or content-sharing sites can also allow users to broadcast their opinions, experience, talent or knowledge to people anywhere in the world. Many traditional media companies such as newspapers are allowing users to contribute content to their online editions in ways that they haven’t previously with their broadcast product. Many internet sites have been created to share usergenerated content and build on its popularity. Figure 14.3 (LEFT): ! PARTIAL MAP OF THE INTERNET CREATED BY -ATT "RITT USING DATA FROM THE /PTE 0ROJECT 4HE DECENTRALISED NATURE OF THE NETWORK IS APPARENT 2EMOVING A COUPLE OF MAJOR COMPUTERS WILL NOT STOP ALL THE OTHER COMPUTERS FROM BEING ABLE TO COMMUNICATE 4HE MAP IS COLOUR CODED DARK BLUE REPRESENTS THE 53 #ANADA AND NET SITES RED IS MILITARY GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION YELLOW IS *APAN #HINA 4AIWAN !USTRALIA AND 'ERMANY MAGENTA IS THE 5+ )TALY &RANCE AND 0OLAND GREEN IS "RAZIL 3OUTH +OREA AND THE .ETHERLANDS WHITE IS kUNKNOWNl

Figure 14.4 (BELOW): 4HE INTERNET COMMUNICATES BY SENDING TINY kPACKETSl OF INFORMATION FROM ONE MACHINE TO ANOTHER %ACH PACKET OF INFORMATION IS VIRTUALLY INDISTINGUISHABLE FROM ITS NEIGHBOURS AND IS IDENTIüED BY ONLY TWO ELEMENTS 4HE üRST IS THE HEADER WHICH CONTAINS THE DELIVERY DESTINATION AND SENDERlS ADDRESS 4HE SECOND IS THE PACKET NUMBER WHICH THE DESTINATION COMPUTER NEEDS TO PUT EVERYTHING BACK TOGETHER AGAIN Data storage computer

Local cables

Information

International gateway

Undersea cables

International gateway

Local cables

Telephone line ISP

User’s computer

Copy of information

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Internet timeline

Technology and society 1965

Email invented, allowing communication between users of the same time-sharing mainframe computer.

1969–1980 The early days of the internet see room-size mainframe computers connected for military and limited university research use. Only 400 computers are linked.

1969

US Department of Defense computer network ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Network) formed, becoming the backbone of the early internet.

1971

The @ sign first used in email addresses.

1974

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) invented — still used to transmit internet data.

1979

Usenet launched, allowing messages to be posted to public newsgroups.

1981

The 400 computers on ARPANET switched to TCP/IP, allowing many networks to

1981–1990 A period of rapid expansion and academic utilisation. By 1989, 100 000 hosts (linked computers or ‘virtual’ computers) are connected. The internet is available only to university computer and science departments. It is a text-only environment.

coexist, forming the modern internet. The word internet starts being used. 1983

Sendmail — the first commercial email software

1984

Number of internet hosts reaches 1000.

1985

Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link (WELL), the first online community

1989

Number of internet hosts reaches 100 000.

1990

Archie — the first internet search application AARNET (Australian Academic Research Network) launched — the first Australian link to the full internet.

1991–1999 The modern internet forms when it is opened to businesses. The invention of the World Wide Web in 1991 and Mosaic in 1993 make the internet widely available. By 1994–1995 significant numbers of users go online. From 1993 the internet begins to grow at a phenomenal pace. This is the age of Web 1.0.

Businesses are allowed to join the internet. 1991

The World Wide Web (WWW) invented by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN (European Organisation for Nuclear Research). The first website launched.

1992

Number of internet hosts reaches 1 000 000.

1993

Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina launch Mosaic, the first popular web browser.

1994

First online advertising in the form of banner ads Amazon launched.

1995

eBay launched. Internet Explorer launched as part of Windows 95.

1996

Netscape accounts for 80 per cent of all browsers. ICQ becomes the first popular instant messaging software.

1998

1998–2000 The dotcom boom: venture capitalists begin funding ‘start-up’ web companies in the hope that they turn a massive profit.

1999

File-sharing software company Napster launched. Blogger (early blog-publishing software tool) launched. Internet Explorer becomes the most popular web browser.

2000–2003 The technology crash and subsequent rapid rebuilding. Illegal file sharing becomes an issue. Broadband access becomes common, changing the type of material online. People increasingly turn to the internet for information.

2000

The searchable internet passes 1 billion pages. Number of internet hosts passes 100 million. 2000–2001 The dotcom bust: after a frantic couple of years of investing vast sums of money on internet projects with unrealistic goals, the market crashes.

2001

Google launched. Wikipedia launched. The September 11 US terrorist attacks generate an unprecedented demand for internet news, crashing many news sites.

2003

MySpace launched.

2004–present

2004

The rise of social networking internet sites and participatory culture

The age of social networking, user-generated content and Web 2.0

2005

Citizen journalists are first on the scene in the Asian tsunami, providing the first accounts and the most vivid imagery of the disaster.

MEDIA

YouTube launches video sharing. 2006

Number of internet hosts passes 450 million.



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The purpose of the internet According to The Digital Economy Factbook, the most common uses of the internet are for email, accessing health information, researching products, reading news, shopping online, booking travel, conducting school research, job searching, instant messaging, online banking, blogging and reading blogs, downloading music and movies, searching for people, and online auctions. Surveys have found that the most popular services and sites on the internet are search sites used to locate information on the web. The most popular websites in Australia are Google, Microsoft, Yahoo!, MSN, eBay, Telstra, News Corporation and Australian government sites. Common uses for the internet may be summarised as follows. • Fulfilling information needs. The range of information available on the internet is so vast as to defy description. The types of information being distributed range from news, personal opinions, discussions on a wide range of topics, online encyclopedias, corporate and product information, and educational, entertainment and cultural materials. Users also have customised ‘feeds’ of news headlines and other information ‘streamed’ straight to their computer or mobile devices. • Providing a global meeting place. The internet provides the opportunity for cultural exchanges and friendships on a global scale. Every day people from almost every nation exchange email, ‘chat’ using instant messaging, write ‘blogs’ filled with opinions, thoughts or personal experiences, exchange media content, and visit virtual worlds where they meet others. • Meeting a need for entertainment. Surveys have found the primary use of the internet to be for entertainment and the pursuit of hobbies. This includes internet surfing, listening to music or podcasts, watching video, exploring interests and hobbies, and downloading content such as MP3s. • Providing an up-to-date news and information service. The internet is seen as the world’s largest library, providing the latest news from the world’s major news services, as well as links to almost every piece of research, data and information held in every library, educational, university or newspaper computer system. • Allowing users to become content providers. The internet has been termed a ‘democratic’ medium, because it allows all users to contribute equally. Any user can create their own content, even if they have nothing interesting to say. As a consequence,

it is a common lament that ‘90 per cent of everything on the internet is rubbish!’ • Fulfilling commercial needs. The internet has become a major retail source. The most purchased items are music, DVDs, books, travel, tickets, clothes and software. While many of these are inexpensive purchases, it has become common for people to buy expensive items such as cars, jewellery and even houses using the internet. Corporations use the internet to advertise and promote their products, build brand identity, and offer information, services, help and feedback to their customers. A common commercial use of the internet by consumers is the research of products and prices before they purchase them offline. Online auction sites such as eBay allow a user to purchase almost any product from other users or online auction stores. • Conducting business. Many businesses now use the internet extensively in the workplace and offer their workforce, especially mobile workers, applications essential to their jobs. Most internet users conduct business on the web, even if it is simply using internet banking services. • Fulfilling emotional needs. The internet has attracted a reputation as a meeting place, with many users spending hours each day building up social networks and making contacts. The internet also acts in a more subtle way to fulfil emotional needs. Users can now travel the world and converse with people from anywhere without leaving their chair, fulfilling desires for love, friendship, group identity and culture. For those unable to travel, such as the disabled, it offers an avenue to an active social life.

Internet genres The internet encompasses a wider range of genres than any other media form. Many genres share elements of others; many are new or are evolving as the medium continues to innovate. They include: • search engines (for most users these represent the ‘front page’ of the internet) • news and current affairs • blogs (see page 418) • wikis (see page 415) • social networking (see page 409) • reference and research (libraries, journals, archives, online books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, medical information) • information- and service-oriented sites (government, banking and finance; travel and tourism; environmental; aid organisations and charities) • online shopping and product information • online auctions (e.g. eBay)

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• entertainment and lifestyle • music and video downloads and streaming (including internet radio and television) • online gaming (including gambling) • adult • art and cultural sites • support sites and communities • science and technology (e.g. information technology, space, geology, biology)

• sports sites (news, information, clubs) • consumer electronics (e.g. gadgets, home/car/portable entertainment devices) • computing and software • web applications (email programs, office programs such as word processors, mapping software, blogging/diary tools, offsite data backup, fi nancial and banking tools, and corporate intranets and applications).

Activities 1. Discuss your most commonly used internet services

3. Organise a class debate on the topic that the

or most accessed information and other websites. Would you categorise your use of the internet as being mainly for entertainment, educational or research purposes? 2. Compare the way information is presented in conventional media such as newspapers, books and magazines, and on the internet. What are the similarities and differences?

internet will take over from television as the most influential media form. 4. Keep a log of the main purposes you have put the internet to over the past two weeks. Which uses have you tended to favour? Compare your consumption pattern with that of other students and compare your usage of the internet as opposed to other traditional media types.

The structure of internet communication There are several different ways in which the internet can be used. The most common and popular of these is via the World Wide Web (WWW). Many people mistakenly believe the World Wide Web is synonymous with the internet. However, there are a number of other ways of using the internet, including email, chat, Usenet, entertainment downloads and fi le sharing.

World Wide Web (WWW) The World Wide Web, or the web, is the most popular of all the internet applications. It is the driving force behind the popularity of the internet. The web is the ‘graphical interface’ of the internet. It allows the combining of text, pictures and animations in an interactive format. Many sites on the web are entirely animated. The name World Wide Web is derived from the way in which information on the web is linked. The web consists of millions of internet sites, linked together in a dynamic hypertextual form (see page 30). The amount of information on the internet makes it the largest library in the world, spanning all countries, continents, cultures and languages.

Web 1.0

MEDIA

Web 1.0 is a term coined recently to describe the original types of websites, most of which were static web pages that rarely changed. In the original model of the internet, information was held on different sites

that the user had to locate and visit manually. Older websites provided information in only one format, without customisation for individual users or requirements. In the late 1990s websites started to move towards customised information and providing services and online applications.

Web 2.0 ‘An essential part of Web 2.0 is harnessing collective intelligence, turning the web into a kind of global brain.’ Tim O’Reilly, founder of publisher O’Reilly Media

The internet is a medium that is undergoing continual change and innovation. ‘Web 2.0’ doesn’t represent a new kind of internet; rather, it describes a second generation of internet-based services whose value is derived at the user level through customisation of information and content delivery methods, as well as collaboration and shared knowledge. Web 2.0 includes social networking sites, video, photo and bookmark sharing sites, wikis, podcasts and blogs. Mash-ups combine existing content and concepts in new forms. An important aspect of mash-ups is shared APIs (Application Programming Interfaces). Examples include interactive map objects, which can be customised and embedded in any website, and



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YouTube video players, which can also be used on any site to play content from another. Service-based applications (such as document editing software, email programs, photo management tools, calendars, online ‘home’ screens and interactive maps that operate within a web browser) are also classified as Web 2.0, and mark the start of the internet as an application platform. Web 2.0 is used to describe websites that: • serve customised information to users based on their preferences and profile • encourage user-generated content and knowledge sharing, including reuse of existing materials • offer new methods of content delivery direct to the user • provide more organised and categorised content identified through tagging (see page 416), allowing deeper linked content • allow rich interaction similar to traditional computer application software. Web 2.0 also represents a richer user experience through more sophisticated interaction with the website or application. Table 14.1: 3OME 7EB APPLICATIONS AND THEIR 7EB PREDECESSORS 7EB

Britannica Online

Wikipedia

Personal websites

Blogs

Page views

Cost per click

Publishing

Participation

Directories (taxonomy) Netscape

Email ‘Email has revolutionised private and professional relations in most parts of the world. From the personal email sent to keep in touch with partners, children, friends and lovers, to photographs, cards, recipes and jokes, email has allowed us to share material instantaneously and often.’ Karen Brooks, senior lecturer, University of the Sunshine Coast

7EB

Content management systems

which they rank for relevance based on scientific or mathematical algorithms. Any website can be registered or catalogued by these search engines. Placing relevant keywords (metatags) in hidden ‘head’ fields in the code of each internet page, and having a site containing wellwritten content in a text format, help to increase search engine ranking. Most commercial sites pay specialist companies to maintain top ranking on search engines. Studies have found that most users give up after viewing the top 30 matches for a search. Using search engines to drive traffic to websites is called search engine marketing (SEM).

Wikis Tagging (‘folksonomy’) Google

Web 3.0 Web 3.0, also known as the Semantic Web, describes a future model of internet content access and organisation. Many internet researchers believe that the internet will become a universal platform for content delivery — one that depends, not on websites holding unique information, but on the information itself, which can be accessed, used and reused, in part or in full, in whatever way the user requires. Descriptively marking up, or tagging, content is also an important aspect of the Semantic Web.

Search engines The main way information is located on the World Wide Web is through search services known as search engines. Search engines use banks of computers to catalogue keywords and phrases used on web pages,

Electronic mail, or email, allows users to send and almost instantaneously receive messages from any other user in the world. An email message may also include ‘attached’ files such as pictures and text documents. Email has become an invaluable business and personal communication form, allowing vast amounts of written communication to be inexpensively exchanged across the world in a matter of seconds. Personal email use in the workplace costs hundreds of millions of dollars in lost productivity in Australia each year, however. Critics believe that email has led to a decline in personal communication and in the quality of written language.

Spam Between 65 and 90 per cent of all email traffic is unsolicited junk mail, delivered to millions of users at a single stroke. This mail content is known as spam (for Simultaneously Posted Advertising Message). Most spam originates in the United States, China or Poland. Most is blocked by your internet provider before it reaches your mailbox. Spammers disguise the origin of the email through spoofing, or faking the ‘sender’ and ‘reply to’ information. Email addresses are collected by stealth through scraping email addresses from chat rooms, postings

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and websites. ‘Most people, by now, have left a digital footprint which can be mined,’ says research scientist Ollie Whitehouse. Email addresses are also guessed through dictionary attacks, which join randomly combined names to known domains (e.g. adama@gmail. com, [email protected], [email protected]). Email addresses are also harvested from online contests. Spam offers substantial potential financial benefits (and often involves organised crime). A lot of spam is sent illegally from unwitting users’ home computers. Hackers send programs that hijack computers, linking together thousands of home computers in ‘zombie networks’ or botnets that are used to send the spam. Australia has strict laws on spam, with fines of up to $10 million for offenders. Under the Spam Act 2003 it is illegal to send, or have sent, ‘unsolicited commercial electronic messages’ that have an Australian link. The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) is the Commonwealth Government body that enforces the act. It is also illegal to harvest email addresses from the internet or buy email addresses.

Other internet applications Usenet and bulletin boards (BBS) Usenet, created in 1979 and updated in 1986, is one of the earliest applications developed for the internet. Usenet is a system of public access bulletin boards hosted and duplicated on hundreds of thousands of servers worldwide without any governing body. There are now more than 100 000 different newsgroups, covering all interest areas in many languages. Tens of thousands of these groups are rarely if ever used. Usenet is like a giant global email exchange. Users post messages to specific newsgroups, where they can be read and replied to by any other user, forming discussion threads. Bulletin boards (BBS) operate in a similar way to Usenet, allowing postings of content based on a particular subject. Unlike Usenet, a bulletin board is based on a single server owned by an individual. Many are private and require a password for access. Much of the interaction that once occurred in these internet forums has migrated to blogs or other internet-based forums.

Instant messaging and chat rooms

MEDIA

Instant messaging is real-time, usually text, communication between two or more individuals or ‘peers’ who have chosen to enable mutual communication by adding each other to their respective ‘contact list’. Instant messaging is usually enabled by a ‘client’ application installed on the user’s computer. Instant messaging allows easy collaboration. Users are able to swap files and conduct video conversations

using webcams. Most systems allow the user to set an ‘online status’ so their peers can see whether the user is available, busy or away from the computer. ICQ (‘I seek you’), Internet Relay Chat (IRC) and chat rooms are the original methods by which internet users communicated in real time using text communication. Chat rooms are topic based in a similar way to ICQ and IRC, but they are run by organisations, companies or individuals. They are often moderated and sometimes available only to subscribers.

Peer-to-peer file sharing Rather than individual users downloading files from a single source, peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing involves many-to-many connections. A file may be held on many computers and shared, with individual users downloading parts of the file from many different computers simultaneously. The more computers the file is on, the faster it will download. P2P transfer shares bandwidth, storage and processing costs. Instead of one user paying for storage space, computers and download bandwidth, the costs are shared by many users. If one computer fails, many others still have the file to share. This makes P2P transfer very robust and difficult to stop. Anonymous peer-to-peer networks allow for legal or illegal distribution of material. Major copyright holders, such as the music recording industry, believe that P2P networks allow massive illegal trading of their property. Critics suggest that illegal material such as terrorism information or pornography can be traded with anonymity, and call for regulation. Supporters argue that the potential illegal use should not prevent the technology from being used. The potential for cheap distribution has been explored by major content providers, such as movie distributors, who are considering peer-to-peer technology to allow commercial, paid downloads of copyright material (P2P-casting).

RSS and syndicated content Really Simple Syndication, or RSS, directs content to a user based on ‘feeds’ the user subscribes to. By using RSS feeds, users can have news, blog entries and all manner of news- and opinion-related content constantly fed to them. RSS feeds are particularly useful on websites where content is updated regularly. This saves the user from having to visit the same sites every day, bringing the content from many sites together and assembling it on the user’s computer or mobile device. RSS feeds are also being used commercially to notify users of sales. A program known as a feed reader or feed aggregator can check a list of feeds on behalf of a user and display new articles.



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Activities 1. Assign different groups in the class to find a

search options. Visit different search engines and document their advanced search techniques. Can similar methods be used across most of the search engines? 4. While teenagers in a study conducted by Alloy Media Marketing and Harris Interactive in 2006 counted between one and ten friends in real life, they averaged 75 friends in their online profiles, 52 on instant messenger lists, and 39 in email contacts, and had 38 friends’ phone numbers in their mobile. More than 36 per cent of teens have friends they know only through online contact. Compare this finding with other members of your class or in teams. Are you more or less likely to be close to a friend you know offline than to one you know only online?

particular piece of information using each of the internet media discussed opposite. Which were the most successful methods and why? Take into account the subject used, perhaps trying some others as well. Have a group or class discussion on the most effective way to find information on the internet. Compile a class list of methods. 2. Type a popular or current keyword in a search engine and follow a number of the successful ‘hits’ or matches. Where does most of the information originate (see the country code on the address)? Is it balanced, or is most of it from just one country? Try the same thing on a blog search engine. 3. Research better ways to use search engines to find specific information quickly by using advanced

The internet audience The internet provides a more diverse source of information than any medium ever has before, especially through targeting specific interest areas. Science fiction and technology author Bruce Sterling suggests the internet is already a personalised medium, because ‘everybody has a different internet’.

Australia) accounted for 0.5 per cent of the population but 1.7 per cent of internet users. Africa, however, accounted for 14.1 per cent of the world’s population but just 3 per cent of internet users. In Australia almost 70 per cent of the population access the internet — about the same percentage as in the US and Canada. Contrary to the Generation Y stereotypes, surveys show that the average age of internet users is between 20 and 44. The ratio of male to female users has equalised, although men spend more time online. While men are more active users of the internet, women are more likely to use the internet for personal communication, especially through email and instant messaging. Young people born since the advent of the

Who uses the internet? The internet passed the one-billion-user mark in 2006, according to The Digital Economy Fact Book. It is expected to reach two billion regular users by 2011. A Nielsen/NetRatings study showed that North America (the US and Canada), while accounting for just 5.1 per cent of the total world population, made up 21 per cent of all internet users. Oceania (including Asia

389

Europe North America

World internet users

2% 2%

313

3%

Africa

232

Asia 8%

Latin America

89

Africa

36%

Middle East

Middle East North America

19

Australia/ Oceania

Latin America

21%

33

Europe

28%

Oceania/Australia

19 0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Millions of users

350

400

450

Figure 14.5: "REAKDOWN OF INTERNET USE BY WORLD REGION

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internet have been termed ‘digital natives’, having no knowledge of life before the internet, and taking technology for granted. ‘Digital natives are thinking, acting and reacting much differently from how we did, mainly because their childhoods are in large part shaped by technology,’ says Park Jung-hyun, a senior researcher at LG Economic Research Institute. Internet authors, including the editor of Australian Personal Computer, believe that the internet mirrors society better than any other medium. ‘The people who use the net are just the same people you see in the street.’ The average internet user spends 29 hours online each month, visiting an average 1500 pages on 69 websites. Studies have shown that internet users are now spending less time engaging in traditional media activities. Average users are also wealthier than the national mean. Households on incomes of $100 000 or more are three times more likely to have internet access than those on incomes of less than $25 000. Remote communities are also less likely to be connected. Internet top 10 languages English

329

Chinese

159

Spanish

89

Japanese

86

German

59

French

56

Portuguese

40

Korean

34

Italian

31

Arabic

28

Rest of world languages

203 0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Millions of users

What are the effects of the internet? ‘Even if our kids aren’t playing blood-soaked computer games or plotting violence in the dark crannies of an online chat room, they are plunging into a whole world of influences and values and enticements that is, most of the time, hidden from our view.’ Daniel Okrent, Time magazine

Much media controversy has centred on the ready availability of violent and pornographic material on the internet, as well as illegal materials such as bombmaking recipes and crime manuals. The concern is not based solely on materials that can be found online, but also on the availability of these materials to minors. The media have popularised the idea that the internet is filled with dangerous information that could persuade people to act in violent and irrational ways. Even though violent crime rates have been falling, especially in the US, sensational news stories lead to public confusion. After one teenage shooting spree in the US, 82 per cent of the 660 people surveyed believed the internet was to blame in some way. Others are concerned by the rise of online gambling, worth tens of billions of dollars. While most legitimate gaming sites require proof of age, many smaller private operators are more than willing to accept bets from anonymous users who could be under age or accessing from countries where gambling is illegal. Online casinos are less likely than their offline equivalents to monitor gamblers for addiction or place bans on problem gamblers. A 2005 eMarketer survey found that US spending on gambling was 20 times the amount spent on music downloads. Some child psychologists are warning that the cult of the internet is driving kids onto computers too early. Instead of helping advance children’s knowledge, computers are reducing their attention span and hampering language skills. Jane Healy, an educational psychologist from Colorado, claims, ‘They are not talking or expressing themselves. From a computer it’s coming at them in a series of stimuli formulated to make them respond quickly.’

Figure 14.6: ,ANGUAGE USE ON THE INTERNET

MEDIA

The most common languages on the internet are English (30%), Chinese (13.3%), Japanese (7.9%) and Spanish (7.5%). The countries with the highest number of internet users are the United States (207 million), China (123 million), Japan (86 million) and India (60 million). Australia has 15 million (of which 10 million are regular users).

Internet addiction disorder ‘Marriages are being disrupted, kids are getting into trouble, people are committing illegal acts, people are spending too much money. As someone who treats patients, I see it.’ David Greenfield, therapist and researcher



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A number of reports over the past several years have found that internet and computer use can be addictive. Seven per cent of Australian teenagers aged 13 to 17 surveyed by Dr Mubarak Ali of Flinders University described themselves as ‘becoming addicted’ to the internet. Writing in the journal Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, Dr Diane M. Wieland stated that 5 to 10 per cent of users will experience internet addiction. Clinics have opened around the world to treat the problem. The addictions range from ‘cybersex’ to gaming, online gambling to stock trading, and even compulsive checking of email, web surfi ng and social networking. Dr Wieland believes that the physical signs of addiction include disregard for health or appearance, sleep deprivation, decreased physical, occupational and

social activity, dry eyes, carpal tunnel syndrome, and repetitive strain injuries of hands and fi ngers. Other signs include the need to increase internet usage to achieve satisfaction; losing a relationship, career or educational opportunity because of excessive use; escaping personal problems or issues through the internet; concealing usage from family; and fi nancial difficulties caused by internet use. Dr Elias Aboujaoude, an assistant professor in Stanford University’s Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences Department, uses the term cyber-dependency. He believes that while there are ‘red flags’ that indicate a real problem, ‘It takes more steps to say that there is something called internet addiction.’ Long hours spent on the internet, he suggests, could be an indication of an existing behavioural disorder.

Activities 1. ‘TV viewers use their machines to lull themselves

into a stupor, while PC users use their machines to become smarter and more productive, better able to exploit further computer advances,’ claims George Gilder in his book Life after Television. What do you think the author means by this statement? Do you believe the statement to be accurate? Based on your answer, and with class input, discuss what you believe to be the future of the medium. Will it be interactive or passive? Is this what you want from the medium and will it benefit you? 2. Discuss whether information found on the internet could force people to act in violent or irrational

ways. Do you think the information online could encourage violence and hate or allow individuals to find validation for violent or hateful beliefs? Or does it force discussion and contemplation about ideas and beliefs because of the many diverse and opposing opinions voiced? 3. Conduct some research into the ‘internet addiction disorder’. From your findings, do you believe that this is a true disorder, or a symptom of already existing problems? Is a high usage of the internet ‘normal’, and are those using the term ‘disorder’ simply describing normal usage patterns? A survey of friends or classmates might help.

Internet institutions and industry issues The exceptionally rapid growth of the internet has allowed users, organisations and companies to take advantage of the lack of government control over content. Traditional media forms are under the control of governing or regulatory bodies who decide what content is appropriate. Restrictions on numbers of mass media corporations also act to limit the type of content provided. The internet is the fi rst mass media form to allow all users to participate without licensing controls or regulatory bodies. This means that internet content is mostly unregulated, uncensored and unedited.

Ownership and control The internet has offered ordinary citizens their best chance yet to participate in the media. But one of

cyberculture’s leading authors and early supporters, Douglas Rushkoff, believes the internet has become a ‘corrupting’ e-commerce tool. ‘The internet has changed, becoming a marketing-driven medium, just like TV.’

‘The internet has now become so commercially driven that it has given the existing media giants tremendous advantages over other players. After all, they have the content that can be put on the internet at no additional cost. They can promote their internet offerings incessantly on their traditional media, and it’s easy for them to bring their standard customers and advertisers over from radio, TV, newspapers and magazines.’ Robert McChesney, US media analyst

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Figure 14.7: .EWS ,IMITED OFFERS FREE NEWS ON THE INTERNET IN ADDITION TO ITS MANY DAILY NEWSPAPERS 3MALL BUSINESS CANNOT EASILY COMPETE WITH TRADITIONAL MEDIA SITES &UTURE CONTROL OF THE INTERNET MAY SLIP BACK INTO THE HANDS OF THE CORPORATE OWNERS ANALYSTS SAY Media analyst Robert McChesney argues that the biggest mass media and telecommunication companies are working towards turning the internet into another branch of their empires by using joint ventures and company mergers as a way of reducing competition and risk. He says that this ‘puts an immense amount of political and social power into very few hands’.

‘One huge monolith controlling both content and the means of accessing that content can’t be healthy. At the very least, it’s likely to result in content that is homogenised and dumbeddown to the lowest common denominator. At worst, it opens the door to the squelching of free expression by overreaching corporate control.’ Ken Feinstein, technical editor, CNet Gamecenter

MEDIA

The internet continues to evolve, however. When a new site does become successful, existing media and internet companies normally buy it. MySpace and YouTube were bought by the internet giants Yahoo! and Google, the latter paying US$165 million for YouTube only a year after it was launched and at a time when it had never turned a profit and had no clear plan on how to do so!

Some investors are wary following the technology crash of 2001. Many of the most popular sites on the internet are free to use but cost their operators vast sums of money to operate. PC Magazine columnist John C. Dvorak asks, ‘What can these sites do to make money besides being bought out by a big company that can afford the never-ending losses in the hope of getting new customers for its other businesses?’ The internet is already dominated by media and technology giants. The biggest and most visited website organisations are Google, Yahoo! sites and Microsoft sites, including MSN.

Search monopolies ‘The implications of a tech company having such influence over cultural and societal development are certainly food for thought.’ Ella Morton, Associate Editor, ZDNet Australia

It is commonly said that ‘if you are not on Google you don’t exist’. The power held by the giant search companies is immense. The influence of Google has seen its brand enter dictionaries, with the word google substituting for ‘search’.



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Search companies have become the ‘guardians of global data’. Increasingly the primary, and often only, way we research information is to locate it using a search engine. The results returned are influenced by a number of factors: 1. The information found is filtered by the company’s search algorithm, leading to a situation termed ‘Google’s truth’. So influential is the company’s service that the results returned for any search query can become the meaning of the search terms, because alternative meanings not displayed in the Google search are discounted by the user. Search companies and corporate websites both engage in the competitive manipulation of page ranking, or the order in which results are returned. If your information ranks low, it won’t be seen. 2. Search companies have shown themselves willing to censor and restrict access to information — especially human rights, religious and political material — helping to support undemocratic and repressive governments. Yahoo! has even been involved in supplying the Chinese government with information used to jail rights activists.

schematics, solar panels and fuel tank designs for NASA’s Mars Orbiter were stolen and transferred to computers within China. In its annual report about China’s military, the Pentagon stated that China views hacking as critical for ‘seizing the initiative’ and establishing ‘electromagnetic dominance’. Several high-profile cases have potentially affected the growth of e-commerce. With the sheer number of hacker and credit card stories in the media, many users have become wary of supplying their credit card details for online transactions. One hacker managed to gain access to more than 40 million credit cards by accessing the payment processing company CardSystems Solutions in 2005, downloading the details of 200 000 cards including, numbers, names and verification codes. Another common cybercrime is denial-of-service attacks (DoS), where hundreds of computers, often normal users’ machines infected by viruses, are used to bombard a single site with millions of requests, rendering the site unavailable to other users. There are about 6000 denial-of-service attacks every day.

Hackers and cybercriminals ‘A lot of people are stuck in the 1990s, with their image of a virus writer as a kid eating pizza in their bedroom. In fact they are now much more serious, and much nastier.’ Graham Cluley, security expert, Sophos

‘Information wants to be free’ is the catch-cry of hackers, crackers and phreakers. Hackers gain unauthorised access to computer systems. Crackers break the codes protecting software. Phreakers gain unauthorised use of phone systems. American attorney Gail Thackery says hacking, unlike street crime, leaves the victim unseen. Hacking is a common problem for individuals, businesses and governments. FBI figures show that 90 per cent of internet users have experienced computer security problems. Research suggests that cybercrime is worth more than the international illegal drugs trade. Only 5 per cent of malicious programs are now written by bored teenagers. Sal Viveros, a security specialist with the anti-virus company McAfee, believes that ‘always on’ broadband provides hackers with widespread access and many more targets. Financial gain derives from blackmail, extortion or industrial espionage (stealing a competitor’s trade secrets). Governments, too, are willing to turn to hacking. In 2004 hundreds of propulsion systems

Figure 14.8: 4HE -AXUS #REDIT #ARD 0IPELINE SITE WAS USED TO DISTRIBUTE CREDIT CARD NUMBERS TO SEVERAL THOUSAND INTERNET USERS IN RETALIATION FOR A FAILED EXTORTION BID 4HIS SORT OF HIGH PROüLE HACKER ATTACK HAS AFFECTED THE GROWTH OF ONLINE SALES AND E COMMERCE

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Spyware and computer viruses ‘There is a 50 per cent chance your unprotected Windows PC will be compromised within 12 minutes of going online.’ Sophos security software company

Spyware is ‘parasitic’ software that hides on a computer’s hard drive, using the internet to communicate back to its owner. Spyware operations can range from reporting internet usage, recording typed passwords (keystroke logging), extracting email addresses for spam purposes, or searching the hard drive for personal and financial information that could be used fraudulently or unethically. Spyware is normally downloaded when installing free software or when visiting other download websites, such as MP3 sharing sites or movie, software or pornography sites. In 2006 about 427 000 sites were found to be distributing spyware. A computer virus is a self-replicating computer program written to automatically run tasks on a computer without the permission or knowledge of the user or to provide a ‘back door’ into a computer, allowing a hacker access. While some viruses are written to be destructive, deleting files or hijacking the computer for use in mass attacks (botnets), most are designed simply to be annoying — most importantly, by continuing to replicate themselves. Viruses are deliberately created by programmers or others using virus creation software. They are normally written as pranks, to use in attacks on specific companies, for research projects, to distribute political messages, or for financial gain from identity theft or spamming. Some virus authors consider viruses to be an art form and their creation a hobby, and take pride in seeing how many computers they can infect.

Figure 14.9: ! VARIATION OF THE VIRUS CALLED RANSOMWARE HIJACKS A USERlS COMPUTER THREATENING TO DELETE üLES UNLESS A RANSOM IS PAID k9OUR COMPUTER CAUGHT OUR SOFTWARE WHILE BROWSING ILLEGAL PORN PAGES !LL YOUR DOCUMENTS TEXT üLES DATABASES IN THE FOLDER -Y $OCUMENTS WERE ARCHIVED WITH LONG PASSWORDl A study conducted by security company Panda Software found that 70 per cent of malicious software being distributed was linked to cybercrime.

Phishing and identity theft ‘Organised crime is here and they are very interested in phishing. They target home users who have become the weakest link.’ Ollie Whitehouse, research scientist

Phishing may be defined as creating fake websites masquerading as legitimate ones for fraudulent purposes. The term alludes to the idea of ‘fishing’ for gullible people. Phishing typically involves an email from a financial institution asking you to log on to their system for an important reason. The email directs you to a site that is an exact copy of the genuine website, even using a similar URL. Users are then persuaded to enter their account access details.

Table 14.2: "OBBIE *OHNSON TECHNOLOGY CORRESPONDENT FOR 4HE 'UARDIAN NEWSPAPER CREATED THIS CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SIGNIüCANT VIRUSES

MEDIA

6IRUS

)MPACT

1982 — Elk Cloner

Elk spread on floppy disks that were used by the Apple II, a popular early home computer.

1986 — Brain

A harmless but annoying virus that contained the names of its creators, Brain spread worldwide in just a few months, making it the first widespread PC virus.

1992 — Michelangelo

One of the first viruses to get widespread media coverage, the reach of Michelangelo — at one point predicted to hit 5 million machines — turned out to be far more limited than anticipated.

1999 — Melissa

Melissa took over email programs, causing the internet to struggle under the weight of messages being sent.

2000 — Love Letter

Disguised as a message saying ‘I love you’, Love Letter is estimated to have caused more than US$10 billion worth of damage, making it one of the most destructive pieces of crimeware ever written.

2004 — MyDoom

A clever mass mailing worm, MyDoom currently holds the record for being the fastest-growing piece of malicious code.



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Figure 14.10: ! PHISHING EMAIL LOOKS EXACTLY LIKE A COMMUNICATION FROM THE ACTUAL COMPANY SO MANY USERS FALL FOR THE SCAM &OLLOW THE LINKS AND YOU COULD PROVIDE THE kPHISHERl WITH YOUR BANKING DETAILS OR HAVE A VIRUS OR SPYWARE INSTALLED ON YOUR COMPUTER This data is captured and later used to withdraw money. Phishing was worth an estimated $2 billion to cybercriminals in 2006. Identity theft occurs when someone steals or uses another person’s identity illegally. It typically involves stealing credit card details. A networked world in which thousands of users’ credit card details are stored in databases connected to the internet has made identity theft easier and more prevalent. The Australian Bankers Association estimates that identity fraud costs Australian banks about $25 million a year.

Legal issues ‘People don’t often think of themselves as publishing when they engage in situations like real-world or online conversations, or posting to newsgroups.’ Stephen O’Gorman, Australian lawyer

As technology feature writer Mitch Ratcliffe puts it, ‘A computer allows you to make more mistakes faster than any other invention in human history — with the possible exception of handguns and tequila.’ The

internet is the first medium in which the user is legally liable, not just the broadcaster or publisher. Simple actions can land any user in trouble. Students who uploaded a videotape left behind by another student at school to a video-sharing site were sued after the video ‘The Star Wars Kid’ unexpectedly became the most watched video (900 million plus viewings) in internet history.

Defamation Defamation involves a public statement that could potentially harm a person’s or a company’s reputation, measurable in economic terms. Patrick Fair, of law firm Phillips Fox, believes defamation law is vital to society. ‘People of good standing should not be attacked for commercial or political benefit.’ ‘It’s clear that global electronic communication via the internet is challenging or undermining the rationale of many aspects of the law of defamation,’ says lawyer Stephen O’Gorman. Unlike spoken conversations, almost all internet communication is archived and public. Defamation is of concern to internet users as much of this communication is abusive, aggressive, mocking or simply not well thought through before the ‘send’ button is pressed.

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Mike Godwin, council for the Electronic Frontiers Foundation, believes that defamation law should not apply to the internet, however. He proposes that the openness of the internet gives those people who have been defamed the opportunity to defend themselves. Defamation cases involving the internet are not uncommon. An American court ordered a Louisiana woman to pay $15 million in compensation after she used an internet forum to accuse another woman of being a con artist. Australian law stipulates a $250 000 damages cap for defamation. Defamation laws are unhindered by international boundaries. Melbourne gold-mining magnate Joe Gutnick sued American magazine Barron’s for comments regarding alleged tax evasion and money laundering. The American print version of the magazine was not under the jurisdiction of Australian laws. The online version, however, with just 1700 Australia subscribers, was subject to Australian law and the case was tried in an Australian court. This has repercussions for all online publishing. Do we really want all information published online constrained by the countries with the strictest laws? Just because content sourced in Australia can be read in China, does that mean we should adhere to Chinese law on what can be published on politics and religion?

The right to a fair trial? The global nature of the internet is an issue for legal proceedings and the right to a fair trial. The bigger the case, the more notable the crime or defendant, the more publicity it creates, and the harder it becomes to find a juror who has not been exposed to the case through the media. With the huge media coverage of the Michael Jackson trial, internet users could examine the evidence, watch live re-enactments with look-alike actors, contribute to online guilty/not guilty polls and join in forums about the case. This level of media coverage and user involvement made it almost impossible to find unbiased jurors. There have been many cases of news stories being blocked to users from entire countries. Under British law, media organisations can be punished for publishing material that judges feel might influence jurors and prevent suspects receiving a fair trial. As a result, it has been common for British users to be blocked from stories on sites such as the online New York Times. Smaller news sites do not block content, even though they too might potentially influence jurors.

Deep linking

MEDIA

Deep linking involves one site using a hypertext link to steer their viewers deep into another website to information relevant to their own content.

Experts on cyberspace law are divided on the legality of linking. Many think that anyone who creates a web page explicitly grants the community at large the right to use it. ‘The eventual goal of the web is for everything to be linked to everything else. If someone says, “You can’t link to my page,” well, they are missing the point of the web,’ says internet law expert Carl Oppedahl. According to Maureen A. O’Rourke, an associate professor of law at Boston University, ‘Site owners should recognise that internet users want swift access to relevant information without lengthy detours through other pages.’ However, Emily Madoff, an intellectual property lawyer, believes that ‘property owners who create the content should have a right to determine how surfers experience their websites. In particular if an owner’s home page or another page laden with ads is bypassed by a deep link.’ Most opposition to deep linking is based on this commercial assumption. By bypassing the front page, valuable branding and advertising potential is missed.

‘The World Wide Web’s killer application is the ability to move from one website to another via a hyperlink. Without linking there would be no Web. Some organisations want to control the way users experience their sites by dictating how they are linked to them.’ Dave Amis, journalist with Internet Freedom UK

Privacy and surveillance New technology has made it easier for business and government to trace our every move and to gather, compile and cross-reference large amounts of information about us. New legal issues are raised on how collected information is used. For example, a company monitoring email found that an employee was being checked for cancer. It then used this information to deny them health cover. Internet advertising networks have been accused of collecting unprecedented amounts of data and associating it with each unique visit to a website. According to a submission to the US Federal Trade Commission by the Center for Digital Democracy (CDD) and the US Public Interest Research Group, ‘Even if these companies don’t know our names, through online tracking and analysis they literally know every move we make.’ ‘I’m not against advertising,’ says CDD executive director Jeff Chester, ‘but media companies have gone too far in allowing too much data to be collected.’



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Cookies Cookies have become an essential part of the internet experience. Cookies are small text fi les that are placed on your hard drive by websites and advertisers. They are usually used to track a visitor’s progress through a website, allowing the operator to evaluate which pages are most popular. They are also used extensively by online stores to track and hold purchases while customers continue to browse, and for storing preferences so website operators can customise their site for each user. Cookies can be used in intrusive ways. Irene Graham, executive director of Electronic Frontiers Australia, says that having cookies turned on is a bit like being followed around by a shop assistant who writes down every item you look at. Cookies are not normally used to expose personal details to a website operator. Cookies left by websites that a user chooses to visit are called first party cookies and are normally essential for using the site. Third party cookies can have more sinister implications. These are left on your hard drive by organisations not associated with the website visited, such as an advertising company that places ads on the site. These cookies can be used to track your movements across the entire internet, allowing the advertiser to build a profi le of your browsing habits and personal interests. If your profi le is linked with your email address, then your data can be merged with existing consumer databases to build up a profi le of your offl ine and online preferences. Most security software and fi rewall software allows third party cookie blocking. When you visit a website a small piece of computer code is left on your computer. Every time you visit a new page on that site the cookie is updated. Later, when you return to the website, the information is extracted from the stored cookie. An updated cookie, still anonymous, is sent back to your hard drive. The website owner now knows you are a return visitor. If you lodge your email address or other personal information with the site, this is combined with the

cookie, which is now no longer anonymous. The website operator can now link your browsing activity to your identity.

E-commerce Electronic commerce, or e-commerce, involves buying, selling and marketing products or services over the internet or other electronic devices such as mobile phones. E-commerce is a major aspect of the internet. Jupiter Research predicts that by 2010 almost half of US retail sales will be made via the internet. The internet is the fi rst medium in which selling directly to the consumer plays a significant role. A 2006 study found 75 per cent of American households had bought online, 35 per cent spending more than US$250 in the previous three months. The most commonly purchased items are songs, CDs, DVDs, books, travel, magazines, electronics, tickets, games and software. These are products with a high value-to-weight ratio and are therefore easy to transport. The number of expensive items sold is increasing. These include cars, houses and jewellery. Products that haven’t sold well include those with a significant smell, taste or touch component, and those that require customisation. Currently market research techniques seek to classify ‘target markets’ comprising millions of consumers organised into easily manageable and understood groups. The processing power of computers allows marketers to keep a separate record for each online consumer. A consumer is identified on entering the online store, and the content is customised for them. They may be asked questions such as, ‘Are you looking for this?’ or ‘Do you want more of what you bought last time?’ Online sales of counterfeit products are booming. Sellers who are caught simply choose a new internet address and start again. The use of online auction sites makes the trafficking of counterfeit goods difficult to police.

Activities 1. Who controls content on the internet? Draw on the

information you have just read and any personal internet experiences, or search the internet for information on a current news event. (a) Where did you find the most useful information? (b) Did you find any alternative views, and were they found on corporate, private or university sites?

2. Sheila Lennon believes ‘we empower each other by

sharing information’. Empowerment is gained from the ‘trickling up’ of diverse information (from users) rather than the ‘raining down’ of limited information (from media corporations). How do you think this will alter the nature of global communication, the media and society? Base your answer on the question of ‘who controls the message’.

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3. Are there any rules governing the types of materials

5. Find an important international news story

you access on or post to the internet? Make a list of rules and responsibilities from the following sources. (a) Use the internet to locate government policy dealing with internet use. (b) Collect ISP contracts signed by any users in the class detailing rights and responsibilities of using their internet services. 4. Because the computers that transmit and store employee email belong to the company, most employers reserve the right to read them. But if an addressed letter is collected in the company’s mailroom, it is illegal for the company to open it. Discuss whether you think this email monitoring practice is justified or intrusive. Provide arguments from both sides.

syndicated by Reuters or Associated Press. Select a key portion of the text and use it for an internet search. How many other news sites does the story appear on, and in what countries? Do the news sites brand the story as their own or do they make it obvious that it is from elsewhere? What effect do you think syndicated news has on the diversity of opinion in our daily newspapers? 6. Do you believe the nature of the internet dictates that deep linking into other people’s sites is legal, or do you think that the owner of a site should be allowed to force users to enter only via the front page? How do you think this will affect the future of the internet and the goals of formatting free content? Discuss.

Web design Before examining how to design a web page, it is useful to identify what a good website is. Jennifer Story, from Next Online, believes a good site must be created with a specific purpose in mind. ‘It is no longer enough to have a website for the sake of having one. The site must be attractive and innovative in its design, function in terms of its purpose, easy to navigate, frequently updated and fast to download.’ Without any information or entertainment value, users will not return to a site.

Elements of a typical web page A typical web page includes the following elements: • Title. All internet pages have titles that describe their content. A title should be brief and explicit. Simplify the title as much as possible. ‘My Homepage’ is more concise than ‘Welcome to my Homepage’. • Graphics. Banners, logos, pictures, menus and other graphic elements give the site its identity. Each page should feature the same graphic use to create a site-wide unified design. Complex background images make the body text hard to read. • Advertising. The most common form of advertising on computer-based media forms are banner ads, which are typically placed at the top of each page, in columns to the right of the content or within the content itself (see page 178).

MEDIA

• Headlines. Each section of a page normally has a headline, in the same way that newspaper or magazine articles do. Like those headlines, an internet headline should be brief and interesting, and clearly indicate the content that follows.

• Content. Body text communicates the bulk of written information. Computer-based media deliver information through a computer monitor, which unlike printed text is of low resolution. Small text can be hard to read on a computer screen, so larger font sizes are used. Text is typically accompanied by multimedia content. • Navigation system. Too many menu options can be confusing and risk losing the viewer to a site with friendlier content access. There are two main types of navigation. 1. Text-based navigation uses hyperlinked text. This is the most common and efficient menu type. Links can be visually styled to look like graphics. Flyout or dropdown menus are becoming popular on sites with many links. 2. An illustrative menu consists of images with linked ‘hotspots’. These images containing hyperlinks are called image maps. They are often animated. • Information and contact details. These can include the identity of the page’s creator, and a contact email address. An internet page may also feature a guestbook or feedback option, and a date showing the time the content was published.

Creating an internet site The development ‘lifecycle’ Creating a website can be a simple process involving one person, or a huge undertaking involving hundreds of people in a range of disciplines. The one aspect common to all successful projects is careful planning. There are a number of stages that information



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architects, business analysts, system architects, programmers and website designers should define. • Identify mission and goals. Why do you want a website? Anyone planning a site needs to know their customers’ needs. They must research the products or services, and identify what elements are required on the site to best communicate them. Do they want information, interviews, interaction, multimedia or other elements? An important aspect of planning a website is to know the budget you have to work with! • Define the audience. What kind of people are you trying to attract? What do they want to do on your site? Determining what aspects of the site will make visitors return is also important. Users are studied at length by user experience designers. • Create site maps. The site map defines the information and page structure of a website. You must identify which content and resources will be available from the front page, and which resources will be accessed from deeper in the site (see language, page 34). A good internet site contains information broken into bite-size pieces, and linked by menus and submenus. The way content is structured on a website — that is, the information architecture — is crucial in making content useful and accessible. • Identify the technology to be used. Is the site going to use HTML pages or will it be a fully animated extravaganza? Is the site going to feature dynamically generated, database-driven pages customisable for each user or will it be static? • Define business requirements. Business analysts work with clients to determine requirements and document them in ‘use cases’, each outlining an individual function of the site. These requirements are referred to when constructing the page layouts and visual design. • Design page layouts. Once the content and site structure are known, the information architect must design a layout structure for each page on the site. How is the page going to appear on screen? Where will the navigation links go and where will the heading and body text go? Simple low-fidelity wireframes are used to plan the information and navigation layout. • Create a visual design. A range of inputs will affect the way the designer creates the visual design. The business requirements, low-fidelity wireframes, page layout, the client’s brand standards, audience profiles and the creative brief from the client will all contribute to the final design. Each page is rendered as a detailed high-fidelity mock-up showing the content and page elements.

• Develop the site. Site development may now begin. If the website is for a commercial client, a project plan for construction must be built and monitored. This plan identifies key functions of the site and marks deadlines for development stages. • Test the site. Testing is an inexpensive way to check whether the website meets its goals before it is launched. Testing during planning and development reduces the chances of failure after the site is built.

Navigation and usability ‘Web browsing user interfaces must improve enough that it is as easy to navigate the web as it is to leaf through the pages of a book.’ Jakob Nielsen, authority on web usability

One of the most crucial keys to an internet site’s success is its navigation system. Users must feel in control of the experience while at the same time being led to the information the sites owners want them to see. A good navigation model is intuitive and easily understood. Users should always know where a link will take them before they commit to it. According to Jakob Nielsen, as a rule of thumb navigation links should take up no more than 20 per cent of the page, while the content should account for 50 to 80 per cent of the page. Navigation controls the user’s experience of every website. In the offline world, customers buy a product first and experience its usability and usefulness after they have paid for it. In the online world, users experience first and buy second. If users don’t understand the experience, or can’t find the product or information they require, then they won’t buy it — and their competitors are just a click away! Consistency in navigation is vital. Each page must feature exactly the same navigation system and graphics. A user must know at all times ‘where am I’, ‘where have I been’ and ‘where can I go’.

Developing a website This is the most technically complex part of the process. At a minimum, knowledge of the programming language HTML (hypertext mark-up language) and cascading style sheets (CSS) is needed. If complex elements like databases, interactive games, animation, secure financial transactions and feedback forms are needed, a skilled person or team will be required to create those parts of the site.

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Figure 14.11: 4HE -ICROSOFT HOME PAGE REČECTS THE SIZE OF THE COMPANY 7ITH SO MANY PRODUCTS AND TARGET AUDIENCES THE COMPANY HAS A HOME PAGE THAT IS ALMOST ENTIRELY TAKEN UP WITH NAVIGATION &OCUS IS GIVEN TO THREE CURRENT CAMPAIGNS AIMED AT THE CONSUMER AUDIENCE TO WHOM -ICROSOFT IS TRYING HARD TO APPEAL 4HE DEVELOPER AUDIENCE TO WHOM -ICROSOFT üNDS IT EASIER TO SELL HAVE THEIR LINKS MADE LESS OBVIOUS !NOTHER TECHNIQUE -ICROSOFT USES TO DEAL WITH SO MANY NAVIGATION LINKS IS TO SEGMENT THEIR CONTENT IN A NUMBER OF SUB SITES EACH WITH ITS OWN IDENTITY AND NAVIGATION SCHEME !LL HAVE A PRIMARY LINK BACK TO WWWMICROSOFTCOM

Writing for the internet The style of writing that is appropriate for the online world is highly optimised and designed for quick scanning by readers. This means text that is constructed using short paragraphs, subheadings and lists. Usability experts Jakob Nielsen and John Morkes found that 79 per cent of all users scanned pages, while very few read word by word. Neilsen also recommends that 50 per cent less text should be written for an internet site than for a linear document. Any extra content should be linked to via hypertext.

The inverted pyramid Nielsen found several surveys revealed that only 10 per cent of users actually scroll down a page, most preferring to read only the top part of a document, in the same way that many people read only the introduction to a newspaper or magazine article. Print journalists have addressed this problem by writing in an inverted pyramid style (see page 487). Similarly, when writing the body text for an internet site, start the document with an introduction that summarises all the important information in one succinct sentence. Subsequent information should be organised in order of importance. Each page within a website should be written using this inverted pyramid approach.

MEDIA

Page length Long pages of information should be avoided, says Nielsen, as many readers don’t bother scrolling

down the page. The designer should therefore avoid putting too much information on one page. It is better to break it up into smaller sections linked by menus and submenus. A page twice the height of the computer screen is the optimum size for lengthy content. Computer-based media deliver information via a computer monitor, which makes small text hard to read. Information on the web is usually presented in condensed or summarised form, using larger type than that found in traditional media such as newspapers. Studies have shown that reading from a computer screen is 25 per cent slower than reading from a printed page. High-resolution screens and ‘electronic paper’ will eventually close this gap.

Elements of a typical corporate page A typical company home page will have a statement about the company, information on what they offer, pages on each of their products or services, information on new products, news or news releases, and contact details. They often also offer online ordering, a self-service or download section, help information and feedback options. Well-known companies don’t need to explain what they do. Some, such as CocaCola, barely mention what they actually produce, instead focusing on brand image, offering lifestyle and ‘cool’ experience rather than product information. Visit www.coke.com.au, and try to locate any product information at all!



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Elements of a conventional user’s page Typical user’s pages can vary quite substantially, but the average page usually contains information about the owner of the site; a diary or blog; their hobbies, likes and dislikes; photographs, personal artwork, music or literature; information that interests them; a feedback form to gauge opinion of the site; and links to friends or other sites and content they enjoy. Many users take the opportunity to create a website that says something unique and entertaining. Some of the most popular internet sites have been produced by individual users or groups of users who have created works of humour or art that have gained cult status. Many users who create popular sites allow advertising on them to make money.

Advertising a site Figure 14.12: 4WO EXAMPLES OF CORPORATE HOME PAGES 4HE (OLDEN WEBSITE FOLLOWS THE TRADITIONAL PATTERN FOR A CORPORATE WEBSITE WHILE THE #OKE !USTRALIA HOME PAGE OFFERS EXPERIENCE LIFESTYLE INFORMATION AND kCOOLl FOCUSING EXCLUSIVELY ON THE TECH SAVVY YOUTH SEGMENT OF THEIR TARGET MARKET

Search engines have ‘robots’ that crawl the web, cataloguing content. Some search engines rank relevance of pages by how many other sites link to them. The internet is so vast it is good to make your site known rather than wait for it to be found. A site can be submitted to search engines. The site link, title,

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short description (25 words) and a number of keywords describing the content are required for this. Having well-written, concise site content that contains the keywords users are likely to search for is the best way to achieve high search ranking. Other ways to advertise include informing others about it in appropriate forums, getting peers to link to it from their sites, and referring to it in offl ine communication.

The search engine marketing (SEM) industry (see page 406) has grown out of the fi nancial benefit of having your site returned ahead of your competitors’ in search engine rankings. The best way to get people to return is to provide high-quality information or entertainment, and to update it regularly. Another key, according to Jakob Nielsen, is to develop a relationship with them; a site must treat its users as individuals, he believes.

Activities 1. Draw a site map of an existing internet site, using

figure 14.11 as a model. Are the pages in a logical order? Has lengthy content been split into multiple small pages or left as one long page, and are the pages constructed in a logical or a confused way? How does the way the site is structured affect how easy it is to glean information from it? 2. Print out a number of internet pages and analyse them, identifying the different page elements. Note their purpose and state whether you believe they have used these elements effectively to achieve it. Does this make navigation of the product easy and informative? 3. On paper, design a simple personal web page detailing who you are, what your interests are and who your friends are. Include links to their web pages, lists of sites you enjoy visiting, a guestbook and photos of yourself. 4. Analyse a number of web pages, looking at the way the information is structured and presented on the screen. Choose a business, research it and create a company web page, integrating text and pictures,

as well as audio and/or video. Think about how you can break the information into chunks, and how these chunks of information should be linked on their separate pages. This task can be prepared on paper or in HTML format. If you choose to work on paper, include illustrations, logos and button designs. You should also include simple page or paragraph references for the hypertext links, and a simple overview map.

PRODUCTION TASK This task can be prepared on paper, or in an electronic format. You should include illustrations, logos and button designs. It should also include simple page or paragraph references for the hypertext links, and a simple overview map. 5. Design an internet site, demonstrating your familiarity with the features of internet site creation. Examples could include a tourist information, film, club or business site. Follow the layout conventions detailed in this section. To advertise your site, create a banner ad that promotes it for display on another site.

Internet advertising ‘Unlike the traditional media where the message is imposed upon the audience, web advertising must be relevant enough to entice the audience in.’ Adam Gosling, Ad News

MEDIA

‘Technology is giving us more and more opportunities to break through to clients,’ says David McCaughan from the international ad agency McCann Erickson. The internet offers advertisers a range of approaches to selling their products or services to the consumer. With 80 per cent of advertisers using the internet to advertise in some way, internet advertising has become a significant industry. In their publication The Changing Face of Advertising, Parks Associates predict

that by 2010, 10 per cent of all advertising spending will be online. The internet’s 50 most popular sites earn about 90 per cent of all online advertising revenue. Advertising on the internet is a new field, and advertisers are yet to figure out how best to use it. Many companies are beginning to realise the potential for brand-building advertising on the internet. Instead of selling directly to consumers, companies are spending money on informing the consumer about them and building product appeal. Often they use collaborative advertising techniques to send you to a partnered online store from which the products are available. Rich LeFurgy, from the Internet Advertising Bureau, points out that consumers are unlikely to go to the Coke site to purchase cans of soft drink.



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Rich media advertising Rich media advertising plays on the strengths of the internet — multimedia, hypertext and interactivity — drawing on the engaging experience of a website in the advertisement. Rich media is common in all forms of internet adverting, especially banner ads and viral advertising. Rich media often uses video ads, similar to their TV counterparts but offering interactivity, making the ad a richer user experience.

Consumer-generated advertising ‘We anticipated that there would be critical submissions. You do turn over your brand to the public, and we knew that we were going to get some bad with the good. But it’s part of playing in this space.’ Melisa Tezanos, spokesperson, Chevrolet, talking about the online Chevrolet Tahoe campaign that invited visitors to create their own ads for the SUV

‘By now, all brands should know control over their image isn’t entirely in their hands,’ says Tessa Wegert, a digital media strategist. Consumers can easily make their opinions known through blogs, social networking sites and forums. Rebecca Lieb, editor-in-chief of the ClickZ Network, warns that ‘the degree to which you control your brand, advertising, messaging, website, even your offline media is rapidly eroding’. Many advertisers are embracing the change, with company-sponsored but user-generated advertising becoming common on the internet. Business Week has termed this ‘brand democratisation’, as it allows for consumer input into a company’s marketing efforts. While many of these messages are extremely successful in building a relationship between the consumer and the brand, some end up backfiring on the advertiser when the consumer turns on the company. Most consumer-generated advertising campaigns will attract a degree of negative content. It is up to the marketer to develop strategies to protect the advertiser, ensuring the focus remains on the positive rather than the negative messages.

Types of internet advertising Corporate and campaign websites Company websites typically provide background information on the company, information on their products and services, consumer help and advice, and software updates.

Figure 14.13: $AIRY &ARMERS USED A CAMPAIGN SITE TO LAUNCH THEIR -OOVE ČAVOURED MILK DRINK 6ERY DIFFERENT IN STYLE FROM THEIR CORPORATE WEBSITE THE CAMPAIGN SITE ALLOWS A BRAND TO BE BUILT AROUND A PRODUCT OR ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN 4HIS SITE WAS SUPPORTED BY OTHER ADVERTISING In a study by market research firm Genex, 65 per cent of US internet users stated they would not buy from a poorly designed website, even if it was their favourite brand. Only 4 per cent of users surveyed would be persuaded to buy at a badly designed site because of discount prices. Worse for retailers is the finding that 30 per cent would stop buying from the offline version of a shop if the online version was a bad experience! Campaign web pages are another form of internet advertising. These sites often offer a range of interactive options to woo consumers. Their branding and style are based on the parent company’s website but contain information restricted to the campaign. These web pages are normally used in combination with other online and offline advertising.

Email marketing Email marketing is a form of direct marketing using electronic mail instead of traditional mail or the telephone. Email marketing is less intrusive and more convenient than telephone marketing, but is also easier to ignore. Email marketing is a multibilliondollar industry, popular because it is an inexpensive form of advertising that has a high return on investment. Results are also easy to track. Emails are used: • to build or enhance the relationship between client and customer, encouraging repeat business

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• to acquire new customers, based on email addresses left with the company for more information, or ‘subscribe to our newsletter’ responses • for special or exclusive offers that encourage ‘buy now’ behaviour. Unscrupulous companies resort to spamming mass email addresses to push their message (see page 389).

Viral advertising Viral advertising propagates through self-replication in a similar way to how viruses reproduce. It uses social networks to spread exponentially, reaching vast audiences very rapidly. Viral advertising takes the form of entertainment, normally as funny video or animations, interactive advergames (see game advertising, page 442), images or text. The content is ‘found’ by one user and spread to their social network, each member of which spreads it further among their network of friends. Matthew Smith of The Viral Factory believes people don’t mind if content is advertising — if it is entertaining, they will pass it on to friends. Viral marketing is popular because it is easy to distribute and well targeted, and has a rapid response rate. It interests a large part of the target market at a low cost.

Banner ads

MEDIA

The most common way to advertise on the internet is to use banner ads. These are usually displayed at the top of each page (each page the ad displays on is counted as an ‘impression’). By clicking on the banner you are transferred to another internet site belonging to the advertiser (known as click-through). The number of click-throughs versus non-click-throughs (the clickthrough rate) is reported to the advertiser. Placing an ad on a website with similar content (e.g. a CD ad on a music website) leads to higher click-through rates. Agencies such as DoubleClick specialise in placing banner ads and monitoring their performance. Banners provide links to product and service information. They attract consumers through clever, mysterious or cryptic hooks, strong, bold headlines or statements, or animation. It is critical that a banner ad campaign stand out. The number of users who click on banner ads has fallen dramatically. A very successful campaign will now have 1 per cent of users click on it (most are lucky to get 0.4 per cent). It is also crucial that the banner links to a campaign site or page dedicated to the advertisement, and not just to the company’s home page.

Many advertisers focus solely on the click-through rate. Studies point to the branding effect a successful banner ad may have. While not actually clicking on the ad, it may have made a positive impression on the viewer. View-through rates, measuring the number of users who act on the ad within 30 days of viewing, are about twice as high as the click-through rates.

Interstitials Interstitial advertisements appear either before the next page of content is loaded or above the content. They interrupt the content in the same way a television or radio commercial does.

Popup and pop-under advertisements Popup advertising involves opening a new window in front of the current one to display a static advertisement or a full website. A pop-under ad opens the window beneath the current browser window so users don’t see it until they close their active window. Antipopup technology in web browsers is rendering these ads less effective.

Location-based advertising Location-based adverting uses online maps to show the location of the company along with a short description of it and the products or services it offers. These ads normally link to the company website.

Search engine marketing (SEM) Search engine marketing (SEM) involves increasing the visibility of a website in search engine result pages. A number of techniques are used. 1. Search engine optimisation involves improving the search ranking by carefully choosing relevant keywords for websites and improving the underlying code structure of the page to make those words more recognisable. 2. Pay-per-click advertising allows a company to buy its way to better ranking, guaranteeing placement on the first results page for paid keywords. 3. Sponsored search placement positions paid advertisements or sponsored search links next to the real search results. Google pays other sites to carry their paid search links based on related content (Google AdWords).

Product placement and sponsorships Not all advertisers come clean with their audiences. Product placement on the internet may be more subtle than pictures or links within a page. Like product placement in movies, the references to the product may be contained within the text or photographs on the site. G. M. O’Connell, the founder of



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advertising company Modern Media, explains: ‘You may be reading about car maintenance at Autosite, not realising all along you’re being sold to by Saturn through images of their product.’ A more explicit type of product placement is the sponsorship. In this approach a company sponsors an event or a website and brands the site and all advertising from the event or site with its own logo or corporate branding.

Audience In the future the line between advertising and services may blur, suggests Modern Media’s G. M. O’Connell. ‘What we’ve been saying in my company is that advertising should be so good that people confuse it with the product and service.’ On the internet, user involvement in the advertising and the product is what is important. The internet allows the consumer to build a relationship with the product and other users of the product. The internet is the first medium where the consumers choose which ads they wish to see. This means advertisements are seen by people who are actually interested in them. They can be effectively targeted, and can contain detailed product or service information. From the advertiser’s site, direct links can be made to reviews of the product or service, as well as more specific, detailed or technical information, dealer and distributor information, and information about other products or services offered by the company. The biggest difference between advertising in traditional media and advertising on the internet is two-way communication. For Kathleen Flinn, editor of Internet Underground magazine, ‘Input from users will likely be a dramatic influence on the shaping of future campaigns, methods, and even the nature of advertising. Internet advertising does not have to be an ugly concept.’

Behavioural targeting Directing ads to individual users based on their internet use is known as behavioural targeting. This method is becoming more common as web usage monitoring becomes more sophisticated. Microsoft combines personal data supplied when a user signs up for a free Hotmail email service, with information derived from their internet searches. Chris Dobson, Microsoft’s global head of advertising sales, believes behavioural targeting avoids wasting people’s time with irrelevant ads. Google and Yahoo! do similar targeting based on personal information obtained from their free email services matched with search data.

Designing internet advertisements ‘Quite simply, if an ad isn’t noticed it may as well not exist.’ Nick Souter, senior copywriter, Leo Burnett

Internet advertising is a new sphere. No form of advertising has ever been able to cater for such a mass of individuals before or target so specifically across cultures, languages or socioeconomic groups. The internet is overflowing with advertising. Major sites often have multiple ads on each page. Of the many ads that a user sees while using the internet, only a few will stand out. Nick Souter believes it essential that an advertisement be quickly and easily understood. If the ‘simple proposition’ of the ad ‘is obscured by intrusive and irrelevant imagery and design elements, the message will be lost and the space wasted,’ he suggests.

Banner design The most common way to target an audience on the internet is to use a banner ad. These ads link the potential audience to another site where detailed information about the product or service is held. Only a limited amount of information can be included on a banner ad, so it has to be simple yet comprehensive. Expandable rich media banner ads are able to offer more content, but first the user has to be attracted to the ad. Often the most effective way to target the audience is also the simplest. Simple, uncluttered arrangements of text and images attract the eye, as do large, bold images or text. The content of the ad should be appealing, catchy, mysterious or unusual. The text is the most essential part of a banner ad. Common copywriting strategies include posing questions (‘Do you know how many people can fit into a mini?’), using cryptic messages (‘It’s more fun than a barrel of monkeys!’) and using directives (‘Click here’). Questions are effective because they initiate interaction with the user. Other sites use animation or video to attract the eye. Often rolling the mouse over the ad will expand it, temporarily halting users while they read or watch video clips within the ad. Banner ads come in many sizes and shapes. The basic ‘full size’ banner ad is 468 s 60 pixels on a computer screen, which translates to approximately 158.5 s 20.5 mm on paper. Other common forms are the tall, thin skyscraper ad (120 s 600 pixels), the square button shape (125 s 125 pixels), and the wide, short ‘leaderboard’ ad (728 s 90 pixels). Any combination of multimedia elements can be used in a banner ad.

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Fig 14.14: "ANNER ADS OFTEN DRAW THE READERlS ATTENTION THROUGH MOVEMENT 2ICH MEDIA ADS EXTEND THIS BY OFFERING INTERACTIVITY ALLOWING THE USER TO EXPLORE THE AD TO LEARN MORE ABOUT THE OFFER OR PRODUCT -ULTIPLE ADS FROM THE SAME CAMPAIGN ARE OFTEN PLACED ON THE SAME PAGE FOR MAXIMUM IMPACT

Location Properly positioning an ad can make or break a campaign. There is no use putting a skateboard ad on the website of a fi nancial services company. The location on a page can also affect an ad’s success. Advertisers have found that banner ads get a higher click-through rate when placed close to items and links that users interact with, such as a browser scroll bar. Eye-tracking studies conducted by the Nielsen/ Norman Group, found that users have learned to ignore banner ads. Advertisers and websites are trying different placement positions and ad sizes and shapes as a way of tempting the user to view the ads.

Activities 1. How often do you read advertising on the internet,

MEDIA

and what attracts you to advertising? Are you already interested in the product or service, or does a clever sales pitch drag you in? Make a list of good advertising you have seen on the internet. What makes it effective? Draw up a list of effective advertising techniques for internet advertising (e.g. links to reviews, interactive elements or clever slogans). 2. Do you find advertising on the internet to be generally effective and well placed? Is it more informative than advertising in traditional media, and do interactive elements provide more information about the product or service, or is it normally only for effect and image? 3. Using the guidelines on page 407, design a banner advertisement for a fictional company. Decide on what product you wish to sell, how your banner ad will capture the attention and interest of the user, and what information you will provide them with once they are at your advertising site. Storyboard your ad. 4. Compare a youth-oriented site such as a radio station or record company with a site associated with a political party. Identify the differences in style, and describe why the creators of each site used the different styles.

5. Study a number of popular websites that have

advertising. Graph the types of companies that are advertising, what the most common products and services advertised are, and what format the ads use (banner, sponsorship, viral etc.).

PRODUCTION TASK This task can be prepared on paper or in an electronic format. You should include illustrations, logos and button designs. Include simple page or paragraph references for the hypertext links, and a simple overview map. 6. Design an online advertising campaign for a major advertiser of your choice (pick a company that has a significant amount of existing offline advertising). Create a document for the client that outlines your approach, how you plan to target their consumers, the types of online advertising you would use, and an approach to using traditional advertising to drive traffic to your online ads. Storyboard one animated/ interactive ad, outlining content areas and the type of content they contain.



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Social networking and social media ‘Community is a powerful way to build content, a sense of belonging, emotional connections, and, ultimately, trust. Sure, you never know if that restaurant review you’re reading was posted by the head chef, the 15-year-old snotty brat next door, or your best friend who lives on the other side of town. But that’s OK. You can get a sense for the overall flavor (pun intended) from multiple reviews. Community in this manner makes knowledge itself more democratic, and that’s a revolution. It may very well be the essence of the internet revolution in general.’ Jeremy Lockhorn, director at interactive agency i-FRONTIER

Instant messaging, wireless internet and mobile phones have us constantly linked to our social peers. Social networking extends this by linking our media and interests to our peers, and encourages new social connections through shared content or interests. Social media allow users to share opinions, insights, experiences and perspectives with one another through blogs, message boards, podcasts and wikis. Steve Rubel, a senior marketing strategist, believes social media and networking have forced traditional broadcast media to be more ‘conversational’ with their audience. Media theorist Mimi Ito writes, ‘The distinctions between personal communication and media distribution are blurring,’ because of increased user involvement in both generating and distributing content via friends.

What are social networks? Social networks allow people to connect, interact, converse and join communities online. They are the successor to online communities. These sites satisfy a wide range of purposes including social and professional connections, product or service recommendations, hobbies, news, entertainment and dating. Many sites form a kind of social archive or recordkeeping facility for millions of users who publicly document their lives in a multimedia format. Social networks can be accessible to a limited community or open to the world at large. Social networking sites feature ‘bottom up’ creation and evolution. Instead of the goals of the site being dictated by the company that designed it (‘top down’), the content, structure and outcomes of the site are determined by the individuals within the site community.

Figure 14.15: k&OR SEIZING THE REINS OF THE GLOBAL MEDIA FOR FOUNDING AND FRAMING THE NEW DIGITAL DEMOCRACY FOR WORKING FOR NOTHING AND BEATING THE PROS AT THEIR OWN GAME 4IMElS 0ERSON OF THE 9EAR FOR IS YOUl 4IME MAGAZINE NAMED ALL SOCIAL NETWORKING CONTRIBUTORS AS THEIR kPERSON OF THE YEARl FOR 4O PRESS HOME THE POINT THE MAGAZINE FEATURED A MIRROR ON THE COVER TO REČECT THE READERlS FACE But social networks are only as good as the people connected to the network, and they depend on their participation level. Members can create and expand social networks by adding other users as friends, or inviting those interested in their content or user profi le to become friends through linking to their social network. Members can explore content through friends, and through their friends’ friends. Before long you can be connected to hundreds, thousands or even millions of people. Social networks enable ‘social fi ltering’. Users, or groups of users, recommend or direct others to content, events or news stories of interest.

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Enabling technologies A number of technologies have enabled widespread public participation in the media. These include: • inexpensive personal computers • digital cameras and video cameras • camera phones that ensure we always carry a camera • applications that allow editing and production of video and audio content • blogging software, social networking and content sharing sites that allow people to upload content easily • increases in internet bandwidth that allow richer content to be offered.

Types of social networks An ever expanding and evolving range of social networking sites involves different cultures, interests, ethnicities, age groups, content sharing types and social relationship types. Most are open communities, but some are exclusive clubs that boast celebrities, business leaders or those voted ‘beautiful’ enough to belong. Types of sites include the following:

Social communities. These sites are considered to be ‘pure’ social networks. They exist simply to connect friends or people of similar interests or backgrounds. Many niche-interest social network sites are catered for in this category. Content sharing sites. Content sharing sites encourage users to upload content to share with all users of the site, but especially those linked at a social level. These are among the most popular (and commercially valuable) social networking applications because they provide instant entertainment through user-uploaded video, audio, photos, art or writing. Professional communities. Professional communities exist to connect professionals with work and one another, and to discuss industry issues. An early example, Linked In, matched professionals to jobs based on profile, location and social connections — proving that it can be who you know that gets you the best job!

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Fan networks. Fan networks connect fans through shared admiration for an individual — typically a movie or music star — or types of movies, music, literature or art. Popularity is gained through recommendations. Rather than waiting for a studio or record company to promote them to a wider audience, unknown movie or music performers can become famous through fan networks. Motivational sites. Motivational sites exist to provide users with the peer support they need to achieve a

goal. Sharing difficult or rewarding experiences with other members is motivational. For example, one of the first sites, Peer Trainer, provided a ‘virtual environment for weight loss and fitness support’.

Shopping sites. Social networking shopping sites involve more than product or service review websites, including recommendations filtered through social networks with similar interests and purchasing habits. News and sports sites. Sports sites group sports fans into communities and display sports news stories. They normally promote news content based on user recommendations, ordering the news stories by popularity and distributing them through social network channels. Social bookmarking sites. Social bookmarking sites allow other users to view your internet bookmarks. Social bookmarking sites incorporate something that search engines can’t compete with — the human aspect. No trawling through search engine results; instead, relevant content is recommended by friends and like-minded individuals. Blogs. Blogs, or weblogs, are websites where ordinary users post opinions and commentary, and write about their experiences, as they would in a diary or journal (see page 418). Blogs also act as a social archive for the authors. Reunion sites. Some of the original social networking sites were reunion sites such as School Friends or Classmates. These sites put users back in contact with those with whom they have lost touch. Dating sites. Social networking dating sites don’t require a third party to initiate connections. The social networking aspects of the site, including profiles and friend lists, are used to find others looking for love. Online worlds and massively multiplayer online roleplaying games (MMOs). Persistent online worlds (see page 433) often use social networking features such as friending and community grouping. ‘Start pages’ can be used to aggregate the content from many of these social networks into a personal web home page for checking each time you boot up your computer.

Participatory culture The rapid increase in new media technology encouraging users to generate their own content has created what Henry Jenkins, Director of the Comparative Media Studies program at MIT, has termed a participatory culture.



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Jenkins believes this culture has the following characteristics: • Low barriers to artistic expression and civic engagement • Strong support for creating and sharing one’s creations • Members who believe their contributions matter • Members who feel some degree of social connection with one another. Jenkins suggests there are a number of skills needed to successfully engage in a participatory culture. These operational skills include the following: • Use and reuse media. Participants need the ability to play, perform, simulate and reuse media content. • Follow flows of information. Users need the ability to follow the flow of stories across multiple sites and media types. • Negotiate with others. Social network members need the ability to network, distribute, negotiate and respect diverse opinions. They need to appreciate other perspectives and be able to collaborate successfully with others. • Evaluate sources. Users need the ability to make judgements about the reliability and credibility of different information sources. Creative literacy, a term coined by researcher Jean Burgessis, is used to describe the possession of these participation skills. She describes creative literacy as ‘the ability to experiment with technology in order to create and manipulate content that serves social goals rather than merely retrieving and absorbing information’.

Why do people participate? ‘Most people who do it are not doing it to attract a mass audience,’ suggests J. D. Lasica, co-founder of Ourmedia.org. ‘They are doing it for themselves or family.’ Reasons for participation are outlined below.

For attention or fame. ‘This can all be summed up, whether we like it or not, with one word: attention. We’re all starving for it, and all of these sites are just another way to get it,’ says Michael Block, a man who photographs himself riding plastic dinosaurs down Los Angeles freeways! ‘People enjoy attention,’ says Cade Metz of PC Magazine. ‘And if you grew up on reality TV and celebrity tabloids, you might enjoy throwing yourself out there, warts and all, for the world to see, just as much as you enjoy consuming the lives of others who do the same.’ To connect and ‘hang out’. Many online friendships are created from existing real-world friendships. ‘Most of what they’re doing is communicating with

people they know, using the web to maintain existing relationships. It’s a really easy and convenient way to connect,’ says Susannah Stern, an assistant professor at the University of San Diego. Social networking sites can provide a sense of community and belonging. They are spaces not controlled by parents or teachers. Many offline places to hang out, such as shopping centres, are becoming out-of-bounds to teenagers.

Self-disclosure and ritual. ‘Our everyday culture definitely celebrates self-disclosure,’ says researcher Susannah Stern. Social networking sites provide an unparalleled opportunity for self-disclosure, opinion and communication with small groups of friends or the entire internet. Stern believes that ‘kids are picking up that self-disclosure is what we value in people’. Instead of talking on the phone for hours as teenagers used to do, Stern suggests, they can now spend hours on social networking sites and instant messaging each other. They can undertake the rituals of forming friendship and social hierarchies, displaying the hierarchy for other friends or would-be friends to see. Building and exploring identity. Social networks allow users to build and explore their identity — whether authentic or fictional. Most people, especially teenagers, are concerned with the way they believe people perceive them and the way they perceive themselves. Susannah Stern believes that the dynamics of identity production are played out on social networking sites. ‘Profiles are digital bodies, public displays of identity where people can explore impression management. Comments that provide explicit reactions to online presence offer valuable feedback. The goal is to look cool and receive peer validation.’

Collective intelligence Collective intelligence, writes Jean-Francois Noubel, an expert on the subject, ‘is the oldest human social organisation where individuals decide to mutualise their knowledge, know-how and experience in order to generate a higher individual and collective benefit than if they remained alone.’ Knowledge communities such as wikis capture and organise collective intelligence (also known as ‘the wisdom of crowds’). While wiki contributors may be knowledgeable, it is networking itself that brings power through organising knowledge and making it accessible. The whole intelligence collection ends up far more powerful than the sum of the individual knowledge. Other social networking sites, especially those that are professional, industry or business based, allow ordinary users to pool their intelligence to solve complex issues and questions, and to build vast bodies of collected and organised knowledge.

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Features of social networking sites There is a huge range of social networking sites with a wide array of applications, but certain common elements are crucial to managing social networks.

Identity and profiles ‘You are what you write. On the web we are writing ourselves into existence.’ David Weinberger, author and technologist

MEDIA

Cooperation in social network environments is based largely on trust and reputation. Reputation is based on a verifiable online identity. A user’s identity is managed through their profile, which can be private or public. In the real world an identity is negotiated through a number of factors. Our outer identity is based on a wide range of actions, beliefs and appearances. Offline identity is shaped by factors that are difficult to control. These include race, social class, occupation and level of education. Factors we can control include how we dress, wear our hair and speak, as well as the adoption of socio-cultural patterns and behaviours identified with the type of person we want to be. We also have an inner identity — our concept of self. Online identity has aspects of both our real-world persona and our concept of self. In an online identity, users will often exaggerate aspects of self they take pride in or believe are missing from their real-world identity. An online profile contains information about the user — typically a photo, along with a list of interests and linked friends. The goal is to look cool and receive positive feedback from peers. Identity is also derived from the social connections we make. Researchers Judith Donath and Danah Boyd argue that display of social connections reveals identifying information. ‘While the bulk of one’s Profile is completely within the participant’s control — the demographics, photos, self-description, tastes — what photos Friends choose to use as their primary image and what they write as comments is less controlled.’ On some sites users can represent themselves visually by choosing an avatar, a fictional visual depiction of themselves. Building and managing an online profile and identity is time-consuming. Even so, many users have multiple online identities. A need for multiple identities can arise as a consequence of a negative reputation gained through the actions of the user or of an advertiser or spammer hijacking and misusing an identity. False identities are used for political, busi-

ness or commercial advantage, when the user does not want their true identity known. On online auction sites, sellers sometimes use a false identity to bid on their own items in an effort to increase bids. The main reason for multiple online identities, however, is that they are often not transferable between different websites. Open ID projects aim to centralise profile ownership to prevent the need to create and manage multiple profiles.

‘Friending’ and relationships within social networks Social networks are constructed in a way that requires users to indicate their relationships, or friendships, with others using the site. The process of finding and linking new ‘friends’, who are often complete strangers, is known as friending. The practice of finding friends online is not a simple one, suggests researcher Danah Boyd. ‘Each choice has the potential to complicate relationships with friends, colleagues, schoolmates, and lovers.’ These online decisions can affect the user’s offline life. ‘Social network sites are not digital spaces disconnected from other social venues,’ warns Boyd. In particular, the process of removing a friend ‘signals a shift in relationship status that is often not easily articulated in everyday life’. Popularity is the currency of social sites, and the number of friends for some can be an obvious measure of this. MySpace president Tom Anderson has more than 80 million friends! Friending can be competitive, as influence can be gained through the number of friends a user has. As a result, many links are forged simply to gain popularity, especially for attention seekers. Most users are concerned only with those they consider friends, people they know or think are interesting or ‘cool’. But a link to a friend does not necessarily imply a relationship, or even an interest in getting to know the person. People of interest are inundated with friending requests. Reasons for friending include the following: • Collecting friends allows a user to connect to more people and their profiles, connect with more diverse interest groups, and access and share more content. • Friending extends existing real-world friendships. • Friending indicates that the user is a fan of a performer, band, actor, movie, content type or product. • A friend with a cool profile makes the user look cool too. • Friending provides a way to bookmark other people’s content for later exploration.



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Issues Social networking shares common issues with the internet as a whole, but also raises a range of issues specific to the ways in which social networks are used and structured.

Privacy ‘Millions of people share some of their most personal details with total strangers on the internet via sites such as MySpace, Friendster and Facebook. The dangers this can pose to children are well publicised, but it also has powerful if less well known implications for us all. The sheer volume of personal information that people are publishing online — and the fact that some of it could remain visible permanently — is changing the nature of personal privacy. Is this a good thing, or will the ‘MySpace generation’ live to regret it?’ Alison George, New Scientist magazine

People are sharing personal details online, as well as information about other people they know. The Attention Company, a group of futurists and consultants, argues that this culture has long been a normal part of life. For most of recorded history people have lived in small villages or communities where everyone’s secrets were known. It is only when we became anonymous in our own homes that personal information became secret. Users of social networking sites commonly reveal personal information, including political opinions, sexual orientation, drug use, and their innermost thoughts and feelings. Yet revealing personal information on Corporate information

the internet can damage your reputation for years into the future. The practice of ‘googling’ job applicants has become normal. ‘There is no real-world parallel,’ says internet entrepreneur Fred Stutzman. ‘You don’t go walking round the mall telling people whether you are straight or gay.’ Some of the most private information, such as names and telephone numbers, is published not by the owner of a social networking site, but by friends posting comments or through others’ writing online diaries. It isn’t yet legally clear whether people who keep online diaries are obligated to protect the privacy of the people they interact with offline. For Marc Rotenberg, director of the Electronic Privacy Information Center, ‘Anybody who wants to reveal their own private life has a right to do that. It’s a different question when you reveal someone else’s private life.’ Rotenberg believes that just because it is called a diary doesn’t make it one. ‘It’s not sitting in a nice, leather-bound book under a pillow. It’s online where a million people can find it.’ Many users do not realise that online postings are permanent. ‘Once something appears on the internet, it’s almost impossible to remove,’ writes Steve Kerrison from technology news site Hexus.

Harassment and deception ‘Every day I logged in and discovered more and more cruel spoofs, harassing videos, death and rape threats, incredibly nasty comments and God knows what else. I can’t take it anymore. YouTube ‘popularity’ is hell unless you’re a saint with nothing to hide, or you have indestructible confidence.’ Emmalina, 18-year-old Tasmanian ex-YouTube star

(% agree)

• Praise of your organisation (72%) • Events or activities in your organisation that are already public knowledge (71%)

More willing to share with others

• Opinions about the performance of your organisation (39%)

Personal information

(% agree)

• Educational background (66%) • Job title/function (63%) • Your name (54%) • City of residence (53%) • Photograph (53%)

• Opinions about your competitors (33%)

• Place of employment (42%)

• Events or activities in your organisation that are not yet public knowledge (16%)

• Conversation with people you manage (12%)

• Trade secrets (8%) Less willing to share with others

• Conversation with your boss (11%) • Personal net worth, assets and/or debts (10%)

Figure 14.16: 4HE !TTENTION #OMPANY GRAPHED USER RESPONSES TO APPROPRIATE MATERIAL TO SHARE ON THE INTERNET

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Becoming popular on a social networking site is tantamount to finding movie celebrity, and exposes a user to the same criticism and pressures that a celebrity faces. Emmalina, a Tasmanian YouTube star, withdrew all the content from her site after she was harassed and her computer was hacked into and photos downloaded. Emmalina regularly attracted audiences of 300 000, becoming one of the most viewed YouTube users, but, she claims, along the way people forgot she was a ‘real, normal young girl with a life, feelings and a right to privacy’. Social networking can also be used for deceptive purposes, such as faking content or passing advertising off as user-generated content (e.g. do a web search on LonelyGirl15). The National Center for Missing & Exploited Children in the US reports thousands of incidents of adults using the social networks to target children online in order to engage in sexual activity.

is no common solution to the issue. Each user must monitor the content ownership conditions of the site they upload to. There is always the risk that the site may change its content ownership rules. What might be uploaded as your own content today could become the property of the site if the legal contract is updated or amended. These contracts often state that they are liable to change ‘without notice’.

Content There are hundreds of new social networking sites being launched — every one of them trying to be the next YouTube or MySpace. This creates an insatiable appetite for new content. It often seems as though anything will do, but although some content is genuinely entertaining or reflective of world events, other content clearly is not.

Copyright Record company Universal contends that much of the media posted by users of social networking sites is not user-generated at all, but is actually stolen from copyright owners. This includes movie clips from television or movies, music videos, lip synching to copyright songs, or videos using copyright music in their soundtracks. Copyright holders, however, are uploading their own content to the same sites to publicise new movies or music releases or to promote television shows. Record companies build websites to promote their acts. Video sharing sites feature movie trailers and clips of television shows. Generally, copyrighted material is found only if other users report it, although some sites do employ people to look, or they scan keywords or tags linked to the content. Some content sharing sites use audio and video ‘signature’ software that automatically scans uploaded materials for image and audio signatures (like a map of the content), similar to the signatures of commercial releases. Uploading footage of events such as rock concerts risks a hefty fine. After one U2 concert in Sydney more than 200 illegal clips were uploaded onto YouTube.

Ownership

MEDIA

All sites have different ownership contracts that you ‘sign’ when you register. If you upload to a video sharing site a video that becomes a hit, do you get paid for it if a television network plays it, or is it considered public domain? If the content on your social networking site becomes popular, are you entitled to move the content to another site where you would receive advertising revenue for it? Do you have the right to reproduce your work in other formats? There

Figure 14.17: k2IVERBENDl AN ANONYMOUS YOUNG FEMALE BLOGGER IN "AGHDAD HAD HER BLOG POSTING CONVERTED INTO A MULTI AWARD WINNING BOOK TITLED "AGHDAD "URNING 4HIS BLOG IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE TYPE OF COMPELLING CONTENT ORDINARY PEOPLE CAN CREATE /FFERING EYEWITNESS ACCOUNTS OF THE EVERYDAY REALITY OF LIFE IN OCCUPIED )RAQ AND AN ANALYSIS OF THE POLITICS AFFECTING HER LIFE THE BLOG COVERED TOPICS INCLUDING HOME RAIDS RELATIVES kDISAPPEARINGl INTO PRISON CHILDREN BEING KIDNAPPED BY MONEY HUNGRY MILITIAS AND THE DEATHS OF THOSE KNOWN TO HER q STORIES NOT COVERED IN THE MAINSTREAM WESTERN MEDIA



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There are many critics of the content uploaded by typical users. Jasper Gerard, a columnist for The Observer, writes, ‘Vodcasts and blogs are to the noughties what graffiti was to the seventies: mindless scrawls reading: “I woz ere.” It says: “I’m a moron, but worship me anyway.” MySpace should refer to the large vacant area of green belt between the ears. We are bogged down in blogland … everyone has a right to write; but a right to be heard still has to be earned.’ Much of the content uploaded to entertainmentbased social networking sites is of amateur quality, while much of the most watched content is professional material recorded from commercial sources. David Poltrack, chief research officer at CBS, comments, ‘You have to go through a lot of crap on YouTube to get anything good!’ For sites such as YouTube to supplant television content, consistently excellent video needs to be uploaded. Critics of the current amateur content point to blogs as examples of quality content being produced by ordinary users.

Concerns over the nature of material uploaded and promoted ‘Clearly, people are getting hurt making these videos … there’s blood. It’s true that kids do these stupid things (anyway), but could you ask for a better template for doing stupid things?’ Jon Sorenson, spokesman for the New York State Consumer Protection Board

Many people are concerned by the type of material being uploaded. Stupid tricks, real-life violence, accidents caught on film, and faked or staged content is all too common. Would-be ‘stars’ seriously hurt themselves producing videos with the aim of getting noticed. Some sites even offer cash prizes for the ‘best stunts’. Many user-contributed videos have been seen as encouraging violent, sexist, dangerous and illegal behaviour. Pete Cashmore, from social networking blog Mashable, has concerns about liability. Are sites liable, he asks, if a ‘guy gets badly bitten while spreading himself with peanut butter and letting dogs lick it off?’ Uploaded videos of schoolyard fights and bullying are increasingly common. Even cases of extreme assault and rape have been uploaded or shared through social networks. ‘The clips represented the worst aspects of bullying. It is premeditated, organised, intentional, choreographed even, and that’s what distinguishes it from common schoolyard bullying,’ says Annabel Taylor, Family Help Trust chairwoman.

Many also have concerns about social networking sites contributing to a culture of voyeurism in which every private, hidden or undesirable aspect of life becomes mass entertainment.

Advertising Word-of-mouth advertising is a powerful way for retailers and manufacturers to reach an audience, and allows smaller manufacturers to compete with larger companies through efficient and targeted, recommendation-based promotion. But some advertisers use word-of-mouth advertising in dishonest ways, paying users or bloggers to write positive reviews of their products (‘pay per post’), while not informing the reader that the comments are paid advertisements. ‘Organisations are realising that a mass market that passively accepts ideas no longer exists and that markets are now conversations,’ says Queensland University of Technology interaction design researcher Joanne Jacobs. ‘Consumers no longer trust one-way information put out by companies. They don’t believe PR rhetoric. What they do trust is information from each other — we all prefer to use goods and services recommended by our peers.’

Wikis A wiki is a website that allows users to add, remove, edit and update content, building a collaborative body of knowledge from the ground up. (The word is derived from the Hawaiian wiki wiki, meaning ‘quick and informal’.) Anyone with a computer can add, change or append information on a wiki, although contentious entries, such as those relating to political or controversial figures, are often ‘locked’ or have a delay imposed before publishing to allow a check to be made. The wiki format has made it easy to add and edit content straight on the page. A wiki is flexible, allowing users to dictate the structure of knowledge organisation. Wikipedia, the original and largest wiki, is the most detailed collection of information in history, containing millions of user-created, encyclopediastyle entries in many languages. Wikipedia has a core community of contributors and administrators, some of whom volunteer more than 30 hours a week for checking and correcting entries. Articles or items within a wiki are not static or simply updated occasionally like a traditional encyclopedia. Instead, articles can be continually added to and edited by other users. Unlike a traditional encyclopedia, Wikipedia can include any articles on any topic, and these are not restricted in length. While an

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article may be only a couple paragraphs long in an encyclopedia, its wiki equivalent can run to several pages and feature multimedia elements. Too much content, however, can act to slow down the user’s understanding of a subject.

Wikis and information reliability

Tagging or ‘folksonomy’ Folksonomy, author-initiated tagging of content, involves deploying user-defined keywords to ensure better cataloguing of web content. When content is uploaded, the user tags it with multiple descriptive tags. Each tag provides information about related content and links to similar content using the same tag.

‘Never the one to be embarrassed by life’s peculiarities, Larry King has often been said to have a bit of a flatulence habit while on air at CNN, which isn’t curbed by having guests in the studio. A favourite moment of his, and an often repeated story, involved an interview conducted with former President Jimmy Carter who, after some length of time in studio, chided Larry and asked him to please stop, or he’d have to end the interview. Larry, ever present in the moment, adeptly steered the conversation to global warming and the effects of bovine emissions on the ozone.’ A prank Wikipedia article on flatulence that remained active for four months

Reproduced with the permission of Yahoo! Inc. © 2007 by Yahoo! inc. YAHOO! and the YAHOO! logo are trademarks of Yahoo! Inc.

Figure 14.18: 4HE MOST POPULAR TAGS ON THE PHOTO

MEDIA

User-generated content can have ‘truth’ and bias issues. The main cause is its lack of authority. In printed or commercial publications, publishers and editors ensure that information is reliable. Incorrect information can remain online until it is noticed and challenged by a user, as there is no formal review process. When Cardinal Ratzinger was sworn in as Pope Benedict XVI, his picture was temporarily replaced with one of the evil emperor from Star Wars. Political misuse of wikis has also been a problem. Political candidates and their supporters have been caught changing their own entries, removing politically damaging information and references to unfulfilled promises. Because wiki content is generated by users, the subject matter covered is biased towards what is popular. According to Dale Hoiberg, editor-in-chief of Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘People write of things they’re interested in, and so many subjects don’t get covered; and news events get covered in great detail. The entry on Hurricane Frances is more than five times the length of that on Chinese art, and the entry on [the British soap opera] “Coronation Street” is twice as long as the article on [the former British Prime Minister] Tony Blair.’ Articles on technology and science are written by experts in the field, and can be incomprehensible to those without specific knowledge.

SHARING SITE &LICKR 4HIS VISUAL MAPPING OF TAGS IS KNOWN AS A TAG CLOUD 4HE TAGS ARE NORMALLY SORTED ALPHABETICALLY WITH THE SIZE OF THE WORD REČECTING ITS POPULARITY ! TAG CLOUD ALLOWS USERS TO COMBINE THEIR TAGS ON ONE PAGE SHOWING WHAT TOPICS THEY USE MOST FREQUENTLY

A book in a library can be filed under one category only. ‘Tagging allows for the kind of multiple, overlapping associations that the brain itself uses, rather than rigid categories,’ says Tim O’Reilly, founder of publisher O’Reilly Media. ‘In the canonical example, a Flickr photo of a puppy might be tagged both “puppy” and “cute” — allowing for retrieval along natural axes generated by user activity.’ Geotagging is applying geographic tags to content so that users can explore information through maps, and content can be understood by geographic location in addition to normal tagging.

Podcasting and vodcasting The term podcasting combines two words: ‘iPod’ and ‘broadcasting’. Podcasts started to appear in 2004. A podcast is an audio file designed to download and be listened to at the convenience of the consumer. Regular listeners subscribe to podcasts via an RSS feed (see page 390), which alerts them to newly released content. There is a huge range of subject matter covering all areas of interest, in many languages, although podcasts are usually personal or restricted to a single subject.



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Podcasts are tagged with details about their content, author, genre and date through ID3 tags within the audio fi le (known as metadata). Enhanced podcasts can feature slideshows and web links, and can be navigated by chapter.

Types of podcasts There are four main types of podasts. • Personal. This type of podcast offers one person’s views on various subjects, from news events to their favourite music. They are normally produced by a single individual. • Group. This style of program is normally created by a team of like-minded individuals around a single subject (e.g. anime) or a single program style (e.g. news and current events programs).

It is similar to a podcast but uses video in addition to audio. A vodcast is not the same as a video blog (see page 418). Video blogs combine textual and still image content with video clips in a web page. A vodcast uses video and audio in a single video fi le downloaded to a computer or mobile device for later viewing. Computer science academics Hermann Maurer and Josef Kolbitsch believe that the next logical step for vodcasting and video blogging will be the creation and distribution of television content. ‘Topics that are inappropriate for the mass of users served by broadcast media, as well as news that is possibly not relevant enough for the majority of consumers, can be addressed by the new services.’

• Commercial. Commercial content from television and radio stations is used to promote offl ine material. This can be content repeated from normal broadcast schedules or new material. Some businesses use podcasts to communicate with clients. • Educational. Podcasts are used by educational facilities for distributing lectures and lecture material. Conferences often allow registered attendees to download speeches for later replay. Distance education also makes use of the podcast format.

Vodcasting Vodcasting combines the acronym ‘vod’ (video on demand) with ‘casting’, shortened from ‘broadcasting’.

Figure 14.19: 4HE !USTRALIAN "ROADCASTING #OMMISSION WAS AN EARLY ADOPTER OF THE VODCAST FORMAT RELEASING TELEVISION SHOWS SUCH AS 4HE #HASER TO VIDEO STRAIGHT AFTER THE SHOW HAD BEEN BROADCAST

Activities 1. Write a short report on ‘friends’ on social

networking sites. This could be done by surveying classmates to gain points of view and stories on the following subtopics. • How many friends is enough? Can you have too many or too few? What is an ideal number before it becomes difficult to handle? • How important is it to be on other people’s friends list? • Do people treat friending as a competition? 2. Select some examples of both vodcasts and

video blogs. How does the chosen format suit the material that is presented? Make a list of the strengths and weaknesses of vodcasts and video blogs. 3. Conduct a class survey into podcast usage. Find

out how many people listen to them, what are the chosen types and where they are consumed. Report on your findings in the form of a table with percentages. Convert this into a visual display as a graph.

4. Would you be in favour of a school decision to

ban the use of wikis in students’ assignments on the grounds that they are unreliable? Defend your position based on an investigation you conduct into information reliability.

PRODUCTION TASK 5. Create a podcast for your school. It could be a news

report for parents, or it could cover events at the school from a student perspective. Use multiple parts, including music, news and sports sections. Also consider the inclusion of advertising.

WRITTEN TASK 6. Provide an analysis of a range of social media sites

with a common interest. Investigate the most popular content in a given week and propose some reasons for this. Report on the similarities in content among different sites. If possible, track content as it appears on one site and then another. Compare the content with its treatment in other sources, such as news sites.

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Blogs

MEDIA

Blogs, or weblogs, are websites where ordinary users post opinions and commentary, and write about their experiences, as they might in a diary or journal. Postings appear in reverse chronological order. A blog normally presents its content in the form of text and images, providing links to other related blogs, or blogs belonging to friends (the blog roll). Other forms of blogs include picture (photoblog), video (vlog), audio, mobile blogs (moblog) and spam or fake blogs designed for boosting search engine rankings of a website (splog). Blog postings are frequent, typically added once a day. Blogs are usually produced by one author or a small group of authors. Unlike other social networking sites, blogs cannot be freely contributed to, although users can leave comments. The fi rst weblog was a site created by World Wide Web creator Tim Berners-Lee and took the form of a regularly updated list of interesting web links. It was not until 1998–99 that communities of bloggers started to emerge. Blogging has become a huge internet genre. In 2006 alone, 100 000 new blogs were launched each day — more than two every second. A typical blog entry consists of a title or headline, date and time of publishing, the permalink or URL of the article for later retrieval, the main content of the post and normally a comments mechanism allowing readers to respond. A ‘trackback’ facility allows a reader to navigate back to an article, site or other blog referred to or referenced in the blog entry. Blogs often use RSS feeds (page 390) to distribute their content. Most bloggers use web-based applications. These allow users to blog from any internet-connected computer, eliminating the need for technical development skills. Anyone with a computer and a desire to communicate has easy and inexpensive access to a potential mass audience. Blogs provide an alternate source of content and opinion. While almost all blogs are read by only a few people, some have considerable influence in areas including politics, technology and business. These influential bloggers are known as the bloggerati. Blogs are a form of social networking, each blogger linking to other blogs they fi nd informative or entertaining, or simply those belonging to friends. These links are a powerful means of becoming influential. David Sifry, founder of the blog search engine Technorati, suggests that ‘by looking at the number of people who are linking to you, we can actually start to gauge pretty accurately the level of influence or authority that you have in the blogosphere’.

Primary reasons for blogging among U.S. bloggers It serves as therapy 48.7 Information on the web does not fulfil my needs 40.8 To expose political information 28.7 To stay ahead of the news/gossip curve 20.7 It’s the latest trend 16.2 Interested in journalism 15.7 Because my peers do 11.8 To improve my writing skills 7.5 To stay in touch with family and friends 3.3 Hope it brings fame or notoriety 3.2 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Percentage of positive respondents

Figure 14.20: 7HY PEOPLE BLOG

Types of blogs Researchers Josef Kolbitsch and Hermann Maurer have defi ned two types of blogs: • Diaries or personal journals. Diaries or personal journals keep friends and social contacts informed about the work and leisure life of their author, as well as providing an outlet for their thoughts and opinions on articles, current events or products. Some people use these styles of blogs for political advocacy or social justice causes, or for citizen journalism (see page 420). This style represents 70 per cent of all blogs. • Filters. Filters are lists of links to external sites, usually news or academic articles that include comments about the content of the linked site. These blogs usually cover one particular topic, such as computer software or the war in Iraq.

Content and issues ‘Blog entries frequently cite a current event such as a law recently passed, a news story, or the release of a new product. Individuals write comments and their opinion on the event in their blog. Hence, blogs are usually opinionated and reflect the author’s views on



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certain topics,’ write Kolbitsch and Maurer. In the recent Iraq and Lebanon conflicts, bloggers from both sides offered opinions and ‘live-blog’ experiences not published in the mass media. Politicians use blogs to connect to their constituents, while mainstream journalists post material not published by their employer. Mainstream news organisations are often reluctant to present certain kinds of material or cover some topics for risk of offending small but vocal groups within their mass audience. Blogs do not have that restriction. Many traditional media outlets encourage their staff to use newspaper blogs. This expands and personalises the content the media outlet provides. Newspaper blogs often encourage readers to add their own content, involving them in content generation. Some critics have accused bloggers of ignoring copyright and failing to present issues in a credible and unbiased way. Employees have been sacked for using their blogs to reveal proprietary or confidential information about their workplaces, or defaming colleagues or bosses.

Figure 14.21: 4WO BLOGS THAT PRESENTED THE PERSONAL ACCOUNTS AND OPINIONS OF BLOGGERS FROM EITHER SIDE OF THE )SRAEL,EBANON CONČICT

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Blogs are also important for minority language and cultural groups, as they allow for the sharing of experiences and knowledge, and provide social connection. Blogs allow publishing to an audience deemed too small to justify the costs of traditional publishing. ‘At a time when most news agencies are closing foreign desks and tightening budgets for global coverage, blogging provides a glimpse into the lives of others available nowhere else,’ writes Wired magazine reporter Quinn Norton. The volunteer group Global Voices translates selected Iranian, Chinese, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Russian social activism blogs into English, dramatically increasing the audiences for these blogs. Taiwanese blogger Cheng Kuo Wei and a volunteer team translate English blog posts into Chinese. Global Voices has been active in publicising foreign blogs that have a political impact. They have revealed videos of police brutality in Malaysia, campaigned for the release of imprisoned Egyptian bloggers and fought political censorship of blogs. They strive to ‘amplify, curate and aggregate the global conversation online’ so that voices everywhere will be heard.

1% 2% 2% 2% 2% 3%

1% English 5%

Japanese Chinese Spanish 39%

10%

Italian Russian Portuguese French German

33%

Farsi Other

Figure 14.22: "LOGGING IS GLOBAL 4HIS 4ECHNORATI GRAPH SHOWS THE LANGUAGE BREAKDOWN OF BLOG POSTINGS For further information, go to http://technorati.com/weblog/blogosphere

The status of a blog is tracked by the number of links made to it — the more links, the higher its relevance. Advertisers are exploiting the system by placing paid postings on thousands of blog sites linking to their own blog promoting their products and services. They use this method to ensure their own blogs are placed at the top of search results lists.

Activities 1. Find blogs written by those considered to be among

the ‘bloggerati’ (influential experts) in the field of social media and blogs. What makes the bloggers you consider bloggerati the leaders in their field? Using the features of good blogs outlined in this chapter, list the factors you believe make your chosen bloggers stand out from the rest? 2. Explore the most popular 20 blogs on a blog link site such as Technorati. What is the most popular

type of blog — diary style or filter? Is this what you expected? Why do you believe one is more popular than the other? List your reasons. What is it that makes these ‘top’ blogs better than others? 3. Find ways that minorities are using blogs to promote their culture and cultural ties. Using your research findings, write a guide for other minority groups, explaining how best to use blogs for social connection and promotion of traditions.

Citizen journalism

MEDIA

‘Tomorrow’s news reporting and production will be more of a conversation, or a seminar. The lines will blur between producers and consumers, changing the role of both in ways we’re only beginning to grasp now. The communication network itself will be a medium for everyone’s voice, not just the few who can afford to buy multimillion-dollar printing presses, launch satellites, or win the government’s permission to squat on the public’s airwaves.’ Dan Gillmor, author of We Are the Media

New media technologies have allowed average users an active role in the collecting, reporting, analysing and disseminating of news and information. Media futurists have predicted that 50 per cent of news will be produced by citizens by 2021. Citizen journalism is a term that encompasses a range of individual and social involvement in media creation, reporting and fi ltering. It has the following features: • User reporters. Typical users or amateur reporters report directly on the news or analyse its content and meaning. They do this through blogs and video blogs, through user-generated news sites or



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through submitting their content to mainstream news organisations. • Mobile technology. The convergence of mobile technologies and cameras means an average citizen carrying a camera is now more likely to be first on the scene of a news story than a professional crew. Often the user is actually involved in the event. Even when not directly reporting the news, amateurs are able to submit footage for use in news reporting. • Social filtering. Social filtering of news allows users to highlight a news story they consider important and upload the story, or a link to it, to social network news sites. Others can vote for or against display of the story.

go. These events marked a change in the way media content is gathered and viewed. Because of its ‘on the spot’ quality, citizen journalism can often be more immediate, passionate and illuminating than professional reporting. The first amateur footage with a sensational media impact was Dallas resident Abraham Zapruder’s 8 mm film record of President Kennedy’s assassination in a 1963 motorcade through the city. The momentous significance of this footage proved that anyone could capture history. Today such a public event would be recorded by hundreds, even thousands of spectators with cameras, all connected to the internet. Mainstream news coverage would have to compete with the mass of user-captured material. ‘In a world of ubiquitous media tools, which is almost here, someone will be on the spot every time,’ says citizen media author Dan Gillmor.

Figure 14.24: !N IMAGE TAKEN ON A MOBILE PHONE BY !LEXANDER #HADWICK AS HE ESCAPED FROM AN UNDERGROUND TUNNEL AT +INGS #ROSS 3TATION AFTER THE ,ONDON BOMBINGS 4HE NEXT DAY THIS PHOTO WAS USED ON THE FRONT PAGE OF 4HE .EW 9ORK 4IMES Figure 14.23: #ITIZEN JOURNALISM IS NOT A NEW CONCEPT )T ORIGINATED IN THE S WITH PAMPHLET OR kBROADSIDEl PUBLICATIONS 4HE MOST FAMOUS EXAMPLE IS 4HOMAS 0AINElS #OMMON 3ENSE OF IN WHICH 0AINE DENOUNCED "RITISH RULE IN THE !MERICAN COLONIES 4HROUGH ITS POPULARITY IT HELPED INCITE THE !MERICAN 2EVOLUTION

Influence of citizen journalism Photos and videos of the 2004 South Asian tsunami, the 2005 London bombings and Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans have demonstrated the influence ordinary people can have on news reporting, especially now many of us carry a camera wherever we

‘Journalists once had the exclusive province of taking people to places they’d never been. But now a mother in Baghdad with a videophone can let you see a roadside bombing, or a patron in a nightclub can show you a racist rant by a famous comedian. These blogs and videos bring events to the rest of us in ways that are often more immediate and authentic than traditional media. These new techniques, I believe, will only enhance what we do as journalists and challenge us to do it in even more innovative ways.’ Richard Stengel, managing editor, Time magazine

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Many news organisations already invite their audience to contribute eyewitness reports and imagery, but media outlets continue to wrestle with issues of quality control, hoaxes and manipulated imagery. Financial compensation for content owners is another difficult issue, as media organisations seek to avoid fuelling a ‘feeding frenzy’ of uncontrolled and intrusive amateur news collection.

Issues Amateur journalism ‘There is already a lot of quality amateur journalism being created by our users,’ explains Scott Moore, head of news and information at Yahoo Media Group. ‘Yahoo needed a more efficient process for soliciting and publishing user-contributed photos and video.’ Yahoo! and Reuters pioneered organised user contribution of news footage through their You Witness program.

‘The world is full of millions and millions of people who want to do our job for us, and publish stories on their own. Production editors no longer have staffs of 50 — they have a staff of 50,000. The problem is, nobody knows what is good among all that.’ Jim Chisholm, World Association of Newspapers strategy adviser

Mainstream journalists are worried about issues of quality control, bias and accuracy. The assumption that everyone can be a journalist, they claim, devalues the skill and experience of professional journalists and editors. James Farmer, a journalist at The Age, asks, ‘when was the last time you encountered a “citizen doctor”, valued a report by a “citizen researcher”, took off in a plane flown by a “citizen pilot” or saw justice meted out by “citizen policemen”?’ Farmer believes that while there are exceptions, the quality of citizen journalism to date ‘ain’t great’. Nonetheless he believes citizen-contributed content that can be used, analysed and recompiled by professional journalists and editors represents the power of citizen journalism. Some critics are worried about the ease with which manipulated images can be distributed through citizen media channels. Journalists are bound by professional ethics, while average users may not fully understand the consequences of their actions (see digital imaging, page 83).

Bloggers and independent journalists Increasingly bloggers are using video for political and social activism. Events such as the Iraq war allow those caught in the conflict to give voice to their own opinions and experience. As consumers of this content, we see a firsthand view of the conflict, and have access to uncensored reporting and imagery.

Daily posting volume 2 500 000

Israel/Hezbollah conflict West Virginia, US, Rep. Cynthia coal mine accident McKinney

1.3 million posts/day (30 day avg as of 30 September 2006) 54 000+ posts per hour

Constitutional vote in Iraq

2 000 000

London bombings

1 500 000

altercation

71 religious anti-war protesters arrested on Capital Hill

Hurricane Katrina

Deep Throat revealed Terri Schiavo dies

1 000 000

Indian Ocean tsunami US Election Day

500 000 For further information, go to http://technorati.com/weblog/blogosphere

29

MEDIA

/0 29 8 / 0 /0 4 29 9 / 0 /1 4 0 29 / 0 4 /1 1 29 / 0 4 /1 29 2 / 0 /0 4 1 29 / 0 5 /0 2 29 / 0 5 /0 3 29 / 0 5 /0 4 29 / 0 5 /0 5 29 / 0 5 /0 6 29 / 0 5 /0 7 29 / 0 5 /0 8 29 / 0 5 /0 9 29 / 0 5 /1 0 29 / 0 5 /1 1 29 / 0 5 /1 29 2 / 0 /0 5 1 29 / 0 6 /0 2 29 / 0 6 /0 3 29 / 0 6 /0 4 29 / 0 6 /0 5 29 / 0 6 /0 6 29 / 0 6 /0 7 29 / 0 6 /0 8 29 / 0 6 /0 9/ 06

0

Figure 14.25: 3IGNIüCANT SPIKES IN BLOGGING ACTIVITY OCCUR WHEN A MAJOR WORLD NEWS EVENT OCCURS



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Locals also have access to dangerous environments that western journalists are unable or unwilling to enter. Instead of the dry statistics and dubious ‘facts’ that are often broadcast in traditional media, bloggers and independent journalists provide a human perspective to the loss and terror that is experienced by ordinary people under military occupation. Mainstream media are limited when faced with the harsh reality of war and its devastation, claims new media expert Robin Good. ‘As citizen journalism, political bloggers and independent journalists move to fill the gap, we are slowly being brought closer to an image of the reality of people’s lives in Iraq.’ ‘The video bloggers can be extremely useful; bloggers in general can be, if you know how to use them. They are eyes and ears on the ground in a place where there are very few eyes and ears for the western media,’ says Tom Fenton, former foreign correspondent for CBS News. Most of the graphic footage shot by independent video journalists ends up being censored in our western broadcast media. ‘Shots are carefully selected, and much of the reality of the situation is left on the cutting room floor,’ admits Good. On the internet, for those who want to find it, the violence is graphically exposed, revealing the horrifying reality of war that we rarely see on television or in the newspapers.

Socially networked news News editors have traditionally acted as ‘gatekeepers’ of news content, ruling out stories they deem to be ‘un-newsworthy’. By contrast, the term gatewatching has been coined by researcher Axel Bruns to describe the way socially filtered news sites operate. Community participation ‘rules in’ news stories rather than one person ruling them out. Gatewatching involves everyday users monitoring news websites and pointing out stories they believe are worthy of community attention.

‘I’ve believed for many years now that journalism, particularly television journalism, by its failure to show the real horror of war, has become a lethal weapon supporting governments that want to go to war.’ Robert Fisk, Middle East correspondent, The Independent, UK

‘The top-down, heavily filtered mass media are starting to show their frailty, and the power and influence of the small blogger reporting from the streets and independent local video producer are becoming increasingly important,’ states Good. Some mainstream journalists, such as Channel 4’s Jon Snow, warn that as a result of bloggers, fledgling journalists and new media, we end up with a ‘scattergun effect’ in our exposure to an event. He argues that ‘we have a little bit of knowledge about bits and pieces. What there is very little of … is any real analysis or interpretation of events that we can relate to.’

Figure 14.26: 4WO TYPES OF SOCIALLY NETWORKED NEWS SITES .EWSVINE USES NEWS FEEDS IN COMBINATION WITH PAID USER CONTRIBUTED ARTICLES WHILE $IGG USES LINKS TO ARTICLES ANNOTATED WITH THE SUBMITTING USERlS OWN COMMENTS

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Social news sites enable millions of users around the world to participate in the online publishing process. This has been termed ‘collaborative online news production’. There are two types of socially networked news sites: • Linked sites. These sites feature comment from the user who submitted the article and a link to the news story on another site. The site community has the ability to vote for the story — the more

votes, the more popular the story, and the better its position on the website. A story with few votes is likely to be lost under the weight of the more popular ones. • Stand-alone sites. This type of site uses commercial news feeds, often in addition to user-contributed materials and feature articles. The sites host the news and don’t link to other sites. The site community is still able to vote for the story to increase its relevance and rank.

Activities 1. Make a three-way comparison between the news

content on (1) an evening television news bulletin; (2) a newspaper, from the front page to the op-ed pages (see page 477); (3) a socially networked news site. Your comparison should cover the following areas of investigation and conclude with an evaluation of your findings: • Balance of ‘human interest’ news and ‘hard’ news (for definitions see page 321) • Balance of disaster and other event stories with political, social or economic stories • Balance of local, regional, national and international news • Evidence of actual ‘investigative’ journalism • Depth of content. 2. Prepare a timeline of the period since the year 2000, recording events where citizen journalism played a key role in providing the imagery or the information. Analyse the timeline you’ve created

and comment on any trends. The following areas of investigation may help with your analysis: • Proportion of citizen journalism that is image based versus information based • Role that luck plays in citizen journalism • Trend increases in citizen journalism over time, or at certain times. 3. Follow a news blog for one week and provide a short report on your impressions.

WRITTEN TASK 4. Report on a news story into which citizen journalism

has had a significant input. Comment on the impact of the citizen component and explain some of the issues concerning reliability that the component raises. In what way does the inclusion of citizen journalism add to or detract from the credibility of the host news organisation?

MEDIA



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15 Video games

The video games medium The video gaming industry has grown from its low-key introduction in 1971 to become one of the world’s most important entertainment industries. Games earned $40 billion in 2006 — more than movie earnings — and continue to grow.

What is a video game? A video or computer game is a form of entertainment that combines elements of board game, book, movie and sport. It is delivered electronically, either through a machine in an arcade, or through a game console or computer at home. Video games typically place a story or mission inside an environment that either simulates reality or creates its own fantasy reality. Most games operate within the narrative genre. They are often designed as a quest or adventure, a battle or a race. The story line proceeds from an orientation stage, through various complications and blockages to a simple resolution (see page 139), although some game plots are becoming quite sophisticated. The market for this new media form eclipsed established media some time ago. In 1991 sales of the Super Mario Brothers series exceeded box office takings from ET, the highest earning fi lm to that date. This was just the first of many ‘box-office’ breaking games. In 2004 Halo 2 became the biggest entertainment release in history, earning $125 million in its first 24 hours, outgrossing the previous record holder, the movie Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest.

Figure 15.1: The relationship between

video games and movies moves closer as games spawn movies and vice versa. Lara Croft began as a game character but then was transformed into a model, a singer and finally a movie star.

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Video games timeline

1951–1970

1951

Ralph Baer conceives the idea of a video game.

Video games are conceived — first available in university computer labs.

1952

The first video game (OXO or Tic Tac Toe) is built by A. S. Douglas at Cambridge University.

1958

First publicly playable video game — a primitive tennis game

1962

First modern video game, Space War

1971–1976

1971

First commercial video game, Computer Space

Video games played in bars next to pinball machines. Games characterised by simple sounds (e.g. ‘beeps’ or single musical notes). Game graphics use colours and very basic characters/objects (simple ‘block-like’ shapes).

1972

Arcade game Pong is released to huge success. First home game console, the Magnavox Odyssey

1974

First driving game, Gran Trak 10, is released. The first multi-car game (Pole Position) isn’t developed until 1982.

1976

The first controversial game, Death Race, had players mow down zombie pedestrians with cars.

1977–1988

1977

Atari becomes a household name with the 2600 home system.

The 8-bit generation. Increased popularity of games driven by popularity of home game consoles. Atari and, later, Nintendo dominate.

1978

Space Invaders released. Breaking all known sales records, this game caused coin shortages and riots in Japan, and school truancy in the US.

1979 Teenage use of video game arcades increases rapidly; they become a popular place to socialise.

The first handheld video game, Mattel’s Milton Bradley Microvision, is released. The first MUD (Multi User Dungeon), the first online multiplayer game

Multi-note (polyphonic) synthesised sound incorporated. Better quality graphics and wider colour palette

1980

Pac Man, originally called ‘Puck Man’, released — the first game to be popular with both sexes. Stratovox, the first game featuring speech

1981

Nintendo creates Donkey Kong. The character ‘Jumpman’ was later renamed Mario — the basis for the Mario Brothers.

1983

A huge crash in the sales of video games occurs. Too many discount games and game systems on the market send sales plummeting.

1985

The Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) debuts with Super Mario Brothers and is a huge success.

1989–1992

1989

are released on CD-ROM. 1992

End of the age of 2D graphics

Nintendo Game Boy is released. NEC releases the first 16-bit game system — the first time games

The 16-bit generation. Complex synthesised sound and recorded short ‘sampled’ sounds. The roleplaying shooter genre becomes a huge success.

The first roleplaying shooter, Wolfenstein 3D, is released — a new game genre in which players are immersed as never before.

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Technology and society 1993–1999 The 32-bit generation. More sophisticated graphics and sound. Full rock or orchestral soundtracks common. 3D graphics take over. The beginnings of the popular MMO

Video games timeline 1993

3D graphics cards released. 1994

The 32-bit Sony PlayStation is released and becomes a huge sales success.

1996 Online gaming becomes popular. Concerns raised about video game violence.

The first political inquiry is held into video game violence in the US.

Quake, the first action game designed for multiplayer use over the internet, is released. Online gaming becomes mass market.

1997

Ultima Online popularises the MMO.

1998

The 128-bit Sega Dreamcast is released — the first console allowing online gaming.

2000–2004

2000

The Sony PlayStation II is released.

The 128-bit generation. A new range of consoles revolutionise the game industry and widen the audience demographic. Game consoles begin to develop a wider range of uses in the living room.

2001

Grand Theft Auto 3 is launched, causing controversy — includes killing, prostitution and theft. Microsoft release the Xbox, the first console with a hard drive, similar to a PC.

2003

Linden Labs launches MMO Second Life.

2004–present

2004

MMO World of Warcraft launched.

A huge increase in the popularity of Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) worlds.

2005

Microsoft releases the Xbox 360 and launches the Xbox live network — the first of a new generation of game machines that are billed as ‘home entertainment systems’ and do

Game consoles become entertainment ‘hubs’.

much more than just play games. 2006

Sony releases the PlayStation III (featuring the first high-definition Blue Ray DVD drive).

2007

Convergence and divergence Convergence has seen an expansion of the way games and games systems can be used. Personal computer and games consoles such as the latest generation PlayStation and Xbox offer a new dimension to game playing. Games can be played online with hundreds of thousands of other people at the same time. Many console manufactures have created their own subscription and online game networks, allowing users to play networked games as well as download movies and television, games and updates. This helps create a community of users and build an allegiance to a particular games console. The consoles themselves are becoming more like computers, while computers and consoles are moving into the living room to become media ‘hubs’, enabling computer- and game-based entertainment in addition to audio and video streaming capabilities. Video game publishers and fi lmmakers believe the entertainment industry will become increasingly divergent, with original story lines packaged and released across several media concurrently. Single games are also available on multiple game platforms as well as non-game devices such as mobile phones and PDAs.

World of Warcraft passes 8 million paying subscribers.

While games and movies are converging (see page 440), so are music and games. This is evident from the commercial rock soundtracks to full orchestral scores that accompany video games and are released as separate soundtrack CDs. There are also music video games, such as Dance Dance Revolution and Karaoke Revolution, and CD/DVD/game hybrids such as Britney’s Dance Beat.

Context ‘This kind of power, once reserved for seismic exploration and nuclear-weapons design, will let programmers create videogames that look as realistic as film.’ Daniel Lyons, writer, Forbes magazine

Advances in video games are often measured by how many megabytes of graphics and sound can be transferred per second. The complexity of visual and auditory information and the believability of the interaction spurs game development. The genre has created its own market, having established in the consumer a craving for the latest and

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fastest products. Any company that fails to keep up with this consumer culture will not survive. Promises of new games, with new graphical, audio and interface capabilities, keep players’ fi ngers fi rmly on their keypads and help produce record profits for game companies. Game consoles are sold at a loss to the manufacturer (i.e. for less than they cost to create). The cost of the technology is so prohibitive that the consoles need to be subsidised or few consumers could afford them. The profits are recouped through game sales and add-on peripherals. Video games are the only media form not dominated by US companies. Most game console manufacturers are Japanese, as are many of the leading game producers. Many video games are influenced by Japanese rather than American culture. Many famous video games, including Space Invaders, Pac Man, Super Mario Brothers, Sonic the Hedgehog, Street Fighter, Metal Gear Solid and Silent Hill, are Japanese. The history of video games is characterised by unique and innovative ideas and game genres, and by continual advances in technology. The video game was conceived in 1951 by American television engineer Ralph Baer. He wanted to build a simple game into a television set, but management at his company dismissed the idea. The first publicly demonstrated video game was developed in 1958 by US physicist Willy Higinbotham to keep visitors to his laboratory from becoming bored. It was a simple tennis game played on a modified oscilloscope. In 1961 MIT student David Rosen developed Space War, the first real interactive video game. Played on a supercomputer as big as a small house, the game used simple computer text symbols to represent the characters. In 1968, 17 years after conceiving the idea of a television-based game, Ralph Baer patented his video game concept. The fi rst commercial video game, Computer Space, was released in 1971; 1500 Computer Space machines were released. The public, used to the simplicity of pinball machines, found the complex controls too difficult. In 1972 the hit game Pong (short for ping-pong) was released.

Figure 15.2: )T WAS NOT UNTIL THAT THE üRST COMMERCIAL GAME WAS RELEASED #OMPUTER 3PACE WAS ENCLOSED IN A HUGE kSPACE LIKEl üBREGLASS CASE Early games machines were capable of playing only one game, which was built into the machine. As technology advanced, portable cassette players were used to load the game into the game console. In 1976 game cartridges became the most popular way to distribute games. During the 1980s and 1990s disks and then CDs became the best way to store games, but because they were easily copied, game piracy became a problem. Now the most popular format for games is the DVD and high-defi nition DVD formats, but these too present a piracy problem. Online game distribution is most common for short-play ‘casual’ games.

Activities 1. List some of the most recognisable media stars

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today, including video game characters. Have any recent video game characters rivalled the popularity once held by Lara Croft and the Pokemon characters? Explain your answer. 2. Explain why you think the consumer is always demanding the latest graphics, sound and interaction advances in games? Are these the criteria you use to judge a good game? List others you might apply, such as plot, characters and genre.

3. Have you ever been influenced to buy a game

through slick ‘Hollywood’-style marketing? What marketing techniques or features would persuade you to purchase a game? Examine a couple of magazine, television or internet advertisements for games and explain how the manufacturer is marketing the game and what the ad says about it. In your opinion, is it good or bad marketing?


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Video game genres The types of video games represent various audience tastes, developments in the technology and differences in the forms of delivery. Video games often cross genres, such as a racing game shooter.

drive, or which vehicle or character you wish to use. The playing interface is simple, often consisting merely of steering keys and gear change keys. However, the cars or spacecraft are usually highly customisable.

Arcade or platform games Arcade games, also known as ‘platform games’, were the original video game format, starting with simple sports simulations such as table tennis (Pong) and developing to original concepts such as Space Invaders and Pac Man. Arcade games have simple, ‘action’-style narratives, easyto-learn user interfaces and short play times (more money for games arcades!). The most popular arcade games include Sega’s Sonic the Hedgehog, and Nintendo’s Donkey Kong and its sequel Super Mario Brothers. Like most games they consist of a number of obstacles the player must conquer before the next level can be attained. They have key- or button-based controls and require players to use special combinations of buttons for different moves. For success, players often need to use on-screen architecture such as vines or trapdoors. In a new range of novelty physical endurance and coordination arcade games, the game doesn’t involve manipulating characters on-screen. Instead, the player’s actions on a specially designed controller (such as a fake guitar) manipulate the game. Hip Hop Mania, a simulated DJ experience, requires players to hit five keys and scratch a turntable in time to different coloured notes, while Dance Dance Revolution uses a video screen and two sets of light-up floor pads as its interface. The players pick their favourite dance songs, stepping on the pads as they light up in time to the music. Physical or rhythm games involve accurately following patterns and sequences. Other variations of the action game include karaoke-style games that use a microphone instead of a controller.

Other game genres

Figure 15.3: 'UITAR (ERO HAS BECOME A BIG SELLER IN THE GAMES WORLD "RANDISHING A FAKE GUITAR THE PLAYER DOES BATTLE AGAINST THE MACHINE OR OTHER PLAYERS

Sports games Sports games are unlike any other game type. They often allow the player to control every member of the team as well as manipulate behind-the-scenes activities. A sports game usually lets you be: • one or any of the players on the field playing the game • the coach calling the plays and substituting the players • the manager of the team, trading and hiring players. Sports games demand a degree of accuracy that no other game does. The sports game player is a fan — someone who watches the sport on TV and knows the game extremely well. Every rule must be exactly right or the players will leave.

Racing games

Combat games

Racing games are similar to arcade games. They feature a simple action narrative, a simple user interface and short play times. Unlike arcade games, you have the option to select which course you wish to

Combat games normally involve boxing, fighting or martial arts. These games are similar to arcade games. They feature a simple narrative and are action based, but unlike arcade games they use complicated

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controls. Numerous keys, combinations of keys and joystick movements are needed to access all a character’s individual skills and special moves. These games typically have the widest range of characters to choose from. Combat games normally feature one-on-one fighting, but some games (beat-’em-ups) feature one on many. Players can choose which character they wish to be, all characters having different skills and their own special moves. The high level of violence makes these games a major target of regulators. Games such as Mortal Kombat and Street Fighter enjoyed major success, spawning movies and television programs, and reaping hundreds of millions of dollars from merchandising. Games such as the Dead or Alive series continue the popularity of this genre.

Roleplaying shooters Roleplaying shooters involve roleplaying the main character — seeing through their eyes (first-person shooters). Sometimes these games involve controlling another character (third-person shooter). The environment plays a significant part in these games (see environmental storytelling, page 439). Games in this genre, such as Half-Life and Battlefield 1942, feature more complex narrative structures than those in combat games. They also offer the player more interaction with the narrative. A number of levels need to be conquered before the final confrontation is reached. The way an individual player navigates each level can vary. These games are also a major concern for those worried about violence. The narrative structure of roleplay games is very similar to that of an action movie, with the player as the main character. Most of these games use a ‘point of view’ (POV) interface. This allows the player to see exactly what the main character sees and gives the sense of ‘being there’. Roleplay games with multi-player options have become popular ways to spend time on the office or school network, or on the internet. There are other variations of this genre. Some are based on mysteries to be solved rather than levels to be conquered. Other variants include games where stealth rather than ‘blasting’ is crucial to success.

Adventure and strategy games

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Adventure and strategy games focus on exploration, and usually involve item gathering, puzzle solving and combat. Adventure and strategy games are similar to shooters in that they normally involve roleplaying, but they are more focused on the narrative and strategy than on the action. They place a high degree of importance on the visual appearance of the game. Games such as Myst and Final Fantasy are played in

rich and detailed fantasy worlds, while others such as Metal Gear Solid are enacted in atmospheric, ‘movielike’ environments. Adventure games were one of the earliest forms of video games, originally being text based. Their popularity increased when visuals were added to the text in games such as King’s Quest. This was the first kind of game to be played across computer networks, and it continues to be one of the most popular network game genres. Games such as World of Warcraft attract millions of players online to interact within persistent environments (see page 433).

Simulation games Simulation games involve simulating entire environments or worlds, or simulating transportation. Flight and train simulators, for example, appeal primarily to those with an existing interest in these areas. Simulation games are classified as ‘serious games’. Environment simulators. A number of simulation games allow a player to control environmental variables to alter the outcomes of a particular scenario such as the building of a city. Environment simulation games are normally based on controlling an economy or business (e.g. Railroad or Rollercoaster Tycoon), or on building cities (e.g. Sim City, 1989, an original of this genre). Through controlling factors such as population, building codes and weather, players can see the effects of their actions on a particular situation. These games have no story and no single, definable goal. Instead, the goal of the game is chosen by the player. Goals can vary widely, from successfully building and maintaining a massive city to destroying the city with an atomic explosion. There are also a number of educational titles in this genre (e.g. Civilisation and Pharaoh) in which a player can build ancient cities based on knowledge of historical social and political ideas and building practices. Life simulators. Life simulators are similar to environment simulators, but instead of the focus being on controlling the environment, the player controls one or many people within the environment. Unless their needs are attended to, the character will not survive or prosper. An example of this game type is The Sims. Flight simulators. Flight simulators are very close to racing games, but normally concentrate on the technical accuracy of the interaction rather than the action of the game. These games range widely in style. Some are pure simulators imitating the real experience, often without competitors, while others may be war simulations, in which the player is provided with targets and must navigate the plane to its objective.


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The user interface for these games is often very complex, as they attempt to simulate the authentic experience. Flight simulators are often used for flight training, and many are so complex they can take months to learn — just like flying a real plane. The audience for flight simulators is an older one.

Casual games Casual games include puzzles, card games and trivia. The most popular games of all time fall within this genre. These include Solitaire, Tetris and Minesweeper. Casual games typically have a short play time and almost no learning curve, and don’t require specialist skills or hardware. This type of game dominates the mobile gaming world and is ideally suited to online delivery. Casual games make up a significant portion of the game market and are very profitable for the game developers. The games are simple to develop and have a high profit-to-cost ratio. The consumer does not outlay large sums for a whole complex game, but need make only ‘micro payments’ on a single play or game. The ease with which casual games can be created may have led to too much choice, and too many bad games. The audience for casual games is predominantly female, and players tend to be older than for many other genres.

Casino games Computer-based casino games recreate their real-world equivalents. The popularity of poker, as well as the numerous championship and celebrity poker television shows, has contributed to a new demand for this game genre. Casino games are played against the computer, or online against other players — often for real money. About 76 per cent of online gamblers are male.

Serious gaming Educational institutions, companies and governments are increasingly using games for educational and training purposes; especially in the fields of health care, fitness, education and the military. Serious games can be of any genre and are not new. Some games, such as the 1985 detective game Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego, have been used educationally for decades. Serious games are engaging and thought provoking. They often utilise the player’s own knowledge, or require the acquisition of new knowledge to successfully complete the game. Learning is often part of the game. A success can teach as much as a failure, but it’s safe to fail in a virtual environment. Other purposes include marketing and advertising. Most serious games are designed for entertainment, however. Apart from simulation games, other popular serious game formats include knowledge-based trivia

games. Active games such as Dance Dance Revolution are also being used in the health care industry in weight loss programs and patient rehabilitation. In Global Conflict, described as a first-person ‘talker’, you can play the part of a journalist in the Israel/Palestine conflict. While working through the narrative you are free to interview soldiers, ‘terrorists’ and the people caught in the middle. The player may choose to take sides or stay neutral.

Figure 15.4: )CE CREAM FRANCHISE #OLD 3TONE #REAMERY USES A VIDEO GAME TO TRAIN STAFF IN PORTION CONTROL AND CUSTOMER SERVICE 4HE GAME SIMULATES THE SERVING OF ICE CREAM AND TEACHES HOW TO AVOID WASTING STOCK 4HE AIM OF THE GAME IS TO MAKE THE HIGHEST PROüT America’s Army was designed as a marketing and recruitment tool for the US Army, providing a virtual insight into the experiences of a soldier. ‘The game uses online technology to place a great deal of information about the Army into a voluntarily consumed popular culture medium and thereby reduces the information search and assimilation costs for information seekers,’ says Chris Chambers, deputy director of the project. Nearly 29 per cent of 16- to 24-yearold Americans now claim the game as their leading source of information about the military. Many serious games have been developed in Australia. These include Escape from Woomera, about the plight of refugees in detention centres; Street Survivor, documenting homelessness; and BioEspionage, simulating the battle between cancer and a body’s immune system. MIT’s Henry Jenkins argues that all games are educational, because ‘they are teaching us new modes of thought, new ways of processing information, and new strategies for problem solving’. He believes there is value in harnessing the best elements of game design and using them for distributing content valued as educational. ‘To play a game well requires the same

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kinds of learning, study, understanding and practice as are required of any educational activity,’ says Professor Don Norman, from California’s Northwestern University. ‘People learn best when challenged.’ But how relevant and transferable are skills learned online to the real world? John Seely Brown and Douglas Thomas, from Wired magazine, wonder how long it will be before ‘level 60 tauren shaman in World of Warcraft’ is relevant for inclusion in your résumé?

Interactive movies Interactive movies, also known as full motion video (FMV) games, are a type of roleplaying game. Instead of using computer-generated graphics, they feature movie footage with real actors. Interactive movies have no time constraints. They allow the viewer to alter the story by manipulating the character’s actions based on a limited choice. The action/adventure genre is most popular for interactive movies, since its narrative structure mirrors that of a typical video game, setting a number of levels to be completed before the fi nal confrontation and resolution. Many interactive movies are based on existing Hollywood movies. Extra footage is shot while making the movie. This is combined with the footage from the cinema version to create choice for the player. The narrative structure of the interactive movie echoes that of the original movie. However, it offers a number of different paths through the plot, and a few different endings. Scripting and fi lming footage for an interactive movie is a complex task as so many options have to be covered. Scriptwriters must ensure there is enough footage and story to guarantee there will be no gaps in the narrative. Every scene and option needs to be fully mapped out so that each choice a player makes actually leads somewhere. Many games in other genres are now making extensive use of full motion video interludes (cut scenes), becoming virtual movies within games. Final Fantasy VII, for example, has over three hours of video interludes that act as fragments of narrative and character

development. This game cost over US$20 million and employed more than 100 animators and fi lmmakers.

Massively multiplayer online games (MMO) Many critics see massively multiplayer online games (see page 433) as the future of video games. When the Dreamcast, the fi rst game console with in-built networking capability, was released, it was marketed with the slogan, ‘up to six billion players’. Both Microsoft and Sony have launched their latest consoles with online subscription services allowing access to online worlds and networked gaming. They also offer game downloads, updates and social networking capabilities. MMOs normally use an adventure, shooter or simulator format, but in 2005 the social aspects of these multiplayer games came to the fore. In the usercreated worlds of Second Life, for example, ‘residents’ were free to be whomever they wanted to be and build whatever they wanted to build. Entire virtual economies operate within these worlds (see page 435).

Mobile gaming Mobile gaming is a rapidly growing emerging genre. Research fi rm IDC predicts that by 2010 there will be 50 million mobile game customers in the US alone. Increases will be driven by improved handset technology, flexible billing mechanisms and increased availability of wireless broadband (3G) networks. Mobile games can be from any game genre. They must, however, be designed in a way that exploits the limited interaction possibilities, screen size and graphic ability of mobile devices. At a time when we strive towards owning ever bigger screens, designing for small screens requires a different approach. Mobile gaming will play an important part in MMOs, as they will allow online access anywhere the player is. If something crucial is happening in the online world, the player can just log on to play. Teenagers currently represent the largest mobile gaming segment at 34 per cent, followed by 25- to 34-year-olds at 25 per cent.

Activities 1. Survey class members to determine their experience

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of the range of video games available. What proportion of the class has used the full range? What proportion has never played computer games? Calculate the average hours users spend gaming per week. 2. Categorise popular video games within the types discussed above. Are there any that do not fit the

categories? Are there any that seem to exhibit the features of several categories? 3. Have you ever used video games you thought were educational and beneficial? What aspects characterise such games? Did those games encourage deeper thinking, leaving you pondering questions, or were they simply acting as entertainment?


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Massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) MMOs, also known as MMORPGs (Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games) became widespread in the mid to late 1990s as a graphical variant of textbased MUDs (Multi-User Dungeons), developed in 1979. Most MMO games are adventure games. The game environment is created as a virtual persistent world, inhabited by players, and developing 24 hours a day — they even have their own time zones. Thousands, sometimes millions, of players subscribe to these worlds. They adopt a fictional character, interact with other players, acquire possessions, undertake missions, and build their character through actions, acquisitions and skills honed over a long period of time — sometimes years. These games do not feature a linear story line or a single goal. Instead, players usually work together to undertake missions. Games have character development systems — the longer you spend online, and the more skilled you become at the game, the more powerful you will become. Players still expect some form of overall story in the MMO, with their character in a starring role. Designers of these games have the difficult task of trying to fit a compelling narrative into a completely open, non-linear world. Skilled characters take time and effort to create. Some skilled players create valuable characters to sell online. There are many auction sites where users with less time or low skill levels can buy characters and game items to increase their standing. In rural China, 24-hour gaming ‘sweatshops’ have developed, where young Chinese players are paid $300 a month to work 12-hour days creating MMO characters and objects for sale in a practice called gold farming. The fi rst MMO was Lucasfi lm’s Habitat (1987), an online game for Commodore 64 computer users. Most early MMOs were based on fantasy environments — often medieval worlds. Ultima Online (1997) is credited with popularising the genre. Newer MMOs are attracting a wider audience with more diverse environments. Up to 100 million people worldwide play at least once a month, while more than 20 million play regularly, many for hours each day. MMOs can be big business: 7 million players pay US$15 a month to play World of Warcraft. Hollywood has seen the potential of MMOs, and is extending the fictional environments created in its movies into virtual worlds. Disney created a Pirates of the Caribbean MMO in which players can explore the movie environment and interact with familiar characters.

Figure 15.5: $ISNEYlS AIM WITH 0IRATES OF THE #ARIBBEAN WAS TO ATTRACT GAMERS WHO DONlT NORMALLY PLAY GAMES -ANY --/ CREATORS ARE AIMING FOR A kBALANCED AUDIENCE DEMOGRAPHICl q THEY WANT PARENTS TO PLAY ALONGSIDE THEIR KIDS

Virtual identities Sherry Turkle, a clinical psychologist and professor of technology, believes the internet has brought about new ways of thinking about identity through enabling multiple identities and being able to cycle through multiple versions of oneself. An important aspect of identity in a virtual environment is the player’s avatar — the visual representation of their identity. Avatars range from the realistic to the outlandish or even grotesque. Avatars and online identity empower people to be who they want to be. Australian new media expert Terry Flew has suggested the following reasons why people create and experiment with their virtual identities. • The ability to change character allows a user to experiment with their identity, enhancing and hiding aspects of their real-life identity to best represent themselves online. • Forming friendships and relationships can be easier online, especially for those who are timid or fear intimidation, embarrassment or other repercussions.

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• Marginalised or persecuted groups are free to express themselves without fear of discrimination. • Avatars help people to find groups with shared interests and to generate ideas among like-minded people. Online identity plays a significant role in MMOs, so deception is a concern for some. ‘With millions of people changing their personas to fit with what they feel will encourage others to pursue friendships if not relationships with them, the chance of finding someone who is not who they say they really are is highly possible,’ write researchers Laura Keneally and Belinda Gatz. The avatar creation tools in Second Life offer enormous control over every aspect of the physical form, as well as the ability to clothe the character. Add-on tools allow users to build more elaborate costumes and characters and create special features for those characters, such as radiant light or flames.

User-constructed MMOs

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Freeform MMOs represent user-generated content (see social networking, page 409) in an online game format. These worlds extend social networking into a virtual world. The power of these worlds and their popularity depend on their community of users, or residents. MIT professor of humanities Henry Jenkins believes user-created MMOs do not fit well into the ‘game’ category. ‘Part of the problem is that we go to games expecting to be entertained, anticipating predetermined roles and goals and rules and all of that stuff.’ The compelling content that is normally created by the game developer (the characters, environment and narrative) is created and controlled by the users. Among the most popular entertainments are musical performances. Every week in Second Life many performers and bands play within the virtual world, music streamed in from the real world while the performer’s avatars mime it online. Venues range from Irish pubs to Roman amphitheatres. ‘You’ll find venues in the strangest of places, from deep underground to high in the sky,’ says a music promoter. Sporting events are also popular entertainment. Can’t make it to the real Australian Open tennis tournament? Try visiting IBM’s Australian Open in Second Life, where an accurate, ball-by-ball version is replayed nanoseconds after it happens in real life! Other events include corporate conferences and university lectures. Unlike traditional MMOs, the players are normally free to create their own character in these worlds. A player’s identity is derived from how they choose

to design their character, the clothes they wear, the other players they connect with, the places they hang out, the music they listen to and their actions within the world. User-created MMO Second Life attracted significant interest from traditional media industries and business. To report on Second Life, news agency Reuters embedded a full-time reporter. Musicians are using the world for album launches and concerts. Companies such as Toyota and Adidas have expanded their business offerings into virtual versions of their reallife products. Hotels have even been built!

MMO issues ‘At any given time, the Linden-calculated list of SL’s [Second Life’s] 20 most popular places is almost completely made up of casinos and “adult” playgrounds.’ Camille Dodero, journalist, The Phoenix

Online worlds present a range of real-world problems. They are simply variations of real experience online, but unlike in the real world there is very little regulation and almost no law enforcement. And the implications can be severe. In 2005 a Chinese gamer murdered another player who had stolen and sold his virtual sword online.

Adult content and violence Much of the content in online worlds is of an adult nature. Second Life has responded to the adult content issue by constructing a smaller teenager world for those aged 13–17 where mature and adult content is banned. There is of course little to prevent children from lying about their age to join the adult world, which is much larger and has the bulk of the popular content such as rock concerts. Clinical psychologist Sherry Turkle is worried about what happens when underage children present themselves as adults. Children lying about their age can lead to adults unknowingly having relationships with children posing as older residents. Online worlds also contain a significant amount of violence and verbal abuse. Because of the immersive nature of the game, players who are subjected to ‘virtual roughing up’ describe being physically and mentally distressed by the actions of other players. Children are more easily hurt by abusive and violent actions, and could be wrongly socialised into believing that this behaviour is also suitable, or common, in the real world. Players who cause trouble for others are known as griefers.


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Economy ‘With just the click of a mouse, computer nerds are playing out their wildest fantasies as debonair property magnates, living it up on tropical islands — and making a small fortune in real-world money.’ Greg Bearup, The Sydney Morning Herald

In just 32 months Chinese language teacher Ailin Graef converted her US$9.95 outlay into US$1 million in Second Life, becoming the first millionaire created through a virtual economy. Graef achieved this by buying large tracts of virtual land, improving and subdividing them — just as a real-life developer does. Edward Castronova, an economist at Indiana University, has charted virtual economies for years and has calculated that the online gaming economy is roughly the size of the entire economy of Jamaica. ‘However, unlike the Jamaican economy, this one is growing rapidly.’ The economies of MMOs are controlled by their site administrators. This puts control of a large-scale economy in the hands of those who often have little financial knowledge. ‘It leaves the way open for hyperinflation and investors losing hundreds of millions of dollars,’ warns Castronova. When online game Asheron’s Call 2 closed owing to a lack of players, those who had invested simply lost their money. Millions of dollars changes hands every day in MMOs. Some MMOs have currency exchanges where virtual money earned online can be converted into real money. This hasn’t escaped the attention of governments. ‘Right now we’re at the preliminary stages of looking at the issue and what kind of public policy questions virtual economies raise — taxes, barter exchanges, property and wealth,’ says Dan Miller, a senior economist for the US Congress. The Australian government has stated that income from virtual economies is subject to local tax, although monitoring income from a virtual world is very difficult, especially as it’s easy to hide income online or convert it into cash or objects through bartering. Many law enforcement agencies are also concerned about the potential for money laundering or hiding income. In our traditional economy, value is gained through scarcity. In the new ‘information economy’, knowledge becomes wealth, and value is gained through quantity. In virtual worlds there is no such thing as scarcity. If you want a diamond, just create one. If land is becoming too expensive, the MMO administrator can just create some more. Boundaries that restrict the real economy are missing from virtual ones.

What recourse do owners have to recover virtual property stolen from them? Theft of virtual property is becoming common, with real-life courts being brought in to mediate. Players have been fined for stealing online property (often by hacking into the online world system and transferring property ownership). More than half of South Korea’s computer crime cases involve online games!

Gambling Gambling is a common pastime in some online worlds. In countries where online gambling is illegal, such as Australia, there is nothing to prevent gambling within a virtual world. No official organisation monitors the types of games offered or ensures that the casino is operating legally and has fair winning odds. Yet people are gambling with real money using their real credit cards.

Control and policing There is no police force in a virtual world. While there are rules, there is often little enforcement, simply because it would be too difficult with so many players in so many locations. Creators of online worlds normally rely on other users to report rule violations, but there is no tribunal or court to judge the offence. It is up to the game administrator to act as judge, jury and executioner. With a lack of formal policing, some users have taken the law into their own hands. The Sims had a self-appointed ‘mafia’ that could be employed to harass those reported to have broken the rules. The mafia would harass the player out of the game, or smash up their virtual possessions. The more players start to think of virtual worlds as extensions of their real existence, the more difficult it is for the companies that created them to act as unopposed, unelected governments. Law enforcement experts are concerned that in the largely unmonitored world of MMOs, criminal gangs and terrorists could use the online environment to discuss plans and tactics, or even as a virtual training ground. Other concerns have been raised over the promotion of drugs in the games.

Copyright and legal issues The copyright and legal implications of online worlds and player behaviour are an emerging area of concern for game creators, legal experts, copyright owners and players. What happens when players create content that infringes the copyrights or trademarks of realworld companies? How do the creators of vast worlds with millions of players police trademark infringement or illegal actions by players?

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The creators of City of Heroes, an MMO whose players self-design superhero characters, were sued by Marvel Comics because the company ‘knowingly allowed’ players to replicate characters similar to Marvel-owned ones such as The Hulk and SpiderMan. ‘Asking City of Heroes to police their users to ensure that they don’t replicate Marvel characters is like asking a school to police its students to make sure none of them show up for Halloween in a homemade Spider-Man costume,’ responds Cory Doctorow, a writer and free speech advocate. Many grey areas remain legally untested. What happens when players engage in ‘legally indecent’ acts, asks Xbox Live Arcade planner and MIT researcher

David Edery. ‘Can EA [the developer of Sims Online] be sued for letting a ten-year-old operate a virtual brothel? Can it be sued by players who suffer real fi nancial damages at the hands of a virtual mafia?’ Other questions include: • Do players have rights of free speech and expression? • Which country’s jurisdiction does a virtual world fall under? • When does a developer become liable for failing to prevent players from harassing other players? • What constitutes sexual harassment in an online world?

Activities 1. Survey class members to find out who plays

MMOs. How do they find the difference between single-goal offline games and multiple-goal online games? Is there a sense of community? Do players have an online profile, and are the good players of the game known to the other players. How, and how easily, is fame achieved? Are new, inexperienced players often harassed by experienced ones? 2. Join in groups with class members who play MMOs. Screen capture some ‘wild’ avatars. Interview a couple of these players online, asking them how their visual appearance relates to their online

identity. What are the reasons for the way they have constructed themselves, and what effect do they believe it has had? Write a guide to character development using your findings and your images. 3. Should MMOs be democratic? Once an MMO reaches a point where the user base is of a significant size (i.e. 5 million regular users), should the game development company stand back and allow the ‘residents’ to vote on their own government and control their own economy? What strategies would you put in place if you were elected to deal with the issues outlined above? Detail these in a speech to the voters.

Narrative in video games ‘The most important aspect of game design is to make an interesting world. You can’t just plunge the person into the third act of King Lear!’ Michael Backes, screenwriter and video game producer

MEDIA

One of the enduring qualities of a movie is its ability to manipulate our emotions — to make us cry, make us angry or make us happy. Can video games ever hope to achieve this level of emotional engagement with a narrative? Technology author Steven Levy asks, ‘How can you be involved with a character when you are busy shooting down aliens?’ The fundamental difference between a movie and a game is that in the latter neither the plot nor the characters are normally the stars. In a game, the environment (and how you act within that environment) is the highlight of an engaging interaction. As

a result, narrative structure is often rudimentary. An often used counter-argument to the ‘games have no narrative’ criticism is that ‘neither does football’.

Plot ‘Entertainment is based on a good story with strong characters, not on whether the audience is immersed in affecting the action with a dual vibration rumble controller or engrossed in the unparalleled experience provided by an 8-storytall IMAX screen.’ Chris Marlowe, digital media editor for The Hollywood Reporter

The plot a game uses depends on its category. Most games feature a simple, straightforward plot. Arcade games, in particular, have brief, sketchy plots. In most cases, the plot exists only to establish a context


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in which the action can occur. Flight simulation and racing games often have no plot at all, relying solely on the authenticity and excitement of ‘virtually’ experiencing the real thing. The more narrative-driven types of games, such as roleplaying and adventure games, have stronger plots. However, even here they are often simplified compared with the plots of feature films. Increasingly games are experimenting with complex cinematic narratives, with games less reliant on prescriptive user actions, and allowing more environmental exploration within a structured narrative. Like movies, many of these narrative-focused games set out to manipulate our emotions. Most games that are successful at communicating emotion use fear, foreboding and horror — suitable triggers for the nature of the medium and traditional game narratives.

Video games and the three-act structure The plot structure for a video game generally follows the three-act narrative structure (see page 138), but normally it has shortened first and third stages. Some games feature multiple conclusions. Many games use cinematic sequences to introduce the narrative, set the mood and intrigue the player. Some games let the player trigger the first complication by extending the orientation stage, allowing the

player to first explore their environment and character. Without first building a player’s interest in their character, the game designer is in danger of disconnecting them from their character. Half-Life was one of the first games to allow players to explore their character’s identity. This game began with an animated sequence explaining the games environment — a secret research facility. Following this was an exploratory journey through the facility, where the player could interact with other characters, building up a picture of an uneasy work environment and a sense of impending danger. Finally it is the player who triggers the second stage of the narrative through initiating an experiment that goes horribly wrong. Games, especially roleplaying games, normally consist of a number of levels to be conquered. At the end of the final level there is a major confrontation. The standard game convention is that this final confrontation requires the use of a special process, power or trick. Some games feature stand-alone stories, while others are multi-part episodes of a larger story. In this case the games use a three-act structure within another three-act structure. The final complication before the third plot stage in the game Half-Life was meeting the alien demon. To destroy this character the player first had to destroy its energy source on the walls, and then attack it from above. Half-Life was unique in that it had multiple

Figure 15.6: !LAN 7AKE SET A NEW BENCHMARK FOR GAME NARRATIVE AND STYLE IN k4HE MAIN CHARACTER AND THE PREMISE THE HORROR WRITER WHOSE LIFE TURNS INTO A NIGHTMARE COMES STRAIGHT FROM A 3TEPHEN +ING NOVEL AND WE USED ALL OF THOSE ELEMENTS AND PUT THEM WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF A (OLLYWOOD BLOCKBUSTER ACTION TYPE GAME l SAYS 3AM ,AKE FROM GAME COMPANY 2EMEDY (E ADMITS THAT THE CULT TELEVISION SHOW 4WIN 0EAKS WAS ALSO AN INČUENCE 4HE GAME USES LIGHT AS A KEY NARRATIVE ELEMENT 4HIS WAS AN EPISODIC SERIES EACH EPISODE HAVING A BEGINNING MIDDLE AND MULTIPLE ENDINGS

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kinds of villains and heroes, who could act both for and against the player. In an ironic twist, your human enemy actually wins with your help. ‘Episodic’ games incorporate a feedback loop — players provide feedback, which improves the next game in the series. ‘Even if a single game episode is a dud, as long as the quality of the series is high, the dud episode becomes a footnote. If the experiment is a success, and the audience embraces it, the experiment can have an impact on later episodes,’ writes Rick Sanchez, vice-president of content at GameTap.

The problem of narrative flow Game narratives build to a dramatic conclusion — an action, a confrontation or some other event to resolve the story’s inner tension. The problem for an interactive storyteller is ensuring that all the characters are ready for the conclusion at the right time. As the player’s actions are outside the author’s control, there is no guarantee that the player will be ready for the conclusion. This is what is known as the problem of narrative flow. Many games stick to a simple puzzle-solving, levelby-level approach to game design in which the player’s actions are linked to the plot progression. The player is unable to reach the conclusion until the right puzzles have been solved and the correct weapons have been gathered. As more complex narratives are written, more sophisticated methods of resolving the plot and directing characters need to be developed. Traditionally the approach of the end has been signified through more difficult levels, culminating in the final, most difficult level. In many newer games cinema-style conventions are used to signify that the conclusion is nearing. These include narrative clues such as story elements falling into place — building, step by step, a complete view and exposing the finale. Physical conventions include ever darkening environments, changes in music, atmosphere closing in, greater environmental destruction, growing confusion, an increased sense of panic, changes in other characters and a general sense that things can’t get any worse.

Characters

MEDIA

Video game characters often follow stereotypes derived from Hollywood-style action movies. Other characters, particularly from fighting and martial arts movies, are based on Japanese manga animation and Hong Kong martial arts films. Early game characters were no more complex than the simplest of conventional movie characters, largely because early game developers were programmers rather than storytellers. Writers with experience in

crafting characters, controlling pacing and structuring plots are now often used by game developers to create more complex characters better integrated into the narrative. Early depictions of characters on-screen were very simple — represented by a few coloured blocks or ‘pixels’. Rapid technological advances have meant more complex and believable characters are appearing on the screen, but their emotional range has not increased at the same rate as the technical innovation. Character-driven games such as the Half-Life series, Max Payne and Alan Wake feature characters that evolve as the narrative plays out. As the player is in control when character development takes place, they feel connected to the character. This allows greater emotional responses to be derived from actions affecting the character. Early games such as Lara Croft were shipped with a complete guide to the character and upbringing. This character construction did not make it into game plots, however; it simply served to make the characters and their actions more believable. Some games are now including extra characters to complicate the narrative and allow the main character to develop through interaction with others. New characters can also be used to reveal more about the main character’s personality and background. HalfLife used its mysterious villain character, G Man, in this way. At key points throughout the game, G Man would appear, helping to develop the notion of a government ‘conspiracy’ behind the plot and drawing the player into the mystery. Half-Life was a success because of its deeper storytelling and character interaction. Half-Life 2 built on the use of extra characters through a team approach to the mission. One of the trusted characters even turned out to be a double agent, adding to the plot complexity. Characters designed to allow players to create their own personality through their actions and interactions with others are becoming common. Massively multiplayer online games allow a character’s persona to be built over months of interaction with the game and other players.

Character identification Lara Croft creator Toby Gard believes that character interaction can be split into two groups. • First person. A first-person game invites players to immerse themselves in the game — to become the main character. A first-person game should make it easy for players to believe they are part of the action. Their character must not interfere with the player’s own ‘illusion of immersion’. The character therefore should not act on his or her own or interact with others unless directed to — that


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is, the character must at all times remain in the control of the player. • Third person. In a third-person game, the player is controlling a character rather than becoming that character. The third-person point of view allows far greater freedom to tell a traditional story. This is because the character on the screen is a separate entity and is dissociated from the player. This allows the designer to give characters their own personality and to control how they behave. Games such as Half-Life 2 allow a player to become the character — the player sees through the eyes of the principal character. Roleplaying games and some action games such as Grand Theft Auto allow the player to control a unique third-person character on screen. Instead of seeing through the eyes of the character, we see the actual character.

Environment There are two main environments for games: • Enclosed world. In the enclosed world, the character is restricted by walls or some other barrier. This means the character is limited to areas preprogrammed by the designer. • Open world. In open worlds, the character is free to roam anywhere. The world is so large the player will normally never find its limits.

Environmental storytelling ‘In many respects, it is the physical space that does much of the work of conveying the story the designers are trying to tell. Colour, lighting and even the texture of a place can fill an audience with excitement or dread.’ Don Carson, Gamasutra columnist and game developer

Game narratives are environment based. The author tells the story through the experience of moving through a realistic or fantasy virtual environment. This is similar to film and television, where any story is played out within a constructed environment. Unlike film and television, however, the game player will have choices along the way. Game developer Don Carson believes players make decisions based on their relationship with the virtual world, as well as their everyday physical world experience. Carson suggests the three key criteria for good environmental storytelling are to take the player to a place that lets them: 1. go somewhere they could never go 2. be someone they could never be 3. do things they could never do.

Restricting the world is a complex task for developers. Older games constrained the player within walls, corridors or rooms. Newer games offer vast outdoor areas to explore. Online game Dark & Light offers 40 000 square kilometres. It is important that developers restrict the environment in a way that isn’t obvious, such as a wall. They must also provide means of transportation that lets the player explore such vast areas. Environmental storytelling opens up a wide range of opportunities within a game. Games are getting better at integrating narrative into unrestricted environments. Alan Wake featured a cinematic-style story line, while allowing the player to navigate anywhere through a highly detailed 100-square-kilometre piece of smalltown North America.

‘What attracts me to computers is the ability to play with hypotheticals and possibilities. Storytelling seems to be a fundamentally linear path through a much larger space of “potential stories”. If we can present players with a certain level of ambiguity we allow them to take more ownership (and empathy) with what they experience. This also means each player has a different story to tell after playing the game.’ Will Wright, creator of the Sim City series and chief game designer at Maxis

Cause and effect in game narrative The environment must acknowledge the player’s presence, says Half-Life developer Ken Birdwell. When a player initiates an action there must be an environmental response. If the character walks into a room, other characters within the room must acknowledge this. If the character fires a shot or sets off an explosion, then the effect must be visible. ‘Our basic theory was that if the world ignores the player, the player won’t care about the world.’ Carson believes one of the most successful ways to draw the audience through the environment is through what he terms ‘cause and effect vignettes’ — that is, by creating environments that allow players to form their own conclusions about what has previously occurred in that area. This can include doors broken open, traces of a recent explosion or a crashed car. These help the player understand what to expect later. Cause and effect can also indicate the passage of time. A player can return to a previously visited area to see it now completely destroyed. (See cause and effect in narrative, page 136.) Having your player follow ‘breadcrumbs’ such as handwritten notes, graffiti or evidence of fighting left behind by other characters engages the player’s imagination and enhances the drama of the story.

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Activities 1. James Wagner Au wrote in Salon magazine that

‘it’s safe to say today’s developers aren’t pushing the narrative envelope. Lured by the siren song of ever-improving graphics power, terrified by the risks involved with truly unique ideas in gaming, the industry is collectively stumbling along a path well-worn by Hollywood’. Do you believe this statement to be true or false? Discuss using game narrative examples.

2. Using a game you have played recently, or a class

example, discuss how the environment within the story affected your perception of the narrative. Use specific examples of elements within the environment that contributed to the narrative or drove the player to make certain decisions.

Games and movies ‘Hollywood is beginning to understand the world of gaming. This is the first generation of filmmakers who grew up with video games as a major influence in their lives.’ Jon Anderson, Australian marketing manager of United International Pictures

MEDIA

Games have had a significant impact on the narrative, plot, characterisation and visual style of movies, especially action movies. Movies based on games encourage gamers back to the cinema. Seamus Blackley, gaming and fi lm crossover specialist for Creative Artists, believes Hollywood and the game industry have entered a comfortable partnership, after an uncertain relationship. More Americans now play video games than regularly go to the cinema. Chris Marlowe, digital media editor for The Hollywood Reporter, says ‘many movie producers are surprised to learn that a top game property takes longer to create than a major motion picture’. Big-budget, Hollywood-style marketing has become a feature of high-profi le game releases. Halo 2, the biggest release in entertainment history, used extensive advertising, celebrity appearances and media hype to build its brand before release. Halo 2 also used big-name Hollywood stars to increase the game’s popularity. Less well known actors can have their profi le lifted through a game role. Experts agree that video games are not going to take over from movies and television. ‘Neither one is going to stop because the other one is there. We can benefit from each other,’ says Jon Anderson, Australian marketing manager of United International Pictures. The economics of the two industries are also different, believes Greg Roach, an interactive media creator. Games are generally played once, and by fewer people than see a movie. Games have a learning curve

and long play times. Movies are consumed over and over, and don’t require specialised hardware to enjoy. Games also have a shorter ‘half life’ than movies. Roach says, ‘Somewhere in the world, right now, there’s a person watching a great old fi lm, from a broadcast signal, on a grainy black and white TV. You can be sure of it. But that same person couldn’t boot up Myst, or Metal Gear Solid, even if they actually wanted to.’ Feed magazine journalist Gary Daupin believes many fi lm critics sense the loss of the single auteur’s (see page 224) shaping of the aesthetic sense of a fi lm, and dislike the interactive format. ‘It’s almost as if interacting with the story somehow prohibits games from becoming art.’

The effect of games on movies The plots of many action movies mirror those of video games. Media commentator Mackenzie Wark noted similarities between Terminator 2 and many video games. In the film, a number of confrontations with the Terminator character occur while trying to escape from a different situation (representing each level). At the end, after surviving all the other confrontations, the enemy is finally defeated after a major ‘showdown’ in which a special ‘move’ is used to melt the liquid man. Action movies often feature shortened fi rst and third plot stages. Action movie viewers tend to dislike lengthy introductions with lots of character development. They want to get straight into the action, which normally occurs after the fi rst plot complication. A movie, like a game, also provides an interesting environment for characters to interact in. The action movie plot is usually more complex and engaging than that of a video game. This is because of the use of extra characters, their interaction with the principal character and the exploration of emotional depth within those characters.


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The effect of movies on games

Figure 15.7: 4HE MOVIE $OOM BASED ON THE LANDMARK üRST PERSON SHOOTER GAME USED A SIMILAR NARRATIVE CONSTRUCTION TO THE GAME $OOM ))) WITH A kSTRAIGHT INTO THE ACTIONl APPROACH AFTER ONLY A SHORT INTRODUCTORY SEQUENCE AND A SHORT BUT DRAMATIC CLIMAX 5NLIKE THE GAME THE MOVIE MAKERS INCLUDED CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT AND A TWIST AT THE END

The first game-to-movie adaptation was Super Mario Bros in 1993. Since then there has been a string of movies created to cash in on public loyalty to existing games. ‘The people that play Doom and Resident Evil are core cinemagoers, suggests Jon Anderson, Australian marketing manager of United International Pictures. ‘In the ’70s and ’80s Hollywood looked to comic books for high-impact stories. Comics are not the business they used to be. Video games drive the hearts and minds of 18- to 35-year-olds,’ says Phil Harrison, executive vice-president of development for Sony Computer Entertainment. Movie adaptations of games include Resident Evil, Tomb Raider, Street Fighter, Final Fantasy, Silent Hill, Max Payne and Blood Rayne. The visual style of racing games has also influenced a number of racing movies such as The Fast and the Furious and Gone in 60 Seconds. Many critics are suspicious that scenes are being written into movies simply because they will make good video games. Two well-known examples are the waterwheel escape from cannibals in Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest, and the pod-racing scene from Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menace. Both scenes were a big feature in the movies, and both were made into games.

Games based on movies are used to capitalise on the success of a film by extending the movie experience. Video game adaptations of movies are best suited to blockbuster action movies. ‘Few people would dream of games based on Sense and Sensibility or Gosford Park,’ says Greg Roach, interactive media pioneer and creator of the X-Files games. ‘Games also fill that function of giving the cinemagoer a much more experiential take on a movie. Young viewers aren’t just content to watch Keanu Reeves and Carrie-Anne Moss run up walls, take on villains and be the hero. They want to enter that world, too,’ says Anthony Wong, the actor who plays the ‘Ghost’ in the Matrix movies. ‘I think that is because we are living in an era of participation rather than purely spectating.’ The directors of The Matrix, the Wachowski brothers, took as much care shooting footage for the game as they did for the movie. Wong claims that 90 per cent of the 15 months he spent as an actor on The Matrix was spent on the game. ‘There was extensive motion capture, facial capture, voice-over and film footage work.’ The Matrix extends the movie story into an MMO called The Matrix Online, creating the Matrix world as a persistent environment in which individuals and teams of individuals can embark on missions and explore. The Matrix Online MMO allows movie fans to enter and participate in the movie. Players ‘inhabit an enormous urban sprawl, which spreads for miles in all directions. There are subways, nightclubs, skyscrapers, and dark alleys that all seem normal on the surface, but beneath this urban exterior a secret war is being waged for the survival of humanity and machine alike’. Other movies that get the MMO treatment include the blockbusters Star Wars, Pirates of the Caribbean and The Lord of the Rings. Games based on movies are not new. Death Race (1976) was based loosely on the 1975 movie Death Race 2000. The first official movie-to-game adaptation was 1982’s ET, but the movie success did not translate to the game and two million unsold games were buried in landfill. This failure led to the demise of Atari and contributed to the 1983 game industry crash. ‘Most gamers are automatically wary of any software that’s based on a film. We’ve seen too many cases in which movies that could have been the basis for great virtual adventures … led instead to tedious,

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uninspired rush jobs,’ writes Lou Kesten for Associated Press. Very rarely does a game improve on the movie on which it is based. Lord of the Rings director Peter Jackson believes good movie adaptations of games can be made. ‘Good fi lms just need good characters, good storyline and a great director to bring it to life and make a fi lm that you’ve never seen before. That’s what it needs. It doesn’t

matter whether it’s based on a game, a book or a piece of chewing gum, you know? That’s irrelevant. It’s what actually ends up on the screen that’s important.’ ‘Essentially, to adapt successfully, you need to understand why the original material was a hit. Then you need to know how to produce a hit in your own medium,’ says Game Developer’s Conference director Jamil Moledina.

Activities 1. What movies can you think of that have plots similar

to video games? Map out the story of a similar movie, and demonstrate how it is similar to a game. 2. Take the plot of a video game and write an outline for a movie that uses a similar narrative. You can try adding new characters and scenes, and ‘fleshing

out’ existing characters and situations, giving them more depth and detail. 3. Take an existing movie, and write the plot for an interactive version, having at least three different endings. Outline briefly the different ways in which you could navigate through the story.

Advertising and advergaming ‘With the in-game ad market forecast to reach upwards of a billion dollars over the next 5+ years, the video game industry will have to come to grips with an increasing number of ads in games.’ David Radd, Editor, Gamedaily BIZ

MEDIA

Games are very expensive to make. Some game developers are responding to this by placing advertising within their products. There are three primary types of advertising in games — in-game ads, game sponsorships and advergaming. Advertising agencies are excited about the potential marketing exposure of long hours of gameplay, or ‘eyeball hours’. Advertisers believe that through games they can reach a young adult audience that is drifting away from traditional media. A 2005 study found in-game ad placement and advergames were the best way to reach the teenage market. Others are worried that commercial interest in games will reduce creativity and diversity. ‘Advertisers might not wish to associate themselves with “alternative” games or, more likely, games that don’t appeal to their demographic,’ says Luke Guttridge, from gaming site Ferrago. Advertisers have already exerted editorial control over games. Manufacturers of the Grand Turismo series were forced by car manufacturers to ensure that no damage came to the virtual cars they licensed. Privacy experts are worried that games could provide a new source of personal data for advertisers.

Some new advergames are designed to extract personal information on the pretext of personalising the game. By voluntarily providing personal information throughout the game, the player allows their details to be used by advertisers and marketers to construct a personal profi le and target advertising throughout the game — and often outside the game. Australia has strict laws on advertising to children. As most titles are imported from overseas or played online, these existing media standards are unlikely to be met.

In-game ads In-game advertising places ads within the game. This normally takes the form of virtual billboards or posters, or product placement such as Coke machines in hallways and types of cars driven within the game. Some games, particularity online games, offer internet-based commercial services to their players. For instance, players of the virtual online world game EverQuest II needed only type ‘/pizza’ while playing the game to launch an order screen for home-delivered pizza. They had to pay in real money though! Some gamers are unhappy about paying for a game and then being subjected to advertising. Publishers argue that the ads are in the same places you’d fi nd them in real life. ‘After all, our world is marketing rich . . . but we’re not going to place ads where the fiction doesn’t dictate it,’ states Chip Lange, VP of Online Commerce for Electronic Arts.


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A study conducted by Activision and Nielsen found that in-game advertising was most effective when the ad is appropriate to the game content. They found 69 per cent of respondents recalled contextually relevant ads. But too much advertising has been shown to reduce game popularity and sales. ‘You can’t disrupt the flow of a game; you want it to complement the gaming experience,’ believes Brian Aucoin, media supervisor at MEC Interaction. The internet allows in-game advertising to be updated based in real time, making it more relevant and targeted. If it’s December, put in Christmas sale ads. If the game calculates that you’ve been playing for two hours without a break, run an ad offering 20 per cent off home-delivered pizza. A study by game advertising company Bunnyfoot found in-game advertising often had ‘significant shortcomings’ and ‘poor brand impact’. Ads were failing to engage the player emotionally, and failing to correlate advertising to moments of peak excitement. It is difficult to track the effectiveness of in-game advertising, and many in the industry are worried about poor return on investment. Test Drive Unlimited players can go shopping in a Ben Sherman shop — a 3D replica of one of its stores. The company paid less that US$500 000 for the ad.

‘This is a new route to our market,’ says Suzanne Egleton, Ben Sherman’s head of marketing. There are also Marc Ecko and Lamborghini showrooms. In EA Sports’ Fight Night Round 3, Burger King used in-game advertising that allowed players to have the Burger King himself as a sparring partner. It’s not often a company allows you to fight their mascot!

Advergaming Advergaming has been used by advertisers since 1983’s Kool-Aid Man. The most common advergames are short-duration games distributed with the product, either online or to mobile devices. The games are often free, supported by the advertising content. They almost always target the casual gamer. By interacting with the company brand, a connection is developed between the consumer and the company. Some advergaming proponents believe that offering free, commercially sponsored extra levels (see mods, page 445) for existing games is an excellent way to connect with the consumer. ‘Maybe in a Jeep-Chrysler level you’ll be able to drive their vehicles. Maybe a Pepsi-branded level where you jump through a Pepsi logo to materialise somewhere else,’ offers Dan Irish, CEO of Threewave Software.

Activities 1. You are an in-game advertising specialist. Choose a

company you believe would benefit from in-game advertising. Select a game or game type you think would complement the company’s brand and reach their target market. Design ads for the game. Detail what the ad contains, how it connects with the player, and the placement of the ad in the game environment.

2. Select a company — it could be one you work for

part time. Design an advergame for the company. Create a gameplay outline (see page 445) detailing what the game does, and how it connects with their target market. Outline the plot and describe the graphic and audio styles, environment, game controls used, characters and character interactions.

Developing a successful game ‘What computer entertainment lacks most, I think, is a sense of mystery. It’s too left-brain … I think there might be real promise in game designs that offer less of a sense of nitpicking mastery and control, and more of a sense of sleaziness and bluesiness and smokiness. Not neat tinkertoy puzzles to be decoded, not “treasure-hunts for assets,” but creations with some deeper sense of genuine artistic mystery.’ Ernest Adams, Gamasutra columnist and game developer

With thousands of titles released each year, developing a profitable game is a daunting task. Games manufacturers often simply rely on technology or the latest effects to get their titles noticed, but it is increasingly evident that to make a truly successful game, good characterisation, a well-paced, believable and engaging narrative and engrossing gameplay are required. Empowering the player is a technique that builds player dedication to a game series. Providing the player with multiple options and control over the environment allows the gamer to replay the game multiple times,

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each time with a different outcome. Allowing the player to modify the game builds game allegiance. Customisation of the player’s character is a strong feature of MMOs, while customisation of cars in racing games is part of normal gameplay and acts as a reward. Many other games allow user customisation through mods (see page 445) extending the life of the game. Testing a game is also a vital stage in any game development. The game Half-Life went through 200 two-hour test sessions, each exposing 100 action items or bugs that required attention or change.

Video game interfaces ‘Every element of the user interface is potentially changeable in its shape, location, colour, texture, and size. Designing screens, for computer games in particular, includes the design for backgrounds or scenes, menus, icons, cursors, dialogue boxes, characters, and control panels. At the forefront of interface design remains the computer game. Aspects of interactive game interface design such as the value of interactivity, enjoyment, choice, ambience, and narrative, current-user requirements and desires are all important elements of interactive computer game interface design.’ Marteen Burger, Metro magazine

MEDIA

An interface allows a player to manipulate a complex system to achieve a desired outcome. All aspects of the game represented by an interface should communicate their purpose and capability. An interface should show the player what they can do with the system as well as provide feedback from the system. If a gun is capable of firing only once a second, then the interface should show this, perhaps by having a recharging symbol built into the gun. If the green liquid on the ground is dangerous, the interface should react and warn the player if they stand in it. The visual interface creates a single look-and-feel across all aspects of the game. However, what you see on the screen does not represent the whole interface. The interface also includes the physical game controls, whether they are game pads, steering wheels or a mouse. Interface also encompasses the game’s artificial intelligence (the behaviour of objects within the game, such as computer-controlled characters). The way in which all these factors work together contributes to the success of the interface. The interface should provide the player with the right amount of information needed to make sensible decisions. It should not provide too much information or it might slow the progress of the player.

Video games make extensive use of common metaphors and symbols in their interface design. This helps a player’s performance, as familiarity of symbols and metaphors used ensures that the player quickly recognises what each is referring to.

Screen architecture Common language elements are used in most video games. The most important and common element is the status bar. This can take many forms, but usually it features information the player needs to know while playing the game. This might include the character’s health, ammunition, objects collected, armour, a vehicle’s fuel or damage status, elapsed time, or the current level or floor the character is on. These status reports are often reinforced through auditory clues such as heavy breathing, or through warning systems on vehicles. Other screen elements can include the weapon being used, and a crosshair for accurate firing. Onscreen status objects can take many forms. They can be displayed in onscreen boxes or integrated into the onscreen action. For example, the status of a vehicle can be displayed on its dashboard controls.

Environmental sound Environmental sound includes sound effects and background noise. Sound is a crucial but often overlooked part of a game. While graphics may attract a player to a scene, the environmental sound creates a reality in the player’s mind that cannot be achieved using graphics alone. Games now feature soundtracks as sophisticated as those used in feature films (see page 25), utilising the same kinds of surround sound technologies. Designers are no longer stuck with the monotone ‘beeps’ of the 1970s and 1980s but employ highquality music and sound effects. Games feature intelligent sound, allowing the game’s artificial intelligence to apply the right music and sound effects for the current tension level of the game. Changes in sound are also triggered through the proximity of a player to an event or character.

Gameplay ‘I’m trying to imagine how the motion picture industry would have evolved if camera and film technology were completely altered every few years, and if every movie house had a different kind of projector, and simply watching a new movie would require the audience (or the theatre owner) to make an enormous investment in the newest machinery.’ Marc Laidlaw, Half-Life designer, Valve Software


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Simplification ‘Simplification is the vital difference between a game and a simulation. The object of a computer game is to entertain, and other considerations are secondary. Reality is complex and difficult. Games are supposed to be easy and fun. To get from one to the other, you have to simplify.’ Ernest Adams, Gamasutra columnist and game developer

Simplifying reality is an important part of game design. While many games feature the word simulation, they actually present a simplified version of reality. It takes years to learn how to fly and fight an F-18, drive a Formula One car or accurately shoot high-powered weapons — training that the average gamer will not endure in a game. Paul Jaquays from id Software suggests ‘only a fragile barrier exists between fun and frustration’.

The gameplay outline A gameplay outline is a large document that details all the levels within a game, as well as all the interactions, special effects, plot devices and design standards. It shows where every character, monster or weapon is introduced as well as what skills the player must have or how the player will be taught those skills. This can include seeing another character make a mistake the player needs to avoid. The outline of Half-Life was more than 200 pages long, detailing everything from how high a button should be to what time of day it is wherever the player may be. It included rough drawings of all levels as well as a list of requirements that needed to be met, such as the creation of sounds and animations.

The development lifecycle A typical development lifecycle has been outlined in the Game Career Guide. 1. A game begins life as an idea or concept. It is expanded into a fully fledged story by the game designer. The designer writes design documents and treatments that describe the gameplay, and visual and audio styles, including examples. 2. A project manager is assigned to create tasks, a project plan and a delivery schedule. They are responsible for maintaining project deadlines and budget. A producer is often used to maintain the artistic and stylistic integrity of the game, and act as the link between the project team and the studio heads.

3. A prototype is created to demonstrate the design concepts. If project funding is required, the prototype is used to attract funds. 4. The programming is started and the game’s assets (the characters, art and sound) are created. This can take several months. Different teams are assigned to work on different parts of the game. Within each team are specialists in specific areas such as character movement, environment and gameplay. 5. Testing commences after all the different elements of the game are combined. The playability is reviewed and the game modified to improve it. If the game is for a console platform, such as PlayStation, the console manufacturer will also test the game before they allow it to be released. 6. Once manufacturing is underway, marketing builds consumer awareness. Marketing often begins earlier in the development cycle to build hype through releasing early screenshots and movies. During development the publisher will promote the game to retailers to ensure that game stores agree to stock the title on their shelves.

User-created mods and levels Many games allow players to modify or add to them. First-person shooters and roleplaying games often provide their players with development tools required to build whole new levels, games, characters and weapons. These game modifications are known as mods. A ‘total conversion’ mod replaces all of the assets in the original game, as well as the gameplay. Sophisticated games require the ‘modder’ to use complicated modelling and texturing software to create new game assets, environments and characters. Some mods have become commercial titles. The online game Counter Strike is a user-created mod of Half-Life, which was converted into a team-based online game attracting tens of thousands of players. Many mod developers move to careers in the industry.

Copyright Creating mods is a common practice, and most game companies accept or encourage it. Attempts have been made to cash in on the success of games through gathering up user-created mods and levels and selling them — a copyright infringement. But there is nothing to prevent players from using copyrighted materials or characters in their mods.

Machinima Machinima combines traditional animation and filmmaking using game technology. Game technology allows anyone with a computer to create animated films for a fraction of the cost of a live-action film.

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Early machinima was created using captured video clips from actual games. These were then edited and a voice-over added. Movies can even be acted out over a network, with the actors in different geographic locations. Some new machinima producers are using purposebuilt, real-time animation tools that allow the custom creation of original environments and characters. These tools use video game technology, but are not games themselves. MMOs like Second Life allow machinima creators to build sets, develop characters, program special effects and create movies using their friends as actors. The Movies game is designed to allow users to produce machinima, and encourages distribution of fi nished movies. The distribution of player-created movies acts as viral promotion for the game. ‘Computer games are not noted for sophisticated plots or dialogue, but now fi lmmakers are harnessing game technology to help tell their stories,’ writes Sydney Morning Herald journalist Jason Hill. Not all critics are swift to praise machinima, especially as early movies were often uninspired, badly acted and needing script editing. Is a commercial audience used to the sophisticated animation styles of Pixar ready for movies that look like video games? Paul Marino, the director of New York’s annual Machinima Film Festival, believes machinima opens up fi lmmaking to new artists, as well as allowing live action performances in virtual worlds with game characters as ‘puppets’. In Marino’s view, ‘machinima is the democratisation of animated fi lmmaking’. Marino believes machinima will lead to ‘an easy-touse yet robust Pixar-in-a-box application. This is not to dismiss the work that Pixar creates, nor will it replace them, but the technical expertise needed for creating an animated fi lm will fall away. The storytelling and design will become the focus’.

Figure 15.8: 2ED VS "LUE 4HE "LOOD 'ULCH #HRONICLES IS A COMIC SCIENCE üCTION SERIES CONSTRUCTED USING THE GAME (ALO 4HIS IS MACHINIMAlS küRST BIG SUCCESSl AND EPISODES HAVE BEEN VIEWED MORE THAN A MILLION TIMES 4HE MACHINIMA AND THE GAME SERVE TO POPULARISE EACH OTHER 7HEN UPDATING (ALO -ICROSOFT DEVELOPERS BUILT IN A COMMAND TO MAKE THE CHARACTERS LOWER THEIR WEAPONS ALLOWING MACHINIMA CREATORS TO BETTER SYNC DIALOGUE

Activities 1. Conduct research into roles on a typical game

MEDIA

development project. Outline each role and list its related responsibilities. Use internet resources, or contact a local game development company for information. Discuss the results in class before forming a definitive list. 2. Find four screenshots from different game types using the internet. Outline the interface elements each game uses and its function. Which are fixed interface elements, and which are part of the game (i.e. controls on a car, crosshairs for a gun)? Is each game successful in integrating its interface with the game and the narrative? What could be improved?

3. Compare a short film with machinima. What are

the similarities and differences? Short films use film conventions such as alternative narrative types, character development, emotional responses, tension, lesser characters contributing to development of the main character and plot, and multiple plot lines, in addition to using film production values including camera, sound and editing conventions. Do machinima creators use these same conventions? Do you think that one format has more artistic merit than the other? Discuss.


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PRODUCTION TASK 4. You have been provided with government funding

for the development of a video game. Similar to film funding from the government, one of the conditions attached to the funding is that the game you write is required to be based on Australian experiences and to use local characters. (a) Briefly outline three ideas for games based on a number of different kinds of Australian experiences and using a range of stereotypical and non-stereotypical local characters. (b) Explain why the experiences and characters you chose could be considered to be specific to Australia. (c) Develop one of the ideas into a proposal that could be submitted to a government funding body. Include in your submission the game narrative, character descriptions and reasons why your game is worthy of funding (economic grounds alone are not sufficient). Why would your video game be of cultural benefit to Australia?

5. Produce the script to a short (5-minute), interactive,

dialogue-based game. The steps you will need to undertake include: (a) Write a basic story and invent the characters. (b) Write at least three different endings for the game. (c) Plan and ‘map out’ a number of ways through the narrative to reach any of the three endings, making sure that all paths are resolved. The easiest way to do this is to construct a flow chart. Start with a single beginning point and three endings. Between these start and end points diagrammatically map out three story paths. This way you can see what scenes need to be written, where they intersect and where they lead. Then script the dialogue for each path through the story (some scenes will be repeated on each narrative path, particularly where scenes intersect). If you need to know how an interactive story works, go to a library and find a ‘Choose Your Own Adventure Book’. These books were very popular in the 1980s and have a structure that is very similar to a simple game script.

Audience issues The average age of a gamer is almost 30. More than 60 per cent of gamers are over 18. A Bond University study of Australian gamers found that 76 per cent of Australian households had game hardware and that 38 per cent of gamers were female. A 2005 UK study found that 6- to 15-year-olds rate video games as their most valuable media form, even though they watched twice as much television. Those aged 16 to 24 value television, the internet, books and socialising above video games. This age group plays games less often but for longer. Players generally take between 10 and 200 hours to complete a single player game. On average, male players play 7.6 hours a week while females play 7.4. Surveys have shown that traditional media use for those aged 18 to 34 has dropped 12 per cent while game playing has risen 20 per cent. Television remains the dominant media form for all demographics.

testing thoughts and desires in a safe and controlled environment • Human interaction: the social aspects of gaming online or with friends • Excitement: emotional impact of gameplay; concepts of power, violence, fright and action • Reward: success and sense of achievement • Challenge: strategic thinking; puzzle solving; increasing gaming skills; overcoming obstacles • Addiction: playing games instead of fulfi lling responsibilities; difficulty stopping; diversion from real-world problems. Gamers say they seek variety and challenge in the games they play and derive satisfaction from developing skills. Games that are perceived as overly simplistic have been found to hold little appeal. Many use games for relaxation.

Motivation for playing games

Types of gamers

A study by researcher Ethan Levy concluded that motivations for gameplay are:

There are two main types of game players.

• Immersion: the aesthetic and narrative components of the game

The core gamer

• Fantasy fulfilment: removal from daily reality; exploring what is unachievable in the real world;

The core gamer plays for the exhilaration of defeating the game. They tolerate frustration because they want the sense of achievement at the end — the harder the

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task, the stronger their sense of achievement. The core gamer sees playing games as a hobby that requires dedication. The average core gamer is aged 26, and 68 per cent are male. Core gamers are increasingly social and spend more than five hours a week playing games socially. This category represents a minority of players.

The casual gamer The casual gamer plays for the sheer enjoyment of the game, but is not tolerant of frustration from overly difficult puzzles or interactivity that takes too long to master. If a game stops being entertaining, they will simply stop playing. The average casual gamer is 36 years old; 50 per cent of casual gamers are female. A major reason for gameplay was stated to be ‘stress relief’ and relaxation. Casual game players using mobile devices average age 31, and 64 per cent are female. Casual gaming is seen as a stepping stone to core gaming for younger players. Casual gaming is increasing the gamer demographic. ‘Gaming is really infiltrating the household at a broader level,’ according to Anita Frazier, an entertainment industry analyst.

Differences between male and female gamers ‘Generally, men like games with more action — especially violent action, games with more hand–eye coordination, and games with lots and lots of strategy. Women tend to like games with more story, more character development, and more interaction with characters, games with solving puzzles, games involving the brain rather than the hand, games with a more social aspect.’ Roberta Williams, creator of the King’s Quest series

MEDIA

High-tech marketing ‘think tank’ Interval Research Corporation spent four years researching the difference between male and female game players. Their findings are broadly summarised in table 15.1. The Sims was a huge crossover success that attracted many female non-gamers. The Sims allowed users to control virtual humans, including their daily activities such as sleeping, eating, cooking and bathing. The game attracted 50 per cent female players, proving it is possible to create games for a female audience without resorting to traditional ‘girl’s games’. MMOs and mobile games are also seeing significant increases in the ratio of female to male players.

Table 15.1: $IFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE GAMEPLAY &EMALES

-ALES

Assert social influence and structure relationships

Dominate and defeat

Gain social status by affiliating with some people and excluding others

Gain social status through achievement and physical supremacy

Enjoy multi-sensory immersion, discovery and strong story lines

Enjoy speed and action

Succeed through development of friendships

Succeed through elimination of competitors

Like to explore and have new experiences, with degrees of success and varying outcomes

Play to win

Like to know how something works before they try it

Learn how something works by doing it

Enjoy ‘friendship adventures’

Enjoy action games

‘The interactive entertainment industry is risk averse. Like Hollywood, it takes a formula that works, like sex and violence, and it uses it over and over again. Most games on the market are targeted to boys and men,’ says Megan Gaiser, president of Her Interactive, publishers of the Nancy Drew games. ‘The industry has only recently changed its thinking and is now targeting female gamers.’ ‘To put it in financial terms, the game industry leaves money on the table by focusing primarily on male consumers. But that’s because most developers haven’t figured out how to make games that appeal to a broader audience. I think we can make a strong case for the idea that if we involve more women in the development process, you will see more women playing the game. Why? Because a female viewpoint has been incorporated organically into the final product,’ says Lucy Bradshaw, vice-president of Maxis/Electronic Arts. A survey on the website Womengamers.com showed that women want: • better female characters, and more of them • more gender-neutral games • a reduction in sexist game contents • marketing that acknowledges that women gamers exist • games targeted specifically towards older adolescent girls and adult women • gaming websites and publications that don’t regale them with image after image of scantily clothed women • online gaming atmosphere that is free of gender harassment • increased female presence in technical fields in the gaming industry.


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Classification Governments across the world have been besieged by media and family groups demanding a crackdown on violent and sexually explicit games. While there have been calls for censorship since the early days of gaming, it is only since games developed a greater sense of realism that governments have acted. Games such as 1992’s Mortal Kombat, with its ‘fatality tricks’ (where players could rip the heart and spinal columns out of their victims), opened the floodgate to new hyper-violent games. Australian video games are rated by the Office of Film and Literature Classification (OFLC — see page 111), which is also responsible for rating other media such as television and fi lms under the Commonwealth Classification (Publications, Films and Computer Games) Act (1995). Unlike movies, there is no R18 or X18 category for games. Such titles are banned outright. The highest rating a game can obtain is MA15, and all adult content is banned. The US also classifies video games using the same ratings system applied to fi lms and video. In the US, however, retailers have become the new censors. The big chain stores make demands on video game publishers, refusing to stock their games if they don’t comply. Wal-Mart, for example, sells 25 per cent of all video games in the US. If they don’t like a game, either the game must be altered or a special Wal-Mart version created. Many chain stores won’t sell M-rated games

to children, even though children are legally allowed to purchase them. Corporate censorship doesn’t end there. Many smaller publishers are not able to get their games on the shelves of large department stores because of stocking arrangements with major publishers. ‘Wal-Mart and other retailers display an ever-decreasing range of game types,’ writes Charles Fishman, author of The Wal-Mart Effect. Marketers regularly sell games by exaggerating the violence in them. Grand Theft Auto III (GTA), a game in which players can rise through the underworld by performing jobs for gangster godfathers, uses comedic violence and cartoon-like graphics but was promoted as an ultra-violent gangster game. Game content is coming to depend increasingly on the player’s own personal objectives, making censorship difficult. While the game may enable certain actions, it may not require them to be used. Games may also be customised, allowing the addition of user-generated content that is difficult to control. ‘How much violence is in Grand Theft Auto?’ asks MIT’s Henry Jenkins. ‘It depends on who is playing it. And as games become more open to consumer modification and personalisation, the variability of their content will only increase.’ Jenkins believes that game ratings should be used to signal positive content instead of just the negative. ‘Ratings might be used to provide an incentive for games companies to develop educational content if they could be used to signal positive attributes as well as negative ones.’

Activities 1. How much time do you usually spend playing

games each week? Compare with classmates. (a) Does the average playing time in the class correspond with the findings for 16- to 25-yearolds that 87 per cent play weekly or more, 46 per cent play daily, and average daily play time is 2.93 hours. (b) Is the class player gender breakdown similar to the average of 56 per cent male, 44 per cent female? (c) How does your class average differ? What may be the reasons for any difference? Discuss. (d) How would your time be spent if you weren’t playing games?

2. Do you believe games are an important media

form? To substantiate your answer, find the amount of time you and your friends spend playing video games. Compare this with the time spent on other media activities such as going to the movies, reading, listening to music, watching television or using the internet. (a) Compare your data with that found by the rest of the class. (b) Are there any gender or other differences? (c) Is television still the dominant media form? 3. Debate whether the classification of video games should be stricter than it is for films.

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Radio genres

The medium of radio Stretching the imagination

GUY: Cue the air force!

MAN: Radio? Why should I advertise on radio? There’s nothing to look at … no pictures.

SFX: DRONE OF MANY PLANES. GUY: Cue the maraschino cherry …

GUY: Listen, you can do things on radio you couldn’t possibly do on TV.

SFX: WHISTLE OF BOMB INTO BLOOP! OF CHERRY HITTING WHIPPED CREAM

MAN: That’ll be the day. GUY: Okay, 25 000 cheering extras … GUY: Ah huh. All right, watch this. (Ahem) Okay, people, now when I give you the cue, I want the 700-metre mountain of whipped cream to roll into Lake Michigan which has been drained and fi lled with hot chocolate. Then the Royal Canadian Air Force will fly overhead, towing the 10-tonne maraschino cherry that will be dropped into the whipped cream, to the cheering of 25 000 extras. All right … cue the mountain … SOUND EFFECTS (SFX): GROANING AND CREAKING OF MOUNTAIN INTO BIG SPLASH!

SFX: ROAR OF MIGHTY CROWD. SOUND BUILDS UP AND CUTS OFF SHARP! GUY: Now … you wanta try that on television? MAN: Well … GUY: You see … radio is a very special medium, because it stretches the imagination. MAN: Doesn’t television stretch the imagination? GUY: Up to 34 centimetres, yes.

What is radio?

MEDIA

Radio is a system of sending audio signals through the air using electromagnetic radiation. The word radio comes from ‘radiate’ and is a reference to the means of transmission. An American advertising executive is believed to have come up with the term in about 1907.

While Americans spoke of ‘radio’, in Britain and Australia the preferred term was ‘wireless telegraphy’ or wireless for short. By the 1960s, however, either because of American cultural dominance or because it seemed a more serious and scientific word, radio had become the standard term worldwide.


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Development of the medium

1910s–1920s Crystal radio sets evolve out of wireless Morse code receivers.

1920s–1940s Radio sets are introduced using valves for amplification. This begins the ‘golden age’ of radio, when many institutional regulations, and program genres and conventions are established. With usually only one radio per household, early consumption of radio for most people is a collective or group experience. Nearly all broadcasts are live. Program recordings are made on wax discs or reels of steel tape.

Radio timeline 1895

Guglielmo Marconi sends a message without wires.

1912

RMS Titanic sinks; radio used to send SOS message.

1914


1920

First entertainment radio station (US); first news/talk radio station (US)

1923

First commercial radio broadcast in Australia

1929

Portable drive sound invented.

1931

First system for measuring radio audiences

1933

First mass installation of car radios. Valve radios used in cars until mid 1960s.

1937

First FM radio station (US)

1939


1945

New York WMCA announcer holds mike to phone for first talkback radio.

1948

1948–1976 Blue Hills (Australia’s longest running radio soap opera)

1950s–1960s Transistors for amplification reduce the size of radios and help create the medium’s defining characteristics in modern times — portability and immediacy. Radio common in cars in US (1950s) and Australia (1960s). Audiences plummet after the introduction of television. Radio is saved by music formats — particularly top 40, which became the dominant format by the 1960s.

1951

1951–1960 The Goon Show (UK)

1954

First transistor radio

1955

Top 40 format created in Omaha, Nebraska (US).

1958

2UE Sydney adopts a top 40 format.

1960

First US stations adopt all-talk format.

1961

First all-news format created in Washington (US).

1967

First talkback radio programs in Australia — 2SM Sydney and 3DB Melbourne

1970s–1980s The growth of FM stations leads to the emergence of album-oriented rock (AOR) in the late 1970s. In the mid 1980s, top 40 evolves into adult contemporary (AC). AM stations increasingly move to talk formats, competing with FM music formats.

1974

First FM station in Australia — 2MBS-FM Sydney

1975

Ethnic radio established — 2EA and 3EA.

1976

First community radio station in Australia — 3CR Melbourne

1977

SBS Radio established (Aus.).

1986

Adult contemporary format first created in Baltimore, Maryland (US).

1990s–present Rise of internet radio and use of ‘podcasting’. Digitisation leads to multichannelling. Further fracturing of audience with internet radio. Listening is often a solitary experience as digital radio is an accompaniment to other computer- (or iPod-) based activities. Many radio stations introduce ‘podcasting’ to allow flexible listening times and locations.

1993

First internet radio station (US)

1994

Numbers of radio stations open internet broadcasting.

1996

First 24-hour streaming internet radio station — Virgin Radio (UK)

2001

Digital radio established in Australia (ABC Radio National)

2004

First HD car radios First use of the term ‘podcasting’

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Features of the radio medium The medium of radio has the following general features.

The blind medium Sometimes radio is said to be a ‘blind medium’ because it involves only one of the five senses — hearing. The messages of radio consist only of noise and occasional silences. Things that might be self-evident or clearly visible on television have to be carefully described on radio. Interviewers can often be heard to say, ‘Tell the listeners what you are doing.’ At other times they may say, ‘Describe the scene to the listeners. What does it look like?’ But radio is also called the art of the imagination. In television the action takes place on the screen. The scenes will look the same, no matter who is watching. In radio the images are all in the listener’s mind, so each person becomes creative. This use of the imagination is not limited to radio plays and comedies. When we listen to radio news or weather reports, we are also forced to imagine the real world. The Canadian media philosopher Marshall McLuhan said that radio is a hot medium while television is a cool medium. Radio heats up the imagination. It stimulates, while television relaxes.

Figure 16.1: 7ITH RADIO ITlS NOT SO MUCH WHAT GOES IN THE EARS AS WHAT COMES OUT OF THE IMAGINATION k4HE PICTURES ARE BETTER ON RADIOl IS AN OLD SAYING FROM THE EARLY DAYS OF TELEVISION

The flexible medium

The intimate medium

The biggest advantage radio has over television and newspapers is the speed at which it can be produced. There is no need for the printing and distribution that holds newspapers to strict deadlines. Unlike television, there is no need for expensive and heavy camera equipment and no delay as videotape is edited. Radio is a flexible medium. Radio’s flexibility becomes most apparent in times of war or disaster. Audiences turn to radio for the most up-to-the-minute news. While the internet rivals radio’s immediacy, it is not as portable or likely to be accessed from such a variety of locations.

While radio is a mass medium, the appeal to the imagination of each person makes it also a very personal medium. The process of listening to the radio is ‘inward’ and intimate, like reading a book. Radio encourages intimacy by directly addressing itself to the individual. DJs and other broadcasters are told never to imagine their audience as a group. Instead, they must talk to an imaginary acquaintance. Even microphone etiquette promotes intimacy. Announcers sit just 10 to 15 centimetres from the microphone and speak confidentially into it. Radio’s intimacy has increased over the years. Families once used to sit around the kitchen table or the fireside listening to radio from a bakelite receiver. Now most people listen to radio when alone. Radio seems to talk to the listener one-on-one, as a friend would.

Figure 16.2: 2ADIOlS ČEXIBILITY COMES FROM THE RELATIVE SPEED WITH WHICH IT CAN BE PRODUCED

The companion medium Radio is sometimes called a ‘companion medium’. The announcer’s voice gives a warm sense of personal communication, providing company for each individual listener. Some of the pleasure the listener gains from the company of radio comes from a sense of being anonymous. The radio companion does not demand to know anything about the listener. The listener has no obligation to talk back to his or her electronic friend.

MEDIA


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The undemanding medium Most of the action on radio takes place in your imagination. Even the music is a personal and emotive experience. Listening to the radio in the car is now one of the primary uses listed in audience surveys. One advantage of this is that it leaves your hands free for driving. Listeners can carry a radio with them wherever they go. Radio does not demand exclusive attention in the way that a newspaper or movie does. As a result, radio has become an aural backdrop in locations as varied as hairdressing salons, factory floors and shopping malls.

‘Radio is still one of the main media choices of the time-poor consumers we have in Australia today. While the internet and pay TV have given consumers a greater choice, they still take time to consume. Radio is very consumable wherever you are. No other medium is as mobile as radio. It’s with us almost everywhere these days. It’s live, targeted, interactive and portable and allows consumers to access information and entertainment while they are on the run, and wherever they are.’ Joan Warner, CEO, Commercial Radio Australia

Activities 1. In class, turn the radio on and listen for a few

minutes to any program on any station. Write down the images that occur to you as you listen. Compare your impressions with those of other class members. Does everyone receive the same message from radio?

2. A 2001 survey showed nearly 75 per cent of people

listened to the radio each day while only half used the internet on a daily basis. Survey class members to find out the current percentages.

Radio music formats Tune in to a format radio station at any time of day and it will sound much the same. Consistency of sound has been created, with music formulas designed to attract certain age groups (and repel others). Each format represents an attempt at narrowcasting.

What are radio music formats? Radio formats are the ‘packaged’ program content that is broadcast on radio stations and designed to attract a target audience. Radio music formats are based on the genres of music that the perceived target audience likes to listen to. Since the formats are a means of gaining an audience to sell to advertisers, they bear a close relationship to the station’s marketing strategy. Four main factors characterise a station’s music format: • Music genre. The type of music played is the most fundamental means of distinguishing the format. • Musical era. The time period the music belongs to allows a station to target a particular age group of audience. • Dynamic intensity. The intensity of the music, regardless of the genre, is a planned feature of the format. For instance, the music can be mellow or it can be loud and hard. • Musical complexity. Whether the music is simple and catchy or complex and sophisticated can determine the composition of the audience.

The main formats The following formats are the main ones used by radio programmers in Australia.

Top 40 Top-40 programming saved radio when television took away the big audiences. Radio’s fi rst attempt at narrowcasting began when it was discovered there was a big audience for a 24-hour rotation of bestselling hits. New hit singles, played over and over again, have kept the format moving with the times since the 1950s. The audience is usually aged between 10 and 25 years.

Contemporary hit radio (CHR) CHR began in the 1980s as a development of the top40 format. Fewer hits are rotated more often. The result is a streamlined top 40. The audience targeted is under 30. The CHR format is usually slanted to a particular demographic by slightly altering the music playlist. Some CHR variations are as follows: • Adult CHR targets the 25- to 44-year-old age group. For variety, some hits from several years ago are often included in this format to appeal to the older listeners. • CHR alternative is slanted towards new alternative music. In Australia a station such as Triple J

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operates within this format. The target audience is between age 15 and 30. • CHR dance is slanted towards dance music and dance remixes. • CHR rhythmic focuses on popular hits with a slant towards hip-hop, rap and dance music.

Classic rock The classic rock format concentrates on rock from the 1960s on. New music is played, but generally only if it is from a classic rock artist. ‘Around 90 per cent of the songs we play are proven and popular hits, while 10 per cent are new songs from established artists,’ says Jon Robbins, program director at a classic rock station. The target audience is 25- to 54year-old adults. Classic rock stations are usually male oriented. ‘Our audience composition would be 65 per cent male,’ says Robbins.

Album-oriented rock (AOR) Albums make up about 80 per cent of all retail music sales. Radio stations came up with the AOR formula in the 1970s to meet the demand for album music. At a recent American conference of AOR stations, a music mix was agreed at 50 per cent current songs and 50 per cent oldies or classic rock selections. AOR stations tend to attract more males than females. Peer pressure is a factor in the listening habits of the AOR audience. A study has shown that both top-40 and AOR listeners want to listen to the same stations and to be expert in the same music as their friends.

Adult contemporary (AC)

MEDIA

Adult contemporary stations play soft rock aimed at the 35- to 54-year-old age group. Familiarity is important to adult contemporary stations, and they rely on a mix of hits from the past and more recent songs that have already been proven hits. ‘Fortunately for us, a lot of the current hits are soft enough for us to play,’ says Bob Gallagher, program manager at an AC station. Adult contemporary means no rap and no heavy metal. ‘But it’s our oldies that add the sizzle. They have a more rock-and-roll edge. That suits our core audience, who are in the 35- to 44-year-old age group, with a skew towards females.’ The AC format has a number of variations. The main ones are hot AC and lite AC. • Hot AC is an adult contemporary format with a greater emphasis on current hits. This format slants the playlist towards CHR. • Lite AC is designed to appeal to a general audience with easy-to-listen-to hits from the past 15 to 20 years. Lite AC slants the playlist towards easy listening. Lite AC is sometimes referred to as soft AC.

Middle of the road (MOR) The MOR format is programming without extremes. Volume, timing, rhythm and style are conservative. The MOR audience has the largest age range and the highest income of all the format audiences. The target audience is between 25 and 54 years old. The MOR format has lost favour in the past decade and is no longer widely used.

Easy listening/beautiful music Beautiful music is mood music. It is sometimes known as dinner music, but the radio stations program music to fit all the other moods and tempos of the day as well. Easy listening stations are now featuring soft ballad rock as well as the traditional light pops orchestra music. As time passes, what was once modern pop music becomes easy to listen to, but the music must always sound familiar to mature listeners. American easy listening programmer Gil Boucher says, ‘If a listener can’t whistle it, hum it, or dance to it, we don’t play it.’ The target audience for the easy listening format is 25 to 54 years old but is heavily weighted to the older age group.

Golden oldies/nostalgia Oldies are top-40 or MOR singles of between 15 and 30 years’ vintage. While the oldies format is not uncommon in Australia, the nostalgia format is rarely used. The nostalgia format goes back much further to include music from the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. Some oldies formats mix oldies with current soft rock. The target audience is 25 to 54 years old, but is more likely to be in the over-35 age range.

Country Country music stations vary their format to suit their service area. In Australia the country music format is based on the adult contemporary format. Stations play a combination of soft rock, old hits and country music. A few new country artists are featured, but most of the music is well established. Only one station in Australia, Brisbane’s 4KQ in the 1980s, has ever succeeded with a wholly country format on a longterm basis. Audiences for country are in the 25- to 54-year-old range.

Urban The urban format features music genres such as rap, hip-hop, house, soul, and rhythm and blues. The format often features African-American artists and is aimed at a younger audience aged 15 to 24.


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Dance

Representations

The dance format is based on a playlist of music meant primarily for dancing. The format has its origins in the disco formats of the 1970s.

Two issues arise out of the use of radio formats.

Other music formats A number of other music formats are used to some degree in Australia but especially overseas. These can be accessed via internet radio. The formats include world music, big band, jazz, smooth jazz and active rock.

Record rotation and the playlist ‘The formats are actually locked into a computer. You’ll find that all stations have the same systems selector, which is an American system. You put all your tracks from the playlist into it, you categorise them, you give it the limits of rotation and then you lock in a format for each hour of the day.’ Barry Bissell, Program Director, Weekly Countdown

Record rotation refers to how often a particular record is played. This depends on its popularity and the time of day that its mood and style would suit. FM stations rotate records more slowly than AM stations. The highest rotation on an FM station is typically five hours. Rotations progressively decline from seven hours to nine hours, then ten hours and eventually 24 hours. The longest rotation is five or six weeks. AM stations can rotate as often as every 90 minutes. The playlist is the list of music tracks the radio station plans to broadcast. The list varies from week to week. There may be a current playlist of about 120 songs and a longer rotation of 600 to 700 tracks. Dayparting is the division of the day into segments or timeslots. Each day part has a particular character. For example, many radio stations are more teenoriented after 3 pm but aim for an older audience in ‘drive-time’ after 5 pm.

Representations and discourses ‘Radio formats are now about as tasty as a modern day tomato. They’ve researched tomatoes until they’ve made them uniform and tasteless. That’s exactly what they’ve done with music on radio.’ Phil Tripp, music industry publisher and researcher

Restricting creativity. According to radio critic Peter Duffy, one format radio station programmer had this to say about his choice of new music: ‘I include new tracks in my playlist only if they sound like I’ve heard them before!’ Critics say the format system has made it all but impossible for really new music styles to break through. Radio discourages large areas of modern music, including music with a social conscience, says Clive Davis, president of Arista. Most FM radio music is a variation on a theme, says critic Mike Safe. There is nothing so old that it might be thought of as square. And there is nothing so new it could be thought of as weird. Restricting genres. Format restrictions do not affect new rock music alone. Whole musical styles, such as world music, jazz, blues, folk, new age and so on, get little air play on Australian radio.

Discourses See representation and discourse in music video, page 368.

Audiences Radio station ratings are released eight times a year. To maintain their share of the ratings, stations must continually monitor their target audiences. What target audiences want to listen to is determined by station research. There are five main research approaches: 1. Weekly audience tracking. On most nights of the week a team of five or six telephone pollsters from each radio station ring random selections of people and question them on their listening habits. ‘We ask questions such as “Who has the best music, or who has the most 1960s music?” ’ says AC program manager Bob Gallagher. 2. Focus groups. A small group of listeners are brought together to discuss their thoughts on the programming. Researchers record the comments. 3. Call-out music research. Radio station researchers telephone sample listeners and play the main themes of songs down the telephone line to them. These song themes or hooks are the most recognisable parts of songs. They are usually only 10 seconds long. Listeners rate each song. Researchers also test for the burn-out factor. (Are listeners sick and tired of the song?) 4. Auditorium music tests. Sample audience members are invited to a hall or auditorium where they listen to hundreds of songs in one session. Auditorium tests allow a station to test all of the songs in

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its full playlist or ‘gold universe’, as some stations call it. 5. Lifestyle research. Details about the interests, activities, attitudes and income of the target audience are provided by lifestyle research.

Audiences not served A tight, selective format creates a loyal audience. Radio stations can then offer to advertisers a market of like-minded people in the same age category. However, a tight format has another effect. It repels those it doesn’t aim to serve, leaving them free to move to another format or else remove themselves entirely from the radio audience.

The group not served can be quite large. Commercial broadcasters will select whatever format maximises profits, even if other stations are also using that format. The format will be duplicated as often as it is profitable. It is not necessary to have the largest audience. The size of the audience does not indicate how much money can be made; that is determined by the size of audience income. Format duplication can be extreme. In Australia the most common format is adult contemporary. At one point a variation of it was used by 117 of the 146 commercial radio stations in Australia. Format duplication means a group that could have had a music format aimed at them will miss out.

Activities 1. Create a 60-minute playlist for one of the major

radio station formats. List 10 to 15 song titles and allow 12 minutes for advertisements. 2. Look at table 16.1, which shows format duplication of radio stations in four American cities, then complete the following activities. (a) Complete a table like this for the stations in your area. (b) Calculate the percentage of duplication of stations in your area by using the method used in table 16.1 (that is, divide the number of duplicate formats by the total number of stations and multiply by 100). (c) Discuss the implications of your findings.

WRITTEN TASK 3. Briefly describe the radio formats available in your

city and evaluate them from your own perspective as an audience member. Discuss the positives and negatives of radio station formats.

PRODUCTION TASK 4. Imagine you are to attend a meeting of radio

MEDIA

station executives with a proposal for a new music format aimed at a target audience that is currently being ignored. Prepare a complete submission with presentations in the following areas: • Format: name and define • Audience: define age range, tastes etc. • Music: prepare a playlist of 100 titles. For some of these songs, give notes to explain the appeal to the target audience. • DJs: outline the personalities you would seek • Advertisers: list a large range of potential advertisers interested in the target group • Image: design a publicity poster to promote the format.

Table 16.1: &ORMAT DUPLICATION IN FOUR !MERICAN CITIES .EW 9ORK

#HICAGO

3EATTLE

,OS !NGELES

5

6

7

6

10

12

5

11

Urban

3

3

5

3

Sports

1

2

1

2

Variety

1

0

0

0

Adult contemporary

7

12

3

6

Classical

1

3

1

2

Country

1

2

8

5

Big band

1

0

2

0

Nostalgia

1

0

1

1

Financial

1

0

1

1

Spanish

4

5

0

11

Ethnic

3

0

0

5

Oldies

4

5

5

6

Jazz

1

3

1

1

Top 40/CHR

3

3

1

3

Religious

4

7

7

9

Gospel

0

1

0

0

Motivation

0

0

0

3

Total stations

51

64

48

75

Duplicated formats

34

51

34

59

Duplication (percentage)

66

80

71

79

&ORMAT Rock News/talk


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Talkback radio Ring, ring … A talkshow host takes the call. His secretary has already asked a few questions. On a screen in front of him appears the subject of the call and whether the caller agrees or disagrees. If he needs to know, the screen tells him whether the caller is male or female and gives the warnings FGN for foreign or RTB for ratbag … ‘Yes, hello?’

Public access is highly controlled, however, and the host has a number of technological means of limiting access. These include the following: • Pre-screening. Callers are interviewed by a production assistant before they make it to the host’s switchboard. The host is able to see details about the caller before selecting them. • The ducker. The host is able to talk over the top of any caller and eventually drown them out using a sound channel device called a ducker. • The hang-up. Some say when a host hangs up it is the climactic high point of the show that everyone is waiting for. The host’s power of dismissal is fi nal and represents the ultimate limitation on audience participation. For talkback radio developments over time, see radio medium timeline, page 451.

‘The talkback host sets the agenda on the show. For example, some hosts may set out three topics for discussion. The show is then run around these topics. Other broadcasters will favour the open line approach, where listeners are invited to simply ring in and air their views on anything. In each instance, the show provides listeners with a forum. If the show is run properly, callers will feed off previous calls.’ Murray Olds, news director, news/talk station

Figure 16.3: 4HE SUCCESS OF TALKBACK IS BASED ON ONE OF RADIOlS SPECIAL ADVANTAGES q THE SENSE OF COMPANIONSHIP Radio talkback shows have become one of the most successful forms of radio programming. Some are late-night shows. Most are in the peak listening morning session from 9:00 am to 1:00 pm. The arrival of mobile phones has delivered a new audience of male listeners — taxi drivers, salesmen, tradesmen, couriers and truckies. Once they could only listen; now they can phone in. Neil Mitchell, of Melbourne’s 3AW, says up to 90 per cent of calls are made from mobile phones.

What is talkback radio? Talkback radio is a radio news and talk program with listener participation via the telephone. The program consists of a host who establishes the topics and often interviews a key figure in the chosen field. The program is then opened up to callers, whose conversations with the host are then broadcast.

Features of talkback radio The topics aired on talkback radio can be either preselected or spontaneous. The hot issue of the day from newspapers or television news is the mainstay of the talkback show. Talkback radio has the following general features.

Sense of community The host in Oliver Stone’s fi lm Talk Radio (1988) says, ‘Talk radio is the only neighbourhood in town. People just don’t talk to each other anymore.’ Talkback researchers Christine Higgins and Peter Moss say talkback hosts appear to have four main functions: 1. Giving emotional support to callers 2. Turning callers’ personal experience into dramatic theatre for the public to enjoy 3. Upholding the beliefs, myths and prejudices of wider society 4. Providing general entertainment.

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Types of talkback show

Hosts ‘Hosts are sounding boards for community concern, golden voices for advertisers, and a conduit between politicians and the wider community. A star can attract “movers and shakers” and shape public opinion to a very large extent. ‘They are an authority on anything. And if they don’t know at once, they have a virtual “hotline” to politicians, union leaders, etc., who know they have the audience.’ Murray Olds, news director, news/talk station

The style of the host depends on the type of audience the station is trying to attract. • Sadists or shock jocks shout, hang up and cut people off in mid sentence. They call their guests liars and taunt callers to ‘get off the phone, you jerk’. American talkshow host Steve Kane says, ‘I judge the success of my show by the amount of hate mail I get.’ The shock jocks have so far not made a big impact on talkback radio outside of the United States. American examples include G. Gordon Liddy and Rush Limbaugh. • Authority figures can provide knowledge, security and reassurance. But they are a force to be reckoned with in argument. These talkback hosts often take the high moral ground on certain issues and brook no contradiction. Like the sadists, they often insult callers and cut them off in mid flight. Stations featuring authority figures often have a majority of older women in their audience. • Approachable conversationalists are kinder to their audiences than the other two types of host. They tend to let their callers present a point of view without argument. Often these hosts are women. The target audience is younger and better educated than average, but the ratings are lower as well.

Dramatic features

MEDIA

According to radio critic Harry Robinson, talkback has come a long way since its early days. ‘The first producers had only one trick — put a know-all at the mike and take any calls that came.’ Talkback is now seen as a series of mini-dramas. The host’s role is to create mini-climaxes, comedies or dramas from the incoming calls. Talkback shows can then become living theatre, rather than information programs. Talkback producer Ainslie Hodgkinson says the shows look for the sort of excitement that will make people’s blood boil. Everyone then gets to express their frustration and their desire for someone to ‘do something’.

On most stations the time of day determines the type of talkback program put to air. The two main types are: • Hard news talkback. Programs with a focus on hard news (see page 321) are put to air in the early part of the morning. They deal with the big stories of the day and are heavily oriented towards politics, with more than 50 per cent of calls being concerned with current events. • Lifestyle/soft news talkback. These programs are broadcast later in the morning. They focus on lifestyle issues or soft news (see page 321), and base their appeal on a strong sense of companionship built up as callers share personal experiences. For example, one program invited callers to share their worst Mother’s Day experience.

Audience The use and abuse of talkshow hosts’ power has provided the story for many movies. Talk Radio (1988) is based on the real-life assassination of shock jock Alan Berg. In The Fisher King (1991), the host’s playful advice to exterminate yuppies is taken seriously by a caller. Other movies to explore the issues include Play Misty for Me (1971) and Pump Up the Volume (1990). A 1972 survey found that the great majority of talkback listeners were house-bound women. Times have changed since then. Today’s talkback audience is much more varied and quite likely to be tertiary educated, but women still make up the majority of listeners on most stations. Some ABC stations report an audience of slightly more males than females. The audiences for ABC talkback programs also tend to be older and are more likely to be professionals or managers.

Representations and discourses After fleeing Nazi Germany in the 1930s, the pioneering radio analyst Theodor Adorno had this to say of his experience of radio politics: ‘The radio becomes the universal mouthpiece of the Führer … The gigantic fact that the speech penetrates everywhere replaces its content. The inherent tendency of radio is to make the speaker’s word, the false commandment, absolute.’

Representations Today analysts disagree on the propaganda value of talkback radio. But politicians live in hope that an appearance on talkback will make their words absolute. Politicians fall over themselves to get on; they at least agree about the power of talkback radio.


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Figure 16.4: 4HIS CARTOONIST SUGGESTS TALKBACK HOSTS HAVE IMMENSE POWER .OT ALL HOSTS AGREE k4ALKBACK DOESNlT MAKE OPINIONS )T PROVIDES THE MATERIAL WHICH ALLOWS PEOPLE TO MAKE OPINIONS 9OU DONlT HAVE ANY MORE POWER OR INČUENCE THAN THE AUDIENCE GIVES YOU l SAYS HOST *OHN ,AWS Professor Henry Mayer says political parties use talkback in two ways: the clean way, to show their star leaders; and the dirty way, to float rumours. Politics accounts for more than half of all talkback radio discussion. Many radio hosts are located on the political far right, prompting commentators to call for more balance among the programs available to the public.

‘Talkback claims that it centres around the potential for participant callers freely to “air their point of view”, yet it simultaneously constrains that participation within a range of control techniques.’ Jackie Cook, senior lecturer, School of Communication, University of South Australia

An old saying in the media is that the person with the microphone has the power. On talkback radio, members of the public have the microphone at least some of the time. Talkback offers a chance for alternatives to go to air. Viewpoints that would normally never be heard in the media can gain an audience for the price of a phone call. However, this does not make the programs truly democratic. It does not turn listeners into broadcasters. Topics are decided by the producers and the limits of discussion are tightly set. Alternative views can be aired, but with some difficulty. Even the most kindly of hosts is adept at wrestling an unwanted caller off the air.

Discourses Talkback radio engages with the discourses that are being discussed in society at the time. There are a number of fundamental discourses that talkback regularly participates in, however.

Politics. Political discourses make up the majority of talkback radio conversation topics. The programs operate as an important forum for political debate. However, as the linguist John Potts concludes, talkback only pretends to be a democratic forum. The rules and even the outcome of discussions are set well in advance. In Australia, most commercial radio talkback hosts operate from within the discourses of the conservative right wing of politics. Populism. Most talkback hosts use the discourse of populism. Populism is a political movement that supports ordinary people against privileged elites. However, populism in modern times has become simply a way of talking. It can be taken up by either the left wing or the right wing of politics and can be used to support almost any cause. The speaker only has to appeal to ‘ordinary decent common sense’ — however that is defi ned. Us and them. As part of talkback’s populist approach, hosts often speak of ‘us’ (ordinary mainstream people) and ‘them’ (the targets of the host’s criticism). In reality, most of the hosts are millionaires and therefore not at all like ‘us’. It is therefore a sham discourse. Mainstream Australia. According to University of Queensland academic Leigh Dale, the populism of the hosts commonly leads them into discourses about the ‘real’ Australia. They often claim to represent the ‘silent majority’ of real Australians. Dominant masculinity. In a study of The Stan Zemanek Show, Jackie Cook found that the host displayed an aggressive masculinity that seemed to dominate everyone — his mostly female staff within the show as well as his listeners and callers. This discourse of masculinity is taken for granted on the show as the normal and dominant social value through which all other issues are examined.

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Activities 1. Talkback hosts have four main functions, say

researchers Christine Higgins and Peter Moss: giving emotional support, creating theatre, upholding society’s beliefs and providing entertainment. Listen to a talkback program and find examples of hosts fulfilling these functions. Transcribe the conversations and explain how each function is being fulfilled. 2. Decide on the styles of the talkback hosts operating in your area. Refer to the three basic types outlined in the text (sadist, authority figure and approachable conversationalist). 3. Talkback radio is not often free access radio. Listen to a talkback host and answer the following questions. (a) What is the theme or subject the host seems to want to develop from the beginning of the program? (b) Which of the four functions of a host is operating (see page 457)? (c) Concentrate on the host’s questions without the replies. Who would you say is in charge of the direction of the conversation — the host or the caller? Explain. (d) Consider the host’s concluding comments. Do they differ from the opening comments? How does this fit with your answer for question (c)?

WRITTEN TASK 4. Prepare an analysis of a talkback radio program. Use

the following headings as a guide for your study.

(a) Target audience. Find out the target audience of the program. Refer to the station’s music format if necessary. (b) Type of host. Discuss the style of presentation the host adopts. Explain how this suits the target audience. (c) Functions of the program. Use the functions isolated by Higgins and Moss in your discussion. Transcribe some examples of phone calls that show the host preferring certain functions. Explain how the host goes about it. (d) Free access. Do you think callers have free access to this program if they have unusual or alternative views? Can you give examples? How much free access is there on radio talkback generally?

PRODUCTION TASK 5. Record a send-up of a talkback program. Your send-

up must show your familiarity with the following: • host type and style (e.g. an exaggerated sadist or shock jock) • program functions identified by Higgins and Moss • target audiences • capacity for free access (e.g. a shock jock wrestles a caller off the air while he or she persists in getting the message across). Use exaggeration, incongruity and surprise to create your comedy (see television comedy, pages 346–7). Include a written explanation of your satire when you hand in your project.

Radio comedy According to the British radio critic David Berry, radio acts as a ‘nursery slope’ for television. Comedy acts cut their teeth in radio. New talent is groomed on radio and then graduates to television. For example, in Australia, Roy and H.G. began on the Triple J network before graduating to their own television show. In the United Kingdom, Little Britain began as a radio comedy.

to the narrative genre. Sketch comedy may belong to the narrative genre or to the literary non-narrative genre, depending on the sketch (see genres, page 7). For radio comedy developments over time, see radio medium timeline, page 451.

Types of radio comedy

MEDIA

What is radio comedy?

Three basic styles of comedy are used regularly on radio — variety or stand-up comedy, situation comedy and sketch comedy.

Radio comedy is radio programming based on variety, stand-up, sketch or situation comedy (see television comedy, page 344). Variety and stand-up comedies range between the literary non-narrative genre and the narrative genre. Variety routines may share some of the characteristics of the exposition genre. Situation comedy belongs

• Variety or stand-up comedies are often presented by a duo, who use loosely scripted or improvised dialogue to build quips and gags into social commentaries. The humour emerges from the way each member of the duo plays off the other. Examples include Mick Molloy and the offbeat sports commentators Roy and H.G.


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• Situation comedies place a set of characters in a funny situation. The humour derives from the way the characters handle the situation. Sitcoms are really short dramas, so plot, character and setting are very important.

the imagination. When they have to be pictured, as on television, the limits are set by the way they are visually represented.

• Sketch or absurd parody comedies create their humour out of a series of skits or sketches. Usually they are unconnected and the show jumps from one topic to another. Sound effects, plot characters and setting tend to be very exaggerated.

Sound effects are a great source of humour in radio comedies. Exaggerated bangs, ground-shaking footsteps, creaking doors, whistling bombs and so on are all part of the humour. In The Goon Show, the sound effects almost became a show within a show.

Sound effects

‘Supposing the scene was about the French Revolution with the hated aristos being guillotined. To establish the atmosphere, the phonograms operator would have sorted out a disc of crowd noises. Then, for the actual effect of the guillotine blade descending, I’d scrape a sword down a piece of metal; then for the blade decapitating the victim, I’d cut a cabbage into a basket. Then the grams man would bring in a disc effect of crowds cheering their appreciation.’ Vernon Lawrence, studio manager, The Goon Show

Creating radio comedy Figure 16.5: 4HE 'OONS q 0ETER 3ELLERS LEFT (ARRY 3ECOMBE AND 3PIKE -ILLIGAN q PICTURED ON THE COVER OF A ""# MAGAZINE IN 3EPTEMBER -ANY CRITICS SEE 4HE 'OON 3HOW AS THE PEAK OF RADIO COMEDY q OUTRAGEOUS UNPREDICTABLE CARTOONS IN SOUND

Features of radio comedy Radio is the theatre of the imagination. The medium has the freedom to operate entirely in the minds of the listeners. Radio comedy has the following features.

Imaginative absurdity ‘This distinction from television comedy is illustrated by the success of another radio show, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, which failed when it was transferred to the screen. By not picturing its characters, Hitchhiker could remain a satire of modern travel and people’s cosmic wonder, yet also develop on the levels of fantasy, imagination and the unconscious. ‘On television, it simply became another space epic.’ David Berry, The Listener

In radio comedy, the fact that it all takes place in the listener’s mind allows the absurdity free rein. Things that are illogical, exaggerated or irrational take off in

Radio comedy writers take the following into account as they work.

Building for laughs Dramas build from crisis to crisis until they reach a climax. Comedy builds from joke to joke. Radio comedy, in particular, needs to be very fast-paced. Unlike television, there are no pictures to hold the audience’s attention. Humour is piled one joke on another, barely leaving time for the laughter to stop. The old radio comedies had the gags coming at four or five a minute when they got moving. Some went even faster. Little gags led to big gags. The number of jokes per program put a lot of pressure and responsibility on the gag-creating abilities of the writers.

Dialogue Dialogue is the most important element of the comedy in variety stand-up programs. Much of the material is improvised, but the presenters are experienced at working together.

Characters The characters in radio comedy are usually stereotyped. A stereotyped character is not fully developed but, rather, a pattern character — always the same and constantly recycled to take advantage of the fixed mental images in the minds of the audience (see stereotypes, page 37).

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Most radio and television comedy relies on stereotypes because the purpose of the shows is not to understand the characters but to laugh at them. For the laugh to begin immediately, the characters need to be instantly recognisable as funny. Only with a stereotype is this possible. Radio comedy usually depends on regular listening. Audiences can then thrill to the appearance of favourite characters. The build-ups to the appearance can be half the fun.

Sound effects Dialogue is not the only source of humour in a radio script. Well-planned sound effects can get a lot of laughs. They are also useful for setting the scene and introducing action. Sound effects make good transitions from point to point in the plot — especially in illogical plots.

Plot Comedy plots do not need to be logical. In fact, illogical plots or events are what radio comedy thrives on. Illogical thinking makes exaggeration, incongruity and surprise all the easier to achieve, and comedy is made up of these basic ingredients (see pages 346–7). Most comedy plots begin with a startling announcement or event. The audience is immediately plunged into a world of humour. From here confusion and illogicality snowball as characters accumulate one set of problems after another. The excitement of the audience mounts with their desire for a resolution, and there is great relief when it finally comes (see page 139). Many radio comedy plots are built from parodies of other types of shows. A parody mimics or takes off something else. Detective stories, adventure stories and romantic love stories, for example, can all be parodied to provide plots for comedies.

Activities 1. Listen to a three- to five-minute segment of a radio

comedy, then undertake the activities below. (a) Count the gags in the segment. How many are there per minute? (b) Discuss each of the jokes and the way it works. Is it based on surprise, incongruity, exaggeration or a pun? How often is the audience switched from one meaning to another? (c) Summarise the plot (or the exposition if there is no plot) as it develops in the segment. Does it take illogical turns? Are there places (especially in the introductory sections) where the plot (or exposition) is seemingly normal before taking an illogical twist? Can you discern any purpose for this normality? 2. Choose a subject or theme. Hold a class brainstorming session to think of as many jokes as you can on the theme or subject. When it is exhausted, try another subject. 3. Make a list of stereotypes you think would provide enough humour to be used in radio comedy. 4. In one Goon Show script, someone boasted that his patent excavator could dig the Suez Canal in ten seconds by his watch. The script reads: EFFECTS: (NOT LOUD, NOT THE USUAL MACHINE) A SERIES OF RAPID KNOCKS, A WHIRRING NOISE, A CLICK AND HOLLOW BANG. RHYTHMIC. REPEAT THREE TIMES, THE WHOLE TO LAST ABOUT TEN SECONDS. END WITH WHANG OF SPRING.

MEDIA

VOICE 1: Is that the excavator? VOICE 2: No, it’s my watch.

Try creating your own detailed sound effects descriptions. If possible, include a little dialogue before and after to show how you may use it. Possible situations could be a visit to the dentist or doctor, a haunted house or a time machine.

WRITTEN TASK Choose one of these assignments and write a 600-word response. 5. ‘Radio comedy can be funnier than television

comedy.’ Explain how someone could make such a statement and then evaluate its worth. In your answer, use examples from actual radio and television programs. 6. Listen to or read a script from a radio comedy

classic such as The Goon Show. Comment on the use of the following: • startling first scenes • building for laughs/snowballing confusion • sound effects • stereotyping • resolution.

PRODUCTION TASK 7. Script and record a two-minute radio comedy sketch

with sound effects. The following guidelines could help you: • Brainstorm for ideas and gags. • Build for laughs. • Use stereotyped characters to generate quick humour.


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Radio plays In the English-speaking world it is the British who have produced most of the radio drama. With about 1500 original plays put to air every year, British radio drama exceeds Hollywood’s fi lm output. Australia and Canada both produce a limited number of plays, but their smaller resources mean they cannot equal the volume of British plays. In the United States the impact of television has made radio drama a scarce commodity. The American output is negligible.

What is a radio play? A radio play is a dramatic narrative that relies on sound to draw the listener into imagining the story. With no visuals, the emphasis in a radio play is on dialogue, music and sound effects. Radio dramas belong to the narrative genre (see page 8). Radio drama relies on the spoken word. For this reason it is said to be a ‘writer’s format’. Many famous playwrights began their careers in radio drama or owe much of their success to it. For radio drama developments over time, see radio medium timeline, page 451.

Types of radio plays Radio plays can be classified as follows: • Serial drama or soap operas. These are considered to be part of radio’s gift to modern culture. The soap opera began as a radio form. The British radio serial The Archers has been drawing audiences in their millions since 1951 and is the world’s longest running radio soap opera. Single radio plays draw smaller audiences than the serials. • Dramatised features. Some radio plays mix fact with fictional dialogue. Some call this faction. Re-creations of historical events or dramatised biographies fit this category. They may also be classified as docudramas (see page 214). • Adaptations of novels. Novel adaptations and book readings make up a large proportion of radio’s total drama production. Adaptations of stage plays add to the output of single plays.

Differences between radio and stage Radio and stage dramas share many features. They both have the same aim of communication. There are differences in their approach, however, including: • Invisibility. The actors are invisible in a radio drama. Techniques of gesture and facial expression cannot be used. The actors must rely on voice

Figure 16.6: 4HE CAST OF !USTRALIAlS LONGEST RUNNING SOAP OPERA "LUE (ILLS IN "LUE (ILLS p BEGAN !USTRALIAlS LOVE AFFAIR WITH THE SOAP OPERA WHICH HAD ITS BEGINNINGS ON RADIO /NLY AFTER EXTRAORDINARY SUCCESS ON RADIO DID IT MOVE TO TELEVISION alone. But this also means a fat actor can play a thin man, a petite actress can play an Amazon, and a bald man can play Samson. • Intimacy. Actors do not need to project their voices. They usually stand about 30 centimetres away from the microphones. Their voices may actually be softer in the studio than they are coming out of the speakers. • Few rehearsals. In a radio play, the actor can hold the script and work from it. There is no need to commit lines to memory. • Speed of production. A radio play can be produced in three to four days. A television or theatre play may take a month to produce. • Imaginative freedom. Scenes and scene changes are invisible. Radio drama therefore has greater freedom. However, all scene changes must be suggested by dialogue or narration. • Constant interjection. Radio has no means of showing if anyone is present other than by letting them speak. Characters may not be present but silent, unless they are constantly referred to. • Isolated audiences. Listeners are usually alone, so there is often no mass audience to provide group reactions. • Distracted audiences. The audience is domestic and almost always doing something else as well. They may be lazing by the pool or using an electric drill.

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Features of radio plays Radio drama has the following features.

Sounds Sounds are the building blocks of radio drama. Radio relies on only one of the senses — hearing. Sound variety is what will hold the audience’s attention. Changes in scene, distinctive voices, changes in the number of people speaking and changes in speed will all create interest. The final effect is not unlike a musical performance with its changes in instruments, volume and tempo.

A soliloquy is a speech in which a character reveals his or her thoughts. An aside is just a brief comment to the audience. These devices work well on radio, possibly because it is such an intimate and companionable medium.

Words Words are the most important factor in the creation of a radio play. Words are heard on their own on radio. On television and on the stage, visual effects can do much of the talking. But dialogue or narration must convey everything in radio drama. No matter how good the imagination of the listener, the success of the play depends on choosing the right words to elicit the right reaction.

Imagination Imagination provides the pictures on radio. As a result, each listener will create for himself or herself a different performance of the same play. The extent of the imagination is the only limit. This means radio drama has greater freedom from the restrictions of time and setting than drama in any other medium.

Creating radio drama After writing the first draft of a radio play it is a good idea to make any adjustment following a test performance.

Figure 16.7: 2ADIO CAN TAKE THE LISTENER INSIDE A CHARACTERlS HEAD OR LET THEIR INNERMOST THOUGHTS BE HEARD &OR THE WRITER ASIDES AND SOLILOQUIES SEEM MORE NATURAL IN A RADIO SCRIPT THAN IN THE THEATRE

Setting and scene changes A journey through the human bloodstream, encounters with dinosaurs or adventures in space are all possible on radio. The writer can conjure up the settings with words and sounds. To avoid too much description, the setting can be revealed through the dialogue. Look at the example below. The listeners can tell it is a tropical setting on a hot day. TOM:

(CALLING FROM DISTANCE) Where are you?

KATHY: Over here, Tom, under the mango tree … in the shade. TOM:

Best place on a day like this … (CLOSER) What are you doing?

Techniques of presentation

MEDIA

Using a narrator is one way of compensating for the lack of pictures on radio. All settings, scene changes and actors are invisible on radio. The narrator can be used to create the ‘mind pictures’ for the listener. The narrator’s part often begins after the announcement of the title. He or she explains the dramatic situation and gives indications of the characters. The narrator then allows the characters and action to take over. Whenever some bridging explanations are needed, the narrator reappears. The narrator’s role therefore is rather similar to the use of subtitles in a silent film. The self-contained play dispenses with the narrator. All indications of setting, scene changes and character are given in dialogue or sound effects. Asides and soliloquies are confidential comments characters make that only the audience can hear.

Setting descriptions and scene changes in radio plays are often written in this kind of shorthand. This allows writers to make plenty of scene changes. Quick scene changes are a feature of radio plays. Some may have as many as 20 changes in 30 minutes.

Dialogue Dialogue carries most of the meaning of the play. While it should sound natural and lifelike, dialogue can be used for a number of basic functions. • Background details. The first speeches should contain any background details the listener needs to understand the plot. • Rhythm. Most people do not talk in complete sentences all the time. They use snatches of speech, phrases and half-finished sentences as often as


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complete ones. The rhythm of speech can show a lot about a person and serve to develop character. • Characterisation. Speech styles, accents and manner of speaking can be used to give clues about a character’s previous history. They can also be used to distinguish characters from one another.

4. The value and meaning of sound effects depend on the dialogue or the story. They are worth little in themselves.

Music

While dialogue is the most important element of radio drama, it must not ramble on. Dialogue needs to be economical as well.

Music in a radio play can work in a similar way to lighting in a stage play. It creates moods and atmosphere and helps to establish settings or scene changes. As with sound effects, success depends on the quality of the dialogue that surrounds it.

Sound effects

Characters

As with dialogue, sound effects should be used economically. Veteran BBC writer and producer Felix Felton suggests four simple rules for the writer to follow when planning sound effects. 1. The ear cannot follow and understand a complex combination of sounds. For example, if a racetrack is the background, there is no use having roaring crowds, thudding horses’ hooves, bookies’ cries and all the other noises competing for the listener’s attention. 2. Often a simple sound on its own allows the listener to choose his or her own picture. This is better than forcing the imagery over and over again. 3. Footsteps and slamming doors are best kept to a minimum. The entrances and exits of characters are also best indicated through voice alone.

Characters are created from a writer’s own knowledge of people. To make characters live for the reader, they must fi rst live for the writer. In this it always helps to understand a character’s motivation. What makes them do what they do? When the motivations of different characters intersect, there is confl ict. All drama is built on confl ict.

Plot The plots in most modern dramas follow a pattern fi rst set down in the dramas of ancient Greece. The main character faces a series of increasingly demanding obstacles while struggling to solve the major problem of the drama. The crises build up until, at the point of highest dramatic tension, the climax arrives. In radio, the tension is lost quickly after the climax.

Activities 1. Listen to a radio drama. Now jot down your

impressions of: (a) the main male character’s appearance (b) the main female character’s appearance (c) the features of the setting (d) the appearances of selected scenes. Compare your impressions with those of the rest of the class. Discuss. 2. The British playwright and radio critic David Wade cites the dialogue on the right as an example of good radio. Dot is a nurse-housekeeper and Sybil is a very old lady. Read it through then answer the questions that follow. (a) Who is the old lady talking to before Dot enters? Is there a word for this dramatic device? (b) ‘Thomas and I with the boys on the beach at Seaford … before the war.’ What is the old lady looking at? (c) Dot’s first speech gives the listeners a clue to the setting of the play. What sort of house is it? How does the tea show this? (d) Much of the action in this play takes place in the form of recited memories and wanderings inside Sybil’s head. Find two or three comments in the dialogue that suggest this will be so.

‘More Cherry Cake’, by Jehane Markham SYBIL: Thomas and I with the boys on the beach at Seaford … before the war. Thomas is wearing white flannels. The wind blows the cloth against his legs. It is hot. We sit with our backs to the breakwater. Tar melts between the cracks of the bleached wood. The children drink lemonade out of bottles with straws. PAUSE. TITLE OF PLAY ANNOUNCED. DOT:

(MURMURING) Butter in curls in butter dish. Jam in a pot with long-handled spoon (OPENS DOOR) Did you have a nice rest?

SYBIL: I heard that baby again. DOT:

Have you been worrying?

SYBIL: Not really worrying. DOT:

You’ve been upsetting yourself again. What’s the problem?

SYBIL: I heard a baby crying quite distinctly. DOT:

There aren’t any babies for miles around here. I’ve already told you. It’s your ears playing up again. You know what Dr Williams said.

SYBIL: If only his father were still alive, he knew how to put everything right.

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3. Try writing short sections of dialogue from your

own ideas for radio plays. Include brief suggestions of setting in the dialogue to give listeners an idea of the scene. 4. A few radio plays have relied entirely on sound effects and music to tell the story. The idea is seen as a novelty, however, since words are a far more effective way to tell a story. Sounds and music alone severely limit the complexity of the drama. Write a short (five-minute) radio play based entirely on sound effects and music. First think of a plot that can be told with sound effects. Add characters that can be identified by sound. Be sure to build to a climax towards the end of the play. Thrillers, mad car chases, clownish musical competitions and animal stories are all possible with sound effects. Before you start planning, read about a recent British play based on sound effects. ‘The Revenge was a wordless sequence of noises. Twigs crackled. Lumps of earth crumbled underfoot. There was a great deal of heavy breathing. Doors opened and closed. Someone, it became apparent, was on the run. Grunt. Grunt. Aargh! (SOUND OF FOOTSTEPS ON STAIRS, BOTTLE FALLING FROM TABLE, NOISE OF BOOT, ETC.) Its characters were necessarily limited to “the pursuer” and “the pursued”; its plot was just a chase …’ Jonathan Raban, radio dramatist and author

WRITTEN TASK Choose one of these assignments and write a 600-word essay. 5. ‘Stage drama remains superior to radio drama.’ Explain how someone could make such a statement and then decide whether or not you agree with it. At the same time, provide some details on the differences between the stage play and the radio play. 6. Write a review of a radio play. Comment on the following elements: • plot • character • setting • use of sound • use of audience imagination.

PRODUCTION TASK 7. Script and record a five-minute radio play. Show

your familiarity with the genre in handling the following for radio: • plot • character • setting and scene changes • use of sound to create pictures in the listener’s mind • stimuli for imagination.

Radio advertising The American advertisers Bert Berdis and Alan Barzman compare radio advertising to television advertising. They say radio allows them to play different characters, visit far-off lands and make up monsters. In television, creative thinking is restricted by the size of the budget. In spite of these advantages, advertisers calculate that a radio advertisement must be repeated three times to have as much impact as a single television commercial. Two factors work in radio’s favour, however. Radio does not lend itself to remote control zapping as television does. People cannot, therefore, escape the commercials as easily. Radio also may be the last thing people hear as they jump out of their cars to go into the supermarket.

What is radio advertising?

MEDIA

Basically defi ned, radio advertising is the promotion of goods and services over the medium of radio. Prices for advertisements vary according to the time they go to air. An advertisement in a breakfast timeslot may cost ten times the price of an advertise-

ment in the late evening. The timeslots are usually determined as breakfast, morning, afternoon, drive time and evening. Radio advertisements fall into the same categories as television advertisements (see page 370). These categories are: dramatisation; testimonials; spokesperson/sales pitch; song or jingle; and analogy commercials. For more on advertising, see television advertising, page 369. For radio advertising developments over time, see radio medium timeline, page 451.

Radio advertisements and the audience Radio does not aim for a mass audience in the way that television does. Radio narrowcasts rather than broadcasts. Specific groups — usually classified by age — are targeted and attracted by the station’s music format. Research tells advertisers all about the station’s audience: their age, sex, income, education level and so on. If a product is advertised across several different music formats, it is not unusual for the advertisement to be reworded for each group.


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Creating radio advertisements Award-winning advertising copywriter Street Remley believes the advertisement below is an example of good radio copywriting. First, it concentrates solely on the key selling point of the product. Second, it builds up entertaining visual images in the mind of the listener. According to Remley, the aim of a radio advertisement writer should be to plant the seeds of mental pictures that show the product in a positive light. Atlantis Pools SHE: (HALF ASLEEP, GRUMBLING) George, I have to get some sleep. HE:

Hold still.

SHE: I can’t hear you, George. HE:

Of course you can’t hear me. I just fi lled up your ear with plaster of Paris.

SHE: What?! HE:

If we want Atlantis Pools to build us a pool that’s shaped like your ear, we have to show them the shape of your ear.

SHE: Huh? HE:

Your ear is the perfect prototype for our swimming pool. It should be set by now … hold still.

SOUND EFFECT: SLURPY ‘FLOOP’ AS HE REMOVES PLASTER OF PARIS FROM EAR. SHE: (WHIMPERS) HE:

Look at that fabulous detail! The diving board goes there and — see your earlobe? …

SHE: Eh? HE:

… that’s where the patio’ll be! … and here, where you had your ear pierced — guess what goes there?

SHE: What goes there, George? HE:

A built-in barbecue!

SHE: (GROANS) ANNOUNCER: Atlantis Pools can build almost any shape pool you want. And Atlantis will pay a hard-cash penalty if construction isn’t fi nished when promised. Drive out to the Atlantis Display Centre at 9 Springvale Road, Springvale. Seven days a week. SHE: Get away from me George. HE:

But your left ear won’t do — we have a righthand back yard!

SHE: (THROUGH GRITTED TEETH) Don’t touch me, George …

Getting the idea Knowledge of the product is the starting point for all radio copywriting. The product must be interrogated (see page 372). Is it new? How is it made? What is it used for? Writers try to fi nd a key selling point in the product, something to make it different from its competitors. The difference can be real or imagined.

Figure 16.8: 0RICES FOR ADVERTISEMENTS VARY ACCORDING TO THE SIZE OF THE AUDIENCE "REAKFAST IS THE MOST EXPENSIVE TIME WHILE EVENING ESPECIALLY OVERNIGHT IS THE CHEAPEST

Persuasive techniques Copywriters say there are five basic stages in a radio commercial. The opening lines — getting attention. No-one turns on the radio to listen to advertisements. They are an annoyance, an intrusion. Therefore the first couple of lines must immediately grab the listener’s attention. Dialogue — holding interest. Dialogue is to radio advertising what pictures are to television. People talking is what most advertisements use as their primary selling tool. Advertising copywriters try to keep dialogue sounding natural. Short phrases and plenty of interjections help create the feeling of real-life talk. A character will usually have only one or two lines of copy before another character replies or interjects. If there are long blocks of talk from one character, others usually comment or interject at regular intervals. Often they may say something as simple as ‘Oh yeah’ or ‘You can say that again!’ But even that will serve to remind listeners of the continuing presence of other characters. Advertisements with a story — identifying the problem. The key selling point of a product is often highlighted in a story. Advertising copywriters dream up a problem that is directly related to the product. Advertisements with a story — solving the problem. The key selling point of the product becomes the solution to the problem and the product therefore becomes the hero of the story.

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Closing lines — getting action. Closing lines require a strong fi nish to leave a lasting impression in the listener’s mind. A sound effect, a hard-selling voiceover, a high point in the humour — all are common solutions to the problem of audience inattention. The closing lines always suggest action — the immediate purchase of the product.

On radio, brief snatches of music are also used to suggest settings or amplify moods that can add to the dialogue. This use of music demands soundtracks that the public can recognise in an instant. Since radio is itself a music medium, some care has to be taken with the choice of music in an advertisement. The station format has to be a consideration.

Music

‘If I know what I’m going to write is going to run on a rock station, I will very carefully avoid using anything that borders on rock music. I might use a barber-shop quartet — or something. The last thing I can have happen is to let my commercial bleed into the programming that surrounds it.’

‘When you’ve got nothing to say, sing it,’ is an advertiser’s saying. The word for sung commercials, jingles, reflects this attitude. ‘Jingle’ suggests an empty, meaningless jangling rhyme. But many radio jingles have been very effective, and some of the lyrics have entered our daily vocabulary. A jingle can be used as a signoff at the end of a commercial or as a full soundtrack.

Street Remley, advertising copywriter

Activities 1. Figure 16.9 shows which age groups listen to

particular radio stations. Look at them and follow the patterns of age groups across the stations. Then answer the questions. Profile of radio station audiences in Radiopolis 1AA 1BB 1CC 1DD 1EE

1FF

1GG 1HH 1JJ

All commercial stations

2.

3.

1% 2% 2% 2% 58% 4% 12% 4% 9% 22% 13% 11% 4% 5% 4% 10% 16% 14% 18% 26% 23% 50% 15% 23% 30% 30%

38%

27%

27% 46%

63% 48% 49%

42%

47%

19%

19%

33%

29% 17%

4%

7%

2%

26%

16%

12% 7%

7%

4% 3%

Age groups 10–17

18–24

25–39

40–54

55+

Figure 16.9: 0ROüLE OF RADIO STATION AUDIENCES IN 2ADIOPOLIS

MEDIA

(a) Suppose you have an investment advertisement aimed at people over 40 years of age. What station would be your first choice? How many other stations would need to run the advertisement to provide satisfactory coverage? Explain. (b) On what stations would you run advertisements for cheap kit homes? Explain. (c) List the advertisements you would expect to find on the main youth station. Listen to the station and see if your guess was correct.

4.

5.

(d) What products could be advertised across all stations regardless of their audience composition? Many jingles have become part of our everyday vocabulary. Make a list of well-known jingles that come immediately to mind. Music is used to build the appeal to the audience. Listen to the music used in an advertisement and comment on the contribution it makes to the advertising message. The questions below may give you some idea of the likely appeal. (a) Does the music create warm memories (nostalgia)? (b) Does it add to the lifestyle or image the advertiser wants to portray? (c) Does it contain key words that relate to the product — for example, money in a bank commercial? Make a list of songs you think could contain useful key words. List the title, the key word and a possible related product. Copywriters say there are five steps in persuasive advertisement writing: (i) getting attention, (ii) holding attention, (iii) showing a problem, (iv) showing the solution, (v) getting action — that is, a purchase.

COMBINED WRITTEN AND PRODUCTION TASK

6. Prepare a radio advertising campaign for a client

of your choice. Create a series of advertisements to be run on the same station with the one target audience. Alternatively, create a series of advertisements, each one for a different station and different target audience. Include a submission giving a description of the product, an explanation of the key selling point, an outline of the image you are trying to project and the market you want to appeal to.


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Newspapers

The newspaper medium ‘Are newspapers reaching the term of their natural life — about to become an endangered species in an electronic age? ‘The premature obituary of newspapers has been written for decades, but they have proven resilient survivors, refusing to lie down and die.’ Julianne Schultz, media academic and commentator

Far from being a medium of the past, the newspaper has been the fi rst to experiment with digital transmission through the internet. All quality world newspapers are now available on the internet as electronic newspapers. Supplements and specialised segments in the print editions have counteracted the appeal of other media. In the past decade The Sydney Morning Herald and The Age have doubled in size. Colour technology has been introduced and has transformed the twenty-fi rst-century newspaper.

What is a newspaper? A newspaper is a regularly printed publication that provides news, information and opinion pieces. Production costs are supported by advertising that is carried in the same publication. Newspapers are printed on newsprint — a low-cost paper that is recyclable.

Types of newspapers There are three ways of classifying newspapers — by their frequency of publication, by their area of distribution or by their page size. • Frequency of distribution. Newspapers can be published daily or weekly. In some territories they are even published monthly. • Area of distribution. Newspapers can be local, state or national. A few international newspapers exist. Most countries have different layers of distribution. Australia has just one national newspaper — The Australian. • Page size. There are two paper sizes in use in Australia. Page size has traditionally been associated with the type of journalism that the newspaper carries. – Broadsheets are the large newspapers that are often associated with quality journalism and a more intellectual approach to news and other information. – Tabloids are half the size of broadsheets and have historically been associated with sensationalist reporting and a lower quality of commentary. However, since the 2000s there has been a sharp rise in the number of quality tabloids in the English-speaking world. A number of broadsheets have begun conversion to tabloid format, arguing that it is more portable and convenient.

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Newspapers have also refined their appeal to certain demographic groups (see page 152) and are engaging in much more audience research than they did in the past. Advances in technology and changes in society have changed the audience. Now many newspapers are identifying their readership as the highly educated groups in society, leaving the mass audience to television. A better educated readership demands more pages of background and more comment on the news as well as greater depth in reporting. Providing comment on the news has become the major role of quality newspapers.

Forces reshaping the press A number of technological and social factors are affecting newspapers, forcing changes that seem more dramatic than those occurring in other media.

Media crowding In a mature media market, new media can be added without necessarily wiping out audiences for the old media, says Julianne Schultz. Yet pay television and computer-based media have proved to be strong rivals for all of the traditional media.

The digital society The rise of new media in the 2000s has changed the media landscape for newspapers. • Audiences have fractured among various media options. • There has been a rise in user-generated content such as blogs and user-generated news services. • Digital newspapers have proven to be successful and are accessed by large numbers of people. Newspapers are now using their digital sites to support the content in their print versions, and vice-versa. Online and print versions of the newspaper are becoming more integrated.

Declining readership Nearly 440 million newspapers are sold globally every day. Newspapers are still a powerful medium, but there has been a decline in the numbers of people buying them. In the 1950s there were 52 newspapers sold for every 100 people over age 15. This figure fell to 46 newspapers per 100 in the 1960s and 42 per 100 by the 1970s. In the ten-year period 1997–2007 newspaper readership slumped by about 12 per cent. Much of the decline was in afternoon newspapers, however, and the slide has now levelled off.

MEDIA

Cost increases Another reason for the decline has been the increase in production costs and subsequent rises in the cover

price. Newspapers are very price sensitive. People stop buying if they become too expensive. Price wars to increase circulation are increasingly common.

More cars Changes in the habits of city commuters have also meant a decline in sales. Fewer people use public transport, and so fewer read newspapers on their way to and from work.

Purposes of newspapers Newspapers play an important role in society. Newspapers are generally seen to have the following duties to the public. A newspaper should provide truthful information. Truth and accurate reporting of current events is one of the important duties of the press. In a democratic country each citizen has a responsibility to take part in the making of decisions about national affairs. Voting for a particular political party is one of these decisions. This can be effective only if there is accurate information on current events. A newspaper should explain the news. The mere reporting of news is often seen as not enough in itself. People also want explanations as to what it all means. As newspapers move towards a more educated readership, and with television such a serious competitor, most newspapers are giving more space to in-depth explanation of the news. A newspaper should provide entertainment. Since newspapers are often read just to fill in spare time, they should be interesting and entertaining. Once again, strong competition comes from television. Slick television news packages have left newspapers with little choice but to follow suit. Humorous stories, stories about animals, exciting crime stories and so on are often included for their entertainment value. The modern trend to liftouts and weekend sections also fits the entertainment category. A newspaper should reflect public opinion. In a multicultural society there is a variety of political viewpoints and ideas. Wealth is distributed unevenly and the needs of one group are often quite different from the needs of another. To be truly fair, all groups should have equal access to the columns of a newspaper to put their view. The amount of space a newspaper gives to a certain viewpoint should reflect the weight of that opinion in the community. This means that if 45 per cent of people hold a certain view, then that view should be reflected just under half of the time in a newspaper. This is not the case at the moment.


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A newspaper should be able to give its opinion. All newspapers give some of their column space to opinion. For citizens to be able to make well-informed decisions, they need an idea of the range of opinions on the issues facing them. This is particularly so when it comes to voting.

1. It should be reasonably independent from commercial pressures. Its main motive should not be just to make money. 2. It should be truthful and accurate. 3. It should provide a close coverage of major political parties in both its news columns and its opinion sections. 4. It should reflect the diversity of opinion in the wider community. 5. It should show the range of interests that exists in the community. 6. It should be free from government manipulation and intervention.

Audiences Readers spend an average of 40 minutes a day reading their favourite newspaper, while Sunday papers are read for an average of 51 minutes. Daily newspapers are picked up an average of 1.7 times, while Sunday papers are picked up 2.0 times. Readers per copy average 2.7. The most popular place for reading the morning newspaper is the home (70 per cent), followed by work (25 per cent); only 7 per cent read their paper in transit. The equivalent figures for Sunday papers are 96 per cent at home, 3.5 per cent at work and 0.5 per cent in transit. Table 17.1: 4HE MOST READ SECTIONS OF THE NEWSPAPER -EN AND WOMEN TYPICALLY READ THE NEWSPAPER SLIGHTLY DIFFERENTLY 4HE INCLUSION OF SEGMENTS ASSISTS THIS

Figure 17.1: /NE OF THE FUNCTIONS OF A NEWSPAPER IS TO PRESENT THE TRUTH "Y THE TIME THE REPORTER GIVES HIS OR HER OPINION AND THE EDITOR HAS CUT THE STORY TO üT INTO THE SPACE ALLOCATED THE TRUTH MAY HAVE COME TO LOOK VERY DIFFERENT

/RDER OF POPULARITY

-EN

7OMEN

1

Page one

Page one

2

General news

General news

3

World news

World news

4

Sport

Inserted magazines

The ideal newspaper would be like this

5

Television guide

Television guide

6

Inserted magazines

Entertainment

7

Comics

Comics

The following list of elements of an ideal newspaper is adapted from one prepared by British media analysts Fred Hirsch and David Gordon.

8

Business/finance

Sport

9

Entertainment

Business/finance

Classifieds

Classifieds

10

Activities 1. Newspapers may downplay news items that would

not be good for their profits. List news topics that a newspaper could play down in order to safeguard precious advertising accounts. 2. The more newspapers sold, the more profit made. Find examples of stories that, in your opinion, have been exaggerated just to sell more papers. 3. Find examples of the same story in several different newspapers. Compare the story as it appears in, for example, a morning broadsheet or tabloid, a national newspaper and, if possible, an alternative

newspaper. Use the list below as a guide for your comparison. (a) How is the headline different? (b) Do the story facts agree? (c) Is one aspect of the story given more emphasis than another? (d) Is there any difference in the language used? (e) Is there any difference in the targeted audience? (f) Is there any obvious bias? Write a comparison of these different versions of ‘truthful’ reporting.

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4. Make a list of the kinds of people who never

appear to be given a fair chance to put their views in print. You must make a distinction between, say, a teenager appearing in the news and teenagers being given a fair chance to say what they think about the issues concerning them. 5. Read the American advertisement shown in figure 17.2 below, then consider these questions. (a) Is the press in this country a watchdog or a lapdog (a tame pet)? (b) What powerful groups would be capable of keeping the press under control? (c) What influences would work against this?

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to one of the following tasks. 6. Analyse the front-page layout of a modern newspaper and the front page of a newspaper at least 50 years old (there are several collections of historic front pages available online — search ‘newspaper archive’). Compare the layout, use of white space, advertising, photographs and typefaces. Evaluate the audience appeal of each front page. Conclude with your own opinion about progress in the print media. 7. Evaluate the newspapers in your area against the criteria suggested by Hirsch and Gordon (see page 471). Also consider the purposes of newspapers. How well are your newspapers fulfilling these?

MEDIA

Figure 17.2


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Newspaper timeline

Development of the medium 1600s–1700s

1620

First newspapers published in 1620s — weekly stories of crime and events.

Early English newspapers are periodicals that contain a mix of news and rumour. They are highly taxed and regulated by the Crown. 1714

First type machine invented.

1788

The Times (London) founded.

1821

The Guardian (Manchester, UK)

1831

Sydney Herald (Aus.)

1835

Truth established as defence in libel cases.

1840–1914

1841

John Fairfax buys The Sydney Morning Herald.

Newspapers become the primary means of spreading information. Technological advances in printing make newspapers cheaper. The telegraph allows quicker news transmission. The late nineteenth century sees the rise of press barons, and the development of journalistic professionalism. Fleet Street becomes the centre of UK press. Newspapers tend to take political sides, but there is a wide variety of newspapers with many perspectives to choose from. Rise of

1846

Moreton Courier (Brisbane)

1851

The New York Times established (US). Reuters news service established.

1856

David Syme buys The Age (Melbourne).

1865

Atlantic cable links US and Europe.

1872

First news by wire service in Australia

1880

First photos in newspapers

1902

First syndicated comic strips

1904

First wire photos

1906

The Dominion (Wellington, NZ) established.

1933

Keith Murdoch buys Courier Mail (Brisbane).

1934

First overseas radiophoto in newspapers (Aus.)

1944

The Sydney Morning Herald places news on front page

sensationalism and scandal mongering

1930s–1950s Golden age of mass newspaper publishing supported by huge revenue streams from classified ads. Murdoch calls classifieds ‘rivers of gold’. Competition from radio forces newspapers to revamp their layouts and make stories longer.

1975–1985 Competition from television triggers another revamp. Opinion pieces and feature articles become more important. Newspaper circulation peaks in Australia (declines 20 per cent by 2005). Rise of private car use and decline of public transport commuting lead to loss of many afternoon newspapers.

1986–present New printing techniques and computerisation spell end of old era of news publishing. Typesetters redundant. Newspapers target a more educated readership with more opinion and news analysis. Segmentation in each edition improves audience targeting.

1994–present Growth of online newspaper publishing and integration of print and online content. Online newspapers become a separate product with different approach. Australian newspapers adopt colour printing. Several broadsheet newspapers convert to more convenient tabloid format.

and puts ads towards the back. 1951

Australian Financial Review launched.

1953

Sun Herald launched (Aus.).

1954

Rupert Murdoch inherits News Ltd (Aus.).

1964

The Australian launched.

1976

Murdoch buys The Times (London) and New York Post.

1982

Freedom of Information Act (Aus.)

1984

Good Weekend magazine added to Fairfax papers (Aus.).

1986

Murdoch moves his press from Fleet Street to Wapping, causing long strikes and loss of jobs.

1990

Fairfax family gives up private ownership.

1994

Palo Alto Weekly first online newspaper (US)

1995

Chicago Tribune online (US)

1996

The New York Times online (US)

2002

Estimated 10 000 online newspapers available Dominion-Post established (NZ).

2006

Newspapers accept that online news is changing the print product dramatically.

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The online newspaper The online newspaper has several advantages. For example, it never arrives late, wet or in the shrubbery, points out Mike Gordon, the managing editor of an online newspaper at the Atlanta Journal-Constitution in the United States. For the internet surfer, the flood of online newspapers means he or she can get local news from anywhere in the world. An Australian in New York can get same-day news of home from The Sydney Morning Herald online. At the same time, a Sydneysider can subscribe to The New York Times to see what’s happening in the ‘Big Apple’ and then move on to reading a Japanese online newspaper. Online newspapers are now integrated into the print product. They offer additional stories, extra detail, streamed video and the opportunity to join in forum discussions and blogs.

are free, so no purchase price can be collected. In terms of revenue, it is estimated that one print reader is worth between 10 and 20 online readers. Part of the reason for this is the haphazard way in which online readers access information. Online readers jump around the site a lot more readily than print readers skim a newspaper. This makes advertising more of a ‘hit and miss’ activity, for which advertisers expect a discount.

What is an online newspaper? An online newspaper is a newspaper website that may contain many of the news stories of the print version of the newspaper, but may also contain additional information such as reader forums, blogs, streamed video and citizen journalism. Many newspapers also publish electronic images of their print newspapers that can be read online using a special browser. Whole printed pages appear on screen, and readers can click on any story they want to read to magnify it. These imaged newspapers are searchable in the same way as conventional websites. Originally all news media operated within the context of a one-to-many model of media communication (see page 1). Information came from the top and was disseminated downwards to the general public. What the public actually thought about the news was of only minor interest. Analysts of the internet propose that new media work in a different way. News bubbles up from the bottom and winds its way upward from there, says Chris Lapham.

The death of newsprint?

MEDIA

It is estimated to be 400 times cheaper to distribute news via the internet than to print it on paper. Startup costs are much lower too. Traditional printing presses cost millions of dollars. The computer servers used to run an online newspaper can be bought for less than 1 per cent of the cost of a printing press. But online readers do not bring in a fraction of the money that print readers do. Most online newspapers

Figure 17.3: %VEN ONLINE NEWSPAPER INDUSTRY PROFESSIONALS SAY THE TRADITIONAL NEWSPAPER WILL BE AROUND FOR MANY YEARS TO COME 0APER IS A VERY USEFUL TECHNOLOGY Non Sequitur © 1996 Wiley Miller. Dist. by Universal Press Syndicate. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved.

‘Traditional newspapers will be around for a long time. But there are no trees or paper on Star Trek! In the future newspaper companies will have to be considered information organisations and not wedded to paper if they are going to survive.’ Elizabeth Osder, content development editor, The New York Times Electronic Media Company

Print is defi nitely the mother-ship for now, says Wendell Cochran, an assistant professor at American University. A survey of online newspaper editors conducted by the British journalist David Cracknell revealed them all to be enthusiastic about the survival of print. The online newspaper was seen as a supplement — a different way of transmitting information.


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Newspapers need to think of themselves as being in the information supply business. They cannot continue thinking they are just in the newspaper publishing business, advises Michael Hooker, a former president of the University of Massachusetts. ‘Remington and Underwood saw themselves as being in the typewriter business. IBM saw itself as being in the word processing business. The rest is history,’ says Hooker.

Features of online newspapers ‘If you think you can dump the contents of today’s edition onto the network and win subscribers, you’re wrong. Paper is paper. A screen is something else. It isn’t only that you can do different things on a screen. You must. Text on a screen is not newsprint, not a magazine, not a book.’ Melinda McAdams, Professor of Journalism, University of Florida

Instead of being merely print on the screen, the new online journalism tells the story using the best techniques of the novel, television, radio and also multimedia. In an article for Hotwired, Joseph Quittner coined a term for it — ‘way new journalism’.

‘Like any on-line information product, a good translation of a newspaper to the internet should use the power of computing. It should present information in a contextual (related using hypertext), searchable, and sortable manner. ‘As community resources, the online editions should use the new media to build community, ask questions and host conversations of community members.’ Elizabeth Osder, content development editor, The New York Times Electronic Media Company

A lot of information that won’t fit in traditional newspapers can be included in the online versions. Stories with extended backgrounds can be included, along with accompanying maps and other graphics. The journalist can write to fully cover the story, rather than squeeze the facts into a limited space.

Searches The opportunity for the reader to conduct searches of the online newspaper’s database is one of its most appealing features. Readers can enter key words on any topic and search the newspaper right back to the first edition, if they want. All stories containing the key words will be listed in date order and the reader can then choose the desired story to access.

Indexes Another kind of searching mechanism available in online newspapers is the searchable index. An index is useful for consumer information and access to the classifieds. For example, a reader can ask for all advertisements for a particular make of car to be indexed, from the most expensive to the cheapest. Comparisons can then be more easily made.

Interactivity Some see the online newspaper as a new kind of public space, like the speakers’ corners in the Sydney Domain or London’s Hyde Park, with their traditions of spruikers and speakers of all political persuasions. In online newspapers, news presentations are often accompanied by opportunities for readers to join in discussions.

‘When a newspaper chooses to open a public space and allows the public to freely comment, you get some strange stuff! More importantly, what you also get are some hard decisions to make about freedom of speech.’ Elizabeth Osder, content development editor, The New York Times Electronic Media Company

Merging of multimedia platforms Most online newspapers offer streamed video, and that makes their sites very similar to other news media sites. To give a local edge, some newspapers also employ mojos — mobile journalists with wireless laptops. They rove the local area sending in stories in short digital print, sound and video formats.

The bottomless news hole Online newspapers have a news hole that is close to infinite. The news hole is a term for the total area left in a newspaper after the advertising space has been filled up. In the newsprint version, subeditors ruthlessly cut stories to fit the allocated space.

The online newspaper can also be a source of people power. Some journalists are including details of how readers may take political action. For example, a story on internet censorship may provide the email addresses of government members, gopher sites where legislation can be downloaded, access to relevant protest campaigns, links to news groups and so on.

The Daily Me Interactivity may also mean readers can personalise their newspaper and select only the type of news they want to know about. Specific customers can get specific news.

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Audience issues Traditional newspapers have always been good at delivering reliable demographic information to advertisers. Advertisers are willing to place millions of dollars’ worth of advertising in traditional newspapers because there is a long history of effective audience measurement. Web visitors are often reluctant to register by name or location. However, websites can record basic details of each individual’s identity. A ‘cookie’ can be lodged in the visitor’s hard drive and activated each time they return. But reliable statistics on the age and income of the online audience are unavailable.

‘Info consumers want in-built guarantees that ensure the information they receive is also of the utmost quality. They want it to be gathered, processed and presented by intelligent, experienced, dispassionate newspeople. Our masthead, for example, has earned the respect of many through the years. Internet startups may offer many things — but earning that respect takes time.’ Jason Romney, Associate Editor (Computers), The Sydney Morning Herald

Figure 17.5: 2ICHARD &REUDENSTEIN OF .EWS $IGITAL -EDIA BELIEVES MEDIA IN THE FUTURE WILL AIM TO CREATE ONLINE BRANDS AND MOVE PEOPLE BETWEEN THOSE AND TRADITIONAL MEDIA SUCH AS NEWSPAPERS k9OUNG PEOPLE ARE CONSUMING MEDIA ONLINE AND ON MOBILE SO WE HAVE TO BE THERE ! LOT OF SITES WILL BE COMPLEMENTARY TO THE NEWSPAPER AND GROW INDEPENDENTLYl

MEDIA

Figure 17.4: #ITIZEN BASED JOURNALISM IS A GROWTH AREA FOR ONLINE NEWSPAPERS 2EADERS SEND IN STORIES INFORMATION AND PHOTOGRAPHS OFTEN USING MOBILE PHONE TECHNOLOGY !NOTHER GROWTH AREA IS SUBSCRIPTION INFORMATION ON STOCKMARKET AND PROPERTY INVESTMENTS


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Activities 1. Compare the size of the news hole for the main

2.

3.

4.

5.

story in a traditional newspaper and the main story in an online newspaper. Estimate the number of words in the traditional version and compare with the online version. Follow all of the hypertext links available in the online story and count the additional words on these links. Have the online versions lived up to the analysts’ predictions of infinite news holes? Find an example of an online newspaper article or column that encourages readers to take action on a particular issue and provides them with the necessary information to do so. Cut out a traditional newspaper story and convert it to an online article aimed at building citizens’ action or ‘people power’. Add various hypertext links to the bottom of the article to make it more interactive. Discuss the likely effects on the political scene of this sort of reader action. ‘Way new journalism’ is a term used by Joseph Quittner to describe the special features of online newspaper journalism. Select a traditional news story and plan a conversion to the new style. List the changes you would make. Imagine you were ordering a copy of The Daily Me. What selections of news would you make? Create a list.

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to the following task. 6. Compare several online newspaper sites. Draw up criteria for evaluation before visiting each site. For example, you could compare the effectiveness of their search facilities, their interactivity, the extent of streamed video, the scope of news coverage and the size of the news hole.

PRODUCTION ASSIGNMENT 7. Select a front page from a recent edition of a print

newspaper. Redesign it as the opening screen of an online newspaper. Lay out the screen design on a sheet of paper the same dimensions as a computer screen. Mock up the masthead (title) and use colour as required. Hypertext links can be indicated through the use of colour, as on a computer screen. Remember, a screen is not as big as a newspaper page, so some information will have to be reduced to headings and links. The links can be to information somewhere else in the system. Describe where ‘clickable’ pictures and sound can be used for full effect on the page. Include a separate page explaining the decisions you have made and the reasons for them.

The editorial There is a story about a fiery editorial writer for The Times of London who was found slumped dead over his typewriter. There was a sheet of paper in the machine on which was typed one word: ‘Notwithstanding …’. It seems he was ever ready to begin an argument, even with death. Editorial writers, like the one at The Times, need only start at the beginning. However, a logical course needs to be followed to the end so that the readers are not left up in the air. The editorial is one of the most demanding of writing forms found in a newspaper. It can take a skilled writer most of the day to compose one.

news. Sometimes it is called a leader, suggesting a discussion of the leading news of the day. Good editorials will also give leadership in public affairs. The editorial is found in the features pages of the newspaper. It is the landmark and foundation piece of the ‘op-ed’ pages (opposite editorial). The editorial belongs to the expository genre (see page 8). Most editorials use a particular type of expository writing — the persuasive or hortatory exposition. The aim is to persuade the audience to agree to the point of view expressed. So the writer is highly selective in the arguments and supporting evidence chosen.

What is an editorial?

Types of editorials

The editorial in a newspaper can be identified because it has the masthead printed over it. The editorial is the newspaper’s official opinion or comment on the

Editorials deal with four main types of subject matter: hard news opinion; discussion of policy; arguments around social issues; and seasonal or special topics.

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Whatever the topic, editorials can usually be further divided into two categories.

Features of an editorial

1. Editorials that give opinions. The main purpose for the writer in this common type of editorial is to persuade the reader to accept the newspaper’s point of view. This is achieved by setting out the arguments that prove the opinion is correct and right. The language chosen can be very emotive.

1. It begins with the statement of the subject or the news peg on which the argument is hung. The subject is decided in the editorial conference. Normally it takes one paragraph of about 50 words to outline the subject.

2. Editorials that explain. The writer’s purpose in an interpretive editorial is to explain the news events to the reader without suggesting that one point of view is right. This is done by explaining or predicting the news without giving arguments in support of an opinion. This type of editorial aims to inform rather than persuade. The language chosen is more neutral. Explanatory editorials are rare in modern newspapers.

The purposes of the editorial The editorial fulfils several of the key functions of a newspaper: it leads opinion; it reflects opinion (although the range of views is limited); and it explains the news. The editorial is the flagship of the newspaper’s function in a democracy. The opinion-leading role of the newspaper is seen as vital to the way it functions as the fourth estate of democracy (see page 324).

The institutional context The editorial or leader is not written by the editor of the newspaper, except in the smaller country newspapers. Most newspapers have their senior journalists write the editorials, although there is usually lengthy consultation with newspaper executives beforehand.

MEDIA

‘The subjects and priorities for Age leaders are decided at a conference in the office of the editor or deputy editor about 11:30 am on the day before publication. All leader writers (who currently number four) attend, plus anyone else interested (for example, cartoonists, illustrators, etc.) or reporters who might be able to throw additional light on the topics discussed. ‘All suggestions are welcomed but the editor or his deputy makes the final call. The line to be followed usually emerges from the discussion but, again, the editor has the final say and usually concludes the discussion by outlining the argument and the conclusion to be reached. ‘Length of the conference varies widely, depending usually on the vigour of the discussion, but 40 to 45 minutes is about normal.’ Tom Duggan, leader writer, The Age

The editorial is most often written in three parts.

2. The development of the argument or the expansion of the subject takes up most of the editorial. The main points of the argument are given separate paragraphs. Paragraph length varies from about 30 words to about 70 words. 3. The kick or conclusion is where the writer drives home the point of the argument and delivers the kick that sums up the editorial.

‘Some editorials are like a speech in a debate. They do not follow the rules of a news story. They often begin with a statement, then develop the idea and conclude with a kick — the opinion of the newspaper.’ Gareth Evans, Editorial Manager, The Courier-Mail

If a diagram was to be drawn showing the progress of the three-part editorial, it would look similar to figure 17.6.

Part I

The statement or news peg

Part II

The development of logical argument

Part III

The conclusion or kick

Figure 17.6: 4HE PROGRESS OF AN EDITORIAL OR LEADER

The title or headline The purpose of the title is the same as that of a news story headline. A good title will arouse interest and at the same time tell the reader what the editorial is about.

Layout of the editorial Most newspapers use a vertical layout for their editorials. More rarely, a newspaper will lay out its editorials horizontally across the top of its page.


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Newspapers often carry two editorials. One is called the leader and the other the subleader.

‘Some 20 years ago, the Age changed from a vertical to a horizontal layout for editorials, for two reasons. First, it was felt that the leaders, as the stated opinion of the newspaper, gained greater prominence by being laid out at the top of the editorial page. Second, the horizontal layout gave us greater flexibility in length. Usually a first leader runs to about 500 words, and a second to 300 words. Depending on subject matter, however, we can and do run them shorter or longer. On a major topic, we may run just one long editorial. Occasionally, we run three short ones. There is no prescribed Age leader style. What we look for is a crisp, fair, carefully researched and well-argued statement of opinion.’ Peter Cole-Adams, former associate editor, The Age

Representations and discourses Representations There is very little variation in the general viewpoint of Australian editorials, although they often take differing views on specific issues, including elections. Unlike some overseas newspapers, Australian papers do not support widely different interest groups. Instead, they have all moved to a position on the conservative side of the range of possible opinions.

‘Most Australian newspaper editorials are middle of the road. Extreme right wing or left wing viewpoints are rarely represented. Radical newspapers have not survived on the Australian scene for very long.’ Gareth Evans, Editorial Manager, The Courier-Mail

Australian newspapers have rarely supported the election of Labor governments. Until the 1980s there had been only one case of a newspaper editorial in favour of a Labor win. In the 1980s the Labor Party repositioned itself as a more conservative party occupying the middle ground of politics. Perhaps as a result, there have been recent departures from the long-term trend. For instance, in the 1984 general election a relatively conservative newspaper, The Courier-Mail, supported the election of a Labor government and said so in an editorial. Many other newspapers did the same.

‘The Age is frequently accused for its leftist stance. Just as frequently, however, we are accused of being the conservative mouthpiece. Certainly in 31 years at the Age I have never encountered any suggestion that the paper or journalists employed on it should follow a particular political line. ‘Sometimes our leader line will differ widely from the views of the newsroom, as reflected in our news treatment on some stories or the line taken by some news commentators.’ Tom Duggan, leader writer, The Age

Discourses Throughout the past 20 years most newspaper editorials have supported the discourses of national financial management known as economic rationalism. They have often argued forcefully for cuts to government spending and reductions in social welfare. Most have also supported a user-pays approach to education. Editorial writers have not explained or supported alternatives to the economic rationalist model. Despite the fact that a large segment of the community holds views opposed to economic rationalism, opposing discourses have been silenced. After many decades arguing against concessions to the conservation movement, most newspaper editorials now acknowledge the importance of environmental issues. ‘We’re all greenies now,’ said one newspaper editorial writer. However, when the interests of mining or business and the environment are in conflict, as they often are, newspaper editorials invariably support business interests.

Audience Most newspaper editors believe the editorial is read by the well-educated reader with an interest in public affairs. The reading level of the editorial is often set a little higher than that of the front-page news story. Reading levels can vary considerably from paper to paper. Some newspapers even underline the main points in an effort to encourage people to read on.

‘Given the Age’s readership, we tend to assume anyone reading an editorial has been educated at least to HSC standard. We do not write down to the public. Obviously, we hope that the editorials reach decision-makers, but they are directed at the whole of our readership.’ Peter Cole-Adams, former associate editor, The Age

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Activities 1. Count the number of words per paragraph in an

editorial and compare this with the average number in a news article. Evaluate the effectiveness of the two types of writing. 2. Find examples of persuasive and explanatory editorials. In your own words, list the main points of the arguments the editorials make or examine. Evaluate their effectiveness. 3. Select an editorial and decide on some main points to be underlined to break up the type and to encourage readers to see the paper’s point of view. 4. Try to find an editorial that does not take a mainstream, middle-of-the-road point of view on its topic. If possible, try to find an editorial supporting a left-wing point of view and another a right-wing point of view. Discuss the points of view raised and comment on the evidence used to support them. If you cannot find editorials supporting divergent opinions, advance reasons for this and suggest steps to be taken to remedy the situation.

5. Identify the three main parts of an editorial (see page

478) in at least two editorials of your choice. For each editorial, reduce the arguments to the main points in note form at each stage of the editorial’s progress.

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to this task. 6. Analyse a range of editorials using the following headings as a guide: (a) Type of editorial (b) Structure — three-part or other? (c) Political opinion. Evaluate the persuasiveness of the editorials.

PRODUCTION TASK 7. You have had an editorial meeting and the editorial

manager has asked you to prepare an editorial. Choose a topic and write a three-part editorial taking a strong point of view. Selectively research and present arguments and evidence to support the exposition.

The social comment cartoon ‘The cartoonist must remain fundamentally bloodyminded, hold no cows sacred, and be capable of thoughts in the worst possible taste,’ says British cartoonist Osbert Lancaster. Paul Rigby, an Australian cartoonist now working in New York, explains it this way: ‘The job of a political cartoonist is to be the Opposition — get in there and question and expose. People appreciate the larrikin touch.’ British cartoonist Gerald Scarfe takes a similar view: ‘My job is like that of a court jester. I point out to those in power that they may be wrong.’

What is a social comment cartoon?

MEDIA

The social comment or editorial cartoon is found in the features or op-ed (opposite editorial) pages of the newspaper. Both editorial and cartoon comment on the news. The difference is that practically everyone looks at the cartoon but only a small percentage read the editorial. The social comment cartoon belongs to the nonnarrative genre (see page 8 on genres). It is similar to the editorial in that it makes a comment and takes a certain point of view. This means it shares many characteristics with the expository genre.

‘The aim of my cartooning work is essentially to promote debate by being humorously thoughtprovoking. The cartoons try to reveal more than the politicians want the public to see. They deflate pompous notions and ridicule abuses of power. In some cases they make points that editorial writers do, but more simply, not as fairmindedly, and to a much more receptive and wide-ranging audience.’ Sean Leahy, cartoonist

The basis of cartoon humour The cartoon world is an oversimplified version of the real one. The basis of the humour is the same as in all comedy. • Triumph and scorn have been associated with laughter since antiquity. Laughter at the humiliation and discomfort of others is as common a reaction as sympathy. In a political cartoon, the ordinary people, the little people, get a chance to laugh at those in power. This is usually their only chance to feel superior.


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‘My cartoons are an attempt to find the humour in political events and to use this aspect as a source of illumination or derision, or both, wherever this may be helpful. John Clarke has described satire as “a reaction to the process whereby politicians and public figures hold the community up to ridicule and contempt”. This seems about right.’ Patrick Cook, cartoonist

• Surprise is the natural reaction to the unexpected. Surprise can be visual or it can be found in language. Double meanings (puns) are a common surprise for the unwary in language use. • Incongruity creates humour out of unlikely mismatches. Putting unlikely things together causes a double take or a small shock. The usual reaction is laughter. Hypocrisy is a common incongruity for cartoonists to show — when what people say is mismatched with what they do (see figure 17.8).

Types of social comment cartoon Most social comment cartoons consist of just one picture, called the frame or panel. The aim of the drawing is simply to carry the idea. All action in the drawing should serve the idea and focus attention on the humour. The type of drawing is determined by the type of idea, as well as personal style. Two broad categories of cartoon type can be found in modern newspapers. • Naturalistic cartoons. These cartoons rely on realistic drawings and provide most of the detail of the scene. Naturalistic cartoons were common before World War II, but are less common today (see figure 17.9). • Impressionistic cartoons. Sketchy impressionistic cartoons trim the drawing down to the bare essentials. The impression of the idea is enough. Laws of anatomy or perspective are often abandoned (see figure 17.10).

Figure 17.7 (ABOVE): !GATHA #HRISTIElS -URDER ON THE /RIENT %XPRESS IS A WELL KNOWN BOOK AND üLM 7HEN k-URDOCHl IS USED INSTEAD OF MURDER THE EFFECT IS SURPRISE AND AMUSEMENT 4HIS KIND OF PLAY ON WORDS IS CALLED A PUN

Figure 17.8 (LEFT): !N OVERWEIGHT SLOB CRITICISES !USTRALIAN ATHLETES DURING THE /LYMPIC 'AMES FOR WINNING kONLYl BRONZE 4HE CARTOONIST IS RIDICULING THOSE WHO CRITICISED THE ATHLETES FOR THEIR kPOORl PERFORMANCE DURING THE GAMES 4HE UNüT ARMCHAIR BOUND CRITIC IS PORTRAYED AS A HYPOCRITE

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Features of the social comment cartoon Stereotypes The humour in a cartoon must be immediately recognisable. In a single frame there is no time for careful analysis. This means stereotypes are essential. A stereotype is a standardised, typecast image that has been repeated so many times it has become a pattern. It is often highly judgemental (see page 37). Formula characters and oversimplified patterns allow the audience to readily grasp the point.

Caricature

Figure 17.9: .ATURALISTIC CARTOONS CAN BE ALMOST PHOTOGRAPHIC IN THEIR DETAIL 4HIS LIMITS THE SUBJECT MATTER TO EQUALLY REALISTIC TOPICS

During World War II everyone was able to draw Adolf Hitler. A diagonal scribble for his hair and a toothbrush moustache underneath the nose was all it took. This caricature of ‘the enemy’ always found a ready audience. A caricature is a mock portrait that emphasises some features to show personality. The mouth, nose, eyes and hair have a basic likeness to the real image, but each is also distorted. The word comes from the Italian caricare, meaning to load or exaggerate.

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Figure 17.10: )N THE S "RUCE 0ETTYlS DRAWING STYLE CHANGED THE WAY !USTRALIANS LOOKED AT CARTOONS )N THIS CARTOON THE GROWING UP PROCESS IS COMPLETED AND THE TEENAGER PREPARES FOR THE BIG LEAP INTO ADULT LIFE WEIGHED DOWN ONLY BY CONČICTING ADVICE #OMMUNICATING THE IDEA IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE ACCURACY OF THE DRAWING


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Figure 17.11: &OUR STEPS ALONG THE WAY FROM KING TO PEAR )N &RENCH PEAR POIRE ALSO MEANS DUNCE OR FATHEAD 7HEN HE APPEARED IN CARICATURE ,OUIS 0HILLIPPE +ING OF &RANCE FROM TO TOOK THE CARTOONIST TO COURT 4HESE DRAWINGS WERE EXECUTED TO PROVE TO THE COURT THAT HE REALLY DID LOOK LIKE A PEAR 4HE CARTOONIST WON THE CASE

In 1710, hearing of a new invention from Italy called caricature, the Duchess of Marlborough commissioned a portrait of her hated rival Lady Nasham. It showed her covered in running sores and ulcers. And so caricature entered the English-speaking world as a slanderous judgement of character. Annibale Carracci, who virtually invented caricature, claimed great things for it. ‘The perfect deformity reveals the personality. A good caricature is more true to life than reality itself,’ he said. Modern cartoonists fi nd this idea attractive as well. Many feel their caricatures have captured the real prime minister, president or general. Although caricature creates distortions, they all serve the idea. The distortions must be easily understood to communicate the idea to a large audience. Because the drawing is dominated by an opinion, a caricature cannot tell the whole truth. Many truths about a face are left out because they are irrelevant. To say a caricature is more real than life itself is certainly false.

Figure 17.12: "UFFOON GOING TO WAR AND TURN IT UPSIDE DOWN BUFFOON RETURNING FROM WAR 2EVERSIBLE HEADS WITH ANIMAL COUNTERPARTS WERE POPULAR IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 4HIS IS A LIKENESS OF .APOLEON )))

Anthropomorphism Cartoonists often give animals human features. This is called anthropomorphism. Animals with human behaviours are a ready source of humour. Humour can also derive from the contrived resemblance between humans and animals.

Satire The cartoons drawn by David Low during World War II angered Adolf Hitler so much they earned Low a place on the Nazis’ extermination list. Low, a New Zealander by birth, worked in London. His cartoons are still famous today for their powerful satire. The aim of satire is to expose evil or foolishness through the use of ridicule, scorn, irony or witty cleverness. Satire aims to provoke serious thought as well as humour. In newspaper cartoons, the satire is related to the big news of the day.

Figure 17.13: k3EAL HUNTl BY 2ALPH 3TEADMAN 4HE IMMORALITY OF THE SEAL SLAUGHTER IS UNDER ATTACK 4HE PURCHASER OF THE ELEGANT COAT IS COVERED IN THE SAME BLOOD AS THE HUNTER AND HIS CLUB 4HERE IS NO HUMOUR IN THIS OUTRAGED SATIRE q ONLY IRONY )RONY COMES FROM A CONTRAST BETWEEN A SURFACE MEANING AND A REAL MEANING HERE THE HEIGHT OF FASHION IS EQUATED TO THE DEEPEST CRUELTY

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Black humour Some subjects are not often joked about because to do so would be considered to be in poor taste. Severe human suffering and death are two powerful taboos. Sometimes a satirist may wish to make a criticism so sharp that he or she is prepared to go beyond good taste. Dark despair and clever wit combine with bitter criticism to make black humour.

mourning. Private or personal symbols are often used in the arts and can be developed by repetition within an individual work. For instance, in the film Citizen Kane (1941) the sled ‘Rosebud’ is a personal symbol for childhood. The symbol is related to the metaphor and the simile. Unlike them, however, it does not involve a comparison. Instead a symbol substitutes for the original. Thus a dove represents the abstract idea peace. Symbolism is useful in cartoons because it allows for the quick transmission of visual messages. Since a symbol can be used to replace a complex idea, the limitations of the cartoon frame can be partly overcome. A patient on an operating table, a ship heading for rocks, a game of chess or tennis and an avalanche are common symbols in cartooning. They can be used to represent anything from ‘the government’ to ‘the medical system’.

Surrealism

Figure 17.14: 4HE BITTER COMMENT IN THIS &RENCH CARTOON MAKES FOR BLACK HUMOUR ! ONE LEGGED SOLDIER HOLDS A TRUMPET FOR AN ARMLESS BUGLER TO ANNOUNCE THE END OF THE !LGERIAN WAR 4HE HUMOUR IS NOT IN GOOD TASTE )T COMES FROM A HORRIüED FASCINATION WITH THE WAY THE TWO AMPUTEES üT TOGETHER

The term surrealism simply means ‘above or beyond reality’. In art, surrealism uses the world of dreams as the basis for its images. Anything can happen in a dream, as in surrealism. The aim of surrealism is to bring to the surface the dreaming levels of the mind, in the form of startling or illogical images. Many of these pictures are incongruous, and the effect can be humorous. This makes surrealism a useful technique in modern cartooning. Surrealism is used in political cartoons but is most often used in cartoons that comment on society or the human condition. Such surrealism often provokes people to comment, ‘I know that feeling!’

Symbolism

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Probably the most powerful symbol in the western world is the cross. The cross represents Christianity. Small white crosses in rows on a green lawn usually stand for death. Set a large cross on fire and surround it with men in white hoods, and the cross stands for the racist Ku Klux Klan. A symbol is something used to stand for something else — usually something invisible such as an abstract idea or concept. A symbol can be a person, a place or a thing. There are what might be called public and private symbols. Public symbols often develop by general agreement within a culture over long time periods. White representing purity is an example of a public symbol with a long cultural history in western countries. In Asian cultures, by contrast, white is traditionally associated with

Figure 17.15: k6ASCO 0YJAMA CROSSES THE DREADED STRAIT OF A THOUSAND LIGHTHOUSESl BY -ICHAEL ,EUNIG 3URREALISM BRINGS THE WORLD OF THE DREAM OR NIGHTMARE TO CARTOONING


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Exaggeration Exaggeration can be humorous because it increases the incongruity. If a situation is blown out of all proportion, the usual rules of logic do not apply. Unlikely and often funny circumstances are a natural outcome.

Farce and fantasy A farce is a comedy with an exaggerated and highly unlikely plot. Farce transfers readily to cartoons. Indeed, a vivid imagination and an absurd sense of humour are essential for cartooning. A cartoon can create a simplified fantasy world in which almost anything can happen.

Captions The caption is the printed comment that accompanies the cartoon drawing. It can appear as dialogue between the characters set out in speech balloons. It can also appear as a statement at the bottom of the cartoon. Sometimes it can include both. The thrill of discovering the meaning of a joke is an important factor in laughter, theorist and writer Arthur Koestler believed. Koestler likened it to the thrill of solving a problem. In problem solving, finding the solution is likely to be accompanied by a delighted ‘Eureka!’ Readers experience a faint echo

of the Eureka cry when they absorb and understand the joke of a cartoon. This supplies extra voltage to the humour. Writing in 1652, Hobbes called this extra charge ‘that sudden glory arising out of our own superiority’. Most cartoon captions do not spell everything out to the readers. Instead they allow the readers to put some of it together themselves. When the drawing has to be seen before the joke is understood, it is called a two-part punchline.

‘Generally, the caption should illuminate the drawing in some way, by way of contradiction or two-part punchline or whatever. If it’s no improvement — leave it out. Some cartoons stand alone as humorous drawings. Sean Leahy, cartoonist

Representations There is a dangerous side to the cartoon’s power. A cartoon is a simplification, so it follows that it can be unfair. Partly for this reason, The New York Times has never put a cartoon on its editorial pages. As its former publisher Arthur Salzberger points out, ‘A cartoon cannot say, “On the other hand …” ’

Figure 17.16: 4HIS 0ATRICK #OOK CARTOON MAKES NO SENSE UNLESS BOTH THE DRAWING AND CAPTION ARE SEEN TOGETHER 4HE READER ALSO NEEDS PRIOR KNOWLEDGE 4HE /WL AND THE 0USSYCAT IS A WELL KNOWN NONSENSE POEM BY %DWARD ,EAR 4HE CARTOONIST LEAVES THE READER TO PUT THE PRIOR KNOWLEDGE THE DRAWING AND THE CAPTION TOGETHER ! TWO PART PUNCHLINE LETS THE READER FEEL THE kGLORYl OF HAVING GOT THE JOKE

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Activities 1. Compare the work of several cartoonists in

commenting on one news item. What differences in point of view are there? 2. Most analysts agree that triumph, incongruity and surprise are important factors in humour. Find a cartoon to illustrate each of these factors. 3. Find several examples of the naturalistic and also the impressionistic styles of cartoon. What differences in subject matter do you find? What subjects could not be treated in the opposing style? 4. Figure 17.17 shows a few steps on the way to a completed drawing of Bob Hawke (Prime Minister of Australia, 1983–91), by Sean Leahy. Look at them and then answer the questions that follow.

5. Caricatures do not always have to be of people.

6.

7. 8.

9.

10.

Figure 17.17

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(a) Are you surprised that Leahy begins with the eyebrows and nose? Do you think that a drawing of any other politician would begin here or not? Explain. (b) In the second drawing the ends of the eyebrows have been dropped down. What change in personality has this made? (c) The grin, when it is added, spreads across only one side of the face. Part of this can be explained as perspective. The effect is exaggerated, however. What ideas are suggested by a lopsided grin? (d) What are the essential elements of Bob Hawke? In other words, at what point does the drawing become recognisable? (e) Try your own hand at a step-by-step caricature of someone.

Some very clever caricatures have been drawn of cars, steam trains and so on. Try your hand at a caricature of some object of everyday life. Try to express some idea at the same time. Some suggestions are: the car as a luxury possession; the car as a monster; and a train as an example of modern speed. Find examples of caricatures of politicians. What points are suggested by exaggeration of particular features? List several features in the caricatures, as well as associated ideas. Find cartoons that present a satire on issues in the news at the moment. Explain the point of each one. Draw a cartoon using symbolism to convey messages about aspects of society. Some examples of symbols you could use are: (a) a bulldozer representing development (b) a tree across the road representing opposition (c) an hourglass to represent a worsening social problem (d) a time bomb to represent a growing world problem. Try drawing your own surreal cartoons. Use startling or illogical images to create a dreamlike feeling. Some common surreal images are listed below. They are all to do with the human body. (a) Body parts with a life of their own (b) Clothing that is partly human, such as shoes that are feet and gloves that are hands (c) A body that is part furniture, such as a chest of drawers. (d) The body as a mechanical construction. Find some examples of cartoons that show the ‘Eureka’ factor in operation. Explain the mental steps the reader must go through before there is any amusement.

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to the task below. 11. Find your own cartoons to illustrate each of the major elements of cartooning in operation. Explain how each is made to work and the general meaning of the cartoon involved.

PRODUCTION TASK 12. Draw a cartoon or collection of cartoons on a topic

of recent interest. On a separate piece of paper, explain your purposes in drawing the cartoon. You should revise some of the major elements of cartooning (cartoonist as opposition, stereotypes, satire, surrealism, exaggeration and farce, and captions) and decide on a style preference (naturalistic or impressionistic).


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The news story On London’s famous Fleet Street in the 1930s a new principle of communication was developed. Newspaper readers were to be told what interested them most fi rst. This newly discovered idea led to the development of the news story as we know it today.

What is a news story? A news story in a newspaper is a report of dramatic current events. News stories tend to be short, most being between 100 and 500 words. The most popular topics are crime, politics, entertainment and celebrities, and accidents and disasters. The newspaper news story belongs to the report genre (see page 8 on genres). It is closely related to the television news story (see page 321). The newspaper news story has elements of the narrative genre as well. As with all narratives, events happen to characters in settings. The events are described, but not necessarily in strict chronological order.

Types of news stories Newspaper stories fall into two main types: • Hard news. Political, crime and war stories are examples of hard news. Hard news is immediate and happening now! It is also event based, dramatic and full of confl ict. • Soft news. A soft news story is a story with a human interest angle. Soft news focuses on celebrities and the extraordinary achievements of ordinary people.

News story structure The news story places all of the important information in the early part of the story and gradually tails off with less interesting information. This pattern of organisation is called the inverted pyramid. The four Ws (who, what, when and where)

Other information

Figure 17.18: 4HE STRUCTURE OF A NEWSPAPER STORY IS SAID TO RESEMBLE AN INVERTED PYRAMID 4HE BULK OF THE INFORMATION IS AT THE TOP OF THE STORY *UST A FEW EXTRA FACTS REMAIN FOR THOSE WHO READ TO THE END

The intro The introductory paragraph, or intro as journalists call it, is found immediately below the headline. Since most headlines are written after the intro has been fi nished, the intro could be called the most important part of the story. The intro must sell the story to the reader, or else he or she will pass on to something more eye-catching. Most readers scan only the fi rst few lines of a story to decide whether or not it is interesting. The intro aims to attract readers by telling them what will interest them most. Journalists aim to write tightly and simply. All the important information has to be conveyed in as few words as possible. Most intros are only 25 words long. Intros longer than 25 words are in danger of crowding too much in for the reader to bother reading further. Since the 1930s the intro has answered four basic questions: who, when, what and where? Sometimes they may need to mention why and how? • Who is a very important part of every intro. Most of all, people are interested in other people. Newspaper stories are about people. Tragedies, disasters, politics, good and bad fortunes, and so on, are all about people. Newspapers often label people, such as ‘labourer’ or ‘youth’, so that readers will know something about them and can therefore relate to them from the beginning of the story. People who are well known will appear in the intro without a label. Princess Diana would never be referred to as ‘a woman’ in a newspaper intro. Neither would Mel Gibson be labelled as ‘an actor’ or ‘a man’. If the person holds a title or an office, it is usual to put this fi rst and then follow with the person’s name. This is why newspapers write of ‘the Minister for Education, Mr X’, or ‘the Premier, Mr Y’. • When is the factor that makes today’s newspaper fascinating and last week’s paper something to wrap the fish and chips in. The importance of news declines as it gets older. It is also the part of the intro that is left until the last few words to mention. • What is, of course, the news itself. A good story is one that will interest a great number of readers and provoke them to buy the paper. • Where determines the importance of the news in a similar way to the time factor. The further away the story occurred, the less people will want to know about it. A disaster in some faraway part of the globe is, sadly, of less interest to most people than a minor accident in their own street.

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Putting the news first A shipwrecked solo yachtsman tells newspaper reporters that he lived on crabs, oysters and lizards for six days while stranded on an uninhabited part of the Northern Territory coastline. How would the newspapers report his diet? Crabs and oysters are served in restaurants. Lizards are not. A diet of lizards is sensational and not for the squeamish. The newspaper would head the list of foods with raw lizard (see figure 17.19).

Man lives on lizards for 6 days A Brisbane man ate lizards, crabs and oysters for six days after his sloop ran aground last week on an uninhabited part of the Northern Territory coastline.

Figure 17.19: 4HE SENSATIONAL NEWS ALWAYS COMES üRST IN A NEWS INTRO SENTENCE The intro aims to communicate quickly and efficiently. Most of all, the reader wants to know what happened. This means that the ‘what’ in the intro must always come fi rst, so that nothing comes in the way of the news. An intro containing the following details could be written in several ways. Who: Mr Justice Booking Where: in the Supreme Court When: yesterday What: said drug traffickers must expect to pay dearly for their crimes

Perhaps the quickest way would be to shift the position of ‘said’ and then add ‘that’ and join all the words up. The sentence would then read: Mr Justice Booking said in the Supreme Court yesterday that drug traffickers must expect to pay dearly for their crimes.

This kind of sentence would be quite rare in a newspaper because readers have to read all the way to the end of the sentence before they come across anything newsworthy. Mr Justice Booking no doubt says things in the Supreme Court all the time. Few of these things would be worth reporting. It is neither he himself nor the Supreme Court that is newsworthy, but the comment that in the future drug traffickers would be receiving heavy jail sentences. Therefore this piece of information must come fi rst. Putting the news fi rst would mean the sentence would read:

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Drug traffickers must expect to pay dearly for their crimes, Mr Justice Booking said in the Supreme Court yesterday.

Figure 17.20: .EWS REPORTS FOCUS ON THE MOST DRAMATIC AND STARTLING ASPECT OF THE NEWS AND PLACE THIS CONTENT IN THE üRST FEW WORDS OF THE LEAD SENTENCE

Using active voice Anything that happens can be written in either active or passive voice. This means that the focus of attention can be either the action or the person or object that the action happened to. The youth was punched by a skinhead.

The sentence above focuses attention on the youth, who is passive — in other words, he is not the ‘actor’ but rather is ‘acted upon’ in this case. In contrast, consider the following sentence. A skinhead punched the youth.

Attention is focused on the skinhead, who is active and engaged in a most newsworthy activity. Generally, active voice sentences are more engaging than passive voice sentences, and that is one of the main reasons they are used in newspapers. One of the simplest ways to recognise a passive voice sentence is to look for the word by. It appears in almost every passive voice sentence, even if only by implication — that is, if the word is not there it may be suggested. Sometimes passive voice sentences are preferable to active voice. Consider the most common use of passive voice in newspapers. Three people were run over by a train at Central Station early today.

This sentence is preferable to one in the active voice because the news comes fi rst. Sometimes the active voice will be rejected in favour of the passive


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because it sounds odd or even at times ridiculous. For example, look at the following passive voice sentence. A man was injured in a car accident.

Note that in this sentence the word by is implied. To put this in the active voice would make the sentence sound rather odd. A car accident injured a man.

Sometimes a sentence may be written in passive voice so that the name of a famous person can be placed towards the beginning. Look at the example below. The President was hit by flying tomatoes.

Excepting these kinds of sentences, however, the active voice should always be used in news stories.

Paragraph length Once the intro to a story has been written, there are rules that must be applied to following paragraphs. 1. Each following paragraph should be about 30 words long. This is only slightly longer than the intro. Readers only skim read the news stories. The 30word limit helps maintains interest by presenting information in short, easily digested segments. 2. Each paragraph should be independent of the other paragraphs as far as possible. This means that the segments of information must be self-contained, so that some understanding of what happened can be reached if just a few paragraphs are read. Another reason for the independence rule is that a story may have to be cut back to fit into the space allowed. If the paragraphs relied on each other to make sense, then it would be more difficult to cut the story while keeping its coherence.

Paragraph sequencing The paragraphs in a newspaper story do not follow the natural order of events. Suppose there was an air crash at a major international airport. A novel or a film account of the disaster would focus on events leading

up to the crash. Perhaps an engine caught fire. The pilot became anxious and snapped at the crew. The passengers panicked. Then the plane hit the tarmac and burst into flames. Finally the bodies littered the runway. By contrast, a newspaper story would begin with the bodies on the tarmac. The headlines would shout ‘200 Dead in Airport Horror’. The intro would give more details on the accident. The second paragraph might explain why it happened, while the third paragraph might mention the efforts of the pilot to control the panicking crew and passengers. Newspaper stories always present the most interesting information fi rst. Often this results in the sequential order of events being disrupted for the sake of keeping the readers interested. Skim readers will always fi nd all the important information at the top of the story.

Sequencing a news story After following a few basic rules when writing a newspaper story, personal judgement can become the main consideration in paragraph sequencing. Some guidelines are set out below. 1. The most interesting news comes fi rst. 2. The names and ages of the people involved in the incident are usually given in the second paragraph. This applies particularly when they are not well known. 3. Addresses and personal details are almost never given.

Representations and discourses News is a specialised discourse in its own right with its own language structure. Some of these aspects are outlined above. Further structures are explained in the discussion on television news (see page 321). News in the print media also participates in the main discourses of the dominant political and social cultures. See discourse in television news, page 324. See also newspaper representation, page 50.

Activities 1. Look at several intros from a newspaper and divide

each into its elements. Label them who, when, what or where. 2. The following intros have been wrongly sequenced. Change them around so that the news comes first. (a) Recovering in the Gold Coast Hospital last night was a woman who spent four days cold and helpless in her bathtub. (b) A boy unloading luggage from a bus roof touched a live overhead wire at a terminus in the western Indian state of Gujarat, electrocuting nine passengers.

3. The following intros are written in the passive

voice. Rewrite them in the active voice to make them more interesting and suitable for newspaper publication. (a) Two wedding rings were stolen by thieves from a table piled with gifts moments before the ceremony was to take place in Sydney on Sunday. (d) The body of a man found in the water off Marion Bay on Sunday has been identified by police.

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PRODUCTION TASK: WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS 4. The story below is from the notebook of a foreign

correspondent. It needs to be written so that a national newspaper can print it. Headlines are needed as well. Prepare the story for publication after revising the following guidelines. (a) The intro tells who, when, what and where in about 25 words.

(b) The news must come first. (c) Use active voice except in the circumstances outlined on pages 488–9. (d) Don’t let personal opinion, adjectives and adverbs change the news. Stick to the facts. (e) Put the most sensational aspects of the story first and sequence the paragraphs accordingly. (f) Write a headline that summarises the news and fits within a limited space. (g) Keep all paragraphs to around 30 words.

STORY NOTES A fire hose ran out of control from the back of a fire engine in the United States.

One bystander was hit by flying glass. He was taken to hospital.

The fire engine was rushing to a fire.

A second was whipped across the legs.

The hose whipped from one side of the street to the other.

He was standing beside his car, unlocking the door, when the hose lashed him.

About 60 metres of fire hose ran loose from the truck.

A third person was cut on the chin when the hose broke through her car window.

The hose smashed twelve shop windows as the fire truck sped down the street.

A police motorcyclist behind the fire engine tried to alert the driver. He could not get past the lashing hose.

Firefighters were rushing to a grass fire on a vacant lot on West 53rd Street. Police believe the fire was lit by vandals.

He finally managed to contact the driver on the radio, but he had to stop the motorcycle in order to do so.

The hose hit seven cars, breaking windows and windscreens and caving body panels.

When told of the mishap, the driver of the fire engine said, ‘I had no idea. I’m very sorry.’

Three people were injured in the process.

The mishap occurred yesterday.

The feature story The features pages of newspapers are expanding as newspapers change in response to competition from other media. Radio and the internet deliver news faster than other media. It is difficult for the print media to compete with television’s pictures. However, it is equally difficult for the other media to compete with the newspaper’s tradition of news comment through feature articles. Surveys show that the relaxation factor is one of the primary appeals of the printed newspaper over online versions. People love to settle down in a chair and read the paper.

What is a feature story?

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A feature story is an in-depth report on people and events. It is not a breaking news story; rather, it provides background information on a story and aims to educate and entertain.

Feature articles serve different purposes. Some are extended news stories that give background information and so share most of the elements of the report genre (see page 8). Other feature articles provide news analysis and interpretation. They lean towards the exposition genre and share many of the characteristics of the television documentary (see page 203). Another variety of feature article is the biography of a newsworthy person. These newspaper articles tell the story of a person’s life and may follow the conventions of the narrative genre. Whatever the genre, the emphasis in all newspaper feature articles remains the news. The writer is said to hang the story off the news peg. The news peg is the newsworthy item that makes the story of immediate relevance to the public. It is the link back to the front page.


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Types of feature stories The main types of feature stories are as follows. • Analysis and interpretation. These feature stories explain the news and bring the reader to a fuller understanding through interviews and in-depth reporting. • Personality profiles and biographies. Interviews with the subject and his or her acquaintances, together with the comments and impressions of the journalist, form the basis of this type of feature article. • Social trends. Many feature articles deal with emerging social trends and developing aspects of the modern lifestyle. The stories consist of interviews, research reports and commentary.

Purpose of the feature article Newspaper feature articles fulfi l several functions in addition to those carried out by other forms of journalism. • Reporting on event. The function of the news story is to tell what happened, and a feature article often has the same aim. The difference between the two may simply be a matter of length. The feature gives much more detail. • Explaining events. News reports do not analyse the news. The task of explaining what the news means belongs to the feature article writer.

• Exposition. An exposition is an argument supported by evidence. Many feature articles are extended arguments in support of a certain point of view. Their function is to extend public debate. • Multi-exposition. Sometimes the purpose of a feature is to give an overview or summary of the range of viewpoints held about an issue of public interest.

Elements of the feature article Many elements of the feature article are shared with the newspaper news report. Other characteristics are held in common with the television and radio documentary. Different styles of feature article favour some elements over others. The writing style of the feature article relies on the same principles as the news story (see page 487). Verbs are often in past or present perfect tense. Active voice is favoured over passive voice. Economy and simplicity of wording are important. The inverted pyramid structure of the traditional news story also applies to feature articles. The inverted pyramid structure places all the important information at the beginning of the story (see page 487). The feature intro need not contain the four Ws, however. The structure is similar to the news story because subeditors still cut paragraphs from the bottom if the article is too long. The only difference is that the subeditor begins the cut above the concluding paragraph.

Figure 17.21: &EATURE ARTICLES TRADITIONALLY CARRY A LARGE PHOTOGRAPH OR ILLUSTRATION AT THE TOP OF THE ARTICLE )N THIS EXAMPLE THE ILLUSTRATION IS A COMPOSITE GRAPHIC OF IMAGES FROM EASTERN AND WESTERN POPULAR CULTURES

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Feature articles tend to use an extended headline structure. There is often a main headline and then a series of lower decks or kickers. The kicker adds further brief explanation to the main headline, or poses important questions discussed in the article.

Aiming high Listening to the young and helping them through troubled times are better options than tough crackdowns and new laws. That’s the view of those who work with young people. Christine Jackman reports. Source: The Courier-Mail

Figure 17.22: 4HE FEATURE ARTICLE HEADLINE IS OFTEN EXTENDED TO CONTAIN TWO PARTS THE MAIN HEADLINE AND THE KICKER 4HE PURPOSE OF THE KICKER IS TO KICK START THE STORY BY POSING A QUESTION STATING AN EXPOSITION OR SUMMARISING THE CONTENT .OTICE THE INCLUSION OF THE REPORTERlS BYLINE NAME Like radio reporters, newspaper journalists include eyewitness description. This is to create pictures in the minds of the audience. The description never strays far from the central news peg, however. Interviews are an integral part of most feature articles. Interview quotes are interspersed throughout the article as supporting evidence for the exposition. Usually several people are interviewed and their comments are sometimes placed in opposition. Exposition is the central element of most feature articles. The exposition conveys what the article is saying. Even articles that rely heavily on interviews contain some degree of indirect exposition. Since comment and opinion are included in feature articles, there has to be an attribution. The writer of the article is named at the beginning in the byline.

Writing a newspaper feature article The intro

MEDIA

Feature article intros aim to do two things: to grab the reader’s attention and to provide a focus or foretaste of the story to follow. This makes the feature intro quite different from the news story intro, which aims to summarise the story. In the news story, the intro must contain the four Ws (see page 487). The feature article intro is freed from that responsibility. Its main

role is to arouse readers’ interest and to promise them a good story if they read on. The feature intro is very similar in style to the magazine article intro (see page 501). All feature article intros use the technique known as suspended interest. The reader is promised interesting information further into the story. Several different styles common in news features are listed below. (For a range of other types of intros refer to magazine articles, pages 501–2.) The news peg intro. Some features begin in a similar style to a hard news story. The intros sound alike, but not all of the elements are present. Usually the when is deleted to give the article a longer shelf life. The teaser. Beginning with a mystery is a sure-fi re way to keep the audience reading on. In an article headlined ‘The crying game’, David Jones reported, ‘As the stadium rose to acclaim Steffi Graf as the World Sportswoman of the Year, her legendary composure vanished and she began to sob uncontrollably.’ The intro is a teaser, because we must read on to fi nd out why she was crying. Description of an individual. A journalist can often attract interest in a story by focusing on a description of the behaviour of an individual. This close-up of one person can then be broadened to a long shot revealing the meaning of his or her actions. Some journalists refer to this technique as being ‘fi lmic’. Personal narrative. In a news story, the personal involvement of the reporter is frowned upon. The journalist never says ‘I’ in a news story. In contrast, a feature writer can be a participant. This is even more acceptable if the person is a public figure. For example, John Pilger often begins his articles with a story of something that happened to him. Before and after. Before and after pictures always attract attention. A before and after intro uses the same technique. A typical intro might present a ragsto-riches story. The interest comes from a desire to know how the transition was made.

The body of the story An intro of any style can open a feature article. But the content of the article has to get back to the news peg as soon as possible. Often this can be done in the second paragraph, so that the promise made by the intro is fulfi lled as soon as possible. When assembling the information for an article, the journalist arranges it in declining order of importance and interest. Journalism academic Len Granato advises writers to modify the inverted pyramid for feature articles. In feature writing, he suggests, the


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information is arranged according to its importance to the promise in the intro. A practical way of doing this is first to organise the information in categories and then to number each point according to its importance within its particular category. The categories of information can then become the central themes of the article. These are interlocked with joining words such as ‘because’ and ‘however’. The themes are arranged in declining order of newsworthiness. Small climaxes or blockages to the train of events will keep the reader interested. Len Granato refers to these as peaks and valleys in the writing. The traditional front-page news story does not interlock its paragraphs. For example, no paragraph begins with a link such as ‘However’ or ‘As a result …’, as the subeditor may need to cut the previous paragraph to which it refers. The feature article, on the other hand, is rarely cut as ruthlessly as the news story. The journalist often has time to rework the feature before it goes to print. Consequently there is much more cohesion between paragraphs. Feature writers use anecdotes or stories to keep their readers interested. These should be short and punchy. Their purpose is to support the exposition. They act as evidence, so they are peppered throughout the story at crucial points in the argument. Description is an important aspect of feature writing. Description comes from good observation. But the journalist should allow readers to come to their own conclusions. Description avoids direct judgement, although of course judgements are made in the selection of the observations.

never quote their sources at length. They often paraphrase the conversation and then quote the source in the punchline. This process is called ‘foreshadowing’ the quote.

Interviews and quotations

• a final opinion or comment

Interviews are the basis of most journalism, whether for a television documentary or a newspaper feature article. Before an interview, a journalist spends a lot of time planning. Part of the research involves finding out who is the best person to interview in the first place. It may also be necessary to arrange for comment from opposing points of view. Journalists research interview topics well beforehand. The background provides the basis for the questions. Most journalists have a list of prepared questions, but they are also prepared to abandon them if they stumble on a scoop comment. Once the interview has been conducted, quotations from it can be used to add life to the feature article. All quotations must fit the focus of the story, says Len Granato. They must work as evidence to support the argument or exposition. Whenever direct quotations are used in a feature article, the writer loses control of the story and hands it over to the interview source. As a result, journalists

• the logical outcome of an extended argument

Profiling a personality Public relations writer Dennis Wilcox gives the following tips for profiling a personality: • Give the essence. Tell the reader the details that make the person interesting. • Interpret. You are actually there with the person and the reader is not. Give your impressions and interpretations of the person. • Suggest motivations. Try to understand the person’s motivations. • Encourage reflection. Get the subject to reflect on their life and evaluate highs and lows or good and bad points about themselves. • Describe. Paint a picture of the subject as a whole person. Describe the personality as they are at work, under stress, at play or with their family.

The conclusion The intro to a feature article does not contain all the details of who, what, when and where. Rather, the emphasis is on the narrative qualities of the subject. So a feature article needs some kind of conclusion. The final section of a news feature is important in its own right. Subeditors know this and make any cuts that are needed above the conclusion. The type of conclusion depends on the subject matter of the article. Some common conclusions are:

• a question that reorients the reader to investigate further • a call for action. For more information on the conclusion, refer to the magazine article, pages 502.

Representations and discourses News is a specialised discourse in its own right with its own language structure. Some of these aspects are outline above. Further structures are explained in the discussion of television news (see page 324). News in the print media also participates in the main discourses of the dominant political and social cultures. See discourse in television news, page 324. For more discussion on the representation of news, see pages 49–52.

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Activities 1. Find examples of news feature articles that fulfil

each of the purposes outlined on page 491. Explain how each article corresponds to particular purposes, and the way it fulfils them. 2. Identify the news peg in a feature article. If possible, try to match it with a news story dealing with the same issue. 3. Categorise the intros and conclusions of a range of feature articles. Discuss the effectiveness of each and possible alternatives.

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to the following task. 4. Analyse a newspaper feature article and conclude with an evaluation of its overall effectiveness. Your analysis should cover: (a) the apparent purpose of the article (b) the exposition (unless it is simply an expanded news story)

(c) an examination of the intro (d) organisation of the main body of the article into themes (e) the structure (inverted pyramid?) (f) use of interlocking paragraphs (cohesion) (g) occurrences of comment and opinion from the journalist (h) use of interviews (i) an analysis of the conclusion.

PRODUCTION TASK 5. Choose an area of concern with a current news

peg. From the available information in a range of media forms, write a feature article of 600–800 words using the conventions of the genre. You may also need to read the sections on news style (pages 487–9). Give the article a headline and a kicker, with your own byline. Create an illustration.

MEDIA


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Magazines

The magazine medium If it’s legal, there is a magazine for it. Magazines cover just about everything. Walk into any newsagency and the range of magazines is staggering. Of all media markets, the magazine market is the most specialised. And this specialisation has increased dramatically since the 1980s. The rise of computerbased media has created a huge market for technical and new media magazines. The other reasons for growth have been the rise of celebrity weeklies and the launching of new men’s and sports magazines in the 2000s. More than 120 million magazines are sold every year. Ninety per cent of women and 86 per cent of men read at least one magazine a year. About 35 per cent of these people are classified as heavy magazine readers.

and have at least 800 locally published titles to choose from. However, the small Australian market has tended to restrict innovation and experimentation.

What is a magazine? A magazine is an entertaining publication that consists of a variety of illustrated articles within the interest range of the target readership. Magazines are periodical publications operating usually on a weekly or monthly cycle. They are most often printed in colour on glossy paper. Magazines are supported fi nancially by a combination of narrowly targeted advertising and a relatively high purchase price. Media academics say that Australians read more magazines than any other nation except New Zealand

Figure 18.1: 4HE MAGAZINE MARKET IS THE MOST VARIED AND SPECIALISED OF ALL TRADITIONAL MEDIA MARKETS 3INCE MOST LARGE NEWSAGENTS HAVE BEEN CARRYING MORE THAN DIFFERENT TITLES 3TANDARDISED SEGMENTS CLEAR SIGNAGE AND A GROUPING SYSTEM THAT PLACES SIMILAR CATEGORIES TOGETHER HAVE BEEN RECENT IMPROVEMENTS &OR INSTANCE CHILDRENlS MAGAZINES ARE NOW PLACED NEXT TO WOMENlS LIFESTYLE MAGAZINES

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What is an online magazine? Like a print magazine, an online magazine consists of a variety of illustrated articles grouped within editions that are published according to a set time cycle. There are two interpretations of the term online magazine. • Ezines or webzines. These are magazines that are published online and usually do not have a print edition associated with them. • Online editions of magazines. Many print magazine titles now offer an online edition as well. The content is often integrated and linked, with the online edition offering some content that is not available in the print edition (and vice versa).

and Gardens. These two groups can be further divided into the following categories. • Women’s magazines. This is the broadest category as well as the most varied. It also makes up the largest sector of the market. Almost any kind of topic can find a place in a women’s magazine. The market is further broken down into age ranges. • Women’s lifestyle and fashion. This subset of women’s magazines focuses on clothes and fashion or style and living. The target audience is higher income women. • Celebrity magazines. One of the largest growth areas in women’s magazines since 2000 has been in celebrity magazines. As Australia does not have a large celebrity culture, much of the content is from overseas.

Types of magazines Magazines can be classified according to their content and target audience. They can also be classified according to their frequency of publication. For example, some are weeklies, others monthlies. Table 18.1: 4HE READERSHIP OF MAGAZINES BY TYPE 4YPE OF MAGAZINE READ

2EADERSHIP OVER YEARS

Newspaper insert

56

Major women’s

43

Home and lifestyle

39

General

27

Women’s lifestyle

23

Pay TV

22

Men’s

15

Female youth

13

Business and finance

13

TV

11

Computing

10

Motoring

10

Sport

7

Women’s fashion

6

MEDIA

Advertisers classify magazines on the basis of audience and content. A general division can be made between two broad groups. The first group is the general interest magazine, such as Reader’s Digest. The second group is made up of special interest magazines, such as Men’s Health and Better Homes

Figure 18.2: !USTRALIA HAS A LIMITED CELEBRITY CULTURE BUT CELEBRITY MAGAZINES HAVE BEEN ONE OF THE BIGGEST GROWTH SEGMENTS IN THE S


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Technology and society 1709–1890s Only the wealthy can afford magazines; universal affordability achieved by 1930s. Rise of advertising leads to democratisation as ads support production costs. Audiences typically read from cover to cover like a book. Layout encourages uninterrupted reading, until about 1900.

Magazine timeline 1709

Tatler (UK, first known magazine)

1821

Australian Magazine (Aus.)

1840

Punch magazine established (UK).

1855

Melbourne Punch (Aus.)

1880

The Bulletin launched (Aus.).

1881

1881–1887 First ads appear in magazines (US).

1886

Cosmopolitan (US)

1888

National Geographic (US)

1894

Australian Home Journal

1900

About 1800 magazines published in US.

1902

New Idea (Aus.)

1911

First magazine photos (US) First movie magazine (US)

1920s–1930s Unlike earlier, more serious magazines, content of women’s magazines focuses on ‘light’ topics (e.g. fashion, leisure, travel, homewares). Increased use of photos and illustrations. Skimming and flipping become common audience behaviours. Relaxation becomes a key factor in usage. Layout suits this pattern of reading from about 1920, when illustrations and photographs become more dominant. Advertising now of prime importance to commercial viability. Globalisation begins with magazines such as Reader‘s Digest and National Geographic.

1950s Television impacts on magazine sales, and advertising revenue falls. General interest magazine sales slump.

1960s–1970s Richard Neville’s ‘alternative’ Oz magazine faces obscenity trials — marks beginning of more explicit magazine content. Special interest magazines begin to take over from magazines with more general appeal. Niche magazines have an appeal not matched by television.

1985–present Magazine publishing moves to include the internet (profitability remains a problem for online titles). Increasing segmentation of the magazine market, with many new titles launched each year. Total number of magazines has doubled since 1988. Slow decline in market share of general interest women’s magazines

1914


1922

Reader’s Digest (US)

1923

Time (US)

1933

Australian Women’s Weekly, Newsweek (US)

1936

Life (US, photo-journalism magazine)

1939


1944

Seventeen (US, first magazine devoted to teens)

1946

Reader’s Digest (Aus. edition)

1952

MAD (US)

1953

Wheels (Aus.)

1956

Woman’s Day (Aus.)

1957

TV Week (Aus.)

1963

1963–1969 Oz (Aus.)

1967

Rolling Stone (US)

1972

Cleo publishes in Australia.

1973

Cosmopolitan (Aus. edition)

1980

Australian Personal Computer

1984

1984–1985 First e-zines (internet or multimedia magazines) Cult of the Dead Cow e-zine

1985

1985–2005 Phrack e-zine

1992

Who Weekly (Aus.)

1994

That’s Life (Aus., readers’ own stories magazine)

1995

Salon.com (US, online magazine)

2000–present

1997

Men’s Health (Aus.)

Growing movement to integrate online and print edition content. Rise in celebrity magazines. Specialisation reaches a peak. The internet means increased competition for audience attention, with many media sources.

1999

Australian PlayStation

2000

Empire (Aus.)

2004

OK! (Aus.)

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• Readers’ own stories. Magazines telling the life experiences of ordinary people and the difficulties they have faced sell almost as fast as celebrity magazines. Readers contribute their own stories and journalists revise them for publication. These magazines have large circulations and rely on advertising less than other magazines. • Youth magazines. These are aimed at the l3- to 21-year age group, although some youth culture magazines target an older audience — under 30 years old. • Music and entertainment. The audience for this category of magazine tends to be under 35, although film magazines can have a wider age spread. • Men’s magazines. These publications are aimed at men aged l8 years and over. They differ from women’s magazines in having a narrower range of subject matter. Recently a new category of men’s magazine has succeeded in the market: men’s style magazines, aimed at younger men. • ‘Lad’ magazines. These newer publications are aimed at younger men and focus on humour, the opposite sex and tales of adventure. • Current affairs and business. As more people become self-employed or involved in the investment market, these magazines are finding their sales increasing. News magazines give background information about news events and often give wider, more detailed comment and coverage than newspapers. • Craft and hobby. These magazines specialise in a wide range of interests and hobbies. They provide information for enthusiasts.

few are available for sale at newsagents. Most are mailed directly to subscribers. • General magazines. These deal with a range of topics without being tied to one particular interest group. Once the largest segment of the market, this is now the smallest. • Organisation and interest/lobby groups. Groups such as conservationists, political parties, religious groups and service clubs produce their own magazines. Most are subscription only.

Features of magazines ‘Magazines offer the promise of excitement, stimulation, fantasy and self-indulgence. Magazines are strongly associated with relaxation and “time to yourself”. They offer a flexible retreat from the pressures and routines of everyday life: even a few minutes spent with a magazine can feel like a real break. Much more than with television or radio — or even a book — magazines can be picked up and put down on a whim: this flexibility of commitment to a magazine (when combined with the sense of glamour and self-indulgence) is unique.’ Kate McFarlane, advertising manager

Advertising Table 18.2: 4OP TEN ADVERTISERS IN !USTRALIAN MAGAZINES

#OMPANY 1. L’Oréal Australia

MILLION 25.0

• Computer magazines. Technical magazines have experienced explosive growth since the mid 1990s but have now settled into a mature phase. Included in this category are magazines on computer-based gaming. This subcategory has provided much of the growth.

2. Lever Rexona

8.0

3. Pacific Brands

7.9

4. Telstra

7.2

5. David Jones

7.1

• Sport and leisure. Sport and leisure magazines have a strong skew towards a male audience. All the major sports have magazines devoted to them. There is also a range of outdoor activity magazines in this category, such as boating and skiing.

6. Estée Lauder

6.9

7. Jamster

6.5

8. Myer Stores

6.1

9. Procter & Gamble

5.9

10. Johnson & Johnson

5.7

• Motoring magazines. Motoring magazines make up a large section of the male-oriented market. The segment includes magazines about anything on wheels — cars, motorcycles, trucks, caravans etc.

MEDIA

• Radio and television magazines. These magazines give program guides and also offer feature articles about television stars and programs. • Trade and professional magazines. Trade magazines exist for almost every occupation. Only a

* Figures are rounded based on 2006 fiscal year

Magazines have the following features that make them attractive to advertisers. Niche audiences. Magazines are able to reach minority audiences other media have to neglect, for two reasons: magazines are able to charge a substantial


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cover price that allows a profit at a lower circulation level, and they are also able to attract advertisers who wish to reach only a certain group in society. They could also reach them if they took out expensive television advertising, but the chosen group may be only a small portion of the television audience. The magazine is more efficient at targeting. Relevant ad environment. Magazines are able to attract advertisers who want their product to appear in an environment that enhances the effect of their ad. A fashion magazine, for example, offers a content environment that increases the likelihood of success for advertisers of clothes. Engagement. Readers approach magazines in a mentally active, receptive sort of mood. If an advertisement strikes a responsive chord, they’ll read it the same way they read editorial matter.

• Fashion and style: clothes to buy rather than make • Celebrities • Good looks and health • Travel: usually overseas • Fiction • Emotional problems.

Teenage formula The teenage magazine formula contains the following elements: • Relationships: boyfriends • Fashion: cult or fad fashions in particular • Celebrities and famous people: from television and the music industry in particular • Rock news • Good looks and health

Content formulas

• Emotional problems

Since magazines are published on a regular cycle, content is refined and formularised to appeal to the target audience. The traditional formulas for women’s magazines can be broken into three basic types: allage general (e.g. New Idea); over-l8 glamour (Cleo) and teenage (Dolly).

• Fiction: romance and teenage problems.

General interest women’s formula Magazines that follow the general interest women’s formula contain most or all of the following elements: • Famous people: the royal family, television or movie personalities, politicians and their spouses, sporting celebrities and people in the news

Advertorials A combination of advertising and report writing is common in magazines. Companies send press releases to the magazines and sponsor expensive ads in return for positive copywriting. This type of writing is termed advertorial — a combination of advertising and editorial (meaning journalist’s reports and stories, not to be confused with newspaper editorials). Media advertising buyer Simon Davies advises marketing agents that advertorials are a way of ‘talking to readers in the language of the magazine’.

• Fashion: clothes to buy and (often) clothes to make

Audience issues

• Babies and children: childcare and common problems

A number of aspects of the magazine audience are somewhat different from other media audiences.

• Home improvement: decorating ideas

Circulation and readership

• Food: diets and recipes • Fiction: short story romances or personal-problem situations • Exercise: home fitness programs • Travel: usually within this country.

Over-18 glamour formula Magazines following this formula usually contain these elements: • Relationships with men: usually to be or not to be, and how to • Women and work: careers, money, equal opportunity issues

Circulation. The total number of magazines sold each edition is referred to as the circulation. The figures are based on sales averaged across a sixmonth period. Circulation figures are precise figures determined by the Audit Bureau of Circulation. Readership. The total number of people estimated to read a magazine is referred to as the readership. These include family members and chains of friends beyond the original purchaser. Numbers of readers for each title can vary from around four for general women’s magazines to nearly ten for some car magazines. According to the University of Queensland’s Francis Bonner, readership modifies the gendering

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of magazines. For instance, the purchaser of the women’s magazine Cleo is almost always female yet one in four readers is male.

Gender and magazines Bonner argues that gender is the most important division in the magazine market. Gender affects magazine consumption in the following ways. • Women purchase many more magazines than men. Most magazines with sales over 100 000 copies are women’s titles. • Women’s magazine interests are more likely to cluster around a smaller number of general

categories of interest, says Bonner. Attempts to publish general interest men’s magazines have largely been unsuccessful. • Men’s magazine interests are much more thinly spread across a range of specialised interests, although sex, sport, motor vehicles and current affairs magazines figure highly, says Bonner. • Young teenage girls are the main readers of teen magazines. Young teenage boys tend to delay magazine reading until they reach the late teens. An exception is video game magazines, which have a male-oriented audience that reaches down to the younger teens.

Activities 1. Choose two magazines from the same category

MEDIA

(such as Wheels and Car Australia from the motoring category). Of the two, which one appeals to you most? Examine the magazines using the following headings to help you decide which you find more appealing: • Cover • Advertising • Photography • Articles • Layout. 2. Survey your friends to find out their magazine reading habits, then ask them a few questions such as those below to gather the sort of information that might be of interest to advertisers. (a) How much television do you watch? (b) How much do you spend on clothes each week? (c) How much do you spend on entertainment each week? (d) What is your (future?) occupation? Now write a paragraph summarising your findings and drawing conclusions about what sort of people read particular magazines. 3. Reader’s Digest is a magazine of general interest. There should be something in it for everyone. Look at the table of contents from a recent edition and match up the articles with the intended audience. For example, some articles would probably appeal to older readers. Others appeal to younger audiences. Use the magazine categories listed in the previous pages as a guide to match some articles. Use your knowledge about people for others. 4. Design an advertisement for a trade magazine aimed at advertising executives who are considering whether to advertise on television or in magazines. The theme of the advertisement is ‘how to reach your television audience when they’re not watching television’. The advertisement should point out the

main disadvantages of other media and the benefits of magazines. 5. Apply the women’s magazine formulas to a sample of magazines from each category. How well do the formulas describe the magazines’ content? What are some areas of interest to women you know that are not being addressed by the magazines? Evaluate the restrictiveness of the formulas.

WRITTEN TASK Write a 600-word response to the following topic. 6. Examine the use of advertorials in a range of magazines of your choice. Find several articles you think could be advertorials and indicate why you think they are. Research a more detailed examination of some of the issues raised in the articles and present alternative points of view that the advertorial writer had not wanted to explore.

PRODUCTION TASK 7. Imagine a magazine designed to appeal to a certain

target group, such as youth, women aged 25 to 39 years or men aged 18 to 25 years. You may also want to appeal to groups the magazine medium has traditionally ignored (such as people who aren’t consumerist). Design a contents page for the magazine, listing articles you think would constitute a formula the target group would find appealing. Also design a cover for the magazine. Part of the design of the cover and/or contents page should be a collage of images representing the target group as the magazine sees them. Attach a brief written explanation of the magazine itself, the cover and the contents page. 8. Make a collage of magazine content and images that subverts or challenges the traditional gender divisions of magazine segmentation.


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The magazine feature article ‘Hit the audience where it counts. Forget rules in consumer magazines, but never forget that quality counts first, entertainment second, information third (my field, not necessarily others). Because of our long lead time (three months) a story must have NO news content. It must instead look for the classic angle that will give it long-range appeal to a wide audience. ‘If I don’t figure a story will appeal to the group of people I identify as my readers, then it doesn’t go in. Simple as that. I try to remain open to new interpretations of what my readers are like. I believe the magazine should instil readers with the feeling that with the magazine they are buying into an atmosphere, a feeling of fun and of belonging to something special. I also believe strongly in the value of high profile editors and contributors — real people.’ Geoff Eldridge, Editor, Australasian Dirt Bike

• Adventure articles. Adventure stories describe exciting experiences for the benefit of readers who may never leave their armchairs. • Historical articles. These are often found in general interest magazines such as Reader’s Digest. • Seasonal articles. Regular seasonal articles appear in many magazines, especially around Christmas and New Year. Spring is another time when seasonal stories often appear. • Background and explanatory articles. This type of article is common in news magazines but appears frequently in most magazines. These articles may examine almost any interesting topic. • Life skills articles. These articles tell readers how to do something. Articles such as ‘How to buy a house’ and ‘How to get a man and keep him’ allow a magazine to educate as well as entertain an audience.

Writing a magazine article What is a magazine article?

The intro

A magazine article is similar to a newspaper feature story (see page 490). It is written in an entertaining way that is designed to encourage rapid reading. Like the news story it presents facts, but it supplements them with interviews and dramatisations that appeal to the reader’s imagination. The writer can use powerful description, little stories and remembrances together with details of character and personality to entertain the reader. Interesting style and presentation are more important in the magazine article than they are for a front-page newspaper story. Some magazine articles belong in the report genre, while others belong in the expository genre (see page 8). Most share features of both genres.

A magazine article is not like a news story. It does not always place the most important facts fi rst. The magazine article is similar to an essay. Its purpose is to convince, to instruct and, most importantly, to entertain. The length of a magazine article varies from around 1000 words to a maximum of about 6000. Two thousand words is average.

Subject matter Almost anything can make a suitable subject for a magazine article, but certain kinds of articles have been tried and tested. • Personality studies. These are common in women’s magazines. A good personality study does much more than list a person’s achievements. It should flesh out the character to make the reader feel as if he or she is acquainted with the person. Quotes and descriptions combine to give the reader a picture of the subject.

‘Openings for stories must grab the reader’s attention. The first paragraph needs to be interesting. The headline is carefully chosen and so is the typeface. Subheadings are used to break up the type. A blurb at the top, in heavier type, uses quotes from the story to attract the reader.’ Pip Wilson, Editor, Simply Living

The introductory paragraph — or lead, as it is often called — is found immediately below the title of the story. The purpose of the intro or lead is to capture readers’ attention and to entice them to read further into the story. There are several well-known ways to do this. • The question intro poses a question to the readers. If they want to fi nd out the answer, then they must read on.

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• The anecdote intro uses a short account of an interesting or humorous experience to get the readers interested. It may take two paragraphs to get to the humour.

If people speak in a magazine article, the writer can say how they spoke — ‘said’ is not the only, or necessarily the most revealing, describing word. A news story reporter does not have this flexibility.

• The quote intro lets the subject of the article do the talking from the beginning. It is often used in personality studies.

Pace. A magazine article should develop to give the reader only as much information in each paragraph as is needed. Too much, too soon kills the article and has the effect of boring the reader. A comedian spins the joke out. Similarly a magazine writer should not go too fast.

• The action/adventure intro begins with the high point of excitement. It starts as the bomb drops, the car runs off the road, the dam wall bursts or the aircraft engine is seen to be on fi re. • The description intro can describe either places or people. • The summary intro gives details about the subject in a brief lead. These details have to be interesting enough to make the readers want to continue. • The shock/horror intro uses sensational information to induce the readers to read on.

The body of the story Like a good comedian, the magazine writer must know when to use the tricks of the trade. Some of the tricks used for writing an article are listed below. Some common questions are also answered. Am I allowed in? A newspaper reporter is not permitted to write his or her articles in the fi rst person; that is, ‘I’ is not used. A magazine writer has more freedom. He or she is allowed to use ‘I’ in certain circumstances. However, writers must remember that readers are primarily interested not in them but in the subject of the article. Therefore the personality of the writer should intrude only when it helps the reader to understand the subject. Quotations. There are two kinds of quotation: single person speaking and dialogue (conversation). Both can be used to add life and personality to an article. However, a quote should appear only when necessary. Long, drawn-out and ordinary conversation should be summarised and converted into indirect speech. Quotes normally give readers a sense of getting to know a person. They expect a quote to reveal something important.

How long should a paragraph be? Unlike the 30word news story paragraph, the magazine paragraph can be of any length. Nevertheless, a regular pattern is usually preferred. A magazine allows a paragraph to deal fully with its subject matter. However, it should not be so long as to discourage readers from reading it. Moving right along . . . Paragraphs should flow so that the reader does not feel any sudden, jolting changes of subject. The trick is to use transitions. A transition is a sentence, a phrase or even a word that connects paragraphs and takes the thoughts of the reader from the old paragraph to the new.

The conclusion An article doesn’t fi nish when the writer has run out of things to say. The conclusion can be an important part of the article. Readers of newspaper articles draw their own conclusions when they stop reading. A magazine reader, on the other hand, is more likely to read to the end of the article. A conclusion should tie everything together and sum up the article. There are many ways to conclude. A few are listed below. • Add an anecdote or story that explains the point of the article. • Return to an earlier statement whose meaning will now be clearer to the reader. • Introduce an explosive piece of information in the last paragraph. • Add an unexpected twist. • Present a ‘call to action’ or a recommendation.

Activities 1. Take an issue of one of the general interest

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women’s magazines (such as Woman’s Day or New Idea). Count the number of articles that fit into the category of ‘personality study’. Note whether the magazine places these towards the front or the back of the magazine. In a brief paragraph, comment on the use of the personality study in women’s magazines.

2. Magazines aimed at a general audience, such as

Reader’s Digest, often feature historical articles. Look at several issues of Reader’s Digest and list the subject of each historical article. Is a certain kind of subject featured often? Explain your answer in a paragraph that also lists the subject range. 3. List possible how-to topics that might appear in a youth or teen magazine.


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4. Imagine you are a reporter for a general interest

magazine. The editor wants a seasonal story that is fresh and different. The editor suggests ‘Christmas on a turkey farm’. Suggest five more ideas of your own. 5. Search through the magazines you buy regularly and find examples of the various kinds of intros. Cut them out and paste them into your workbook with the appropriate category written nearby.

WRITTEN TASK Prepare a 600-word response to the following task.

6. Analyse a magazine article according to the features

discussed in the previous pages. This can be referred to as a ‘deconstruction’ exercise — pulling it apart to reveal the means of construction. Following your analysis, evaluate the effectiveness of the article.

PRODUCTION TASK 7. Write a magazine article on a topic of general

interest. Use the conventions of the genre as outlined in this section. Research the topic, gather quotations or conduct interviews, collect anecdotes and combine the material into an article with a strong intro and conclusion.

Magazine fiction Magazine fiction offers a fantasy world. The aim is to take people away from their humdrum lives and give them excitement and romance. Magazine fiction usually takes the form of a short story designed for rapid and entertaining reading. It appears in magazines alongside other content and is usually between 1000 and 2000 words long. Magazine fiction belongs to the narrative genre (see page 8). It may not appear in every edition, but most of the major magazines carry some fiction at some time. Romantic fiction is often featured in women’s magazines. Because they are fantasy, the stories usually have interesting settings and happy endings. ‘Girl meets boy’ is a common theme. Usually the man is much wealthier, and marriage means a big climb up the social ladder for the woman. Another common theme is the ‘eternal triangle’, in which another man or woman enters the life of a previously happy couple. Rip-roaring adventure and beautiful women are the main elements in traditional men’s fiction. The stories have to be fast-moving and gripping. The most common setting is modern and urban. The male lead character is usually cynical and worldly-wise. He uses violence only after it has been used against him.

Features of magazine fiction A magazine story is usually read in one sitting, taking about 20 minutes’ reading time. As a result, the narrative is highly compressed. The story usually centres on one incident and one character. Other incidents and characters serve these main elements. The story moves towards a simple conclusion that leaves behind no loose ends. The reader should be left feeling satisfied, perhaps thinking, ‘I thought so!’

Figure 18.3: "OY MEETS GIRL 7EALTH POWER AND THE ROMANCE OF A BYGONE AGE ARE ELEMENTS IN THE FANTASY

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Plot Boy meets girl is the basis for the majority of magazine fiction writing, even that directed at men. But this formula is too simple in itself. Readers lose interest if they can see at a glance how things will work out. Complications must be introduced. The formula for many old Hollywood favourites was ‘boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy regains girl’. The complication gave people a reason to keep following the story. Even so, the progress to a satisfying conclusion should always feel inevitable.

Character The cartoonist Ward Kimball, who created Donald Duck, caught the duck’s expressions by pulling faces in the mirror. An author draws from his or her own knowledge of people to make the characters in a story come to life. If characters are to live for the reader, they must first live for the writer. Some authors imagine their characters talking and simply write down what happens, as if they are writing a play. A writer can also take the reader inside a character’s thoughts and so reveal more about the person than is available from dialogue.

Setting Words are highly valuable in magazine fiction. There are too few to waste. As a result, the setting of a magazine story is usually revealed as part of the action or dialogue. The jungle arched over a roadway, forming a lush tunnel. Heavy rain the night before had left pools of muddy water on the road and washed away the gravel shoulders. The Land Rover had been abandoned here some time before dawn.

In the example above, a description of the setting is also part of the action. When the writer mentions the abandoned four-wheel-drive, it signals the progress of the plot.

Dialogue

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Add conversation to a story and you add life. It is conversation that gives the characters a personality of their own, independent of the author. Realistic dialogue is extremely difficult to write in a short story. This is because dialogue is used to explain a character’s feelings and also to move the plot along. As well, normal conversation is fractured, rambling, repetitive and sometimes difficult to understand. If dialogue was written down exactly as it is spoken, it would make tedious reading. Good dialogue is more real than real speech. It is larger than life.

A scene from Graham Masterton’s Maiden Voyage illustrates how much can be conveyed through dialogue. ‘Well,’ replied the baroness tartly, ‘just because I can remember Poland before the War, that doesn’t actually make me a certifiable antique. Krysia! My cape, I think I’ll swim. Sabran, go to the bar and order champagne. I hate champagne,’ she confided in Catriona, ‘but unless you drink it all the time, and very conspicuously, people begin to suspect your heritage. Such a nuisance. Will you swim with me?’

Graham Masterton says, ‘In these few plain lines of dialogue, I have attempted to convey the baroness’s approximate age, her national origins, something about her class and her background, a suggestion of the way she dresses, her relationship to the two people with whom she appears [Krysia and Sabran], and the general style and sound of her speech.’ Dialogue creates a particular problem for writers of magazine fiction (and indeed all writers). ‘He said’ and ‘she replied’ can become so repetitive that it drives readers to distraction. Hundreds of words are wasted, as well. Often the attribution can be left out. Readers can understand who is speaking without being told. At other times the speaker can be indicated in a way that adds to character or plot. The ‘confided’ in Graham Masterton’s dialogue above is an example of this.

Narrative A story is told through narrative. Narrative can adopt various points of view. • First person. When the main character tells their own story, the narrative is said to be in the first person. An example of first-person narrative follows. After my meal I carried two bottles to the creek and filled them up.

• Second person. Very rarely an author speaks directly to the reader. This is second-person narrative. You can’t be too careful in New York City. You should follow a few simple steps to keep out of trouble.

• Third person. This is the most common narrative form. The author describes events objectively and does not write from the viewpoint of the main character. This makes writing easier because the author can move from one character to another whenever necessary. Peter had never been popular at school. Neither had Karen. When they became friends it was out of necessity.


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Description One well-known writer has confided that he writes by imagining he is watching a movie. He then describes the way the character or scene would appear. Whatever method the author uses, description in magazine fiction must be brief and be introduced as part of the action, in the same way as setting is revealed as part of the plot. Consider the following character description.

His warm brown eyes held hers entranced. Suddenly he broke the spell and walked away from her towards the window. His tall, strong frame stood silhouetted against the afternoon sun. Then he swung round on the heel of an expensive shoe. ‘What do you mean you can’t marry me?’

The utmost economy of words should be practised as an essential part of the magazine fiction writer’s craft. Every word should contribute to the progression of the plot.

Activities 1. What do leading men and women look like

in magazine fiction? Build up a list of physical characteristics. 2. The story line below is from a serial in Dolly magazine. Half the story has been outlined. Using a similar writing style, complete the story outline as you hope it will turn out. Your completion outline should be of similar length to the story outline provided.

‘Harper’s Road’ The story so far Our heroine has unexpectedly been asked by school football hero Rick Mitchell to accompany him to the big Friday night dance after the team’s big match. Despite her annoyance with Rick (he had not admitted to smoking in the locker room; her brother had and has been suspended from the team), she agrees. She decides she has to tell her best friend, borrows the family car and drives over, promising her father she will not be late or drive home via Harper’s Road, which he considers dangerous. However, she runs late and decides to disobey her father and take the much shorter Harper’s Road. Halfway home she runs out of petrol and must walk to the nearest service station. This leaves her prey on the deserted road to four hooligans, who decide to chase her through the woods. She hides in a log, only to have them sit on it while looking for her. Now read on … Source: Dolly

3. Words are valuable in magazine fiction. Setting is

usually described as part of the action. Look again at the example of the Land Rover abandoned in the jungle (page 504). Consider the following example. He ran his eyes calmly over the marble floor, the antique furniture, the velvet curtains and back to the muzzle of the gun pointed at his forehead.

Now try an example of your own. Choose a setting and combine a description of it with some action to move the story along. Write about five lines. Describe the scene then launch into the action. 4. Dialogue can reveal a great deal about character and so save hundreds of words of description. It can also move plot along at the same time. Make a list of personality features shown in the dialogue from a sample of magazine fiction. 5. The chief of an intelligence organisation hands a dossier to one of his undercover agents. The dossier contains pictures, personal details and descriptions of foreign agents. Take the plot of this story and develop it from here. Describe what is in the dossier and in about five to ten lines combine details of plot with descriptions of foreign agents from the dossier. Economy of words should allow the reader to picture the agents and, at the same time, introduce new twists to the plot.

PRODUCTION TASK Choose one of the following topics and write a 600word piece of magazine fiction. 6. Write a magazine story in the traditional style for a men’s or women’s magazine. 7. Write a magazine story that parodies the traditional style used in men’s or women’s fiction. 8. Use the main elements of the magazine writer’s craft to produce a new style of magazine fiction that breaks with the traditional approach to topics and characters. When you hand the story in, attach a short explanation of the conventions your story has challenged.

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Magazine display advertisements The advertisements are the best part of the magazine — at least that is what some people think! Articles and advertising are certainly friendly rivals, if not outright enemies. Each competes for the reader’s eye.

‘Advertisements are carefully placed. A clash of colours is always to be avoided and so the different ads are presented to complement page presentation. Ads are not placed near clashing stories. A story on sheep kills is not placed next to an ad for wool, for example.’ Pip Wilson, Editor, Simply Living

What is a magazine display advertisement? A magazine display advertisement is a means of promoting products through the medium of magazines. It usually comprises a headline, an eyecatching image and some promotional text. The text emphasises product advantages and an invitation to buy. Some analysts suggest that, rather than being a genre, advertising is essentially another medium. This is because advertising can draw on a range of genres in order to persuade people to buy. This variety within advertisements, says genre analyst Suzanne Courtice, means they do not all have the same stepby-step structure. Each takes its structure from the particular genre chosen to sell the product. However, the magazine display advertisement is more likely to have a staged structure than the television commercial or the radio advertisement.

Features of display advertisements

therefore, has spent 80 cents out of every dollar by the time the headline is written. Selfishness is the secret of a good headline, advertisers say. The headline of an advertisement has to promise some benefit for the reader. According to another veteran advertiser, Bill Bernback, this is achieved by drawing on the essence of the product and showing its benefit to the consumer. Curiosity may have killed the cat, but it alone never sold anything. Advertisers aim to stop readers in their tracks by arousing their curiosity. But they must do much more than this — the product must be seen to be useful. The readers’ self-interest is the key. Advertisers try to convince them the product is something they need. The headline suggests it will be quick and easy for the reader to achieve satisfaction. No advertiser mentions the hard-earned money that must be paid, or the dangers of debt. Headlines aim to arouse curiosity, working with the picture to entice the reader to look at the text. There are five main categories of headlines, although of course there are countless combinations. • News headlines play on the reader’s desire to keep up with the latest trends. MAYBELLINE LAUNCHES THE ULTIMATE MASCARA

• Reward headlines suggest the reader will benefit if the product is used. LONGER, STRONGER NAILS IN SEVEN DAYS

• Curiosity headlines get the reader wondering what the advertisement is about. They are risky for advertisers, however, because people may choose not to read on and so may never get the message. IN THE SUMMER OF AD 426, VILI VIKHELA THE FINN TOOK HIS GIRL SIGHTSEEING, PROMISING TO BRING HER HOME BEFORE SUNSET. THREE MONTHS LATER HER PARENTS GREW QUITE CONCERNED.

Most magazine display advertisements are constructed in three main parts: the headline, the picture and the written text.

This advertisement is for the Finnish airline Finnair. The ad then explains that the sun never sets in Finland in summer and recommends a visit.

The headline

• Select group headlines aim at particular audiences, such as older people or overweight people.

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According to veteran advertiser David Ogilvy, the reader must be flagged down in the headline. A good headline should say, ‘This message is for you, so read on.’ About five times as many people read the headline as read the rest of the advertisement. The advertiser,

MUSIC LOVERS. TIVOLI HI FI ARE THE SPECIALISTS

• Command headlines order the reader to buy the product. BUY NOW AND SAVE


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Figure 18.4: !N EYE CATCHING PICTURE AND HEADLINE ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF A DISPLAY ADVERTISEMENT -OST PEOPLE LOOK NO FURTHER )N THIS DISPLAY AD THE HEADLINE AND PICTURE WORK IN COMBINATION SO THAT THE MESSAGE IS RECEIVED EVEN WITHOUT READING ANY FURTHER INTO THE TEXT

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The picture The picture is the best means available to attract attention. Readers often fl ip through magazines. Advertisers need a strong picture to arrest readers’ attention and make them stop fl ipping. A picture can also be used to communicate the message quickly to those who do not bother reading. Some advertisers believe the eye registers pictures even though the conscious mind is unaware of it. The picture achieves the following: • It builds an image and a personality for the product. • It shows the product in use and how it works. • It shows the potential users and their lifestyle. • It exaggerates the benefits of using the product. Advertisers want the picture to convey a certain mood as well. They hope this mood will suit the desires of the intended audience. A mood commonly created is one of wealth, status and exclusive quality. The persuasive power of colour. It may be surprising to learn that advertisers use colour to produce certain feelings in the audience. Colour is not chosen just because it looks nice. • Blue can represent the law or authority, the sea, coolness, the sky or traditional masculinity. • Pink expresses tenderness, sweetness and traditional femininity. • Green shows the country, the earth, naturalness and fertility. It also calms the nerves and is used for restful products. • Red shows warmth and fi re. It is a strong colour. It can also stand for passion and excitement, or suggest danger. • White represents purity and hygiene. It can mean virginity. It also suggests hospitals, doctors and nurses. • Purple stands for royalty and luxury. • Yellow represents cheerfulness, sunlight and heat. Yellow is a common colour for packages because it makes them seem bigger. Pictures rich in meaning. The pictures created by advertisers speak just as loudly as their words. They often contain signifiers that are more powerful than words. These signifiers work like signals in that they have special meanings (significances) for the audience. A picture of a champagne bottle, for example, signifies leisure, wealth and celebration (see page 4).

The text

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The text is usually the least read part of the advertisement, even though it is the most detailed. The rules of newspaper layout are often applied to adver-

tising material. People expect the text to be set out in columns and to begin with the most interesting material. Sentences are kept short and words are usually not very complex. The text of an advertisement should concentrate on the self-interest of the reader. The word ‘you’ will appear to the total exclusion of any other pronoun. The key advertisers use to cash in on the consumer’s selfishness is to let the person feel what it is like to be there. The text aims to let the reader experience what it is like to use the product. Car salespeople used to say that once the customer gets behind the wheel, he or she is sold. The text encourages the reader to ‘get behind the wheel’. R. B. Heath, in his book The Persuaders, has compared an advertisement to a poem. Consider the following extract from a perfume advertisement: … it is warm, rich and narcotic with a come-on sexiness. It is redolent of burgundy, roast chestnuts, summer night smells and approaching bedtime.

Heath believes the advertisement writer is poeticising the product. This means it is the image that is sold, rather than the product itself. Short sentences and frequent commands make up the style of advertisement called journalistic. This form of writing has more orders and commands in it than any other. Its only close relative is the language of public notices and government forms. Common commands include: ‘Get brand X’ or ‘Ask for Y’. Questions are constantly asked of the reader. These are the reverse of commands. A question forces readers to think of an answer and gets them involved. Common questions include ‘Choosing a new car?’ and ‘Remember when . . . ?’

Language Magazine grammar.

advertising

uses

its

own

particular

Verbs. Advertisers prefer the present tense. This is because it is more immediate than past tenses. Verbs are stronger than adverbs. Advertisers try to choose descriptive verbs rather than less exciting verbs with colourful adverbs. Compare ‘she cleans the house quickly’ with ‘she breezes through the cleaning’. However, the simple verb ‘get’ remains the most often used in advertising. In functional grammar, verbs are referred to as processes. Advertisers usually choose action processes such as ‘buy’ and ‘save’. Sometimes relational processes are used to describe the product. These are processes such as ‘is’ and ‘has’. Adjectives. Advertisements are rich in adjectives. The most frequent to appear is ‘new’, followed by


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‘good/better/best’. So anxious are they to praise their product that advertisers pile adjective upon adjective, often using compounds. Adjectival compounds are groups of words that describe a noun. Compounds are usually hyphenated. Examples include: ‘fresh-baked bread’, ‘farm-fresh eggs’ and ‘crispy-light flakes’. Nouns. Aside from using nouns to name products, advertising language sometimes uses noun compounds. These are combinations of nouns set out in a similar way to adjectival compounds. Examples include: ‘gives a girl sex-appeal’ and ‘long-lasting flavour-freshness’. Floating comparisons. While advertisers use many comparative adjectives, they never say bigger, better or stronger than anything in particular. Advertising comparisons that are not tied down to anything are said to be ‘floating’. At least one reason for the use of floating comparisons is that nothing has to be proved. Bigger sounds good but in itself is meaningless.

Exploded sentence structure. Sentence structure in advertising follows the same basic rule as applies to all advertising — emphasise, stress and get attention at any cost. This leads to sentences without verbs, and even without subjects. Parts of sentences are shaken loose from the main structure and left standing on their own. Emotive words. Call someone ‘stubborn, crafty and miserly’ and they may discontinue your friendship. Call them ‘fi rm, shrewd and economical’ and they may thank you for the compliment. The characteristics of the person remain the same; only the words chosen by the speaker have changed. Emotive words are words that provoke an emotional reaction — usually approval or disapproval. Advertisers use emotive words to create positive, approving images of their products. They are used to create desirable personalities for often quite ordinary items of merchandise. The choice of word is all-important.

Figure 18.5: #AR ADVERTISEMENT TEXTS PUT THE READER kBEHIND THE WHEELl .OTE HOW THE TEXT APPEALS TO THE READERlS SELüSHNESS AND CONSTANTLY MENTIONS kYOUl

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Neologisms. Schweppervescence is a neologism made up of the brand name Schweppes and the word effervescence, which means fi zziness. A neologism is a newly invented word; sometimes it will combine two common words. Advertisers often use neologisms. Neologisms are also used in science and technology. Technological neologisms include microwave, polystyrene and byte. These have now become accepted as part of the language.

Advertising neologisms have short lives and rarely become accepted as real words.

Representations and discourses Magazine advertising shares the discourses and repeated representations that are common in all advertising. See representations and discourses in television advertising, page 374.

Activities 1. Write your own display advertisement headlines.

Write one for each category of headline (see pages 506). Also write a couple of combination headlines. 2. Collect some advertisements with obvious signifiers. Participate in some culture jamming (see page 375) by suggesting alternative signifiers that would destroy the images the advertisers are trying to create. For example: a luxury car at the steps of a mansion (effective); a luxury car outside a corrugated iron humpy (destructive to the image). 3. Write a 50-word text for a magazine advertisement selling a holiday or travel destination. Let the readers experience ‘being there’.

4. Collect some magazine advertisements and look

for floating comparisons. Make a list of them. Then write your own short text of around 50 words that uses at least three floating comparisons.

PRODUCTION TASK 5. Design a magazine advertisement. Give it a headline

that promotes self-interest. Describe or draw an eye-catching picture with a signifier. Write about 100 words of text, ensuring the text uses: • ‘you’ regularly • persuasive language • emotive words • ‘ad style’ punctuation • floating comparisons.

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Key terms A action line the chain of events that constitutes the main plot line in a narrative (139) advergaming using video games to advertise a product, organisation or viewpoint either by including ads in games or by designing games as advertisements (443) advertorial a text that combines editorial or report writing and advertising copywriting (499) agenda-setting theory an effects theory (most often applied to news media) that argues that media products are shaped by processes such as selection, tone and framing (158) antagonist a character (sometimes seen as the villain) who acts against the protagonist (the main character or hero) in a narrative (142) archetype a character who, according to psychologist Carl Jung, occurs in the myths and stories of all cultures, forming part of humanity’s ‘collective unconscious’ (144) aspect ratio the size and shape of the frame of a fi lm shot, based on the ratio of width to height (width divided by height) (12) asynchronous sound music or other sound that contrasts with the fi lm image, providing a commentary on it or creating a third meaning; also called contrapuntal sound (26) auteur theory the view that the fi lm director fi lls a similarly central role to that of the author of a novel (224) autocue device that allows newsreaders to read their script as it is projected onto an angled glass screen in their line of sight (323) avatar a digital representation or personification of a user in a multi-user virtual environment such as an electronic discussion group (66)

black humour sharp satire that juxtaposes morbid images and the ridiculous often for serious effect (484) blog (weblog), a website where ordinary users post opinions or commentary, or write about their experiences in the same way they would in a diary or journal (418) bloggerati bloggers who have considerable influence in areas such as politics, technology or business (418) blogosphere the virtual community of weblogs (418) blurb a short publicity statement promoting a text, especially a book or fi lm, created by its publisher or producer (224) book-time the time the book takes to tell the story (also called story-time), as compared, say, with the time a fi lm adaptation might take to tell the same story (see movie-time); after the time-based structure of narrative developed by Seymour Chatman (311) botnet networked computers used together to achieve a single task; the computers are generally infected by a virus and used, without the knowledge of the owner, for illegal activities (396) British New Wave a fi lm movement of the late 1950s and early 1960s in the social realism tradition, typically distinguished by gritty, unromanticised portrayals of working-class life (231) broadband communications network in which the bandwidth can be shared by multiple simultaneous signals (77) broadcast flag a signal encoded in a digital video signal that indicates whether a program, or part of a program (such as advertising), is watched, recorded or skipped (78) bulletin board system (BBS) a system owned by an individual or company open to users to use for communication or fi le sharing (390)

B

C

backlight in three-point lighting, the backlight is placed behind the fi lm subject to create an outline and a sense of three-dimensional space around the subject (18) bandwidth the maximum amount of information (in bits per second) that can be transmitted along an electronic communications channel (77)

caricature representation of a public figure that exaggerates certain features to aid identification and for comic effect (482) casual game a type of game with a short play time and low learning curve, and without specialist hardware requirements; popular on mobile devices (431)

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catharsis in psychology, a purging of negative emotions such as aggression (i.e. ‘letting off steam’); there are conflicting views on whether watching violent films or sporting events, or playing violent video games, can produce a positive cathartic release (171) censorware software designed to filter out adult content based on words, lists of blocked websites or skin tones in images (100) chiaroscuro high-contrast lighting that produces deep shadows — an effect produced by low key lighting (19) cinéma-vérité style of filmmaking, especially of documentaries, that attempts the authentic and realistic portrayal of people and events, avoiding technical artifice through use of handheld cameras, jump cuts, non-professional actors and so on (205) circular plot structure narrative structure that begins at the end of the story before relating the chain of events that led to that conclusion; a common device in film noir (258) citizen journalism individual and social engagement in media creation, reporting and filtering, typically involving user reporters on user-generated news and opinion sites and blogs, and mobile technology (420) citizen scheduling audiences download television content directly from the internet and watch it when it suits (319) classical continuity editing an editing style designed to mask shot changes and discontinuities that would alert the viewer to the ‘artificial’ nature of the film; features include cutting on action or movement, smooth transitions and parallel editing (233) classical Hollywood narrative the filmmaking tradition, established in Hollywood during the 1920s and 1930s, that remains the dominant western movie style; typically characterised by linear plots, character-driven action and classical continuity editing (232) codes systems of generally accepted signs (e.g. writing or filmmaking) that help create and communicate meaning (see also technical codes, symbolic codes) (5) collision of images the juxtaposition of two images with different meanings to create a third meaning; first identified in early Soviet cinema, the technique formed the basis of almost all Hollywood special effects before the arrival of computer-generated imagery (see also montage, Kuleshov Effect) (21) comedy of manners comedy that satirises the behaviour, attitudes and customs of particular social groups or classes; a forerunner to modern romantic comedy (290) complication/conflict in classical narrative, the story’s chain of events is set in motion when the orientation, normality or equilibrium at the start is disturbed by the introduction of complications or conflicts; only when these are resolved can

equilibrium be restored (see also orientation, equilibrium, disequilibrium) (136) connotation the associated thoughts that any particular sign brings to mind (see also sign) (5) constructivist theories reception theories of media influence based on the idea that the audience constructs its own meanings from any text; includes uses and gratification theory, encoding/decoding theory and ethnographic studies (156) content analysis research method involving the detailed study of a text and the enumeration of recurring elements and themes to determine its meaning, purpose and effect (156) contra-zoom a specialised camera zoom that allows the camera to zoom in while at the same time it tracks back in the opposite direction, creating a disorienting change in perspective; also called a dolly zoom, triple-zoom reflex or trombone shot (16) contrapuntal sound music or other sound that contrasts with the film image, providing a commentary on it or creating a third meaning; also called asynchronous sound (26) convergence the blurring of boundaries between different telecommunications media, such as between television and the computer, or between text, images, video and sound in multimedia products (71) (in video games, 427) cookie a small text file placed on a computer hard drive by an advertiser or site owner to track user activity and store preferences or to hold data such as purchases in a shopping cart (399) counter-stereotype a portrayal that deliberately sets out to challenge a dominant stereotype, for example by portraying a minority group in a more positive light (38) cracker an individual who breaks or ‘cracks’ software copy prevention (395) crane shot a device by which a camera is moved up or down a mechanical arm or crane, or raised and lowered at an angle to create a special effect (16) cultivation theory a media effects theory that argues that extended exposure to media products ‘cultivates’ certain ways of looking at the world across a whole culture (159) culture jamming the process of inserting radical messages into the discourses of mainstream society (375) cyberstalking use of the internet — typically chat rooms, online forums, game worlds or other multiuser virtual communities — to stalk, harass or abuse others (65)

D day for night film lighting technique involving shooting in daytime yet, through use of small lens aperture and various filters, giving the appearance of night (19)


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dayparting the practice of dividing the day into segments in order to target radio or television broadcasts to specific audiences (455) decoding reading text messages by the receiver that have been encoded by the sender using systems of signs (see also encoding/decoding theory) (6) deep focus fi lm technique using lots of light, a small camera aperture, a wide-angle lens and fast fi lm that ensures that everything in the shot, from foreground to distant background, is in focus (14) deep linking linking straight to specific content on another site, bypassing its front page and navigation links (398) defamation injuring someone’s reputation without good reason or justification; slander for the spoken word, libel for the written word (107) demographics statistics relating to a population or group (152) denotation in communication, the naming or describing of a sign (see sign) (5) depth of field the area of the frame of a fi lm shot that is in sharp focus (13) diegesis in narrative, the world of the story that is created by the text; in movies, the fictional world that is shown on the screen (25) diegetic sound sound from within the story — that which can be heard by the character (compare nondiegetic sound) (25) discourse a way of thinking and understanding the world and the language (written, spoken, visual or otherwise nonverbal) used to describe that view (192) disequilibrium the confl ict, complication or disruption that upsets the state of normality or balance that begins every story and initiates the events that make up the narrative; the ultimate resolution of this confl ict restores equilibrium at the end of the narrative (136) dispatcher according to Propp’s theory of narrative character roles, the character who sends the hero off on the quest (143) disturbance/disruption the action that begins the cause–effect chain of events of a story by disrupting the opening narrative equilibrium (136) divergence the process of multiplying the forms of delivery of a media product (71) (in video games, 427) docudrama a television or fi lm narrative based on real people and actual events; a re-enactment of events that combines elements of documentary and fictional narrative (205) documentary a creative but realistic treatment of actuality using recorded images and sounds of reality or lived experience (203) docusoap type of reality television that combines aspects of documentary and soap opera (205)

Dogma 95 a radical fi lm movement, originating in Denmark in 1995, opposed to the ‘trickery’ of the invisible style typical of the classic Hollywood narrative fi lms that hid the machinery of fi lmmaking (233) dollying shot a tracking shot in which the camera is moved through a scene by means of a dolly (a tripod on wheels) (16) donor according to Propp’s theory of narrative character roles, the character who passes to the hero something useful for the journey (143) Dutch angle when the camera is titled to one side so the horizon appears to be on an angle, creating a disorienting effect on the audience (15)

E editorial a newspaper or magazine’s official opinion or comment on current news, usually written by a senior journalist after consultation with newspaper executives; also called leader (477) effects theories theories of media influence that have studied questions of whether the media influence people’s behaviour (156) encoding constructing text messages using a system of signs (see also encoding/decoding theory) (6) encoding/decoding theory reception/constructivist theory that suggests the meaning of a text lies somewhere between the message encoded by the producer and the decoded reading of the receiver or audience (162) encryption process of transforming data into an unreadable coded form that can only be decoded with a ‘key’ — usually a multi-digit number (99) environment simulator a game type based on controlling variables within an environment (typically an economy or business) (430) environmental sound sound used within a video game to reinforce actions occurring within in the environment (444) environmental storytelling placing a narrative within a game world and allowing the player to experience narrative within the environment (439) episodic gaming games presented as smaller parts of a larger story, with each ‘episode’ sold separately (438) equilibrium the state of normality or balance that begins every story and is regained, usually in a different form, at the end, after all the complications have been resolved (compare disequilibrium) (136) ethnographic studies theories of media reception that focus, not on the producers or the text, but rather on the audience and the way they make meanings from media texts (163) expanded time a technique of fi lm editing that draws out some events or actions to create or increase tension (141)


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exposition the setting out of a point of view supported by evidence; for instance, in a documentary it is the line of argument that combines description and commentary (204) exposition/expository genre texts that contain a point of view and provide evidence to support it (8)

F false hero according to Propp’s theory of narrative character roles, the character who is viewed positively before being revealed as a villain (143) feature story an in-depth or background story (rather than a breaking news story) on people and events (490) feedback loop in episodic gaming, when feedback from one game episode is used to improve the next (438) femme fatale the scheming seductress who ensnares the male protagonist in a fatal web of deceit; a common character in film noir (259) fifth generation directors the new generation of filmmakers to emerge from the Beijing Film Academy in the 1980s, their films characterised by a return to historical Chinese literary and artistic traditions (248) fill light in standard film three-point lighting, a soft, diffuse light placed slightly to the other side of the main subject at about the same angle as the key light; the fill light fills in the shadows cast by the key light (18) film noir an American movie genre associated with the 1940s and 1950s; moody and bleak, unsettling films with dark, shadowy themes about life and crime in the underworld of big cities (see also neonoir, tech-noir) (254) final girl a term coined by Carol Glover to describe the terrified female survivor with whom the audience identifies in slasher-type horror movies (270) firewall a protective hardware or software barrier between a computer or computer network and the wider internet (97, 399) flaming deliberately posting insulting or hostile messages on the internet (66) flat lighting a style of lighting that allows for a neutral viewpoint; favoured by Chinese filmmakers (249) foil a narrative character who, by way of contrast, highlights the strong, positive characteristics of the protagonist (142) folksonomy a user-generated taxonomy used to categorise web content via open-ended, user-applied, single-word descriptions called ‘tags’ (see tagging) (416) foreshadowing a device by which the early introduction of a seemingly unimportant element discreetly hints at a later development in the story (138) fourth estate the media, specifically news journalism, as an instrument of democracy (324)

framing the manipulation of the photographic frame to suggest to the audience what is important and thereby to present a point of view; by extension, a representation can be framed within a certain discourse or viewpoint (12) French New Wave a revolutionary experimental, intellectual film movement of the late 1950s and 1960s spearheaded by young writers and critics from the journal Cahiers de Cinéma (231) friending adding a contact to your list of connected ‘friends’ on a social networking site (412)

G gameplay outline a detailed game design document that details all levels within a game as well as all interactions, special effects, plot devices and design standards, showing where all characters or ‘monsters’ are and how they can be dealt with (445) gatekeeping a function of news editors and other media directors who decide what features to run and what stories to tell (158) gatewatching community participation in news sites where stories are ‘ruled in or out’ by voting or popularity (423) genre a particular set of codes and conventions relating to content, style and structure by which media texts are classified (7) German expressionism a style of film production that emerged in Germany after World War I and lasted until the mid 1920s; typically featured horror narratives, eccentric, bizarre characters and performances, and distorted sets and mise-en-scène (227) griefer player who causes trouble in online games (434)

H hacker a person who illegally breaks into computer systems or networks (395) hard news current, event-based and dramatic news stories that usually lead news broadcasts (compare soft news) (321) Hays Code a set of industry censorship guidelines governing US film production; introduced in 1930 and made legally enforceable in 1934, the standards were finally relaxed in the late 1960s, to be replaced by the rating system (258) helper according to Propp’s theory of narrative character roles, the sidekick who helps the protagonist recover narrative equilibrium (143) high key lighting mounting a high-intensity key light high, thus eliminating shadows, helps build a sense of an artificial, unnaturally perfect world (19) Hong Kong New Wave a group of directors in the 1980s who blended computer-generated special effects with wuxia traditions to produce grand fantasy films (274)


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horizontal integration media industry diversification through ‘sideways’ expansion; for example, a movie company’s spreading its activities into other leisure industry areas such as holiday resorts (104) hybrid text a text that combines elements of two or more genres (7) hyperlink a non-linear link within content allowing the user to navigate to related information (30) hypertext a system of data organisation allowing non-linear access to information (30)

I icon a picture representation of an action or task found in software, on the internet and in multimedia (4) iconic interface a type of user interface that uses icons and menus to allow a user to select predetermined options (31) identification unconscious copying of a character’s or person’s actions or adoption of their beliefs; sometimes exhibited by video game players as a consequence of intense and close involvement with a particular character or character type (182) identity theft stealing or using another person’s identity illegally; typically involves stealing credit card or bank details (397) indexical interface an immersive type of user interface that is richly decorated with imagery, movement and colour (32) intelligent sound a video game’s artificial intelligence applies music and sound effects matching the current tension level of the game (444) internet service provider (ISP) offers clients paid access to the internet via telephone networks, cables, satellite or wireless technology (384) interstitial advertisement internet advertising that occurs before the next page of content or appears over content, interrupting in a way similar to television or radio ads (406) intertextuality the process by which one text makes references to other texts to create more complex meanings (9) Italian neo-realism a film movement of the mid 1940s to mid 1950s that set out to reveal the often harsh everyday realities of life in postwar Italy using natural, often unscripted dialogue, non-professional actors and documentary-style location shooting (230)

J jump cut a sudden cut between shots, often used by realist directors to remind the audience that the fi lm is a construction and to encourage viewers to make their own judgements on the fi lm’s ‘reality’ (229)

K key light in standard three-point lighting the key light, the brightest source of illumination, is focused slightly to one side of the main subject (18)

Kuleshov Effect a montage effect demonstrated in the 1920s by Russian fi lmmaker Lev Kuleshov, who showed how audiences can make different inferences about a shot depending on the shots with which it is intercut; a central principle of modern editing (227)

L looking space an area of negative or empty space in front of a framed person that suggests someone else is outside the frame (12) low key lighting mounting a low-intensity key light low casts shadows across the faces of the actors and areas of the set (19)

M machinima using games and game technology to create movies with live action played out by players (445) magical realism a narrative style, popular in Latin American fi lm and literature, that combines everyday reality with supernatural or ‘magical’ events (251) mash-up the combination of existing content or functionality from other sources into a new integrated experience (388) massively multiplayer online game (MMO) a video game capable of supporting thousands, even millions, of players simultaneously in a persistent game world (433) masthead the title of a newspaper as printed at the top of the front page and above the editorial (477) medium channel of communication (e.g. radio, television, DVD); media (plural) the organisations that produce these communications and the cultural products that result (e.g. texts such as newspapers, movies and video games) (1) mentor antagonist in a narrative, an agent of change whose intervention forces the protagonist to undertake a painful journey of personal growth (142) message board (or bulletin board), system owned by an individual or company open to users to use for communication or fi le sharing (390) metatag hidden textual descriptions of website content placed within the programming code of the web page used by search engines (389) mise-en-scène all the elements that together produce the ‘look and feel’ of a shot, including set, costume, make-up, acting and lighting (17) mod user-created modifications of existing games to create new levels within a game or a complete new game experience (445) mojo mobile journalist with wireless laptop who submits stories in digital print, sound and video formats (475) monopoly a market dominated by a single service provider or seller (103)


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montage a theory developed by Russian filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein that demonstrated how the juxtapositioning of separate shots with different meanings could create a third meaning (21) motif an object, image or idea that recurs in a film or book (18) movie-time the time a film takes to tell the story, as compared, say, with the time a book might take to tell the same story (see book-time); after the timebased structure of narrative developed by Seymour Chatman (311) multimedia combination of text, images, audio, video and/or animation in an electronic form (30)

N narrative genre genre of media text that use storytelling codes and conventions such as plot, character and setting (8) narrowcast communication that targets special interest groups or is limited in terms of demographics, location or duration (127) neo-noir films since the 1970s that have reproduced some stylistic aspects of the film noir (254) news hole the area left in a newspaper after the advertising space has been filled up (475) news peg newsworthy item that makes a story of immediate public relevance (490) nondiegetic sound sound from outside the movie that cannot be heard by the characters, including soundtrack, narration and voice-overs (25)

O oligopoly a market dominated by a few service providers or sellers (103) orientation in the three-act structure of traditional narrative, the orientation is the first stage in which the characters are introduced in their current situation, before the complications begin (138)

P panning shot from panorama meaning to sweep the camera from on side of a scene to the other (15) parallel editing cutting back and forth between two filmed sequences assumed to be happening at the same time but in different locations and concluding with the action in each sequence coming together; also called simultaneous time (25) parallel sound music or sound that is parallel in meaning to the image or conveys a similar message to that in the image; also called synchronous sound (26) peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing involving many-tomany connections rather than individual users downloading files from a single source; a user downloads separate parts of a file from many other users’ computers simultaneously (390) people meter electronic device that records the television programs watched by sample audience members and then relays the data to ratings organisations (133)

persistent world an online game world that never closes, events and gameplay continuing even when some of the players are not playing their characters (433) phishing attempting to fraudulently acquire personal information such as passwords or credit card details through masquerading as a trustworthy entity using electronic communication (396) phobic pressure point fears and phobias people have that, according to horror writer Stephen King, can be played upon to enhance audience reaction in horror films (269) phreaker someone who gains unauthorised access to phone systems (395) playback singer recording artist whose voice is dubbed over the mimed performance of celebrity actors; common in Indian cinema (245) podcast an audio program designed to be downloaded and listened to at the convenience of the listener (416) polysemy the capacity of signs and symbols to have many meanings (5) protagonist a character (sometimes seen as the hero) who plays the leading part in a drama (141)

Q qualitative study analysis based on describing ‘qualities’ or characteristics (e.g. through interviews and observation) rather than relying on numbers and statistics (160) quantitative study analysis that studies problems, evaluates propositions and ideas, and draws conclusions based on numbers and statistics (157)

R ratings television viewing statistics gathered via people meters from sample audiences and used to inform advertisers and television executives about the audiences of television programs (133) realism a film style that aims to portray life as it really is and presents on screen what is supposed to be the actual experiences of the characters (229) reception theories media influence theories based on attempts to understand how audiences make meaning from media texts (156) relationship line the (sometimes secondary) chain of events in a narrative that, according to Linda Aronson, complements the action line and allows the audience to explore the emotional relationships between characters (140) representation the re-presentation of the reality of actual lived experience as a selective media appearance of reality (35) resolution the third stage in the three-act structure of traditional narrative, in which the climax is reached and the complications of the second stage are resolved (139)


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5:28:38 PM

rich media an engaging interactive electronic presentation utilising a range of multimedia; often used in reference to interactive multimedia advertising (405) roleplaying shooter game in which the player controls the main character (the ‘shooter’), seeing through their eyes (first-person shooter) or seeing the main character from behind (third person shooter) (430) RSS feed (Really Simple Syndication) system for sending content directly to the user when the user subscribes to the channel or ‘feed’ (390) rule of thirds a rule of thumb used to compose the elements in an image by placing them at the intersection of horizontal and vertical lines dividing the frame into thirds (13)

S satire use of ridicule, irony or wit to send up or mock foolishness or corruption (483) screen architecture on-screen elements and layout that comprise the user interface of a video game or multimedia product (444) screen geography the layout and direction of the action within the frame and the point of view of the camera as it fi lms (24) screen scraping a technique by which a computer program reads information off the user interface or screen of another website (389) screwball comedy a type of romantic comedy based on the ‘battle of the sexes’ and often featuring strong and independent women (290) search engine marketing (SEM) a form of advertising that improves the ranking of a company or product in search result pages (406) selective focus when only some of the shot is in focus and the remainder is out of focus; a function of depth of field (14) Semantic Web (or Web 3.0) a future internet model where content is organised so that it is accessible in whatever way required outside the bounds of traditional websites and ownership models (389) semiotic constructivism an approach to audience study that takes account of semiotics and also includes the individual as a meaning maker within a range of available discourses (164) semiotics the study of the meanings of signs and symbols (4) serious game video game with an educational or training purpose (431) setting the time and place of a narrative (146) set-up the technical arrangements necessary to establish or set up a scene for shooting (257) shot usually the time span between when the camera is turned on and when it is turned off again; sometimes taken as being from the time the camera is turned on until the camera is moved to a new position (10)

sign the basic unit of semiotic communication and anything that refers to something other than itself (4) ‘silver bullet’ theories term for early effects theories based on the idea that media messages penetrated the minds of the audience unaltered and as the producer intended (157) simulation game game that simulates entire environments or worlds, or means of transportation (e.g. a fl ight or train simulator); appeals primarily to those with an existing interest in these areas (430) simultaneous time cross cutting from one event to another in a different location to give the impression they are occurring at the same time (see also parallel editing) (23) site map a diagram of the ‘architecture’, content organisation or screen hierarchy of a website or application (34) situation comedy television comedy genre with regularly appearing characters placed in funny or unusual situations (345) sixth generation director the sixth generation of fi lm directors to graduate from the Beijing Film Academy, noted for their relatively critical and experimental fi lms (248) sketch comedy television comedy genre based around a series of usually unconnected skits or sketches (345) SMS language an abbreviated form of language designed for fast entry into mobile phones, circumventing the limitations of their keyboards (87) social network a website designed to allow people to connect, interact and join communities online, with content shared through friends and social connections (409) social realism television or fi lms in the realist tradition that make a social or political comment (231) socialist realism fi lms (usually from communist China or the former USSR) seeking to promote socialism and often dealing with issues of injustice and exploitation (248) soft news less time-sensitive ‘human interest’ stories that focus on entertainment rather than information (compare hard news) (321) soundtrack sound accompanying video and composed of three dimensions: music, sound effects and dialogue (25) Soviet montage cinema a Russian fi lm movement of the 1920s that developed the montage technique of editing; see also collision of images (227) spam (Simultaneously Posted Advertising Message), unsolicited ‘junk’ email delivered to millions of users at a single keystroke (389) spoofi ng disguising a person’s or website’s true identity by hiding their email address, website or phone number or using a fake or stolen substitute (389)


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spyware parasitic software that hides on a computer hard drive, using the internet to communicate back to its owner (396) Steadicam A gyroscopic camera mount that smoothes out camera movements by using weights and counterbalances to allow the camera to ‘float’ on a mechanical arm (16) stereotype an oversimplified, clichéd image, repeated so many times that it establishes a pattern (37) storyboard a pre-production planning document consisting of sketches and brief notes outlining the narrative and technical information (115) story-time the time the book takes to tell the story (also called book-time), as compared, say, with the time a film adaptation might take to tell the same story (see movie-time); after the time-based structure of narrative developed by Seymour Chatman (311) streaming gradual downloading of an audio or video file over the internet (87) surrealism use of dream-like, fantastic, startling or incongruous images for effect (484) suspension of disbelief the process by which audiences agree to suspend their critical faculties in order to believe in an unlikely story (135) symbol signs that do not resemble the things they refer to (5) symbolic codes systems of signs that are embedded in texts (5) symbolic interface a form of user interface that requires the user to know a programming language to communicate with a computer; the most flexible but complex user interface (31) synchronous sound soundtrack that works to support meaning of the film image (26)

T tag a descriptive keyword applied to content (416) tagging adding or associating descriptive words to content allowing easy cataloging across multiple criteria (416) tag cloud visual mapping of the most popular ‘tags’ on a website that catalogues content through userassigned tags (416) talking space an area of empty or negative space in the frame in front of a person talking that suggests they are talking to another person outside the frame (12) tandem narrative a term used by Linda Aronson to describe a narrative that consists of two separate but interconnected stories of equal size or importance (140) technical codes codes of production that are embedded in the text; including shot sizes, camera angles etc. (5) tech-noir science fiction films with some of the features of film noir (254)

thread a hierarchy of electronic messages based on a single subject organised by posting date and subject (390) three-act structure traditional narrative structure based on the three stages of orientation, complication and resolution (138) three-point lighting standard lighting arrangement consisting of a key light, fill light and backlight (18) tracking shot a film shot in which the camera is moved along the ground either sideways, forward or back; originally moved along tracks (16) transitions technical devices used to shift from one scene to another including cuts, fades, wipes etc. (22)

U Usenet a system of public access bulletin boards hosted and duplicated on hundreds of thousands of servers worldwide without any governing body (390) uses and gratifications theory media influence theory suggesting audiences use media to fulfil certain individual purposes and needs (161)

V vertical integration expansion of a company’s investment interests into other companies whose products are either up or down the chain of production (104) video streaming (319) see streaming viral advertising self-propagating advertising content spread quickly and exponentially through pre-existing social networks (406) virus a usually destructive self-replicating computer program written to run tasks on another’s computer without their knowledge or approval (396) vodcast a video program designed to be downloaded and viewed at the convenience of the user (416)

W Web 1.0 the early ‘static’ web, which offered little personal customisation of content (388) Web 2.0 the second generation of websites and services, which is dynamic, personalised and connected, and encourages user participation (388) Web 3.0 (the Semantic Web) a future vision of the internet, with content taking precedence over presentation and ownership, featuring greater sharing and personal customisation of content (389) wiki a website that allows users to add, remove, edit and update content, building a collaborative body of knowledge from the ground up (415)

Z zoom shot a shot that magnifies or enlarges its subject rather than moving closer (16)


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Index A ABC 121–3 ABC Classic FM 129 ABC News Radio 130 ABC Radio 129–30 Aboriginal culture (Australian fi lm) 242 Aborigines, representations in advertising 59 absurd comedies 345 absurd parody comedies 461 acting (mise-en-scène) 18 action lines 139–40 action sounds (radio) 27 active audiences 148 active voice (television news) 327 adult contemporary (AC) 454 adventure games 430 advergaming 443 Advertiser Code of Ethics 113 advertising attitude measurement 177 codes for 113 commercial radio 131 constructing audiences 151 do advertisements really work? 174–9 effects 184 famous successes 179 linear models of effectiveness 175–7 magazine display 506–10 magazines 497–8 reception/constructivist theories 177 famous flops 178–9 representations 58–9 targeting audiences 152–3 user-generated content 78–9 video games 442–3 see also internet advertising; radio advertising; television advertising Advertising Claims Board 113 Advertising Standards Bureau 113 advertorials, magazines 499 aesthetic realism 229–30 African Americans, representations in advertising 59

agenda-setting theory 156, 158 applied to community service messages 185 strengths and weaknesses 159 television news programs 51 aggression (media effects) 184 AIDA model (advertising effectiveness) 175–6 album-oriented rock (AOR) 454 ‘always on’ generation 85 amateur journalism 422 analogy commercials 371 anarchy (gangster movies) 262 angle, height and distance (frame) 12 animation 32–3 antagonists 142 romantic comedies 290 science fiction 304 anthropomorphism 483 antisocial behaviour, promoted by video games 181–2 antisocial elements in audiences 165 anxiety disorders 86 arcade or platform games 429 archetype 44 Argentina, Latin American cinema 251 art fi lms 238 aspect ratio (frame) 12 assessing beliefs 160 asynchronous sound 26 attitude measurement (advertising) 177 attitudes 153–4 attribution (television news) 327 audience reception affecting representations 38 audiences active 148 characteristics of 147–8 children as 165 constructing 151–2 demographic breakdown 152–3 documentaries 208 editorials 479 effect of martial arts movies 277–8

effect on media products 105 effects of violence 170–2 elderly 165 gangster movies 264 imagination in fi lm adaptations of novels 313 individual meaning makers 148–9 internet 391–3, 407 issues in Bollywood fi lms 246–7 issues in horror movies 272 issues in thrillers 298 light viewers and heavy viewers 160 magazines 498–9 mentally ill as 165 music videos 366 neglect of smaller and poorer 105 newspapers 471 online newspapers 476 positioning audiences to accept values in media texts 191 protecting 165–7 radio advertising 466 radio music formats 455–6 reality television 380 soap operas 342 susceptible 165–6 talkback radio 458 targeting 152–4 under-18s as 165 uses and gratifications (UG) theory 161 video games 447–9 viewing habits 132 ways of ‘reading’ texts 149 young people as 165 audio 33 Aussie battler (Australian fi lm) 240 Aussie larrikin (Australian fi lm) 240 Australia federal government authorities 117 internet censorship 98 Australian Broadcasting Authority (ABA) 88–9, 130–1

5_61_05447_MEDIA_Index

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Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act (1983) 121 Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) 111, 114, 117–18, 125 Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) 111, 117, 118 Australian film 235 discourses 239–43 historical context pre-1920 boom 235–6 1990s–2010: mature phase 238–9 1920s–1940s: the ‘grim years’ 236–7 1950s–1960s: ‘barely there’ 237 1970s–1980s: revival 237–8 themes 239–43 Australian horror 267 Australian identity 239 Australian Press Council 112 Australian privacy regulation 82 Australian Subscription Television and Radio Association (ASTRA) 113 auteur theory 224 autocue 323 avatar 66, 433 axis of action 25–5

B backlight 18 film noir 257 bandwidth 77 banner ads 406 banner design 407–8 ‘bardic’ television 319 beautiful music 454 behavioural effects 183 behavioural targeting 407 beliefs 153–4 assessing 160 belongers 154 big close-up (BCU) 11 binary oppositions 6 black comedy 344 black humour 484 bloggerati 418 bloggers, and independent journalists 422–3 blogs 71, 79, 418 content and issues 418–20 types of 418 body, the horror 267 martial arts movies 275 Bollywood films 244–7 Bollywood musicals 280 botnet 396 brand name (signifiers) 373

Brazil, Latin American cinema 251 British New Wave 231–2 British romantic comedies 291 broadband radio 79–80 broadband speeds, increase on internet 77 broadband television 77 broadcast flags 78 Broadcasting Services Act (1992) 112, 115 Broadcasting Services Act (1992) Amendment Media Ownership (2006) 116–17 Broadcasting Services (Australian Content) Standard 2005 114 broadcasting spectrum 108 bulletin boards (BBS) 390 bullying (internet) 65–6 burlesque 344

C cable shots 17 call centres, offshore 90–1 camera angles 15 disorienting (film noir) 257 camera movement 15–17 cameras handheld 17 miniaturisation of 74 campaign websites 405 Campbell, Joseph 144–5 captions, social comment cartoon 485 caricature 482–3 cartoons humour 480–1 social comment 480–5 casino games 431 casual games 431 categorisation 207 catharsis, violence 170 caused by video games 182 causal agents (narrative) 136 cause-and-effect cycle (narrative) 136 cause and effect (in documentaries) 207 censorship internet 96–100 approaches to 100 difficulties in 98 government role 97–100 Great Firewall of China 97 in Australia 98 views against 99 views in support of 99–100 media 107 censorware software 100 character codes 7 characterisation 141, 142

characters 141–4 creating 142 crime dramas 361 developing 144 docudrama 215–16 flat and rounded 143–4 gangster movies 264 horror movies 270 magazine fiction 504 martial arts movies 276 musicals 283 Propp’s roles 142–3 radio comedy 461–2 radio plays 465 reality television 379 road movies 288 romantic comedies 292–3 science fiction 307 situation comedies 349 soap operas 337–9 static 144 thrillers 297–8 westerns 302–3 chat rooms 390 chiaroscuro lighting (film) 19 children as audiences, vulnerable to harm 165 Chile, Latin American cinema 251 Chinese cinema 247 features of 248–9 representation issues in 249–50 Chinese ghost stories 274 Chinese martial arts films 274 cinéma-vérité 205 cinéma-vérité movement 17 circular plot progression 140 citizen journalism 420 influence of 421–2 issues 422–3 citizen scheduling 319 classic continuity editing 233 classic rock 454 classic westerns 299 classical Hollywood narrative 232–3 classification code for media content (OFLC) 166–7 climaxes 139 clipshow reality 376 close-up (CU) 11, 21 closing equilibrium 137 closing sequences 137 ‘Coca-Colanisation’ of culture 105 codes 5–6 analysing representations 37 of behaviour (narrative) 146 cognitive effects 183 collective intelligence 411 collision of images (montage) 21 combat games 429–30


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comedy and social change 45 features of 345 of manners 290, 344 representations in television 45–9 situation 46–8 sketch 45–6 theory: what makes us laugh? 345–7 see also romantic comedies; situation comedies; television comedy comic trap 348 commercial media 110 commercial radio 131 advertising on 131 Commercial Radio Australia 113, 116–17 Commercial Radio Code of Practice (2004) 113 commercial television 126–7 commercials, on television 369–70 Commonwealth Classification (Publications, Films and Computer Games) Act (1995) 112 communication theories, examples of media effects 184–5 communities, as soap opera settings 340 Community Broadcasting Association of Australia 113 community groups, input in decisions about classification 167 community radio 130–1 community service effects 184, 185 community standards, media 107 community television 124–5 Community Television Code of Practice 113 commutation 6 companionship 161 competition 118 complex plots (film noir) 257 complications stage, second act 139 composition (of shot) 13 compressing time (shots) 23 computer-based language elements 30–4 computer games, OFLC regulation categories 166–7 computer viruses 396 computers basis for entertainment and communications network 70 blurring of boundary with television 71 dumped as landfi ll 90 conceptual clips 365

confl ict (narrative) 136, 211 connotations 4, 5 consciousness industries 102 constructing audiences 151–2 constructivist theories 156, 160–4 advertising effectiveness 177 consumer-generated advertising 405 contemporary hit radio (CHR) 453–4 content adult in MMOs 434 analysis 156, 159–60 Australian 114–16 Australian regulation 166–7 documentaries 115 drama 114 local regulation 114 overall quotas 114 television 115 context 187–8 film noir 254–6 gangster movies 261–2 horror movies 266–7 martial arts movies 274 musicals 279–80 reality television 376–7 road movies 285–6 romantic comedies 290 science fiction 304–6 thrillers 297 video games 427–8 westerns 301 continuity editing, classic 25 contra-zoom (camera movement) 16 contrapuntal sound 26 conventions 6 convergence 30, 71 cookies 399 cop (character) 288 copy-cat effects, violence 170, 172 copyright internet 414 infringement on 94 MMOs (massively multiplayer online games) 435–6 corporate websites 405 costumes (mise-en-scène) 18 counter-stereotypes 38 country music stations 454 country towns (Australian fi lm) 242 crackers, computer 395 crane shot (camera movement) 16 creative literacy 411 creature horror 266 crime, representations on television 56–7 crime dramas 356–7 characters 361 features of 357–8

forensic 358, 361 plot 358, 360 representations and discourses 362–3 situation comedy– influenced 357–8, 361 soap opera–influenced 357, 361 timeline 359 types of 357 criminal violence gangster movies 261 media as a factor in 173 critical literacy, and media texts 189 Cuba, Latin American cinema 250–1 cultivation studies advertising 177 in screen violence 171 strengths and weaknesses 160 cultivation theory 156, 159–60 cultural and racial issues, in video games 63 cultural approaches 163 cultural codes 7 cultural context 188 cultural discourses 193 characteristics 194 cultural imperialism (internet) 66–8 cultural jamming, television advertising 375 cultural models, advertising 177 culture changed by television 159 role of media 2 customs (narrative) 146 cut (visual punctuation) 22 cybercriminals 395 cyberstalking (internet) 65–6

D DAGMAR model (advertising effectiveness) 176 dance radio format 455 datasphere 1 day for night lighting (fi lm) 19–20 dayparting radio 455 television 319 death count in movies 170 decentralisation (media regulations) 108 decoding 6 deep focus 14 film noir 257 deep linking 398 defamation 397–8 laws 107 defocus (visual punctuation) 22 demographic information 81, 152


521

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demonstration animation 33 commercials 370 denial-of-service (DoS) attacks 395 denotation 5 depth of field (frame) 13–14 detective shows 357 developing characters 144 dialogue 25 magazine fiction 504 radio comedy 461 radio plays 464–5 diegesis 25, 136 diegetic sound 25 digital composite shots 17 digital imaging 83–4 digitality (new media) 2 direct censorship, media 107 direct effects, violence 170 ‘dirty data’ 81 discourses 107, 192–5 analysing representations 37 and social values 191, 192–3 by decade 196–202 Australian film 239–43 characteristics of 194 crime dramas 362–3 definitions of 192 docudrama 217–18 documentaries 207 editorials 479 film noir 258, 260 ‘fourth estate’ of democracy 324 gangster movies 264 horror movies 271 maintained in society 194–5 martial arts movies 277 media 195 music videos 367 musicals 284 reality television 380 road movies 289 romantic comedies 294 science fiction 315 situation comedy 351–3 sketch comedies 354 soap operas 341–2 talkback radio 459 television advertising 374–5 television news 324 types of 193 westerns 303 disequilibrium 136–7 disinhibition, violence 170 dispatcher (character role) 143 dispersal characteristics (new media) 3 dissolve (visual punctuation) 22 distributed file-sharing systems 77 disturbance 136 divergence 71

diversion, and escape 161 diversity media 118 docudrama 205, 214 and traditional documentary 214 and truth 53–5 discourse in 217–18 features of 215–17 representation in 218 representation issues 53–5 representing history 54–5 timeline 219 documentaries 203 and audiences 208 and institutions 208 discourses in 207 features of 204 program content 115 representation in 207–8 structure of 209–11 television advertising 370 timeline 206 traditional and docudrama 214 types of 204–5 writing of 209–11 docusoap 205 Dogma 95 233–4 dolly zoom (camera movement) 16 dollying (camera movement) 16 dominant readings of media texts 149 donor (character role) 143 drama program content 114 see also crime dramas; docudrama; radio drama dramatisation documentaries 204 television advertising 370 dreamlike reality 319 Dutch angle 15

E e-books 76–7 e-commerce 399 easy listening radio stations 454 economic and political discourses 193 economic factors (narrative) 146 economic role (of media) 2 editing classic continuity 25 control of text progress 22–5 shot-to-shot relationships 21–6 editorial cartoon 480 editorials 477 audience 479 features of 478–9 representation and discourse 479 types of 477–8

effects and change 184 positive and negative 183–5 examples 184–5 types 183–5 effects studies 156–7 advertising, famous successes 179 ‘hypodermic needle’ theories 156, 157 in screen violence 171 ‘limited effects’ approaches 156, 158 playing video games 180–3 ‘silver bullet’ theories 156, 157 strengths and weaknesses of 157, 158 ‘two-step flow’ approaches 158 effects tradition 156–60 elderly as audiences, vulnerable to harm 165 electronic book readers 76 email 389 email marketing 405–6 emergency censorship, media 107 emotional effects 183 emulator-achievers 154 emulators 154 encoding 6 encoding/decoding (E/D) theory 156, 162 strengths and weaknesses 162 encryption 99 engagement models, advertising 177 entertainment, downloading from internet 95–6 entrapment, sense of (film noir) 257 environment computers and mobile phones dumped as landfill 90 narrative in video games 439 simulators 430 environmental sound 444 environmental storytelling 439 equilibrium 136–7 ethnic minorities, representations 58–9 ethnic radio 130 ethnographic approaches 163 ethnographic research 156 in violence 171–2 exaggeration 485 expansion of time (shots) 23, 141 exposition 8 docudrama 217 documentaries 204 structuring 212 extreme close-up (ECU) 11 extreme long shot (ELS) 11, 21 extremely high camera angle 15


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F fade (visual punctuation) 22 false hero (character role) 143 family as soap opera settings 340 life cycle 153 representations changes in sitcoms over time 48 in film noir 260 situation comedies 348 settings 351 stereotypes 349 fantasy-based (expressionistic) musicals 279 farce 344 and fantasy 485 fathers, representations 46–7 changes in sitcoms over time 48 feature news leads 325 feature story 490–3 elements of 491–2 magazine article 501–2 purpose of 491 representation and discourse 493 types of 491 writing 492–3 federal government authorities 117 females archetype in horror movies 270 as audiences, vulnerable to harm 165 as video gamers 448 gender portrayal (case study) 40–4 representations in film noir 260 in television advertising 58 in television programs 47 stereotypes 43 sexual harassment (internet) 66 feminist era, gender portrayal (case study) 42–3 femme fatale (film noir) 259 fight choreography (martial arts movies) 275 fi ll light (fi lm) 18 fi lm adaptations of novels 311 features 311–14 interpretation 314 narrative 312 social context of 314 fi lm movements 227 British New Wave 231–2 classical Hollywood narrative 232–3 Dogma 95 233–4 French New Wave 231 German expressionism 227–8 Italian neo-realism 230 realism 229–30 Soviet montage cinema 227

film noir 41, 140, 254 characters 259, 361 context 254–6 discourses 258, 260 features of 257 low key lighting 19 plot 258 representations 260 setting 259–60 timeline 256 types of 254 fi lm posters 225–6 fi lms effects resulting from exposure to 159–60 features of the experience 222 language elements of 10–20 medium of 220–2 movie blurbs 224 OFLC regulation categories 166–7 reviews 222–4 features of 223 in internet sites 224 in magazines and newspapers 223 purposes of 223 ‘fi nal girl’ 270 fi rewall 97 fi rst act, orientation stage 138–9 fi rst party cookies 399 fi rst-person voice-over (film noir) 257 flaming 66 flashback narrative 140 flashbacks (shots) 24 flashforwards (shots) 24 flat characters 143–4 flat lighting 249 fl ight simulators 430–1 focus change 14 depth of field (frame) 13–14 foils 142 folksonomy 416 follow focus 14 foreign ownership 118 forensic crime dramas 358, 361 foreshadowing 138, 297 crime dramas 358 formulated docusoap 376 fourth estate 324 frame movement 12 framing analysing representations 37 photographic 12 free markets (media regulations) 108 free-to-air television 114 Free TV Australia 113 French New Wave 231 friending 412

full motion video (FMV) movies 432 fully narrated documentaries 204–5

G gambling in MMOs 435 gameplay 444–5, 447–9 games, video see video games gangster movies 261 characters 264 context 261–2 features of 262 plot 262 representations, discourses and audience 264 setting 264 timeline 263 gatekeeping (television news programs) 51, 158 gatewatching 423 gender demographics 153 discourses 193 of workers, video game industry 92–3 portrayal representation 40–4 in video games 61–2 representation timeline 44 stereotypes in situation comedies 349 genres 7–8, 203 and audiences 10 and industry 10 features of 8–9 five key codes of narrative 6 internet 387–8 intertextuality 9 narrative 8, 137 radio 450–68 specific 8 types of 8 geographical factors (narrative) 146 geotagging 416 German expressionism 227–8, 257 global characteristics 3 globalisation impact on Australian fi lm industry 238 media products 105–6 media regulations 108 golden oldies 454 gothic horror 265 government constructing audiences 151–2 federal authorities 117 regulating for audience protection 151–2, 165 role, internet censorship 97–100


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grammar (news writing) 326–8 graphic relationships (shots) 22–3 gratifications, uses and (UG) theory 161 soap operas 342 strengths and weaknesses 162 theory 156 Great Firewall of China 97 griefer 434 groups, representations 46–7

H hackers 395 harassment and deception (internet) 66, 413–14 hard centres (advertising) 370 hard news 321–2, 487 leads 325 talkback 458 harm and offence 165 Hartley, John 9–10 hate sites (internet) 65 Hays Code 258, 267, 290 headline, magazine display advertisements 506 helper (character role) 143 Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) 118 hero (character role) 143 hero’s journey 144–5 high camera angle 15 high key lighting (film) 19 historical (discourse characteristic) 194 history, representation in docudrama 54–5 Hitchcock zoom (camera movement) 16 home page 34 Hong Kong New Wave 274 horizontal integration (expansion) 104 horror movies 265 Australian horror 267 characters 270 context 266–7 features of 267, 269 plot 269–70 representations, discourses and audience 271–2 setting 270–1 timeline 270 types of 265–6 human characters (causal agents) 136 human rights, representations on television 56 human society (causal agents) 136 humour flow of 348 of cartoons 480–1 sketch comedies 353–4

television advertising 373 television comedy 345–6 hybrid texts 7 hyperlink 30 hypertext 2, 30–1 ‘hypodermic needle’ theories 156, 157

I iconic interfaces 31–2 icons 4 ICQ (‘I seek you’) 390 identification with characters, in video games 182 identity audience constructing 151 Australian 239 theft 397 image focus depth of field (frame) 13–14 image manipulation 84 images computer-based media 33 music videos 365–6 imaginative absurdity (radio comedy) 461 imaging, digital 83–4 impressionistic cartoons 481 in-game advertising 443 inattentive viewers, television 317 incongruity (mismatches) 346 indexical interfaces 32 individual identity 151 discourse characteristic 194 individualism, gangster movies 262 individuals, representation of (in documentaries) 208 information democratisation of 74–6 demographic 81 distribution, internet 74 ownership 75 personal 81–2 reliability, and wikis 416 structuring in multimedia form 33–4 versus data on internet 64–5 information architecture 34 information poor 75 information rich 75 information superhighway 70–1 instant messaging 390 institutional discourses 193 intelligent sound 444 interactive movies 432 interactivity (new media) 2 internet 384 addiction disorder 392–3 advertising a website 403–4 applications 390 audience 391–3, 407

content 414–15 copyright 414 infringement on 94 creating site 400–1 development of 384 downloading music and movies 95–6 genres 387–8 harassment and deception 413–14 increased broadband speeds 77 information distribution 74 information versus data on 64–5 legal issues 397–8 many-to-many medium 384–5 material uploaded and promoted 415 medium of 383–4 ownership 414 privacy 82, 398, 413 purpose of 387 representation issues 64–8 search monopolies 394–5 structure of communication 388–90 timeline 386 video streaming of television news 323–4 what are the effects of? 392–3 who uses? 391–2 writing for 402–3 see also World Wide Web (WWW) internet advertising 404–8, 415 designing 407–8 types of 405–7 internet censorship 96–100 approaches to 100 difficulties in 98 government role 97–100 Great Firewall of China 97 in Australia 98 self-regulation 101 views against 99 views in support of 99–100 internet institutions and industry 393 ownership and control 393–4 internet radio 79–80, 130 Internet Relay Chat (IRC) 390 interstitials 406 intertextuality 9 television advertising 375 types of 9 interview (documentaries) 204 inverted pyramid 105, 402 invisible style (editing) 25 involvement models, adverttising 177 iPod 416 Italian neo-realism 230


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J Japanese martial arts fi lms 274–5 Japanese samurai fi lms 274 jingles 374 jobs, offshoring 90–1 journalism, citizen 421–4 journalists bloggers, and independent 422–3 influence of 106–7 Journalists’ Code of Ethics 107 juxtaposition (shots) 21

K key light (fi lm) 18 Kuleshov Effect 227 kung fu 273

L language computer-based elements 30–4 elements of fi lm and television 10–20 elements of print media 28–30 elements of radio 27–8 magazine display advertisements 508 production elements of 4–34 signifiers 373 television news programs 51 Latin American cinema 250–2 laughter radio comedy 461 television comedy 345–6 law and order, representations on television 56–7 leads (news writing) 325 features of 325 types of 325–6 legal dramas 357 life simulators 430 lifestyle reality 376 lifestyle talkback 458 lighting (fi lm) 18–20 features of 20 ‘limited effects’ approaches 156, 158 linear models of advertising effectiveness 175–7 linear plot progression 140 lines and diagonals 13 literature, OFLC regulation categories 167 local characteristics (new media) 3 localisation (media regulations) 109 location-based advertising 406 location (print media) 28–9 long shot (LS) 11 looking space 12 loss of nation (media regulations) 109 low camera angle 15

low key lighting 19 film noir 257

M machinima 445 magazine display advertisements 506 features 506–10 magazine feature article 501 subject matter 501 writing 501–2 magazine fiction 503 features of 503–5 magazines 495 advertorials 498 audience issues 498–9 content 498 features of 497–8 online 496 timeline 497 types of 496–7 mainstreaming 159 make-up (mise-en-scène) 18 males as video gamers 448 representations gender portrayal (case study) 40–4 in film noir 260 in television advertising 58 stereotypes 43 manipulation, photo and image 84 manufacturing consent 185 many-to-many media 1 market research 174–5 marriage trap (romantic comedies) 291 martial arts movies 273 characters 276 Chinese cinema 248 context 274 features 275 plot 275 representations, discourses and audience 277–8 setting 276 timeline 276 types of 273–4 mass media 2 massive effects 159 massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) 432, 433 control and policing 435 copyright and legal issues 435–6 economy 435 issues 434–6 user-constructed 434 mateship (Australian fi lm) 240 mean streets syndrome 159 meaning 6 media 1 censorship 107

community standards 107 content, regulation of 166–7 discourses 107, 193 diversity 118 elements of 3 harm and offence 165 influence of history 155 theories 155–64 purpose of 2 regulations 108–9 research, and effects of violence 170–3 media citizenship timeline 150 Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance (MEAA) 113 media factories 104–5 media institutions 102–3 and documentaries 208 as profit takers 103 constructing audiences 151 diversification 104 division of labour into roles 104 effects of 105–6 exploitation of violence 169 external constraints 107 features of 103–4 ownership 103 public and private 108–10 routines of production 104 structure of media texts 105 supporting the powerful 103 tending towards monopoly 103 media landscape, affecting representations 38 media products, globalisation 105–6 media technology, mobile 85–9 media texts 188–9 and critical literacy 189 positioning audiences to accept values in 191 structure of 105 ways of ‘reading’ 149 mediaspace 1 medium close-up (MCU) 11 medium long shot (MLS) 11 medium shot (MS) 11, 21 melodrama, soap operas 333 men as video gamers 448 representations gender portrayal (case study) 40–4 in film noir 260 in television advertising 58 stereotypes 43 ‘Mental Diabetes Type 2’ 70 mentally ill as audiences, vulnerable to harm 165 mentor antagonist 142


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Mexico, Latin American cinema 251 middle of the road (MOR) 454 minority groups as audiences, vulnerable to harm 165 representations 47, 58–9 mise-en-scène 17–18, 233 documentaries 204 film adaptations of novels 310 low key lighting 19 mixed documentaries 205 mobile content, regulating 88–9 mobile film 87–8 mobile gaming 432 mobile media technology 85–9 mobile phones 85–9 cameras 88 dumped as landfill 90 mobile technology 421 health aspects 91–2 mobile television 87 mobilisation in a crisis 184 moblogs 88, 418 mobster shows 357 modern westerns 299 monstrosity 267 montage (collision of images) 21 moral attitudes (narrative) 146 movement (documentaries) 211 movie blurbs 224 movies downloading from internet 95–6 video games in 440–2 multiple plot lines 139 multichannel television (media regulations) 108 multiculturalism (Australian film) 242 multigeneric texts 9 multimedia 1, 30, 32 convergence of telecommunications media 71 elements 32–3 structuring information 33–4 Multimedia Message Service (MMS) 87 multimodal features print media 28 traditional media 2 music 25 and sound effects (documentaries) 211 downloading from internet 95–6 radio 27 radio advertising 468 radio formats 115 radio plays 465 television advertising 374 music videos 364–5 audience 366 features of 365–6

how video works with music 366 representations and discourses 367 timeline 367 types of 365 musicals 279 Bollywood 280 characters 283 context 279–80 features of 282 plot 282–3 representations and discourses 284 setting 284 timeline 281 types of 279 myths and legends (martial arts movies) 275

N narration (documentary) 212 narrative analysing representations 37 cause-and-effect cycle 136 conflict 136 conventions 211 crime dramas 357 defined 135 film adaptations of novels 311, 312 five key codes 6 flashback 140 foreshadowing 138 genre 8, 137 magazine fiction 504 medium 137 multiple points of view 140 parallel sequential 140 possibilities 137 soap operas 333 structure 138 structuring time 140–1 tandem 140 video games 436–9 characters 438–9 environment 439 plot 436–8 narrative equilibrium and disequilibrium 136–7 natural events as causal agents 136 naturalistic cartoons 481–2 needs-directed people 154 negative effects, and positive 183–5 negative news 49–50 negotiated readings of media texts 149 neo-noir films 254 nervous comedies 291 new media 1 and information superhighway 70–1 characteristics of 2–3

impact of 71 impact on traditional media 76–80 industry issues 90–2 news and current affairs, value and requirements 50 news bulletin 330 news hierarchy 323 news portals 323 news script 328–9 news stories 487 representations and discourses 489 structure 487–9 types of 487 news writing grammar 326–8 leads 325–8 news bulletin 330 rest of story 330 script 328–9 newspapers 469 attribution in 327 audiences 471 blogs 79 editorials 477–9 feature story 490–3 forces reshaping the press 470 ideal elements 471 news stories 487–9 online see online newspapers pressure for space 105 purposes of 470–1 timeline 473 types of 469–70 user forums 79 user-generated content 79 newsreader 323 noir motifs (film noir) 257 non-fiction programming 203 non-human characters (causal agents) 136 non-narrative genres 8 nondiegetic sound 25 nonfiction drama 213 nostalgia radio format 454 novels, film adaptations of 310–14

O objectivity 207 observation (documentaries) 204 observational docusoap 376 occupations, representations in advertising 59 Ocker films 238 offence, harm and 165 Office of Film and Literature Classification (OFLC) 111–12 classification code for media content 166–7 video games 449 literature review on 180


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offshoring 90–1 on-screen and off-screen space (frame) 12 180 degree rule 24 one-to-many media 1 online magazines 496 online newspapers 79, 474 audience issues 476 differences with newsprint 474–5 features of 475 online shopping 65 online soap operas 334 onomatopoeia 4 opening equilibrium 137 opening sequences 137 opinion, television news programs 52 oppositional readings of media texts 149 orientation stage, fi rst act 138–9 outback landscapes (Australian fi lm) 241 outsourcing offshore 90–1 overlapping sound 26 owners, influence of 106 ownership concentration 118–19 diversity 118–19 earlier laws 118 foreign 118 information 75 internet 414 internet institutions and industry 393–4 media institutions 103 regulations 116 video game industry 93

P page layout (print media) 29 panning (camera movement) 15 parallel sequential narrative 140 parallel sound 26 parody comedies 345 sketch comedies 354 participatory culture 410–11 pay television 115, 127–8 peer-to-peer fi le sharing 390 people meters 151 ratings 133 performance clips 365 performance comedy 344 personal identity 161 personal information 81–2 personalisation 207 phishing 396–7 phobic pressure points (horror) 269 photo manipulation 84 photoblogs 418

photography, digital 83–4 phreakers 395 picture magazine display advertisements 508 picture relationships (shots) 22–3 platform games 429 playlist 455 plot codes 7 crime dramas 358, 360 docudrama 215 film noir 258 gangster movies 262 horror movies 269–70 magazine fiction 504 martial arts movies 275 muliple 139 musicals 282–3 progression 140 radio comedy 462 radio plays 465 reality television 378–9 road movies 288 romantic comedies 292 science fiction 306–7 situation comedies 348–9 soap operas 336–7 thrillers 297 westerns 302 podcast movie reviews 223 podcasting 416–17 podcasts 79 poetic images 365 police shows 356 political discourses 193 political effects 184 political issues, representations on television 57 political role (of media) 2 poll 131 polysemy 5 popular culture 196 popup and pop-under advertisements 406 positive and negative effects 183–5 post-industrial society 69–70 power and social values 191 discourse characteristic 194 preferred readings of media texts 149 princess (character role) 143 print media, language elements of 28–30 printed word 28 privacy and surveillance 398 Australian regulation 82 erosion in digital world 81–2 on internet 82, 413

Privacy Amendment Act 2000 82 private media institutions 108–10 product placement and sponsorships 406–7 production, affecting representations 38 professionals, influence of 106–7 programming, affecting ratings 133–4 Propp, Vladimir 142–3 protagonists 141, 144 male (film noir) 259 road movies 288 romantic comedies 290 psychological horror 266 public media institutions 108–10 public service media 109 pull or rack focus 14

Q qualitative studies (media effects) 160 quantitative studies (media effects) 157

R racial issues, in video games 63 racing games 429 radio 450 broadband 79–80 codes 27–8 features of 452–3 internet 79–80 language elements of 27–8 structure of 129–31 timeline 451 radio advertising 466 audience 466 creating advertisements 467–8 Radio Australia 130 radio comedy 460 creating 461–2 features of 461 types of 460–1 radio drama 464 radio music formats 115, 453–5 audiences 455–6 record rotation and the playlist 455 representation and discourse 455 Radio National 129 radio plays 463 creating radio drama 464–5 differences between stage and 463 features of radio drama 464 types of 463 radio stations 453–5 audiences 455–6 ratings 455–6 rapid shot changes 366


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ratings 132–4, 151 affecting programming 133–4 calculating 132–3 collection of 133 use of 132 realism 229–30 soap operas 333 reality representation of 35 representations in advertising 59 reality-based (realistic) musicals 279 reality game shows 376 reality television 376 audiences 380 characters 379 context 376–7 features of 377–8 plot 378–9 representations and discourses 380 setting 379–80 timeline 381 types of 376 reception advertising effectiveness 177 famous flops 178–9 affecting representations 38 research into violence 171–2 theories 156, 160–4 record rotation 455 refused classification 167 regulation 110–11 Australian authorities 111–12 Australian media content 166–7 enforcing 117 for and against 166 internet 96–100 approaches to 100 difficulties in 98 government role 97–100 Great Firewall of China 97 in Australia 98 self-regulation 100 views against 99 views in support of 99–100 local content 114 OFLC categories for films and computer games 166–7 OFLC categories for literature 167 ownership 116 television and radio broadcasting 108–10 relationship lines 140 religious discourses 193 report genres 8, 321 representations 35 analysing 37 and internet 64–8 counter-stereotypes 38

crime dramas 362–3 docudrama 53–5, 218 documentaries 207–8 editorials 479 factors affecting 38 film noir 260 gangster movies 264 gender in horror movies 271 gender 40–4 gender timeline 44 how it works 36–7 issues in Chinese cinema 249–50 law and order on television 56–7 martial arts movies 277 music videos 367 musicals 284 of fathers 46–7 of groups 46–7 of minority groups 47 questioning 36 radio music formats 455 reality television 380 road movies 289 romantic comedies 294 science fiction 309 sitcom narrative 46–8 changes over time 48–9 sketch comedies 354 soap operas 60–1 social comment cartoon 485 stereotypes 37 talkback radio 458–9 television advertising 58–9 television comedy 45–9 television news 324 television news and current affairs 49–52 video games 61–4 westerns 303 women in television programs 47 resistant readings of media texts 149 resolution stage, third act 139 resonance 159 return on investments (ROI) 175 revisionist westerns 299 revival (romantic comedies) 291 rhythmic relationships (shots) 23 rich media advertising 405 road movies 284, 285 characters 288 context 285–6 features 286 plot 288 representatiosn and discourses 289 setting 288–9 timeline 287 types of 285 roleplaying shooters 430 roman circuses, violence in 169–70 romantic comedies 290

characters 292–3 context 290 features of 291–2 plot 292 representations and discourses 294 setting 294 timeline 293 rounded characters 143–4 RSS (Really Simple Syndication) 390 blogs 418 rule of thirds 13

S satire 344 sketch comedies 354 social comment cartoon 483 SBS Radio 130 science fiction 304 characters 307 context 304–6 features of 306 plot 306–7 representations and discourses 309 setting 309 timeline 308 types of 304 screen architecture 444 screen geography 24 screwball comedies 290–1 scripting (documentary) 212 search engine marketing (SEM) 406 search engines, internet 403–4 search monopolies (internet) 394–5 second act, complications stage 139 seeking attention (animation) 33 selection processes (television news programs) 51 selective focus 14 self-censorship, media 107 self-reflexive documentaries 205 self-regulation 110–11 Australian authorities 112 internet 100 semiotic constructivism 164 strengths and weaknesses 164 semiotics 4 serious games 430–2 setting sounds (radio) 27 settings crime dramas 361–2 docudrama 216–17 film noir 259–60 gangster movies 264 horror movies 270–1 magazine fiction 504 martial arts movies 276 mise-en-scène 17–18


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musicals 284 narrative 146 purpose of 146 radio plays 464 reality television 379–80 road movies 288–9 romantic comedies 294 science fiction 309 soap operas 339–40 thrillers 298 westerns 303 sexism (internet) 66 shared characteristics (new media) 3 shock, horror movies 269 short message service (SMS) 86 shots (fi lm) 10–20 defi nition 10 editing: shot-to-shot relationships 21–6 narrative purpose of 10 sizes 11 signifiers 4, 373 signs 4–5 audience imagination 313 silence (radio) 27 ‘silver bullet’ theories 156, 157 simulation games 430–1 simultaneous time (shots) 23–4 sitcom narrative and representations 46–8 changes over time 48–9 sitcoms 348 situation comedies 46–8, 345, 348, 461 characters 349 discourses 351–3 influenced crime drama 357–8, 361 plot 348–9 setting 351 timeline 350 sketch comedies 345, 353, 461 features of 354 humour 353–4 representations and discourses 354 stereotypes 45–6 timeline 355 slapstick comedy 344 slasher (horror movies) 266 slogans (signifiers) 373 SMS language 87 snowballing action (comedy) 345 soap operas 333 audiences 342 characters 337–9 discourses 341–2 features of 334 influence crime dramas 357, 361 plot 336–7 representations 60–1

settings 339–40 styles 333–4 timeline 335 types of online 334 television 334 social and cultural discourses 193, 194 social change 196 and comedy 45 social characteristics (new media) 3 social class demographics 153 social comment cartoon 480 features of 482–5 representation 485 types of 481–2 social context 188 social control (media effects) 184 social ecology 170 social fi ltering 421 social/historical context, affecting representations 38 social media 409 social networks 409–10 features of networking sites 71, 412 issues 413–15 types of 410 social structures (narrative) 146 social values 190–1 and discourses 191, 192–3 by decade 196–202 and power 191 effects 184 positioning audiences to accept values in media texts 191 socialisation 185 socially networked news 423–4 societally conscious achievers 154 soft coatings (advertising) 370 soft news 321, 487 leads 325 talkback 458 song-and-dance productions 371 sound dimensions of 25–6 types of 26 sound effects 26 radio 27 radio comedy 461, 462 radio plays 465 soundtrack 25–6 South American road movies 286 Soviet montage cinema 21, 227 space print media 29 television news programs 52 space relationships (shots) 23 spaghetti westerns 299

spam 389–90 Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) 120, 123–4 Special Broadcasting Services Act (1991) 124 spectrum, broadcasting 108 spheres of action 142–3 splogs 418 spokesperson/sales pitch (television advertising) 370 spoofi ng 389 sports games 429 spreading change (media effects) 184 spreading knowledge (media effects) 184 spreading norms (media effects) 184 spyware 396 Starch model (of advertising effectiveness) 175 stars and virtuosity (martial arts movies) 275 startling events (comedy) 345 static characters 144 Steadicams 16 stereotypes 37 and advertising 58–9 comedy 345 counter-stereotypes 38 gender portrayal (case study) 40–4 situation comedies 349, 352 sketch comedies 45–6, 354 social comment cartoon 482 story length (print media) 29 story placement (television news programs) 52 storytelling 138 fi lm adaptations of novels 310–14 fi lm medium 222 violence in 169 strategy games 430 structural codes 7 structural diversity 129 television 120 structuring time 140–1 subgenres 8 subjectivity 207 subplots 139 suburbia (Australian fi lm) 242 success and constraint, gangster movies 262 supernatural horror 265 surprise (mismatches) 347 surrealism sketch comedies 354 social comment cartoon 484 surveillance 161 cameras 81 susceptible audiences 165–6


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suspense codes 7 suspension of disbelief 135 symbolic codes 5 symbolic images 365–6 symbolic interfaces 31 symbolism, social comment cartoon 484 symbol 5 synchronous sound 26

T tagging of content 416 talent show reality 376 talkback radio 457 audience 458 features of 457–8 representations and discourses 458–9 types of 457–8 targeting audiences 152–4 technical codes 5 technological revolution 69–70 technology 69 cost of production 91 culture of 69–73 impact on anxiety disorders 86 timeline 72–3 workplace displacement by machines 91 tech-noir 254 telecommunications media, convergence of different 71 television 316, 317 attribution on 327 blurring of boundary with computers 71 broadband 77 changing the culture 159 content analysis 159–60 features of medium of 317, 319 inattentive viewers 317 language elements of 10–20 law and order on 56–7 medium of 316–17 pay 115 program content 115 purposes of 319–20 soap operas 334 timeline 318 television advertising 369 creating 372–4 cultural jamming 375 representations and discourses 374–5 features of 371–2 intertextuality 375 new initiatives 77–8 types of 370–1 television comedy 344–5 features of 345 representations 45–9

theory: what makes us laugh? 345–7 television industry delivery view in 2012 120 structure 120 television movie shows 222–3 television news 321 and current affairs negative news 49–50 representations in 49–52 attribution 327 representations and discourses in 324 functions of 322 roles and relationships in 323 structure of 325 subject matter 322 types of 321–2 video streaming of 323–4 writing 325–30 television programs 319 defining Australian 115 effects resulting from exposure to 159–60 structure of media texts 105 television stations, content quotas 114 temporal duration 141 temporal frequency 141 temporal (time-based) order of events 140–1 testimonial advertisements 370 texts 188–9 and critical literacy 189 computer-based media 33 magazine display advertisements 508 positioning audiences to accept values in 191 structure of 105 ways of ‘reading’ 149 third act, resolution stage 139 third cinema 244, 250 third party cookies 399 three-act structure 138 three-point lighting (film) 18–19 thrillers 294, 295 audience issues 298 characters 297–8 context 297 plot 297 setting 298 types 296 throw-away leads 326 tight writing 328 tilt (camera movement) 17 time structuring (narrative) 140–1 television news programs 52 time-based frequency 141 time factors (narrative) 146 time relationships (shots) 23

time setting, situation comedy 351 timeslots, television 319 top-40 radio format 453 tracking (camera movement) 16 Trade Practices Act (1974) 116 traditional media 1 features of 2 impact of new media 76–80 tragic farce 344 transitions animation 32 visual punctuation 22 trespass (horror) 269 Triple J radio network 129–30 triple-zoom reflex (camera movement) 16 triumph (laughter) 345 trombone shot (camera movement) 16 truth, in documentaries 207–8 turning points 139 ‘two-step flow’ approaches 158 two-step model (advertising effectiveness) 176

U umbrella leads 326 under-18 audiences, vulnerable to harm 165 urban radio format 454 Usenet 390 user forums 79 user-generated content in advertising 78–9 newspapers 79 user interfaces (UI) 31–2 user reporters 420–1 uses and gratifications (UG) theory 161 soap operas 342 strengths and weaknesses 162 theory 156

V variety show comedies 345 variety stand-up comedies 460 vehicle (character) 288 vertical integration (expansion) 104 victims, horror movies 270 victory in defeat (Australian film) 241 video cameras miniaturisation of 74 video game industry development in Australia 93 gender of workers 92–3 outsourcing 93 ownership 93 tasks of game designer 92 work–life balance 93 working in 92–3


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video games 425 addition to 181 advertising 442–3 audience issues 447–9 cathartic effect of 183 context 427–8 convergence and divergence 427 cultural and racial issues 63 designing 92 developing 443–6 effects of playing 180–3 gender portrayal in 61–2 genres 429–32 identification with characters 181 in movies 440–2 interfaces 444 narrative in 436–9 characters 438–9 plot 436–8 OFLC literature review 180 promoting violence and antisocial behaviour 181 representations 61–4 timeline 426–7 violence as problem solving 62–3 video streaming 319 of television news 323–4 video technology 74 videos 33 see also music videos view-through rates 406 villain (character role) 143 violence 168 artistic responsibility 169 defi ned 169 desensitising effects 170 ethnographic or reception research 171–2 exploitation by fi lm and video industries 169 gangster movies 262 horror movies 269 martial arts movies 275

media as a factor in criminal 173 media effects 184 media research and effects of 170–3 MMOs 434 promoted by video games 181–2 Roman circuses 169–70 story element 169 video games 62–3 westerns 301 virtual identities 433–4 virtuality (new media) 3 visual punctuation 22 visuals (television news programs) 52 vlogs 418 vodcasting 417 Vogler, Christopher 145 vulnerable audiences 165–6

W wartime and emergency censorship, media 107 web design 400–4 developing site 401 elements of typical web page 400 weblogs 418 westerns 299 characters 302–3 clear oppositions 302 context 301 features 301–2 plot 302 representations and discourses 303 setting 303 timeline 300 types 299 Wikipedia 71, 415–16 wikis 411, 415–16 and information reliability 416 wipe (visual punctuation) 22

women archetype in horror movies 270 as audiences, vulnerable to harm 165 as video gamers 448 gender portrayal (case study) 40–4 representations in film noir 260 in television advertising 58 in television programs 47 stereotypes 43 sexual harassment (internet) 66 words print media 28 radio 27 working, in video game industry 92–3 workplace displacement by machines 91 workplaces as soap opera settings 340 situation comedy settings 351 world cinema 244 Bollywood fi lms 244–7 Chinese cinema 247–50 Latin American cinema 250–2 world turned upside down, horror movies 269 World Wide Web (WWW) 388–9 advertising a site 403–4 corporate and campaign websites 405 web design 400–4 see also internet wuxia 273–4

Y young people as audiences, vulnerable to harm 165 youth market 153

Z zoom (camera movement)

16


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Jackaranda - Media New Ways and Meanings - 3rd Edition

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